Guide to the identification of marine plants and invertebrate animals ...

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l"trr
Educational- Pamphl-et No. l-3
VIRGINIA INSTITUTE OF
MARINE SCIENCE
o|-oucrtTli
FotxT. YtRotr{ta

A GUIDE TO THE IDENTIFICAT]ON
OF THE MARTNE PLANTS AND ]NVERTEBRATE ANIMALS
OF T]DEWATER \IRGINIA
by
Virginia Bemy Niemeyer
Churchland High School-
Olro c:no:La
\7'j
,_rgl_n].a
and
Dorothy A. Martin
Granby High School-
NOTIOIK, V]-rgil-n]-a
Vlrginia fnstitute of Marine Sci-ence
Educational- Series No. l-3
l-967
This guide was prepared whil-e the authors were participants
in the National Science Foundation Cooperative
CoIIege-School Scj.ence Program directed by the Virgini-a
lnstitute of Marine Science at Norview High School,
Norfo1k, Virginia, 1963, under NSF Grant No, E3/3/29-
1630.

Tabl-e of Contents
Tni-rnd"nt--i ^-
+trv!vuuuUMt.
'l
Plankton.
Col-Iectj_ng Marine pl_ants.
Preserving Marine Pfants.
Key to the Genera of the Common Marine
Algae in Tidewater Virginia
Classification and Description of
Plant Genera.
4
6
B
T4
20
Col-lectj-ng Marlne Animal_s
Preserving Marine Animal_s
Classification and Generic Deseripti_ons
of Common Marine Animals in Tidewater
Virginia. 36
Areas Where Col_lections Were Made 56
Field Coll_ections 58
34
C'l oqq:nrt
References.
6B
BO

INTRODUCT]ON
Purpose
The rapidly growing intetest in the sea as a
potential source of much greater quantities of food and
raw material-s than it presently yields has pointed to
the need for more literature dealing with its many kinds
of resources. The importance of the sea to the Commonweal-th
of Virginia and the interest of the cj-tizens of
the Norfol-k area in the sea need no comment. These facts
have for some time indicated a need for a l_ocal- or
regional guide to the marine plants and animal_s of Tidewater
Virginia, one that will- be hel-pful- to high school_
students who develop an interest in marine biology,
fol-lowing a general- biol-ogy course, and one that willbe
useful- to adul-ts who wish to identify and to know
more about some of the common marine plants and animals
that are abundant in the Tidewater area.
Scope
This work is but a beginning. It is the hope of the
writers that it wil-l serve to stimul-ate the preparation
of a series of more specialized and detailed guides which
wil-l be useful- to students and adul-ts who may have had
no more formal- training than a course in high schoolbiotogy.
The opportunity to col-l-ect and study the material_s
essential- to the preparati-on of the present work came in
the summer of l-963 when the writers were teacher particlpants
in a National- Science Foundation Cooperative
College-School Sci-ence program in marine biology held at
Norview High School, Norfolk, and sponsored jointly by
the Norfol-k School- Board and the Virginia Institute of
Marine Science at Gl-oucester Point.
The basis for choice of plants and animal_s to be
incl-uded in this work was their apparent abundance during
-l--

-zthe
summer of I963f. ft shoutd be emphasized that some
of those inc.l-uded may be rare or absent at times and
others not included may occasionally be abundant. Variatj-ons
in environmental_ conditi_ons, especially those
af feetinct \^tater tAmnar':i-rrno quuru, qal
ourrrrruy, in-itrz rryrtL I irrh"t- nonat-r:t--inn
l/strsLrqLAUIr,
and other physical factors, cause variations in pl_ant
and animal populatj-ons. Some of these variations are
seasonal-, others are focal_ and temporary, such as those
which may be caused by an extended drought or a prolonged
rai-ny season. Some species are strictly seasonal,
^ ^^^^; - f r -. -*^qr
srpEU_Ld.Jry
+-L,^ --l *-^ -rd
dtIL.rrtv LIle dIgde, dI._ m:rz ,..*J, ha nr,oconf __,IIL nn-l UltJyrr
during the surffner or only during winter and spring.
Only brief references to microorganisms have been
glven. Since the study of plankton requires the use of
mi-croscopes, it was f el-t that more benef it would resul_t
from emphasis on organisms requiring only gross examination.
Vertebrates have been omitted. The fishes are
sufficiently described and figured in several_ inexpensi_ve
and readily avail-abl-e texts. Thus, their omission here
i s not
'l ike l\/ to d'i qcnrrr,arrp t-lre-ir qfrrdrz
uv urJuvurqy9 ulluJ! ouugy.
The ill-ustrations are based on sources l_isted in
the references and differ chiefl_v in si_ze or sirnol_ification
from the oriqinal-s.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks are extended to a number of the
student participants j-n the program who cofl_ected and
identified specimens, in particul-ar to Glen .Johnson for
hi c lroln wir-l.r enAm^nac. F:t-niCj_a HUtChinSOn uvr rf r ruvr I and ur rs Harrv ltqr r J
Verstynen, annel-ids; Linda Rice and Carl_ Bamett, animals
of sand beachesl Stuart Katz, ecology of the Efizabeth
River; George Kelly, fff , ecology of a sal_t marsh;
Dal-e Truman and Jebb Baum. afqae.
a
'Delay
in publishing this manuscript has enabl-ed
participants in subsequent NSF-CCSS programs to add to
the list of common animals and plants, but the l-ist is
not i-ntended to cover the entire fl-ora and fauna of
the areas visited.

-.t -
Grateful acknowl-edgement is made to Dr. Harol_d J.
Humm of the University of South Florida, teacher of the
course, for his encouragement and editing of the manuscript;
and to Mr. Robert S. Bailey, director of the
program for the Virginia Institute of Marine Science,
for his efforts in amanging for publication.

-4-
PLANKTON
Pl-ankton is the term applied to al-I the organisms
that l-ive in suspension in the water and tend to drift
with water cuments. It comes f rom the Greek word
trwandererrr and sets such organisms apart from the
animal-s capable of efficient, self-directed movement.
These are cal-l-ed nekton.
Pl-ankton includes both plants and animal-s and
therefore may be sub-divided into these two giroups:
phytoplankton, the plants; zooplankton, the animal-s.
These organi-sms are usually microscopic or relatively
cm:l
'l 'Tlrorr :ro n^l- nnlrr t-ho
srv rrvv vrr+J
699l nUmefOUS mafine
organisms, but al-so the most widely dispersed.
The phytoplankton, a]l- the passj.vely floating
plants of the sea, are the basic producers that combine
simple inorganic compounds in the water to form complex
organic substances by photosynthesis. These then become
the food of the smal-l-er anj.mals of the zooplankton which
in turn form the food supply of larger animal-s. Therefore,
the importance of the phytoplankton lies in its reproduction
as the primary food supply of the sea. The chief
pl-ants of the phytoplankton are the dj.atoms and
dinof lagel-l-ates (Plate l-) .
The zoopl-ankton has considerabty greater variety
in its members. It is composed of two types of anj.mal-s.
First, those that spend ai-l- their l-ives as microscopic
plankton drifting in the sea are cal-l-ed holoplankton.
Along the Virgi-ni-a coast this group is best represented
by the protozoans cal-l-ed tintinnids, f oraminif era, and
radiol-arians, and by crustaceans call-ed copepods. Second,
the early life stages (eggs and floating larvae) of
microscopic animals that wil-l- develop l-ater into freeswimming
or bottorn-dwel-ling types are cal-l-ed meropl-ankton.
This includes mainly the developmental stages of invertebrates,
but al-so the young of many fishes. Some of
the most cornmon meroplankton found in .June and .Iuly were
the larvae of crabs, snails, barnacles, annel-ids and
oysters (Pl-ate 2). Meroplankton are abundant during
and shortly after the annual reproductive period of the
adul-ts, especially in spring and summer.

PL^TZ
PHYTO PL AN K TON
Coscttootsctts
Cqnerocepas
Fu,zosotex,e
\N
N\
\\
Ntrz cttrA
SERIATA
Navt cuLrl
DlATOtvt FORfvlS
w '6''.l.
A
PcProrutu*t
k}{j
NocntucA
DrxoruAGeLLATE Fonr.rs

PL/'TE 2
Z o o p\axr(ToN
FORAMINIF
@ER5
HOLO FLAN KTON
FORMS
*A**;r
CoTL€NYERATE
PLAilT'LA !ARVA
ANN€LID
TROCHOP}IORE
LARVA
CRI'STACEAN
CYPRIS
LARVA
CRU9TACEAN
NAUPLIUS AA''VA
C RO5'ACE
ZOEA
AN
LARVA
moLLusK
VC,LtGEI tAI,VA
VEITCCRATC
LEIYA
WITII YOLX 9AC
MCR,OPLANKTON
FORM9

-5-
Cofl-ection
Methods
Scj"entific institutions have eJ_aborate equipment
aboard oceanographic vessefs for the col_l-ection of
plankton. For amateurs, the basic device is a plankton
nor r^ri+-lr :nar+-rlrg5
eu!uo small DttrqJr enoucrh slruuvtr tn Lv r-nan L!qt/ 1_ho LttE,..*-.*_* minute nrr-ra-
ni.sms. Sifk or nylon botting cfoth of the trzne rrsed fnr,
--i;;-*;it"rir"-ir"-
sif ting f t-our is ttre usuat- *.t""i.r.
numbered from 000 (coarsest) to 25 (finest). The net is
an elongate cone with a frame to hol-d open the forward
end, and with a detachable jar or vial- at the small
trailing end. A net of number 20 mesh, measuring about
six inches in diameter at the opening by a yard long, is
very useful. sometimes a coarse screen is fitted across
the frame to keep out larger, srow moving organisms such
as comb jellies. The net may be dragged through waist
deep water by a wading person or trai,l-ed from a boat.
Tn deeper waters, a weight is added for col_tecting at
rr?.4: t-on rl on1-h c
Preservation
Pl-ankton so col-l-ected mav he wa shed f r nyl the net
wirh sea warer,-d;;;-i;io-.r,"'""ir"Jii;; j;; where rhey
can be removed f or immediate exami-nati-on. The addition
of sufflcient formal-in to the jar to bring the concentration
to 3% wj,rr kirl and preserve the plankton and cause
it to settl-e to the bottom from which it may be removed
for examination at a fater date. After the plankton has
settl-ed, the water at the top may be poured off careful-l-v
to concentrate the col_Iection.

-o-
COLLECTING MARINE PLANTS
Seaweeds rarely grow unattached, but instead are
attached firmly at thelr bases to some substratum (to
the bottom or to each other) by some structure such as
a hotdfast or rhizoids. Since mud and sand are unstable
bottoms, they are unfavorabl-e substrata except in quiet
bays and lagoons. On surf-beaten shores, the algae are
usually confined to rocks.
Col-l-ecting
One of the most important considerations in col-l-ecting
marine algae is the tide. Fiel-d trips shoufd be planned
so that the col-l-ector amives an hour or two before }ow
tide and wil-l- thus have about two hours of l-ow water. ft
is almost impossibte to make a thorough col-Iection from an
area when the tide is high, for the l-ess common species
are l-ikeIy to be missed. Coastal newspapers usuafly give
the time of low tide, but this afone is not the whol-e
story. The very best col-lecting conditions occur when
spring l-ow tides prevai-l- and these occur on or shortly
after the day of the new and ful-l- moons. The predicted
levels of the tide for each day are to be found in Tide
Tabl-es, Atlantic Coast of North America, published
annually for an entire year by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic
Survey and avail-abl-e from the Superintendent of
Documents, -Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.2,
at $2.00 per copy. Each annuaf edition covers the
cal-endar year.
During stormy weather, large quantities of marine
algae are torn foose from their habitat. During or after
the storm (sometimes severaf days later), these loose
algae usually wash ashore in quantity. It is very difficul-t
to predict when this l-oose material- wi]l- be cast up
on the beaches, but if the col-Iector can manage to be
present when this occurs, he can obtain excel-lent specimens
of a large number of speei.es, some of which grow
2look in ttYel-l-ow Pagestr of your telephone directory
under ttChartstr for possible local- sources of tide
tabl-es and navigation charts.

-7-
only in moderatety deep water or only in an oceanic
habitat when the sal-inity changes only sJ.ightly.
Usuatly this materiaf- comes ashore upon a rising tide,
so this is an exception to the general rule of collecting
when the tide is low. Another phenomenon to be expected
is the washing ashore of l-oose algae against the wind.
ff there are foose algae in. the sea, then it is often
profitable to l-ook al-ong a beach when the wind is
blowing off the beach and out to sea. The reason is
this: An offshore wind sets up a surface current that
runs before it. Somewhere out at Sea the surface culrent
will- sink and there wil-l- be a counter-cument running
against the wind dj.rection along the bottom. This brings
the algae (except those few that ftoat) up the slope of
the beach to the waterts edge where they accumul-ate in
a band where the bottom counter-cument reaches the
surface and becomes the wind-driven surface cument.
This effect is even more pronounced in a bay or encl-osed
body of water.
Marine algae g.row in such a variety of habitats
that the beginner wil-l- mj-ss many speci-es during his first
coll-ecting trips unfess he is very careful- and sharp-eyed.
Some form a nondescript coating on intertidal- rocks,
that when wet is more slippery than ice, and one that
has caused many broken bones and scraped skin from fal-l-s
on rocks and barnacl-es at the sea coast. Intertidal
rocks are even more slippery for rubber-sol-ed shoes than
for ordinary street shoes (which, however, are not
recommended). When the col-lector has l-earned to recognize
these lntertidal algal coatings, he will avoid slipping
and will al-so find some species which might otherwise be
overl-ooked. These species are small, are usually bluegreens,
and require a microscope for identification.
Equipment
The amateur col-l-ector wil-l- need the followi-ng
equipment: heavy canvas shoes, vials and jars, plastic
bags, tools for scraPing and chipping, pai-}s and, if
possibte, glass-bottom buckets. Equipment for the more
advanced col-l-ector might incl-ude dredges, tongs, rakes,
hooks, glass-bottom buckets, diving apparatus, snorkeland
mask, and SCUBA gear.

-B-
PRESERYJNG MARINE PLANTS
ft is most important whil-e col_lecting to avoj.d
overcrowding your specimens and to keep them in shaded,
cool places. This prevents rapid decompositj-on and
fading.
Live
Specimens
To allow prolonged study and observation, specimens
shoul-d be col-lected in individual_ containers. In the
l-aboratory use petri dishes, finger bowl_s or jars with
sea water for indivi-duar a1gae. water shou]d be watched
and changed approximatei-y 3 times a week. rf it changes
col-or or has a different odor, this woul_d indj.cate a
need for more frequent changes.
Make sl-ides of portions of the whoJ-e specimen for
mi-croscopic study. Pl-ace a branch between iheets of
heavy paper or cardboard and sl_ice through with a
Tazor' bl-ade to get cross-sections. A section is placed
in a drop of water on a glass slide and covered with a
cover slip for microscopi.c examination. A slide can be
kept for several- days in a cool place if the cover slip
is ringed with glycerine before it is added. Semj_-
permanent sl-ides can be rnade by mounti_ng the specimen
in ilKarott syrup instead of water. ff the syrup is
hardened in an oven, the mount may be stored in a dry
place for several_ months.
Use sal-t water aquaria.
There are two r;orrz cronrl
and easily obtained, ,omces of informati-on
topic. One is i-n a bookl_et, Sat_t Water Aquaria, "i-if-tY!"-' published
!y
tfre Virginia fnstitute of Marinmlenc%-Eloucester
Point, Virginia. The other is contained within the
Lapglaloly Manual- for Survey Science (Teacherts Edi_rion)
published by Chesapeake Public School_s, Chesapeake,
Virginia, l-963 (page 33).
Use of Formaldehyde Preservative
A 5% solution is made by adding 1 part of 40%
formal-in to 19 parts of sea water (ttCommercialn or
trU.S.P.tr formal-in 1s considered as 100%). At the seashore
toward the end of the fiel-d trip, the specimens
may be sorted into plastic bags, vials, and jars, and

have 5% forrnal-dehyde sol-ution added to them. These
individual containers of specimens may collectively be
seal-ed in a can and kept in a cool, dark place. They
may then be studied in naturaf cofor, folm, and texture.
Be sure to l-abel- properly with all pertinent information
such as exact habitat, locality, date, coll-ectorrs name,
name of plant, and name of the person who identified it.
The col-lector may wait to preserve hi-s specimens until- he
returns to the l-aboratory but the results wil-l- not be as
good or lasting.
I lht tf hd
Crustose specimens may be dried along with pleces
of their substrate directly in the air and stored in
suitabl-e, labeled boxes. Cal-careous algae which are too
fragile or too thick to be pressed may be treated by being
soaked for several weeks in a solutj-on of 40% glycerine
in *rr 3% v/v formalin. rln-ied-in ain and stored in l-abeled boxes.
Herbarium \nanr mon q
-9-
Preservati-on of marine algae in liquid is at best a
temporary measure, with a few exceptions. Speci-mens preserved
in liquid tend to fade very rapidly if l-eft j-n
the tight (even an hour in the light wil-l- cause noticeable
fading). If kept in the dark, f ormal-dehyde-preserved
specimens wil-L keep their eolor for several months,
especially if the sol-ution is buffered, and these may
then be made into herbarium specimens at any time. The
sooner after preservation in liquid that herbarium mounts
-*^ --r^ *L^ lretter
clr g llto.uE 9 Ll lE r is the color.
Once mounted on a sheet dnd dried, specimens of
marine algae keep indefinitely and their cofor is preserved
indefi-nitely if kept in the dark. If framed and used as
a walJ- decoration, the color wiJ-J- fade in a few years.
In direct sunlight, of course, the cofor fades rapidly
even with herbarium specimens. There are many specimens
wetl- over l-00 years ol-d in the large herbaria that are
as coforful- as they were when first mounted.
For satisfactory and attractive herbarium specimens,
the fol-l-owing procedure is recommended.
Tvpe of Paper. Index cards of various sizes are
satisFictory. The only disadvantage to this type of

-]-0 -
paper is that it is of wood putp in origin and it wiJ_L
tend to become yellow with age, especialty if l_eft in
the light. If a stronger, whiter and more permanent
paper is desired, it may be obtained at any print shop
where one shoul-d ask for ltrag, content ledgertt of a
weight simil-ar to that of index stock. The biological
supply companies offer good grade herbarium paper, but
it can probably be purchased at a fower cost at a print
shop and in the quantity and sizes desired.
Mounting Procedure. Obtain a shal-l_ow pan (two to
three inches deep) of sufficient dimensions to permit
submerging the largest size sheet of mounting paper that
you want to use. If the mounts are to be made on 3 X 5
or 4 X 5 index cards, then the probl_em of a suitable pan
is easily solved. Pour clean sea water into the pan to
provide a depth of about one inch. (NEVER put marine
algae in fresh water, even after they have been preserved,
for this tends to cause a bl-eeding of the pigments,
bleaching, and a softening of the cel-l- wal_l_ polysaccharides
into a gurnmy mass. )
Soft del-icate algae shoul-d be mounted by immersing
the mounting paper in the water beneath the specimen and
then l-ifting the paper, with specimen in proper posi_tion
upon it, out of the water with great care. The position
and shape of the specimen may be improved by judi_ciously
dipping the corners or sides of the paper with specimen
back into the water and removing it slowly. This will_
often cause the fine branches to spread out more evenly
and wil-l- separate clumps of branchl-ets. The more care
and tj-me devoted to arranging the specimen on the paper,
the more attractive and life-l-ike wil_l_ the dried
specimen be.
In the case of fairly rigid and larger specimens,
there may be no advantage to immersj-ng the paper. In
this case, Iay the specimen on the paper, sprea

_ l_l_ _
over the speci-men that wil-l insure its sticking to the
mounti-ng paper rather than the press sheet above it.
There are two kinds of sheets used for this purpose.
By far the most satisfactory in most cases is waxed
paper, especially for the more dellcate specimens. Cut
a plece or waxed paper a fittl_e larger than the specimen
itsel-f and carefully place the waxed paper over the specimen.
After this is done, it is sometimes worthwhite Lo
tap the waxed paper gently qarrTa over the specimen as +_^ cnro:1f this may
fine branches more favorabl-v.
!Jtts 9!qItvllEJ
The other kind of sheet used over specimens i.s
nlnt-l,r qrrnlr
qu :c mrrql rrruJrrrr in nr, vt ftal\qe. Cj_Oth iS best for,
-l arrro
vquas. \_JULll J> ue.oL rvI f,cl!gg,
rigid prants such as gargassgm, Fucugr Ascophyr-l-um and
is suitabre f or Gracitaria, chondrifu anE-s-i'iilTf5i]l_ants.
The advantage is that it permLEE-Ti-ffusion of water upwards
in the press and it does not stick to large
specimens. With small, del_icate specimens, however, it
may be quite unsatisfactory. In the case of gheet-iike
plants such as urva and Grinnerlia, the patteftr of the
cl-oth may be im$IEssed into T6; sp;cimen-. rt l-s convenient
to have handy pieces of an ol-d bed sheet for the rarger
specimens, but it is safe to say that waxed paper wiff
do for all- kinds of algae. With the covering iheet in
place, speci-mens are ready for the press.
Press. A good plant press
.-FThe consists of three
Kr-nds of paper: plant press blotters, coruug:ated cardboard
ventilators, and ordinary nerdspaper sheets folded
once only. Pl-ant press material-s can be purchased from
several- biological supply houses, but one of the best
sources j_s Cambosco, 37 Antwerp Street, Boston, Massachusetts.
If you must make your own press, you can
purchase desk bi_otter stock at a print shop and have it
cut the desired size. This stock j_s much thiEner than
regulation plant press drj_ers and shoul_d le uled only
as a second choice. Cutting your own comugatbd
cardboard is possibi_e but not easy.
For maxi_mum drying effici_ency, the plant press is
1. ,,-i-l+ ,,^ r^l
DulrE up as rorl_ows: coruugated dri.er, bl_otter, one
layer of newspaper (the other half of the newspaper
+^-rl^,t ^,,e\ !L
rolqeo ouc,), trne specimen with i_ts cover, then the other
hal-f of the newspaper fol_ded over the specimen, then
another blotter and finally another corrugated drier.
If the specimen is on a smal_l- sheet, several speci.mens
IT -!

-L2-
r'^n he nrrt ini-o the sAme newsDeney.- e:c,h snecimen
covered by a separate sheet of waxed paper. Placing
one sheet of waxed paper over two or more specimens
causes a greaE anconvenr_ence *^. in nh:nninn -,.*..yr,.y 1_ho -..- Press.
The nr,ess mA\/ he hrri'l t rrD in this manner until
there are many specimens in it. However, it is advisable
not to have the stack more than about one foot high because
of the loss of even pressure with a higher stack.
Start a second press on the floor beside the first one
if there is more material to be pressed. On top place
a piece of plywood or masonite cut about the size of the
nrtrss mater''ie'l --r ^- !^^ ^4
Pt Eoo irtquE! JqJ clLtl.l. l LUP tJa 1-hi srrrJ s uvs!u hoarri
t/ruv nlaee two or
three concrete bl-ocks. If the press is less than about
six inches high, one concrete bl-ock may provide adequate
weioh1- . hrrt if eoarse- r'ioid Dfants are incl-uded such as
Sargassum, the weight of two bl-ocks is not too much. On
the other hand, a few plants, such as Dasya, make better
speci-mens with less weight than this. Too much weight
causes the main axes to be too flattened and spread out.
It is better to place Dasya specimens in a separate press
with l-ittl-e weight, such as two bricks.
It is customary when pressing land plant specimens
to place the press itsel-f in a heater-dryer of some sort,
and many phycologists do this with algal material-. However,
much better specimens are obtained if the press is
placed under wei-ghts as described and not placed in a
heater-dryer nor used with straps. Artificial- heat
(from fight bulbs, for example) causes algae to dry too
fast and too thoroughly so that they tend to crack and
the mounting paper tends to warp. Where straps are
used instead of weight on top of the press, the pressure
exerted is too littl-e and warping results.
The ideal procedure is to have an extra batch of
press material- not in use. These are placed (in the
exact order as used in the press) in a heater-dryer
with two light bul-bs. An overnight treatment renders
thi-s empty press bone dry and one or two changes of
bl-otters and ventil-ators on successj-ve days will usually
result in ideal-ly dried specimens in two or three days.
When the press is changed, it is advisable to change
the newspapers al-so. Since the principal function of the
newspapers is to take up any fiquid sea water that may be

_to_
pressed from the specimens, the newspapers may be teft
out after the fi-rst change of the press. Use of news-
DaDer
t,sl/er
-i ni ]-i a I I rz lrnr.rar;ar nralTppf q
arrrefs++J,
vulrer the srru lani !ut/+u fl aCCUmUl_atjOn
of sal-t crystals
t
}/Lv
in the bl-otters.
Care of Finished SDecimens. No attemDt shoul-d be
. :----:.-- :=made
to lift the waxed paper off the specimens untilthev
ale thoror'^L'r.' ^-.' n* Lrrey q! s Lrrv! vuYrrJy vL y . nL this time it will_ often
fal-i- off. If not, it is best to peel the waxed paper
off from the base of the plant upward. If the plant
begins to lift from the mounti-ng paper when the waxed
paper is pulled upward, hold the plant down next to the
waxed paper and pull- gently until the waxed paper comes
off without l-ifting the specimen. The majority of specimens
wi-li- stick to the mounting paper adequately by
virtue of their own polysaccharide cell- wal-l- constituents,
which act as adhesives. A few species, such as Sargassum
and Fucus, will have to be fastened down later, however.
Gummed cloth tape is best, but mucilage of some sort can
be used. Non-water-sol-uble adhesives are not recommended
for specimens that have taxonomj-c va1ue, as this prevents
the removal of a portion of the specimen l-ater for
soaking preparatory to microscopic study. When soaked
in water, especiatty with a l-ittl-e detergent added, most
pressed algae will- swel-l- to the original, normal condition
and can then be studied in detail.
Finished specimens shoul-d be kept under mild pressure
of some sort (such as a book) at least until- they come into
moisture equilibrium with the atrnosphere, and shoul-d always
be kept in the dark when not under observation, unless
they are to be framed f or wal-l- hanging.

-r4-
KEY TO THE GENEM OF THE CO},WION MARTNE
ALGAE OF TfDEWATER \TIRGINIA
HAROLD J. HUI\O/i
Kev to the PhVla
fndividual plants microscopic, al--
though plant masses are usually
visible to the unaided eye I color
green, bluegreen or bl-ackish-green.
.Cyanophvta
fndividual plants macroscopic and
visibl-e to the unaided eye, although
some are very tiny .2
2 Plants usual-l-y some shade of
red in color, but some are
yellow-brown, olive-g:reen,
nrrrnl i ch-nnoon nn nrrrnl a
2 Plants brown of green.
Plants some shade of brown.
Pl-ants green.
. .Rhodophyta
6
D1^ - ^ ^^1^. ,F -
. . ! trqEL/9lIv Lq.
.Chlorgpktylg
fr. '- * ^^1^. '+ -
\-yorr.uyrly (-c
Plants single-cel-l-ed and sol-itary,
or in col-onies of vari-ous formq
not fil-amentous, the cel-l-s coccoid
(except j-n that part of Entophysalis
that penetrates shel-l-s or limestone
where fil-aments are produced
troaerrqa Of thtr l^-l-.-i ts-+\
usuquJu vr urlv llaulLqu /
. ,2
Pl-ants producing filarnents, the
cell-s not coccoid .3
2 Cel-l-s spherical (except where
adjacent cel-l-s have flattened
ofuvo/,, si des \ . si urlrYrv, ncrl F nrr
v!
omhodded in
groups wlthin a comrnon
gelatinous sheath.
.Anacystis

-l_5-
2 Cel-l-s somewhat elongate or
pear-shaped, often in strata
or cushions, the cells 1n one
mass variabl-e in si-ze.
F-+^^1^.,^-r-:^
. . !1 TLUPTIyJCIJID
Filaments without an obvious
gelati-nous sheath .4
Fi-Iarnents with a sheath .5
4 Filaments forming a regular
spiral, very small- .Spirulina
4 F'il-aments not in the form
of a spiral. .5
Fil-aments 3-5 microns in diameter,
apex of filament with a
shonf tanor :nd tondinrr i-n ho
uul rvrr tv uv us
hanJ- c l -i nl.r1- 'l . '
. OsciIl_atoria
Fil-aments 6 microns or more
in dj.ameter
.Lyngbya
Rhodophyta
Plants in the form of a fl_at
qhaot .
.Z
Plants not in the form of a
f l-at sheet. .3
2 Plants rose red, with a
conspicuous mi.drib in the
center of the bl_ade.
2 Pl-ants purple to brownishr"ecl
- rroz,rz f h-i n qlvrr+!r,
ni ni I rr
uurfvv!y
intertidal, especially on
oysters, without a midrib.
Pl-ants del-icately f ilamentous,
the mai-n axes of no greater
diameter than an ordinary pin
.Grinnell-ia
. .Porphvra
.4
PLants nbt deticatel-y fiJ-amentous,
coarser, at least
in the main axes. .6

-16 -
4 Pl-ants monosiphonous,
uncorti-cated
. Cal-lithamnion
4 Pl-ants corticated or
polysiphonous. . .5
Plants polysiphonous but not
corticated.
Pl-ants monosiphonous and
corticated.
. Pol-ysiphonia
.Ceramium
6 Branches of the plant
bearing an abundance of
f ine, red f il-aments . . .Dasva
6 Branches of the plant withorlt-
f -ine- vue r+rrv9 r'ed fil_aments. .7
Tips of all- branches with a
tiny tuft of col-orl-ess
f il-aments
Tips of branches without
f i-l-aments
8 Pl-ants consisting of a
series of hoI}ow, baruel--
shaped segments.
.Chondria
. B
.Champia
B Plants not consistingl of
h:r'r'cl -sh;norl sefiments . 9
The ul-ti-mate branchlets
rnonosiphonous with corticating
cel-l-s at the nodes only, the
main axes completely corticated
.Spyridia
Both ul-timate branches and other
axes many cells thick . t0
I0
Plants red to yellowishred
in cofor; the branches
with a holl-ow center havJ-ng
fine fil-aments in the hol-Iow.
.Aqardhiel-Ia
+

t0
-L7 -
Pl-ants with cel-l-s in the
nanl_ar -^t.
rrvu hOlIOW^ llvrJvvv, 1SlaIIrt
qOUq4-J
,
: nrrrnl i qh-nnoon in nn-l nn
UVIVI
. .l_1
l_ l_
LI
Branches not flattened and beari
nn m:nrz em= l I qn-i
rr19 irrorry JJrrqrr, Jprrrs-r_Ll\s na -l i lu o
branchlets I the main branches
nften ondinn vr rurr tY in rr I : q hnnl

_l_B_
Pl :nl-q. rzorr; qoff rro'l:finnrrq
slinner^rz. the rnain aXeS 3-5
mm in rl'i:mo1_or. rlcrr:'iltr nn
rrurL art uJqItELsr, uJuoaJy vlr
eel qrass .
.Eudesme
P'l enl_ q r i nirl I aroer" - and wi th
some t\/ne
vjt,9vl
of ei_r bl_adder. .6
5 Main axes and branches
flattened, alr bl-adder
intercalary. .1
6 Air bladders spherical,
terminal on short stalks;
pi-ants with leaf -like
:nnonrl:noc Q:v'n: qcrrm
"---'*
Branches strap-shaped and with
a prominent midrib.
Branches onl-y a littl-e flattened
and not divided into a midrib
and blade
Fucus
.AscophyU-um
Chlorophyta
Plants in the form of a
flrt- chooJ_ t
Plants fl-attened and very
o'lonrr.ai-od gvvg, or not f lattened .3
2 Sheet two cel-l-s in thlckness .U1va
Sheet onw cel-l in thickness.
Pl-ants qonsisting of a hollow
trrbe the wall One cel-l- thick: )
the tube either col-l-apsed or
inflated.
.Monostroma
.Enteromorpha
Plants filamentous. .4
4 Fil-aments much-branched. .6
4 Unbranched single row of
cel-ls. .5

Individual- fi-l-aments microscopic,
forming patches on pdlings and
rocks in the intertidal- zone.
Filaments macroscopic, coarse
6 Pl-ants with cross-walls in
the fil-aments and thus
divided into cells I ultimate
branches tending to be in
dense cl-usters
6 Pl-ants without cross-walls,
hence coenocytic
.Ul-othrix
. .Chaetomorpha
. Cladophora
.Bryopsis

_20_
CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRTPTIONS OF PLANT GENERA
PHYLUM CHLOROPHYTA (Ptate 3)
Pfants microscopic or macroscopi.c, one-cel-}ed or
many-ce1led, green in col-or because of the predominance
of chl-orophylll branched or unbranched, the conspicuous
mari-ne specJ-es either f ilamentous, f orming a f l_at sheet
one or two cel-l-s thick, or forming a holl_ow tube in
which the wall-s are one cel-l- thick.
Cl-ass Chlorophyceae
Order Ulotrichal-es
Fil-amentous to foliaceous, unbranched or branched,
usually a single parietal chromatophore, one nucleus,
one or more pyrenoids.
Td.JIIJ.IV
Ulotrichaeceae
Genus Ulothrix. Fil-aments with cel-l-s containing
a single nracefeE$ap&- chloroplast I quite similar to
fresh water forms; growing as soft, silky mass on rocks
or woodwork in the intertidal zone.
F:mi
'l rr
Ul-vaceae
Genus Monostroma. A thin, flat sheet simil-ar
to Ulva but only one cel-l- thick.
GenuS Ulva. TwO farzer,s of eells in thickness-
"- vrr-vr\:-vru'
:nd fnr'mi-;T;;. e!vqu, rrqLLsrrsu t =*i^-^i-'l--" bl-ades; holdf asts small;
blades sometimes extremel-y large, varyj.ng from an inch
to two f eet j-n diameter I margins l-obed and undulate I
frequently observed riddled with hol-es resul-ting from
reproduction; commonly cal-l-ed ttSea Lettuce.rr
Genus_ Enteromorpha. Adult plants mostly
- -
tubular; size varying from fine hair-Iike to broad fl_at
bl-ades; branching evident to non-existent I very common
seaweed; mostly attached to some hard substratum. Some
very common species are:
a . ) i nz a. a: c i 1rr ngnfuSed With UfVa ; bl_ade
qhor't- tn tnnn ,-frf=*=-;;;;;':nav rnri h:ca. +-
uv rvrry vvrvr! u'v,! qrls -he two layers

-2rof
cell-s fused i.n the bl-ade except at the margin where
they separate and form a hoi-low. Not branched; some
varieties undul-ate.
'l
ol.rnl
JllCJI,
b. intestinali-s: at first attached (to rock,
gEJ nal ^h- qq ) nf (Jf, 1-on hannminn r froa-f I n:.1-an.
V|dDO/,
LcII IJEU\rltrfrrV q rrss-rJvq\-st
'l nna
, rvrty,
tubular and general-Iy inflated; easily identified by its
bl-istered or puckered appearance.
c. prol-ifera: tubular I straight margi.ns I
abundantly branched.
d. carnpressa: similar to prolifera but
f ewe r branch e s; vEEI--Eh-e ma i n ax e s u suEf,ff ]-a t t e ned .
Order Cladophorafes
Filamentous, uniseriate, usually with a basa]
hol-dfast, branched or unbranchedl ce11s mul-ti--nucleate
with a large central- vacuofe, numerous disc-shaped
chloroplasts or the chl-oroplasts united to form a network,
one to many pyrenoi-ds, the cel-l walls often much
thi.ckened in the mai-n axis.
Famil-y Cladophoraceae
Genus Chaetomor ha. Plants unbranched.
attached by the basal cellfree
f
or j-n the form of tangled
il-aments.
Genus- Cladophora. Fifamentous, branched
uniseriatel-Iila$ attffied by a holdfast; cel-l-s mul-tj.-
nrrrrlO:fo. :nno:r,.inar:q 176n17 fi-A ll-nracll . .'-irTial
rruuJuquu, qyl/Eqrrrry qo very !IIt\-l araipAr.t.
9fdJ- , VIvru yrLurr,
durlng reproductive peri,od many zoospores or gametes
may be actj-ve within the upper cel-l-s.
Order Siphonales
Pfants coenocyticl filamentous, branched or
unbranched, with smai-l- chromatophores, and with or
without pyrenoids.
Family Bryopsidaceae
Genus Bryopsis. Pl-ant erect; pale green in
h.a qo
color; several rnain branches arising from the

_2I_
of ceU-s fused in the bl_ade except at the margin where
they separate and f orm a hol-l_ow. Not branched ; some
varieties undul-ate.
b. intestinal_is: at first attached (to rock,
she-l I ee'l onn ss ) - of ton hecominrr : flao-f l.\:tar.. I nnn
JLse! ) ,
vf svrr vvvvrrrfrry q r!sr rlvqusr
,
rvtrv,
tubular and generally inflated; easily identified by its
bl-istered or puckered appearance.
c . prol-i-f era:
+
abundantly branched.
tubular I strai-ght margins;
d. qompres_sa.: simil-ar to prol-ifera but
f ewer branche s;ilth-Eh-e main axe s u silET$TEttened .
Order CladophoraLes
Filamentous, uniseriate, usually with a basal
hol-dfast, branched or unbranched; cetls multi-nucleate
with a large centraf vacuole, numerous disc-shaped
chloroplasts or the chforoplasts united to form a network,
one to many pyrenoj.ds, the cel-l- wal-.l-s often much
thickened in the main axis.
Famil-y Cladophoraceae
Genus Chaetomorpha. Pl-ants unbranched,
attached by tEe E sal amor in the form of tangled
+-^^
f lgg
€-i -l -*^-.+^
rl-rctjt(ci.lLJ.
Genus- Cladophora. Fil-amentous, branched
uniseriate;-lslary;EEaffied by a holdf ait; cel]-s mut-tinucleate;
appearing as very find ttgrass??1 vivid green;
during reproductive period many zoospores or gametes
may be acti.ve within the upper cel-Ls.
Order Sj-phonales
Pl-ants coenocytic; filamentous, branched or
unbranched, with smal-l chromatophores, and with or
without pyrenolds.
Family Bryopsidaceae
Brvopsis. Pl-ant erect; pale green l_n
h: qo
col-or; several main branches arisi.ng f rom the

PLATE
CHLOROPIIYTA
- THe GR:EN ALGAE
c!ADoPtrolA
tRYOPStS
ENTERO'v|ORPI'IA
E co-prcla E rrtLchhelrs E. linzr
/it ,,'
/,,.:
ULVA
taONOtTiOrrrA

-22-
these branching to form a few main l-ateral branches of
indefinite growth on whj.ch are tufts of ramelli nearly
separated from the parent axis by constriction. No
c'rnss-llalls- so 1-hai- thp nl:nt i^ - ^^^-^^"Fe.
UMO wqlf O, oU UlrqU Lf lg PIqrrL -l.- Cl U\JgltUUy L
most abundant during l-ate winter and spring.
It is
PHYLUM PHAEOPHYTA (Plate 4)
Algae brown coloredl plants varying extremefy in
si-ze and forml cell-s mostly containing only one nucleusl
among the largest of the seaweeds; usually leathery; the
tfrockweedstr Fucus and Ascophyl-l-um are sometj-mes used for
. - =-F:
packing shel-l-f ish and lobsters.
Class Phaeophyceae
Order Ectocarpales
Generall-y filamentous,
branched and uni-seriate.
Famj.l-v Ectocarpaceae
Genus_ Ectocarpus. Freely branched from a
rhizoidal or penetrati-ng base I growth in upright f il-aments
intercalary and apical in horizontal- filaments I
monosiphonous; gametangia resemble littl-e ears of corn.
Order Chordariales
Although these plants are internally composed of
filaments, many of them do not appear to be fil-amentous
when viewed without maqnifi-cation.
r d.iltJ- IV
Chordariaceae
Genus Eudesrne. Plants branched. the branches
cylindrical, extremel-y gelatinous and slippery, usually
found only on ee1 grass (Zostera), and present in
Virginia only during winter and spring.
Order Punctarial-es
Members of this order prefer cool or col-d water,
and have an internal structure that is more parenchymatous
than filamentous. The Virginia representatives either
forrn elonqate, flat bl-ades or an unbranched, hofl-ow tube.

-22-
these branching to form a few main l-ateral branches of
indefinite growth on which are tufts of ramelli nearly
separated from the parent axis by constriction. No
C'rnss*ialIS-
vvg++U,uvlvvJu
Sn .|-ha.t- l-ho nl26.|- ic : nnAn^^\'r-e. ft iS
most abundant during l-ate winter
and spring.
PHYLUM PHAEOPHYTA (Plate 4)
Algae brown col-ored; p.lants varying extremefy in
si.ze and f orml cell-s mostl-y containing only one nucleus I
among the largest of the seaweeds; usuall-y }eathery; the
rrrockweedsrr Fucus and Ascophyll-um are someti-mes used for
packing shetEh and tobsters.
Cl-ass Phaeophyceae
Order Eetocarpales
General-ly filamentous,
branched and uniseriate.
Family Ectocarpaceae
Genul Ectocarpus. Freely branched from a
rhizoidal or penetraETnffiase; growth in upright filaments
j.ntercal-ary and apical in horizontal- f ilaments I
monosiphonous; gametangia resembl-e little ears of corn.
Order Chordari-al-es
Although these plants are internally cornposed of
filaments, many of them do not appear to be fil-amentous
when viewed without maqnification.
Fe$i-Iv
Chordariaceae
Genus Eudesme. Plants branched. the branches
cylindrical, extremely gelatinous and slippery, usually
found only on eel grass (Zostera), and present in
Virginia only during winter and spring.
Order Punctariales
Members of this order prefer cool or eol-d water,
and have an internaf structure that is more parenchymatous
than f il-amentous. The Virginia representatj-ves either
form elongate, flat bl-ades or an unbranched, hol-]ow tube.

Zoospores are formed
namofoe :na ^-OdUCed
^-'*^+----: -
9qrrrsLcllr9 -l-d.
l_n
in
-23-
clne-ctrI lod t'rrni lnnrrl:r'\ cnnr:r
vl LE -us rlEu \ ur rr * - *ngf-a ;
mul-ti--cell-ular (plurilocular )
r clirtt rv
Punctari-aceae
Genus Petal-onia. Plants consisting of an
el-ongate, flat blade tapered at each end but especially
at the base which ends i.n a short, terete stafk and
hol-dfast. Most pl-ants are 3 to l-2 inches tall, one-hal_f
to 3 inches wide. They are found in Tidewater Virginia
nn'l rr f nom Nor,zomhar in uv nI/! lnri rr. I
GenUS Qnrrfncjnlran PlantS in the fOrm Of a
sl-ender, unbranched, terete tube, attached to rocks or
woodwork and someti-mes with a few constrictions. Found
in Virginia only during winter and spring. Usualty
6-l-2 i-nches tal-l-.
GenUS nJlJEI\rULJUUL,L>. Asneroc'ncc'riq- Plants ! rqt!uJ in rr! oro vtvUDS.
unbranched, dark brownr. of a holl_ow tube that may be
somewhat f lattened, mostl-y 3-6 inches tal-I, about oneeighth
inch in diameter, growing on stones and woodwork
btlt nresent on'lr.z-in urintor and qnr"inr^r:lnnrr fho
uft9
\Tirnini:
vJrYfIrIq
Order Fucales
Large brown algae that are B inches to a foot or
more tall- when mature and which possess some kind of air
bladder so that the plants ffoat when they are torn
Ioose from the substratum to whi-ch they were originally
attached. The growth is apical- and the cell structure
is parenchymatous.
FamiIy Fucaceae
Genus Fucus. These (along with Ascophvll_um)
are the rtrockweeds.rr They grow almost entirely in the
intertidal zone and can stand hours of exposure to air,
.slln- ancl r'ain - Therz erF mrrqi- -l rr A-'l 2 innhos t-:l I
LqJ!,
mrrnlrlltUUII
hr'ancheri tho flanCheS ffattencd and qtr':n-qL-nn.i -^^
,
urre u!qrtutlso lrqLsEtlsu qllu ourqy-JItel/Eu o1 tu
bearing air bfadders. There is a fairly conspicuous
midrib. h/hen they reproduce (fa1l and winter onl_y),
the ends of the branches swell- to form receptacl_es in
which the gametes are produced.

PHAEOPHYTA - TI{E BRowN ALGAE
PLATE +
FucUs
AsCOPHYLL
5AR GA 55UM

-24-
Genus. Ascophvllum. These plants are usually
l-2-18 inch6s-EJl1" Finnately branched and with
intercalary air bl-adders. They are rare along the
\/i rni
vItYIILIq
ni: n^:
uvquu,
el- :
srulrvuYlr
I t-hnrrnh t-horz
LIruy:J!vvv
nrn\r7 :f
u
Chi nnnf o:rrrro :nri
other places al-ong the Eastern Shore. Drifting pl-ants
are often washed uD on the beaches.
Familv Sarsassaceae
Genus Sarsassum. Thi-s qenus i.s characterized
'l-.,
F^-^+^ ;;:*
Dy LETELE rLs'Lr that bear three kinds of appendages:
Io:rzaq :ir' lrl:drlor'q :nd l'r^rhon ronrodrrninrr) *aaan+ralaa
ruqvuJ qr!
,
!rquue! J, qllu
\ vvrrclt I gyr uuuulrrV / r gUcIJ LO.ulEJ
that arise i-n the axil-s of leaves and consist of little
antler-li-ke branches within which are hol-low places
cal-Ied conceptacles j-n which gametes are produced
ner.indir'.el lrz- Thp fwo UwvUt/gvJ sneeies nf Sar.oassrrm flSt Occur
in the Sargasso Sea are never attached and never
renlodrrr.e (exeent hrz eontinrred rzonot:ti\/e r^rrowth and
f r':nmant- :i- i nn'\ A'l I nfhor qnor'-i oq of S:r.r-r: q
leuurvl!/ . -**y*-sum grow
attached to rocks below low tide. The family to which
this genus belongs is mainly tropical, only one species
of S:r'rr:qqrrm fir'rr\arinrr nnrth nf trlnr'ida:lnno the Atl-antiC
-.
YYjjtjjjll Yr vvvrlv
coast of che United States.
This species (q. filipendula)
:nd qtlu the l-wo SDer''ies of ne'l aoic S:r'rr:scrrm frnry1
!IIu uvvv JyuuI9o v!
uurYuuuqrrr
r!v lhtg
t/9ruvru
Saroasso Sea are fr'ecnrentlv foirnd on \/ir'o-inia beaches.
Ann: ci nn: i I rz
v+L)|)
trnni n:'l qnoni oS f 1' Om Fl_Of ida Of the WeSt
fndies drift north in the Gul-f Stream and are blown
ashore.
PHYLUM RHODOPHYTA (Ptate 5)
The red algae may be afmost any cofor when growing
because of the variety of pigments they contai-n in
addition to the red pigment (phycoerythrin) and the
green pigment (chlorophyll). The col-or of the plants
denends irDon tho nr nnor^l-ion nc LL^ ^-:-*^'.r^
veI/erruo uyvrL LrrE Pr u!/vr Lrvlr vI L-tlu y-L9lrlglrL J and this is
often determined by light intensity and other environmental
conditlons. Regardless of the color of a red
-l-- -:! ^1.,^-..
d.-19c1 , -r-L drwdys contains some of the red pigment whether
it appears to or not. Fortunatel-y for collectors, most
-^r -'1^-^
r gu qJ\JqE q! s ovillg some shade Jltqus of v! red. r' but quite a few are
greeniih to purple. They are mul-ticell-ular and range
frnm mi nnnqconin qner-i
rYevrvv es 1-n I ar"cre nl ants 1-wo Of thfee
foo{- lnnn f)na {-inrr qnon'iAq -io nnlrz fnlnri -ini-n
l-CCL IL.rltV . \JIIU Lrrry oI/uuruJ lD U.tlJy r\Jultu l6njnrr Ul,r f Ity JllLv
'l imesfone ( sreh as nrzster shel I q I :nd
\ uuerr qu vJ u ve! /
srlv the I i.mestone

_25_
must be decarcified by treatment with a weak acid before
the alga can be seen.
Cl-ass Rhodophyceae
Subclass Bangiophycidae
The Bangiophycidae are the simpler, more primitive
red algae. They grow either as fil_aments or flat sheets
and the cel-l-s do not have the fairly conspj_cuous intercel-lular
protoplasmic connections that are characteristic
of the Subclass Fl_orideophycidae.
Order Bangiales
F:m-i I rr R:nni:no:a
y sqr rv
GenUS Pnnnlrsrr= D] enf : f l:1_ fh.in blade One
or rwo cerrE-Eriffiiiri-,1'"a
;"';;;;"]"*itno,.rt
lvrvr
9
vv
midrib, and growing only in the intertidal- zone,
aqnoni:l lrz nn .\zqfaT' qhol'l q
srrv4rJ. It Iv iS Jo abUndant quulluqtlU in Jll Vinoin-ia
vrryflrlq
drrrinn r^ijnt-or rnd qnnina htf
u!,!+ary !qu 1g1g rq!u v! Of abSent q!QEltL dirrino uuIIIry tho Lflg
Summer. COnchonnolic r^,hi-h iS fOund Only wi_thin time-
;;;;; ;' ffi3.;"i;;" rhe des*iption or Rhodophyta
above), is now known to be an al_ternate phase of
Pnnnhrzn: .Flra Qgnghocoel-is Steoe marz ho fnrrnd the rzear
arouno.
Subclas s Florideophycidae
The Fl-orideophycidae incl-ude the vast majority
'l-ha 'l
narl :-l nrn rnrl l:nna f nnm c*- I f -i Lrre reu dr_gde d..* . .vrrr stTldJ_Je rl-IamenEous I -*n-+
specl_es
'l
tO uv Jq!VE, enOe- anmnl^., ^'l -".+^ nLarz
uwrrryr€X pacrrl[S. InLr h:rza : --r-*y f:ir'l COnSp]_CUOUS
protoplasmj.c connection between cel_Is derived from the
same previous cel-l by cell- divisi_on. Most of them
exhibit an a.lternation of identi_cal gametophyte and
sporophyte generati.ons. Since the sexes ar.e usually
^^^-.^-+^ - '-r _'^! __._ L^ _-r ^
oEpo.r o, Lc , d. trJd.rt.L ilrdy uc ilLdJe
,
"
of
fOm:lo nl lll-aJ_r:cnnnin ll
Which it is can be determined only by its r:eproductive
structures. Tetrasporic plants produce only tetraspores,
in the formation of which reduction dj_vj_sion (meiosis)
occurs. Tetrasporic plants are 2N (each cel-l_ has two
sets of chromosomes). Of a group of four tetraspores,
two are bel-ieved to give rise to male plants and two to
f emal-e pl-ants. When an egg cefl_ is f ertilized on a
female plant by a spermatium produced on a mafe plant,

-26-
the zygote undergoes a complex development to produce a
cystocarp which produces carpospores. These are 2N and
germJ.nate into tetrasporic plants.
Order Gel-idial-es
Typically wiry, dark purple to bl-ack, with slender
branches, firmly attached to shell-s or stones (in
\/t Tfft nt: I
FamiIy
Genus Gel-idium. Pl-ants mostl-v one-hal-f to two
j-nches caiflFirmiy attacheo to sherts br rocks, che
branches sfender, terete or somewhat flattened. This
genus is the principal source of agar in .Iapan and
California, but the Virginia plants are too small-. Some
n-l rn#a ^+ --a+1^
prqr!Lo vr qrrvurt€l genuS, Pterocladia, closely resemble
/'a^r"i ji"-
\f
--^ *.he
g r-Lu-ruill, q'l tu L reader should refer to more technicalbooks
if he is interested in determininq how the two
differ.
Order Rhodymeniafes
The Virginia representatives of this order are mostJ-y
bushy-branched plants 2-B inches in height when mature.
The basic characteristics of the orders of the red algae
are too technical- for delineation in this field quide.
Familv Champiaceae
Genus- Champia. Small- plants 1-3 inches tall
character:.d-uy-re uarrel-shaped segments of which the
branches are composed. The branches are thus hollow,
the wall-s one cell- in thickness.
Order Gigartinales
Members of thls order are the J-argest red algae of
the Virglnia coast and are mostly bushy-branched in form
and often very abundant. Tetraspores are usually found
scattered on the branches just beneath the epidermal cells.
In Hypnea, however, the tetraspores are found only in
rrrorrns in rhc 91113ll- Side branCheS.

-27 -
Family
Solieri-aceae
_
Genus Agrar4hiel-l_a. A large, much-branched,
rose colored plant with smooth branches and 6-10 inches
ta]l when ma'ture. rt can be distinguished from HJzpnea
and Gracil-aria by examinatj-on of a thin cross-seffi
under the microscope. Agardhiella is hotl-ow in the
center with the hol-low containing colorl_ess filaments
arising f rom the inner wal-rs. Hypnea and Gracil-aria
are f il-led with large cel-l_s in ffi center.
Familv Hypneaceae
Genus_ Hypnea. Green to purple-green plants
4-r2 incrreilEaTrTfrE-mature, much nrancheo and bearing
many short, slender branchl-ets. The main branches sor6-
times have hooked tips. Not common in the Norfol_k area
but usuarly abundant i-n the york Ri-ver al-ons the hiqh
bluff above the bridge at yorktown on the y6rktown iide
on stones and shells (below the Fusil-iersr Redoubt).
Famil-v GraciJariaceae
Genus Gracil-aria. Two species of Gracil_aria
occur in Virginia. one is otive green to puF!@,
the branches someti-mes flattened a littte; the other ii
rose red and the branches always terete and slender.
The plants grow to a height of B-I4 inches, are much
branched, not hol_Iow. An agar-like, geI-forming
polysaccharide can be made from these plants (Humm,
1962). The greenish Gracil_aria is G. fol_iifera
(For.s,skql) Blrgesen aFfFG usuatTy dffibtoffiusry
branched; the red species is G. verrucosa (formerly G.
confervoides) and is not dichotornoG$Sranched.
Order Cerami_ales
Slenderly filamentous and branched, may be coarse,
strap-shaped, or membranousl corticated or uncorticated.
F'amilv Cerami-aceae
Genus_ aelgmiqm. Filamentous, all axes corticated
at no@ Sffirnodes, if corticated, are
covered by outgrowths from the nodes; branching usually
dichotomous, tips of branches forcipate. Differentiation

: I ]- orn:]-a . 761 1p.{nrl -^f + r"f +.
clrLs!rlqLE, !vurLLlgu >\JI L LLII L,
wel-l on Zostera or manv other
Very fine monosiphonous
Cfadophora; branching
l-rni nht- r.nqa
! v9v
-ni nk . .YYaa)\^rq
!/+rrl\,
firm surfaces.
Genus_ Spvridia. Axes completely corticated
whil-e bran6|rtets ha,.re corticated bands only at the nodes
(fike Ceramium); a delicately bushy little plantl
lranchtEE6 give essentially a tropical speci-es which
inhabits protected, warm bays and pool-s.
Famify
Del-essariaceae
Genus Callithamnion.
'-7--:-;-
branchi-ng f ilaments; very like
-28-
OI t\^io VeIy COnmOn speci-es: a. strictum: rings of
cortical- cel-l-s at nodes only. b. rubrum: comPlete
cortication, but thicker at nodes.
Genus Grinnell-ia. A large, f lat pink blade
.:--;------=usually
with distinct midrib from base to apex; one
layer of cel-Is thick except for rnidrib; if in reproductive
phase, it will- appear speckledl undulate (ruffl-ed)
orlno guyvr.
q l'nmmnn
vvirurrvrr
-i
fr! n t-ho qnri nrr
Familv Dasvaceae
Genus_ Dasva. Bright red; main branches stout
but soft, w'i-tfr ftiErm branchlets (Iike pine needles);
branchlets crowded on axes; holdfasts disc-fike; mature
ptants B-20 inches tall. Most conmon in spring.
Famifv
Rhodomel-aceae
Genus Chondria. Plants bushy, alternatel-y
branched; Srancfres EyTfrOrical and spindle-shaped
(constricted at bases); branchlets with terminal tuft
of f il-aments; central f il-aments of el-ongated cel-l-s
sumounded by four fllaments of like cel-ls (centrai- and
pericentral siphons) which in turn are surrounded by
cortical- cell-s (seen in cross-section).
GenUS Fn'l tzci nlrnn-i: Ei I :monf q :r'o Ugg6f fy
dichotomously branched, coarse to very fine; stem
cylindrical, uncorticated; at first encounter very
^-^-i r.. ^^'.f,,-^,.1
Edr-Lry .,r,,'.,.'=J with Ceramium; bright pink to blackish;
species vary from an TnaE to B inches in height.

-29-
PHYLUM CYANOPH1TA
The bluegreen algae are individually microscopic,
but they form layers, groups and cushions on various
substrata and can then be seen without magnification.
They make intertidal- rocks extremel-y slippery as the
cel-l-s or filaments are coated with a gelatj.nous agarlike
polysaccharide which serves to protect the cells
from extreme drying when intertidaf forms are exposed
at low tide. These plants have chlorophyll distributed
throughout the outer portion of the cytoplasm in a
col-Ioida] f orm and l-ack chloroplasts. They have no
organized nucleus; the nucleoproteins and DNA are
distributed throughout a central portion of the ceII
and there 1s no membrane around this portion. Sexualreproductj-on
and flagellated cel-l-s are lacking. These
are the worldts most primitive plants, even more so
than the bacteria. They are sometimes placed in the
same phylum as the bacteria since there are some bl-ueg:reen
algae that }ack chl-orophyll and cannot be
distinguished from bacterj-a. Because of their similarity,
they are aIl placed in one cl-ass, which is divided, by
most authorities, into two orders.
CIass Cyanophyceae (Myxophyceae)
Order Coccogonales
These are the non-fil-amentous or coccoid bluegreens
that occur as single cell-s or in colonies of various
form, hel-d together by the gelatinous sheath.
Famil-y Chroococcaceae
Genus_ Anacvstis. Cell-s single or in colonies,
sphericar or erongaEE:--The cel-Is of a col-ony are al-I of
essentj-ally the same size as cell- division results in
two equal daughter cel-l-s. Sometimes j-n the plankton but
also mixed with other algae, on stones, shel-J-s, woodwork,
and in the surface sand of intertidal beaches where
protected from strong waves.
Famil-v Chamaesiphonaceae
Genus_ Entophvsal-is.
forming cushions@er.
Cel-Is single or in colonies
These cel-l-s are usually

PLATE 5
RHoDoPI.IYTA - THE RED AL6AE
5TRlCTU|II
GRACIL
A GARDHIELLA
PoLY6lt$oiltA
c ltArnPtA
6NINNELLIA

-30 -
attached to a substratum and cell- di-visi-on resurts in
two daughter cerl-s of unequal- size. cel-l-s in a corony
are variabl-e in size. There are two common species in
the Virginia area. one grows upon other argae or sometimes
upon invertebrate animal-s (E. conferta Drouet and
Dalry) while the other is founo u[on-s6?E. she]-r-s and
wood, boring into l-imestone (E. deusta Drouet and Daily).
Order Oscil_l_atorial_e s
These are the fil_amentous bluegreens. Some produce
a gelatj-nous sheath, others lack it. True branching is
rare among marine species, but some exhibit false
branching. The number of trichomes within a sheath
varies from the usual- one to many. some speci-es produce
heterocvsts.
Famil-y Oscillatoriaceae
Genus Spirulina. Fil_aments very
(1-2 microns), splrally coil_ed and without
motil-e
sl-ender
cross walIs,
Genus Oscil_latoria. Fil_aments without a sheath, )
straight oFTdtEiZEEpTrar, rhe cer-r-s often wider
than long.
Genus_ Lyngbva. Fil_aments with a sheath but
only one tffi6md@-sheath, unbranched .
PHYLLIM TRACHEOPHYTA (Plare 6)
Seed plants; the embryo remains connected with
parent until- partly devetopedl young ptant with its
food supply is a seed.
Cl-ass Angi-ospermae
Subclass MonocotyJedonae
Order Najadales (Pond Weeds)
Famil-y Najadaceae
Genus Zostera. EeI grass; stems hori_zontaI,
embedded 1n the bottomg leaves l-inear, up to several_

-JIfeet
long, one-fourth to one-hal-f inch wide; staminate
and pistillate fl-owers about equally numerous; fruit
ohl oncr-orzoi d ' seed strono'l rz ri hhed : f nrrnd -i n shall-Ow
water in sheftered bays and coves where the salinity is
1tr o/ +^ D^ a/
LJ /Oe LV 9V /Oe,
from view within
branched, ffi
often washed ashorel flowers hidden
the l-eaf sheaths.
GenuS Rrrnni:. Di.l_ch rr?Ass: stem qimnTa nr
roii;"r":;;r"i-;"i;";;;'i;";;
about one-eighth inch widel peduncle variablel much
etongate, usually spiral toward the base; fruit ovoid,
often unsymmetrical-1 found in brackish waters, and
rarely in fresh water inl-and. Leaves much narcower than
those of Zostera, grows in water of lower salinity.
Order Lll-iales
E:mi I r;
Juncaceae (The Rushes)
Genus Juncus. A rush; stems rigid, erect from
'l
rnnc ?rnnio^iTii ?Sl7Eiles. - 5-3 n foar- fe'l I .
rvlrv lLvLLLvLLuqI tllf4vlltsD, L.J u.u !eLu uqrr, baSal- SheathS
mnel-lrz'la:f'locc l-ho innor, nnoq ho,ar"inrr r'-io-irl F-y.Ant
lllvoury rsqrIUJo, ulls fllltst vllso !eq!frLY rrvru, utevu,
+^.^^ts^ l--l -.]^^ -
LereLe urdues about as }ong as the stem and ending in a
sharp tip; involucral l-eaf erect, appearing like a
contj-nuation of the stem; infforescence apparentl-y
l:far':1 9-A innhoq lnnrr r^iil-l ."*-i numerous, repeatedly
f onkr'no. snr^e:d-inr^r hr enohes - each branchlet terminated
) ay'
by 2-4 sessil-e glomerules which are subtended by short
ovate bracts and composed of 2-6 flowers; perlanth segments
lanceolate, brown; salt or brackish marshes.
Order Graminal-es
tr:mi
4 sirLr
lrz
+ y
Cr':min.ao 1Cr,:eqac,)
Genus Distichlis. Salt grassl cul-ms 9-16
' -=--
inches taII. with numerous riqld involute leaf blades
mncfltt )-L i.-ho. lnnrr. r,rni-io nr;oid, 1-2 -inohes lnnrr:
rrLvrLfy a r rlrvrruo rvrr\r,
t/urrre+e ,
- - u +vlrY,
n-i e1- i I l:J- a cnilz^l a]- o n'rmlrar A -Q. c.i-:min:1- e qnike'l e1- c
I/Io uIJIqLe ot,TNEfELJ llulltugI a- J ) J LqlltrltqUs oyir\ure ur
B-I2: in sal-t marshes.
Genus
Qn:r'i- i n:
(TVo CommonQnanioe\
a . Sparti-na alternif l-ora: Cord gras s . Culms
stout, up to B-?eet taffl-or aE-T& as 12 inches; leaf
l-.1rrlaa a-l annr*-n n t-i A
-innhoq
IJ-I-CIUEJ gf\Jf fgd.LE, v. z v . u IltulrsJ rriido wJuE, rrl:t'rr.orlq. r.rr no,ar,lr;
Vrqlr Vuo vr Ilsqr Iy

-32-
sn: nFnic, le n:r'roul- 4-1 2'inr-heq lnnn. qniLoq qlondor
+v rrq! ! vvv, - ra rf tulleo rvrtY
,
DyTNEJ
oIslrusI
appressed to the axis, 2-4 inches l_ong; spikel_ets
scarcel rz imhri aetp . or.or't. r achi s nr o''l onrred horzond fha
,
ruurrra yr vJvttyEu vvjl vrru utru
uppermost spikel-et and usually conspicuously exceeding
it: fortnri in s:lt m:r,qheq n:r'rlru crrhmonno.l rlrrn'inn hinl.r
*", u
l/qr ur/ oulttLErvsu uur rrty rtfvrr
tides.
,
b. Slartila patens: Cul-rns sl-ender and stiff ,
ttstta'l lv r,r.eoari'oiG--rorn f ,^r.'.t tt iznmoe
v
'l -Q foet- f:l I .
rrrJ4vlrLro, I u IEEU uqII,
l-eaf blades 0.04-0.1-2 inches wide, invol_ute or fl_at at
bases; spikes usual-l-y number 3-5 and 0. B-2.0 inches l_ong;
spikelets densely i-mbricate, found in saft marshes and
on sheltered shores.

PLATE 6
SpeRnrarorlryrt Mearx Ptexts
-.....: Ruppt^ A.etrt^rA
PATET(S
T
IN OR9ER OF
ZONATION
HEI6I{T
AY
A6OVE
SpaRrruA
ALTaa|tFLOaA
sCA
LEVTL

-33 -
COLLECTING MARINE ANIMALS
Again, as in plants, the habitats for marine fauna
:na nrriia r,:ri a6J -. r'rsrrJ Manrz f r nlms v! rllo Wi]_I vvrJr be us ObSefVe| vyoEt vEu I f 1nm ! (Jllil :nrz dlty
area of sand beaches, tidai- fl-ats, and sal_t marshes.
Below are some specific habitats and col-Iection ideas.
Habitats
Mud FIatS. A r;:r"i or-rr nf mOIl_uSkS and cruStaceanS
may lffioffi'b).'th;-;Ji'"r"ir''"y make in rhe sand and
mttCl . T,apOe uqrye hO-l lrvrEQ Oc. in h-ir-rh "int-a-1--i^al
rtr trrvrt frlLsr LfuoI qrgdJ ah^ao
drE
atro rrcrr:l'l uDtld.IIy tr
occupied by fiddler crabs; two small hol-es, spaced i-n
Iow tidal- and subtidal- zones, often indicate the presence
of a cl-am. Clams can be dug with a shovel- by piercing
the bottom deeply. Sifting mud and sand wil_l_ disclose
worms and small- cl-ams. The ribbed mussel is attached bv
a byssus in mud among cord grasses and may be gathered
by hand. The same j.s true of small- barnacl-es and snail_s
I -i r.zi nn nn t-ha -.,- nJ:rasses.
Sand Fl-ats. Many crabs can be captured with nets or
by hanT-but some wil-t have to be collelted by digging
rnr{ 6-i++--i^^ T'\-i^^-i-^ --l --'4ts-.i^* ^E ^-^,-1 -r
d.rru sJ-r ul-r]g . ut_ggl_ng ana st-rtl_ngi or sana aE varl_ous
Ievels above and bel-ow tide l-ines wil-l- reward the
cofl-ector with vari-ous worms, mollusks, echinoderms, and
crustaceans.
Beach Drifts and Intertidal- Zone, Hydroids, tunicates,
and bryozoans are frequentl-y washed in with the tides and
are easily collected. Many mol_lusks are obtained from the
intertidal- zone; some may be collected by hand whil_e others
are obtained by the digging and sifting method.
Sea Wal-l-s and Pil-ings. A varj_ety of tube-secreting
worms, sponges, hydroids and sea anemones may be
gathered. Scraping frequentl-y is needed to free the
SOeeimens- Tf qnan-imanq frnm m:nr; nf fhoqo
9IIVUU SOU3CeS a1'e
Ieft in smal-l- amounts of fresh water, the worms wil_I
crawl out of the tubes. Barnacles, mussel_s, oysters,
and other sessile animals may be present in large
numbers.
Fn,, -i ^*^-+
!{urt/lrrsr
r L
Diving with a face mask j.s an excel-l-ent method for
gathering sponges, coral-s, many arthropods and mol-l_usks.

-34 -
Glass-bottomed pails are val-uable in Iocating and
col-Iecting animals as wel] as plants in shal-fow water
when the surface has riffl-es or small waves. Seines
,.;+^ .,-'r,,-Lr^ -r^*- ^-*A\7
dr E L{u-LLC Vq.f,Llo.lrE GJVTTV Do.rruy heeches_ lEqulrEO . Refer r\sr afso to
Col-Iectinq Marine Plants.
PRESR,\ING MARTNE ANIMALS
Whil-e collecti-ng, animals should be kept in shaded
cool places and not be overcrowded if they are to be
kent alir,,e for^ strrdr;- Tn 1-he lahoratoi"v a habitat as
similar as possible to nature is desirabl-e. Size and
activity of specimens shoul-d be considered in determining
the number to be placed in a petri dish, finger bowl,
or simil-ar container if overcrowding is to be avoided.
If specimens are crowded, sea water shoul-d be changed
frequently. It is advisable to pour the water through
fil-ter paper if it is turbj-d.
For long-range preservation, the same basic
n-n-ad"-nc r-a rrcod rc fnr nl:ntq ownant l-h:t- zonlnrriei-q
PILTUSUUICJ Ctlg UJSU qO rV! yJorrUD E UEyL LIIqL zvVTVVTJLA
ordinarily use l-0% instead of 5% formalin for large
specimens I 5% f ormal-in is adequate f or smal-l- anirnals.
Never use a solutj-on stronger than l-0% and be sune to
consider fuft-strength formalin as 100% and not as
35-40% (which it actually is). Always use sea water to
make rn 1-he nreserrzafiire. A r:inch of borax is useful in
*--.'^+-"i..-:-- - €arrnrah'le
lilo.l1LLof,l t-LrLv o rqvvrqvJU
Prr nH or vr a q
t/Jeeu nieee of vr ovster vya or cl_am
shel] wil-l- serve the same purpose and wil-I not produce
white deposits on the specimen. An acid solution willdissolve
calcareous materiaf. Some collectors use a
formal-dehyde solution for initial preservation and after
the specimens have been in it for a day or so they are
transferred to a clean, clear formalin sol-ution prepared
from fittered sea water. Before the specimens are placed
in this permanent solution, they may be rinsed thoroughly
but briefty in tap water to remove sand or mud and any
stained original soluti-on clinging to them. In the
nermanent solrrtion therz r-:n he clearlv observed and willnnoecnr
: no:r nnnf oqq-i nn:'l :nna:r':nno Pr eservl-ng Jars
uriflr nl:cfin.r:T\q q.lrnrrld:ltnr:r,rq.
vvrLrr ho rrqod eq mol-al c':ns
I/rqreru vuI/u rrrvurv
invariably comode within a f ew months. Label-s can be
placed inside with the animal- if they do not interfere
with its observation. The best labef paper is the

_35_
rrpat-a-partr paper often used in rneat markets to wrap
boil-ed ham slices. This paper is very hard, will take
India ink perfectly (no other ink shoul-d be rrserl) enrl
it rernains firm in a liquid indefinitely.
Crustaceans may be preserved initially in sea
water formaldehyde but authorities on this group strongly
recommend that for permanent preservation they should be
transfemed to 70% ethyl alcohol- or to denatured or
isopropyl- al-cohol of l_ower concentration. Add l%
glycerine to prevent drying. A disadvantage of al_cohol_
is its propensity for escaping slowty even through
tightly-sealed caps, so that it is necessary to examine
the jars at l-east once a year and add al_cohol_ as needed
to prevent drying. It is usel-ess to attempt to preserve
the naturar colors of marine animals for these col-ors are
pigments that are chemica]ly complex and tend to decompose
quickly in the absence of living cells. If the animal is
a sol-id col-or, it can be stained with some permanent dye
to imitate the natural- col-or, but if the specimen exhibits
a mixture of colors when alive, the problem of fading may
be insol-uble. In genenal, col_or wil_l_ be retained longer
in buffered formal-in than in alcohol.

-35 -
CLASSIFICATION AND GENERTC DESCRIPTIONS
OF COMMON MARINE ANIMALS IN TIDEWATER VIRGfNIA
PHYLUM PORIFERA (Plate 7)
Sincrle ,qn'im:l nr. r'nlnnrz nf :n-im:lq. :'lr^r:rrq qaccila.
qrrfirlsl v! uvrvlrJ vI qllllltqlJ, qrvvqJ I 99AAIJE,
form varies from globose or diffusely branched and
anastomosed to an encrustati-on; colors vary but tend to
be drab, except in Microciona; external form is modj-fied
by the environment. An individual- 1s typically tubeshaped,
with numerous incurrent pores and a single
excurrent opening, the oscul-um. T'he skeleton is formed
of calcareous or si-liceous spicules, or it consists of
tough protein (spongin) fibers.
Cl-ass Noncal-carea (or Demospongiae)
Most widely spread and dominant group I spongin and
sil-iceous spi-cules in varying proportions.
Order Hadromerina
tr:milrr
:a-
Clionidae
(See Hopkins, S. H. 1962. Distribution of
3?"iiii,il"Tffi,iii:1"9"'::l?;ld:'H"::;:il: 3:;:;""
3:L2I-I27.)
Genus Cliona. Cal-led rrboring sponge.rr Common
on shel-l-s oF-cfams ffi oysters where sali-ni.ty is above
L5 %.. Resembles wartsl bright yellow to dlrty brown.
Much of sponge body is concealed within the shell.
Cl-i-ona truitti tolerates sal-i.nities as l-ow as 3 %".
Order Hal-i-chondrina
Usually lacking a crust or cortex; skeleton
reticulate; microscl-eres monaxon; megascleres oxeas or
tylostylesl body of foose texture, with considerabl-e
cnnnni n
Famil-y Poec il-oscl-erina
Genus Microciona.
orange-reO; targe cfuster of
Common aII year; bright
close-set finger-like

PLAf€
S poN Ges
HAL'CLONA
PALNATA
Reo FtNcER Spox ea
MtcRoetoxa PROL'FERA
Hal.rcto*t
vt'tots

-31 -
lobes; calted rtred-f inger spongett ; f ound attached in
l-ow intertidal- zone to rocks, pilings, algae shells,
alcyonarians, etc.l tips of trf i-ngers?t are someti_mes
swol-l-en and often compressedl tough, spongy consistency;
fingers may be 6 inches long; oscufa scattered over the
surface, with pores extremel-y numerous becween them.
r dlll-L-LV
Hal-icl-onidae
Genus Halicl-ona. Forms varv in adult staqe
from encruEEETon to erect branching tolonies; browii-shgrey
i-n col-or; many prominent oscula in encrustationsq
l-rn:nnl-rinn nnlnn-ioq fn"nrl f-a-rronflrz miwo| r^ri.;l
Y vv+vrrr I r uvuvrLLry rrlr^Uu vvf MiCfOCi_Ona
or attached alone, while encrustations occur on Zostera,
mollusk shell-s, seaweeds, and old stems of soft corals.
-qirr+r/ Fami I r,' ffsts Haoloscferidae
Genus Hal-ichondria. Form variabl_e. of ten
m:qqirzo' qninrrloe -irronrrl:nlrr qnrt.l-onod. nnl --,or greY:
usually yellow but sometimes orange; fouling spongre;
soft and easii-y tornl perforated by widely spaced
DOres.
PHYLUM COELENTERATA (Plate B)
TrrhO_qh:nO| \^lit-h q-inalo
!uuL oIrqyEu, wILlt oIIrVrs :ntar,in1 qllLu! Iv! 6nani-^. vyerllllV
l,nd.,
t
D\Juy
wall of two layers with mesogl-ea betweenl solitary or
^^'r^--.i-r. 6^..-+n(r\/qj-q,
coronr_aJ-; nemal--
dirr.icinn of l:hnr,. m:
, ,,,-Y or may
not exhi-bit alternation of generations; radial symmetry.
Class Hydrozoa
Hydroid polyps and medusae, usually with alternation
of generations. The hydroid stage, which is cal-l-ed the
i-rnnhosnmo iq anaa-'r^ ,,^,,-rlrr
LruyrrvJUrrs, lJ DEJD_L_Lg, uJudrJy onlnnie'l uL.rILrrltdI :nri clllu r'anlndrrooq
-
by budding the medusa stage, which is called the gonosome.
The individual hydroids are smal-l- (a few mm in length).
The col-onies are often plant-like in appearance. Usually
there is a secreted cuticl-e (perisarc) for rigidity and
protection.
Order Thecata (Leptomedusae)
Po1yps protected by transparent enclosure; distinct
feeding and reproductive polyps bud separatel-y from stem;
medusae (when fully formed) detach themselves and leave
}r. ' Fi -. ' nnn--i -^ -i
Dy Ll_rry openlng l-rr
- +1.ra
f,ne gonof,neca.
^a-a+1-,

-38-
Famil-y Sertulariidae
GenUS SertUl-aria. flrzdrnrhan:o i- tWO
opposins r ofre u"ii'"J-;;";;;;; hydrothecal
margin with 2 or 3 teeth. S. argentea is largest
hydroid occurrj.ng in Chesapeake-ay.
F',:mi I rz C: mn:nr r I :ri
r srrrf +y vqrrryurruJq! ruqL
rl: o
Genus Obelia. The numerous. species belonging
to this genus have a branched stem which mav be simpl_e
or fascj-cled, with fl-ower-fike hydrothecae ind with
gonothecae arising from the axits of the branches I
cl-ear, greyish-bl-ack, or yellowish i_n color; many
branches with annul-ated bases; may reach B inches in
length; medusa with eight or more margi_nal tentacles
but no oral tentacl-es.
Genus_ Gonothyraea. Simil_ar i_n morphology to
Obe f ia, luEFi-tfr-C e EE-Iong the hyd ro rhe c a t_ tnarg1n
which are truncate. Gonophores produce fixed sporosacs
rather than free medusae, col_oni_es may reach 2 inches.
An abundant winter form.
Order Athecata (Anthomedusae)
Polyps naked; gonads of ectodermal_ origin.
FamiIy Eudendridae
Genus Eudendrium.
. ,-;----
Trophosome colony branchedl
perisarc distlnct, annulations distinct t-n :}rqont- .
hydranth with hypostome trumpet-shaped; single whorl of
tentaclesl attached to hard substrata.
Famil-y
Pennariidae
Genus Pennaria. Trophosome colony regularly
branched; E-ydranmltrEn_basal whort and a nurnber of
short, knobbed tentacles on the hypostome; attached to
piles, rock, seaweeds; medusoid buds evident on side of
hydranth; white to rose col_or.
Order Siphonophora
Mostly col-onial- and marinel float near surface of
sea with individuals suspended from a ftoat or swimming
pofyp; individual polyps exhibit division of l_abor.

Fami l-y Rhizophv sal-iidae
-3 9-
Genus- Physahe. ItPortug-ese man-of-warrrl
colony ftolFon surEace of water; often carried by
cument and wlnd f or long distances I can sink f or
protecti-on when water becomes agitatedl dome Pearshaped,
with iridescent colorsl tentacl-es long (sometimes
reaching 1l--16 yards); powerful stinging organs. NOTE:
The stinging organs may still- be active even if on the
^ --l
DdllU
r
Class Anthozoa
Corals, sea anemones; onty pofyP form present; body
usually cylindrical- and attached Permanently or temporarily
at one end (foot); oral- disc at opposite end with
mouth centraf, surrounded by holl-ow tentacles (from
severaf to over a hundred).
Order Actiniaria
Sea anemones with body consisting of a basal disc,
oral disc and a columnl tentacles may be few or many
amanged in two to many rings on the oral- disc; tentacl-es
hollow and tapering to a point or knob contaj-ning nematocysts;
mouth usually slit-1ike; mesenteries amanged in
definite radiating Pattern.
Famil-v Aiptasi-omorphidae
Genus AiPtasiornorpha. Green-brown sea anemone
striped w:-tfr yefrynd having numerous tentaclesl
found on pilings, in otd barnacl-e shell-s, and on
rocks in i-ntertidal zone.
Familv
Diadumenidae
Genus Diadumene. Sea anemone; gTreen-brown in
shallows, [ElTsffi[-er water; without stripes;
tentacl-es }ong; found on pilings and she}ls.
FamiIy
Actinostol-idae
Genus Paranthus. Cornnonly call-ed ttsea oniontrl
white: tenGZlEsffiuri-ed in sand.

PLATE 8
Co.LENTERATES
u/:',1
)
/z/
// ',.
'/t-/
Serrutarll
OEELIA
D IA DUMENE
DACTYL OMETRA

Famil-y Gorgoniidae
_40_
Order Gorgonacea
Genus- Leptogorgia. Purple, ilsoft coralttI
attached to*SelfianFFTlngs; pofyps extending from
all sides; also ref emed to as a rrwhi-p coralrr ; up to
approximately 12 inches in height. Farther south this
species may be orange, yellow or purple. (Specimens
col-lected in deep water of Chesapeake Bay exhibit these
colors. )
Cl-ass Scyphozoa
Usually undergoing alternatj.on of generations (few
may have only one stage); medusae play most conspicuous
part and are often large anj-mal-s; true jeltyfishes.
Order Semaeostomeae
No coronal- fumow or pedalia; mouth opening
central-, with 4 gelatinous lips; tentacfes holl-ow and
rhopalia marginal; gonads in sac-l-ike folds in endoderm.
FamiLy Pei-agiidae
Genus_ Chrvsaora. Large medusa cornmonly known
--
as a rtstingring nettlett; may or may not have bl-ood-red
organs in dome; disc hemispherical in shape; with very
long oral lobes and margj.nal tentaclesl col-or of organs
denotes white or red phase.
Famil-y Ulmaridae
Genus Aurel-ia. Marqinal- tentacl-es minutel
body f l-at and disc-l-ike with four l-arge white, horseshoeshaped
gonads in domel color cl-ear, white, pi-nk, or
bl-uish I abundant in summer I of ten cal-l-ed ttwhite sea
jelliesrr; 6-l-O inches in diameter.
PHYLUM CTENOPHORA (PIAIE 9A)
Very soft and del-icate tfjellyfishesrr living mostly
in surface waters of the sea. The outer surface l-acks
hard structures and bears B longitudinal- bands of cilia,

_4L_
the characteristic ttcombstt. Al_l- are remarkably
l-uminescent when disturbed at night.
With tentacl_es.
Cl-ass Tentaculata
Order Lobata
Spheroidal body with two oral_ Iobes and four
auricl-es1 two tentacles without sheaths.
Famil-v I4nemiidae
l4nemiopqis.
, .G?"gg
Body ovare; tobes targe,
each bounded by deep side furrows; commonly
ttcomb
cal_l_ed
jettiesttl easiry obtained by a planklon ner or
!,rs!
by scooping with a container; eaiity damaged by
handling; about 4 inches in rength; both sides of tire
long, slit-like mouth are edged with a row of short
tentacres I easily seen (gives off a rumi-nescent glow)
on dark nights when water is churned by hand, oars or
motor.
PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES (prate 98)
Flatworms with soft bodies r-acking segmentation,
distinct head and paired appendages. pri-rnLt:_ve third
rayer present; outer surface may or may not be ciliated;
mouth ventral-; parasitic or free living.
Class Turbel_l_aria
Free-i-ivlng flatworms; externally covered with
cil-iag form of 'gastrovascul-ar cavity provides a basis
for division into orders.
Order Polycladida
Excl-usively_ marine; digestive tract profusely
branched; body thin, leaf-like; numerous eyes in head
region; pair of tentacles may be present, is ^uy .
sucken.

PLATE 9
cTENOPHone,S, ECH lNODERm5, AND PLATYI{ ELI\AINTHS
pUeUeOgcnCtl lR
nI'
,/l:
E u5rY L ocl{ u5
A. CTENoPlroREs'. coqF- JELLtE5
E. plnrvgELwlrNTH:
A POLYCTAD FTATWOR'T'I
A5TERIAS
*i,.
ffik
TI{YOXE
C. ECHINODERMS:
5TARF|Sl+,
6RlrrLE 57AR',
5EA CUcUrrr6E R

42-
Familv
Pl-anoceri-dae
Genus_ Stvl-ochus. Body oval- or elliptical- and
fl-at; col-oilJaG-tEla^w-brown varying to mottl-ed green
with a whitish network; tentacles short and white, each
with a cluster of oeelli; margins undulating; conunon on
seaweed and in old oyster she]l-s. fntestj-ne with numerous
branches to al-l- Parts of body; mouth central and ventral.
PHYLUM RHAjCHOCOELA (Nemertea)
Soft, flattened, very contractile worms, often
brightly colored i.n tropics; most are nonparasitic and
marine, many burrow; unsegmented but often give
appearance of belng so due to regularly repeated sub-
Oivisions of internaf organs; rnouth on ventral surface
near anterior; anus at Posteri-or.
Order Heteronemertini
Three muscfe layers, wi.th the brain and l-ateralnerve
cords above the circular layer and beneath the
outer tongitudinal layer; proboscis lacking styl-et;
mouth behind brain.
Famil-v Li-neidae
Genus Cerebratulus. Body long, flat, and
broad, wit6-TTmlffi-in-ted head and thin edges welladapted
for swimming. Eyes usually absent; mouth a
long slit; rose to light purplish in color; near low
water mark, burrowing in shal-l-ow, sandy bottoms, but
free-swj-mming during breeding season.
PHYTUM ANNEL]DA (Plate
l-O)
True or segmented worms wj-th elongated bodies
with anterior segments specialized and modified to
a distinct head.
and
form
Cl-ass Polychaeta
Each segment usually with paj-red parapodia of two
main parts (both have setae and cimi); distinct head

_43_
with sense organs; protrusible proboscis frequently
present. Mostly marine; many species iridescentl
usually bumowing in substrate or l_iving in tubes
(calcareous or membranous). Divided for convenience
into two groups, Emantj_a and Sedentaria, but Orders
have not been establ-ished.
Famil-y Onuphidae (Eunicidae)
Head triangular, with t-obe-Iike palps; eyes 2, 4,
or nonel iridescent; numerous naruow segments ending in
2 or 4 anal cimi.
Genus Diopatra. Commonly called trtube wormn
or ltplume wormrr; may be more than a foot in length and
>2 :.nch in wi

-44-
rotate on the axis; body light purplish-pinkl bumows
in sand of intertidal- zone.
Famil-y Nereidae
Usually free swimmers; distinct head and eyes with
prostomial- tentaclesl chitinous buccal_ membranel
proboscls armed with pair of horny jaws and usually
with a series of horny teeth.
Genus Nereis (Neanthes). Prostomium with
pair of mj-nute tentacles and 2 palpsl peristomium with
4 eyes and 2 antennae; notopodia enlarged; found in
sand.
Genus Pr:t-rznonai c Morphology basically same
as in l1"""ii6"ffi;
of the four Deristomiattentacldf-G
very long, extending sometimls to the l-Oth
segment or farther; l-acks enlarged notopodium of Nereisl
approximately I i-nch long.
F:mi I rz Orbiniidae
Genus Scol-oplos. Some parapodia
setae; ant6ilo-F and posterior endi polnted
anterior end not concealedl found in sand.
with capillary
nn
lnrrndad.
! vqrrevv
t
Famil-v
Arenicol-i.dae
Head only moderately developed; no appendages;
bounded posterlorly by nuchal- groovesg no palps or
tenf ac-i e q : hodrr diVided intO fhi"ee reoi rvyrvrrr. on s .
GenUS AfeniCOl_a.
llT.1 rn r^7^nmll . 1:nng (4-6
"*Y,+ql:,
inches), greeni.sh-bl-ack worm with short spines (setae)
protruding from each segment; head only moderately
developed; lacking appendages, paIps, or tentaclesl
nnlrr vLLLj inrli frrsto9rlluL ef-inr.l* orroe Ey9o T\16cont. n:n hrrnrnr^r rrnid-lrr :nd
!/!Eosrtv, uqrl uut!vw rqf/rury olru
deeply into the sand just bel-ow the l-ow water ma::k; may
be found between sea scuirts.
Famil-v Sabel-l-i-dae
Body somerivhat rounded or sJ-ightly flattened; thorax
of 5-I2 bristl-ed segmentsl abdomen of numerous segments
with bristles and hooks: first sesment partly enveloped

PLATE
'O
ANNELIDS
: rT€io30
BLOOD WORTVI: 6LYCERA
PL UME woRt'1: DIoPATRA
In o,cA?toN
oF
",ffi),'
TAIL €'{D
OURROIV rrl SAt D
L UG WORM:
ARENTcoLA

-45-
by a coll-ar covering the branchiae I buil-ds cylindrJ-cal
mucoid tube of leathery or membranous consi-stency.
Genus Sabel-l-a. rrPl-ume wormrrrrl greenish-brown
worm with anterior-ena-conceal-ed by distinct tentacl-es
resembl-lng feathers I buil-ds a cylindrical- tube of mucous
of a l-eathery or membranous consistency to which mud,
sand, and other substances may stick; may be found
between sea squirts. Pl-umes held outside of tube
normally, but withdrawn instantly when the animal- is
disturbed.
PHYLUM ARTHROPODA (Plates
11 and l-2)
Body with external segmentation and jointed
appendages; segments differ in size, shape, and
specj-alizatj-on1 exoskeleton chitinous.
Cl-ass Crustacea
Breathe by gills (branchiae); two pairs antennae.
Order AmphiPoda (Plate 11A)
Body elongated, usually l-ateral-l-y comPressedl first
thoracic segment fused with the head (a1so second segment
in caprel-lids). Paired thoracj-c appendages 7, second and
third pairs usually equipped for grasPing and called
gnathopods. Abdominal appendages 6 pairs, last 3 usually
modified for jumping; eggs camied on ventral- side of
thorax in a ttbrood pouchtt formed by flattened projections
from thoracic legs; gills on periopods; easily obtained
among seaweeds; very common. An exampl-e is Caprel-l-a,
which is abundant on seaweeds, especially Gracil-aria.
It is exceffent as food for other ani-mals in the
laboratory. ft moves in a manner suggesti-ng a measuring
worm.
*The serpulids make up another grouP
These worms buitd cafcareous tubes.
at the moment is j.n disPute.
of ltplume worms. rr
Their classification

Body usually
_46_
Order Isopoda (Plate 11C)
fl-attened from top to bottom (dorsorronl-r='l-'ltr\.
finqf
4LL! eanmonl- ^f
I ,
f r! o L asyirlErtL ur thofaX Lll\Jl.c,'r( fUSed l_ u>cLl Wifh wJ-Ltl hoa6 ltgcl\r,
the remaining 7 being free and distinct; 6 abdominai
segments; thoracic l_egs typically alike except for
first 2 pairs of periopods which may be subchelate;
abdomen less prominent than in amphipods, with appendages
for swimming or breathing; thorax longer; camy eggs j_;
rrbrood pouchrr under thorax; an exampl_e is Liqia eiotica,
the trsea -
roachtt which l_ives out of water moFotEe
tj.me on sea walIs, pilings, and rock breakwaters.
Order Cimipedia (Barnacles) (ptate 118)
Shrimp-like animals encased i_n a calcareous shell;
6 pairs of legs divided at the ends into curling, manyjointed
branches which are ejected through openings in
shel-l- to gather food (appear feathery); body upside
down in shell-, attached by back of head to base of shel_lwith
its legs being uppermost.
Family
Chthamal-idae
Genus Chthamal_us. Barnacl_e with pl_ates of
shell- hia11:friln{orous, risuafly 6 in number; very smalland
fragile; somewhat flattened, greyish white; attached
to Spartinal abundant in high intertidal- area on pilings,
occurs singly or in smal-l- groupsl base not calcareous.
r d.llt_LIV
Bal-ani.dae
Genus Bal-anus. Common barnacl_e on pilings,
shel-l-s, roc6]a;a-El-p- bottoms; base of each shelt_
cal-careous; plates porous, overlapping.
Order Decapoda (Plates tID and l_2)
Shrimp, lobsters, crayfish, and crabs; carapace
covers entire thorax; cephalothorax cylindrical_ or
compressed; abdomen smalJ- and bent under cephalothorax
i-n crabs; first pair of periopods chelate, also others
often slightly chel-ate; eggs usually camied on pleopods
(swimmerets); gills situated in gill chamber on each
side of thorax.

_47 _
F:m'i l rr F:rrr rni d: o
Genus_ Pagurus. General_ f orm crayf ish-like;
carapace notT:silwi-S epistome; antennae j_nserted
l-ateral- to eyes; uropods present (may be modified);
soft abdomen swollen, membranous and asynrnetrical;
commonly cal-led t?hermi_t crabsrr; found in intertidal
zone; first pair of periopods chelate, last pai_r
modified to hol-d body in shelt; abdominal appendages
rud j-mentary or absent. Found in shell-s of Littorina.
Pol-vnices, and other snail_s.
Family Hippidae
Genus Emerita. Simil-ar to Pagurus exceDt
abdomen isElcflTent under thoraxttFareous and
symmetrical; second to fourth legs with last joint
curved and flattened for digging; tail a telson and
uropods not adapted for swimmi_ng but for digging;
buruows in loose sand at edge of water where there is
good wave action. Commonly catled ttmol_e crab. tt
Famil-v Maiidae
4
GenUS T.i hi ni: llQn-idon nr:hll . cnidef -l_ike in
form: cara6EFF-r*
uqrqyqeE i.h
i^iii ^' qirroc.
,
f,qQEv wlurt EyJDL\JtItE, C1 L _Led.DL qL JfuEO,
antennae inserted
";;:;:;^"';;
between retractile eyes; uropods absent;
appendages }ong, slender; median spi_nes on carapace 6-9
in nrrmhar,. fnoa-l-irrinn. v rr!y nfl-a- -:mnirf-l:nao nr
, vr uvrr uqrrrvua JqVEr uofd.p€.C€ With
debris; dense growth of chitinous hairs gi_ves it furry
appearance; chelipeds slender.
Farnil-v Portunidae
The swirnming crabs. In all species the last pair
of legs has f l-attened paddles.
Genus_ Ovalipes. Commonty called ttlady crabrt
or f'cal-iss-AEEtt; cr;ETike carapa-"" fused with epistome;
antennae between eyes; uropods absent; body of medium
widthl rostrum reduced; carapace not broad but short and
rounded anteriorlyl col-or purptish spots on a light-col-ored
background.
Genus Callinectes. Carapace about twi_ce as
broad as long, anterior margin seruated and terminated
posterolaterally by a long sharp spine. As in Ovalipes,

-48-
the last pair of periopods is broad and flattened to
form paddtes for swimrningr; commonly cal-}ed ttbl-ue crabrri
trhard-shel-l- crabrr or rrsoft-shel-I crabrr (during molting
period).
rdilrtJV
Xanthi-dae
Genus Errrrunanoners !u!
-
/l/srrvl/vss
E denrnesstts is common on
oyscer Dars.
Genus Panopeus. P.
Chesapeake Bay and York River.
herbsti
is common i-n l-ower
NOTE: A key to identify
VIMS.
local crabs has been prepared at
Genus_ Neopanope. Tiny crab; color dark and
dull-; caraflile more or ]-ess hexagonaf I found among rocks
or sheIls; chel-ae very }arge and powerful for the size
of the crab.
Family
Pinnotheridae
GenUS Pj_nnOthereS. P r-rqi-rorrm nommOn,ly Cal-l-ed
ttno: nr^:hrr-fr.-r. rrr..,.rffif,l 1-., tt -iE
t/uq
urqu v! vJuuvr v!q!, Lr nr"Eqe-rrt
EL
in a l:r,oe nrrmher"
of oysters from particular regions of Chesapeake Bay.
Family Ocypodidae
Genus_ Ocypode. Commonly called rrghost
'---
crabrr I
eyestalks stout and often very long; chelipeds of mafe
nearly equal; carapace of moderate width, nearly square,
and with smooth edges; sandy white in cofor; antennae
between eyes; runs swiftly sideways on tips of appendagres
over sand and makes buruows high uP on beach.
Genus Uca. Common ttmud or sand f iddlersrr ;
eyestalks sfenE-eF; chelipeds of male very unequal, the
larger being camied across front of the body; shape
otherwi-se basically same as in OcyPode; hard carapace
brown or mottl-ed; l-i.ve i-n buruows ln sal-t marshes and
mud or sand f l-ats.

PLATE
ARTI{ROPODS - REPRESENTATIVECRU5TACEANS
AT'IPH I PODS:
SAND FLEA
CAPRELLID
B. c rRRt PeDs A coRN EARNAGLE
c, rsoPoD: SEA ROAcH
I D. Decnpoo: BLUE cRAB
I
c ALLtwEcT€s tApto us

PLATL '2
ARTHROPODS - ADDTTIONAL DE CAPODS
H€ RftllT CRAB: PAGui,rJs
MOUE CRA6: EMERITA
FIDDLER CRAE: UCA
LADY
CRAo 3 OVALIPES
sptoeR cRAo: LrgrN'A
GHOsT CRA6: OCY POOE

_49_
PHYLUM MOLLUSCA (Plares t3 and 14)
Soft-bodied animals generally protected by an
exoskel-eton secreted by the mantle; one or two sections
(val-ves) to the shel-l-.
Cl_ass Pelecypoda (Plate 13)
Bivalves she]l- and mantlel no head; syrnmetrical_.
Order Fil_ibranchia
(Prionodesmacea)
Bil-obed mantl_e open at ventral and posterj_or edges;
sinhons lar-kincr or noorlrz derzelonecl: she'l I e ir,-idaqnani- .
vu vurvl/uu, otrgIIJ f ! rsvuuuttL ,
grills not reticulated.
Family Ostreidae (The Oysters)
GenUS (rn:ccncr-ro: /OStrea). Shell_ halVeS nOt
equal; resting on and attached by the left valve;
irregular and variabl-e in shape; very thick, often
folded, Iayers of shel-l-, foot absent.
l-'amr lrz Annm'i-ir^l:o i Tho ,T-inrrlo C,hol-le\
Genus Anomia. Common'l rz r-al'led rti-ino'l
J+rr:rre e shelltt
or "Venus' toe nailtt; shel_ls thin and unequal; right
shell smaller and with deep notch or hole through which
the byssus projects to attach the animal_ to a rock or
ci.rat I . cl.rat I ^ifCUlaf
er! uuru! tO Lv OVaf vvq!, : ntl1-er, vqLE! srrr"faoa our !qug sea'lv ouqr)/ and qltu
dark in some areas, clear and pearly-like in others.
Shel-l- dark, when found on the beach, often has the
sea'l Juqry rz sttrfer.o ouraous ruor'n wvtrr off vrr, , ovnoc.inrr i_he rrliefan' **--*..ang
greenish or golden Mother-of-Pearl.
Pami-lv Mytilidae
(The Mussels)
Genus_ Mytil-us. Edible
. --
mussel_; shel-l_ wedgeshaped,
being pointed in front and round behindl color
bl-ack or dark brown outside with pearly interior fringed
in violet; attached by byssus to rocks or each otherl
hoi-r^,aon +-iria ri-nes and in shal-low water: umbo anterior.
Genus MOdiOlus. One qnani oq M -rodiOluS. iS
commonly carreO iihorse musselrt; Loats" shelT-il@'
shaped and thicker in frontl umbo not quite at anteri_or

-50 -
end: outsicle clark ..'-i l-L -i
brown in color
- - -i rl a na rr'l rz .
w-LLrt rltDJuc yEqr ry ,
-i
has byssusl 4-6 inches in length; n \i-i rr^r-i n-i e f ound
nnl.' nf f ^n ac.i- -in
\JttJy urr uudJL rrt
rloon
usEP
rrrr{-ar
woLEr.
Genus Vol-sella. V. demlssa is commonlv called
1
"ribbed
-------=-F
mussel-II; shel-l- has numerous radiating ribs,
coarser posteriorly and much fi-ner anteriorly; shel-lbrittfe
and del-icately scall-oped around thin edge; color
greenish-yell-ow to dark brown, iridescent inside; 2-3
inches in length; found on mud f l-ats and sand spits
dltu]ru IUULJ
n^^'Fa
ur
^+ Qn:rl-in: Offan vl LElr ownnqarl u^vvruu ^f qL rvw lovl tido. ufus q
9!9j_!jjj9.
umbo slightly
to one side of apex.
Genus Brachidontes. B. recurvus 1s euryhaline
:nd fnonrronJ-lrr a5undant on oyster rocks. SmaIIer than
ribbed mussels
,.,-i +L - -tsh^hd'r - 7 tthookedlr
w-!\.lr o JL!urrvry
Shel_l .
Order Eulamell-ibranchia
(Teleodesmacea)
GiJ-l-s reticul-ated; edge of mantle l-obes mostly
connected on ventral and posterior edges.
L:mf l\7 \/^h^6r d a^ / 'r'hn \/onlt a t limq I
vcIIEI IUOE \ f IrE V9rlUJ VruJtlJ,/
Genus Mercenaria. Common cl-am used f requentl-y
for dissecEfE[-as well as for food; ca]-l-ed tthard-she]l
elam-rt u+u,r',
t?little-neck clam-?r
,
o!.' lrnrrahoosll : thick shel-l-
"-
ovate or heart-shapedl anterior end short with the
nosteri nr end ror rnded : l 'i f vr
rr:ment nrnmi nent . rmbo directed
I/vuuut
forward; surface dirty white, with prominent concentric
ridnoc . innon crrrf:no cmnr-,ih r^rhi to r^ri t-h nrrrnl i qh manr
fuY u r
,
rr
rr rv!
gin; l-ocated on sand or muddy bottoms in sha}low water;
corffnon rrcherrystone cl-amsrr are immature cl-ams of the
same sDecies: rrchowdersil mav be 3 i-nches or more i-n
length.
Farnll-v Sanguinol-ariidae
Genus Taqel-us. Shel-]- elonsated with dorsal-
=-
and ventral margins nearly parallel; umbo centraf,
ligament posteri-or; shel-l may be thick or thin,
danandihn nh cnani oc (T nl ahojgg
\+.
iS the COjnmOn lafge
qnon-ioq in \i-ip6i-i = \ rnd rn'rnri^l -! ^-.l^ ' -^lO1
oI/usruo Jrr vri9-LIt-L

MOLLUSKS - pececypoos
rLAI L r3
OYSTER : cRass osTREA
HARDSHELL cLAM; V€Nu5
(euA H06)
\
HoRSE mussE.l:
moDroLus F,toDroLu5
A\
+Ra
6
#
RtOgED MUsSEL :
MoDtol.us gEr\^r3sus
RnzoR cLArn: EN5t5
SxoRr RAzoR cLAM: TAGELUs

- 5rrd[t_L-rv
Solenidae
Genus Ensis.
Common tlTazor clamrt or rlswordrary^T
.1.-il--Ito]--l--llf-., I nnn :nri n:nrrrr^l' 616nnr I l"
L QLWL urorrL
, JllcJJ VC|y rLrrl.v q.,s ^ DqJay
concavel umbo near anterior
cl.r: I 'l nr^i r^r:i-or.
OllqIMv
wqUuI
,
r.nl rl?a \;F'l
uVIvl
6-7 inches in l-enqth.
/vrrvvvfJrr
end; found in sand of
-l nw'i qh nr r-rr'oon'i qh' merr
vI
-r.oech
rdlrt_Lrv
!'tvcl\--L\rqs
Genus Mva. Cal-l-ed rrsof t-shell cl-amrt or
ttt nna--o.L-7TlilrrT-flot t nrz:fo rn oh'l nn,r rrhito:
lvrrv
urqrrt
rrre!+ YYrr+vv, rrmhn
,
,
near anteri-or endl found between tide lines, in mud
fl-ats and under stones; siphons bound together (form
l ono Ittonolerr ) - nn'l rr nar'tl \/ r'erl.'ec1 -i ,/, l e : i *,..r_ mnortant as
food althouqh not as hiqhlv val-ued as Mercenaria.
CIass Gastropoda (Pl-ate 14)
Aqrzmmoir,ir':l . ehe-l'l rrqir,al lrt qnirel
nayJrurluul IUqJ, JIrv+4 uuuq++/
lrz eoi'led: hearl
di ct-"i nnt-. f nnt-
!vvv
hnn:d
vrvsu,
f l:lufuvfr!eu,
Ord ar
Mo qnrr: qf rnnnd:
n: i norl
Sho'l'l trznic,e'l 'liz UIIUJT
co-iled: oy..Tens sinole rather than
F,:mi I rz Naticidae (Moon Shel-ls or Sand Coll-ar Snails)
:_:jji=_=z_
Genus Pol-inices . rrMoon snaifrr ; shel-l so1id,
at nhnqo t^,tIiJT E---?llFFE ,prl :trnrzo : r-nl or :shrz-oyre\/ -
yJvuvru, vvlrvrlo J) f Jquvef rvs
fond'ina tn hrnr^rn nn fhe rrnner q-i do r-hectnrrl- within:
u9rasIlry Lv ur vvvlr vrr vrre u}/t/e!
^nFntrrrp nnrrnd rrr''lrlnAr': foot rzcr.rz l:r.rre and
^-^-Lr^ ^E
- vgry Jdr9u clrl.u udycLlJ-Lv \Jr
being swo-Llen and reffected over the shell- to cover it,
or nearfy so; tentacl-es smal-l, wide apartl found in
t-ide nools.' . To !v t find Jrlu snaiI +veq lon:t-e n:fh in sand and
LIu9
I/VVJJ
scooD under the mound at the end.
,
,
ev+vr
J-"J,
r d.llrl-JV
Littorinidae
Genus Littorina.
rtPeriwinklesrr ; shel-l- conical-,
th'i ulrrer\t ek - ancl urru sc, t id -- w1t-h-Z-to vv+urr 6 whon'l s: f orrnd on Sal-t
t
m:rch dn:ee r,Qn:n1-in:'\. fno1. r^^-j+,,1-i--r 1.' .1-irzirlO|.
iltd,L Jrr L.iroJJ \Jyclr'L-L1 Ld./, I\r\JL aurlv-rLuurrro.JJy urvrusut
'r
nnlnr jaht_ r^ri.;l
UVM
JIVITL
vvl reddish brOWn dOtS.
t

-52-
Order Neogastropoda
Shefl_ well_ developed, usually with a siphonal
canall probosci_s retractifel carnivorous species have
a proboscis with a radula containing two or three large
teeth in each row; nearly all_ have an opercul_um; all
are marlne.
f'ami-Ly Muricidae (The Rock SheIIs )
GenUS llrncrlninv ltOvster^
s!vuu+Hrrr^. vyoLst u!tII
6r,i I I tt.
Shel-]_
fusiforml surface with about l_2 longritudinal, rounded
rldgesl brown or grey in col_or; aperture with short
canal- and sharp outer lip; about 6 convex whorfs.
Dril-l-s through sheff of oysters and other cl_ams and
feeds r uuuo on vr! soft evr L !-s!
narte vv . An r'mnnr,1-:nt nrrct-on ah -..emy l_n
Virgini-a.
Genus Eupleura. rrOyster drill_tt ; much like
Urosalpinx but with much thicker outer lip and narrower
canal-1 surface generally much rougher.
-E Clllt_L _LV Nassariidae ( N.aqc."rd:o'l r nnn ffigfkS Of
\ ji:::i:::'t \uvY
Mud Snails)
Genus Nassarius. ttlvfrrd snai'l lt :
t f !vvu nnt scnrere uvuu!v i Itt n
front, generalJ_y bifurcate behind; shefl conical, with
6 whorl-s, surface marked by numerous 1ongitudinal and
revol-ving creases; col_or brown or bfack; siphons
promi-nent. Occurs in large colonies on mud flats in
the intertidal- zone.
Tn Chesane:ke R:rz II rri -}-
'!rqt/L:qr\s
^- r-1rn -1 1,-l qn:-i I
""y
, vJUcA, LItt: lltuu
!.
Jl!qrt.
and N. ObSOI-etuq t_ho hl:nL mr16l sniiT. Fro nften fOUnd
in lntertidal flats and Zostera beds. N. obsoletus
shells have heavily eroded longitudinal fumows and
epiphytic growth.
PHYLUM ECI{INODERMATA (P}are 9C)
Skin spi-ny, resul_ting from skeleton of cal_careous
nlates anri snines: \^/Fter tzeqnrrl:n qrzqfom f nn ^-^^,r'l cin^
u!/4rrvu, vvuuvr vqruuru! oyJLerrL rur pr\J!,uJ5_LUil.
Class Asteroidea
ttSea starsrt or rrstarf ishtt; radij_ more or l_ess
elongatedl oral- surface ventrall some spj_nes on surface

I+
MoLLUSKS_
GASTROPODS
#@
lYrAR,SH
L ITToRtNA
MUD 5NAIL:
NASSARIUS
OYSTER
DRILL:
UROSAL PINX
),'
)
caSa
mooN
SNAtr_: PoLrNtcES

-)o -
movable (along edge of ambu]acral groove); a red eyespot
at- tin nf a;nh afm: mar'n eyi q /mnrrt-h +.n --,,.,\ -i c qhnn.1-
rrrurrr q fo \llLLrttLIl LU d.llu,(/
Famil-v Asteriidae
Order Forcipulata
Genus Asteri_as. rtstarfishtt
----------.'-
or ilsea starr:
usuall-y a smal_l_ dlsc (dome) and 5 arms; aboraf pl_ates
with reticul-ate arrangement and bearlng spines I almost
always 4 rows of tube feet per arml found on bottom in
shallow waters (particutarly around cl_am and oyster
beds), but mostly in deep water in Virginia, especially
abundant at mouth of Bav.
CIass Holothuroidea
Sea Cucumbers. Body elongated, usually cylindrical;
oral- surface not directed to oround hrt_ rniit-h
parallet to sround ; cat-careo":';l'i:":";tli:: , *illr-"ii'l,
lacks rigidityl ambulacral appendages appear in variety
of forms; oral tentacles present.
Order Apoda
Transparent (usually), elonqated sea cucumbers
without tubefeet; with l-0 to 25 branched tentacles.
r tr:mi qllLlIV
-l rr Qrrnrn{--iA-n
TJVIICTlJ LfLrd,E
Genus_ Leptosvnapta. Hol_othurians without
ambulacraf-E,eet ;-fb:2iETfrered tentacles at anterior
and' lrnd.' 1^--
er^s,
worm-l ikp- semi -transDarenf (int-arn:l
rvrty
organs visible);
sandy bottoms.
,
vvv!lrr !ir\g, ogttLr L! qt!al/qr EIIL
lenqth 4-6 inches; common burrower in
Order Dendrochirota
Anterior end of body and arborescent tentacfes ean
be drawn into body cavity.
F:mi I rr Cucumariidae
Genus_ Thyone. Body ovate or elongatel
tentacles tO; tuEeEet scattered thickly ov6r body;
length to 5 inches I f ound in shal_l_ow water crawl-i_ng on
bottom; dull brown or ol-ive to bl-ack.

_\4-
CIass Ophiuroi-dea
Body disc comparatively small-, usually not more
than 3 /4 -nch in di:me1-er- whi'l e ar,ms mav be 3 inches
Iong. Arms many jointed and only able to move sidewise.
r-*i r.. r*rhj_uridae
-tr d tlt-L rv HillL
Order Ophiurae
Disc furnished with clearly distinct scales or
n'l etes. ancl f reorren1- I v w"i rh soines.
brittle
\lg.l
t L,t J
star in
Amphiodia. A. atra is the most common
the Chesapeake Bay area.
PHYLUM ECTOPROCTA (BRYOZOA)
Minute animals living mostly in large colonies on
rocks, water plants and'shelIsl form erect-branching or
onnrr r q1- -i nn . r-nmnnqi i--i nn r':'l o:r"onrr e f -l eqhr,r - nr. momhr.Annrr s :
EILVIUOUfIIV, uVlrt/VJILIvIL uqruuruvur, rrurrrJ, vr
commonly refemed to as trmoss animalstt; U-shaped digestive
system consists of esophagus, stomach and intestine;
mouth ring with ciliated tentacl-es (Iophophore) I anal
nnoninn I nn:t-orl a,,tsai.l^ ^+ I ^nhnnhnpO
rrPclr.Lrrv -L\JUcl LELI uuLb-LL,rg ur J-LJPItuyrrv! e .
Order Ctenostomata
| -^1,: I ^-i €..i: -*-'a^ . ^:ter
!du.t\-Lrt9 ucl-LU-Lr J-u(1 ur\rrl, vr wal_l- chitinous or
sof f : mav he enr-rrrrq1_
-inrr nr hranr-hed and n'l ant-Iike.
our L t
rrLq/ uu 9rruruoLrrLv
Family Alcyonidiidae
Genus_ Al-cyonidium. Freshy: 9reY, gelatj.nous
m: c e f ^--ilFF-r.|..1 ^. ;pon1- an| 6,17'l
-j 66l pj n: T anl nnrr'
IIIODJ IUrlrtflry S PO.Itusu, v! eleev *uoJ, svJvlly,
' j
i rreor tl an'l rz hrannhod
.no sno.' oc \70n\t :hrrnd3pf (A It t sy q rq! ry !I qI rur ruu
vr re
.
,
verrilli) in this area; grows to height of J-0-f2 inchesl
suiEace smooth and glassy. Sometimes greenish or reddish
tron:rr qa nf : I a: I oni nhrzi- aq
luuusrv vf ey+t/rrJ vve.
.trqilr.Lrv
Vesi-culariidae
Genus Amathia.
Colony, about 2 inches in
l-roiah.1_ .,^..ffiiG.i-;tr ..""f qlenfer stems- re^^rt-ad'lrr
,
-*:llUst
J uerllJ
,
! UPEO LgUrY
fnr.ki nei -in ciif ferpnt n'lenes: col-or translucent-white.

-55_
.Iust bel-ow each fork there is a dark brown area on which
is mounted a group of zooeci.a which are nearly cylindricaland
somewhat curvedl usually common on wharf-pilings and
rocks in shallow water.
PHYLUM HEI\trCHORDATA (P}ate ].5)
Notochord consists of dorsal projections of anterio::
porti-ons of digestive tract I body worm-l-ike; unsegmented
and soft in texture; composed of 3 portions: proboscis,
col-Iar, and trunk.
Class Enteropneusta
Famil-ly
Harrimaniidae
Genus_ Saccoglossus. ilAcorn wormsrrl elongated,
worm*l-i.ke trenri-ctrorGEes colr'ur,on on sand i-n shal-l-ow water.
They leave a coil-ed mass of sand held together by mucus,
which indicates the presence of a burrowl emits a
disagreeabl-e odor (somewhat like iodiform).
Sub-Phylum Urochordata (Tunicata)
Body of adult more or less cylindrical- or globular
and encased i-n a characteristic cuticular covering
cal-Ied the tunic.
Familv Molgul-j.dae
Class Asci-diacea
Order Sol-idobranchia
Genus_ Molgul-a. rrSea squirtsr'; body globose
or ovoid, in conEraction laterally compressed; duII grey
in color; may or may not be attached on pilings, eel
grass, stones, etc. ; often in large clusters I si-phons
retractil-e.

PLATL 15
PRE. CilORDATEs
&_*
HEMtCHORDAfe: ACORN'\^/ORm"
BalaNoGLossus
TUNICATE: SEA SQUtRT
MOL GULA

-56 -
AREAS WHERE COLLECTIONS WERE MADE
Locations
NORFOLK:
CHURCHI,AND:
NANSEMOND COUNTY:
GLOUCESTER COUNTY:
EASTERN SHORE)K:
CHESAPEAKE BAY
TUNNEL't:
VIRGINIA BEACH*:
YORK COUNTY:
Lynnhaven Bay
Chesapeake Beach
Fort WooI
Harrisonrs Pier (Ocean View)
Willoughby Spit
Lafayette River
Little Creek Jetty't
Elj-zabeth River (Western
Branch)
Respass Beach
Nansemond River
Bennett?s Creek
Virginia Institute of Marine
Science, Gloucester Point
Cedar Isfand
South Isl-and
Rudee Inl-et
Kingts Creek on York River
Yorktown
Lh
CB
FW
HP
ws
tR
LUU
ER
RB
NR
RN
VIMS
CI
SI
RI
KC
1T
Above listed l-ocatj.ons were the only ones sampl-ed.
There are many other good collecting areas along
Tidewater shores.
Types of Habitats
Bel-ow is a brief description of the major types of
marine habitats found in the Tidewater area.
't1965. Brittinqham and Cahoon.

-57 -
l-. SANDY BEACH: Open ocean beaches with areas of
^1^-i4ts-:-- ^--J --,,-^l t-., +":l-t
Jrrfr L-Llrv JclIt\,r. L;duScLr uy L_Lttd._L a-lt]^aloni-e:nrl s,.* nnrtnrlinn
t,rrurruJ_rtv
surf. Protected beaches along bays and rivers. Extends
from high water mark out as far as sand is moved by tidal
and wave action. This distance may extend from a few feet
to a mile or more. The foll-owing specif ic l-ocations
contain examples: Lh, CB, WS, \rlMS, HP, KC.
2. MUD FLATS: Muddy shores along inner bays and
estuaries. Animal-s not exposed to surf . Tidal cuments
often bring in much seaweed. Consistency of the mud may
progress from thin and slimy through heavy sticky mud
and sandy-mud up to a sandy beach. Animal- l-ife is most
diverse in the sandy mud. The foll-owing are speci-fic
l-ocations: Lh, LR, NR, BC, ER, RB, KC.
3. SALT MARSH: Located along fl-at tidaf shores
and are often fl-ooded by high tides. Examples of this
habitat may be found at Lh, BC, NR, RB, ER.
4. ARTIFICIAL SUBSTRATES: There are no naturalrocky
outcroppings along the Virginia coast, but such
structures as artificial islands, breakwaters, and
pilings supply a simil-ar habitat which enables certain
fl-ora and fauna requiring a fixed substrate to establ-ish
themsel-ves and fl-ourish. Examples of this specific
habitat occur at Sf , FW, LC\i.

-58 -
FIELD COLLECTIONS
Location
Lynnhaven Bay
sal-t marsh
Lynnhaven Bay
r^"r+-ia
qquq
L_Lu
l-um
Tracheophyta
Arthnopoda
Moll-usca
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Chlor'ophyta
Rhodophyta
Coel-enterata
Htrr'! rn I a't q
Sn:nt-i n:
(2 species)
,.]uncus
Ruppia
Distichlis
Chthamal-us
Uca
Ocypode
Callinectes
Pagurus
D^-r .,- -i ^ ^ ^
! urylt_rucD
Littorina
Nassarius
Mya
Ensis
Tagelus
Crassostrea
Modi-olus
Ulva
Enteromorpha
Cladophora
Cerami-um
(2 species)
Chondria
Polysiphonia
Gracil-ari-a
Agardhiella
Dasya
Sertul-aria
Obelia
\J srJyr _LDII
Aurel-ia
Dactylometra

-59 -
Location
Lynnhaven Bay
aquatic (cont. )
Chesapeake Beach:"
Phylum
Coel-enterata
Anemones
Ctenophora
Arthropoda
Moll-usca
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Annelida
Chordata
Tunicata
Hemi-chordata
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Aiptasiomorpha
Diadumene
Paranthus
Mnomi nn ci c
Bal-anus
Call-inectes
Uca
Pagurus
Emerita
I\I^^^--^^^
r\svyqr ruPs
Pnlrzninoe
Li-ttori-na
Nassarius
Venus
Anomia
Ensis
Crassostrea
Tagelus
Mya
Glycera
T)i nn:i- r:
Arenicola
Molgula
Saccoglossus
Ulva
Enteromorpha
Cladophora
Gel-idium
ny o.r uIrJ-EJfct
J . - a z -
*-1965. Brittinsham and Cahoon.

-60 -
Location
Chesapeake Beach
(cont. )
Fort Wool-
Harrisonrs Pier
Rhodophyta
Phaeophyta
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta
Phaeophyta
Rhodophyta
Cyanophyta
Tracheophyta
Ectoprocta
Porifera
Gracil-aria
Champia
Polysiphonia
Ceramium
Fucus
Ente:romorpha
Ul-va
Cladophora
Monostroma
Rrr;r-rn q i c
Polysiphonia
Ceramium
(, qnoni oc \
Call-ithamnlon
Grinnel-}ia
Agardhiella
Gracilaria
Enteromorpha
Ul-va
Cladophora
Fucus
Ascophyllum
Aqardhiella
Gracil-aria
Ceramium
CaIl-lthamnion
Gel-idi.um
Lyngbya
Oscill-atoria
Zostera
A'l nrznn-i ri i r rm
Amathia
Hal-iclona
Mi-crociona

-6r-
Locati-on
Harrl_son's "rt-er
(om|' \
\evrru. /f
Ctenophora
Mol-Iusca
f]: ct-rnnnrlr
vFvsq
I4:remiopsis
Pcrlrrninae
r crsly!/uuq
Arthropoda
Coel-enterata
H\7-nn 1n c
.16 | l\rT" r qh
Annelida
Hemlchordata
Chordata
Tunicata
Venus
Crassostrea
Anomia
La-- ^ .; ^
LIIJIJ
Tagelus
Mytilus
Balanus
Ovalipes
Callinectes
Emerita
r\^. 'n ^zl ^
v!yyvuE
Sertularia
Obelia
Pennari-a
Physalia
Aurel-ia
Chrysaora
Glycera
Nereis
Saccoglossus
Molgula
Willoughby
Spit
Chlorophyta
Ulva
Enteromorpha
Cladophora
Rhodophyta
Cerami-um
Porphora
Grinnell-ia
Gracil-aria
HV Ot ul t_Lg f,f cl
Hypnea

Locati-on
-62-
Phyl-um
Genus
Willoughby Spit
(cont. )
Lafayette
River
sal-t marsh
Cyanophyta
Phaeophyta
Porifera
Coel-enterata
Hydroid
.IelJ-yf ish
Anemone
Ctenophora
Annel-ida
Arthropoda
Mol-l-usca
Pelecypoda
Ectoprocta
Chordata
Tunicata
Tracheophyta
Oscil-latoria
Lyngbya
Ascophyllum
Microciona
Ha1icl-ona
Hal-ichondria
Obelia
Physalia
Aurel-ia
Dactylometra
Diadumene
Mnemi-op
sis
Sabel-l-a
Platynereis
Bal-anus
Callinectes
Neopanope
Ernerita
Ocypode
Mercenaria
Crassostrea
Ensis
Tagelus
Anomia
Mytilus
Alcyonidium
Amathia
Molgula
Spartina
Juncus
Distichlis

-63 -
Location Phylum Genus
Lafayette River Cyanophyta
salt nrarsh (cont.)
Chlorophyta
Mol-l-usca
Pelecypoda
Arthropoda
Little Creek .Jettyrr Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Phaeophyta
Spirulina
Oscil-l-atori.a
Lyngbya
Enteromorpha
Crassostrea
Modiol-us
Uca
Callinectes
Bal-anus
Enteromorpha
Ul-va
Cladophora
Bryopsis
Agardhiella
Gracil-arla
Ceramium
Cal-l-ithamnion
Polysiphonia
Champia
Gelidium
Fucus (floating)
Elizabeth
River
Chlorophyta
Enteromorpha
Cyanophyta
Osci]-latoria
Annelida
Scoloplos
Nereis
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Littorina
Pelecypoda
Mytilus
*1965. Brittingham and Cahoon.

_64-
Location Phvlum Genus
Elizabeth River
(cont. )
Respass Beach
Nansemond River
Bennettrs Creek
and
Mollusca
Pelecypoda
Coelenterata
Ctenophora
Arthropoda
Tracheophyta
Chlorophyta
Coelenterata
.ie1lyf ish
Arthropoda
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Chlorophyta
Cyanophyta
Tracheophyta
Modiolus
Crassostrea
Mercenaria
Obelia
Mnemiopsis
Uca
Callinectes
Distichlls
.Juncus
Spartina
(2 species)
UIva
Enteromorpha
AureLia
Chrysaora
Uca
Bal-anus
Callinectes
Urosalpinx
Llttorina
Polynice-s
Modiolus
Crassostrea
Tagelus
Enteromorpha
Oscill-atoria
.Juncus
Spartina
Distichlis

-55 -
Nansemond River and
Bennettrs Creek
(cont. )
Gl-oucester Point
(Virginia Instltute
of Marine Science)
Coel-enterata
Hydroids
rlellyf ish
Ctenophora
Arthropoda
Mol-lusca
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Cyanophyta
Coelenterata
Hydroids
Obelia
Pennaria
Aurelia
Chrysaora
l,lnemiopsis
Uca
Balanus
Qal-linectes
Littorina
Nassarius
Urosalpinx
C:rassostrea
Venus
ModioLus
Ulva
Enteromorpha
Cladophora
Ceramium
(2 species)
Chondria
Gracilaria
Agardhiella
Grinnellia
Hypnea
Gelidium
Spyridla
Polysiphonia
Lyngbya
Oscillatoria
Sertularia
Obelia
Pennaria
Diadumene

Location Phy1um Genus
Gloucester Point
(Virginia Institute
of Marine Scienee)
(cont. )
Cedar Island*
Coel-enterata
Jellyfish
Anemone
-66-
Coral-
Ctenophora
Porifera
AnneU-da
A'rthropoda
MoLlusca
Gastropoda
Pelecypoda
Chordata
Tunicata
Ectoprocta
Tracheophyta
Chlorophyta
Chrysaora
Aurel-ia
Diadumene
Leptogorgia
Mnemiopsis
Microciona
Halichondria
Halicl-ona
Enoplobranchus
ScolopJ-os
Glycera
Cal-linectes
Balanus
Libinia
Urosalpinx
Crassostrea
Mercenaria
Ensis
Tagelus
Molgula
Alcyonidium
Amathia
Spartina
Ul-va
Cladophora
Enteromorpha
&- *l-965. ^--
Brittingham and Cahoon.

Location
Cedar Isl-and
(cont. )
Chesapeake Bay
Tunnel
r&
uouEn rslano^
-&
KUOee tnJ-et^
-67-
PhY,lum
Rhodophyta
Phaeophyta
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Chlorophyta
Rhodophyta
Genus
Grinnell-ia
Hypnea
Gracil-aria
AgardhielJ-a
Ceramium
Callithamnion
Champia
Polysiphonla
Lomentaria
Fucus
Dictyota
Ul-va
Enteromorpha
Polysiphonia
Cerami-um
Call-ithamnion
Agardhiella
Gracilania
Charnpia
Ul-va
Enteromorpha
Agardhiella
GraciLa.ria
Ceramium
Cal-l-ithamni.on
Polysiphonia
'"1-955. Brittingham
and Cahoon.

_58 _
GLOSSARY
A
aboral- CH u6'r5r;
agar (5 sjr)
ambut-acrat- (5m'b[ rE mEr)
groove
anastomose (i n5sttS m5z)
annul-ated (5ntrl :-6t YO)
app:ressed (5 prEstt)
apex (J pekg)
apical (ip'i icir),
arbore scent - ( a'rJbo r5s l6nt )
auxiliary (6g zit'ya ri)
cel_l-s
axis (Et

-69-
bl-adder
bl-ade
brackish
water
u
bract (brakt)
branchia (brXngkYa)
buccal (bilkt51)
)-Y.v:
Dyssus (Dr,s'us)
A membranous sac servlng
as a receptacle containing
fluid or air.
A l-eaf .
A mixture of sea and
fresh water.
A l-eaf frorn the axil of
which a flower or fl-oral
axis arises.
A gill; gitl-like organ.
Pertaining to the mouth.
A tuft of filaments by
which certain bivalves,
as Anomla and mussels,
fasffi rocks.
n
cat-careous (tEr xAr a fir>
carapace (k5f ti pis)
cepha-lothotax
CrEt'i r5'thd''rdt

_70_
coenocyte (s5tn3 slr)
constrj-ction (t

ephithel-ium (5p'i
-7rv
'et
the ?J-i um)
Membrane-l1ke tissue
covering a free surface.
fascict-e - (f{s'Y r.il
fauna (rfini)
f ertil-e (trlr'tir)
filament (rfr'd mEnt)
filif,orm (rir'i
fl-ora (fr5 ri)
t&*l
fol-iaceous {{o' ri 5:sruls)
f orcipate ( f6'r t si pdt )
fusifbrm (ffrrzf f6rm)'
A smal-l- bundle.
Animal-s living within a
given habitat.
Capable of producing
fnrril-
Use in thi.s paper--
thread-l-i-ke series of
L.:E-TJD.
Having the shape of a
thread or fiJ-ament.
Pl-ants living within a
given habitat.
Leaf -l-lke.
Pincer-l-ike.
Spindle-shaped I tapering
at each end.
G
gametangium (gXm'"3 t!r, t j'irim)
glabrous (gletbr':s)
qlobous (qr5tbfs)
[]-omerul-e- (gldm dr o-or)
sonad (g8n'Jd)
lonothe6a (g6n'd *r5'xi)
gregari-ous lgrd sfr i ,i"l
Cel-l- or organ in which
gametes are produced.
Smooth; havlng a surface
without hairs or
projections.
Gl-obul-ar, spherical.
An inflorescence consi.sting
of a compacted, or sessj-Ie,
cyme.
Reproductive organ.
A reproductive zooid of
a hydroid colony.
Habitually living in a
crowd or community;
growing in clusters or
colonies.
H
habirar (rr5l'i .Ll
The natura] abode of a
plant or an animall
particular l-ocatlon.

-72-
heterocyst (rr5t'e ; sfst' ) One of the large transparent
cells at intervals
along the f il-ament.
holdfast
Root-l-ike outgrowth from
base of organism for
attachment.
hydranrh (rrf 'arintrr )
One of the nutritive
zoolds of a hydrold colony
(hydrotheca).
hydroid (hl,dr6id)
Of or pertaining to a
hydrozoanl resembling the
hydra; polyp-l-ike as
distinguished from the
a
medusa.
hypha (hirfa)
Thread-like structure for
hypostome lrrf tpo3 attachment.
stoln)
A projection at the free
end of the body of a
hydrold polyp in which the
mouth oDens.
I
vvJ
imbricate (imtbri kat)
Lylng lapped over each
other in regular order.
inequivalve 1ir, Sttwi" rrXt,rt; Val-ves (sheIls) not equal
in size.
inf l-orescence (in'frd r5stJns) General amangement and
dispositj-on of the flowers
Yr{.wtt
intercal-ary ( in tui ?ka Ier I on an axisl a flowering.
i ) Situated some place between
!|4
the apex and base.
internode (inrter nod)
Space between nodes (joints).
intertidalv
l-evel and }ow tide l-evel-.
Area between high tide
involute (in'vJ rrit)
Bot.-rolled inward at the
margi-n or edges.
Zoo.-having the whorls
L'l 'J \/ \'
iridescent (irri des rent) closely coj.l-ed.
Exhibiting a rainbow pfay
of col-ors.
.v
l-amel-l-ose (la melros)
Thin gill plates joined
into a common structure.

-73-
9-
l-anceol-ate ( lan t se o lat )
. '-? r' Y .
-Ll-gamenc (.rag 'a menE )
r-obed (16bd) ,
lophophore (r5'fJ fdr)
fuminescent (liltmi nJr Jnt)
Lance-shaped.
A tough band of tissue
servi-ng to connect two
shel-l-s together.
Rounded projection.
An organ (usuaIly circul-ar
or horseshoe-shaped)
sumounding the mouth
and bearing tentacles.
Exhibiting an emissj-on
of light.
mant]e (m5n ttl-)
margil
. e .,
medurJary (meo',i fdr t i")
cel-I
medusa (ae) f m{aritsJl
megasel-eres
. (geg !a sl

_74_
N
s'lv
nematocysts (nemta to sist)
node (n50)
notochord (n6'td rcAol
notopodi.um (n5tt5 p6'oi
t,
nuchal- (nu tkal)
um)
Part of thread cells
consisting of a bl-adder
within which a long
holl-ow thread lies coiled,
through which poison may
be injected into prey
upon rel_ease.
Joint i-n a stem or
filament.
A }ongitudi-nal el-astic
rod of cel-ls which in
l-ower vertebrates forms
the supporting axi-s of
the body.
Dorsal portion of the
parapodium of annelid
worms.
Pertai-ning to the back
of the neck.
obtuse (obtus),
.;;ir;"' ai t-it sJr',is )
oscurum (a) l6sttui r,im)
s::"ill
ovate
oxea ( oK'sea)
Bl-unt.
Littl-e eyes; simple;
f ound i-n many invertebrates.
One of the excunent
orifices of a sponge.
A needl-e-shaped sponge
spicule sharp at both
ends.
v
pa,lp (palp)
vel
panlcle (panti kl)
,v-.!
parapodium (par?a pordi
v
um)
Segmented process attached
to a mouth part, usually
having a tactil-e or foodnoiJ-i
nn f rrnn l--i r
VELL-Lrtg rurruu-tOfl .
A compound racemose
inf l-orescence; any pyramidal_
loosely branched fl-ower
cl-uster.
A lobed appendage formed
as a protuberance of the
l-ateral- body wall- in some
annel-id worms.

-75-
parenchvma (pi tJnqtr.i ^il
i-^--iot-ri r^i- -irXtYr r
yqrruLq4
\Po rJ ELdJ/,
pedalia
t
-v
(pe da t l-ia;
oeclrrnc'l e f nE a"inq tk t uu I)
\!/u
iereiopoo'?pE tliop5oi
peri-sarc (p6"ti ru'"t )
nor i qtr-,mi:I
r'nZ-ri
pinnate (pintat)
"",---tY iI
\llvt r u !vrrrr qr
.Y t '!
pistill-ate (pis rti l-at)
, -'W . .. V
'
.
pJ_anKcon (pJangK' ron)
^'r-^+-i A /^1Y^t*v
yrqD LrLr \1,rqD uid )
tJ
pleopod (pfe to pod)
v_.f
poryp -p"ofl."is (poJ 'r_ p ) (pr6'bds 'is )
aa
procarp (pro tkarp )
t J -- L/
nro-l ifonnrrc l'nr^n lif rar rrc\
\t/rv rrr saJ
:
Y t'.
,-t
prostomium (pro sto rmi um)
protoplast (pr6 t5 prJst)
/t
Thin wal-led cel-l-s.
Situated toward the walI,
away from the center.
Gelatinous basal
expansions on the subumbrell-ar
surface of some
medusae, to which tentacl-es
are attached.
A flower stal-k.
Thoracic appendage of
crustaceans, behind those
associated with the mouth.
Outer, usually horny,
in1_onrrmonf nf q r ?rtrdrn-id
rrJ sr vru.
Modified segment behind the
mouth in some annel-ids,
bearing tentacl-es and
other sensory organs.
Feather-l-ike aruangement
of parts.
Furnished with a pistil.
P:ccirrolru **-*-l-ng f'l n:i' or
weakly swi-mming animal
:nrl qrru
-l
nl:nf ifo ^f = hnj*'
l/rqrrL JrrE ul q uuuy
of water.
Smal-I bodies of special-j-zed
protoplasm lying in the
cytoplasm of some cel-fs.
Appendage on the more
anterj.or abdominal segments;
swimmeret.
A hydra-l-ike coel-enterate.
Any of various tubular
D'noeesses on .t-he head of
ani.mal-s.
Complex female organ
nnnqi qii nn nf l-ho rr:nl'\^g:onium,
one or more
auxiliary cells, and other
accessory cells.
Cl-uster of branches:
numerous.
Portion of the head
situated in front of the
mouth.
The nucl-eus and cytoplasm
excl-usive of the cel-l- wall-.

-76-
9- v
pulvinate (p_u1_vi nat)
pyrenoid (pi rernoid)
Cushion-shaped.
Smal-l-, colorless body
occuming in a chloropl_ast,
center of starch
accumul-ation.
I(
raceme (rd se-m)
rachis 1r5 tt

-77 -
seaweed (.6tr5o)
u .!-
con.i:1-o 1e6nt-i _{_\
J9!rquv \JUr + cfL/
/ I J..
serraEeo (seilac
, v .Ysessil-e
(sEsIiI)
^^!- /^\ f ^7 1+1
JsLCl \8.,,, \oE Lo)
sheath (sheth)
qinhnn
v
/e'i lfnn\
eo)
spicule ( spik rul-) v
spr_Ke-Lec ( spr_K
' IeE )
v
spongin (spun'jin)
sporocarp ( sp6 rr; tiip )
v !-
.v
staminate (p.taUti nat)
steril-e ( st6rtif )
Pl:nf irY\Ahr-i nrr i n i-hc qoA
belonging to one of the
nlrrrl: nf n,.lacroscopf c
-t--^
I n qaYlr oq
Notched or toothed on
j-ho edcre
vrlv
vgYv, like a Saw.
Qf:t-i.\n:ai\r.
Uvgv4vrlgtJ,
:i-t-:oherl
not free-swimming.
Sl-ender bristly-like
structure; a stiff
i-rri
s!
efla
Iu u +u
rnnondrrra ql/l/vr rss:,
fnn
some annelids.
Qonrof-ori an-l r{--innrro
UEL! ELeu,
9CrdLJ.rr\Jt,lD
nnrraninn
uvvvr rrrY
f nr hlrro-rrnoonq'
the base of the leaf
hair,
alrnrt-lrinn : qfom :q in
JltCO.LIllItV q oueilL, qo III
dt:
Qeae
when
Bot. -A f il-ament of cel-ls
j-n ltstemrt of many al-gae,
central- siphon is a filament
of cell-s in the center
of the stem, while pericentral-
siphons are
filaments of cells around
the central siphon.
Zoo. -A pipe or tubul-ar
n nft:n f nr rl rrt^l-i nrr i n nY\
v! ysrr I v!
ejecting f l-uids.
M-i nrri- a nni nl- od trorlrr .
r.rrfruvvt
t/v+r.e
calcareous or siliceous
body which supports the
tissues of sponges.
A smal-l- spike; one of the
small, few-flowered
bracted spikes that make
rrn
uP
t-l-ra
Ltls
namnnrrnrl
uvrrrl/vurru
inf-l
rrLtr rwr
anoc-
so
cence of grasses and
sedges.
The horn\/ Substance which
forms the supporting
skeleton of bath sponges.
A body which produces
asexuaf spores.
Having or producing stamens.
Not fertile; incapable
of reDroduction.

.a
r/-
/rrnldrr'l:r-\
\ Ur r uU IO L /f
-78-
stroma (strStma)
styter (stf'rJt)
w-.
substrate (slb'strat)
subtend (sillttdnd)
Layer of cel_ls supporting
the reproductive organs
of certain algae and
fungus.
Bristl-e-l-ike organ or
appendage.
The substance or base on
which an organi.sm grows.
To encl-ose or embrace in
-i +- -.,-: l
.ILD Cl,,I.LI.
T
- ,.v
tentacl_e (t6ntta
faFA1-o
..IJ
1 fa noi
rvL
I \
\sv
,t
krl)
- ,.
v .,
terminal- (tur
' mi nal-)
v ,t
'-
1.- Fi-r^: qnnrF ( f of na qnnr )
thallus (th;r'Js)
triangular (trf Jng'g,; r;")
trj-chome (tri ttJm)
frnntrnqnmo (rrX+t^ur
vI/rrvJvJls \ Lr uI \J J\JIIll "r.-f
:
tsr,r^^ts.,r^^
Lyr\rrLyrc>
t-l t
1ut lo Stil)
Long, flexibl-e process,
usual-l-y tactile or prehensile,
common to the
coelenterates.
Cylindrical and tapering
with circul-ar crosssections.
Extreme end.
One of the asexual- nonmotil-e
spores commonly
produced in groups of
IOUr.
Leaf-l-ike structure in
:la:o
Simultaneous wall- formation
as 4 pyramidal spores
meet in the center.
Fil-ament of bl-ue-green
a1gae.
The nutritive zooids of
a hydroid.
A uniradiate pointed
sponge spicul-e with a
knob at the bl-unt end.
vvJ
rrltimete /rrl tf i m-i t)
\u+ er -----l
tr
-r
umDo (um'Do)
ttnrirrl:to
uf !uuIq UU
9-\t
uniserj-ate (uni t ser I i av,/
F:rthact- . ovi-romo
The beak (raised part)
of a bival-ve shel-l- above
fha
hinna
Having a wavy surfacel
ruffled.
Qi nn'l o cori o c

,
uropod (u'ro pod)
whort-ed (rrwr-$rA)
w
An abdominal- limb of an
arthropod, on ej.ther side
of the telson, as in
l-obsters and shrimp.
Zoo. -One of the volutj.ons,
or turns, on a unival_ve
shell-.
Bot. -A ci-rcl_e of simi_lar
parts about the same
point on the axis.
zonace (zon,at)
zooeci-a (26 €tsfri .l
zooid (zStoio)
zoospore (26t6 sp5r)
-79-
Amanged in a single row,
as certain tetraspores.
Cell-s or tubes which
incl-ose the feeding
zooids of bryozoa.
A more or l_ess independent
animal- produced by fission,
proliferation, or the like,
and not by direct sexualmethods.
An asexual spore which is
motile by flagella.

-80 -
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-Bi--
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