Asparagus weeds - Weeds Australia

Asparagus weedsManagement ManualCurrent management andcontrol options for asparagus weeds(Asparagus spp.) in AustraliaWeeds of National Significance2013i

© 2013 State of NSW and Office of Environment and HeritageThis publication is intended to provide information only on the subject under review. It is not intended toprovide, nor does it constitute, expert advice. Readers are warned against relying solely on the informationherein. Further professional advice should be sought before acting on the information supplied in thismanual.While all care has been taken in the preparation of this publication, neither the Office of Environmentand Heritage (NSW), nor its staff accept any responsibility for any loss or damage that may result from anyinaccuracy or omission, or from the use of the information herein.Published by:Office of Environment and Heritage59–61 Goulburn Street, Sydney NSW 2000PO Box A290, Sydney South NSW 1232Ph: (02) 9995 5000 (switchboard)Ph: 131 555 (environment information andpublications requests)or 1300 361 967 (national parks, generalenvironmental enquiries and publications requests)Fax: (02) 9995 5999TTY users: 133677, then ask for 131 555Speak and listen users: phone 1300 555 727, thenask for 131 555Email: info@environment.nsw.gov.auWebsite: www.environment.nsw.gov.auFor further information contact:Pest and Ecological Management UnitParks and Wildlife GroupOffice of Environment and Heritage (NSW)Phone: 1300 361 967This manual was produced as part of the Weeds ofNational Significance initiative, and is available forfree download from the Office and Environmentand Heritage website www.environment.nsw.gov.auThis publication should be cited as:Office of Environment and Heritage (2013).Asparagus weeds management manual: currentmanagement and control options for asparagusweeds (Asparagus spp.) in Australia. Office ofEnvironment and Heritage (NSW), Sydney.This project was supported by the Office ofEnvironment and Heritage (NSW), through fundingfrom the Australian Government's Caring for ourCountry.With the exception of photographs and drawings,the State of NSW and Office of Environment andHeritage are pleased to allow this material to bereproduced in whole or in part for educationaland non-commercial use, provided the meaning isunchanged and its source, publisher and authorshipare acknowledged. Specific permission is requiredfor the reproduction of photographs and drawings.ISBN 978 1 74359 193 2OEH 2013/0486July 2013Designed and typeset by Fiona Richardson,R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Melbourne, VictoriaCover images:A. scandens – Hillary Cherry (front)A. declinatus – Tim Parkinson (back)Printed on environmentally sustainable paperii

ForewordWeeds are often referred to as an ‘intractable’ problem – that is, one that is difficult to deal withor solve. This, together with the size of the weed problem in Australia (yes, it’s big!), can result inweed management being relegated to the ‘too hard’ basket. Readers of this manual will be awarethat, while weeds are a significant and difficult problem, it is critical that we do manage them toprotect the things that we value, in particular, Australia’s unique environment.Large and difficult problems require clever and effective solutions. The thousands of peopleworking to tackle the weed problem in Australia are developing those solutions all the time. Overthe last 20 or so years, we have built a well-stocked toolbox that contains strategic, effective toolsand techniques to control weeds. This manual is yet another tool for the weed managers’ toolbox.It contains the collective understanding and experience of hundreds of asparagus weed managersfrom across the country, who have kindly provided their knowledge and expertise.This manual provides a wealth of information on the biology, ecology and effective control of theseven asparagus Weeds of National Significance that have invaded southern and eastern Australia.Importantly, it also highlights other new and emerging asparagus weeds that can be eradicatednow, to prevent them becoming part of the weed problem. The manual includes advice onplanning, holistic management, restoration and monitoring, as well as case studies that providereal examples of the successes and challenges of asparagus weed control.Because they are passionate about protecting our biodiversity, thousands of dedicated communityvolunteers and weed professionals are chipping away every day at the weed problem. This manualcan now be added to that well-stocked toolbox that supports their excellent work. While it willrequire long-term effort and continued dedication, the weed problem is not intractable – but rathermore tractable and feasible every day. Although it may not always seem like it, we are on thewinning side of the weed battle – keep the pressure on!With sincere thanks to weed managers everywhere,Hillary CherryWeeds of National Significance CoordinatorJune 2013iv

National managementThe continued spread of asparagus weedsthreatens Australia’s biodiversity, includingendangered coastal and forest ecosystems. TheAsparagus Weeds Strategic Plan (2012–2017) isa national Plan developed under the AustralianWeeds Strategy as part of the Weeds of NationalSignificance initiative. This Plan provides aframework to prevent the spread and reducethe impacts of asparagus weeds. Nationallycoordinated implementation of the Plan, inconjunction with all stakeholders nationally,will allow for better protection of priority assetsby providing tools and information, identifyingmanagement priorities, and fostering partnershipsthat lead to more strategic, collaborativemanagement.The Plan aspires to three goals:1. New asparagus weed infestations are preventedfrom establishing.2. Existing asparagus weed infestations are understrategic management.3. There is increased capability and willingnessto manage asparagus weeds.These goals complement the Australian WeedsStrategy. Like the Australian Weeds Strategy, thePlan fosters a shared approach, and identifiesefficiencies and collaborative actions that helpto ensure existing resources can be allocatedto achieve improved, strategic managementoutcomes. The Plan outlines measurable, targetedactions to allow progress towards its vision ofensuring that: ‘Australia’s environment is betterprotected from the negative impact of asparagusweeds’. The Plan is available at www.weeds.org.au/wons/asparagusweeds.Using this manualWho should use this manual?This manual has been written to assist anyone whoeither wants or needs to manage asparagus weeds,from site managers, community groups, privatelandholders and volunteers to government agencystaff. This manual is intended to help people makedecisions about asparagus weeds management byproviding a comprehensive guide.This manual provides information on:• Asparagus weeds and their impacts.• Habitats invaded and their managementconsiderations.• How to choose an appropriate control method.• How to plan management.• Restoration, revegetation and repairing invadedhabitats.• Monitoring progress.• Legislation and information for volunteers.• Further resources.How to use this manualSections can be read in isolation, or collectivelyif one’s goal is to comprehensively investigatespecific topics. To increase the usability of thismanual, the following have been provided:• A checklist for the planning stage.• A decision matrix – especially for selecting anappropriate control method.• Advantages/disadvantages of each controlmethod.• Important considerations for management.• Case studies.• Contacts and references for more information.vi

Asparagus weed network inAustraliaMany groups of people are involved in asparagusweed management in Australia across a rangeof levels. Part of effective management isunderstanding where you fit within the ‘asparagusweed network’ in Australia. The diagram belowillustrates the diversity of people and agenciesinvolved, and their relationships. Relevant contactdetails are provided in Section 7 of this manual,and a portion of these are on the AustralianGovernment Caring for our Country web pagewww.nrm.gov.au.Consult with other groups working on asparagusweeds in surrounding areas to help understandyour potential role in asparagus weed managementnationally, as well as within your state, regionand locality. For example, management atindividual sites can feed into local governmentpest management plans, which feed into regionalpest strategies at the natural resource management(NRM) board and catchment management authority(CMA) scale. These in turn feed into the AsparagusWeeds Strategic Plan and the Australian WeedStrategy. Thus your actions benefit not just yoursite, but ultimately the regional, state and nationaleffort.LOCALPark RangersLocal Government WeedsOfficersLocal GovernmentEnvironmental OfficersCommunity Landcare /Coastcare GroupsBush RegenerationTeamsREGIONALCatchment ManagementAuthority OfficersNatural ResourcesManagement OfficersNot-for-profit environmentalsupport organisations e.g. EnviTERegional Landcare Groupsand Weeds CommitteesNational AsparagusWeeds CoordinatorNational AsparagusWeeds Management GroupAustralian Weeds Committeewho oversee the Weeds ofNational Significance (WoNS)programYOUState Government WeedAuthorities e.g. Departmentof Primary IndustriesState GovernmentConservation Authoritiese.g. Office of Environmentand HeritageNATIONALSTATEvii

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Section 1Biology and threatUnderstanding asparagus weeds 2Which Asparagus species are weeds in Australia? 2Naming asparagus weeds – scientific vs. common names 2How did they become weeds? 3What do they look like? 3What‘s going on underground? 4Identifying asparagus weeds 6Distinguishing between five asparagus weed species and Australia’snative asparagus 6Distinguishing between common and Western Cape bridal creeper 8Where to find asparagus weeds 10How do they spread? 10Where do they grow? 10What impacts do they cause? 10Biology, ecology and impacts of asparagus weeds in Australia 11Asparagus aethiopicus 11Asparagus africanus 13Asparagus plumosus 15Asparagus scandens 17Asparagus declinatus 19The two forms of bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides) 21New and emerging asparagus weeds 26Other non-native Asparagus species to look out for and eradicate 281

What’s going on underground?CrownRhizomeRootsTubers(below ground)A compressed group of underground rhizomes (stem mass) that forms a central growing point for stems.An underground stem, growing horizontally, that can vegetatively reproduce by sending out roots and shoots from its nodes.• Asparagus plants readily re-shoot from rhizomes.Used for nutrient uptake and storage (not reproductive). Often fibrous in asparagus species. Assist in anchoring rhizome and tubers.Enlarged structures on roots used to store nutrients. Tubers in Asparagus species only act as storage organs and form when sectionsof the root swell. They can be produced anywhere along the root but do not have growing points (nodes). Tubers store nutrients whenplants are dormant, thereby permitting survival from one year to the next.• Plants can only re-shoot from the rhizomes, not the tubers. But be aware that rhizome fragments can re-shoot.Crown forming speciesA. africanusA. aethiopicuscrownroottuberA. plumosusA. scandensrhizomeDrawings by Catherine Wardrop ©Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain TrustA. plumosus4

Biology and threatIdentifying asparagus weedsDistinguishing between five asparagus weeds and Australia’s native asparagusSpecies A. aethiopicus (ground asparagus) A. declinatus (bridal veil) A. scandens (asparagus fern)HabitPerennial, lowgrowing herb withsprawling or archingstems arising froma crownHillary CherryCreeping or climbingplant up to 3 m tallwith annual twiningstems and perennialrhizomes and tubersShauna PotterPerennial, lowgrowing herb withtwining stems up to3 m highMatt SheehanCladodes(leaves)and stemsFlattened withdistinct midrib; singleor clustered (2–5),up to 20 mm long; nohairs; pale greenStems up to 2 m long;green to brown,rounded but ridgedalong length, withmany small branchesand short sharpspinesNeedle-like, soft,greyish-green orbluish-green; ingroups of 3 alongstem, up to 20 mmlongStems with manyside branches thatbear cladodesgiving a fern-likeappearance. Stemssmooth (no thorns)Lance-shaped, flatwith distinct midrib,in groups of 3 anddeep green, 5–15mm long and 0.5–1mm wideStems branch in oneflat plane. Stemssmooth (no thorns)Glen Sanders Shauna Potter Glen SandersFlowersCreamy whiteto pale pink inelongated clustersof 4–8Greenish white;solitary or in pairs;on short stalksWhite to pinkishwhite;solitary or2–3 per axil on shortstalksRos Shepherd Glen Sanders Murray FaggFruits Glossy berries 5–8mm in diameter;initially greenturning brightred when mature;contain a singleblack seed 3–4 mmin diameterSpherical or ovoidberry 8–15 mm indiameter; initiallygreen turning palebluish-grey orwhitish-translucentwhen mature;contain 2–14 blackseedsFleshy, globularberries 5–7 mmdiameter; initiallygreen turning toorange-red whenmature; contain oneblack seedHillary Cherry Colin Wilson Shauna PotterRootsDense mat ofundergroundstems (rhizomes)and fleshy tubersscattered alongroots; stems arisefrom a central crownDense mat of fibrousrhizomes, withclusters of thickbulb-like ribbedtubers to 6 cm long;stems arise from thelength of rhizomesShort rhizomes withfibrous roots, oftenwith narrow tubers;stems arise from asmall central crownHillary Cherry Kerinne Harvey Biosecurity SA6

Species A. plumosus (climbing asparagus fern) A. africanus (climbing asparagus) A. racemosus (native asparagus)HabitPerennial climberwith stems 5 m ormore in lengthPerennial climberwith stems up to5 m longA slender, shrub orclimbing, perennialvine that can growup to 4 m longIan HuttonHillary CherrySheldon NavieCladodes(leaves)and stemsNeedle-shaped, fineand thread-like inclusters of ten ormore; to 7 mm long,0.5 mm wideStems, green to redbrown,spinelessor with scatteredspines; with twiningbranches in aflattened planeSheldon NavieSpine-like andcylindrical; inclusters of 6–12, upto 15 mm long; withsharp tips; appearsfern-likeStems hairless, oftenbearing thorns orspines 2–10 mmlong; twining andbecome woody andthick with ageHillary CherrySpine-like andlinear; in clustersof 3–6; 10–30 mmlong, 0.2–0.5 mmwideStems slender to2 cm in diameter;with some curvedspines 1–5 mm longSheldon NavieFlowersGreenish-white; single or paired in axils,along lateral branchesGreenish-white;solitary or in clustersof up to 6, on shortstalksMinute, white flowers on short, spiky stems;single or paired, 4–6 mm in diameterSheldon NavieFruits Globular berry 4–5mm in diameter;initially greenturning bluishblackto black withmaturity; contain1–3 black seedsGlobular berry 5–6mm in diameter;initially greenturning orange-redand shrivelled withmaturity; contain ablack single seedGlobular berry 5–6 mm in diameter; redwhen mature; contain a single black seedSheldon NavieSheldon NavieRootsFibrous and fleshy,root swelling butwithout distincttubers; with shortrhizomes; stemsarise from a centralcrownHillary CherryFibrous, fleshy, rootswelling but withoutdistinct tubers; withshort rhizomes;stems arise from acentral crownHillary CherryFibrous with long tubers7

Comparing the two forms of bridal creeperWestern Cape bridal creeper looks similar tothe common form. Like the common form:• it is a climbing vine with many twistingstems that can scramble along theground or climb up to 3 m on supportingvegetation,• the leaves are broad near the stem andpointed at the tips,• the stems and leaves grow rapidly duringautumn and winter,• a mass of small, white flowers grow in latewinter, followed by green berries in springthat ripen to red,• as berries ripen, leaves and stems dry off,leaving berries exposed for birds and otheranimals to eat, and• large tuberous root system allows the plantto survive the hot, dry summer and regrowafter autumn rains.Compared to the common form, it has largertubers that grow in a rosette close to the soilsurface and larger, darker leaves that are thick,waxy and leathery.Above ground – leaves and stemsDon’t just rely on above ground features for identification, as they can easily be confused withthe common form. Dig up the tubers and compare them.Western Cape bridal creeper• Larger, flatter and darker green• Waxy, thick and leathery• More angular stems• Resistant to rust fungus (although some rustmay appear on leaves but the plant is notimpacted)(NB. technically the leaves are flattenedcladodes)Common form of bridal creeper• Usually lighter, grass-green• Soft and shiny• Less angular stems• Affected by rust fungusBUT, in ideal conditions, can look verysimilar to the Western Cape form; socheck the tubers to be sureBelow ground – tubers and rootsWestern Cape bridal creeper• Large, thick tubers (40–75 mm long) arrangedin a tight rosette around the rhizomes• Tubers end in a fine root and grow close toground surfaceTubers are the best defining characteristic!Dig them up to be sure you are looking atWestern Cape formCommon form of bridal creeper• Small tubers (to 42 mm long) arrangedalong branching rhizomes, giving a ‘matlike’appearance• Tubers do not typically end in a root andusually grow at least 10 cm underground9

Biology, ecology and impactsof asparagus weeds in AustraliaAsparagus aethiopicusAsparagus aethiopicus is predominantly knownas ground asparagus but other common namesinclude basket asparagus, asparagus fern,Sprengeri’s fern, bush asparagus and emeraldasparagus. It was previously known as A.densiflorus ‘Myers’ in Australia, but this is nowconsidered to be a different species not knownto be recorded in Australia (Navie and Adkins2008). Asparagus aethiopicus has also beenknown as Protasparagus aethiopicus (L.) Oberm.and P. densiflorus (Kunth) Oberm. Cultivars of A.aethiopicus also exist and include ‘Sprengeri’,‘Meyersii’ and ‘Variegata’. The cultivar ‘Sprengeri’is considered to be the invasive form of A.aethiopicus throughout Queensland (QLD). Theother cultivars are not known to be naturalised inAustralia. More research is required to determinewhat forms may have naturalised in Australia, andwhether cultivars are sterile.! Asparagus aethiopicus! Asparagus aethiopicusUnsuitableMarginally suitableModerately suitableUnsuitableMarginally suitableModerately suitableHighly suitableHighly suitableNRM BoundaryNRM BoundaryCurrent and potential distribution (Scott and Batchelor 2006)of Asparagus aethiopicuslocations. While frost may damage the foliage,plants are quick to recover from the rhizomes.Asparagus aethiopicus occurs in a vast range ofnative habitats, including coastal headlands andsandy foredunes, littoral rainforests, heathlands,open woodlands, riparian areas and wetlandsincluding estuarine edges, salt marshes andswamps. It can grow in the forks of trees, in birdsnest ferns and amongst rocks or leaf-litter.Environmental impactsLord HoweIslandOrigin and distributionAsparagus aethiopicus was introduced to Australiafrom the Cape Province of South Africa and hasbeen cultivated extensively as an ornamental plant.It has since escaped from gardens to become amajor environmental weed in the south and eastof Australia (including Lord Howe Island where itwas introduced during the 1930s), New Zealand,Hawaii, Caribbean, Europe, parts of North America.Climate modelling indicates that A. aethiopicushas the potential to spread more widely in coastalQLD, and infill coastal areas in New South Wales(NSW) (Scott and Batchelor 2006).Habitat in AustraliaAsparagus aethiopicus occurs in warm coastalregions with rainfall from 500–1500 mm. It isdrought tolerant and can survive in hot, dryAsparagus aethiopicus creates vigorous thickets offoliage that forms dense spiny mats. It can quicklyinvade disturbed sites in open sun or partial shade.Plants can form monocultures that smother anddisplace native herbs and shrubs, and can formimpenetrable root mats below the ground that mayimpede the growth of native seedlings. The aboveground biomass can dominate the native groundand shrub layer. Large amounts of below groundbiomass may allow the weed to persist in harshconditions, while enabling strong competition withnative species.In south-eastern QLD, A. aethiopicus is rankedamong the top 25 most invasive plant species andit is one of the most significant garden escapesinvading coastal habitats (Batianoff and Butler2002). In NSW, it is ranked 4th among 340 of theworst environmental weeds, based on its threat andimpact on biodiversity (Downey et al. 2010).11

Asparagus africanusAsparagus africanus is most commonly known asclimbing asparagus, but is also known as asparagusfern or ornamental asparagus. It was previouslycalled Protasparagus africanus (Lam.) Oberm.Origin and distributionAsparagus africanus was introduced to Australiaas a garden ornamental from southern Africa andhas escaped from cultivation to become a majorweed of natural vegetation. The earliest naturalisedspecimens were collected from the Ipswich area,west of Brisbane in the 1940s. The distribution ofA. africanus extends from central west QLD andalong the coast from northern QLD to central NSW.It is particularly common in coastal districts nearsettlements.Climate modelling indicates that A. africanus couldexpand its range in coastal regions from far northQLD to southern VIC, as well as coastal areas of SAand south-west Western Australia (WA), althoughthere is low confidence in the current model andfurther work should be done (Scott and Batchelor2006).Habitat in AustraliaAsparagus africanus occurs in a range of habitats,but is primarily a weed of sub-tropical to tropicalforests, rainforest margins, littoral rainforests,hind dunes, open woodlands, riparian corridors,mangroves, brigalow scrub (Acacia harpophylla)and wet eucalypt forests. It also invades urbanbushland and roadsides and is commonly foundin ecotone areas (the transition area between twoplant communities), disturbed bushland, parks andgardens. It is moderately tolerant to drought stress.Environmental impactsAsparagus africanus grows quickly and producesdense thickets of foliage that can climb anddominate the canopy layer, smother native herbsand shrubs and form monocultures, which in turncan alter the functioning of the native ecosystem.#Asparagus africanusNRM BoundaryNo Reported OccurrenceCurrent distribution of Asparagus africanusInfestations are quick to expand, as the welldeveloped root system enables rapid growth,even under harsh conditions such as drought orimpoverished soils. The fibrous roots form densemats just below the soil surface that may interferewith the germination and seedling survival of nativeplants (Navie and Adkins 2008).In south-eastern QLD, A. africanus is ranked amongthe top ten most invasive plants, and extensiveinfestations of A. africanus threaten remnantbrigalow scrub (Batianoff and Butler 2002) whichis listed (Brigalow – Acacia harpophylla dominantand co-dominant) as an endangered ecologicalcommunity under the EPBC Act.Biology and ecologyAsparagus africanus is a long-lived climber orscrambling sub-shrub that can form woody stems.The stems grow in a twining fashion and developlarge, sharp spines. Stems originate from a basalcrown (up to 60 cm in diameter) consisting ofshort, fleshy rhizomes (see page 4 for root and stemstructure). Plants are perennial, retaining aboveground foliage year round. Unlike A. aethiopicus,the roots do not form distinct tubers but develop13

Biology and threatthick swellings along the root structure. The rootmass is thick and forms a fibrous mat below thesoil.Mature A. africanus plants can produce as manyas 21,000 seeds per year and immature fruits cancontain viable seed (Stanley 1994). In cultivation,plants reach reproductive maturity at 3–4 yearsof age (Vivian-Smith and Gosper 2010), but fieldobservations indicate reproductive maturity canoccur within 1–2 years. Seed survival is typicallyup to three years in the soil, but under favourableenvironmental conditions, seeds can survive longer(Stanley 1994). The round fruit contains a singleseed (occasionally two) and fruit production peaksin summer, but fruit can often remain on the plantthroughout the year. The fruit turns from green toorange to orange-red as it matures.Asparagus africanus is readily dispersed by manybirds, including silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis) andsouthern figbirds (Sphecotheres viridis vieilloti), butis also spread from rhizomes in dumped gardenwaste (Stanley 1994).Invasion of Asparagus africanus, Tinchi Tamba Wetlands, BrisbaneKerinne HarveyThe only Asparagus speciesthat is native to Australia isA. racemosus and itsdistribution overlaps with bothA. africanus and A. plumosus.Clear identification between the nativeand weedy asparagus species is imperative.See pages 7, 8 and 43 for photos andinformation on A. racemosus.Asparagus africanus fruits and foliageSheldon NavieSeasonal patterns for Asparagus africanusFloweringFruitingGerminationSummer Autumn Winter SpringDec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovGenerally presentPresent in suitableconditions14

Asparagus plumosusAsparagus plumosus is most commonly known asclimbing asparagus fern, but is also known asferny asparagus. Previous scientific nameshave included A. plumosus var. nanusHort. and Protasparagus plumosus (Baker)Oberm. It has been incorrectly calledA. setaceus (Kunth) Jessop.Origin and distributionAsparagus plumosus is a native ofsouthern and eastern Africa (Kenya, Zambiaand South Africa), but is often cultivatedelsewhere as an ornamental plant and commonlyused in floral arrangements. It has naturalisedin the southern United States of America (USA)(California and Florida), Puerto Rico and somePacific Islands (Hawaii and Tonga). In Australia, itis mainly found in southern and eastern coastalregions, predominantly near major urban areassuch as Brisbane, Sydney and Adelaide. It is alsonaturalised in other parts of NSW, south-west WA,southern VIC, north and central QLD, Lord HoweIsland and Norfolk Island.Climate modelling indicates that it is a potentialthreat to coastal regions of QLD, potentiallyextending north to Cape York, although there is lowconfidence in the current model and further workshould be done (Scott and Batchelor 2006).Habitat in AustraliaAsparagus plumosus is found in fertile soils oftropical, sub-tropical and warm temperate regionrainforests, littoral rainforests, Casuarina forests,forest margins, riparian areas, hind dune forests,urban bushland and open woodlands, generally inareas of 500–1500 mm annual rainfall. Asparagusplumosus tolerates low light and moist conditions,allowing it to invade rainforests. It also toleratessandy soils and saline environments, such assaltmarsh communities. It is commonly foundalong roadsides and in disturbed sites, parks and! Asparagus plumosusNRM BoundaryNo Reported OccurrenceCurrent distribution of Asparagus plumosusgardens. Infestations are often isolated and may bethe result of rhizomes spread by garden dumpingrather than from seed.Environmental impactsLord HoweIslandAsparagus plumosus has the potential tosignificantly alter habitats by dominating anddestroying the canopy layer. It can produce largerhizome clusters (crowns) that penetrate deeperinto the soil as they grow, making them especiallydifficult to dig out. These large underground crownsand root systems may alter native regeneration.On Lord Howe Island, invasion of A. plumosusis potentially impacting the native habitat of theendangered woodhen (Gallirallus sylvestris).Asparagus plumosus is ranked among the top60 most invasive environmental weeds in southeastQLD (Batianoff and Butler 2002), where itis a particular concern in dry rainforests (Navieand Adkins 2008). It was also ranked among thetop twenty environmental weeds during a surveyconducted on the North Coast region of NSW(Navie and Adkins 2008).15

Biology and threatBiology and ecologyAsparagus plumosus is a twining vine, with greento reddish-brown stems that become woody withage. Stems may have small, sharp recurved spines.Plants are perennial, retaining above ground foliageyear round. The fibrous and fleshy roots branchfrom a rhizomatous crown at the base of stems. Theroots do not form distinct tubers but may thickenalong the root structure. The branches are arrangedin a flat plane and have whorls of tiny, fine roundedcladodes, arranged in tight clusters of 8–15 perwhorl, giving the plant a feathery appearance.The flowers are small and greenish-white and occursingly or in pairs on branchlet tips. Flowers areproduced from spring through to early autumn, butplants may not flower in the first year. Reproductivematurity generally occurs after two years and up tofour years depending upon light availability. Fruitsare black, fleshy berries that ripen from autumn towinter. Seeds germinate from autumn to spring andseedlings develop rapidly.Seeds are primarily dispersed by birds, but are alsospread in water and plants can spread vegetativelyby rhizomes in garden refuse.Invasion of Asparagus plumosus, Lord Howe IslandAsparagus plumosus fruits and foliageIan HuttonSheldon NavierhizomeDrawing by Catherine Wardrop ©Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain TrustSheldon NavieAsparagus plumosus rhizomeA. plumosus (left) with shorter, finer cladodes and A. africanus (right)Seasonal patterns for Asparagus plumosusFloweringFruitingGerminationSummer Autumn Winter SpringDec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovGenerally presentPresent in suitableconditions16

Asparagus scandensAsparagus scandens is commonly known asasparagus fern, but is also known as climbingasparagus, climbing fern and snakefeather. Theprevious scientific name was Myrsiphyllumscandens (Thunb.) Oberm.Origin and distributionAsparagus scandens was introduced as a gardenornamental from southern Africa. Infestations arewidely scattered within Australia but are increasing,particularly in southern VIC. Infestations also occurin northern Tasmania (TAS), SA (with emergingpopulations in the Adelaide Hills), around Sydney,and isolated infestations in south-west WA, nearDenmark and Albany. At least 15 years ago,A. scandens was rampant on Lord Howe Island,but it is currently being controlled. It has alsonaturalised in New Zealand and Central America.The distribution of A. scandens predominantlyoccurs in areas close to human habitation inAustralia. But its invasive ability in climaticallysimilar habitats of New Zealand suggests that A.scandens could seriously impact on Australia’sbiodiversity if not controlled.Bioclimatic modelling indicates that A. scandensmay spread north in coastal areas of central andsouthern QLD and expand across coastal regions ofNSW, SA, TAS, VIC and south-west WA (Scott andBatchelor 2006).Habitat in AustraliaAsparagus scandens generally occurs in subtropicalto temperate, high rainfall regions. Itinvades shaded woodland, heathland, sclerophyllforest, cool temperate rainforest, riparian andcoastal habitats, and disturbed areas. Generallyit is found in shady areas, but plants can alsoestablish under moderate light. Plants appearto need moisture all year round and favourriparian habitats, but they can tolerate a range ofconditions, from open sites to deep shade andXAsparagus scandensNRM BoundaryNo Reported OccurrenceCurrent distribution of Asparagus scandensdamp to dry forest. Asparagus scandens is tolerantof fire and drought and may tolerate frosts. OnFlinders Island (TAS) in Bass Strait, it has invadednative riparian habitats. In south-west WA, aroundDenmark and Albany, infestations occur in Agonisand Banksia woodlands and riparian areas.Environmental impactsAsparagus scandens is a serious environmentalweed threat to southern Australia. It is shadetolerant and competes with native plants for water,nutrients and space. The tuberous root systemcan form dense mats that impede native seedlinggermination, and the twining stems strangle orsmother small seedlings and shrubs.In New Zealand (NZ), it is the most damagingand widespread of all asparagus weeds. It canstrangle or smother soft-barked plants and preventthe regeneration of native plants. On the NorthIsland of NZ, A. scandens invades extensive areasof lowland broad-leaved and secondary forests.Following control of large infestations, the largeamount of dead root biomass appears to impedethe growth of other plants until the root massdecomposes (Timmins and Reid 2000).In Australia, there is speculation that A. scandensmay cause impacts on biodiversity similar to thosecaused by common bridal creeper (Lawrie 2004).17

Biology and threatMovement by humans is a major cause of spread.As a result, infestations are commonly found neartowns. However, because A. scandens is bothshade-tolerant and bird-dispersed, it can invadeintact as well as disturbed native forest. Thusseedlings can be hard to find and areas need to bethoroughly searched to enable control (Timminsand Reid 2000). It can also grow as an epiphyte ontree ferns and in tree branch crooks.Biology and ecologyAsparagus scandens is a creeping or climbing vinewith thornless, wiry stems. Plants are perennial,and generally retain above ground foliage yearround. The green, delicately-branching stems,that give the plant a fern-like appearance, arisefrom a crown at the base of stems. The dark greencladodes (leaves) are linear and often slightlycurved (sickle-shaped). They occur in groups ofthree along fine branchlets.Fibrous underground roots form small thin tubersthat are predominantly for water storage. The rootsystem can constitute up to 87–92% of matureplant biomass, allowing the plant to be extremelyfire, drought and shade tolerant (Timmins and Reid2000).The fruit is a glossy, globe-shaped berry that ripensto orange-red when mature and usually containsone seed. Fruit appear in late spring and canremain on the plant until the following floweringseason in wet years. An average of 64 fruit has beenfound on 1 m lengths of fruiting stems (Timminsand Reid 2000).Invasion of Asparagus scandensAsparagus scandens fruits and foliageReproductive maturity can occur after 12 months.Seedlings germinate from spring through tosummer. The seeds are dispersed by birds and arelikely dispersed by foxes and rabbits. Asparagusscandens is also spread by water and earth movingmachinery, mud caught on vehicles and shoes,rhizomes in garden refuse and plant exchangethrough gardeners.Denmark Weed Action GroupShauna PotterSeasonal patterns for Asparagus scandensFloweringFruitingGerminationFoliage presentSummer Autumn Winter SpringDec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovGenerally presentPresent in suitableconditions18

Asparagus declinatusAsparagus declinatus is most commonly known asbridal veil, but is also referred to as asparagus fern.Previous scientific names include A. crispus Lam.and Myrsiphyllum declinatum (L.) Oberm.Origin and distributionAsparagus declinatus is native to the WesternCape region of South Africa. It has been presentas an ornamental garden plant in Australia since1870 (Pheloung and Scott 1996). Naturalisedpopulations were first recorded on Kangaroo IslandSouth Australia in 1954 (Weidenbach 1994). Ithas since become a highly invasive and aggressiveenvironmental weed and has naturalised in coastaland inland regions of temperate SA (with severeinfestations on Kangaroo Island) and to a verylimited extent in south-west WA and VIC.Bioclimatic modelling indicates that it has potentialto invade across south-west WA and coastalregions SA, VIC and TAS (Scott and Batchelor2006). Further work is needed to determine thefull potential threat of A. declinatus as it may havesimilar invasive ability to bridal creeper.Habitat in AustraliaAsparagus declinatus grows in a wide variety ofenvironments, including exposed rocky outcropsand pine forests to woodlands and coastal habitats.It grows well in shade and open sun and mayoccur in a variety of soil types, including sandysoils. It has a wide climate range and can toleratecold winters and frosts, but does not persist inagricultural landscapes because it is grazed bystock.Environmental impactAsparagus declinatus biomass can dominateboth the ground and shrub layer, leading to thedisplacement of native vegetation. Infestations canreduce recruitment of over-storey native speciesand lead to a decline in native groundcover.The dense, underground root mass can reduce# Asparagus declinatusNRM BoundaryNo Reported OccurrenceCurrent distribution of Asparagus declinatusregeneration of native species. The long-rangedispersal capability of A. declinatus contributes toits invasive spread. For example, large frugivorousbirds have been found to fly up to 10 km beforeregurgitating viable seeds, which potentially allowsthe weed to establish in undisturbed vegetation(Lawrie 2006).In Australia, there is speculation that A. declinatusmay cause impacts on biodiversity similar to thosecaused by common bridal creeper, as these twospecies are similar in their morphological andecological characteristics (Lawrie 2004).Biology and ecologyAsparagus declinatus is a scrambler, or weakclimber, that shoots annually from an extensiverhizomatous, perennial root system. It shares asimilar lifecycle and habit to the highly invasivebridal creeper.Stems are smooth, wiry and twine. Shoots appearin autumn and dense foliage develops in winter.The leaves are densely arranged in whorls of 3 onshort, fine branchlets that have a zig-zag pattern.Above ground plant material generally dies back19

The two forms of bridal creeper(Asparagus asparagoides)Common bridal creeper is widely distributed acrosssouthern Australia. Another form has also beenrecorded in South Australia and south-west Victoria.Both forms originate from South Africa.In 2003, amateur botanist Kath Alcock ofNaracoorte, SA, described and illustrated theWestern Cape form of bridal creeper that wasfirst discovered in the south-east of SA (Coles andWilling 2006). Further investigations revealed thatthis was a Western Cape form of bridal creeper,a form that is highly aggressive and apparentlyresistant to the bridal creeper rust fungus (Pucciniamyrsiphyllii), a biological control agent that wasintroduced to help control the common form ofbridal creeper. Western Cape bridal creeper couldpotentially reinfest vegetation where commonbridal creeper has been suppressed by eitherthe rust fungus or other control measures. It issuspected that Western Cape bridal creeper is adifferent species to common bridal creeper, but thescientific name A. asparagoides is currently usedfor both. Both forms are described below.Western Cape bridal creeper (Asparagusasparagoides Western Cape form)Origin and distributionWhile little is known about the history of WesternCape bridal creeper it is suspected that it wasintroduced along with the common bridal creeperas an ornamental. The distribution of the WesternCape form in its native range of South Africa isrestricted to the areas of ‘winter rainfall’ (where

Biology and threatIncursions of Western Cape bridal creeperin south-west Victoria and south-eastSouth Australia are being contained, andlocal efforts are underway to eradicate asmaller infestation in the Adelaide Hills.Habitat in AustraliaWestern Cape bridal creeper appears to favourhigher rainfall regions and coastal areas. It isknown to invade native bush corridors, roadsides,nature reserves and pine plantations, andinfestations can be found growing among commonbridal creeper. New infestations occur under birdperching areas such as tall trees and fence lines.Large numbers of seeds can germinate beneath theclimbing plants.Environmental impactsWestern Cape bridal creeper grows rapidly duringautumn and winter and forms dense curtainsof foliage that smother other plants. Althoughinfestations are currently not extensive, it has thepotential to spread further into most areas wherecommon bridal creeper occurs throughout southernAustralia. It can invade undisturbed habitats andis a major threat to most low shrubs and groundplants in mallee, dry sclerophyll forest and heathvegetation. Western Cape bridal creeper has aprolonged survival period over summer aftercommon bridal creeper has died back, therebydemonstrating its vigorous nature compared to thecommon form.Biology and ecologyThe growth habit of Western Cape bridal creeperis similar to the common form, but more robust.Western Cape bridal creeper is a climbingperennial plant (with annual foliage) that formsmultiple twisting stems that climb to 3 m high onsupporting vegetation and grow up to 6 m long.Its system of roots, rhizomes and tubers form athick mat just below the soil surface. The tubersWestern Cape bridal creeper (left) growing among common bridalcreeper (note rust fungus on common bridal creeper leaves givingthem a yellowish appearance)are different to those of common bridal creeperand are a distinguishing characteristic. They arelarge (40–75 mm long) and thick, and usually endin a fine root. They are arranged in a tight rosettearound the short rhizomes that grow close to theground surface.The leaf-like flattened cladodes (leaves) are broadat the base and pointed at the tips. They are a darkblue-green, and leathery with a waxy feel and arethicker and larger than those of common bridalcreeper.When the common form is growing in idealconditions, seedlings and leaves can appearsimilar, so it is important to look undergroundat the tubers to confirm identification.Shauna Potter22

Biology and threatCommon bridal creeper (Asparagusasparagoides)Asparagus asparagoides is commonly knownas bridal creeper. It was previously knownas Myrsiphyllum asparagoides (L.) Willd., A.medeoloides (L.f.) Thunb., Dracaena medeoloidesL.f., Medeola asparagoides L., Elachantherasewelliae F.Muell. and Luzariaga sewelliae(F.Muell.) K.Krause. Other common names includebridal veil creeper, florist’s smilax, baby smilax andfalse smilax, but it should not be confused withnative plants in the genus Smilax.Origin and distributionInfestation of common bridal creeperBiosecurity SABridal creeper comes from a range of climaticregions in southern Africa, including areas withwinter, summer and evenly distributed rainfall. Itwas first recorded in Australia in 1857 in a nurserycatalogue and by the 1870s it was a commongarden plant. Within 50 years after introduction,bridal creeper had become naturalised and widelydistributed throughout southern WA, SA and VIC,with localised infestations in parts of NSW, QLD,Lord Howe Island and TAS. It is also a weed inNew Zealand and South America.Climate modelling indicates that the full extent ofits range has not yet been reached. There is a risk ofinvasion in areas of rainfall greater than 350 mm,including central-northern and far south-easterncoasts of WA, far south-western coast and northernagricultural districts of SA, northern and southwesternVIC, central and southern NSW, south-eastQLD and northern and eastern TAS (Scott andBatchelor 2006).Habitat in AustraliaBridal creeper invades a wide range of habitatsthroughout Australia, including coastal vegetation,wet and dry sclerophyll forests, heathlands, malleeshrublands and river banks. It prefers shaded orpart-shaded situations, is found on most soil typesand can tolerate a wide range of pH and climaticconditions. It thrives in nutrient-enhanced soilssuch as along drainage lines. It does not persist inpastures or most cropping situations due to grazingand cultivation.Environmental impactsBridal creeper is very competitive. Its shoots form adense canopy that shades out native shrubs, herbsand seedlings. The tuberous root mat forms a thickbarrier just below the soil surface, which can limitthe establishment of native seedlings by restrictingaccess to soil moisture, nutrients, available spaceand light. This in turn can affect animals thatdepend on native plants.Bridal creeper can cause significant economiclosses by smothering trees and seedlings in forestryand plantation citrus orchards (Kwong 2006).It further reduces the productivity of orchards byshading trees (e.g. citrus and avocado trees) andinterferes with fruit picking.Bridal creeper is ranked as SA’s most damagingenvironmental weed (Bass and Lawrie 2003).Biology and ecologyBridal creeper is a climbing plant with twistingstems that grow up to 3 m long and branchextensively. Plants have soft and shiny, broadlyovate, green leaf-like cladodes (leaves) that are4–30 mm wide and 10–70 mm long. Leaves24

occur alternately along the length of wiry greenstems.Annual shoots emerge in autumn from a perennialroot system that consists of extensively branchedrhizomes and numerous tubers. These rhizomesand tubers form thick root mats extending 10–20cm below ground. Tubers range in size from 25 to40 mm long and 8 to 20 mm wide. The perennialroot mats make up at least 87% of the plantbiomass and allow the weed to persist year round,withstand disturbance and outcompete nativespecies (Raymond 1996).Flowers are white and scented. They appear inlate winter to early spring. Green pea-sized berriesturn pink, then red or burgundy in late springto early summer, and blacken upon maturity.Berries contain between 1 and 9 seeds. With berryripening, leaves yellow and fall and stems begin todry out and die back in late spring or early summer.However, stems can survive year round in areaswith sufficient summer rainfall.Common bridal creeper leavesCommon bridal creeper root systema depth of up to 10 cm and dry seeds can remainviable for at least three years (CRC 2004a).Hillary CherryBiosecurity SASeeds germinate readily under a wide range ofenvironmental conditions (Willis et al. 2003).Vegetative reproduction commonly occurs fromsmall sections of below-ground rhizomes. Therehave been no reports of regeneration from tubersalone but, as the tubers are attached to a rhizomethat runs extensively underground, care must betaken to ensure rhizomes are completely removed,if manually removing this plant from the soil. Theplant is able to persist mainly by way of the ‘budbank’, with numerous shoot buds located along therhizomes. Over 1000 berries per square metre maybe produced. Viable seeds readily germinate fromBridal creeper is capable of invading undisturbedsites, primarily through fruit-feeding birds (bothintroduced and native) that eat berries andexcrete seeds a long distance away. Commonbird dispersers include silvereyes, blackbirds, redwattlebirds, singing honeyeaters, common starlings,little crows, ringneck parrots and emus. Rabbits andfoxes also eat fruit and disperse seeds, and berriesmay be carried by water along watercourses. Othermethods of spread include dumping of gardenrubbish and machines such as graders along roadverges moving soil contaminated by seed or rootmass.Seasonal patterns for common bridal creeperFloweringFruitingGerminationFoliage presentSummer Autumn Winter SpringDec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovGenerally presentPresent in suitableconditions25

Biology and threatNew and emerging asparagus weedsSpecies Asparagus falcatus (sicklethorn) Asparagus retrofractus (Ming asparagus fern)Other names Protasparagus falcatus (L.) Oberm. A. macowanii Baker (pom pom asparagus or zig-zag asparagus)Origin Eastern and southern Africa Southern AfricaHabit Robust climber up to 6 m;capable of attaining largecrown size (>300 mm diameter)Shrubby plant growing 1–2 mand occasionally 3 m tallCladodes(leaves) andstemsFlowersYear round foliage; sickle-shape,shiny, dark green, elongatedcladodes 30–60 mm long, 3–5mm wide; stems with thornsthat become woody with ageSmall white flower clusters onelongated stalksYear round foliage; needle-likecladodes 7–45 mm long andproduced in clusters of 20–30along the stems; older stems arelight grey and bear small spinesSmall, white or cream; denseclusters produced in largenumbers on short stalksFruits Red rounded berry Rounded berries, initially greenturning purple to pinkish-redor with bluish bloom to black asthey matureRoots Form swollen tubers Form fleshy, tuberous rootsSheldon NavieSheldon NavieSheldon NavieMatt SheehanGlen Sanders Matt SheehanSheldon NavieSheldon NavieSheldon NavieCurrentknowndistributionStatus andspreadHabitatRecorded in Sydney and Wyong region at Lake Cathie, Sancroxand Port Macquarie in NSW; growing in Littoral Rainforest, WetSclerophyll, Swamp Oak and Subtropical Rainforest ecologicalcommunity typesEmerging environmental weed in south-eastern QLD and NSWcoastal areas; spread by birds and other animals that eat its fruitPrefers moist, semi-shaded growing conditions; common in riparianareas near human habitation; can germinate in conditions from fullsun to rainforest with >80% canopy closureRecorded in the Moreton and Wide Bay districts in south-easternQLD, Coochiemudlo Island, Greenslopes and St Lucia in Brisbaneand on the margins of a dry rainforest near Gympie; also observedgrowing in bushland at Ashgrove, Rochedale, Riverhills and MountCoot-thaEmerging threat in south-eastern QLD in urban bushland and alongwaterways; often cultivated as a garden ornamental and spread bybirds and other animals that eat its fruitPotential weed of riparian vegetation, forest margins, openwoodlands, urban bushland, coastal environs, roadsides anddisturbed sites; most commonly found in the understorey of drierforests26

Species Asparagus officinalis (garden asparagus) Asparagus virgatusOther names (edible asparagus) Protoasparagus virgatus Baker (Oberm.)Origin Native to northern Africa, Europe, western Asia and Mongolia Native to eastern and southern Africa and the Arabian PeninsulaHabitCladodes(leaves) andstemsFlowersFruitsErect or scrambling multibranchedperennial herb to1.5 m highFoliage dies back annually;cladodes are fine andcylindrical, 5–30 mm long and0.5–1 mm wide with a few ineach axilGreenish-white and solitaryin axils; spring to summerfloweringGlobular berries to 10 mmdiameter, red when mature;contain 1–9 seedsErect herb, climber or shrub0.4–0.8 m high; can attainvery large and continuousinfestationsYear round foliage; cladodesand branches spirally arrangedwith 3–6 cladodes in each axil;each cladode 6–20 mm longand 0.5–1 mm wide, slightlytapering and hairlessGreenish-white and solitary inaxils; spring floweringEgg shaped berries, 4–6 mmdiameter, bright orange whenmature; contain 1 seedRoots Form dense mat of rhizomes that arise from crowns Fibrous forms an extensiverhizomatous root massRob Richardson Rob RichardsonRob Richardson Rob RichardsonPeter Michael Sheldon NavieSheldon NavieSheldon NavieSheldon NavieCurrentknowndistributionStatus andspreadHabitatOccasionally naturalised in southern and eastern Australia (i.e. insouth-eastern QLD, eastern NSW, ACT, VIC, TAS, south-eastern SAand south-western WA); problematic in riparian areasCommonly grown vegetable plant that escapes cultivation and is anemerging weed of disturbed sites, wetlands and watercourses; anenvironmental weed in VIC and a potential environmental weed inWA, NSW, ACT, TAS and SA; spread by birds and rhizomesOccurs in disturbed areas and on roadsides and riverbanks and otherwet areas; widely cultivatedNaturalised in some parts of coastal and sub-coastal districts ofsouth-eastern QLD and less common in the coastal districts of centralNSWRegarded as a minor environmental weed in eastern QLD and as asleeper weed or potential weed in other parts of Australia (e.g. innorth-eastern NSW); spread by birds and other animals that eat itsfruitMainly found in riparian areas and near forest margins, or indisturbed sites near human habitation; can germinate in conditionsfrom full sun to rainforest with >80% canopy closure27

Other non-native Asparagus species tolook out for and eradicateThe Asparagus species outlined in the previoustable are emerging weeds in Australia. They are allnaturalised in limited areas of Australia but havethe potential to spread much further and negativelyimpact on a range of environments. If detected,these species should be immediately targeted forcontrol, thereby reducing their chance of becomingmajor weeds in future.We do not currently know the full distribution ofthese new and emerging asparagus weeds. If yousee any of these species, they should be reportedand targeted for eradication, if possible.Emerging asparagus weed speciesA. falcatus and A. virgatusAsparagus falcatus (sicklethorn) and A.virgatus are two emerging asparagusspecies in Australia that could becomewidespread weeds if they are not detectedand controlled immediately. Both speciescan germinate in conditions from full sunto more than 80% canopy closure and caninfest a range of coastal environments. PortMacquarie-Hastings Council in New SouthWales is currently managing infestations ofthese weeds (see case study on page 106).Asparagus falcatus floweringAsparagus falcatusAsparagus retrofractus invasionSheldon NavieSheldon NaviePeter MichaelPeter MichaelSheldon NavieAsparagus virgatus invasionAsparagus virgatus28

Section 2Planning and pre-controlconsiderationsPlan before you control 30The planning process 31Where to start 31Planning flow chart 31Checklist of steps to develop a weed management plan 321. Identify and liaise with relevant land owners or managers 322. Assess the site and map weed infestations 323. In consultation with interested parties, define outcomes and goalsfor the site and set priorities 334. Determine the best approach to achieve your goals 365. Plan to follow-up what you started 376. Measure the response to your activities and adapt your plan as required 38Case study 39Mapping and containing Asparagus scandens in a difficult to access environment29

Planning and pre-controlconsiderationsPlan before you controlGood weed management is about good landmanagement and, as with most managementefforts, planning plays an important part. You maybe tempted to ‘jump straight in’, but it is critical toplan your weed management program thoroughlybefore undertaking control activities. A wellthought out plan that takes a strategic approachcan:• make weed management tasks easier and moreachievable,• help reduce the damage done by weeds orweed management activities,• prevent re-invasion in the long-term, and• save time, effort and money now and into thefuture.Weed management is a long-term exercise, so themost systematic and effective way to deal with aweed problem is to create and implement a plan.Developing and following a weed managementplan is important because:• it will be an essential information andcommunication tool,• data that is gathered will form the basis forinformed decision making and adaptivemanagement,• it will help prioritise the use of limitedresources,• it will help identify the best means of controland, in turn,• it will increase your chances of successfullymanaging the weed problem in the mosteffective way.This section discusses some of the main issuesthat need to be considered when developinga management plan for your site. It includesinformation on where to start and a managementchecklist.This information is based on the‘Introductory Weed ManagementManual’ published by the CooperativeResearch Centre (CRC) for AustralianWeed Management (2004b), which isavailable for internet download fromwww.environment.gov.au.This manual is not the sole source of informationand other texts should be referred to whereappropriate.Asparagus weed management plans should be: Targeted to achieve both long-term andshort-term objectives. Able to respond to changes in theenvironment (e.g. fires, storms and otherweeds). Based on immediate site conditions withrespect to the broader landscape (e.g.neighbouring weed and native populationsand how they may affect your program). Consistent with existing strategies andplans. Informed by work already occurring in thecommunity or region. Equipped with monitoring actions.30

The planning processPlanning flow chartWhere to start• If you are concerned about asparagus weedson public land in your area, contact eitherthe council or local parks office and discusswith them how to become involved. They mayalready be doing valuable work in your area, orthere may be an active community group youcan join. If not, and you obtain an agreementto start work at a new site on public land,your planning process should follow the flowchart and checklist of steps to develop a weedmanagement plan below.• If you are a private landholder or custodianof public lands and want to start work onasparagus weeds, you should also use the flowchart and checklist of steps below. In addition,it is important to talk with other landholders,custodians or groups working on asparagusweeds in your area to see what they have doneand if you can complement existing programs.• If you become involved with an existingasparagus control program, there shouldalready be a plan in place, so the planningprocess outlined here is only for informationpurposes. If there is not a plan in place then youshould discuss with the program leader the needfor a plan using the flow chart and steps shown.• If your site contains threatened species, youshould contact the relevant threatened speciesofficer in your state or territory. Please referto Section 7 – Further Information for contactdetails.31

Planning and pre-controlChecklist of steps to develop a weed management plan1. Identify and liaise with relevant land owners or managersPermission is required to undertake activities on other peoples’ land and weed management acrossmultiple tenures may be required. Partnerships and cooperation across areas to be managed are afoundational component of strategic weed management efforts.2. Assess the site and map weed infestationsThe first step in any weed control activities is to identify areas for control and to prioritise areas thatrequire treatment first.To simplify this task, prepare a site information sheet (see Appendix 1 Site plan template in bitou bushmanagement manual, Winkler et al. 2008) and weed management map (page 33). This will allow you to: Identify and prioritise weeds on-site. Often there are multiple weeds to deal with and it is importantto assess their likely levels of impact and risk. Some weeds may not warrant control in the short-term,while others may require urgent attention. Determine the extent of weed invasion. This will help assess whether you can eradicate, containor reduce impacts (see inset boxes ‘Prevention’, ‘Eradication’, ‘Containment’ and ‘Asset-basedprotection’ on pages 34–36). Identify risks – deal with geomorphology first for long-term site stability. This extends to dealingwith risks associated with safety and access (steep or uneven terrain). Perform a safety assessment foryour group and neighbouring residents. Identify and record assets. For example, the presence of animals and threatened plant species,sites consisting of geological and biological features that are highly sensitive to change (e.g. karstenvironments) and or cultural heritage sites. A valuable resource to consider is Ask First: a guide torespecting Indigenous heritage places and values (available at www.environment.gov.au). Also seeSection 7 – Further Information. Determine land-use and or management history.Who are the stakeholders involved and are therehistorical factors that may influence management(e.g. recent fire, disturbance events, any recentrevegetation or restoration works)? Mark these sites onyour maps.P. Watton Research the target weed/s to understand why theweeds are present and when they flower and set seed,as well as other weeds that may become problematic. Allocate time and funds extending to and includingfollow-up management. Monitor the effectiveness of control outcomes byhaving a baseline of where you started.Identify risks, such as safety and access32

Developing a weed management mapA local map of your site is a criticalcomponent of your plan and is the basisfor recording information for your siteassessment. It forms the basis for planningall control activities as it shows wherecontrol areas and significant environmentaland cultural sites are located and sets theboundaries for your site. Your map caneffectively demonstrate changes in weedlocation and density over time. Topographicmaps or aerial photographs are a good basisto create a basic weed management map.Alternatively, for small sites, develop a mudmap.Example mud map with weed infestations and items of interestWhen to map? The targeted weed species will determine the best time to map. For example,mapping of bridal creeper and A. declinatus during the mid-summer is ineffective as the foliage diesback during this period. Mapping of these species is best done during mid-winter to mid-spring whengrowth is vigorous. Other asparagus weeds may be mapped as late as mid-summer if there has beensufficient rain. For smaller weeds that are hard to distinguish, mapping is best done when they are inflower or fruit or at other distinctive life cycle stages.See case study on page 39 about how Conserv-Action Environmental Services hasused mapping to help improve their approach to management.3. In consultation with interested parties, define outcomes and goals for the site and set prioritiesThrough your site assessment you can now determine your priorities and develop objectives and actionsto address them. For example, what do you want to achieve? Is it to restore vegetation to originalcondition, eradicate a weed, prevent spread, contain a weed infestation, close canopy gaps or determinewhether a site is worth investing in?• Eradication and containment programs – are ‘weed led’ programs that focus management towardsspecific weed threats. High priority should be given to new infestations and isolated patches thathave not set fruit or seed (to prevent dispersal).• Asset-based protection programs – focus control of widespread weeds in areas of highestconservation value (those that contain threatened species) or for assets at immediate risk, and wheresuccess is most likely achieved. They adopt a ‘site led’ approach to management that requiresa staged approach, guided by site-specific plans. To effectively protect the asset, it is still worthincorporating a weed-led component that considers and manages, where possible, the most likelyweed sources. Consult experts (see Section 7 – Further Information).Prevention, eradication, containment or asset protection can be in response to a specific or localsituation, or used to describe broader weed management at a regional, state or national scale (see boxesbelow). Your intended outcomes should consider different scales of management and where your site fitswithin broader plans. Different weed management strategies and legislation can be applied to each ofthese approaches depending upon the situation. For example, see the WoNS asparagus weeds strategicplan that is endorsed by all states and territories www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/asparagusweeds/.33

Planning and pre-controlWho to talk toPeople that you can consult or talk to about your site intentions include:• Local council officers (weeds, bushland, biodiversity or environmental).• Community Support Officers (CMA / NRM).• Local Aboriginal communities.• Local and regional community groups, including Landcare, Bushcare or Coastcare groups.• Local weeds authority or biosecurity officers.• National Parks rangers.Some contact details can be obtained from Section 7 – Further Information.What to aim for? Prevention, eradication, containment or asset-based protectionPreventionAims to prevent new weeds from establishing in your site (see Table 1 Summary of current legislationstatus for asparagus weeds on page 110). At site level, prevention of asparagus weed infestations isachieved through:• Assessing areas on a regular basis that are free from infestation but at a high risk of asparagus invasion.• Controlling potential vectors such as foxes or stock if they have access to bushland.• Treating isolated plants if found and before they set fruit.• Thoroughly inspecting and cleaning machinery and vehicles if they have been used in knowninfestations before moving them to other locations.• Raising awareness and ability to identify new asparagus weeds.• Directing people to report any discoveries to an authorised officer who can assist with mapping theinfestations and identifying control options.Prevention and early intervention provides a high return on investment.Stages of weed invasion withcorresponding goals, managementobjectives and actions at each stage.Modified from Hobbs and Humphries(1995) and DEPI (2013).34

Planning and pre-controlAsset-based protectionAims to reduce the adverse effects of awidespread invasive weed by achievingprotection and restoration outcomes forhighly valued assets. Management withincore infestations may include the protectionof high value assets and site regeneration(i.e. to safeguard an asset under immediateimpact).Asset-based management is targeted atinvasive species when they have becomeso widespread that eradication andcontainment lines would not be feasible.Assets may be defined as biophysical orphysical elements of the environment youare trying to protect (i.e. environmental,primary production or community – humanhealth or cultural). Assets can be prioritisedat the state, regional or sub-regional level(e.g. threatened species populations,endangered ecological communities) or on asite basis. Protecting specific assets requiresusing a staged approach to control wherebyyou work outwards from an asset as opposedto working from outliers to stop spread (seeBitou Bush Management Manual availableat www.weeds.org.au/wons/bitoubush).Site boundaryThreatened speciesEndangered plant communityAsparagus infestationSite management map for asset-based control0 10 0 200MetresFirst stage controlSecond stage controlThird stage control±Note: Obtaining a high degree of support from stakeholders is a prerequisite to the success of anylong-term containment or asset-based protection program.4. Determine the best approach to achieve your goalsDetermine the best asparagus weed control methods for your site by assessing: Need for integrated control methods. Often the most successful and cost-effective approach tocontrolling weeds is to combine or integrate several control methods over time (termed ‘integratedweed management’). A variety of methods can be used to target vulnerable aspects of a weed,its lifecycle or its environment. For example, mature plants may be treated with herbicide, whilesubsequent seedling germination may be controlled by hand pulling. Integrated control can:• reduce the impact of control on the surrounding vegetation (see Iluka Nature Reserve case studyon page 93),36

• reduce the chance that weeds will adapt to control techniques (e.g. build up resistance to aherbicide), and• achieve successful weed management using limited resources in the most effective way. What ‘assets’ are found at your site. For asset protection programs, is there a weed controlmethod available with minimal adverse impacts on the asset that you are aiming to protect (e.g.minimising off-target damage)? Are there other important assets, such as threatened species, that yourmanagement may impact? The impact of weed removal. Are the native plants resilient and is regeneration likely, or is therea possibility of other high impact weeds replacing asparagus weeds once they are controlled?Some major weeds that may invade after asparagus weed control are listed in Section 4.If restoration is required (see Section 5), plan for this at the outset to ensure resources will beavailable. Whether you need cooperation from several landholders.Weeds do not recognise property boundaries. There may besocioeconomic factors that may affect weed management.Communication with adjacent landholders will help alignlandscape priorities. Whether control methods can be applied to more than onetype of weed? See Section 4 – Holistic Management. What is causing the problem and can you manage this cause?For example, asparagus weeds can be spread by birds andGlory lily (Gloriosa superba)other animals or by humans, who still plant them, transportthem unintentionally with machinery or dump them in gardenwaste. What are your resources? Do you have the skilled personnel,funds (or financial plan) and equipment needed to completethe work? See Section 6 – Case Studies for examples on howdifferent groups and organisations have balanced their resourcesand or sought additional resources. Establish your long-term plan. Schedule a control plan that isat least 3 years, but longer if possible, that includes follow-upactivities (see Section 3 – Control) and time for monitoring.Bitou bush (Chrysanthemoides monilifera)Andrew StorrieHillary Cherry5. Plan to follow-up what you startedIs your management adhering to your priorities and goals? The key to successful control is a commitmentto an appropriate follow-up control program. Follow-up is essential because:• soil-stored asparagus seeds may continue to germinate for another 2–3 years, or longer,• seeds or rhizomes may continue to spread in from other areas and form new plants, and• large, dense infestations may take many years to contain.37

Planning and pre-controlCAUTION! An often-made mistake is to conduct initial control activities across toolarge an area for follow-up monitoring and control to realistically be maintained.It can take a minimum of 3 years and more than 5 years at some sites to successfullycontrol asparagus weed infestations. It is important to remember that:• Several applications of herbicides may be required to completely kill the rhizomes insome asparagus weeds.• It can also take many years for plants to be removed by hand grubbing.• Biological control agents are very long-term measures that will only ever suppress the weed, sothey must be integrated with other management techniques if long-term control is to be achieved.• Potential ongoing reinfestation through bird dispersal from neighbouring, untreated infestationsneeds to be considered.You may need to stop plants from flowering in nearby areas to prevent their spread into your controlledsite. This effort may need to be maintained over a long period, until you have the resources to controlthese nearby infestations.Early detection of newly emerged populations is as important as post control site monitoring ineradication and containment programs.For asset-based protection programs, a staged approach to management is required and promoted bysite led management plans to reduce the impact of all weeds on highly valued specific site assets.6. Measure the response to your activities andadapt your plan as requiredEstablish a monitoring and evaluation program(refer to Section 5 – Follow up, Restorationand Monitoring). Monitoring is an essentialcomponent of any weed management programand sufficient resources need to be incorporatedas a part of your control program. Monitoringallows you to: Assess the effectiveness of your controlprogram. Assess the rate of establishment of nativeregeneration if applicable. Identify any new weed infestations or issuesthat may affect the success of your controlprogram. Demonstrate progress to your group orfunding body. Raise awareness for group momentum andgeneral public education.Monitoring A. africanus before controlMonitoring A. africanus after controlAndrew MeiklejonAndrew Meiklejon38

! Asparagus scandensCase study siteNo Reported OccurrenceCase studyMapping and containing Asparagusscandens in a difficult to accessenvironmentRobert Hanna, Conserv-Action EnvironmentalServicesParks Victoria engaged Conserv-ActionEnvironmental Services to control Asparagusscandens among blue and manna gum forest inthe Great Otway National Park at Wye River. ParksVictoria is providing funding to tackle A. scandensat this site through the Otway Eden pest plantproject. The moist mild climate, solid overheadcanopy and abundant vertical structure are idealconditions for A. scandens to thrive.Asparagus scandens infestations were so denseand the ground so steep that Robert and his teaminitially experienced difficulty penetrating theinfestation to estimate its extent, let alone accessingit to conduct control. After several seasons ofattempting to control the weed with limited results,they observed that the drier, more open forestacted as a natural barrier to A. scandens, whichprefers moist, shaded areas to grow. This allowedthem to access infestations through open forestareas, establish its extent and map it onto an aerialphotograph using GPS coordinates, which showedthe infestation covered about 8 hectares. Oncethey were able to access and map the infestation,they then developed an effective control plan totackle the infestation ‘from the outside in’. Conserv-Action Environmental Services adapted its tactics toachieve maximum results within a limited budgetand adopted a containment approach.‘We found where it wasn’t, mapped it, andstarted to push it back from there.’ Robert Hanna,Conserv-Action Environmental Services.Different chemical sprays were trialled in the area.Initially the perimeter of the infestation was treatedwith metsulfuron-methyl plus the adjuvant Pulse ® .While the kill rate was effective it was slow. A mixof 10 mL of glyphosate + 10 g of metsulfuronmethylper 100 L water plus Pulse ® adjuvant hada more successful kill rate, but fluroxypyr-basedproducts (e.g. Starane ® ) ultimately proved to be themost effective on A. scandens at this site.‘You’re always looking for ways to improve whatyou’re doing.’Although the optimal season to treat A. scandens isspring, the site was wet at this time, making accessdangerous. Instead, the team chose to conducttreatment in mid-summer, when there weredrier conditions and the plant was still healthy.To contain the infestation, they walked the sitewith knapsacks, spraying the infestation from theperimeter inward.Because A. scandens thrives in these habitats,follow-up control is necessary twice a year, ideallyin May–June before rain again prevents access. Tomonitor progress, the site perimeter was markedwith flagging tape, before and after photographstaken and weed coverage estimated. Progressivemapping shows that after two years the infestationis steadily reducing. Site resilience is high. Hardyground cover like Goodenia spp. and brackenregenerate quickly once the weed is removed:‘It comes back as good as new’.More recently, the Department of Sustainabilityand Environment engaged Conserv-ActionEnvironmental Services to control A. scandensin a recreational reserve in Wye River township,39

along a popular walk called Paddy’s Path. Applyingexperience gained at the other site, asparagus weedcoverage has been reduced by 80% after two years.Robert is very positive after his experiences onthese sites.‘Asparagus scandens is very gettable. If you canaccess it, you can eradicate it. If you’ve got aserious infestation, just follow-up, follow-up,follow-up. Once you’ve identified a site, get otherpeople involved. And get enthusiastic about it.’Mapping the infestations: (above) 8 ha of the Great Otway NationalPark (GPS mapping of infestation and aerial overlay was conductedby Peter Hay, Ranger from Parks Victoria) and (below) 0.45 ha areaalong Paddy’s Path, Wye River, VictoriaBefore (above) and after (below) foliar spraying of A. scandensinfestation at Paddy’s Path, Wye River, Victoria40

Section 3Control methodsChoosing a control method 42Native species that can be confused with asparagus weeds 43Detailed overview of control methods 44Manual control 44Hand pulling 44Crowning 44Digging out plants / grubbing 47Slashing or pulling off above ground foliage 48Disposal 48Off-site disposal 48Composting and mulching 48Solarisation 49Chemical control 49Herbicide labels and legislation 49Weed control contacts 50Safety and training 50Registered herbicides 51Herbicides and bridal creeper 53Herbicides for use on asparagus weeds 54Application methods 60Cut and paint / gouge and paint 60Basal bark spray 62Foliar spot spraying 62Splatter gun 63Other methods (including biological control) 6541

Control methodsChoosing a control methodIdentify the methods most suitable for your speciesin the table below. Then, read in the followingpages about how to apply each method andcompare their advantages before deciding.SpeciesHandDigging /Slashing stems /pulling Crowning A grubbing B leaves*Cut-paint /gouge-paintPage 44 44 47 48 60A. aethiopicus Y Y N/A Y YA. africanus Y Y N/A Y YA. plumosus Y Y N/A Y YA. scandens Y Y N/A Y YA. declinatus Y N/A Y Y NBridal creeper Y N/A Y Y NWC bridal creeper Y N/A Y N NInfestation size Small / Seedlings Small / Dense(sensitive habitat)Small / Dense(sensitive habitat)Large / DenseSmallSpeciesBasal barksprayFoliar spotspraying Fire* Grazing*BiologicalcontrolPage 62 62 65 65 65A. aethiopicus N Y + Y N/AA. africanus Y Y + Y N/AA. plumosus Y Y + Y N/AA. scandens N Y + Y N/AA. declinatus N Y + Y N/ABridal creeper N Y Y Y YWC bridal creeper N Y N N N/AInfestation size Medium / Large Small / Large Large Large LargeACrowning involves removal of the central rhizome. B Grubbing involves removal of all branching rhizomes.* Slashing, grazing or use of fire as a management technique will deplete but not kill the weed and must be integrated with other techniques.Y = Yes. N = Not recommended.+ Further research is needed to determine effectiveness of method.42

Native species that can beconfused with asparagus weedsThe list below was created from a combination ofresearch literature and stakeholder consultation.Asparagus racemosus – native asparagus isdistinguished from A. africanus and A. plumosusby having red fruit when mature and longerleaflets (cladodes) (10–30 mm long). SeeA. racemosus distribution map on page 8.A. plumosus (left) and A. africanus (right); note short leaflets (to 15 mm)Sheldon NavieSheldon NavieSheldon NavieAsparagus racemosus (native asparagus)Asparagus racemosus: note long leaflets (to 30 mm) compared toA. plumosus and A. africanus in the photo aboveNative species Common name Habit Asparagus look-a-likeAdiantum aethiopicum Common maidenhair Small fern A. plumosus (foliage)Asparagus racemosus Native asparagus fern Vine / shrub A. africanus and A. plumosusBaloskion tetraphyllum Plume rush, Australian reed Rush A. aethiopicus (foliage)A. virgatus (prior to formation of inflorescence)Billardiera scandens Common apple berry Shrub A. asparagoidesCallitris spp. Pines Shrub / tree A. aethiopicus (seedlings)Clematis microphylla Old mans beard Vine A. asparagoidesEustrephus latifolius Wombat berry Vine A. asparagoidesGeitonoplesium cymosum Scrambling lily Vine A. asparagoides and A. falcatusLycopodium spp. Clubmoss Small primitive plant A. africanus (foliage)Morinda jasminoides Sweet morinda Woody climber / scrambling shrub A. falcatus (seedlings)Muehlenbeckia spp.A. asparagoidesPodocarpus elatus Plum pine Tree A. falcatus (seedlings)Pteridium esculentum Common bracken Perennial fern A. plumosus (foliage)Selaginella uliginosa Swamp selaginella Small primitive plant A. africanus (foliage)Smilax spp. Climbers A. asparagoidesNote: This list is not exhaustive and there may be other native species that resemble asparagus weeds – please use caution.43

Control methodsDetailed overview of controlmethodsManual controlManual control methods use physical ormechanical means to remove plants, and mayinclude the use of hand tools. Methods includehand pulling, digging / grubbing, crowning, andslashing. For asparagus weeds, these are onlyrecommended for seedlings or small plants, insmall to medium-sized infestations, or whenworking in high-value native vegetation or aroundcultural or geological assets.Hand pullingApplying the method:• Hold the plant stem/s as close as possible to thebase of the plant.Hand pulling – grasp the stem close to the groundPaul Lennon• Gently tug the plant and rock from side to side.This will loosen the soil and allow the roots andtubers (if any) to come free.• If the stems are breaking off from the rhizome,use a knife or trowel to help free the rootsas they are being pulled out. The entire rootsystem, including rhizome must be removed.• Remove the roots and tubers shaking off anysoil, bag them and dispose of properly.CrowningCrowning is the removal of the undergroundgrowing points (or the central crown) of theplant, thus preventing regeneration (see Section1 – Biology and Threat for description of the rootsystems).Applying the method:• Grasp the base of the stems where they attachto the underground crown, so that the base ofthe plant is visible. Thick gloves (e.g. leather) arehighly recommended due to thorns or prickles.• Cut away large stems or foliage to gain access tothe crown.• Use a knife or sharp trowel to cut away all rootsleading from the crown.• Extract the crown by inserting a peter lever,mattock or trowel under the base of the crownand lever it up.• Remove the crown, shaking and removingas much soil as possible, and dispose of inan appropriate manner (see ‘Disposal’ page48). Taking excess soil from the site could: a)inadvertently remove native seeds that mightHand pullingRecommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages Timing• Seedlings or small plantsin light infestations or asa follow-up control optionafter mature plant control• Soft soil, such as sand or loam• Use on all asparagus weeds• If part of the crown is leftin the soil, it will likelyre-sprout• Plants can regrow from anysections of rhizome thatare left in the ground• Whole plant removed (noregrowth)• No chemicals orequipment required• Minimises risk of off-targetdamage to native flora• Time consuming and labour intensive• Not practical for extensive infestationsor mature plants, as stems will breakfree of the crown• Will not work in hard or compactedsoils, such as dry clayAnytime44

otherwise naturally regenerate, and b) increasethe amount of green waste that needs to betransported off-site.• Remove and bag fruits or fruiting stems in areasof isolated infestations and/or low density toreduce the chance of reinfestation. In highdensity infestations, it is not necessary to removefruits, as it is time consuming and any newseedlings can be controlled during follow-up.Which tools to use?Pittwater CouncilFor small crowns: Use a plaster cutter (‘gyprock’saw), sharp knife or trowel. As knives and plastercutters can go blunt quickly when used in soil, it ishelpful to have one dedicated for use on asparaguscrowns only.Peter lever: can be used for crowningFor larger crowns: Use a peter lever, mattock orsharp spade. Hand mattocks are useful on largeplants in open areas but are awkward for use inshrubby and rocky ground (e.g. coastal heath),where peter levers are more effective.Tools for manual controlCrowningPaul LennonNote: There may be situations where removalof the entire underground root mat is desirableto allow native regeneration. For example, rootmats of A. aethiopicus in temperate climates donot decompose rapidly therefore removal of theroot mat may allow additional light penetrationto assist germination from the native seed bank.This is only recommended when working in plantcommunities that have a resilient seed bank andwhere some level of soil disturbance is acceptable.Follow-up control will be necessary.Recommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages Timing• Large, well-establishedasparagus weeds that donot form extensive rhizomenetworks under ground• Weeds that grow from acentral point at ground levelor below the surface of theground, including crownforming asparagus weeds e.g.A. aethiopicus, A. africanus,A. plumosus, A. scandens andA. falcatus• Do not leave the crown incontact with soil, as it canre-shoot• The tubers and or thickenedroots of the crown formingasparagus weeds are notreproductive and do notneed to be removed fromthe soil• Do not dig up entire rootmats unnecessarily as it islabour intensive and createsa high level of disturbance• All reproductive partsremoved via crownremoval (no regrowth)• No herbicides required• Minimises risk to nativeflora if care taken• Minimal soil disturbance• Effective for plants of allsizes• Time consuming and labourintensive• May not be practical for extensiveinfestations• Rhizomes must be completelyremoved• Creates soil disturbance whichmay promote weed germination• Not effective for A. declinatus, A.virgatus and A. asparagoides, asthey form extensive, rhizomatousroot mats (see Digging / grubbingmethod instead)Anytime butpre-flowering /fruiting is best45

Control methodsShould I remove all plant material off-siteafter ‘crowning’?Many people hang A. aethiopicus plants androot mats in tree forks, but be aware that if thetubers, which are water holding sacs, are stillattached to the rhizome, plants can continueto grow, develop fruit and set seed. If the plantis fruiting, the fruits should be removed anddisposed of properly.Leaving crowns on-site is only used in:• remote areas where removal of largeamounts of refuse is a problem,• large infestations, and• areas where follow-up treatment will occur.When crowning, leave the tubers and as muchof the soil as possible in the ground. If you areleaving plant material on-site, leave the foliageattached to the crown to assist the plant indrying out.Asparagus africanus crownAndrew MeiklejohnPittwater CouncilKerinne HarveyAsparagus aethiopicus drying out in tree forkAsparagus aethiopicus crown removalBe careful of suckering and layering when crowning Asparagus plumosusAsparagus plumosus crowns are capable of sending outcreeping, underground stems or runners. These stems canbe greater than 2 m long and produce more climbing stemsfrom nodes along their length. Be aware, and search forcreeping stems and new crowns that can form along theserunners, particularly where infestations run under logs orother objects. Rooting from the nodes may also occur whenclimbing stems come in contact with the ground, such aswhen pulled down by a tree fall. These underground stemsform new crowns, which must also be removed.rhizomeAsparagus plumosusroots and rhizomesDrawing by Catherine Wardrop ©Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust46

Control methodsSlashing or pulling off above ground foliageSlashing weeds involves the cutting back ofabove ground foliage to ground level. This can bedone using either hand slashing or tractor drawnequipment on all asparagus weeds.Slashing or pulling off above ground foliageRecommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages Time• Dense infestation of • To prevent seed set, the foliage • May prevent fruit • Will not kill plants • Pre-flowering,asparagus weeds should be slashed before the production and slowly • Not suitable in natural around six months• Will assist in improving plant flowersdeplete tubers of energy areasprior to sprayingaccess for follow up • While slashing should usually be over time• When plants havetreatment conducted six months prior to • Improves access to dense sufficient foliage• Use on all asparagus weeds spraying, an established bridal infestations for furthercreeper infestation that wastreatment• Not recommended forslashed during flowering has beenWestern Cape bridal• New shoots easier to treatobserved to re-sprout and flowercreeper because anywith herbicidesagain within just one monthinfestations of this weedare to be eradicated or • Green fruits can be viable and setfully controlledseed even if stems are cutDisposalOff-site disposalShake as much soil off the roots as possible. Place plant material in a strong bag and remove from site.Rhizomes and other reproductive material should be disposed of in strong plastic bags and buried (>1 mdepth) or disposed of at the tip. Do not include reproductive material in green waste.Composting and mulchingIf composting or mulching material on-site,be aware that crowns and rhizome fragmentscan re-shoot. Compost maintenance throughroutine turning, spot spraying and coveringwith black plastic is required to break thematerial down. Use compost bins that have anopen bottom to allow soil organisms to assistin decomposition. Routine turning allows newmaterial to be buried and aerates the pile,which further assists with decomposition. Onoccasion, spot spray re-shooting foliage priorto turning. When bins are full, a few monthson average are required before new materialcan be added. Every 18–24 months, removecompost and leave in full sun on a hard surfaceto dry and lighten material before taking tolandfill.Compost binsPeter Tuggart48

SolarisationMaterial can be transferred into a blackplastic bag and left out in the sun to ‘cook’(solarise) the tubers and rhizomes until theyare no longer viable. This process takesabout 2–3 months, depending on weatherconditions, after which time the bag can bedisposed of off-site or composted on-site.Chemical controlWhen used as part of an integrated managementplan, the use of chemicals (herbicides) can bean efficient way of controlling asparagus weeds.Herbicide applications are recommended formedium to large infestations or where infestationsare present on steep slopes where erosion mayoccur if roots and/or crowns are removed. Toavoid off-target damage, care must be taken whenapplying herbicide in areas of native vegetation.Herbicide application on asparagus weeds is onlyeffective with correct application methods and withappropriate chemicals. Herbicides should onlybe applied when plants are actively growing withsufficient above ground foliage. Plants may yellowoff and re-sprout if treated with herbicide outsidethe active growing period or if the plant is stressed.Currently herbicide use is only registered for A.asparagoides but some herbicides are permittedunder minor use (or off-label) permits for otherasparagus weeds. Herbicide application methodsused on asparagus weeds include:• cut and paint or gouge and paint,• basal bark spray, and• foliar spot spraying.These methods are discussed in detail later in thissection.Watch out!Green fruits in asparagus weeds can be viable.Plants may still set seed after being sprayedwith herbicide. Follow-up is important.Stop and Think!Site-specific managementis importantSites vary and what isappropriate for one site maynot be suitable for another.Follow-up, follow-up, follow-up!Follow up is paramount for successful weedcontrol and should be included as part ofan integrated management plan (e.g. foliarspraying followed by hand removal and sitemonitoring). Although the seed bank for mostasparagus weeds is thought to be relativelyshort-lived (approximately 3–5 years), manyyears of control may be required for denseinfestations to be contained. It takes aminimum of 3 years per site, but more than5 years at some sites, to control asparagusweed infestations.Bird dispersal of asparagus weeds presents aconsiderable management challenge. Earlydetection and control of newly emergedpopulations is as important as post control sitemonitoring. See Section 2 for more informationon planning.Herbicide labels and legislationThe Australian Pesticides and Veterinary MedicinesAuthority (APVMA) controls and regulates the useof all pesticides (this includes herbicides). TheAPVMA approves the use of a herbicide to controla weed and sets the label recommendations.APVMA also issues permits for herbicideapplications that are not otherwise registeredand are referred to as ‘off-label’ permits. Variousoff-label permits for asparagus weed control areheld by government departments and individualsand can be used by other individuals or groupswith permission from the permit holder. As newchemical products are registered on a regular basisand existing chemicals are reviewed routinely,49

Weed control contactsDepartment Phone Email WebsiteACTNSWEnvironment and SustainableDevelopment DirectorateBiosecurity NSW, NSW Dept. ofPrimary Industries132 281 environment@act.gov.au www.environment.act.gov.au/environment1800 680 244 weeds@dpi.nsw.gov.au www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/pests-weeds/weedsNTDept. of Land ResourceManagement(08) 8999 4567Katherine and the Gulf (08) 8973 8857Alice Springs (08) 8951 9210weedinfo@nt.gov.auwww.lrm.nt.gov.au/weeds2QLDSABiosecurity Queensland, Dept.of Agriculture, Fisheries andForestryBiosecurity SA, PrimaryIndustries and Regions SA132523 callweb@daff.qld.gov.au www.daff.qld.gov.au/4790_8331.htm(08) 8303 9620 nrmbiosecurity@sa.gov.au www.pir.sa.gov.au/biosecuritysa/nrm_biosecurity/weedsTASDept. of Primary Industries,Parks, Water and EnvironmentNorth (03) 6336 5429North-west (03) 6421 7654South (03) 6233 3650invasivespecies@dpipwe.tas.gov.auwww.dpipwe.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/ThemeNodes/SSKA-52J2K4?openVICDept. of Environment andPrimary Industries136 186 customer.service@dpi.vic.gov.auwww.dpi.vic.gov.au/agriculture/pests-diseases-and-weeds/weedsWA Dept. of Agriculture and Food (08) 9368 3333 enquiries@agric.wa.gov.au www.agric.wa.gov.auNationalAustralian Pesticides andVeterinary Medicines Authority(02) 6210 4701 contact@apvma.gov.au www.apvma.gov.aucheck the APVMA website (www.apvma.gov.au)each time you use a herbicide off-label to ensureyou are not breaching any laws.Herbicides must be stored in properly labelledcontainers, preferably in the original containerand in a locked cabinet. Only chemicals that areregistered for use in aquatic situations may be usedin and around aquatic areas.Stop and Think!Be aware of legislationin your state regardingherbicide use. For example,some herbicides arerestricted in certain states orin specific areas of the state.For up-to-date registration details and currentpermits visit the Australian Pesticides andVeterinary Medicines Authority (APVMA)website: www.apvma.gov.au and refer to weedcontrol contacts in your state (see table above).Safety and trainingPersonal protective equipment (such as protectiveclothing, eye or face shields, and respiratoryprotection) must be used in accordance withthe recommendations stated on the herbicidelabel or permit. Herbicide use training is highlyrecommended and is required for people usingherbicides as part of their job or business. Trainingis recommended for community groups and may berequired if working on public land. Training coursesare run by ChemCert and TAFE in each state. Othertraining courses may be available through stateagencies (e.g. AgTrain in Victoria, SMARTtrain inNew South Wales, and AgForce in Queensland),local councils or non-government organisations.See Section 7 for contact information.By law, you must read the label (or have it read toyou) before using any herbicide product. Alwaysfollow the label instructions. The same applies foroff-label permits.50

Registered herbicidesBefore using a herbicide it is important to checkthat each herbicide product is registered in yourstate or territory for the particular applicationmethod you are planning to use or that theuse is allowed by a relevant permit. The useof certain chemicals off-label is permitted inspecific circumstances in Victoria, as explainedin the ‘Guide to using Agricultural Chemicals inVictoria’, which can be found at www.dpi.vic.gov.au/agriculture/farming-management/chemicaluse/publications/a-guide-to-using-agriculturalchemicals-in-victoria.It may be beneficial to choose herbicidesthat can treat multiple weeds at one time.For information on which herbicide maybe most appropriate in your patch, contactyour local weeds or biosecurity officer.The most commonly used herbicides on asparagusweeds are glyphosate, metsulfuron-methyl,fluroxypyr, 2,4-D, picloram and triclopyr. Neatdiesel is also registered in QLD only for use onenvironmental weeds. Some of these chemicalsare used for all asparagus weeds, while othersare species specific or used in combination.The characteristics of the most commonly usedherbicides are described below. This informationis not necessarily comprehensive and does notimply any recommendation of a specific herbicide.Individual site requirements must be consideredwhen choosing a herbicide. See Section 6 – CaseStudies for examples of where managers haveconsidered their specific situation before applyingchemicals. Many other herbicides containingthese active ingredients, but not mentioned inthis manual, may also be registered for use onasparagus weeds.Glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide usedagainst many annual and perennial broadleafweeds and grasses. It is not residual, meaningit only kills existing plants and is inactivated oncontact with the soil. Glyphosate enters a plantthrough its foliage and the speed of entry dependson the species and where it is applied to the plant.It is absorbed by the leaves and stems and istranslocated throughout the plant and into the rootsystem. Glyphosate inhibits an enzyme requiredfor the production of amino acids used in proteinsynthesis, hence plant growth. On annual weeds, itmay only take between 3 and 7 days to see visibleimpacts but, on perennial plants, it can take over2 weeks. On asparagus weeds, it can take 3–4weeks to see visible impacts. Visible effects ofcontrol may be delayed by cool or cloudy weather.Only healthy and actively growing weeds shouldbe sprayed, as translocation is dependent uponthe sugar transport system (phloem) within theplant being active. Most transportation within thephloem to the plant’s growing points occurs within4 hours and slows thereafter, stopping by 48 hours.Other factors such as plant stress, dust and extremeweather can affect glyphosate uptake in plants.Asparagus weeds often grow closely among nativevegetation and the use of non-selective herbicidescan lead to unacceptable off-target damageunless the application is very carefully targeted.For example, Themeda grasslands, a communitycommonly threatened by asparagus weeds, areparticularly vulnerable to even low amounts ofglyphosate.Note: Do not use surfactants when workingin an aquatic situation and only use herbicideformulations registered for use in aquatic situations.Metsulfuron-methyl is a selective herbicide foruse on broad-leaved plants and some annualgrasses. The residual activity of this herbicide isdependent upon environmental conditions and canvary with soil type, soil pH, temperature, moistureand organic matter. Soil residual activity may bereduced in the presence of high carbon levelsfollowing fire. Half-life estimates for metsulfuronmethylin soil are wide ranging from 14–180 days,with an overall average of 30 days. The residualactivity dissipates faster in acidic soil and in soilswith higher moisture contents, temperatures, and51

Control methodsincreased microbial activity. Metsulfuron-methylis absorbed both through roots and leaves, andis generally applied in solution to the leaves. Itis transported through the plant rapidly, but canbe slow acting. Metsulfuron-methyl blocks a keyenzyme system required for the production ofamino acids necessary for plant cell division.Be aware of the importance of conducting smallscale trials in your specific situation beforebroadscale spraying of residual herbicides. Forexample, the Narrawallee Foreshore and ReservesBushcare Group in NSW conducted a smallscale trial that found too much off-target damagefrom metsulfuron-methyl in their situation (seeNarrawallee Beach Dunes case study on page103). In contrast, the use of metsulfuron-methyl hasworked effectively in a number of situations in SA(see South Australian Indigenous Flora case studyon page 97).Important notes on metsulfuron-methyl• Mixing metsulfuron-methyl with other chemicals: before using any herbicide mixes, it is importantto check that they are registered in your state or territory for the particular application method youare planning to use.• Penetrants (e.g. Pulse®) are required when using metsulfuron-methyl on asparagus weeds.• Spot-spraying metsulfuron-methyl + penetrant on asparagus weeds may take up to 12 months ormore to see an effective kill. Asparagus weeds with crowns can have persistent, dormant crown‘buds’ that can sprout even after other parts of the crown are dead, thus follow-up is required.• Spot spraying ‘hotmix’, a mixture of metsulfuron-methyl (600 g a.i./kg) + glyphosate (360 ga.i./L) + penetrant: Where hotmix is permitted or registered for use, 1.5 g metsulfuron-methyl+ up to 200 mL glyphosate per 10 L water + label rates of penetrant is suggested to provide goodkill of A. aethiopicus, A. plumosus, A. scandens, A. declinatus and A. asparagoides. This chemicalmix is situation specific and can be used with a range of other weeds (e.g. weedy grasses likeEhrharta erecta). This mix should never be used for broadscale spraying – be careful to avoid offtargetdamage, particularly from glyphosate on native grasses.• Cut and paint or gouge-paint applications of ‘hotmix’ can be used on A. aethiopicus, A.africanus, A. plumosus and A. scandens.• Using lower rates: some land managers have indicated that using lower rates of metsulfuron-methyl(i.e. 0.5 g per 10 L of water) may give a slower, but more effective kill of some asparagus weeds (e.g.A. asparagoides, A. virgatus). These lower rates, however, may limit the suite of other weeds that canbe controlled at the same time. Further research is needed and this technique may be best suitedonly to certain asparagus weeds. Refer to the emerging asparagus weeds case study on page 106.• Off-target damage: several native monocots, such as Dianella species, commonly co-exist with A.aethiopicus and are sensitive to off-target damage by metsulfuron-methyl. Do not apply where theroots of desirable non-target species are present. Similarly, Eucalyptus and Leptospermum speciesare particularly vulnerable to off-target damage from metsulfuron-methyl. Preparing an area forspraying is imperative to prevent off-target damage. Alternatively, manual control methods can beused in sensitive situations.52

Herbicides and bridal creeperFrom late autumn through winter, common bridalcreeper is susceptible to very low rates (i.e. 0.5 gper 10 L of water) of metsulfuron-methyl +penetrant as a foliar spray, with little off-targetdamage to grasses, established trees and shrubs.When flowering (between mid-winter and earlyspring) glyphosate plus a penetrant is morecommonly used. Be careful to avoid off-targetdamage when using glyphosate as a foliar spray.For greater selectivity when using glyphosate, wipedirectly onto leaves using a stick type weed wiper,brush or sponge. Look for a weed wiper that has anarrow or controlled release reservoir. Wipe overleaves, working from the inner plants outwards.Apply yearly to prevent seed set and to exhaust thetubers.2,4-D (present as dimethylamine and diethanolaminesalts) is a selective, foliar-absorbed, translocatedherbicide for use on broad-leaved plants. 2,4-D disruptsplant cell growth. Half-life estimates for 2,4-D in soil areapproximately 6 days. 2,4-D can provide good control ofasparagus seedlings, but may not be effective on matureasparagus plants. Like most herbicides detailed in thismanual, it is useful for helping to defoliate asparagusweeds to assist with crown access in dense infestations.2,4-D has been used successfully with concurrentmanagement of Ipomoea cairica (see Boondall Wetlandscase study on page 100).Diesel is often mixed, in varying proportions, withvarious herbicides to facilitate their penetration intoplant vascular tissue, thus allowing the movement ofherbicide throughout the plant. It is a less desirablechemical for operators and for the environment thanselective herbicides, due to possible off-target damage andpetrochemical residue in the soil leading to long-term sitecontamination issues. It is usually only added for use whenbasal barking. However, neat diesel can give good controlof some asparagus weeds if stems are cut near the groundand central crowns are sprayed or painted to the point ofrunoff (only permitted for use in QLD). Careful applicationwill ensure minimal risk to adjacent non-target plants.Fluroxypyr is a selective, foliar-absorbed, translocatedherbicide used in the control of broad-leaved weeds. It haslittle residual activity. Fluroxypyr disrupts plant cell growth.It is an oil-soluble, water emulsifiable chemical. That is, itcan mix with oil-based liquids (e.g. diesel), but isn’t verysoluble in water and turns a milky white colour. Fluroxypyrgenerally remains within the top 30 cm of soil if any reachesthe ground, where it is then broken down by soil organisms.Picloram is a selective herbicide targeted for use on broadleafplants. It affects the synthesis of proteins and disrupts cellgrowth. It is absorbed through the roots and cut stems andtranslocates throughout the plant. While not widely used onasparagus weeds, it can be applied to rhizomatous plants as athickened gel to cut stems or as a gouge and paint techniqueto the crowns. It is slow acting, signs of damage may takeover 2 months and total death may take from 6 months to2 growing seasons after application. The herbicide is highlyresidual and can remain active within the soil for more than ayear and within the plant for up to 2 years.Triclopyr is a systemic foliar-applied herbicide used tocontrol a range of broadleaf weeds. It does not have a longresidual activity in the soil. Half-life estimates for triclopyrrange between 30 and 90 days. Once absorbed, it is rapidlytransported throughout the plant. Triclopyr disrupts plantcell growth. While not widely used on asparagus weeds, itmay be used as part of an integrated management program.Herbicides for use on asparagus weedsThe herbicides listed in the next table are currentlypermitted to be used in the listed situations.Before using any herbicide, always read the labelcarefully. All herbicides must be applied strictlyin accordance with the label directions andthe conditions in the APVMA permit. This tableis only a guide. Do not rely on it, only rely oncurrent label or permit directions. Check permit orlabel before application to ensure it is still valid.Commercial products listed here are examplesonly, and many other products containing theseactive ingredients may be registered, visit www.apvma.gov.au/permits/search.php. To searchregistered chemical products visit services.apvma.gov.au/PubcrisWebClient/welcome.do.53

Control methodsHerbicides for use on asparagus weedsApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsAll statesSpot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgPlease refer toPUBCRIS for labelsChemturaMetsulfuron 600WG HerbicideFMC, Metsulfuronmethyl600HerbicideRygel 600Metsulfuron WGAgro-EssenceMetsulfuron-methyl600 Herbicide5 g per 100 LNative pastures, rightsof way, commercial andindustrial areasA. asparagoidesAs per labelinstructionsApply from mid-June to lateAugust. To achieve completecontrol follow-up applicationsover at least 2 seasons arerequired. To minimise damageto native vegetation, watervolumes of 500–800 L/ha arerecommended.Cut and paint orgouge and paintPicloram43 g/kgVigilant* HerbicidegelUndiluted(gel form)Native vegetation,conservation area,gullies, reserves andparksA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensAs per labelinstructionsAvoid use over or near desirableplants, or in areas where theirroots may extend or where thechemical may be washed ormoved to their roots. Do not useif rain is likely to fall within 12hours of application.New South WalesSpot Spray Spot spray Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/LGlyphosate360 g/LMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgAll registeredproductsRoundup®,Weedmaster® Duoand Roundup®Biactive TMBrush-off®1 partglyphosateto 50 partswater +surfactant1:75 +surfactantUp to 1 partglyphosateto 50 partswater5 g per 100L of water +surfactantUrban bushland andforestsCoastal reservesAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasUrban bushland andforestsCoastal reservesA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. asparagoidesA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensA. asparagoidesA. asparagoidesPER11916 expires31/3/2020PER9907 expires31/3/2020PER11916 expires31/3/2020Do not allow spray to drift ontosensitive areas including butnot limited to natural streams,rivers, wetland waterways andnon-target species. The latteris particularly important whenusing a surfactant or penetrantAugust to September onlyDo not allow spray to drift ontosensitive areas including butnot limited to natural streams,rivers, wetland waterways andnon-target species. The latteris particularly important whenusing a surfactant or penetrant.August to September only54

ApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsSpot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgAssociate®, Brushoff®,Bushwacker®10–20 gper 100 Lwater plussurfactantAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensA. asparagoidesPER9907 expires31/3/2020Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/L andmetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgAll registeredproductsTank mixof up to 2 Lglyphosate+ 15 gmetsulfuronmethylper100 L waterAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensA. asparagoidesPER9907 expires31/3/2020New South Wales continuedSpot sprayFluroxypyr333 g/LFluroxypyr200 g/LStarane Advanced 300–600mL per 100L water; or3–6 L per ha;or label ratefor specificweedNufarm Comet 200500 mL per100 L water;or 5–10 Lper ha; orlabel ratefor specificweedNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensA. asparagoidesPER9907 expires31/3/2020SplattergunGlyphosate360 g/LRoundup®Rates of upto 1:9 withwaterNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. aethiopicusNeeds furtherinvestigationPER9907 expires31/3/2020Wipe onto leavesGlyphosate360 g/LRoundup®1:20 withwater toundilutedherbicideAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. asparagoides PER9907 expires31/3/2020Cut stumpGlyphosate360 g/LAll registeredproductsUndilutedUrban bushland andforests, coastal reservesA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusPER11916 expires31/3/2020Do not allow spray to drift ontosensitive areas including butnot limited to natural streams,rivers, wetland waterways andnon-target species. The latteris particularly important whenusing a surfactant or penetrant55

Herbicides for use on asparagus weeds continuedApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsCut stump, basal bark sprayor cut and paintGlyphosate360 g/LAll registeredproducts1:1.5 withwater toundilutedherbicideAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensPER9907 expires31/3/2020New South Wales continuedCut and paintGlyphosate360 g/L andmetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgAll registeredproductsTank mixof 1:1.5glyphosate+ 1 gmetsulfuronmethylper1 L waterAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. scandensPER9907 expires31/3/2020Basal bark sprayFluroxypyr333 g/LStarane Advanced21 mL per1 L diesel/keroseneAreas of nativevegetation (e.g.subtropical rainforestremnants, littoralrainforest and otherbushland reserves)Lands controlled by theBotanic Gardens TrustNon cropland areasA. africanusA. plumosusPER9907 expires31/3/2020Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/LProductsregistered foruse in aquaticsituationsRoundup®Biactive TM ,Weedmaster Duo1 L per 100 Lwater; or 10 Lper ha. Boomor label ratefor specificweedNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/2014Spot spray in aquatic andwetland areasQueenslandSpot spraySpot sprayGlyphosate360 g/LMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgRoundup®Brush-off®, Alley1 L per 100 Lwater; or 10 Lper ha. Boomor label ratefor specificweed10 g per 100 Lwater pluswettingagent; or100 g per haplus wettingagentNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/2014PER11463, expires30/6/2014Spot spray in dry land areasSpot sprayFluroxypyr200 g/LStarane 200500 mL to1 L per 100L water; or5–10 L perha; or labelrate forspecific weedNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/201456

ApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsSpot spray2,4-D625 g/LAmicide® 6253 mL per 1 Lwater; or 3 Lper haNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/2014Queensland continuedSpot sprayPaint or spotspray crownsCut stumpTriclopyr600 g/LDieselGlyphosate360 g/LGarlon TM 600All registeredproductsRoundup®33 mL per10 L waterOr label ratefor specificweedNeat1 partproduct to 2parts water(e.g. 10 mL in20 mL water)Non-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. plumosusNeeds furtherinvestigationA. aethiopicusA. africanusA. plumosusA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/2014PER11463, expires30/6/2014PER11463, expires30/6/2014Basal barksprayFluroxypyr200 g/LStarane 20035 mL per1 L diesel/keroseneNon-agricultural areas,bushland, forests,wetlands, coastal andadjacent areasA. africanusA. plumosusPER11463, expires30/6/2014Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/LRoundup®1 L per 100 Lwater; or 10L per ha; orlabel ratefor specificweedNon-agricultural areasbushland and forests,wetlands, roadsides,industrial areasA. aethiopicusA. plumosusA. scandensA. declinatusA. asparagoidesPER1333 expires31/3/2017Spot spraying in dry land areasSpot sprayGlyphosate360 g/L whereproduct hasan aquaticregistrationRoundup® Biactive TM1 L per 100 Lwater; or 10L per ha; orlabel ratefor specificweedNon-agricultural areasbushland and forests,wetlands, roadsides,industrial areasA. aethiopicusA. plumosusA. scandensA. declinatusA. asparagoidesPER1333 expires31/3/2017Spot spraying in aquatic andwetland areasWestern AustraliaSpot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgBrush-off®, Alley10 g per 100 Lplus wettingagent orspray oil; or100 g per haplus wettingagent orspray oil; orlabel ratefor specificweedNon-agricultural areasbushland and forests,wetlands, roadsides,industrial areasA. aethiopicusA. plumosusA. scandensA. declinatusA. asparagoidesPER1333 expires31/3/2017Mister or hand heldsprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgAll registeredproducts0.5 g per 10 Lof waterregistered+ wettingagent e.g.Pulse at 2 mLper LCrop and non-cropareas as specified onthe label. Apply up tomaximum registeredlabel rates in accordancewith Dept of Ag WAadvice for the control ofDeclared PlantsA. asparagoides PER13236expires31/12/2016Lower rates are alsorecommended for bushlandtreatment (see permit)Mid-June to late AugustFollow-up treatment requiredfor a couple of seasons.57

Control methodsHerbicides for use on asparagus weeds continuedApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsWestern Australia continuedSpot sprayWipe onto leavesMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgGlyphosate360 g/LApparentMetsulfuron 600WGRoundup®All registeredproducts5 g per 100 L Native pastures, rightsof way, commercialand industrial areas –ground applicationUndiluted to1 L per 5 Lwater1:2 parts withwaterNon-agricultural areasbushland and forests,wetlands, roadsides,industrial areasCrop and non-crop areasas specified for WA onthe approved label.Apply up to maximumregistered label ratesand in accordancewith Dept of Ag WAadvice for the control ofDeclared PlantsA. asparagoides As per labelinstructionsA. asparagoides PER1333 expires31/3/2017PER13236 expires31/12/2016Apply during mid-June to lateAugust. Follow-up applicationsover at least 2 seasons will berequired for complete control.Water volumes of 500–800L/ha are recommended tominimise the risk of damage tonative vegetation.Apply directly to plant usinga sponge glove. Retreatmentnecessary.Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/LRoundup®,Roundup® Biactive TM1 L per 100 Lwatersurfactant orspray oil maybe addedNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements, forest andconservation areasA. aethiopicusA. plumosusA. scandensA. declinatusA. asparagoidesPER13371 expires31/3/2017South AustraliaSpot spraySpot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgGlyphosate360 g/L andmetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgBrush-off®Weedmaster® DuoRoundup® Biactive TMBrush-off®10 g per 100 Lwater +surfactant(Roundup 1 L+ Brush-off3 g) per 100L water +surfactantNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements, forest andconservation areasNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements, forest andconservation areasA. aethiopicusA. plumosusA. scandensA. declinatusA. aethiopicusA. declinatusA. asparagoidesPER13371 expires31/3/2017PER13371 expires31/3/2017Spot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgPlease refer toPUBCRIS for labels5 g per 100LwaterBrush-off® 1.5 g per 100L water +surfactantNative pastures, rightsof way, commercialand industrial areas –ground applicationNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements, Forest andconservation areasA. asparagoides As per labelinstructionsPER13371 expires31/3/2017Apply during mid-June to lateAugust. Follow-up applicationsover at least 2 seasons will berequired for complete control.Water volumes of 500–800L/ha are recommended tominimise the risk of damage tonative vegetation.58

ApplicationmethodActiveingredientCommercialproduct/sSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISRateSituation as perlabel or permitSee additionalinformation atPUBCRISSpeciessuitabilityLabel orPermit(APVMA)requirements(at June 2013)CommentsSouth Australia continuedSpot sprayCut andswabWeed wipersponge or brushTriclopyr75 g/L andmetsulfuronmethyl28 g/LGlyphosate360 g/LGlyphosate360 g/LUltimate BrushWeed HerbicideNufarmWeedmaster® DuoRoundup®,Roundup® Biactive TM125 mL per100 L water+ surfactant10–50 mL perL water1 L per 3 Lwatersurfactantmay beaddedNative pastures, rightsof way, commercial andindustrial areasNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements. Forest andconservation areasNon-crop areas, rightsof way, roadsides andeasements. Forest andconservation areasA. asparagoides As per labelinstructionsA. plumosusA. scandensPER13371 expires31/31/2017A. asparagoides PER13371 expires31/31/2017Spray from mid-June to lateAugust. One spray is unlikelyto give complete controland follow-up sprays will benecessary. Avoid excessivewetting and run-off tominimize damage to nativevegetation.Spot sprayGlyphosate360 g/L whereproduct hasan aquaticregistrationRoundup® Biactive TM10–13 mLper L plusadjuvantsONLY inaccordancewith label asrequiredNon-cropping andbushland (nativevegetation bothforested and nonforest, including urbanbushland reserves)A. scandensA. asparagoidesPER13160 expires31/3/2017TasmaniaSpot sprayGlyphosate360 g/L whereproduct hasan aquaticregistrationSickle TM 540 plusother registeredherbicides7 mL per LplusadjuvantsONLY inaccordancewith label asrequiredNon-cropping andbushland (nativevegetation bothforested and nonforest, including urbanbushland reserves)A. scandensA. asparagoidesPER13160 expires31/3/2017Spot sprayMetsulfuronmethyl600 g/kgNufarm Associate®,Brush-off®, Lynx WGAs perexistingregistrationsor if weed notrecorded onlabel 10–15 gper 100 LNon-cropping andbushland (nativevegetation bothforested and nonforest, including urbanbushland reserves)A. scandensA. asparagoidesPER13160 expires31/31/2017Note: Starane 200 (Fluroxypyr 200 g/L) has/will be phased out and be replaced by Starane Advanced (Fluroxypyr 333 g/L). There are a number of companies thatproduce a generic formulation of Fluroxypyr 200 g/L, namely Fluroxypyr, Fluroxypyr 200, Floxor 200EC, Restrain 200, Neon 200, Rockstar 200, Acclaim, Dozer, Prostar,Flagship 200, Staroxy 200, Trample 200 and Uni-Rane 200. APVMA permits will be updated to reflect changes upon their expiry.Products may be registered for use on asparagus weeds in all states and territories (shown as ‘All’) or only in the specific states and territories listed.Please note that this is not a full list of herbicides and applications for use on asparagus weeds. Seek further advise from APVMA or your local weed authority.59

Control methodsApplication methodsCut and paint / gouge and paintCut and paint (also known as cut-stump, cutswabor snip and drip) and gouge and paint aretreatments used to apply herbicide to the stemsand/or crowns of asparagus weeds.Applying the methodFor stem treatments: cut the stem close to theground and apply herbicide immediately (within10 seconds) to the cut surface.Paul LennonFor crown treatments: gouge out sections of thefleshy base (crown) with a knife (cut the stems toimprove access) and apply herbicide immediatelywith a low-pressure sprayer, paint brush orapplicator bottle.Cut and paint methodFor the canopy climbers: a tomahawk is ahandy tool to gouge into A. africanus afterthe canes are cut. Paint herbicide to gougedsection of the crown immediately.For A. plumosus: use the same techniqueas above but, as the crowns are generallysmaller, loppers or secateurs can be used togouge into the crown.Paul LennonBe aware that bringing down climbingasparagus foliage is a lot of work and canpotentially damage trees.Gouge and paint methodCut and paint / gouge and paintRecommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages Timing• Asparagus weeds thatdo not form extensiverhizome networksunderground• Suitable for A. aethiopicus,A. africanus, A. plumosusand A. scandensIt is imperative that theherbicide is applied assoon as possible after thestem is severed or crownis gouged (within 10seconds)• Stem and crowntreatments can minimizeoff-target damage• Less labour intensive thanmanual methods• Useful when crowns aredifficult to dig out (e.g. inhard and rocky ground)• Limits soil disturbance• More labour intensive thanfoliar spray• When plants are activelygrowing, as herbicideis rapidly transportedthrough the plant• Immediately after cutting60

Case studyDealing with hazardous weedy climbers in Queensland rainforestsAlan Carter, Strategic Weed Control and Vegetation Management, QueenslandClimbing vines can be a hazard when doing weed control. A pole hedge trimmer is a useful toolto cut vines away from trees and is much faster than using a machete or secateurs. Low branchesor other obstructing vegetation can be trimmed back quickly to give safe access to your site andreduce the number of anchor points available for climbers to attach to.Cut vines as high as possible and let long vines drop to the ground for later spraying. In the caseof climbing asparagus weeds, the crowns can then be readily accessed and treated by gouge andpaint methods or basal barking. For other weedy vines, follow-up using a selective herbicide tohelp ferns, grasses, sedges, palms and other monocots re-establish while you continue to controlany regrowth. Plants including Commelina diffusa, Poa labillardieri and species of Oplismenus andOttochloa establish readily and keep some annual weeds at bay between follow-up treatments.Techniques for glyphosate that can reduce off-target damage include:• trimming the trigger on the spray bottle to prevent it getting caught on things and squirtingaccidently, and• applying thread tape to the nozzle screw, preventing drips onto the trigger. This also allows anice straight laminar jet that can reach the crown or stump without having to get on your handsand knees. But always squirt gently, as close as possible and using only as much chemical as thestump or crown will absorb.This technique can also be readily used for all other woody weeds that are encountered on a site.For most vines (except Madeira vine Anredera cordifolia), laboriously cutting and treating largeindividual stems with herbicide is usually less work in the long run rather than repeatedly sprayingregrowth of untreated cut stems.‘I nearly always carry hand secateurs and amodified 500 mL trigger spray on a belt holsterwhen I'm working.’Alan CarterAlan CarterCutting back vines using a pole hedge trimmerTrigger spray and belt holder61

Basal bark application30 cmControl methodsPaul LennonBasal bark sprayThis method involves mixing an oil-solubleherbicide in diesel or other carriers and spraying(or painting) the circumference of the plant stemsand or crown. Diesel enables the penetration of thevascular tissue of the plant, allowing the movementof herbicide throughout the plant.Applying the method:• Basal barking can be done with plants entire(vertical stems not chopped) or chop stems outof the way to avoid prickles and entanglement.• Prepare herbicide mix as per label directions.• Apply herbicide mix to the outer tissue of thebase of the crown and remaining stems (to aheight of 10–30 cm) with either a paint brushor a hand-held sprayer, ensuring that the wholecircumference of every stem is saturated.• Refer to the product label for furtherinformation. Check that the herbicide andapplication is listed for use in your state andseek advice from local weed authorities.Basal barkingRecommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages TimingCanopy climbers (i.e. A.africanus or A. plumosus) whenfoliar spraying cannot geteffective cover and or whenthe weed is intertwined withnative host plantsTo achieve maximumefficiency, ensure that the fullcircumference of every stemarising from the ground (to aheight up to 30 cm) is saturatedincluding the crownSaves on ‘hands andknees’ time requiredfor primary controlcompared with physicallyremoving the crownLabour intensiveOnly when stems are dry and freeof charring from fire – stems thatare wet with rain or dew repelthe oil-based spray and charcoaldeactivates the chemicalFoliar spot sprayingFoliar spot spraying is the use of herbicide dilutedwith water (or other carrier) at a specific rate andapplied to the leaves and stems of a plant in theform of a fine spray. A range of other chemicalsmay be added (e.g. penetrants, adjuvants,surfactants, wetting agents).Applying the method:• Effective foliar spraying requires that all foliagebe wetted with herbicide.• There are several techniques available and thechoice of which technique to use depends on theFoliar spot sprayingplant size and growth form, density of infestation,habitat, site specifications and the availability ofresources, including trained contractors.• The application rate, volume and concentrationof herbicide in water vary with the applicationused. Foliar spray application techniques usedto control asparagus weeds include:• Backpack/knapsack – for low pressurespraying and used for spot spraying large orsmall infestations.• Hand held spray bottles – for small areas oraround native vegetation.• Vehicle-based sprayers – for high pressurespraying using a hose with handgun.Recommended for: Caution! Advantages Disadvantages Timing• All asparagus weeds• Large infestations• Follow-up control is required totreat subsequent seedlings thatemerge after primary control• Herbicides should not be appliedwhen the plant is under stress orduring hot, dry conditions• Efficiency• Can cover large areas• Potential for spray drift and off-targetdamage• Several asparagus weeds have fine or waxyfoliage that may impede herbicide uptake• All foliage must be wetted with herbicide tobe effectiveWhen plants areactively growingand prior to fruitset – ideally whenplants are juststarting to flower62

Stop and Think!Site-specific management:minimising spray drift andoff-target damageIn areas where there is a good ground coverof native plants, some land managers havefound that some off-target damage may beprevented and herbicide coverage improved ifthey bundle up and tie asparagus stems priorto foliar spraying.Asparagus aethiopicus bundled prior to sprayingWendy MidgleyAsparagus declinatus does not readilyabsorb sprayed herbicide due to itswaxy foliage. To overcome this problem,practitioners should add a penetrant orspray oil to their spray mixture. Best resultsfor spot spraying occur when the plant isflowering in late winter. Follow-up controlis required to treat subsequent seedlingsthat emerge after primary control.Splatter gunSplatter guns are not widely used on asparagusweeds, but may be effective, so this techniquewarrants further investigation. This techniqueis widely used on lantana and bitou bush.The method involves applying a low volumeof concentrated herbicide mix to foliage. Aspecialized nozzle produces a solid stream of largedroplets of herbicide that can be applied from adistance of 6–10 m away. Only a small portion ofthe foliage needs to be sprayed, thus non-targetdamage can be minimized. This technique is usefulin difficult to access areas and for specificallytargeting the herbicide to the plant. The use of amarker dye is recommended to identify treatedplants.Alternatively, if asparagus is growing overnative shrubs, the climbing branches can bequickly cut off to get the asparagus foliageonto the ground for spraying. This assists intargeting herbicide spray to asparagus foliageand saves time in untangling asparagus fromnative plants.Foliar spot spraying of A. plumosus regrowth afterinitially cutting vines has been used effectivelyin Iluka Nature Reserve (see case study on page93).Hillary CherrySplatter gun equipment63

Case studyA potential new technique for treating Asparagus aethiopicus inhard-to-access locationsSue Bower, Lord Howe Island Board and Stuart McDonald, Byron Shire Council, NSWWeed managers on Lord Howe Island are faced with controlling infestations of Asparagusaethiopicus growing in remote, hard to access cliff locations. They are currently trialling the splattergun to control mature stands of A. aethiopicus, with some success.The splatter gun is a relatively new tool that is commonly used on lantana and bitou bush. Herbicideconcentrations for splatter guns differ from that of normal foliar spray guns, and technique isextremely important. Further information on splatter guns can be found at your local weeds authorityor rural supplies store (or in the lantana and bitou bush management manuals at www.weeds.org.au).‘Trial the technique in an accessible location first as you want to make sure you get it right beforeyou use it remotely.’ Sue Bower, Lord Howe Island Board.For A. aethiopicus, the trick is to be sure that each ‘frond’ gets agood ‘splatter’ of herbicide. Weed managers are using a ‘crosshatch’ pattern or linear splat that ensures that each frond getsan appropriate cover of herbicide (for further information andcontact details, see Section 7).Suitability of method• Use on mature and dense A. aethiopicus stands of similar age.• Apply at least a 20% herbicide cover on each plant.• Ensure a good ‘splat’ of herbicide hits each asparagus frond(stem).• Apply herbicide in a cross-hatch pattern by using long archingstrips, or a strip along each frond for individual plants.• Apply when the weed is actively growing and notHayden Denmeade from The Good Bush Peopleunder stress.demonstrating the use of the splatter gun – as you traverse acliff, it is best to spray down from above, or from the sideSplatter gunSue BowerAdvantages• Great for use in hard to access locations with lowweed density (e.g. cliff faces, areas of low wateravailability).• Splatter gun is lightweight and portable.• Requires minimal use of water.• Good response with mature age stands (i.e. thick,mature ground cover of asparagus).• Can achieve targeted control.• Minimal soil disturbance.Disadvantages• Only suitable for use in dense, mature-aged stands (e.g. monocultures).• If used in the wrong way, off-target damage can be amplified because of theconcentrated nature of this technique.• If you are using the technique in hard to access locations, you want to makesure your technique is right! Consult with others who have experience usingthe splatter gun.• Not recommended for use on multi-aged stands of asparagus (i.e. wherethere are young plants that may not be exposed to herbicide; or where thereis a high concentration of seedlings).For an example of how a community group is effectively using a splatter gun in coastalenvironments please refer to Pittwater Eco Warriors YouTube videos, e.g. ‘The how andwhy of splatter guns’ www.youtube.com/watch?v=LozAyJcghck.64

Other methodsFireUsing fire as a tool to manage asparagus weedshas only been investigated for bridal creeper,and further research is required to determine thefeasibility of fire to manage other asparagus weeds.Fire can be used in bridal creeper managementbut must be part of an integrated control strategy.Fire assists with removing understorey vegetationto improve access and promote weed regrowthfor later herbicide treatment. Fire is not likely tokill bridal creeper, but has the potential to helpdeplete the seed bank and the dense, rhizomatousroot mat. Burning must be followed up with othercontrol methods, including physical removal orherbicide application.Pre-planning is paramount to a successfulintegrated asparagus weed management plan thatutilises fire. Asparagus weeds will usually re-sproutfrom the rhizome unless the fire is very intense andthe rhizomes are shallow (less than 5 cm deep) orover rock. As high intensity fires in planned burnsare not desirable, best practice management isto treat asparagus weeds with herbicide prior toa prescribed burn. All weeds that are unlikely tobe killed by fire and/or that may be fire resistantshould be considered for treatment in the monthsprior to the burn. Crowned rhizomes or rhizomesthat have been dug out can be left suspended in thelow shrub or herb layer. Retaining the foliage onthe hanging rhizome assists in removing moisturefrom the rhizome and adds to the fuel load. Foliagethat has been sprayed prior to fire also adds to thefuel load. Untreated asparagus weeds have a highmoisture content, making burning difficult.Great care is needed when using fire. Appropriateconditions, equipment and experienced personnelare essential. The landowner is responsible forensuring that all planned burning is conducted ina safe manner. Prior to undertaking any plannedburn, the landowner must inform all relevantauthorities and obtain all relevant permits.Consultation with vegetation specialists is alsorecommended as fire can have both positive andnegative effects on native vegetation. For example,fire raises soil pH and can increase the persistenceof herbicides used after fire, so there may be greateroff-target damage.Follow-up actions are required after sites areburned. Infestations post-fire should be monitoredregularly and over several years because of thehigh probability of regrowth from remnants of theroot system. New seedlings or regrowth need to becarefully removed or treated with herbicide to limitabove ground growth and further reduce the storedroot reserves. For new or small infestations, handdigging of roots may be an appropriate follow-uptechnique.GrazingGrazing may assist in exhausting the tubers andmay assist in managing some asparagus weeds.Tamar wallabies on Garden Island in WesternAustralia have been found to eat bridal creeper.Similarly, sheep are known to eat bridal creeperand A. declinatus, keeping the plants at low levelsin grazed areas. As sheep grazing can also damagenative understorey plants and tree seedlings, it isnot suitable for conservation reserves. Do not allowgrazing when asparagus weeds are fruiting, as seedcan be consumed and spread by animals.Bridal creeper biological controlThree natural enemies specific to bridal creeperhave been released in Australia: the bridal creeperleafhopper (an undescribed Erythroneurini formerlyreferred to as Zygina sp.) was first released in 1999,the rust fungus (Puccinia myrsiphylli) in 2000 and aleaf beetle (Crioceris sp.) in 2002. The rust fungusand leafhopper have caused the most impacts. Ingood years, these agents can stop plants floweringand fruiting. Many more years of impacts by theagents are required to deplete the nutrient reservesstored in underground tubers and stop regrowth.65

Control methodsSince they were introduced,the leafhopper and rustfungus have been widelyreleased across southernAustralia. They havemost likely colonised allareas suitable for theirdevelopment. Redistributionof these agents is mainlydone to acceleratedevelopment at specificsites in some years byincreasing their populationat the beginning of thegrowing season.The leaf beetle hasestablished poorly, so thereis currently no scope toredistribute it.Note: The Western Cape form of bridal creeper, which isfound in limited areas of South Australia and south-westVictoria, is not impacted by the bridal creeper rust fungus.Western Cape bridal creeper (left) stands outamong rust infected common bridal creeper (right)Shauna Potter, Biosecurity SABridal creeper biocontrol agentsAgent Appearance Damage Life cycle StatusLeafhopperWhite, 2–3 mmlong, living onunderside ofbridal creeperleaves.Sap-sucking insect that feeds on thephotosynthetic leaf cells (visible assilver patterning on the leaves). Adultsand juvenile stages feed on the leaves,causing them to turn white and, insevere cases, fall off. Continued damageover several years reduces new tuberproduction, making bridal creeper lesscompetitive.Lays about 200 eggs over 6 weeks, andhas multiple generations each year.Widely established acrossAustralia. By 2008, releasedat close to 900 sites. Used inWeed Warriors program aseducational tool (see page 67).Rust fungusYellow pustulessurroundedby yellowingtissue on theunderside ofleaves.Attacks leaves and stems, divertingnutrients away from healthy plant tissue.Can have a major impact on the levelof reserves normally stored in tuber. Insevere cases, leaves die off.Complicated, with 5 spore stagesincluding one that survives oversummer when bridal creeper hassenesced. Many generations per year,and produces large amounts of winddispersedspores.Widely established acrossAustralia. By 2008, released atmore than 2100 sites. Spreadswithin and between bridalcreeper infestations efficiently.Leaf beetleAdults and larvae feed exclusively onbridal creeper’s young, expandingtissues. Larvae strip shoots and leavesand prevent plants from climbing,thereby reducing fruit production.Active in autumn and early winter(February to July) and does notcompete directly with above agentsfor resources. From early winter, adultfemales lay eggs on expanding shootsand leaves, either singly or in groupsof up to 10.Poorly established. By 2008,released at 82 sites acrosssouthern Australia (except TAS)but confirmed established atonly three sites, possibly due topredation or parasitism.66

Redistribution of the leafhopper and rust fungusThe leafhopper and rust fungus can be sourcedfrom sites where they have been released and haveestablished.• For a list of sites where the leafhopper and rustfungus had been released up to 2008 see:www.csiro.au/en/Outcomes/Safeguarding-Australia/Agent-Release-Sites.aspx.• For a list of some sites where they areestablished see: www.root.ala.org.au/bdrs-core/wbiocont/home.htm. If bridal creeper rust isestablished at sites in your area please consideradding location details for these sites to thisnational website.• For regionally specific information on bridalcreeper biocontrol redistribution, contact yourlocal weeds officer.• Search the web for information related to theWeed Warriors program which engages schoolchildren in the rearing and release of biocontrolagents (see Section 7 – Further Information).Leafhopper redistribution methodBridal creeper leafhopperUniversity of AdelaideHarvest:• Cut a large bunch of heavily infestedfoliage and put into large plastic bag.Seal bag and keep it out of the sun. Do thisin the early morning when cool.Redistribute:1. Tease apart foliage and spread thinly overresident bridal creeper infestations whilepushing infected foliage into infestation.2. Invert bag and shake out any insects intocommon bridal creeper infestations.For more detail see:www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Safeguarding-Australia/BridalCreeperLeafhopper.aspx#a3.More information can also be found bysearching the internet for ‘Weed Warriors’.Rust fungus redistribution methodsLouise MorinRust pustules on common bridal creeperThe rust spores are not toxic but may causeirritation to people who are hypersensitiveto pollens. As a precaution when handlingrust-infected foliage, wear safety equipment,including:• goggles,• a respiratory mask, and• gloves.The rust fungus does not spread internallythroughout the plant and must reinfect bridalcreeper every growing season to be effective.There are two methods currently available forthe redistribution of the rust fungus (see page68).First signs of rust appear in autumn.Redistribution is more effective when sporeproduction is at its peak, usually between Julyand September when plants are flowering andfruiting. Infection is dependent upon seasonalconditions.See ‘A guide to weed biological controlin South Australia’ for more photos andinformation on bridal creeper agents:www.pir.sa.gov.au/biosecuritySA/nrm_biosecurity/weeds.67

Rust fungus redistribution methodsMethod 1 (developed by CSIRO to establish nursery sites)1. Cut approximately a dozen, 30 cm long,infected stems of bridal creeper that havewell-developed sporulating pustules andplace in a paper bag to move to the newrelease site.2. A dozen infected stems are required toinoculate a one to two metre square bridalcreeper infestation on either the ground, orthe equivalent amount of foliage climbing upa bush or tree.3. Releases should be made at the end of theday to avoid hot temperatures.4. Rub infected foliage onto healthy foliage inthe field by sliding infected foliage back andforth to dislodge spores from pustules to bedeposited on the under surface of healthyleaves.5. After inoculation, mist inoculated field plantswith water.6. Cover the area with a sheet of clear plasticheld in place with sticky tape, rocks or pegsto provide a humid environment for 16–24hours, or overnight.7. If the site is in full sun, the plastic sheetshould be removed the next morning toprevent plants heating up or burning.For more detail see: www.csiro.au/Outcomes/Safeguarding-Australia/Bridal-Creeper-Rust-Fungus.aspxMethod 2 – ‘spore water’ method (developed by a community group on Kangaroo Island, SA)1. Rinse rust-infected bridal creeper leavesin rainwater. One plastic shopping bag ofinfected leaves makes approximately 15 Lof spore water or use 4 kg of leaf to 100 L ofrainwater. Water should turn brown.2. Strain spore water from bucket into a cleanspray unit (e.g. quick spray or backpacksprayer).3. Using a fine mist, spray out resulting slurryas soon as possible by starting at top ofinfestation and work downwards. Sprayuntil run-off, paying particular attention tounderside of leaves. Try to keep solutionagitated while in tank to minimise sporessticking to tank. There is no threat of off-targetdamage.4. Spray spore water solution as soon aspossible after mixing, as the spores will diethe longer they are kept in solution.• Note: It is important to use rainwater only, asmains water and minerals in bore water mayadversely affect the rust spores. Clean sprayunits, and a clean spray gun must be used.Following up after spraying spore waterFollow-up monitoring of the release sites shouldtake place a month after initial spraying withspore water. If no sign of the rust is seen withintwo months, another dose of spore water will berequired.Please remember that the spore water techniquedoes not work in all areas. Repeated failure toestablish the rust fungus may indicate that adifferent application technique is required forthe area or that conditions are unsuitable forrust establishment. Monitoring and recordingactivities at the spray site is important so thatwork is not unnecessarily duplicated.For more detail: on how to make spore water view the Power Point file www.weeds.org.au/docs/BC_How_to_make_spore_water.ppt68

Section 4Holistic management ofinvasive vines and scramblersA holistic approach to management 70Managing other weeds in conjunction with asparagus weeds 70Case study: A focus on main weed invaders after Asparagus aethiopicuscontrol on the east coast of Australia 72Management considerations in natural habitats invadedby asparagus weeds 73Key management considerations 74Minimise erosion 74Protect vulnerable rainforest remnants 74Minimise weed spread by water and prevent re-invasion 75Integrated management in modified habitats 7569

Holistic managementof invasive vines and scramblersA holistic approach tomanagementIt is important to consider weed management inconjunction with other land management prioritiesand site based threats, including secondary weedinvasion. Weed management needs will vary withthe asset or value that is impacted, the habitat, thecharacteristics of the weeds and the size of theweed invasion. A holistic approach to managementwill assist in achieving optimal, long-termoutcomes (refer to Section 2 – Planning and PrecontrolConsiderations). Holistic management is adecision making and planning framework wherebyyou consider all elements of your system, includingecological, economic and social aspects, and howyour management actions might interact with thatsystem.This section provides information on key factorsto consider when undertaking weed control inhabitats commonly invaded by asparagus weeds,and identifies some key weeds that are commonlymanaged in conjunction with asparagus weeds.Managing other weeds in conjunctionwith asparagus weedsIt is important to be aware of the threats posed byco-existing weeds and likely secondary invaderswhen planning and undertaking asparagus weedmanagement. For example:• Gloriosa superba (glory lily) commonly invadessites following asparagus weed control incoastal environments in eastern Australia. Thisweed can pose significant threats to nativespecies and, in some cases, is more difficult tocontrol (see case study page 72 in this sectionand on page 90).• Asparagus aethiopicus is a frequent invader inareas where other weeds have been removed(e.g. bitou bush – Chrysanthemoides moniliferassp. rotundata).• Western Cape bridal creeper and A. declinatuscan invade sites where common bridal creeperhas been controlled and can be more difficult tocontrol. Because Western Cape bridal creeperNote: The information below is for examplepurposes only and does not include all weedthreats or habitats.Asparagus weeds must be managedholistically, in association with other sitebasedthreats, to avoid secondary invasionby other weeds and reduce other threatsto native system recovery. It is essential todevelop your control strategy to target coexistingweeds and successional weeds (i.e.weeds that quickly colonise) that can haveongoing negative impacts.Shauna PotterAsparagus declinatus (with small white flowers) and common bridalcreeper are often found together70

is not affected by the bridal creeper rust fungus(Puccinia myrsiphylli, a biocontrol agent whichis highly effective at suppressing the commonform), it could be more difficult to manage overthe long-term. See case study on page 72 on theimportance of timing in holistic management.Holistic planning and actions that target a suiteof weeds and other threats will provide moreeffective, long-term outcomes. A list of somemajor weeds that are known to co-occur withasparagus weeds is provided below to assist withholistic management. Recognition of these andother weedy species and their potential effectson your management program will assist ingauging resource commitments and ensuring useof appropriate control measures. Many of theseweeds are difficult to control, so it is important toconsult your local weeds officer for best practicemanagement advice.Some major weeds occurring with asparagus weedsList created through discussion and stakeholder consultation at national asparagus weeds workshops in2012/2013.Scientific nameVines and scramblersAcetosa sagittataAnredera cordifoliaAristolochia elegansAraujia sericiferaCardiospermum grandiflorumDelairia odorataDolichandra unguis-catiIpomoea albaLonicera japonicaPassiflora spp.Solanum seaforthianumThunbergia alataHerbsAgeratina spp.Ageratum houstonianumCrocosmia × crocosmiifloraChasmanthe floribundaEuphorbia paraliasGloriosa superbaLilium formosanumMoraea spp.Sphagneticola trilobataTradescantia fluminensisVinca majorWatsonia meriana var. bulbilliferaCommon name/sTurkey rhubarbMadeira vineCalico flower, dutchman’s pipeMoth vineBalloon vineCape ivyCat’s claw creeperMoonflower, coastal morningglory, mile-a-minuteJapanese honeysuckleCorky passionfruit, passionfruitClimbing nightshadeBlack-eyed SusanCrofton weed, mistflowerBilly goat weedMontbretiaAfrican cornflagSea spurgeGlory lilyFormosan lilyCape tulipsSingapore daisyTradBlue periwinkleWild watsonia, bugle lilyScientific nameGrassesElymus repensEhrharta spp.Melinis minutiflora (pasture grass)Paspalum spp. (pasture grasses)ShrubsChrysanthemoides moniliferaGenista monspessulanaLantana camaraLycium ferocissimumNicotiana glaucaOchna serrulataRicinus communisRubus fruticosus agg.Senna pendulaSolanum mauritianumSorghum halepenseTreesCinnamomum camphoraCeltis spp.Schinus terebinthifoliusCommon name/sEnglish couchVeldtgrassMolasses grassBoneseed and bitou bushMontpellier broomLantanaAfrican boxthornTree tobaccoMickey mouse plantCastor oil plantBlackberryCassiaWild tobacco bushJohnson grassCamphor laurelBroad-leaf pepper tree71

Holistic managementCase studyA focus on main weed invaders after Asparagus aethiopicus control on the eastcoast of Australia As determined by stakeholder consultation at national asparagus weeds workshopsheld from south-east Queensland to southern New South Wales in 2013.Herbs Gloriosa superba (glory lily) and Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera (wild watsonia)• Gloriosa superba is a perennial herb that rapidly moves in where bothA. aethiopicus and Chrysanthemoides monilifera ssp. rotundata (bitou bush)have been removed, forming a dense understorey (up to 70 stems perm 2 ) in coastal dune environments. It is extremely difficult to control. Foran example of where glory lily and A. aethiopicus are being holisticallymanaged see case study on page 90.Gloriosa superbaWatsonia meriana var. bulbillifera• Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera (wild watsonia) is an erect perennial herbthat forms large clumps of underground corms. It is a successful competitorof native vegetation forming dense stands that exclude other vegetation.Andrew StorrieRob RichardsonClimber Acetosa sagittata (turkey rhubarb)• Acetosa sagittata is a perennial climber with thick underground tubers. Itis an aggressive weed that can completely smother native ground plantsand small shrubs. It rapidly invades after asparagus weed managementparticularly in coastal riparian environments. Control of this species isdifficult because it is a prolific seeder and regenerates from hard-to-findunderground tubers.Acetosa sagittataKerinne HarveyAcetosa sagittataRob RichardsonClimbers Ipomoea cairica (coastal morning glory), Passiflora suberosa (corky passionflower) and Cardiospermum grandiflorum (balloon vine)• Ipomoea cairica is a rampant, perennial groundcover or climber. It rapidlyinvades after asparagus weed management, most commonly in riparianareas, littoral rainforest and coastal environs. When A. aethiopicus isremoved, a successional cycle of coastal morning glory can occur, oftenfollowed shortly by glory lily invasion.Ipomoea cairicaPassiflora suberosa• Cardiospermum grandiflorum and Passiflora species are also problematicsecondary invaders post A. aethiopicus control.• Cardiospermum grandiflorum is a long-lived perennial climber that iscommonly found growing (to 8 m high) over vegetation lining creeks andrivers. Passiflora suberosa is a slender vine with a climbing or creepinghabit that develops corky bark at the base of older stems.Cardiospermum grandiflorumRos ShepherdSheldon NavieNote: After spraying A. aethiopicus with metsulfuron-methylin dune systems, generally good regeneration of native grassesand sedges can occur. Corky passionflower (Passiflora suberosa)commonly trails over A. aethiopicus in these systems. To control bothof these species you may need to control corky passionflower firstwith glyphosate before tackling A. aethiopicus with metsulfuronmethyl.Corky passionflower is not sensitive to metsulfuron-methyl.Spraying corky passionflower that is trailing over A. aethiopicusprovides an opportunity for glyphosate off-target damage to be onlydirected at A. aethiopicus, thus allowing good regeneration of nativegrasses and sedges.Sheldon Navie72

Holistic managementSite assessment is crucial. The actions required toachieve ecosystem rehabilitation are always sitespecific,and weed management plans must betailored based on environmental factors and therelevant management objectives (See Section 2 –Planning and Pre-control Considerations).The remainder of this section describes somenatural habitats invaded by asparagus weeds, alongwith corresponding management considerations.This information is best used in conjunctionwith control methods outlined in Section 3 andrestoration options in Section 5.In warmer wetter regions, good nativeregeneration can occur through deadA. aethiopicus root mats which can decaywithin 6 months after death of plants.In well established infestations in moretemperate regions, it may be necessary toremove some or all of the root mat to allownative regeneration, as root mats may takemany years to decay.Key management considerationsMinimise erosionErosion is a primary concern in environments thatare characterised by unstable substrates. To reducethe chance of erosion during control work you can:• Remove asparagus infestations in stages. Therate of removal depends upon the rate of nativeplant regeneration and level of site disturbance(i.e. whether or not natives are present insufficient numbers to provide soil stabilisation).• Revegetate with a diverse range of plants.Contact local professionals (e.g. Landcarecoordinators or local government officers) inyour area for region-specific native species listsand advice (see Section 5, Restoration page 79;Section 7 – Further Information).• Use mulch, to protect young native plants andreduce new weed incursions.• Avoid applying residual herbicide where thereis the potential for roots of desirable non-targetspecies to be present. Be aware that herbicidescan leach through sandy substrates at a greaterrate than in other habitats.• Consider using manual techniques or moreselective herbicide application methods (e.g.gouge-paint techniques rather than foliarspraying) to reduce the persistence of herbicidesand limit off-target damage.Asparagus aethiopicus forms thick root matsProtect vulnerable rainforest remnantsSmall, disturbed remnants and patches of rainforestvegetation are particularly vulnerable to weedinvasion:• High priority sites should be regularlymonitored for new incursions.• Where applicable, buffer zones (e.g. plantingsof pioneer natives) could be established aroundthe perimeter and at vulnerable edges toprovide a physical barrier to disturbance andreduce rates of weed incursion.Rainforest weeds can be hard to delimit as they canoccur in relatively intact, highly complex systems,and search and control efforts are difficult.Natural regeneration is likely to occur inareas that have a good canopy cover.Mark Hamilton74

Due to high densities of sensitive species andaccess difficulties, control methods should bechosen carefully:• Control operations should be conducted usinglow impact methods (e.g. hand removal).• In most instances, herbicide managementshould be targeted e.g. cut-stump, gouge-paintor, in some circumstances, splatter-gun.• Restoration activities that help increase theresilience of the environment to future invasionare of critical importance.Natives flourish quickly when weedy vinesare cut to relieve canopy pressure.• The risk of damage to micro-organisms such asmycorrhizal fungi (essential for plant nutritionand growth) is lowest with non-residualherbicides.• When using a residual herbicide such asmetsulfuron-methyl, great care must beexercised to avoid herbicide reaching the soil.Frequent repeated use of herbicides in any areasshould be avoided.• Low impact control options should beconsidered for sensitive areas, particularlyriparian zones where there is a risk of herbicideentering the water. ‘Frog friendly’ formulationsof glyphosate registered for use aroundwaterways should be used in rainforests.Minimise weed spread by water andprevent re-invasionA well designed weed management program canachieve positive outcomes to minimise weedspread in wetland and riparian areas and assist inpreventing re-invasion. Basic principles include:• Identify and assess threats to any assets in thesystem being managed (e.g. water quality,threatened species, bank stability).• Minimise stream bank erosion and preventsediment and nutrients from entering waterwaysAsparagus africanus invading coastal forestand impacting on aquatic organisms. Treat smallareas, one at a time, to allow native plants toregenerate and stabilise the bank.• Mechanical control such as slashing should beavoided in riparian areas.• Initiate management of water and winddispersed weeds in the upper part of thecatchment first to prevent infestationsdownstream; remove weeds from edge ofwatercourse to prevent seeds and rhizomesmoving downstream.• Anticipate likely replacement species establishingafter primary weed management, as theseareas are particularly vulnerable to re-invasion.• Replanting may be required to provide rapidbank stabilisation and protect vulnerable areasfrom re-invasion.• Determine priority species for control, ascomplete removal of all weed species maynot be realistic in areas where multiple weedspecies invade.An example of a group successfully managingA. africanus in a wetland habitat can be found inthe case study on page 100.Integrated management in modifiedhabitatsHabitats that have undergone chemical andstructural modification associated with agriculturalland use can favour non-native weed invasion tothe detriment of natives. For example, elevatednutrients (e.g. nitrogen, phosphorus) are a commonproblem in modified woodland habitats becauseof the addition of fertilisers to soil, deposition oflivestock dung, rubbish dumping and stormwaterKerinne Harvey75

unoff from urban areas. Basic managementprinciples include:• Manage site to improve native species diversity.• Keep soil carbon levels high (e.g. establishnative perennials to reduce nitrate levels). Theaddition of carbon and burning can reduceinorganic nitrogen and may reduce the growthof non-native ground layer species relative tonative species.• Maintain ground cover – don’t create opportunitiesfor weed invasion, but some bare ground isneeded to allow native forbs to establish.• Prevent grazing of native seedlings and sensitivespecies.• Use herbicide sparingly.Stock management can be an importantconsideration in modified environments:• Intermittent grazing regimes can maintainor improve condition of grassy woodlandecosystems without causing too muchcompaction of the soil.• Time grazing periods to avoid native floweringand seed set (regionally specific).• Grazing pressure can support asparagus weedmanagement. For example, sheep will grazecommon bridal creeper and A. declinatuskeeping the plants at low levels in grazed areas.Integrated fire and herbicide control may beeffective in managing asparagus weeds in modifiedenvironments:• Geophytes (perennial plants with undergroundstorage organs, such as Asparagus spp.) arereasonably fire tolerant due to their habitof dying back to the storage organ duringsummer. However, following a summer fire,these weeds will often emerge in autumn, priorto regeneration of native vegetation, makingherbicide control easier and more effective.• Control of established populations andprevention of seed production can beachievable under these conditions.Asparagus declinatus dominating understorey vegetationNote: For many asparagus species the seedwill germinate or decay within two yearsand vegetative material (rhizomes) canoften have greater persistence in the soilthan seed. Fire is the major disturbancein the Mediterranean ecosystems of SouthAfrica where 95% of Australia’s geophyteweeds originate. Consequently many haveevolved life history traits that are stronglytied to recurrent fire. Dying back to anunderground storage organ over the longdry summer is an extremely effective wayof surviving fire. When dormant in summer,most geophyte weeds will probably surviveall but the very hottest fires.Herbicide selection and application approach isimportant in woodland environments:• Glyphosate (a non-selective herbicide) is usefulfor removing dense weed monocultures indisturbed environments.• Where asparagus weeds are growing closelyamongst native vegetation, non-selectiveherbicides can cause unacceptable levels ofoff-target damage unless targeted applicationtechniques are used (e.g. cut-paint, gouge-paint).• Residual herbicides, such as metsulfuronmethyl,can cause native plant death at very lowconcentrations and can remain active in the soilfor several months following application.See case study for managing Western Cape bridalcreeper in modified eucalypt woodland of theMount Lofty Ranges on page 95.Shauna Potter76

Section 5Follow-up, restoration andmonitoringFollow-up 78Things to watch out for with asparagus weeds 78Restoration 79Natural regeneration 80Propagation, replanting and seeding 82Monitoring 84Monitoring made easy 8477

Follow-up, restoration andmonitoringFollow-upFollow-up weeding, maintenance, restoration andmonitoring are critical to the success of weedmanagement efforts. Provision for these activitiesshould be integrated in your asparagus weedsmanagement plan from inception (see Section 2– Planning and Pre-control Considerations). Followupasparagus weed control needs to be done forat least three years – more than five years at somesites – to ensure time, effort and resources investedin initial weed control are not wasted.An understanding of the ecology of your site willhelp you plan and manage follow-up control andrestoration. It will also help you utilise processessuch as natural regeneration, not only to savetime and effort, but also achieve more completerestoration.The key to successful and systematic follow-up iscareful monitoring:• Plan your monitoring program and determineexactly what changes you want to monitor.• Visit sites at appropriate times of the year, forexample after rain, during the active growingseason or at flowering times.• Visit sites regularly.• Monitor for regrowth of target weeds as well asnew and emerging weeds.• Monitor the natural regeneration of indigenousplant species.• Treat regrowth of target weeds using appropriatecontrol methods (see Section 3).Things to watch out for with asparagusweeds Asparagus weeds develop dense root systemscontaining rhizomes. It is unlikely that initialworks will remove every asparagus rhizomefrom the soil, so these can re-shoot. The dense tuberous root mats can inhibitregrowth of native plants. However, removal ofthese mats will create high levels of disturbance.This disturbance could stimulate either newweed growth or, in highly resilient areas, nativeplant germination. By monitoring the responseto disturbance on your site you will be able todetermine the most appropriate approach. Disturbed ground should be carefully restoredand closely monitored. In warmer areas, holescan be dug into dead asparagus root mats andseeds or tube stock can be planted directly intothe mat, which will ultimately decay. Or simplymonitor and wait for the mats to break down. Intemperate regions, root mats tend to take muchlonger to break down, so leaving them maymean slower regeneration rates. If removed, root mats are sometimes left todry onsite. Care should be taken to monitorthese mats as any root fragments may containrhizomes that can re-shoot. Areas where plants containing fruits are baggedup for disposal should be carefully monitored.Paths and tracks used to access the site shouldalso be checked for weed outbreaks. Sites sprayed with herbicide should bemonitored and treated again during thefollowing growing seasons. Assess effectivenesson treated plants and watch for new shoots fromplants that were missed during the last herbicideapplication.Paul Lennon78

Identifying new outbreaks of asparagus weedsand acting quickly to control them ensuresthat extensive root mats are prevented fromestablishing.Case study: Dog walkers unite! TacklingAsparagus aethiopicus and other weeds onthe dunes at Sunshine Beach, QueenslandAt Sunshine Beach, regular follow-up controlof Asparagus aethiopicus is critically importantas seed continues to spread in from nearbysuburbia. New asparagus seedlings are easiestto remove when they are less than 12 monthsold. The community group revisits each weededsite one month after weeding, then twice peryear, to remove any new weed seedlings andmonitor natural regeneration.For more on this case study, see Section 6 page90.Case study: Protecting rare andendangered species through the controlof Asparagus declinatus and Asparagusasparagoides across South AustraliaIn this region, there is only a brief windowof opportunity to control A. declinatus andA. asparagoides when many sensitive nativeplants are dormant and the asparagus weedsare still active. Many native annuals such asorchids, lilies and ferns withdraw into theirrootstock for a period of summer dormancywith the onset of hotter, drier conditions in midto late spring. The asparagus weeds, with theirlarger tuber and rhizome systems, persist a fewweeks longer on the surface. During this timethey can be sprayed without impacting thedormant native plants. It is important to revisitthe site during the same window of opportunitythe following year to control seedlings andregrowth.Planting to reduce erosion on coastal dunesRestorationRestoring ecosystem health and function is adifficult task, not only because the impact ofweeds might be extensive, but also because naturalecosystems are very complex. Identify the longtermoutcome for your site. If patches of similar,less degraded remnant vegetation can be foundnearby, they can provide a good benchmark for thetype and diversity of species at your site. Healthy,functioning ecosystems are dynamic and can havea high level of resistance to invasion by weeds.Restoring species diversity and structure may helpto restore the benefits of resilience and reduce theneed for intensive ongoing management.Once a weed infestation is effectively controlledit may leave a gap in the structure of the site’svegetation. This gap will naturally be filled witheither opportunistic indigenous species or anothersuite of weed species. In many cases, it is advisableto wait and see what naturally fills the gap beforeproceeding with revegetation. You must beprepared to control any new weeds that emerge.Jeff ThomasFor more on this case study, see Section 6 page97.Site restorationBarry Hart79

Follow-up‘We find the more native cover we can maintain,the better the defence against weed invasion.’Kieran Brewer, South Australian Indigenous Flora.A five-step approach to ecological restorationfollowing weed management has been developedfor Coastal Foredune Shrub and Temperate LittoralRainforest (French 2010) available at www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/bitoubush. This approach can beused as a template for many vegetation types.Wait before commencing replantingactivities unless urgently required. Naturalregeneration of some species can occur,saving resources. Some native species cantake up to 2 years to emerge as a responseto disturbance. Due to the difficulty inpropagating many common native speciesthe only chance for their recovery on siteis through natural regeneration.Natural regenerationThe ability of a site to regenerate naturally dependson its resilience. In many sites, at least some ofthe plant species present before disturbance willregenerate naturally. Natural regeneration takesplace in successional stages. The cycle of naturalsuccession begins after a major disturbance event,such as weed control or fire. The first plants toappear are generally fast growing plants that canquickly germinate, grow and produce a new cropof seeds. These can often be weeds.Five-step approach to ecological restoration (from French 2010)Step 1Step 2Step 3Step 4Step 5Make a species list containing all the plants thatwould have historically been present at the site;define your project goal based on this.Commence weed management according to yoursite management plan.Allow natural regeneration to occur and monitorregrowth.Reassess the site and make species list of plants thatare now growing there; compare this list with thepre-disturbance list to determine which species aremissing.Propagate and plant missing species that do notreturn from seed bank or via natural dispersal.Allow sufficient time for natural regeneration.It can pay to wait and see what emerges overseveral years of natural regeneration, but beprepared to closely monitor and control any newweeds that emerge.Natural regeneration can make importantcontributions to site restoration:• It ensures plants of local provenance regenerate.• Success rates of naturally regenerated plants aregenerally higher than planted seedlings.• It is the most economical form of restoration.• It saves time and effort planting species thatare going to regenerate anyway, allowingtargeting of missing species for propagation andreplanting.• It allows important ecosystem processes tooccur, for example the mass germination ofseedlings followed by natural thinning out untiljust a few strong individual plants remain togrow to maturity.80

The composition of native species growing in somehabitats is not always reflected in the soil-borneseed bank. For instance, 74% of plant speciesgrowing on undisturbed secondary dunes along theNSW south coast are not present in the seed bank(French 2010). For example, Banksia species thatstore their seeds in cones have no propagules in thesoil-stored seed bank. Sites that are heavily infestedwith weeds for many years are likely to have aseverely depleted and less diverse native seed bank.Even if seeds are present, some species may requirea fire or other disturbance event for germination tooccur. Understanding the ecology of the vegetationtype you are working in is very important.Before (above) and after (below) A. africanus controlSite resilienceAssessing your site’s resilience will help youunderstand how much natural regeneration islikely to occur. On most sites, resilience will bedetermined by:• The seed bank in the soil.• The amount and quality of surviving remnantvegetation.• Distance from less disturbed sites that can act asnative seed source.• The severity and time span of disturbance(including the severity and length of time of theweed invasion).• The presence of other degrading factors suchas feral animals, erosion and nutrient enrichedstormwater.• The presence of ecosystem elements such asnative animals that disperse seed or help cyclenutrients through digging the soil.Andrew MeiklejohnIndicative guide to site resilience based on age of weedinfestation (adapted from Bitou Bush Management Manual 2008)LOW | resilience | HIGHNewly colonised by weeds; rich native seed bank; broad rangeof native plant species growing; many adult native plantsavailable to flower and seed.Weed infestation for up to five years; strong native seed bank;some native plants growing; some adult plants available forflowering and seeding.Established weed infestation; native seed bank persisting andviable but only apparent over time; few native plants growingand available for flowering and seeding (monitor and assess).Long established weed infestation; denuded seed bank andfew seeding adults (monitor and assess).81

Follow-upSeed dispersalSeed dispersal is a natural mechanism thatcontributes to site resilience. Seeds disperse in avariety of ways:• Fall at the base of the parent plant or arepropelled to adjacent areas.• Carried short distances by insects or water.• Carried longer distances by birds or mammals.• Blown by the wind or transported in water,sometimes over great distances.revegetation projects can be divided into a six-stepprocess.Six-step approach to revegetationStep 1Step 2Step 3Develop a revegetation plan; incorporate into yourweed management plan – see Section 2.Select a revegetation method.Undertake site preparation (e.g. spot spraying,safety assessment).Seeds that arrive at your site from long distancesare particularly important. They enable naturalregeneration of plant species that disperse fromless disturbed remnants nearby. For this reason,isolated ‘oasis’ sites that do not have good qualityremnant vegetation nearby are disadvantaged andmay require more intensive revegetation works.Step 4Step 5Step 6Order seeds or seedlings and other supplies wellin advance of planting time, organise labour,contractors, volunteers etc.Undertake revegetation activity; plant seedlings,broadcast seed.Monitor revegetation and undertake maintenanceactivities such as watering and weed control.Many of our most invasive weed speciesdisperse seeds over long distances. Regularmonitoring is important to identify anynew weeds that disperse into your site, andcontrol them promptly and appropriately.Propagation, replanting and seedingOnce weeds have been removed it is important thatthey are replaced with native species, otherwisemore weeds may emerge to fill the gap. It ispossible that natural regeneration will not resultin plant diversity equivalent to that present beforedisturbance, even in sites that have high levels ofresilience.If natural regeneration does not occur at a sufficientrate (e.g. in sites prone to erosion) or some ofthe desired species are not able to regeneratenaturally (e.g. from seed bank or via dispersal) andplants are still missing from the site, some level ofrevegetation may be needed. Planting and seedingactivities should be carefully integrated intoyour overall weeding and restoration plan. MostConsiderations when developing arevegetation plan• Which native plant species are you going touse? Comparing the pre-disturbance and actualplant lists from your sites is a good startingpoint, but establishing a comprehensive predisturbancelist is difficult. Use your referencepoint or site as a guide. The final list will alwaysbe dictated by what is available. Consult yoursuppliers and be realistic about what plantspecies can be sourced. Contact your naturalresource management agency or local councilbushcare officer for guidance. Plant lists andguides to plant communities may be availablefor your area. Some useful resources are listedin Section 7 – Further Information.• What is the availability of seed or tube-stockseedlings for the species you have chosen toplant? Can the local native nursery be engagedto propagate species they do not currentlystock or does your group have the ability todo so? Many species of native plants will not82

e available due to difficulties in collecting orpropagating from seed. What is the time lagbetween placing an order with the nursery andavailability of viable seedlings? This can easilytake over 12 months depending on the species.• You may need to consider how important localprovenance is to your project or site. Localprovenance is generally less important forspecies with seed that is naturally dispersedlong distances. With very rare or localisedplants, local provenance may be moreimportant. However, advice should be soughtfrom local plant experts or natural resourcemanagement officer.• If you decide to gather seed and propagateseedlings, this requires appropriate permitsand knowledge of native plant species, as wellas knowledge of when and where to gatherseed and propagation techniques such as seedscarifying. Propagation from cuttings or tissuecloning can be done but consideration forgenetic diversity is required. See Florabank forguidelines on seed collection for revegetationwww.florabank.org.au.• Rare and cryptic species are often overlookedduring restoration programs. It is important toensure recovery of these species to improveplant community resilience. If you decide toinclude these species in revegetation efforts, beaware that they are often difficult to propagate,probably occur naturally at low densities, andmay require specific habitat of very high qualityto survive. If working with threatened plantspecies, always contact the relevant naturalresource management or conservation agency toobtain permits and find out who is working onthat species’ recovery. You may be able to helpeach other.When choosing native plant species to replant, it ispreferable to use locally endemic species. You canensure local provenance by sourcing seeds fromnearby bushland. Try to include rare and crypticspecies in your list to restore healthy biodiversity.Importance of hygieneRevegetation projects can increase the riskof spreading nursery weeds and soil-bornepathogens (e.g. Phytophthera spp.). Beaware and follow correct hygiene protocols.Seed collection will usually require a permitand should be collected according to Florabankguidelines.More information on revegetation methods can befound in the Border Rivers-Gwydir CMA vegetationmanagement guide (see Section 7 – FurtherInformation).Site rehabilitation in erosion-prone, dry orimpoverished soilsWhen planting at sites prone to erosion,excessively dry sites or those with impoverishedsoil, mulching with woodchips may be useful tosupport revegetation work. See Section 3 page48 for important information on composting ormulching asparagus weeds on site.Mulching helps control surface erosion andretain soil moisture, provides habitat for manyanimals, and can improve aesthetics of a siteand reduce the fire risk.Mulch will eventually decompose, so mayneed to be topped up regularly until the site issufficiently regenerated.Mulch also increases nutrient levels in the soilas it decomposes. Beware! While this may bebeneficial in some instances, higher nutrientlevels can have adverse effects on native plantsadapted to low nutrient soils (e.g. heath).Many weeds thrive in high nutrient soils, sothey may gain a competitive advantage overnative plants.As mulch can introduce weed seed, be carefulwhere mulch is sourced.83

Follow-upMonitoringOne of the first activities to conduct at yoursite is monitoring. It will establish a historicalsummary of the before against which you cancompare the after. In other words, it will providea benchmark to assess the progress at the site.To ensure that sufficient time and resources areallocated, monitoring should be included in yourasparagus weed management plan (see section2). Many funding bodies require that some formof monitoring be incorporated into your project.Monitoring results will inform project reportsand provide quality information for promotingyour restoration activities and allowing adaptivemanagement.Monitoring is the systematic gathering ofinformation or data to answer specific questions.It is used to evaluate the progress and effectivenessof your project by comparing information yougather with your goals and objectives. If doneregularly, it will help keep track of progress, showwhat is working and what is not, help you fine tuneyour methods and motivate you as it highlightssuccesses. If you set out clear, achievable andquantifiable goals at the beginning of your project,monitoring will be a relatively straightforward andrewarding activity.Monitoring made easyMonitoring can be simple and achievable. Everytime you visit, you will most likely mentallymonitor some aspect of your site. Monitoring isobserving the vegetation cover, changes sincelast visit, progress of a weed control activity, howmany seedlings have survived or how big they havegrown. The trick is to record these observations ina systematic way that enables measurements andcomparisons to be made.Some tips for good monitoring• Keep a site diary to record yourobservations.• Use simple, consistent methods.• Make note of any recording methods youdevelop, use or change.• Make a series of observations at the same orsimilar times of year.• Monitor before and after weed control andrestoration activities.• Collect and record data as you go; forexample, estimate of the number of plantsremoved during hand weeding.• Collect data from similar but less degradedsites nearby for comparison and reference.• If monitoring methods are simple andclearly documented, it should not matterwho does the monitoring. However, if oneperson is usually responsible for monitoring,consider doing it with another person ormentoring another person for long-termcontinuity.• Seek technical advice before you beginmonitoring.Designing your monitoring questionsKnowing what changes you want to monitor andwhat questions you want answered is the mostimportant part of any monitoring program. It willdetermine what data to collect, how to collect itand how often. Monitoring questions need not becomplex but they must be specific, measurable andclearly defined.Some possible monitoring questions include:• Has the density of the asparagus weedreduced? This could be monitored by measuringthe density of the asparagus weed at a specificpoint at the same time of season over severalyears.84

• Has the coverage or density of nativevegetation increased? This could be measuredat the same time as measuring the density ofasparagus and other weeds.• Which control method is most effective? Toanswer this question, monitor areas wheredifferent control methods are applied andcompare results. Make sure your monitoringmethod is consistent across the different sites.Bitou bush monitoring manualThe Bitou Bush Monitoring Manual – Hugheset al. (2009) outlines a three-tiered approachto monitoring with techniques ranging fromsimple qualitative assessments to robustresearch studies, allowing managers to adoptthe level most suitable to their objectivesand desired outcomes, skills and resources.Available at www.environment.nsw.gov.au/bitouTAP/monitoring.htm.Selecting monitoring locationsHere are some basic principles for choosinglocations to make observations:• Monitoring locations should be easy and safe toaccess.• Establish set monitoring points so that you canreturn to make your observations from exactlythe same spot year after year.• Mark your monitoring points using GPS ormap coordinates, a physical marker such asa stake, or flagging tape tied around a tree ora prominent and permanent feature such as alarge boulder, a fence corner post, the junctionof walking tracks. It pays to mark your pointusing more than one of these methods and torecord the location with a photograph and entryin your site diary.PhotopointsThis is a very simple but effective method ofdocumenting change and progress. Photopoints area series of photographs recording any activity orfeature of your site taken from fixed locations overtime. A picture will indeed speak a thousand wordsto members of your group, the wider communityand funding bodies. But it is not as simple as that.There are limitations to photographic records ofvegetation. It is often difficult to interpret imagesof green on green, so photopoints should alwaysbe accompanied by observational informationor detailed monitoring data such as the densityof plants. Photopoints are particularly useful forrecording the results of weed control on a largeweed infestation over time.Using photopoints requires preparation and asystematic method, supported by meticulouswritten documentation:• Establish and record your photopoint locations;GPS coordinates, compass bearings, postmarkers (see selecting monitoring locations).Give each photopoint a unique number orname.• Return to the same photopoints to recordchanges over time. It is important to use exactlythe same location, face the same direction withthe camera at the same height, at the sametime of day, so that images are comparable. Ifpossible, use the same camera and lens. Alwaysconsider where the sun is and try not to take aphoto into the sun.85

Follow-up• A simplified photopoint method is to use twopermanently installed posts. Rest your cameraon top of one post and place the other post inthe centre of the frame. Include an object ofknown size in the photo for scale. If possibleinclude an identification label for the site. Byrepeating the same method each time, yourphotograph will always be taken from the samespot at the same height in the same directionwith the post for reference.Things to consider with photopointsFor wider shots, include a reference point (orseveral) in the camera frame for orientationand scale; a rocky outcrop, the horizon, theedge of a path, or one of your marker posts.Select a location that dissects the subjectvegetation to show its profile; a cutting, acreek, a path. But remember, vegetationdevelops unique characteristics along fringes.For detail shots, remember your subject willgrow and change over time, so think aboutmultiple close, middle and far distance points.Andew MeiklejohnObserve which direction gives the bestlighting conditions and note the time of day;hint: low sunlight angles in early morningor late afternoon can offer ideal lightingconditions for many bush locations.Install a permanent monitoring markerSuggested photopoint marker specifications• Take lots of photos; digital files are cheap –the moment is lost forever. Make sure youhave a digital filing system that matches yourfield notes so you can easily locate and crossreferenceimages for years to come. Makebackups and make sure others have access tothis priceless archive.Include a site label in your photographsMark Hamilton86

Supporting photopoints with observational dataThe locations you chose for photopoints canalso be used as reference points or quadrats forcollecting observational data that will help interpretthe images and add new and useful information.• At a photopoint location marker, use a tapemeasure or line to permanently mark a circularor rectangular plot (quadrat).Circular photopoint and monitoring plot• Make a list of key species to observe, includingweedy species.• Note frequency, density, coverage or otherfeatures from the list below.• A useful feature to note is the age of plants (e.g.seedlings, juveniles, saplings, adults) to recordrecruitment over time.The Bitou Bush Monitoring Manual hasinstructions on how to set up and collectsupporting data on plant species abundance.Site mapDrawing and maintaining a map (or series ofmaps) of your site is an effective way to help youunderstand your site and is a useful adjunct to thesite diary. It is also a key element to developing agood site management plan (see Section 2). If donesystematically, maps can chart the dynamics ofyour site and successes of your control program.Mapping can be an appealing way to employ themore creative members of your group and engagewith young people.A process for mapping your site:• Start with a base map showing boundaries,basic topography and a few key physicalfeatures such as tracks and waterways.• Each element of your site and control programcan be recorded onto different traces or layersto create overlay maps. This can be done usingtracing paper, overhead projector sheets or byusing computer graphics software.• Record more detailed information on separatelayers super-imposed over the base map,such as distribution of vegetation types, weedinfestations, weed control activities andplantings.• Maps (or layers) can be redrawn and datedregularly or at important stages of your project,then presented in series to show changes.• Monitoring points, photopoints and samplingareas can be recorded on maps.Site diaryA site diary is indispensible for recording detailsabout activities conducted at your site andobservations before and after each activity. It caninclude species lists, animal sightings, observationsabout seasonal changes and climatic conditions.To be most effective, ensure that all site and weedmanagement activities are recorded. Make yourobservations and descriptions as consistent aspossible, so they can be compared across the siteand over time.Site mud map representing locations of photopoint markers87

A set of national core attributes to collectwhen mapping weeds can be accessed onlineat www.weeds.org.au/docs/National_Core_Attributes_for_Weed_Mapping.pdfAt a minimum, information should be collectedfor each of these national core attributes whenmonitoring and reporting at regional, state ornational levels. This will allow your data collectionto be consistent and feed into other monitoringefforts.Terry HemmingwayOther monitoring methodsTransect monitoringThere are a variety of other methods you can useto monitor changes at your site. Some samplingmethods including quadrat and transect monitoring.Details on how to implement these methods can befound in the Bitou Bush Monitoring Manual.Although this level of monitoring may seem highlytechnical, it is worth the effort. Enlist the advice ofsomeone versed in environmental survey methods,get some training, and see what level of monitoringcan be implemented on your site.88

Section 6Case studiesFirst hand experiences in managingdifferent asparagus weedsCase study 1 90Dog walkers unite! Tackling Asparagus aethiopicus and other weeds onthe dunes at Sunshine Beach, QueenslandCase study 2 93Protecting a World Heritage Area from the impacts of Asparagus plumosusand other weeds – the Iluka Nature Reserve storyCase study 3 95Western Cape bridal creeper: a threat to natural ecosystems in the Adelaideand Mount Lofty RangesCase study 4 97Protecting rare and endangered species through the control of Asparagusdeclinatus and Asparagus asparagoides across South AustraliaCase study 5 100Protecting a Ramsar-listed wetland from the impacts of Asparagus africanusCase study 6 103Regenerating the Narrawallee Beach Dunes: controlling Asparagus aethiopicusto restore an Endangered Ecological Community – Bangalay Sand ForestCase study 7 106Managing emerging asparagus weeds on the mid-north coast of New SouthWales – Asparagus virgatus and Asparagus falcatus89

Case study 1Dog walkers unite! Tackling Asparagus aethiopicus and otherweeds on the dunes at SunshineBeach, QueenslandJill Campbell, Sunshine Beach Bushland Care! Asparagus aethiopicus^Case study siteNo Reported Occurrence‘A group of local dog owners/walkers watched thenative plants disappear from the increasingly weedinfested Foreshore Reserve and said to one another,“Somebody should do something”, finally realisingthat the “somebody” was ourselves. So we do.’ JillCampbell, Sunshine Beach Bushland Care.Sunshine Beach Bushland Care was formed bya group of local residents concerned about thedegrading dune system where they regularly walktheir dogs. The group began working in the dunes in2004 with support from Noosa Shire Council. Theirlong-term aim is to eradicate invasive environmentalweeds from Sunshine Beach. In the shorter term,however, containment is more realistic, so insteadthey are aiming for a resilient landscape.Why is Sunshine Beach important?Sunshine Beach sits in an environmentally sensitivearea. A permanent creek, spring fed from perchedlakes, links Noosa National Park to the dunalwildlife habitat corridor. In the 1960s to 70s, thedunes were sand mined and all vegetation stripped.Later, the dunes were replanted with casuarinasand Sphagneticola trilobata (L.) Pruski (Singaporedaisy), a recommended planting at the time. Arange of hardy garden plants also spread in fromnearby holiday beach cottages, the major onesbeing Asparagus aethiopicus (ground asparagus)and Gloriosa superba (glory lily). Eventually, theforeshore and dunes, parks, reserves and vergeswere totally weed-infested. Few native groundcover and understorey plants remained. Nearbyhomes still harbour large numbers of weeds thatcontinue to spread into the reserve.Killing the weeds: easier said than doneAs there was no ‘least degraded area’ to start with,the group decided to confine their initial weedingto a 10,000 m 2 area. Contractors were initiallyemployed to spray impenetrable swathes of A.aethiopicus on the dunes, but this later became alast resort. The problems with spraying included:• Being unable to work in the area until long afterspraying had occurred, as the brittle, sharp,dead asparagus fronds were hazardous.• Asparagus crowns were often so large thatspraying would merely give them a shock andrespraying could not be done effectively untilmonths afterwards.• When the overburden of asparagus wasremoved, G. superba flourished, and thespiky dead asparagus fronds made removingG. superba difficult.Instead of spraying, the group decided thatcrowning was their preferred control method.‘Asparagus crowning’ was pioneered by one of90

Controlling Asparagus aethiopicus at Sunshine Beach ForeshoreReserveAfter asparagus crowning, native seedlings are planted into theremaining asparagus root matstheir group members a decade earlier. Althoughcrowning is slower, it:• enabled them to remove fallen G. superba seed,as well as other weeds and their seeds,• had minimal impact on the little remainingnative vegetation and minimised erosion, and• enhanced natural regeneration as the remainingroot mats help to retain moisture.As A. aethiopicus does not generally flower untilabout 2–3 years after germination and control iseasier when the seedlings are older, the volunteershave a grace period to monitor and controlthe weed. Gloriosa superba is the other mostproblematic weed and it does not have a graceperiod, flowering soon after germination. Constantsurveillance is therefore needed to ensure a holisticmanagement outcome. The constant presence ofgroup members at the site has been crucial to stayon top of these threatening weeds.‘The weed problem is so huge that we realizeit won’t be beaten in our lifetime, but we arepragmatic. We have made a great start andcontinue with rehabilitation, also trying to increasepublic awareness and involvement on many levels.’Jill Campbell, Sunshine Beach Bushland Care.Gaining additional financial support:community grantsWith so many seeds spreading into the reserve, thejob seemed too big a task for the group to tacklealone. Discovering they could apply for grants wasa great windfall. In 2008, the group received anAustralian Government Envirofund grant, whichenabled them to employ weed control contractorsand to raise community awareness. Since then, theyhave secured many other grants, via the AustralianGovernment Caring for our Country Program andfrom local and State government. These grantshave accelerated the rehabilitation program, andsubstantially improved group morale and motivation.Revegetating using local provenance seedGiven the degraded state of the reserve,revegetation was necessary as soon as possible.However, planting too soon meant that followupweeding became a major burden. Hence, thegroup monitored the rate of natural regenerationand responded where needed.For dune stability, and biodiversity resilience, it iscritical to revegetate with a diverse range of plants.Many plants were not available so they grew theirown using local provenance seeds and seedlings.The advantage of propagating their own plantswas that it only required the group’s labour, andallowed them to use grant money to employ weedcontractors and produce community awarenessmaterials.Adding mulch to weeded sites proved futile as thescrub turkeys would scrape it away. Instead, deadasparagus was left to act as mulch to help protectyoung plants and prevent new weed incursions.With a recent Caring for our Country grant, thegroup is trialling a technique whereby watersaturated, folded squares of jute mat (400 × 400mm) are inserted vertically into the front of the91

Once smothered by A. aethiopicus, ground cover plants now growbeneath old casuarinas and trees are starting to regenerateplanting hole to act as a dam wall. The aim is toinsulate the roots and give the plant stability bytrapping sand. A temporary jute mesh is also beingused to hold the dune structure.Follow-up monitoring and control: make theeffort worthwhileFollow-up weeding is critically important as seedcontinues to spread from nearby suburbia. Thegroup revisits each site a month after weeding, thentwice per year, to remove any new weed seedlingsand monitor natural regeneration. They also revisitspecifically at flowering times. To minimise futurespread, the group collects any asparagus seedladen fronds and G. superba seed pods they find inadjoining areas.‘Be patient. If you look for quick results, you’ll bedisappointed.’Raising community awareness andunderstandingGrants also enabled the group to developcommunity awareness products. Volunteersapplied 1000 weed identification stickers to eachwheelie bin in Sunshine Beach and these have onlybeen removed from two known bins to date. TheNoosa Shire Council considered the wheelie binstickers to be so successful that they have printed2000 more stickers and provided them to othercommunity groups across the region.The group also erected weed identification signsat the reserve entrances and they wear T-shirtsidentifying their group when they are workingin the reserve. They stop and talk to gardenSunshine Beach Bushland Care volunteers working to restore thedegraded dunes at Sunshine Beachcontractors working in nearby residences andpeople walking in the reserve and generally receivea positive response. They also deliver newsletters tokeep the community informed and have produceda informational DVD.Since the program began, many new people havevolunteered their time to help, including schoolgroups looking to provide community services.With a committed, core group of about 15 people,and another 50 or so less frequent volunteers, theyare able to keep a close eye on the site and rapidlyrespond to emerging weeds or other issues.‘The only way it’s going to get done is withcommunity volunteers.’Taking a step back to see what they’veachieved!While they acknowledge that management is avery long-term process, the group is already beingrewarded with positive results. The project providesthem with good exercise, good camaraderieand a sense of worth in doing something for thecommunity and for environmental resilience.‘…when the sand goannas, skinks and coucalpheasants return and move through the previouslyimpenetrable areas it is very satisfying. Whenthe wrens and finches chatter in the grasses andunderstorey it makes you smile, but when theblack cockatoos can eat banksias and casuarinanuts from trees we have grown from seed… itmakes your heart glad.’ Jill Campbell, SunshineBeach Bushland Care.92

Case study 2Protecting a World Heritage Area from the impacts of Asparagusplumosus and other weeds – the Iluka Nature Reserve storyJeff Thomas and Steve Hodgson, National Parks andWildlife Service, New South WalesMartyn Swain, Clarence Valley CouncilKay Jeffery, Iluka Landcare GroupSince 1996, the Iluka Landcare Group with supportfrom NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service(NPWS) have been controlling Asparagus plumosusand other weeds within Iluka Nature Reserve aspart of an 800 ha landscape restoration project.Iluka Nature Reserve contains 90 ha of LittoralRainforest, the largest remaining remnant of thisendangered community in NSW. The nature reserveis of such high conservation value that it is listedas a World Heritage Area as part of the GondwanaRainforests of Australia.Site historyFor many years, the Iluka Landcare Group andNPWS were concerned about the ever-increasingdegradation of the reserve’s natural values whichwas primarily caused by multi-species weedinvasion and disturbance from previous landuses. By the mid-1990s, the problem was at astage where the reserve was being considered forremoval of its World Heritage Area status. Localresources were vastly inadequate to deal with theextent and severity of the problems.Weed invasion had altered the structural andfloristic composition of the rainforest and nearbyvegetation and was preventing natural regeneration.Weeds such as Asparagus plumosus, bitou bushand lantana were extremely prevalent. Infestationsof other potentially devastating weeds such asMadeira vine, A. aethiopicus and Aristolochiaelegans also occurred. Regrowth of Leptospermumlaevigatum, an Australian species not native tothe area that was planted after sandmining, waspreventing the regeneration of prime koala habitaton the reserve edge.! Asparagus plumosus^Case study siteNo Reported OccurrenceAsparagus plumosus was the major threat tothe rainforest, with dense infestations coveringthe ground and climbing up trees. In 1988 15ha were infested, with 8 ha containing densitylevels of 50%–100% ground cover. By early 1997the infestation had increased to 30 ha, with halfcontaining dense infestations and the remainderconsisting of many outlying scattered infestations ofindividual plants and small clumps.In December 1996, the Iluka Landcare Group withsupport from NPWS was successful in gaining$79,700 in funding from the NSW Government’sEnvironmental Trust for a bush regeneration projectcentred on Iluka Nature Reserve.Setting priorities and developing a planRevised mapping of all weeds conducted in 1997outlined the extent and severity of the infestations.Even with the large grant received, the groupwould be unable to deal fully with the scale of theproblems, so priorities had to be set.These priorities considered: 1) threats posedby weed infestation; 2) area, species and levelof infestation; 3) resources available; 4) ability,enthusiasm, expertise and interests of participants;and 5) requirements for follow-up work afterproject conclusion.93

Asparagus plumosus is thepriority weed being managedwithin Iluka Nature ReserveBitou bush (above) and many otherweeds are being managed as part ofa holistic management programA plan was developed by NPWS and the IlukaLandcare Group which allocated resources andresponsibilities. As envisaged, the majority of thefunds were for a bush regeneration contract whichfocused on the arduous and technically demandingjob of controlling the A. plumosus infestations inthe reserve and the multi-species infestations on thereserve margins fronting the urban areas.Due to the existing and potential impact of A.plumosus, it was targeted as the major priority forcontract work. The approach was for all treatmentareas to receive an initial and two follow-uptreatments with specific targets to be met. Thepurpose was to undertake as thorough a treatmentas possible to reduce the threat to the rainforest andbush and minimise follow-up.The method adopted was to initially cut the vinesat head height, which were climbing into thecanopy, and to recut the vines at ground leveland then spray the regrowth. This initial treatmentwas extremely time consuming. Vines were cutover a 3–4 month period commencing in winter1997 and then sprayed the following autumnwinterwhen regrowth was 10–15 cm high. A 1:50glyphosate:water mixture with the additive Li-700 ®was used to minimise off-target damage and thevolume of herbicide used. Many plants were alsocrowned, hand removed and hung to dry.Follow-up monitoring and controlAfter two years, the asparagus infestations wereless than 5% of their original densities andregeneration of rainforest seedlings was abundant.Follow-up occurred annually over the next 5 yearsAsparagus plumosus vines were cut at head height, then at groundlevel, and regrowth sprayedand concentrated where the densest infestationsoriginally existed. Plants missed previously andnewly emerged seedlings were targeted.Over the last 8 years, work has continued asneeded at intervals of 1–4 years. Small amountsof new asparagus seedlings or juvenile plantshave been treated, often by Iluka Landcare Groupmembers. Other features of the project includedtraining the community group in bush regenerationtechniques, creating awareness and support inthe local and broader community and involvingvolunteer groups to support the Iluka LandcareGroup’s work on multiple sites.SuccessAsparagus plumosus infestations are less than 1%of original infestation levels in the Iluka NatureReserve. The program has expanded to treat weedinfestations on nearby public land, in cooperationwith Clarence Valley Council, and a successfulpilot program was run to provide free weedcontrol for private residences. This project is partof a wider landscape restoration project spanning800 ha of heavily weed-infested area that includesIluka Nature Reserve, Bundjalung National Parkand public lands managed by Clarence ValleyCouncil. Restoration has now been implementedover approximately 80% of the 800 ha projectarea by all three levels of government, IlukaLandcare Group, and other volunteers. A longterm,systematic and persistent effort is essential toachieving restoration aims.94

Case study 3Western Cape bridal creeper: athreat to natural ecosystems in theAdelaide and Mount Lofty RangesTracey Hardwicke, Natural Resources AMLR,Department of Environment, Water and NaturalResources, Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges^! Asparagus asparagoidesCase study siteNo Reported OccurrenceBridal creeper is well known as a plant thatsmothers native vegetation, affecting both thecanopy and understorey. The common form iswidespread throughout the Adelaide and MountLofty Ranges (AMLR) region. Biocontrols such asthe rust fungus (Puccinia myrsiphylli) are very usefulin reducing the impacts of the common bridalcreeper.The Western Cape form of bridal creeper is largerand more vigorous than the common form.Unfortunately the rust fungus does not affect theWestern Cape form and it may replace commonbridal creeper, undoing years of successful control.Natural Resources AMLR helps protect the region’sparks, reserves and bushlands through programsthat target weed threats to natural ecosystems. Oneof the highest priorities is the eradication programfor Western Cape bridal creeper.An eradication targetThe Western Cape form is not widespread in theAMLR region. It currently affects a small area in theregion’s north, infesting public and private lands.This is one of only two areas in Australia affectedby Western Cape bridal creeper, with the otherspanning the South Australian-Victorian border.Due to the threat, impacts and small size of theinfestation, Western Cape bridal creeper has been aneradication target in the AMLR region since 2007.Western Cape bridal creeper plants were initiallyidentified in Angove Conservation Park in Tea TreeGully in 2006. A survey of the broader area wasundertaken in 2007 and control initiated. The maininfested areas were Anstey Hill Recreation Park andproperties along Range Road. The area is generallycovered with low eucalypt woodland with eithera heath or grassy understorey. The terrain is hillywith steep rocky gullies and several old quarries.This makes conditions treacherous for contractorsand requires the use of safety harnesses. AffectedThe underground tubers are the best defining characteristic ofWestern Cape bridal creeper, forming a tight rosette around therhizomes that grow close to the ground surfaceThe leaves of Western Cape bridal creeper are generally larger, thickerand darker than the common form95

Grubbing became the preferred method for controlling matureWestern Cape bridal creeperareas are also sometimes infested with gorse orblackberry, prickly weeds that create difficultconditions for the detailed searching required.Approach to managementTrials were undertaken early to identify the bestcontrol approach. Grubbing was selected tocontrol mature plants, as it was a far more effectivethan spraying. While plants were suppressed andprevented from fruiting the following season,the herbicide did not kill these plants andthey eventually re-established. Seedlings weresuccessfully controlled using glyphosate (450 g/kg)at a rate of 1:100 water, plus wetting agent.The initial cost for grubbing is expensive but it isfar more efficient in the longer term. Masses ofseedlings germinate after removal of mature tubersand these are spot sprayed. This combination ofgrubbing mature plants and spot spraying seedlingsis a more targeted approach that reduces the risk ofoff-target damage to native lilies and orchids, whichare active at the same time of year as the controlprogram. To further manage this risk, specialisedbushcare contractors are engaged.Natural Resources AMLR works closely with theCity of Tea Tree Gully and Adelaide Hills Councils.Many volunteer groups, such as the Friends ofAnstey Hill and North East Hills EnvironmentalConservation Association, also contributesignificantly to control in public areas. The AMLRNRM Board successfully secured funding via theAustralian Government Caring for our Countryinitiative for Natural Resources AMLR staff toimplement this high priority program. These fundsOne of many dense infestations of Western Cape bridal creepergrowing in the AMLR region, prior to controlwere used to employ specialised contractors toconduct on-ground works. Public awarenessactivities are also part of the program and are veryimportant for private landholders.‘It is vital to have community input and support anda committee has been formed to facilitate this.’Key challenges and successesOccasional new outlying plants are still beinglocated, but these are usually single plants ratherthan established sites.In this region, Western Cape bridal creeperthreatens an area of 1400 ha and over 150 privateproperties. Natural Resources AMLR surveys thearea annually and controls all plants. Due to theeradication status of this weed, and the importanceof finding and removing every plant, these servicesare offered to landowners free of charge. Liaisonwith landowners to gain access and carry out ongroundworks is intensive.In 2007, 15 tonnes of tubers were grubbed fromthe area and disposed of by deep burial. In 2011and 2012, close to two tonnes of tubers wereremoved, as the thickest, densest and easiest to findinfestations were removed early in the program.‘Remaining plants are now harder to find andmuch more on-ground searching is involved,especially in the more difficult to access terrain.’The program is clearly getting closer to eradicatingWestern Cape bridal creeper from the AMLR region,but a continued, long-term effort must be sustained.96

! Asparagus declinatus^! Asparagus asparagoidesCase study siteNo Reported Occurrencerequires detailed understanding of plant life cycles,soil types and climatic conditions.In the Adelaide Hills and Fleurieu Peninsularegions, many native annuals such as orchids, liliesand ferns withdraw into their rootstock for a periodof summer dormancy with the onset of hotter, drierconditions in mid to late spring. The asparagusweeds, with their larger tuber and rhizome systems,persist a few weeks longer on the surface. Duringthis time they can be sprayed without impacting thedormant native plants.Spraying with a strong solution at this stage oftheir cycle has proven particularly effective, asthe herbicide is drawn down into the rootstock.However, younger seedlings fade earlier in theseason and are likely to be missed. It is importantto revisit the site during the same window ofopportunity the following year to manage seedlings.‘If the project runs for three to four years, you’vegot a good chance of picking up all the weeds.’Refining the techniqueKnapsack foliar spraying using metsulfuron-methylat 5–7 g per 100 L is the preferred application.A surfactant is added, which makes the herbicidego further and helps penetrate the waxy asparagusfoliage. Fine spray nozzles are used on the veryfine foliage of A. declinatus which enables theoperator to apply small hits onto little patches andavoid overspray. Dye is used to keep careful trackof applications.‘Metsulfuron-methyl is very effective on A.declinatus and A. asparagoides. Glyphosate willwork but it is less selective and can do a lot of offtargetdamage.’Instead, glyphosate is used to treat watsonia(Watsonia meriana var. bulbillifera) and Africancornflag (Chasmanthe floribunda (Salisb.) N.E.Br.)using similar principles to those for asparagusweeds.Reading the sites – timing is keyThere is a lot of variation from site to site, soeach must be assessed individually and itsconditions understood. During the brief window ofopportunity, usually in October to early November,the work is intensive. As rainfall and temperaturevary from year to year, so does the timing. Thismakes it difficult to forward plan and covermultiple, dispersed sites. For example, plants willdry off earlier at sites with a northerly aspect or onexposed heights and will linger longer at sites witha southerly aspect or in sheltered valleys where it iscooler and wetter.Soil type and weather conditions affect how longmetsulfuron-methyl has a residual activity in thesoil. When to control must be carefully plannedaround predicted weather conditions to limitdamage to off-target plants. Typically, there is atwo-week dry spell after spring rain events, givingsufficient time for the herbicide to become inert.98

Asparagus asparagoides before treatment in grey box grassywoodland, Belair National Park, Mount Lofty Ranges, SAAdditional time is needed in acid soils as thechemical is more persistent. Soils rich in organicmatter tie up the chemical and prevent it fromaffecting other plants.There is a high level of knowledge and expertiserequired to use metsulfuron-methyl effectivelyin bushland settings. Excessively high rates,heavy applications, wet conditions and limitedunderstanding of soil types and native ecology canlead to devastating off-target damage.Making bushcare everyone’s businessSAIF director, Kieran Brewer, sees bushcare projectsas an opportunity to share knowledge about nativeplants, ecology and weed management.‘You work with people who really know theirplants. Volunteers have got a strong connectionwith their conservation site, their heart’s in it,they’ve got intimate knowledge and they’re greatto work with.’A project running in the Mt Lofty Rangesdemonstrates that working closely with acommunity group can disseminate skills, buildlong-term capacity and manage fragile species.The Woodcutters Road Environmental ProtectionAssociation, formed to conserve natural heritagevalues across their adjoining properties, whichcontain some high-value bushland, managesthe project. A spectrum of weeds is presentincluding A. asparagoides. Weed control bycontractors is into its fourth year. Populations ofGrey box grassy woodland, Belair National Park, Mount Lofty Ranges,South Australianationally endangered pink-lipped spider-orchids(Caladenia behrii Schltdl.) and stiff white spiderorchids(Caladenia rigida R.S.Rogers) are carefullymanaged. An integral contribution is being madeby a community member who was mentored by aNRM Officer, received training and now monitorsthe progress of every single plant, recordingpopulation, flower count and seed set.Achieving successMaintaining focus on the core outcomes ofpreserving rare species and building the resilienceof native vegetation has been the key to successwith SAIF’s projects. Weed management isalways conducted within this context and controltechniques are carefully selected and timed to limitdamage to existing native vegetation.Over the course of weed management, sites arecarefully monitored and documented, usingmultiple photopoints, mapping, written reportseach season and site visits with clients to discussprogress. After sufficient time has passed to showweed control objectives have been met, a finalinspection with the client usually concludesthe sign-off process. Long-term monitoring andmaintenance is then continued by the client, oftenby a dedicated community group.‘Instead of weeds you see all the native plant coveryou’d ever want.’99

Case study 5Protecting a Ramsar-listedwetland from the impacts ofAsparagus africanusBrisbane City Council! Asparagus africanus^Case study siteNo Reported OccurrenceBrisbane City Council (BCC) has been controllingAsparagus africanus (climbing asparagus) for thepast 5 years within the Boondall Wetlands toprotect these valuable coastal wetlands from totalcanopy destruction. Having largely containedthe problem, they are now shifting their focusto reducing the volume of asparagus within theReserve.Faced with a suite of over 450 potential or presentweed species and an area of 8000 ha of naturalareas to manage, BCC must prioritise weedmanagement activities to specific weed species andareas. Asparagus africanus has most recently beendeclared a class C or widespread pest that is to becontrolled when within or adjacent to natural areasunder the Brisbane Invasive Species ManagementPlan 2013–2017.Asparagus africanus is recognised as a seriousthreat to ecosystem function within theBoondall Wetlands Reserve and is targeted moreaggressively as a result.The Boondall Wetlands lie at the edge of theMoreton Bay Ramsar Site, which is one ofAustralia’s largest Ramsar sites and is internationallyimportant to migratory shorebirds. The Wetlandsare extremely diverse, with over 1000 ha of tidalflats, mangroves, salt marshes, melaleuca swamps,casuarina forests, grasslands, open eucalypt forestsand woodlands. This diverse landscape supports ahuge variety of plants and animals, many of whichare rare and endangered.What is the problem?In the past, a range of weeds (most notablygroundsel bush – Baccharis halimifolia L.) havedisturbed the Wetlands and been managedthrough a species-led approach. During the mostrecent period of drought, A. africanus expandedrapidly, threatening the structure and integrityof the established canopy. By the time this wasrecognised, A. africanus had heavily infestedan estimated 100 ha of the reserve. Infestationsoccurred predominantly within the melaleucaswamps and casuarina forests, where entirecurtains of the weed were forming and creatingimpenetrable barriers. The weed was alsocolonising the neighbouring eucalypt woodlandareas at a rapid rate.‘The wetlands are extremely sensitive todisturbance and have limited access options.Control activities therefore needed to strike abalance between reducing weed species vigourand limiting disturbance.’This was never more evident than when BCCattempted to use large groups of workers, workingin lines, to manually remove asparagus crowns byhand in Boondall Wetlands. Though this chemicalfree approach was effective in suppressing weeds,there was an unfortunate unintended consequenceof damage being caused to regenerating and100

was considered to be very effective at killingA. africanus with little damage to other plants.Crowning involves either cutting and removingthe crown directly from the adjoining root systemor cutting into the crown and applying herbicide.Initially, fluroxypyr or glyphosate was used but,more recently, fluroxypyr has been abandonedas it was considered to be no more effective thanglyphosate for this purpose.5. Managing other invasive vinesIpomoea cairica (mile a minute) is the otherinvasive vine in these areas that requires aggressivemanagement. It is managed in the same way asA. africanus except that 2,4-D-based products areused as they are considered to be more effectivethan fluroxypyr-based chemicals.Follow-up monitoring: making the effortworthwhileUntil 2010, there were only anecdotal indicatorsof any real success. After this, new assessment andmonitoring practices were implemented. Withinthe reserves, the exact frequency and volumeof treatment to be undertaken varies. However,history indicates that a minimum of four individualinterventions per growing season are required toensure positive success. Since 2008, a clear trendtowards better recruitment of native plant speciesand a reduction in A. africanus density has beenobserved. Annual site evaluations are conductedto assess the overall increase or reduction inweed densities as well as other outcomes such asdisturbance created through treatment and weedhygiene management practices.After Asparagus africanus control it looks like the weed is gone, butfollow-up monitoring and control is now critical to ensure that it staysthat wayPhoto-monitoring is used at these locations, butwith limited success to date due to:• seasonal variation causing difficultydistinguishing between weeds and desirablevegetation in photos,• symptoms of recent herbicide damagedemonstrating short-term weed suppressionin photos that may not necessarily translate tolong-term management,• difficulty in observing species succession from alandscape photograph, and• pickets or other markers used to guide thephotographer back to the same location oftenbeing moved or stolen.To enhance monitoring efforts, steps are nowunderway to set up mounted time-lapse camerasand permanent transects.Brisbane City Council has also commenced aproactive weed survey program that employscontractors to assemble a complete inventory ofpriority weeds within core reserves to developa strategic framework for their management andprovide a baseline measurements. Boondall Reservewas a pilot site for this activity in 2011 and wasmonitored again in 2013. The 2013 survey indicatedthat, since 2011, there was a 20% reduction of A.africanus in most parts of the site and limited tono increase in infestations in adjoining areas. Theaim set by Brisbane City Council to contain andgradually reduce A. africanus within these areas isclearly being realised.102

Case study 6Regenerating the Narrawallee Beach Dunes: controllingAsparagus aethiopicus to restore an Endangered EcologicalCommunity – Bangalay Sand ForestAlasdair Stratton and Kerry Thompson, ShoalhavenCity Council; Wendy Fuller, Narrawallee BushcareGroup, New South WalesThe Narrawallee Foreshore and Reserves BushcareGroup have been managing Asparagus aethiopicuswithin the local dunes since 2005 to protect thedunes from further degradation by this weed.The group’s long-term aim is to encourageregeneration of the native understorey, improvelocal biodiversity and increase the resilience ofthe dunes.Narrawallee Beach dunes are located along thesouth coast of New South Wales and sit just southof the 880 ha Narrawallee Creek Nature Reserve.The fore-dune vegetation consists primarily ofCoastal Foredune Scrub. The hind-dune area isdominated by Bangalay Sand Forest, which is listedas an Endangered Ecological Community under theNew South Wales Threatened Species ConservationAct 1995.What is the problem and how are theymanaging it?The dunes were heavily disturbed during the earlyresidential sub-division of Narrawallee Beachtownship and the vegetation was degraded asa result. Over time, large areas of the BangalaySand Forest understorey had been invaded bydense infestations of A. aethiopicus, up to 90%of the understorey in some sections. Asparagusaethiopicus had reached such a high density thatit was completely suppressing regeneration ofgerminating native species, which was causing theBangalay Sand Forest to senesce. This promptedthe Narrawallee Foreshore and Reserves BushcareGroup to act.^! Asparagus aethiopicusCase study siteNo Reported OccurrenceGain financial supportThe Narrawallee Foreshore and Reserves BushcareGroup, with support from Shoalhaven City Council,applied for funding and received two successiveAustralian Government Envirofund grants. The grantfunding was used to pay professional contractorsto conduct initial control activities in areas of highweed density which were beyond the capacity ofthe volunteers. This was a great help, as the grouphad limited labour resources to draw upon.Control the weed and encourage native plantregenerationTo encourage native plant regeneration andincrease resilience at the site, the group undertooktwo phases of control. Primary control focused onremoving A. aethiopicus from a contained 7.5 haarea of the foredune and hind dune zones. Of thisarea, about 2.3 ha had high density infestations ofA. aethiopicus and the remaining area had mediumto light density infestations.Contractors were employed to manually controlthe 2.3 ha of dense infestation. They did this byremoving the crown and leaving the root matand tubers in the ground. The group insisted that103

In 2005, Asparagus aethiopicus dominated the Bangalay SandForest understoreyonly hand removal was to be undertaken for twomain reasons: spraying would lead to hectaresof dry, dead fronds that could be a fire hazardand removing the crowns would allow maximumnatural regeneration.Despite being more resource intensive, manualcontrol techniques were selected by preference, asthe group considered these methods would betterencourage native plant regeneration in the area.As a trial, they also chemically treated a small 20 ×10 m zone using metsulfuron-methyl. They foundthat this method was effective in controlling A.aethiopicus, but asparagus seedlings continued togerminate from the soil-stored seed bank and therewas little to no regeneration of native seedlings.The number and diversity of native seedlingsthat naturally regenerated over the next 5 yearswas substantially less in this area compared withwhere they had manually controlled the weed.It should be noted that spraying of the trial areawas undertaken in the middle of a prolongeddry period of 10 years, with lower than averagerainfall occurring. Although metsulfuron-methylhas been used successfully to control asparagusweeds in other environments, the fact that it causedsuch detrimental impacts here highlighted theimportance of conducting a small-scale trial underthese specific climatic and ecological conditions,before attempting to use it more broadly.‘There was almost no regeneration of endemics(where A. aethiopicus was sprayed) until thepresent very wet season, yet there was amazingnatural regeneration everywhere else in theWorking together, the volunteers and contractors removed manytruckloads of Asparagus aethiopicusimmediate vicinity.’ Wendy Fuller, NarrawalleeForeshore and Reserves Bushcare Group.Follow-up monitor and control for many yearsto comeFollowing primary control efforts, the groupcontinued to look for and manually removeany new seedlings over the next 2 to 5 years.This proved to be an exercise in patienceand perseverance, with seedlings continuallygerminating from the vast seed bank. For ease ofcontrol, they waited until the leaves had formedbefore removing the seedlings, since researchindicated that they would not set flower and fruitwithin the first 2 years. This meant they couldconcentrate on removing only larger seedlingsduring each sweep of the site, but checking toensure that no seedlings were allowed to flower.‘Trying to remove the smallest seedlings wastedtime and effort as more often than not thesmall fronds would break off and, with the highlikelihood that they would re-shoot, we’d have toreturn to remove them a season or two later. Weused our available time on the greatest threat.’Wendy Fuller, Narrawallee Foreshore and ReservesBushcare Group.To remove asparagus seedlings during thesesecondary control and maintenance stages, thegroup used a simple 3-pronged garden hand forkwith the outside prongs ground off, turning it intoa type of hook. They found it created minimal104

disturbance and made their work faster, easier andsafer than using a knife or folding saw. It is no goodfor removing large plants, however.Control efforts were conducted during a longperiod of drought, which may have influenced theeffectiveness of different control techniques and therate of native plant regeneration. Since the droughtbroke in 2011, the group has observed an increasein the number and diversity of native plant speciesthat have germinated.Although no formal before and after monitoringhas been conducted, members of the NarrawalleeBushcare Group have maintained a constantpresence on the site since they commencedcontrol, and have watched the site change overtime. Casual observations from the group indicatethat the percentage and abundance of groundcover species has increased on the dunes, withvarious species of terrestrial orchids being observedgerminating for the first time.Deal with other weed incursionsIn the same area, Pittosporum undulatum Vent.(sweet pittosporum) had become dominant in thelower and mid-storey, and appeared to be alteringthe diversity of the Bangalay Sand Forest. Althoughnative to Australia, P. undulatum is a semi-rainforestpioneer that may be responding to changes in soilmoisture and fire regimes.As a result of this, Shoalhaven City Councilprepared a Review of Environmental Factors (REF)into the possibility of undertaking a staged controlprogram of P. undulatum at Narrawallee. The REFBy 2012, the densest infestations of Asparagus aethiopicus have beenremoved and native plants are regenerating in the once degradedNarrawallee Beach Dunessuggested using a combination of controlled burns,manual control and cut paint or direct injectionusing neat glyphosate. They are also replanting10% of the eucalypts each year to augment naturalregeneration.Some secondary weed invasion, mainly from Liliumformosanum A.Wallace (Formosan lily), has alsooccurred where A. aethiopicus has been controlled.Narrawallee Foreshore and Reserves BushcareGroup are controlling this using a snip-drip methodwith neat glyphosate and it has taken 5 years toreach a point where L. formosanum infestationshave been significantly reduced to less than 20% ofthe original population.Enjoy the success, but keep a watchful eyeWithin 7 years, the group has achieved its initialaim of removing the densest infestations of A.aethiopicus, and is maintaining the effort bymonitoring the site annually to ensure that it doesnot re-establish again. Native plant regeneration isalready occurring in the once degraded parts of theforedune vegetation as well as the Bangalay SandForest Endangered Ecological Community. This willhelp build resilience against future invasion of thisor other weeds.‘Natural regeneration has surpassed all ourexpectations and we are also witnessing the returnof several species of ground orchid and smallbirds.’ Wendy Fuller, Narrawallee Foreshore andReserves Bushcare Group.105

Case study 7Managing emerging asparagus weeds on the mid-north coastof New South Wales – Asparagus virgatus andAsparagus falcatusPeter Michael, Port Macquarie-Hastings CouncilAsparagus falcatus (sicklethorn) and A. virgatus aretwo emerging asparagus weeds that are currentlybeing managed by Port Macquarie-HastingsCouncil. Whilst they are in low abundancerelative to other vines and scramblers, the Councilis working to ensure they remain ‘[two] lesstransforming vine weeds they have to worry about’.For A. falcatus, Council’s objective is to eradicatethe weed in all instances. It is in the early phaseof establishment (sparse, isolated infestations,largely not yet naturalised) and eradication of theseinfestations is feasible and desirable based on thepotential impact if left unmanaged. By comparison,A. virgatus is more widespread and more difficultto control than A. falcatus. Therefore, Council aimsinstead to protect priority areas from this weed (i.e.areas of high conservation value), and in so doing,target resources systematically (e.g. locate, map,control, monitor) to prevent further spread andgradually reduce local infestations.What is the problem?Asparagus falcatus displaces native vines andscramblers in a range of ecological communities,is tolerant of a wide range of site conditions (e.g.coastal wind, salt water near the root zone, fullsun to deep shade, variable substrata) and isspread by birds and other animals. It, therefore,has the potential to spread widely and invade arange of coastal environments, including cliffs andheadlands, littoral rainforest and wet sclerophyllforest. Infestations usually consist of an established‘parent’ plant (founder) with diffuse cohorts spreadup to 150 m away, but it is likely that the range of! Asparagus falcatus^! Asparagus virgatusCase study sitebird dispersal is much further. Although A. falcatusis quite distinct at maturity, at the seedling stageits sickle-shaped cladodes can be mistaken forother native seedlings such as Morinda jasminoidesA.Cunn. or Podocarpus elatus R.Br. ex Endl.Asparagus virgatus causes impacts to native groundcover and understorey plants. It is capable ofinvading almost all ecological communities thatoccur along coasts and coastal plains. It forms adense mat of water-hogging roots that can preventthe germination and establishment of other species.The root systems and foliage often co-mingle withdesirable vegetation, making access for digging andoff-target damage from foliar spraying problematic.The fine, fern-like foliage provides little surfacearea on which to apply chemicals. Infestations canspread beneath tree roots, rocks and logs, makingphysical removal very difficult.Both species grow in a range of coastalenvironments and can germinate in conditionsfrom full sun to more than 80% canopy closure.How are they managing the problem?Port Macquarie-Hastings Council is activelymanaging these two weeds in public bushland,106

This A. virgatus has recovered from a recent flood that covered it insilt and water. As its roots are heavily mingled with rainforest treeroots, digging is not feasible, so foliar spray will initially be appliedroad reserves and Asset Protection Zones and onprivate land by way of landholder engagementand education. Given the biological differencesbetween the two species, the approach tomanagement has also differed.Asparagus falcatusTo date, all located individuals of A. falcatus havebeen accessible and able to be treated. Whendetected, a first attempt is made to locate theinfestation source by ground-based inspection ofthe surrounding area. This is easier in bushlandareas, but much more difficult in urban and periurbanareas. Delimiting infestations of new andemerging weeds remains extremely resourceconstrainedand surveys may under estimate thetrue extent of the weed. Consideration is givento factors such as the likely vector(s) of dispersal,proximity-to-patch (the ‘pull factor’) and possiblecorridors and stepping-stones for seed dispersal atthe sub-landscape level. When located, records aremapped into a GIS layer to make later treatmenteasier as well as increase the understanding ofpossible sub-landscape level distribution patterns.For a given infestation, all cohorts are treatedwithin 12 months of detection. Plants aretypically treated by using the ‘crowning’ method(crown removal) and removing as much fruit aspracticable. Stems are left hanging out of contactwith the soil. If resource constraints do not allowfor removal in the first instance, foliar applicationof herbicide may be used to retard growth (and killoff some individuals) and limit further impact.Asparagus falcatus growing in marginal Casuarina glauca forestnear Lake Cathie, New South WalesAlthough more time consuming, Council has foundthat crowning is entirely effective and preferablewhen working in marginal swamp oak andriparian areas, when herbicide application may beunsuitable or undesirable.After an initial treatment, sites are usually revisitedwithin 1 to 6 months for any necessary retreatment.Ongoing monitoring is implemented and the sitetreated annually to remove any new individualsand – in bushland areas – facilitate naturalregeneration.To date, only small infestations of A. falcatus havebeen found and ‘best practice’ methods are beingused to locate, map, control, and monitor all sites.If the situation were to get ‘worse’ (i.e. increasein abundance and/or impact) and many denseinfestations were found, council would revise weedrisk assessments and adopt a different approachto management that focuses on protecting priorityareas. This may mean the focus shifts from a solelyeradication-centred technique being applied inall cases (labour intensive crowning and removal)to a combination of techniques that reflect thedual objectives of targeted eradication on somesites (typically outliers and new infestations) andsuppression/gradual reduction on others (large/founder populations). These integrated techniquesmay include crowning, basal barking and foliarspraying. However, eradication remains the goal atpresent.107

Asparagus virgatus single crown separated from running rhizomeNote: crowning knife is approximately 300 mm longAsparagus virgatus crowns connectedAsparagus virgatusPhysical removal of this weed is often verydifficult, due to the way in which its root systemcan spread beneath the roots of nearby vegetationas well as other objects such as rocks, logs andother structures (e.g. fences). Most infestationsare therefore being suppressed using foliar spraytreatments with hand gun application of 5–15 gmetsulfuron-methyl per 100 L water plus theadjuvant Pulse ® . While the lower rate gives aslower, but higher percentage kill, it can limitthe suite of other weeds that can be controlled.Therefore, under average conditions where a rangeof weeds may be targeted (e.g. other asparagusweeds, Lantana camara, Chrysanthemoidesmonilifera (bitou bush), Nephrolepis cordifolia(L.) Presl (fishbone fern), Ageratina adenophora(Spreng.) R.M.King & H.Rob. (crofton weed), andRubus fruticosus aggregate (blackberry)), 10–15 grates are usually applied.The treatment is monitored for efficacy andthoroughness and, within 6–12 months after initialcontrol, follow-up foliar spraying or grubbing(where appropriate) is undertaken. With thisapproach, the council is gradually reducing theextent of each patch and preventing plants fromflowering and setting seed.Two less weeds to worry aboutPort Macquarie-Hastings Council uses GIS to helpmap and monitor the reduction in the extent andabundance of these two weeds.Asparagus virgatus two crowns, connected by rhizomeAsparagusstemsTree rootRhizomeAsparagus virgatus stems and rhizomes running beneath tree root‘In every instance we approach the managementof Asparagus falcatus and A. virgatus from thesame perspective – that is, we weigh up the costof managing a small problem now versus a largeproblem later.’ Peter Michael, Port Macquarie-Hastings Council.108

Asparagus aethiopicus. Photo: H. Cherry.Key points• Asparagus weeds are highly invasive, vine-like plants that degrade native biodiversity. They establish readily indisturbed and intact bushland.• Gardens commonly contain asparagus weeds, which can be spread in dumped garden waste. Birds also spread thefleshy berries long distances.• Asparagus weeds smother native plants and create damaging, underground root mats that persist after plants arekilled. Root mats may impede native plant regeneration and promote growth of other weeds.• Follow-up control and restoration is necessary for successful asparagus weed management.• Prevention is best. Learn to identify asparagus weeds and remove new infestations.Asparagus weeds are aggressive vinelikeplants that are highly invasive insub-tropical and temperate bushlandand coastal ecosystems of Australia.Seven species of asparagus arerecognised as Weeds of NationalSignificance (WoNS): ground asparagus(Asparagus aethiopicus), climbingasparagus (A. africanus), common bridalcreeper (A. asparagoides) and WesternCape bridal creeper (A. asparagoidesWeed Management guide ASPARAGUS.indd 1Western Cape form), bridal veil(A. declinatus), climbing asparagus fern(A. plumosus) and asparagus fern(A. scandens). A separate weedmanagement guide exists for commonbridal creeper (A. asparagoides), which isnot included in this guide.Introduced from southern Africa inthe mid-1800s, asparagus weeds wereespecially popular as hanging basketAsparagus declinatus invading native bushland. Photo: S. Potter, Biosecurity SA.and garden plants and several speciesare still commonly traded. They haveescaped from gardens to become majorweeds. The fleshy fruits of asparagusweeds are spread extensively by birdsand other animals. Plants also spreadvegetatively by rhizomes dumpedin garden waste. Seedlings establishreadily in undisturbed bushland, andplants survive in a range of habitats andclimatic conditions.29/05/13 1:20 PMSection 7Further informationDeclaration status of WoNS asparagus weeds in Australia 110Summary of current legislation status for asparagus weeds 110Threatened species legislation relevant to asparagus weeds 111Safety, native vegetation and cultural heritage information 112Safety 112Protection of native vegetation and threatened species 112Cultural heritage 114Further information and contacts 115Information for volunteers 115Useful contacts and resources 116Glossary 118References 119WeedManagementGuideWeed of National SignificanceFurther reading 120Asparagus weeds (Asparagus aethiopicus, A. africanus,A. asparagoides Western Cape form, A. declinatus,A. plumosus and A. scandens)The problem109

Further informationDeclaration status of WoNS asparagus weeds in AustraliaEntry into Australia of the WoNS asparagus weedsis prohibited. These species are declared weeds insome states or territories and may be restricted fromsale and/or require control. Asparagus weed controlwork that potentially impacts on native vegetationmay also be regulated by legislation (see Safetysection page 112).It is still legal to trade many Asparagus speciesin some jurisdictions, and specimens are sold inmarkets or traded among gardeners.Legislation and declaration status of asparagusweeds in all states and territories is summarised inTable 1.Table 1. Summary of current legislation status for asparagus weeds as at 2013Relevant legislation Asparagus aethiopicus Asparagus africanus Asparagus asparagoidesACT Pest Plants and Animals Act 2005 Not declared Not declared Must not be sold or tradedNSW Noxious Weeds Act 1993 The growth of the plant mustbe managed in a manner thatreduces its numbers spreadand incidence and continuouslyinhibits its reproduction andthe plant must not be soldpropagated or knowinglydistributed (14 Local GovernmentAreas)Not declaredThe plant must not be sold, propagated orknowingly distributed (state wide)The growth of the plant must bemanaged in a manner that reducesits numbers spread and incidence andcontinuously inhibits its reproduction andthe plant must not be sold, propagatedor knowingly distributed (11 LocalGovernment Areas)NT Weeds Management Act 2001 Not declared Not declared To be eradicated and not to be introduced.QLDLand Protection (Pest and StockRoute Management) Act 2002May not be sold or suppliedMay require landholder removalif adjacent to environmentallysignificant areasMay not be sold or suppliedMay require landholder removalif adjacent to environmentallysignificant areasMay not be introduced, kept or suppliedSubject to eradicationLandowners required to controlSANatural Resource ManagementAct 2004Not declared Not declared Movement and sale prohibitedLandholders are required to controlTAS Weed Management Act 1999 Not declared Not declared Importation, movement and saleprohibitedLandholders may be required to controlZone A municipalities required to eradicatePlant Quarantine Act 1997 Not declared Not declared The importation of this species intoTasmania is restrictedVICWACatchment and Land ProtectionAct 1994Agricultural and RelatedResources Protection Act 1976Biosecurity and AgricultureManagement Act 2007Not declared Not declared Trade in these weeds and their propagules,either as plants, seeds or contaminants inother materials is prohibitedNot declared Not declared Introduction of the plant into, ormovement of the plant within, an area isprohibited (state wide)110

Table 1 continuedRelevant legislation Asparagus declinatus Asparagus plumosus Asparagus scandensACT Pest Plants and Animals Act 2005 Not declared Not declared Not declaredNSW Noxious Weeds Act 1993 Not declared The growth of the plant mustbe managed in a manner thatreduces its numbers, spreadand incidence and continuouslyinhibits its reproduction andthe plant must not be sold,propagated or knowinglydistributed (13 LocalGovernment Areas)Not declaredNT Weeds Management Act 2001 Not declared Not declared Not declaredQLDLand Protection (Pest and StockRoute Management) Act 2002Not declaredMay not be sold or suppliedMay require landholderremoval if adjacent toenvironmentally significantareasNot declaredSANatural Resource ManagementAct 2004Movement and sale prohibitedLandholders required to controlNot declaredNot declaredTAS Weed Management Act 1999 Not declared Not declared Importation, movement and saleprohibitedLandholders may be required to controlZone A municipalities required toeradicate.Plant Quarantine Act 1997 Not declared Not declared The importation of this species intoTasmania is restrictedVICWACatchment and Land ProtectionAct 1994Agricultural and RelatedResources Protection Act 1976Biosecurity and AgricultureManagement Act 2007Not declared Not declared Not declaredNot declared Not declared Not declaredTable 2. Threatened species legislation relevant to asparagus weedsCommonwealthRelevant legislationEnvironment Protection and BiodiversityConservation Act 1999Relevant Key Threatening ProcessLoss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escapedgarden plants, including aquatic plantsNSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 Invasion and establishment of exotic vines and scramblers (in Schedule 3 of the Act)Loss and degradation of native plant and animal habitat by invasion of escapedgarden plants, including aquatic plants (in Schedule 3 of the Act)VIC Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 Invasion of native vegetation by ‘environmental weeds’111

Further informationSafety, native vegetation andcultural heritage informationSafetyAll weed control activities involve risk, so personalsafety must be prioritised. Regulations regardingthe safe use of herbicides and machinery mustbe followed and personal protective equipmentsuch as gloves, respiratory equipment, eye and earprotection should be worn as appropriate. Trainingmay also be required for handling herbicides andoperating machinery.New Commonwealth Occupational Health andSafety (OH&S) legislation, regulations and codes ofpractice were introduced in 2011. The ACT, NSW,Queensland and Northern Territory harmonisedtheir Work Health and Safety (WHS) laws with theCommonwealth in 2012. Other states have updatedtheir own workplace safety structures accordingly.In some states, areas where restorationwork is carried out are classified workplaces. Here, participating volunteers areclassified as workers subject to the samehealth and safety regulations as managingagency employees. Guidance, informationand fact sheets for working with volunteersare available from Safe Work Australiaat www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au, andrelevant authority websites in each state.Protection of native vegetation andthreatened speciesRestoration works can impact on native vegetationand threatened species. This includes herbsand grasses as well as trees and shrubs. Beforecommencing works, familiarity with relevantlegislation governing weed control activities in yourstate is essential. Working near threatened species,impacting threatened species or propagatingthreatened species may require a permit.Contact natural resource management officers orlocal government authorities for advice beforecommencing any weed control activities. They willprovide advice on state and federal legislation,as well as any local laws governing weed controlactivities in natural areas or near waterways. Thefollowing tables outline main federal and stateagency contacts.Rare or threatened species and vegetationof conservation significance shouldbe identified in your asparagus weedsmanagement plan (see Section 2 – Planningand Pre-control Considerations).A risk management tool called Running the Risk?is available from Volunteering Australia at www.volunteeringaustralia.org. Contact your localcouncil or natural resource management agencyfor more information about safety and weedmanagement.Asparagus aethiopicus fruits and foliageHillary Cherry112

Table 3. Native vegetation and threatened species contactsACTNSWNTQLDSATASVICWAFederalNative vegetation contactsDepartment of Territory and Municipal Services132 281www.tams.act.gov.au/parks-recreation/plants_and_animalsNature Conservation Act 1980Office of Environment and Heritage131 555www.environment.nsw.gov.au/vegetationThe Native Vegetation Act 2003Native Vegetation Regulation 2005Department of Land Resource Management(08) 8995 5001www.lrm.nt.gov.au/natvegPlanning Act 2009Pastoral Lands Act 1992Department of Natural Resources and MinesPhone numbers for each region at: www.nrm.qld.gov.au/vegetation/bioregions.htmlVegetation Management Framework Amendment Bill 2013(pending)Department of Water, Land and Natural Resources(08) 8204 1910www.environment.sa.gov.au/Conservation/Native_vegetationNative Vegetation Act 1991Native Vegetation Regulations 2003Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment1300 368 550 or (03) 6233 3295www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/themenodes/bhan-54746e?openForest Practices Act 1985Land Use Planning and Approvals Act 1993Department of Environment and Primary Industries136 186www.dse.vic.gov.au/land-management/land/native-vegetationhomeCatchment and Land Protection Act 1994Department of Parks and Wildlife(08) 6467 5000www.dec.wa.gov.au/management-and-protection/plants/native-vegetation.htmlEnvironmental Protection Act 1986Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Populationand Communities(02) 6274 1111www.environment.gov.au/land/vegetation/index.htmlEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999Threatened species contactsDepartment of Territory and Municipal Services132 281www.tams.act.gov.au/parks-recreation/plants_and_animalsNature Conservation Act 1980Office of Environment and Heritage131 555www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedspeciesThreatened Species Conservation Act 1995Department of Land Resource Management(08) 8995 5001www.lrm.nt.gov.au/corporate/contactsTerritory Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act 2000Department of Environment and Heritage Protection137 468www.ehp.qld.gov.au/wildlife/threatened-species/endangered/index.htmlNature Conservation Act 1992 (NCA)Nature Conservation (Wildlife) Regulation 2006Department of Water, Land and Natural Resources(08) 8204 1910www.environment.sa.gov.au/Plants_Animals/Threatened_species_ecological_communitiesSouth Australia’s National Parks and Wildlife Act 1972Department of Primary Industries, Parks, Water and Environment1300 368 550 or (03) 6233 8759www.dpiw.tas.gov.au/inter.nsf/ThemeNodes/RLIG-53KUPV?openThreatened Species Protection Act 1995Department of Environment and Primary Industries136 186www.dse.vic.gov.au/plants-and-animals/native-plants-and-animals/threatened-species-and-communitiesThe Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988Department of Parks and Wildlife(08) 9334 0455www.dec.wa.gov.au/management-and-protection/threatened-species.htmlWildlife Conservation Act 1950Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population andCommunities(02) 6274 1111www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatenedEnvironment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999113

Cultural heritageBefore beginning restoration work in areas thatmay hold cultural significance, it is appropriateand respectful to assess all issues. Some statesand territories require this. Contact your localgovernment or natural resource managementauthority for information about appropriateprocedures. Copies of the laws summarised inTable 4 are available online from Australasian LegalInformation Institute at www.austlii.edu.au.The Australian Heritage Database containsinformation for over 20,000 natural, historic andindigenous places. Searching by local governmentarea provides a list of heritage places in eachlocality. The database is accessible online fromDepartment of Sustainability, Environment, Water,Population and Communities at www.environment.gov.au/heritage/ahdb. It should be noted that thisis not be a comprehensive register of culturallysignificant places.Previously unknown sites of Indigenous culturalsignificance are frequently revealed during thecourse of on-ground works. A useful introductionto identification, consultation and managementof new sites titled Ask First: A guide to respectingIndigenous heritage places and values is availableonline from the Australian Heritage Council www.environment.gov.au/heritage/ahc/publications/commission/books/ask-first.html.A guide for protecting and conserving Aboriginallandscapes called Bushcare With Care Guideis available online from Sydney MetropolitanCatchment Management Authority at http://sydney.cma.nsw.gov.au/content/view/68/32/.Natural resource management officers can helpwith questions about Aboriginal heritage. State,territory and regional contacts are available onlinefrom Caring for our Country at www.nrm.gov.auand search for ‘contacts’.Most states and territories maintain Indigenousheritage site registers. Because of the sensitiveand vulnerable nature of many sites, access tosome information may be restricted and requirean application process. As well as accessinginformation, it is equally important to reportpreviously unknown sites for entry into the databases.For more information, contact the governmentagency responsible for managing each register.Table 4. Cultural heritage legislation and informationAct Register and managing agency WebsiteACT Heritage Act 2004Heritage Objects Act 1991NSW Heritage Act 1977National Parks and Wildlife Amendment(Aboriginal Ownership) Act 1996NT Aboriginal Sacred Sites Act 1989Heritage Conservation Act 1991QLD Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act 2003Torres Strait Islander Cultural HeritageAct 2003Queensland Heritage Act 1992SA Aboriginal Heritage Act 1988Heritage Act 1994TAS Aboriginal Relics Act 1975Historic Cultural Heritage Act 1995VIC Aboriginal Heritage Act 2006Heritage Act 1994WA Aboriginal Heritage Act 1972Heritage of Western Australia Act 1990Heritage RegisterEnvironment and Sustainable Development DirectorateState Heritage RegisterOffice of Environment and HeritageRegister of Sacred SitesAboriginal Areas Protection AuthorityAboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Cultural HeritageRegisterDepartment of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander andMulticultural AffairsHeritage Sites DatabaseDepartment of Planning, Transport and InfrastructureTasmanian Aboriginal Site IndexDepartment of Primary Industries, Parks, Water andEnvironmentVictorian Aboriginal Heritage RegisterDepartment of Planning and Community DevelopmentRegister of Aboriginal SitesDepartment of Indigenous AffairsFederal Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Heritage Protection Act 1984Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999Australian Heritage Commission Act 1975www.environment.act.gov.au/heritage/heritage_registerwww.environment.nsw.gov.au/heritageapp/heritagesearch.aspxwww.aapant.org.au/www.datsima.qld.gov.au/atsis/aboriginal-torres-strait-islanderpeoples/indigenous-cultural-heritagewww.planning.sa.gov.au/go/heritagesearchhttp://www.aboriginalheritage.tas.gov.au/tasmanian-aboriginal-siteindex-(tasi)www.dpcd.vic.gov.au/heritage/victorian-heritage-register/Victorianaboriginal-heritage-registerwww.dia.wa.gov.au/en/Site-Search/Register-of-Aboriginal-sites/114

Further information andcontactsInformation for volunteersIncorporating a volunteer group is a straightforwardand inexpensive process that is highlyrecommended. Incorporation is required forgovernment grants and funding applications.An alternative is for your group to join a largeorganisation that acts as an umbrella body.Regional Landcare groups often have multiplemember groups covered by their incorporation andprovide funds management and insurance cover.Information for setting up and running a volunteergroup is summarised in Table 5.Table 5. Selected funding, organisational and training resources for volunteer groupsEntity Information WebsiteAustralian Association of BushRegeneratorsCaring for our CountryCentral Coast (NSW) CommunityEnvironment NetworksBushcare Volunteer Training and Professional Supportmaterials – VCN Manual 2012 and ‘Bushcare Booster’Training ModulesFunding; natural resource management facilitators andcontactsWorkshops and eventswww.aabr.org.au/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51:vcnwww.nrm.gov.auwww.cen.org.auCoastcare Community coast care groups www.coastcare.com.auConservation VolunteersDept. of Sustainability, Environment,Water, Population and CommunitiesVolunteer recruitment for environmental and wildlifeconservation projectsGovernment grantswww.conservationvolunteers.com.auwww.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasive/weeds/government/index.htmlGreening Australia Vegetation management and community engagement www.greeningaustralia.org.auLandcare Australia Community land care groups www.landcareonline.com.auLandcare TasmaniaNatural Resource Managementknowledge onlineNational Volunteer Skills CentreVolunteer recruitment, training, incorporation andinsuranceDigital online archive for information about naturalresource management activitiesSkills, training and education resources for volunteers,managers of volunteers, trainers and not-for-profitorganisationswww.landcaretas.org.aunrmonline.nrm.gov.au/School of Volunteer Management Volunteer management education and training activities www.svm.edu.auTraining.gov.au (TGA)Victorian Landcare GatewayVolunteering AustraliaVocational education and training in Australia; formerlyThe National Training Information Service and AustralianNational Training AuthorityVolunteer recruitment, training, incorporation andinsuranceNationally recognised qualifications, training resourcesand materials for volunteers and volunteer managerstraining.gov.au/www.landcarevic.net.au/www.volunteeringaustralia.org/Skills-and-Training/-For-volunteers/Skills-and-training-forvolunteers.aspwww.volunteeringaustralia.org/Skills-and-Training/-Training-skills-resources.aspVolunteering WA Useful range of volunteering resources www.volunteeringwa.org.au/resources.aspx115

Further informationThere are many funding opportunities forweed management. These may be included inapplications that have wider scope than justweeding activities, such as projects for restorationof native vegetation. Grants are available fromfederal and state government sources, catchmentmanagement authorities, natural resourcemanagement boards, local councils and nongovernmentorganisations. Information aboutfederal government grants is available fromDepartment of Sustainability, Environment, Water,Population and Communities (see Table 6).As you begin planning, consult with:• the land manager of your site,• local council, and• catchment management or natural resourcemanagement board officer. A well preparedmanagement plan will not only make fillingout funding applications a straightforwardtask, but also increase your chances ofsuccess (see Section 2 – Planning and PrecontrolConsiderations).Useful contacts and resourcesTable 6. Where to find further information, contacts and weed management resourcesOrganisation Website Information availableWeeds Australiawww.weeds.org.au/WoNSwww.weeds.org.au/WoNS/asparagusweedsWeed identificationFundingLegislationContacts and web linksDepartment of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Forestrywww.daff.gov.auwww.aqis.gov.au/icon32/asp/ex_querycontent.aspWeb linksFundingNational BiosecurityImport conditions database (icon)NATIONALDepartment of Sustainability,Environment, Water, Population andCommunitiesAustralian Association of BushRegeneratorswww.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/invasivewww.environment.gov.au/epbc/protectwww.environment.gov.au/heritagewww.aabr.org.auThreatened species legislationHeritageWeed identificationFunding opportunitiesBush regenerationAustralian Pesticides and VeterinaryMedicines Authoritywww.apvma.gov.auwww.apvma.gov.au/permits/search.phpservices.apvma.gov.au/PubcrisWebClient/welcome.doHerbicide permits, labels and registrationsSafe herbicide useChemCert Australia www.chemcert.com.au Chemical handling, training and certificationSmart Train www.smarttrain.com.au Herbicide training and manualsSafe Work Australia www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au OH&SDrum Muster www.drummuster.com.au Recycling chemical containersACTEnvironment and SustainableDevelopment Directoratewww.environment.act.gov.au/environmentWeed controlNatural resource managementEnvironmental protection116

Further informationGlossaryAnnualAxilBush regenerationControlCrownCryptic speciesDispersalEvaluateGeophyteGrubbingIndigenousMonitorNativeNatural regenerationNodesPerennialPropaguleProvenanceRehabilitationResilienceRestorationRevegetationRhizomeRootsSenesceSuccessionTubersVegetative growthA plant that germinates, flowers and dies in one year or lessThe angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petioleRestore or maintain ecosystem function by encouraging natural regeneration of indigenous flora and limiting the impact ofweeds and other degrading processesThe treatment or management of weeds to reduce or prevent their further impactA compressed group of underground rhizomes (stem mass)Species that are difficult to distinguish but are genetically distinctProcess of transporting propagules via a vector, such as wind, water, birds or other animalsAnalyse information (data) to assess change and/or effectiveness of an interventionPerennial plants with underground storage organsDig out whole plants, roots and allA plant naturally occurring in particular area or region within AustraliaGather information (data) about a site in a systematic way to answer predetermined monitoring questionsA plant naturally occurring within AustraliaThe germination of indigenous plants from seeds or other propagules without human interventionPoint in stem or rhizome containing buds from which stems or leaves ariseA plant that remains growing year roundAny part of a plant that can become detached to produce a new plant, e.g. bud, sucker, seed, sporeThe geographical and genetic source of a particular plant or seedRepairing landform elements of a site, such as soil health and erosionThe ability of native vegetation to recover from disturbance events such as fire, clearing or suppression by weedsReturn ecosystem health and function to a degraded ecological communityPlanting and direct seeding of indigenous plantsAn underground stem capable of growing shoots or roots from its nodesUnderground plant organs used for nutrient and water uptake (not reproductive) and that may assist to anchor rhizomes,tubers or other underground parts. Often fibrous in asparagus weedsProcess of drying and withering in period between maturity and death of a plant, or part of a plant, e.g. leaves on a deciduousplant; the natural end of a plant or vegetation community’s lifespanThe natural progression of vegetation from one type to another, e.g. the first flush of species to colonise a disturbed area, thenreplacement by other suites of species over time as a community establishes and maturesBulbous underground storage organs (not reproductive in asparagus weeds)New individuals arise without process of sexual reproduction (e.g. seeds); occurs when new individual growing buds (e.g.rhizomes) become detached and root as independent plants118

ReferencesBass D.A. and Lawrie S.L. (2003). Impacts, dispersal,predictive modelling and control of bridal veil.Environmental Weeds Group, School of Geography,Population and Environmental Management, FlindersUniversity, South Australia.Batianoff G.N. and Butler D.W. (2002). Assessment ofinvasive naturalised plants in south-east Queensland.Plant Protection Quarterly 17, 27-34.Bowden D. and Rogers R.W. (1996). Protasparagusdensjflorus: an environmental weed of coastal vegetationReserves. Pacific Conservation Biology 2, 293-298.Coles R. and Willing K. (2006). Final report on thedistribution of Western Cape bridal creeper (Asparagusasparagoides) in South Australia and Victoria. SouthAustralia, Department of Water, Land and BiodiversityConservation. DWLBC. South Australia.CRC (2004a). Weed management guide bridal creeperAsparagus asparagoides. Australian Weed Managementand the Commonwealth Department of theEnvironment and Heritage.CRC (2004b). Introductory weed management manual.Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra.Available online www.environment.nsw.gov.au.Department of Environment and Primary Industries (2013).Invasive plants and animals policy framework. StateGovernment of Victoria, Melbourne.Downey P.O., Scanlon T.J. and Hosking J.R. (2010).Prioritising weed species based on their threat andability to impact on biodiversity: a case study from NewSouth Wales. Plant Protection Quarterly 25, 111-126.French K. (2010). A framework to guide ecologicalrestoration: coastal foredune scrub and temperatelittoral rainforest, south coast. University of Wollongong,Wollongong. Available online www.weeds.org.au/WoNS/bitoubush/docs/Restoration_Guidelines_NSW_S.Coast_Aug_2010.pdf.Hobbs R.J. and Humphries S.E. (1995). An integratedapproach to the ecology and management of plantinvasions. Conservation Biology 9, 761-770.Hughes N.K., Burley A.L., King S.A. and Downey P.O. (2009)Monitoring manual for bitou bush control and nativeplant recovery. Department of Environment, ClimateChange and Water, Sydney. Available online www.environment.nsw.gov.au/bitouTAP/monitoring.htm.Kwong R.M. (2006). Bridal creeper – squeezing the juice outof the citrus industry. Plant Protection Quarterly 21, 79.Lawrie S.L. (2004). Controlling asparagus weeds: protectingthe biological diversity of the Southern Hills Region.Asparagus Weeds Working Group (AWWG), SouthernHills Region, Victor Harbor.Lawrie S.L. (2006). The ecology of bridal veil (Asparagusdeclinatus L.) in South Australia. Plant Protection Quarterly21, 99-100.Leah A.G. (2001). The impacts of the environmental weedbridal veil (Asparagus declinatus) on native vegetationin South Australia. Honours thesis, Flinders University,Adelaide.Navie S.C. and Adkins S.W. (2008). Environmental weedsof Australia. DVD-ROM. The University of Queensland StLucia, Brisbane.Pheloung P.C. and Scott J.K. (1996). Climate-basedprediction of Asparagus asparagoides and A. declinatusdistribution in Western Australia. Plant ProtectionQuarterly 11, 51-53.Raymond K. (1996). The ecology of bridal creeper in southeasternAustralia. Plant Protection Quarterly 11, 47.Scott J.K. and Batchelor K.L. (2006). Climate-basedprediction of potential distributions of introducedAsparagus species in Australia. Plant Protection Quarterly21, 91-98.Stanley T.D. (1994). The biology of Protasparagus africanus(Lam.) Oberm. in eastern Australia. PhD thesis, Universityof Queensland, St Lucia, Australia.Timmins S.M. and Reid V. (2000). Climbing asparagus,Asparagus scandens Thunb: a South African in your forestpatch. Austral Ecology 25, 533-538.Vivian-Smith G.E. and Gosper C.R. (2010). Comparativeseed and dispersal ecology of three exotic subtropicalAsparagus species. Invasive Plant Science andManagement 3, 93-103.Weidenbach M. (1994). Bridal creeper and Myrsiphyllumdeclinatum. Managing weeds for Landcare 1994. Aworkshop on protecting out land from invading weeds,Urrbrae, 12 March 1994, p 2.Willis A.J., McKay R., Vranjic J.A., Kilby M.J. and Groves R.H.(2003). Comparative seed ecology of the endangeredshrub, Pimelea spicata and a threatening weed, bridalcreeper: smoke, heat and other fire-related germinationcues. Ecological Management and Restoration 4, 55-65.Winkler M.A., Cherry H. and Downey P.O (eds) (2008).Bitou bush management manual: current management119

Further informationand control options for bitou bush (Chrysanthemoidesmonilifera ssp. rotundata) in Australia. Departmentof Environment and Climate Change (NSW), Sydney.Available online www.environment.nsw.gov.au.Further readingArmstrong T.R., Breaden R. and Hinchliffe D. (2006). Thecontrol of climbing asparagus (Asparagus africanus Lam.)in remnant Brigalow scrub in south-east Queensland.Plant Protection Quarterly 21, 134-136.Bass D.A., Crossman N.D., Lawrie S.L. and Lethbridge M.R.(2006). The importance of population growth, seeddispersal and habitat suitability in determining plantinvasiveness. Euphytica 148, 97-109.Big Scrub Rainforest Landcare Group (2005). Subtropicalrainforest restoration – a practical manual and datasource for landcare groups, land managers andrainforest regenerators (second edition). Big ScrubRainforest Landcare Group, Bangalow.Buchanan R.A. (2009). Restoring natural areas in Australia.Tocal College, Paterson.Chenoweth EPLA and Bushland Restoration Services(2012). South-east Queensland ecological restorationframework: manual. Prepared on behalf of SEQCatchments and South-east Queensland LocalGovernments, Brisbane.Conran J.G. and Coles R. (2009). Germination in WesternCape bridal creeper (Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce:Asparagaceae). Transactions of the Royal Society of SouthAustralia 133, 361-364.Geographic Analysis and Research Unit, Information andData Analysis Branch (1995). Guide to native vegetationsurvey (agricultural region) using the biological survey ofSouth Australia methodology. Department of Housingand Urban Development, Adelaide. Available onlinewww.environment.sa.gov.au.Lawrie S.L. (2006). Other Asparagus papers: summary of abridal veil (Asparagus declinatus L.) workshop for SouthAustralian regional groups. Plant Protection Quarterly 21,126-127.Lindenmayer D.B. and Likens G.E. (2010). Effectiveecological monitoring. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.Lovett S., Lambert J., Williams J.E. and Price P. (2008).Restoring landscapes with confidence – an evaluationof the science, the methods and their on-groundapplication. Final report. Land and Water Australia,Canberra. Available online lwa.gov.au/products/pn21578.Morin L., Batchelor K.L. and Scott J.K. (2006). The biologyof Australian weeds Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce.Plant Protection Quarterly 2, 46-62.NSW Department of Primary Industries Weed ManagementUnit. (2009). Blackberry control manual: managementand control options for blackberry (Rubus spp.) inAustralia. Department of Primary Industries, Victoria.Peel B. (2010). Rainforest restoration manual for southeasternAustralia. CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.Queensland Department of Employment, EconomicDevelopment and Innovation (2009). Lantana: bestpractice manual and decision support tool. Departmentof Employment, Economic Development and Innovation,Queensland.Ralph M. (2003). Growing Australian native plants fromseed for revegetation, tree planting and direct seeding(second edition). Bushland Horticulture, Fitzroy.Sweedman L. and Merritt D.J. (2006). Australian seeds aguide to their collection, identification and biology.CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood.Weeds generalAuld B.A. and Medd R.W. (1987). Weeds: an illustratedbotanical guide to the weeds of Australia. Inkata Press,Melbourne, Australia.Blood K. (2001). Environmental weeds: a field guide forSE Australia. CH Jerram and Associates, Mt Waverley,Victoria, Australia.Hussey B.M.J., Keighery G.J., Dodd J., Lloyd S.G. and CousensR.D. (2007). Western weeds. A guide to the weeds ofWestern Australia. 2nd edition. The Weeds Society ofWestern Australia (Inc.).Muyt A. (2001). Bush invaders of south-east Australia: aguide to the identification and control of environmentalweeds found in south-east Australia. R.G. and F. J.Richardson, Victoria, Australia.Parsons W.T. and Cuthbertson E.G. (1992). Noxious weedsof Australia. Inkata Press, Melbourne, Australia.Richardson F.J., Richardson R.G. and Shepherd R.C.H. (2011).Weeds of the south-east: an identification guide forAustralia. R.G. and F.J. Richardson, Victoria, Australia.120

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