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Using German
A guide to
contemporary usage
Second edition
MARTIN DURRELL
H CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
The Pitt Building, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1RP, United Kingdom
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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© Cambridge University Press 1992,2003
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1992
Second edition 2003
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
Typeface Ehrhardt 10.5/12 pt. System fflfcX 2S [TB]
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Durrell, Martin.
Using German: a guide to contemporary usage / Martin Durrell. - 2nd edition
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0 521 53000 8 (paperback)
1. German language - Grammar. 2. German language - Textbooks for foreign
speakers - English. I. Title.
PF3112.D78 2003
438.2'421 - dc21 2002041692
ISBN 0 521 53000 8 paperback

Contents
Introduction page xi
Acknowledgements xiii
References xv
Glossary of linguistic terms xxi
Abbreviations and conventions xxix
1 Varieties of language 1
1.1 Varieties according to use: register 3
1.1.1 Medium 4
1.1.2 Subject matter 5
1.1.3 Situation 5
1.1.4 Register and regionalism 7
1.1.5 Indicating register 7
1.2 Varieties according to user: regionalism 10
1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German 11
1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German 11
1.2.3 Indicating regional variation 12
1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation 13
1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation 15
1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation 16
1.4 Examples of variation: grammar 18
1.4.1 Regional variation in grammar 19
1.4.2 Register variation in grammar 20
1.5 Examples of variation: vocabulary 23
1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary 23
1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words 26
1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary 29
1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register 35
1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech) 35
1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal
context) 38
1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel) 41
1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache) 43
1.6.5 Serious newspaper report (Die Welt) 45
1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report {Bild) 48

2 Words and meanings 52
2.1 Problems of meaning 52
2.1.1 Problems of meaning: English-German examples 52
2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples 88
2.2 Easily confused words 93
2.2.1 Easily confused words: similar form - different meaning 93
2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different
meaning 102
2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different
meaning 104
2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning 105
2.3 Word formation 107
2.3.1 Forming nouns 107
2.3.2 Forming adjectives 109
2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes 111
2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes 111
2.3.5 Separable verb prefixes 114
2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable 115
2.4 Idioms 119
2.5 Prepositions 123
2.5.1 German prepositions with the accusative case 124
2.5.2 German prepositions with the dative case 127
2.5.3 German prepositions with the dative or the accusative
cases 132
2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case 139
2.5.5 English prepositions 140
2.6 Modal particles 155
2.6.1 Modal particles in statements 156
2.6.2 Modal particles in questions 160
2.6.3 Modal particles in commands 161
2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations 163
2.7 Greetings and forms of address 164
2.7.1 Greetings 164
2.7.2 du and Sie 166
2.8 Letters 168
3 Words and forms 171
3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals 171
3.1.1 Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural 171
3.1.2 Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural 173
3.1.3 Plurals in-5 176

3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals 177
3.1.5 Foreign words with unusual plurals 178
3.1.6 Differences in plural usage between German
and English 178
3.1.7 Nouns with variable gender 180
3.2 Nouns: case 181
3.2.1 'Weak' masculine nouns 182
3.2.2 'Mixed' nouns 183
3.2.3 The dative ending -e 184
3.2.4 The genitive singular ending ~(e)s 184
3.3 Verbs: strong and weak 186
3.3.1 Strong verb classes 186
3.3.2 Deceptive weak verbs 189
3.3.3 Irregular weak verbs 190
3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms 190
3.4 Determiners and adjectives 192
3.4.1 Basic determiner endings 192
3.4.2 Basic adjective endings 193
3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage 194
3.4.4 Adjectives as nouns 196
3.5 Other words that decline: forms and uses 198
3.5.1 Demonstratives 198
3.5.2 Relative pronouns 200
3.5.3 Possessive pronouns 202
3.5.4 Interrogatives 202
3.5.5 man, einer, jemand 203
3.5.6 Some indefinites 204
4 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods 207
4.1 Verbs and cases: valency 207
4.1.1 Verbs governing the dative case 209
4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases 211
4.1.3 Verbs governing the genitive case 213
4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object 214
4.1.5 Infinitive clauses and idtfs-clauses with verbs governing a
prepositional object 219
4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions 220
4.2 Cases: dative and genitive 224
4.2.1 Possessive dative 224
4.2.2 Genitive or von} 225
4.2.3 The position of genitive phrases 227
4.2.4 Measurement phrases 228

4.3 Tenses 229
4.3.1 Present and future 229
4.3.2 Past and perfect 230
4.3.3 haben or sein in the perfect? 231
4.4 The passive 233
4.4.1 werden- or $m-passive? 234
4.4.2 The impersonal ('subjectless') passive 235
4.4.3 The passive with dative objects 236
4.4.4 von or durch with the passive? 236
4.4.5 Alternative passive constructions 237
4.5 The subjunctive 239
4.5.1 Forms of the subjunctive 239
4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms 240
4.5.3 Indirect speech 242
4.5.4 Conditional sentences 245
4.5.5 Other uses of the subjunctive 246
4.6 The modal auxiliaries 248
4.6.1 The German modal auxiliaries 249
4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries 253
5 Syntax and word order 262
5.1 Word order 262
5.1.1 The verbal bracket 262
5.1.2 The closing bracket 263
5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause 264
5.1.4 The use of initial position in German 265
5.1.5 The central section of German clauses 267
5.1.6 Can anything follow the closing bracket? 271
5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses 274
5.2.1 Alternatives to relative clauses 274
5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive
clauses 275
5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses 276
5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses 279
5.2.5 Other alternatives to subordinate clauses 281
5.3 The present participle in German and English 282
5.3.1 The use of the German present participle 282
5.3.2 German equivalents of English ing-form constructions 284
6 Spelling and punctuation 289
6.1 Spelling 290
6.1.1 Capital letters 290
6.1.2 One word or two? 292

6.1.3 The use ofß and ss 296
6.1A Miscellaneous spelling changes
Punctuation 297
6.2.1 The use of the comma 297
6.2.2 Other punctuation marks 299
Index 300

Introduction
The primary intention of this book is to provide information on
German as it is actually used nowadays, especially on points where
conventional grammars and surveys of vocabulary are silent. It aims to
help English-speaking learners to communicate effectively and
accurately by developing an awareness of the subtleties of the language.
It is thus directed at those who have mastered the basics of German,
typically after three or four years at school or an intensive introductory
course and are venturing into the complexities and subtleties of the
language. It is not a comprehensive grammar, but it deals with those
aspects of German grammar and usage about which such advanced
learners may have questions, and it attempts to answer as many of those
questions as possible.
The areas treated in this book can be grouped under two headings.
First, there are those which result from variation within the German
language itself. Learners can often be confused because everyday
conversational German is often quite different from written German
and from what they have been taught. German, just like English, has
many alternatives and varieties - in pronunciation, grammar and
vocabulary. One purpose of this book is to explain for the
English-speaking learner how modern German usage can differ widely,
depending, for instance, on the formality or informality of the situation
or on where the speaker or writer comes from. This kind of variation in
usage can be puzzling for foreign learners, and standard reference
works often give insufficient detail or contradictory (or even
misleading) information on such points. In this book, the most
common variations in current usage which stem from regional
differences or differences depending on the degree of formality are
shown as fully as possible. It will be made clear, for example, that the
use of the present subjunctive is not a matter of grammatical rule, but
of register (see 4.5.3). Chapter 1 provides an introduction, with
examples and commented texts, to the range of variation in modern
German. The reader is advised to study this chapter closely before
consulting the other chapters, which are intended to be used for
reference and give extensive detail on selected points concerning
vocabulary (chapter 2), declensions (chapter 3), grammar
(chapter 4), syntax and word order (chapter 5), and spelling and
punctuation (chapter 6), where the changes in German spelling and

punctuation rules which were introduced in the late 1990s are
explained in detail.
Secondly, the book covers those aspects of German which for one
reason or another seem to be difficult for English-speaking learners,
although the difficulties are often more apparent than real. This may be
because German expresses things in a different way to English, as when
English uses present participles and German does not (see 5.3), where
there is a lack of one-to-one correspondence between the vocabulary of
the two languages (see 2.1) or in the various uses of prepositions (see
2.5). In such cases the differences between the languages are shown in
as much detail as possible. There are other aspects of German, such as
gender and plural of nouns (see 3.1), which have to be coped with in
their own terms, as there is little comparable in English.
Second edition
In this second edition the major change is that the revised spelling of
German has been implemented throughout, with the exception of one
text (1.6.3) which was originally published before the introduction of
the new spelling and whose author is a well-known opponent of the
changes (indeed, he has insisted on his most recent books being
published using the old spellings). This is in itself a reflection of the
current situation, since, as explained in more detail in chapter 6, it
now seems likely that the two spelling systems will continue to co-exist
in the German-speaking countries for some considerable time beyond
2005, despite the fact that the old spellings are supposed to cease to be
used after this date.
Apart from this, the opportunity has been taken to revise the whole
text and the language material of the book, eliminating errors,
inconsistencies and ambiguities as far as possible. In particular, all the
explanatory material has been recast with the aim of making it clearer
and more explicit. For example, German words in lists are now
systematically glossed in English, and the account of the modal
particles in 2.6 has been reshaped to show how they are used in
statements, questions, commands and exclamations, with the intention
of helping the learner to see how they are used in actual communicative
situations. More than half the texts in 1.6 have been replaced to bring
them up to date and to reflect the variety of register in modern German
more consistently and systematically. In particular, contrastive
examples are now given from the 'serious' and 'popular' press.

Acknowledgements
No book such as this can be the unaided work of a single individual,
and I must acknowledge a debt of gratitude to Wini Davies, Dr Karen
Herrmann, Professor R. E. Keller and Paul Webster for their many
helpful suggestions which have been incorporated in the text. The
remaining inadequacies are my own, especially where I have been
foolish enough to ignore their sound advice. I am also grateful for much
information, advice and encouragement to Stephen Barbour, Friedrich
Dehmel, Julie Flynn, Anna Hochsieder, Derek McCulloch, Herbert
Meyer, Manfred Prokop, Margaret Rogers, Jon West and Ellen
Wilhelmi, all of whom provided me with data or were kind enough to
read particular chapters. My thanks are due, too, to all colleagues at the
Institut fur Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim, especially Dr Karl-Heinz
Bausch, Tobias Bruckner, Professor Alan Kirkness, Professor Gerhard
Stickel and Eva Teubert. I was able to collect or check much of the
material in the book during a stay in Mannheim which was generously
funded by the Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst. The great
bulk of the initial work for the first edition was completed in the
academic year 1983/84, which I spent as an exchange professor at the
University of Alberta, and I must give special thanks to all my
colleagues in Edmonton for their help and encouragement during a
thoroughly enjoyable and productive stay in Canada. Particular
mention must be made of the superb library facilities at the University
of Alberta. I should also like to thank Rosemary Davidson, Amanda
Ogden, Annie Cave and Julia Harding for their invaluable editorial
advice and much encouragement, Debbie Carlisle for her skill in coping
with a difficult manuscript and, last but not least, all my past and
present students in London, Manchester and Edmonton, whose
queries and problems furnished much of the raw material.
For the second edition I must acknowledge a special debt of
gratitude to all those who have been kind enough since the appearance
of the first edition to write to me with questions and suggestions for
improvement. I hope that I have been able to incorporate the most
important of these. I continue to be immensely grateful to my
colleagues in Manchester, in particular Dr Wiebke Brockhaus, for their
continued help, assistance and support, and to the English and German
students in Manchester whose questions have provided constant
stimulation. I must again thank all colleagues at the Institut fur

Deutsche Sprache in Mannheim where in the course of several visits
over the years I have been able to check the material and verify the
linguistic data on the basis of their incomparable collections of modern
German usage. Dr Kate Brett at Cambridge University Press deserves
especial thanks for her continued patience, encouragement and
practical advice whilst this edition was in preparation.

References
General reference books
The following reference works were consulted at all stages of preparing
this book.
Agricola, E. et al. (eds.). 1977. Wörter und Wendungen. Wörterbuch zum deutschen
Sprachgebrauch. 8th edn. Leipzig.
Barbour, J. S. and P. Stevenson. 1990. Variation in German. A Critical Approach to
German Sociolinguistics. Cambridge.
Beaton, K. B. 1996. A Practical Dictionary of German Usage. Oxford.
Braun, P. 1993. Tendenzen in der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. Sprachvarietäten. 3rd
edn. Stuttgart.
Clyne, M. 1995. The German Language in a Changing Europe. Cambridge.
Duckert, J. and G. Kempcke (eds.). 1984. Wörterbuch der Sprachschwierigkeiten.
Zweifelsßlle, Normen und Varianten. Leipzig.
Duden. 1998. Grammatik der deutschen Gegenwartssprache. 6th edn. Mannheim,
etc.
Duden. 2000a. Das große Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache. 3rd edn. 10 vols on
CD-ROM. Mannheim, etc.
Duden. 2000b. Rechtschreibung der deutschen Sprache und Fremdwörter. 22nd edn.
Mannheim, etc.
Durreil, M. 2000. Using German Synonyms. Cambridge.
Eisenberg, P. 1998-9. Grundriß der deutschen Grammatik. 2 vols. Stuttgart/Weimar.
Engel, U. 1991. Deutsche Grammatik. 2nd edn. Heidelberg.
Farrell, R. B. 1977. Dictionary of German Synonyms. 3rd edn. Cambridge.
Freund, F. and B. Sundqvist. 1988. Tysk grammatik. Stockholm.
Glück, H. and W. Sauer. 1997. Gegenwartsdeutsch. 2nd edn. Stuttgart.
Götz, D. et al. (eds.). 2000. Langenscheidts Großwörterbuch Deutsch als Fremdsprache.
3rd edn. Berlin, etc.
Fox, A. 1990. The Structure of German. Oxford.
Heidolph, K. E. et al. (eds.). 1981. Grundzüge einer deutschen Grammatik. Berlin.
Heibig, G. and J. Buscha. 1995. Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fur den
Ausländerunterricht. 13th edn. Leipzig.
Heibig, G. and W. Schenkel. 1991. Wörterbuch zur Valenz und Distribution deutscher
Verben. 8th edn. Tübingen.
Hermann, U. 1996. Die (NEUE) deutsche Rechtschreibung. Revised by L. Götze with
an introduction by K. Heller. Gütersloh.
Keller, R. E. 1978. The German Language. London.
Lamprecht, A. 1977. Grammatik der englischen Sprache. 5th edn. Berlin.
Quirk, R. et al. 1985. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.
London/New York.

Schanen, F. and J.-P. Confais. 1986. Grammaire de Vallemand. Formes et fonctions.
Paris.
Schwitalla, J. 1997. Gesprochenes Deutsch. Eine Einfuhrung. Berlin.
Sommerfeldt, K.-E. (ed.). 1988. Entwicklungstendenzen in der deutschen
Gegenwartssprache. Tübingen.
Stevenson, P. 1997. The German-speaking World. A Practical Introduction to
Sociolinguistic Issues. London/New York.
Terrell, P. et al. (eds.). 1999. Collins German-English English-German Dictionary.
4th edn. Glasgow.
Wahrig, G. 2000. Deutsches Wörterbuch. 2nd edn. Gütersloh.
West, J. 1992-4. Progressive Grammar of German. 6 vols. Dublin.
Zifonun, G. et al. 1997. Grammatik der Deutschen Sprache. 3 vols. Berlin/New
York.
Specific references
Where the books listed above give more information than could be
encompassed in this book, or where I have made particular use of their
material or presentation, they are listed below in abbreviated form,
giving the author and the year of publication. Specialized works
relevant to individual sections are also listed below.
1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation
This section was prepared with reference to C. Hall, Modern German
Pronunciation. An Introduction for Speakers of English
(Manchester/New York, 1992) and the following standard works of
reference: Duden, Band 6: Aussprachewörterbuch, 3rd edn (Mannheim,
etc., 1990) and T. Siebs, Reine und gemäßigte Hochlautung mit
Aussprachewörterbuch, 19th edn, revised by H. de Boor, H. Moser and
C. Winkler (Berlin, 1969). The latter both give details on acceptable
(and unacceptable) colloquial and regional usage as well as on the
received standard pronunciation of German.
1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary
The major sources for the material in this section were: J. Eichhoff,
Wortatlas der deutschen Umgangssprachen, vols. 1-2 (Bern/Munich,
1977-8), vols. 3-4 (Munich, 1998-2000) and W. Seibicke, Wie sagt man
anderswo? Landschaftliche Unterschiede im deutschen Wortgebrauch
(Mannheim, 1972).

1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words
This section was compiled with assistance from the following works,
which give much more detail on Austrian and Swiss lexical
peculiarities: J. Ebner, Wie sagt man in Osterreich? Wörterbuch der
österreichischen Besonderheiten, 2nd edn (Mannheim, etc., 1980) and K.
Meyer, Wie sagt man in der Schweiz? Wörterbuch der schweizerischen
Besonderheiten (Mannheim, etc., 1989).
2.1 Problems of meaning
Much more detail on English-German lexical correspondences is to be
found in Beaton (1996) and Farrell (1977), to which this section is
indebted at many points, and I also consulted E. Leisi, Der Wortinhalt.
Seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen^ 5th edn (Heidelberg, 1975),
which is still unequalled as a comparative study of the vocabulary of the
two languages. Much of the new and revised material in this section is
based on the work undertaken in the preparation of Durrell (2000),
which contains more information on word-fields in German.
2.3 Word formation
For this section the following standard textbooks provided much
information: L. M Eichinger, Deutsche Wortbildung. Eine Einfiihrung
(Tübingen, 1999), W. Fleischer and I. Barz, Wortbildung der deutschen
Gegenwartssprache, 2nd rev. edn (Tübingen, 1995) and B. Naumann,
Einfiihrung in die Wortbildungslehre des Deutschen, 3rd edn (Tübingen,
2000).
2.5 Prepositions
The compilation of this section was particularly assisted by reference to
Lamprecht (1977), pp. 309-31, W. Schmitz, Der Gebrauch der deutschen
Präpositionen, 9th edn (Munich, 1981) and J. Schröder, Lexikon
deutscher Präpositionen, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1990).

2.6 Modal particles
This section has benefited greatly from the account of the German
particles in G. Helbig and A. Helbig, Deutsche Partikeln - Richtig
gebraucht? (Leipzig, etc., 1995) and H. Weydt et al., Kleine deutsche
Partikellehre (Stuttgart, 1983).
3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals
The statistics in 3.1.1 and 3.1.2 are taken from G. Augst,
Untersuchungen zum Morpheminventar der deutschen Gegenwartssprache
(Tübingen, 1975), pp. 5-70.
4.1 Verbs and cases
Duden (1998), pp. 650-81, and Helbig and Schenkel (1991) give
extensive surveys of verb government and sentence patterns in German
and were of considerable assistance in the compilation of this chapter.
4.3.2 Past and perfect
K. Dieling and F. Kempter, Die Tempora, 2nd edn (Leipzig, 1989) and
R. Thieroff, Das finite Verb im Deutschen. Tempus - Modus - Distanz
(Tübingen, 1992) give good accounts of tense usage in modern
German. The use of the past and perfect tenses is comprehensively
documented in S. Latzel, Die deutschen Tempora Perfekt und Präteritum
(Munich, 1977).
4.4 The passive
This section draws in particular on the account of German passive
constructions in Zifonun et al. (1997), pp. 1788-858.
4.5 The subjunctive
This account of the subjunctive in modern German is based in large
measure on the survey by K.-H. Bausch, Modalität und
Konjunktivgebrauch in der gesprochenen deutschen Standardsprache, Teil I

(Munich, 1979). I am most grateful to Dr Bausch for allowing me to
consult the unpublished second part of his work. S. Jäger, Empfehlungen
zum Gebrauch des Konjunktivs (Düsseldorf, 1970) can still be
recommended as a very sane survey of the uses of the subjunctive in
modern German.
4.6 The modal auxiliaries
The following works were particularly valuable in the compilation of
this section: G. Diewald, Die Modalverben im Deutschen.
Grammatikalisierung und Polyfunktionalität (Tübingen, 1999),
Lamprecht (1977), pp. 163-75, and F. R. Palmer, Modality and the
English Modais (London, 1979).
5.1 Word order
This explanation of German word order draws in particular on the
accounts in Engel (1991), pp. 303^4, Heidolph et al. (1981),
pp. 702-64; U. Hoberg, Die Wortstellung in der geschriebenen deutschen
Gegenwartssprache (Munich, 1981), H. W. Kirkwood, 'Aspects of Word
Order and its Communicative Function in English and German',
Journal of Linguistics 5 (1969), pp. 85-106, and Zifonun et al. (1997),
pp. 1495-680.
5.2 Spelling and punctuation
I am grateful to my colleague Dr Sally Johnson of Lancaster
University, and to colleagues at the Institut für Deutsche Sprache for
information about the controversies surrounding the introduction of
the revised orthography. G. Äugst et al., Zur Neuregelung der Deutschen
Orthographie. Begründung und Kritik (Tübingen, 1997) contains a
useful selection of critical articles, although the debate has
subsequently progressed further. Hermann (1996) includes full details
on the new rules, and the account here is based on this.
In addition, occasional examples and data were drawn from many
sources, in particular from the Mannheim corpus of modern spoken
and written German at the Institut fur Deutsche Sprache, from the
works of Alfred Andersch, Thomas Bernhard, Heinrich Boll, Friedrich
Dürrenmatt, Max Frisch, Max von der Grün, Herrmann Kant,
Siegfried Lenz, Bernhard Schlink, Erwin Strittmatter, Patrick Süskind

and from the following newspapers and periodicals: Bild, Frankfurter
Allgemeine Zeitung, Frankfurter Rundschau, Neues Deutschland, Neue
Zürcher Zeitung, Die Presse, Der Spiegel, Süddeutsche Zeitung, Die Zeit.
In order not to overburden the text unnecessarily, specific sources for
such occasional data are only given where the source is particularly
relevant or in the case of longer extracts.

Glossary of linguistic terms
In order to talk about language we need to use some special terms.
Although I have tried in this book not to introduce a large number of
technical terms, some are necessary both for the sake of clarity and to
avoid lengthy and tedious repetitions. As far as possible, I have kept to
the more usual grammatical terms. Some, such as 'noun', 'verb' and
'adjective', need no explanation, but the less familiar ones commonly
used for German and English are explained below. Not all of them are
found in this book, but are included to help the reader consult other
works. For similar reasons German equivalents are given where they
exist. Terms used in these definitions which are themselves explained
in the glossary have been given an asterisk.
Ablaut The vowel changes in the *past tense and *past participle
of German * strong verbs, e.g. singen, sang, gesungen, see 3.3.1.
accusative {der Akkusativ) see case.
adverbial {die Adverbiale) A word or phrase used to indicate, for
instance, how, where, why or when something happens or is
done, e.g. heute, aus diesem Grunde, in der Stadt, see 5.1.5.
apposition {die Apposition) A descriptive phrase added to a
noun phrase without any connecting preposition, e.g. Kaiser
Wilhelm II, der letzte deutsche Kaiser, starb im Exil in Holland.
article {der Artikel) *Determiners which give a noun specific
reference. German has a 'definite' article {der, die, das, etc.) and
an 'indefinite' article {ein, eine, einem, etc.), see 3.4.
assimilation {die Assimilation) The pronunciation of a
particular sound may be affected by ('assimilated to')
neighbouring sounds, e.g. in colloquial German gebm, er hap mir
(for geben, er hat mir).
Ausklammerung Excluding a phrase from the verbal "bracket,
i.e. putting it after the *past participle, * separable prefix, etc.
which is usually last in the clause, e.g. Ich rufe an aus London,
see 5.1.6.
auxiliary verb {das Hilfsverb) A verb used with another verb to
make tenses, the passive voice, etc. The main German auxiliaries
are haben, sein, werden and the * modal auxiliaries dürfen, müssen,
etc., see 4.6.

(verbal) bracket (die Klammer) The characteristic sentence
construction of German whereby most elements of the sentence
(or clause) are enclosed between the two parts of the verb, e.g. Ich
habe sie gestern in Ulm gesehen, see 5.1.1.
case (der Fall) The indication of the role played by a noun in the
sentence by * inflection, i.e. by changing its form or the form of
the *determiners or adjectives used with it. German has four
cases: the nominative (mainly for the *subject of the verb), the
accusative (mainly for the * direct object), the dative (mainly for
the *indirect object) and the genitive (mainly to show possession
or to link nouns together), see 3.2,4.1 and 4.2.
cleft sentence A typically English construction, little used in
German, by which part of the sentence is emphasized by placing
it at the beginning in a clause introduced by it, e.g. It was
yesterday that she came, see 5.1.4.
(adjective) comparison (die Steigerung) The relative qualities
of persons or things may be compared by using the comparative
or superlative 'degree' of adjectives, usually formed in German
by the suffixes -er and -(e)st respectively, e.g. schnell - schneller
(comparative degree) - (der) schnellste (superlative degree),
complement (die Ergänzung) A part of the sentence which is
closely linked to the verb and 'completes' its meaning in some
way, e.g. the *direct and *indirect objects, *prepositional objects,
direction phrases with verbs of motion, etc., see 5.1.5.
compound (die Zusammensetzung) A word formed by joining
two (or more) words together, e.g. das Rathaus, die
Aktiengesellschaft, brustschwimmen.
conditional A conditional sentence (der Konditionalsatz) is
one which contains or implies a condition. In German, they often
contain the conjunctions wenn or falls and the verb is often in the
past or pluperfect *subjunctive (Konjunktiv //, see 4.5.4), e.g.
Wenn ich das Fenster aufmachte, würden wir alle frieren. The würde
form of Konjunktiv II is often called 'the conditional tense' in
English grammars of German,
conjugation (die Konjugation) see inflection,
conjunction (die Konjunktion) A word used to join clauses
together, e.g. und, aber, wenn, nachdem.
dative (der Dativ) see case,
declension (die Deklination) see inflection,
demonstrative (das Demonstrative) A word used to point to
something specific, e.g. English this, that, German dieser, jener.
Demonstratives can appear as *determiners or pronouns, see
3.5.1.
derivation (die Wortbildung) Forming a word on the basis of
another, usually with the help of ^prefixes and/or * suffixes, e.g.
verbessern ('derived' from besser), Bildung ('derived' from bilden),
see 2.3.

determiner (das Artikelwort, das Determinativ) One of a small
group of function words used at the beginning of a noun phrase.
They include the definite and indefinite * articles, demonstrative
adjectives, possessive adjectives (mein, sein, etc.), the indefinites
(einige, jeder, mancher,; etc.), and so on; see 3.4 and 3.5. With a few
exceptions, only one determiner can be used in a single noun
phrase, see 3.4.3.
dialect (der Dialekt, die Mundart) A language * variety restricted
to a particular geographical area, see 1.2. In the German speech
area they are often strikingly different from * Hochdeutsch in
phonetics and grammar. Compare Zürich German Er isch i mys
Huus choo, or Westphalian (Münster) He is in mien Huus kuemmen
for standard German Er ist in mein Haus gekommen.
direct object (das direkte Objekt) The person or thing directly
affected by the action of the verb. In German it is in the
accusative case, e.g. Er stellte den Stuhl in die Ecke.
doublet (die Dublette, die Formvariante) An alternative form of
the same word, e.g. benutzen/benützen, see 2.2.4.
elision (die Elision) The omission of a sound, as
characteristically occurs in rapid colloquial speech. For example,
in a word like Hauptbahnhof the t is often 'elided 5 in spoken
German so that it sounds like Haupbahnhof.
ellipsis (die Ellipse) Omitting words, typically in colloquial
speech where their meaning can be deduced from the context. In
spoken German, for instance, we often find ellipsis of pronouns,
e.g. Geht nicht for Das geht nicht, or Komm gleich for Ich komme
gleich.
extended epithet (das erweiterte Attribut) An adjective,
particularly a *participle, which is expanded into a clause-like
construction, e.g. die in dem Park spielenden Kinder. Such
constructions are characteristic of formal written German,
figurative meaning (die übertragene Bedeutung) A word may
have an 'extended' or 'figurative' meaning besides its 'literal'
meaning. For example, blass, besides its literal meaning 'pale', can
have a figurative sense 'vague, faint', e.g. eine blasse Ahnung, 'a
vague suspicion',
filler A conventionalized word or phrase used in conversation to
give the speaker time to think or express a reaction, e.g.
selbstverständlich, das gibt's doch gar nicht.
finite verb (das finite Verb) A verb form used with a subject and
agreeing with it through the ending, e.g. er machte, ihr kommt
an, er hat es gesagt. Finite forms of the verb are distinguished in
this way from the 'non-finite' forms, i.e. the *participles and the
"infinitive.
gender (das Genus) A grammatical classification system of
nouns indicated in German by the different forms of the
* determiners used with a particular noun, e.g. der Tisch, die Luft,

das Heft. German has three genders: masculine, feminine and
neuter, see 3.1.
genitive {der Genitiv) see case.
government {die Rektion) The requirement that a particular
verb or preposition should be followed by a noun phrase in a
particular case. Thus, in German, we say that ohne 'governs' a
noun phrase in the accusative and helfen 'governs' a noun phrase
in the dative.
Hochdeutsch The codified, official *variety of German as used
in all the German-speaking countries, see 1.2.
idiom {die Redewendung) A set phrase with a special meaning
which cannot be understood by taking the words individually,
e.g. schwer auf Draht ('on the ball'), see 2.4.
imperative mood {der Imperativ) The form of the verb used to
give commands, e.g. Bleib da! Stellen Sie sich das vor!
imperfect tense see past tense.
indicative mood {der Indikativ) The form of the verb used to
make statements, ask questions, etc., e.g. Sie kam aus dem Haus,
Bringen Sie es mir morgen?
indirect object {das indirekte Objekt) A verb Complement
which typically refers to a person indirectly affected by the action
of the verb in some way, for instance by receiving the direct
object, e.g. Ich gab ihrem Bruder das Geld. In German the
indirect object is in the dative case, whilst in English it either
precedes the direct object or is in a phrase introduced by to, e.g. /
gave her brother the money or I gave the money to her brother.
indirect speech {die indirekte Rede) Also called 'reported
speech': a construction in which what someone said is
incorporated into our own sentence rather than quoted directly.
Compare 'direct speech' Er sagte: „Ich bin krank" with 'indirect
speech' Er sagte, dass er krank sei, see 4.5.3.
infinitive {der Infinitiv) The base form of a verb (as typically
listed in dictionaries). In German it ends in -en or -n, e.g.
schlagen, ziehen, verhandeln. When used with another verb it is
usually preceded by zu in the so-called 'infinitive clause' {der
Infinitivsatz), e.g. Er hat mir empfohlen, den Wagen in die
Werkstatt zu bringen.
inflection {die Flexion) Changing the form of a word to show
different grammatical categories, e.g. for case and plural with
nouns, or tense, mood, person and number with verbs.
Traditionally the 'inflection' of nouns and adjectives is referred
to as 'declension', the 'inflection' of verbs as 'conjugation',
inseparable verb {das untrennbare Verb) A prefixed verb whose
* prefix is not stressed and remains attached to the verb in all types
of sentence construction. The main inseparable verb prefixes of
German are: be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer-y see 2.3.4.

interjection (die Interjektion) A part of speech such as ah! oh!
ach! etc. expressing a reaction or response,
intransitive verb (das intransitive Verb) A verb which does not
govern a "direct object in the accusative case, e.g. bleiben, fallen,
see 4.1.
inversion (die Inversion) We speak of 'inversion' or 'inverted
word order' in German if the verb precedes the subject, for
instance in a question, or in a statement where something other
than the subject occupies the initial position, e.g. Gestern habe
ich ihn nicht gesehen, see 5.1.
Konjunktiv see subjunctive.
modal auxiliary verb (das Modalverb) In German, the six
verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known
as 'modal auxiliary verbs'. They are used to express possibility,
permission, obligation, etc., see 4.6.
modal particle (die Modalpartikel) Short words such as aber,
auch, doch, ja, nur, etc. which are very characteristic of spoken
German and express the speaker's attitude to what is being said,
see 2.6.
nominative (der Nominativ) see case,
number (der Numerus) A grammatical category for indicating
the difference between singular and plural. The difference
between Haus and Häuser or between ich komme and wir kommen
is one of'number',
object (das Objekt) see direct object and indirect object,
participle (das Partizip) see past participle and present
participle.
partitive (der Partitiv) An expression of measurement or
quantity, e.g. ein Stück Brot, zwei Flaschen Wein, see 4.2.4.
passive voice (das Passiv) A verb form using the "auxiliary
verbs werden or sein with the *past participle. The subject of the
verb in the passive voice is normally the "direct object of the
equivalent active construction, e.g. active: Sie lobte mich ~
passive: Ich wurde (von ihr) gelobt, see 4.4.
past participle (das zweite Partizip) A non-finite verb form
used as an adjective or with an "auxiliary verb to form the
"perfect tense or the "passive, e.g. gemacht, gestanden, zerbrochen.
past tense (das Präteritum) A simple tense (i.e. one formed
without an "auxiliary verb) mainly used to relate events which
occurred before the present moment, e.g. es machte, es brach, es
zerfiel, see 4.3.2. This tense is sometimes called the 'imperfect
tense' in English grammars of German, but this is a misleading
term which is best avoided,
perfect tense (das Perfekt) A tense formed with the present
tense of the "auxiliary verbs haben or sein and the "past participle,
e.g. Ich habe gegessen, Sie ist angekommen. It is used to relate past

events to the moment of speaking and, especially in spoken
German, to report past events, see 4.3.2.
person (die Person) A grammatical category of the verb by
which we show the difference between the person(s) speaking
('first' person, i.e. ich, wir), the person(s) spoken to ('second'
person, i.e. du, ihr,; Sie) and other person(s) or thing(s) spoken
about ('third' person, i.e. er, sie, es).
personal pronoun (das Personalpronomen) Simple words
referring to persons or things such as ich, du, ihm.
phrasal verb (das Funktionsverbgefiige) A combination of a noun
derived from a verb and a common verb such as bringen, kommen
or nehmen, e.g. etrv zum Abschluss bringen ('to finish sth'), in
Betracht kommen ('to be considered'),
pluperfect tense (das Plusquamperfekt) A tense formed with the
*past tense of the *auxiliaries haben or sein and the *past
participle, e.g. Ich hatte geschlafen, Ich war gegangen.
prefix (das Präfix) An element added to the beginning of a word
or root, e.g. Anfall, gestanden, unglaublich.
prepositional adverb (das Präpositionaladverb) Words formed
by the combination of da(r)~ with a preposition, e.g. dabei, darin,
damit, see 4.1.5.
prepositional object (das Präpositionalobjekt) A * complement
of the verb, linked to it by means of a preposition, e.g. Ich warte
auf dich, Er glaubt an ein Wunder, see 4.1.4.
present participle (das erste Partizip) A non-finite verb form
made by suffixing -d to the form of the *infinitive, e.g. spielend,
verbessernd. Unlike the corresponding English ing-form (e.g.
playing), the German present participle is mainly used as an
adjective, see 5.3.
principal parts (die Stammformen des Verbs) The three main
inflectional forms of each verb, i.e. the form of the "Infinitive, the
*past tense (first person singular) and the *past participle, e.g.
machen - machte - gemacht', sinken - sank - gesunken, see 3.3.
progressive tenses In English, the tenses formed with the
*auxiliary verb to be and the ing-form of the verb, e.g. She is going,
We shall be sailing. There are no direct equivalents to these in
German.
reflexive verb (das reflexive Verb) A verb used in combination
with the reflexive pronoun, i.e. sich in the third person and the
pronoun corresponding to the subject in the first and second
persons, e.g. sich verabreden.
register (die Textsorte) A language * variety determined by use
and influenced by such factors as medium (i.e. speech or
writing), subject matter and situation, see 1.1.
relative pronoun (das Relativpronomen) A word which
introduces a subordinate clause describing a noun, for instance

English who,, which, that, German der, die, das, etc., e.g. Die Frau,
Hut trägt, kenne ich nicht, see 3.5.2.
rhetorical question (dfe rhetorische Frage) A question which is
really a statement, as the answer is assumed to be obvious, e.g.
kennt ihn nicht?
Schachtelsatz A German sentence construction where a
number of clauses are contained within each other, e.g. Der Autor,
der ein Buch, das dieses Problem behandelt, geschrieben hat, hat in
der Nazizeit sehr gelitten. As such sentences can be confusing,
they tend to be avoided in modern German, see 5.1.6.
semantic (semantisch) Having to do with meaning,
separable verb (das trennbare Verb) A verb with a stressed
"prefix which is detached from the verb in some sentence types
(e.g. in statements) and forms the second part of the verbal
"bracket, e.g. ankommen: Wir kommen heute um fünf Uhr an, see
2.3.5.
stress (die Betonung) In all words of more than one syllable in
English and German, one syllable, known as the 'stressed'
syllable, is pronounced with more force than the others. This is
indicated in this book by the symbol 1 before the stressed syllable,
e.g. Be l tonung, 'Anfang,, lebendig.
strong verb (das starke Verb) A verb whose "principal parts are
made by altering the vowel (i.e. by * Ablaut) and which has the
suffix -en in the "past participle, e.g. schwimmen - schwamm -
geschwommen, see 3.3.
subject (das Subjekt) The noun or pronoun (in the nominative
case) which determines the ending of the verb, i.e. with which
the verb 'agrees' in "person and "number. In statements in the
active voice the subject is typically the person or thing
performing an action, e.g. Der Stein fiel mir aufden Kopf.
subjunctive mood (der Konjunktiv) A verb category mainly
used in German to show "indirect speech or in "conditional
sentences, see 4.5.
subordinate clause (der Nebensatz) Also called 'dependent
clause'. A clause, usually introduced by a "conjunction, which
functions as part of another clause (e.g. as subject, object,
adjective, adverbial) on which it depends. In German subordinate
clauses the "finite verb is typically the second part of the verbal
"bracket, e.g. Die Frau, die sehr klein war,; konnte es nicht
erreichen (the subordinate clause has the function of an adjective
qualifying Frau); Als er ankam, waren ihre Brüder schon fort (the
subordinate clause plays the role of an "adverbial of time),
suffix (das Suffix) An element added to the end of a word or
root, e.g. Bedeutung, gelblich, machte. A grammatical suffix, as in
machte, is often termed an 'ending',
superlative (der Superlativ) see comparison.

tag question In English, the short questions with an auxiliary
verb at the end of the sentence, e.g. He's coming, isn't he?
topic (das Thema) Also called 'theme'. The first stressed
element in a sentence typically refers to something 'given'
(having been mentioned previously) or 'known' to both speaker
and listener. This is the 'topic' of the sentence and some 'new' or
'unknown' information (known as the 'comment' or 'rheme') is
given about it. In German main clause statements the topic
typically occurs in first position before the "finite verb, see 5.1.
Thus the sentence Dieses Buch hat sie in Ulm gekauft starts with
an element (dieses Buch) which has just been referred to (the
'topic'), and says something about it.
transitive verb (das transitive Verb) A verb "governing a "direct
object (in the accusative case), e.g. schlagen, verbessern, see 4.1.
Umgangssprache The "register of everyday speech in modern
German, often coloured with regionalisms, see 1.1 and 1.2.
variant (die Variante) A word, sound or grammatical form
typical of a particular "variety, see chapter 1.
variety (die Varietät) A particular form of language with
differences characteristic of a particular region, social group,
speech situation or medium, etc. * Hochdeutsch, "dialects,
*Umgangssprache, "registers are all 'varieties' of German, see
chapter 1.
valency/valence (die Valenz) A term often used to refer to the
types of "complement found with a particular verb or the kinds
of object it "governs, see 4.1.
verbal noun (das Verbalsubstantiv) A noun formed from a verb,
either the "infinitive used as a noun, e.g. das Kommen, or some
other form of "derivation, e.g. die Bedeutung (from bedeuten) or
der Bruch (from brechen).
weak masculine noun (das schwache Maskulinum) A masculine
noun which forms its genitive case with the ending -en, e.g. des
Menschen, des Franzosen, see 3.2.1.
weak verb (das schwache Verb) A verb which forms its "past
tense and "past participle with the ending -t, e.g. machen -
machte - gemacht, see 3.3.

Abbreviations and conventions
acc accusative case
adj adjective
AU Austrian usage, see 1.2.3
CH Swiss usage, see 1.2.3
conj conjunction
dat dative case
demon demonstrative
Engl English
esp especially
etw etwas
fem feminine gender
Fr French
fut future tense
gen genitive case
Ger German
intr intransitive verb
id
jdn
jemand
jemanden
jdm jemandem
jds jemandes
masc masculine gender
N North German, see 1.2.3
NE Northeast German, see 1.2.3
NW Northwest German, see 1.2.3
neut neuter gender
nom nominative case
occ occasionally
perf perfect tense
pi plural
pluperf pluperfect tense
prep preposition
pres present tense
pron pronounced; pronoun
R1 spoken colloquial register, see 1.1.5
Rl* vulgar, see 1.1.5
R2 neutral register, see 1.1.5
R3 formal written register, see 1.1.5
R3a literary register, see 1.1.5

R3b non-literary written register, see 1.1.5
S South German, see 1.2.3
sb somebody
SE Southeast German, see 1.2.3
sing singular
sth something
subj subject
SW Southwest German, see 1.2.3
tr transitive verb
/ or
Where necessary, a stressed syllable is indicated by 1 before the
syllable, e.g. der Maf or, das Kontinent, übersetzen,'umziehen.
Where appropriate the plural of a noun is indicated in brackets
after the noun, e.g. der Vater ( "), die Frau (-en), der Lehrer (-),
der Stuhl ( "e).
If the genitive singular of a noun does not end in ~(e)s it is given
with the plural in the following way (see 3.2): der Bube (-n-n),
der Mensch (-en, -en), der Name (-ns, n).
Adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4) are indicated in the following
way: der Beamte(r), der Fremde(r), dasAußere(s).

1 Varieties of language
German is spoken as a native language by about 100 million people in
at least fifteen European countries. This constitutes by far the largest
speech community in Western and Central Europe. It is an official state
language in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and
Luxembourg. It has recognized regional status in areas of Belgium,
Denmark, Italy and Romania and, even after the expulsion and
resettlement of large numbers of German speakers after the Second
World War, it still accounts for sizeable long-established minorities in
France, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia and Russia. It
also has a vast range in terms of possible uses: for everyday
conversation, formal speech, technical writing, journalism, literature
(in the widest sense), and so on.
Given this broad geographic spread and the number of uses to which
it is put, it is quite natural that it is subject to considerable variation.
Different words, grammatical constructions and sentence types are
used depending on who is speaking or writing, to whom, on what topic,
in what circumstances, in what region. Most people can choose to
speak formally or informally as they feel appropriate in a given
situation. Students, for instance, express themselves in very different
ways when discussing politics or sport with friends in a cafe, talking to
their parents or a lecturer, writing a seminar paper or a letter of
application for a job. The spoken language also differs markedly from
Berlin to Cologne, Munich, Zürich or Vienna. There can be substantial
differences between the written German of a modern novel, a serious
newspaper, a history book and a travel guide. All these different forms
are varieties of German, and we can identify those characteristic
features, the variants, which go to make up each variety.
In the process of learning their own language native speakers
develop an awareness of the variants available to them and a degree of
competence in using those which are appropriate to a given situation.
They also develop a keen sensitivity towards such variation, so that
when they hear or read a particular variant in an inappropriate context
it will sound out of place, and possibly comical, affected, pompous,
slipshod - or even rude. Clearly, this presents problems, and potential
traps, for foreign learners. In order to communicate effectively in
German they have to go through a much more conscious process of
acquiring the ability to recognize and use those forms which are right
for each particular situation. This is not always straightforward because

there are no hard and fast rules - it is not a matter of grammar - and
the language is most often presented to foreign learners, certainly in the
early stages, in a uniform variety which can be rather artificial and
removed from actual everyday usage. Initial confrontation with
German as it is used in day-to-day situations, with all its variation, can
be confusing or frustrating - for example when learners find that
laboriously learnt grammatical constructions amuse native speakers if
they are used in everyday conversation, or when they are told that a
particular word or expression is 'not used here', possibly with the
implication that it is not very good German. But developing
competence in handling variation appropriately is an essential aspect of
mastering the language fully, as much for the foreign learner as for the
native speaker.
Within the scope of this book it would be impossible to give a
detailed account of all the varieties of modern German. They are in any
case not clearly defined; distinctions between individual varieties are
not clear-cut and each one tends to shade into the next. This book
identifies some of the most frequent variants which native speakers
have at their command and which the advanced foreign learner is most
likely to encounter. This is done by explaining in detail the major
factors which affect choice between variants. These factors can be
usefully divided into two categories: those relating to the uses which the
language serves and those relating to the users of the language, in
particular to the social groups to which they belong.
NOTE: More extensive information on variation in German can be
found in Barbour & Stevenson (1990), Clyne (1995) and Stevenson
(1997). The account here draws on these works and has also benefited
from the analysis of register in French in R. E. Batchelor and M. H.
Offord, Using French, 3rd edn (Cambridge 2000), on which the
numbering in 1.1.5 is based.
1.1 Varieties according to use: register
The forms used by native speakers are influenced by factors like subject
matter (i.e. what they are talking about), medium (i.e. are they speaking
or writing?) and situation (i.e. where they are saying it and who they are
talking to). Variation of this kind, which depends on the use to which
the language is being put, is commonly known as register variation. A
register is a type, or stylistic level of language (e.g. colloquial, informal,
formal, technical, etc.), which is influenced by factors of this kind.

1.1.1 Medium
The first crucial distinction affecting register is that between spoken
and written language. When we are writing we have more time to
consider what we are saying and how we are saying it, to be precise in
expression, and to formulate more carefully than in the flow of speech.
As a result written language tends to be more elaborate and complex
than spoken language. And because there is no direct contact with the
person being addressed, more detailed explanation and more formal
coherence are necessary than, for example, in a conversation with a
close friend, when we can leave words out, break sentences off and be
less precise in our use of words and still be perfectly well understood.
As a result, written language is structured more formally and precisely
and exhibits a greater degree of organization in every aspect. It has a
more extensive vocabulary, with distinctions of meaning which are
often ignored in the spoken language. There are grammatical forms,
such as, in German, the present subjunctive, the genitive case and the
past tense, which are used more sparingly (if at all) in everyday spoken
German than in writing. Sentences tend to be longer, with a more
complex structure. Regionalisms are very limited and are largely
restricted to a few items of vocabulary, principally those characteristic
of the different German-speaking countries.
Spoken German, on the other hand, is characterized in general by
considerable deviation from the formal norms of sentence construction
which are adhered to in writing. Sentences are often incomplete (often
just nouns or phrases without a verb), there are many broken or
elliptical constructions, repetitions and phrases added or inserted as
afterthoughts without linking them properly to the rest of the sentence.
There are fewer subordinate clauses, and main-clause constructions are
the rule. Filler words, like the modal particles (aber, doch, denn, etc., see
2.6), hesitation markers (öh, mhm, etc.), interjections and comment
clauses (sehen Sie, weißt du, etc.), are very common. Regionalisms are
almost inevitably present to some degree, and these become more
marked the further south one goes (see 1.2.2).
Despite the apparent paradox, not all writing is in the 'written'
register as described above, and not all speech is in the 'spoken'
register. We can imitate natural speech in writing, and many modern
popular novelists and the popular press use a variety which is close to
it. However, in practice this is restricted to certain characteristic words
and expressions, and possibly some phonetic contractions such as
sehense for sehen Sie. The lax sentence constructions which are typical
of spontaneous informal speech (see the examples in 1.4.2) are rarely
found in any form of writing, not least because they are conventionally
felt to be 'incorrect'. Similarly, characteristic written forms may be
spoken, often in the most formal situations, e.g. a sermon, a public
lecture, a parliamentary speech or a news broadcast; as often as not

these are given from a prepared text. It is also broadly true that written
German has been moving closer to speech in many ways over the last
fifty years. This is a development which is typical of English and other
languages, too, and it is generally seen as a result of the increasing
importance of the spoken medium in the modern world, especially in
radio and television. In German, though, it is also probably due in part
to the more widespread use of standard German (Hochdeutsch), rather
than the dialects, in the everyday speech of most German speakers (see
1.2.2).
1.1.2 Subject matter
What is being talked or written about can influence the way it is
expressed. A discussion of politics calls for a whole range of vocabulary
and forms which would be inappropriate in other areas. Every activity
and field of study has its own special terminology and expressions, and
these are used irrespective of situation: the same characteristic forms
may be used by a politician in a television interview, in a newspaper
article or between friends. But this is not always so: an electric light
bulb is, in the everyday spoken register of German, die (Glüh)birne, but
in the specialist register of electricians it is die (Glüh)lampe. Similarly,
doctors regularly use different terms for diseases or conditions when
talking to other doctors from those they use to their patients. Although
subject matter most obviously influences the choice of vocabulary, it is
important to realize that, in modern German, it also affects grammar
and sentence construction. Much non-literary writing in German
favours forms and constructions which are found less often, for
instance, in a modern novel. The passage in 1.6.4 gives many
characteristic examples of these. Thus, there are forms which are
generally regarded as more appropriate to talk or (especially) write
about a particular range of subject matter.
1.1.3 Situation
The term situation refers to the whole context in which the language is
being used - especially in speech, as there is naturally little inherent
variation in written situations. With the important exception of
letter-writing, which is a special case, a writer does not have a personal
relationship to the reader. As a consequence, the most formal register
variants are typically selected in writing, as was shown in 1.1.1. On the
other hand, situation is the most important factor underlying register
variation in speech, and it appears typically in the degree of formality
in the words, expressions and constructions used.
This variation depends, first, on the context in which people are
speaking. Some contexts are inherently more structured and formal

than others and may be taken as requiring a correspondingly high
register level. Some typical cases were mentioned at the end of 1.1.2,
but colleagues in an office, for example, often employ a greater degree
of formality in a meeting with set procedures than they would in the
normal course of everyday business. However, the notion of'speech
situation' is usually defined more widely, to include the relationship
between the people talking, and this plays a crucial part in the selection
of a particular register.
In general, the use of more formal language when we speak is
considered a mark of deference to the person addressed, and this forms
part of social conventions of politeness. Conversely, the use of an
inappropriately casual form may be interpreted as showing a lack of
respect. Most of the factors which affect the choice of register are
linked to norms of social behaviour in this way. This is certainly the
case with gender differences. For example, many German men feel it
appropriate to adopt a more formal mode of speech when addressing a
woman than a man. Although this is less true than it was a hundred
years ago, it is by no means unusual, particularly in the higher social
classes, when the man in question does not know the woman personally,
or among older people or in certain areas, like in Austria. More
generally, though, there are numerous forms (especially vulgarisms
such as Arschloch, Scheiße, vögeln, see 1.1.5) which are avoided by many
Germans in mixed company, although they can be used fairly freely in
exclusively male or female gatherings.
The role of age is similar. It is still taken as a mark of respect to use a
more formal register when speaking to people older than oneself. This
is perhaps more widely expected by adults from children and young
people in the German-speaking countries than is the case in Britain or
the USA, and failure to observe these conventions may be resented. On
the other hand, a different form of speech, with simpler grammar and
special words, is often used towards young (especially pre-school age)
children. In general, too, a less formal tone is adopted towards all
children up to the age of fourteen or so, with the universal use of du
towards them, although this may be determined less by their age per se
than by their social status as dependants.
In conversations between adults, the relative social status of the
participants is often the crucial factor in setting the register level.
People in a subordinate social situation, such as a shopkeeper to a
customer, an employee to a boss, a student to a professor, often signal
this more deferential relationship by the use of a more formal speech
style than is normal between equals. Failure to do so may indeed have
serious social consequences, e.g. Ich kaufe nicht mehr bei Meyer, der redet
einen so grob an, as with the transgression of any other social
conventions.
How someone wishes to be seen by the person he or she is addressing
is also relevant here. People in a subordinate position, like those just
mentioned, sometimes express themselves in a particular manner in

order to confirm their position to the person they are speaking to.
Alternatively, by using different, more casual forms, they may assert a
measure of equality, like an employee to a boss in the course of an
industrial dispute. In this way, we can adopt roles and present ourselves
in a particular manner through our speech. It has been noticed that
some German politicians choose an especially earthy or racy casual
register, very marked by regionalisms, when talking to rural
constituents in order to appeal to them as equals. This is likely to be
very different from the one they habitually use in the Bundestag. Some
people signal their contempt for all social conventions by ignoring
linguistic ones as well. They deliberately use the least formal register to
everybody, including those who might be seen as their superiors. This
attitude was particularly noticeable after 1968 among radical student
groups in West Germany, and it may still be encountered. In general,
though, the use of a less formal register most often marks a measure of
equality and intimacy with the person addressed. One clear indicator of
this in German is the switch from Sie to du.
1.1.4 Register and regionalism
There is a strong correlation between these varieties which depend on
variations in usage and varieties which depend on variation in the users,
which are explained in 1.2. As a rule, the extent of regionalisms in a
German native speaker's speech increases in proportion to the degree
of informality in the register. The most formal register, especially when
written, is fairly uniform over the whole of the German speech area,
with regional variation limited to a few items of vocabulary. The casual
register of everyday speech, on the other hand, is widely characterized
by regionalisms in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary.
1.1.5 Indicating register
There are no absolute, clear-cut divisions between different registers of
German. However, for the practical purposes of giving information
about register in this book it is useful to divide up the scale of register
into three main types. We can describe these roughly as 'informal
colloquial', 'neutral' and 'formal written', although the latter needs to
be subdivided into 'literary' and 'non-literary'. In the rest of the book
words and forms whose use is typically restricted to one of these
registers are marked by using the labels Rl, R2 and R3 (if necessary
split into R3a and R3b) to indicate these restrictions in
register-dependent usage:
Rl: The typical register of everyday colloquial speech, usually
referred to as Umgangssprache or Alltagssprache in German. It is used
between equals in informal situations to discuss everyday topics, and it

is the natural mode of speech for most native speakers of German,
irrespective of the degree of education. Articulation is rather careless,
and unstressed syllables and words tend to be reduced or elided. Some
grammatical forms, like the genitive case or the present subjunctive, are
not found in this register, and there is some simplification in
inflectional forms, as with the -en ending of weak masculine nouns,
which is often dropped in this register (e.g. dem Polizist rather than dem
Polizisten). Sentence construction is typically rather loose compared
with the formal structures of writing. In spontaneous speech we
hesitate, correct ourselves, have afterthoughts, repeat ourselves and
break off sentences to go off along another track. Sentences are very
often incomplete because much is understood by implication; we can
rely on the person we are talking to to supply what is not said. In
matters of vocabulary there is a fondness for exaggeration, and many
words, like kriegen or klappen, are effectively restricted to this register
because they are considered too 'casual' or 'colloquial' for writing.
There may also be a lack of precision in the vocabulary, with
all-purpose words being used when the speaker cannot think of an exact
term. Informal speech usually has substantial regional colouring. In its
characteristic form it is rarely written, although some writing (e.g.
modern novels and the popular press) may imitate certain features of it.
This register has a wide range, from a normal conversational style
which is socially quite acceptable to gross vulgarisms. The latter mainly
concern items of vocabulary which correspond to the notorious
four-letter words of English and which are indicated here by the label
Rl*. Words designated like this are generally thought of as offensive.
They tend to sound particularly objectionable when used with a foreign
accent, and the foreign learner is best advised simply to note them and
to avoid using them.
R2: This label indicates words, forms and expressions which are
neutral in respect of register, i.e. those which are not specific to either
informal colloquial speech or formal writing, and which can be used
equally in all registers. In practice, most words, forms and expressions
of German fall into this category, so that any form not specifically
marked for register in this book is to be taken as belonging to it. Most
modern introductory material for foreign learners tends to use a type of
language which falls under this heading and is neither colloquial nor
formal.
However, there are a fair number of words, forms and expressions
whose use is best defined negatively, i.e. they are typically used over a
range of register except in colloquial speech, or except in formal writing.
Such usage is indicated in this book by the labels R2/3 or Rl/2
respectively. Other forms may be not absolutely restricted in their
usage to a single register, but if they are particularly common in Rl or
R3 this is indicated as 'esp. Rl' or 'esp. R3\
R3: By this label we indicate the register of modern written German,
with the complex sentence structures and elaborate vocabulary typical

of the written medium. Regionalism is minimal and is usually limited
to a few items of vocabulary. It is spoken only in the most formal
situations, and then typically from a prepared text. In this case, the
pronunciation is much more careful and clear than in Rl. In grammar,
the formal requirements of standard Hochdeutsch, as set out in the
recognized authorities, is adhered to with very little deviation. The
choice of words is more careful (because we have time to think about
the best word for the context), and fine distinctions of meaning are
observed which may be ignored in everyday usage. It is useful to
distinguish two major types of this register, basically differentiated in
terms of subject matter, as follows.
R3a: The literary language as established and codified from the late
eighteenth century on, and still used in much formal writing, especially
works of literature and the serious press. It may have a rather archaic or
scholarly ring to it, but it enjoys great prestige through formal
education, and it is still widely regarded as the only 'good' or 'correct'
form of German, with deviations from it in other registers (even R3b)
considered as deficiencies.
R3b: Modern non-literary prose of all kinds, as found in business
letters, official documents, instruction manuals, popular scholarship,
writing in science, philosophy, economics, etc. Its most striking feature
is the preference for noun constructions over verb constructions; main
clauses prevail as contrasted to the complex sentences with dependent
clauses characteristic of R3a. Such features of R3b have been widely
criticized by purists (who think that old-fashioned R3a is the only kind
of German which ought to be used in writing) as Papierdeutsch or
Beamtendeutsch, and at its worst this register can be ludicrously
pompous and impenetrable. However, at its best it has a notable
conciseness, and most Germans consider it appropriate for
non-fictional writing of all kinds.
It must be stressed that these categories are a considerable
simplification. The scale of register is continuous, and there are no
natural divisions. Each of the categories above covers a wide range of
often very different types of German. Rl, for example, ranges from
wholly acceptable conversational language, as used every day by most
German speakers, to the kind of gross vulgarisms indicated by Rl* in
this book which are avoided except in very special cases. The other
registers have no less wide a range: R3b includes, for instance, the very
precise and considered expression of an editorial in Die Zeit and the
unnecessary verbosity of an official pronouncement. But there is still
enough similarity in some essential features to make these broad
categorizations useful, whilst to try to identify a larger number of
categories would simply be confusing.
Equally, these labels are only a very rough guide to usage. The scale
of register is continuous; there are no natural divisions and language
users are rarely consistent. However, the labels are handy and easy to

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
operate with, and they are useful in giving an initial indication of the
restrictions on the use of particular forms. Much speech or writing
cannot be assigned as a whole to one of the above categories, and more
than anything it is a question of the greater or lesser use of those
variants which are typical of one register or another. For example, a
political discussion between friends in a cafe might drift between R2
and R1 (with more of the latter as the evening wears on), but with
certain features of R3b if they use words and phrasing typical of the
way their subject matter is treated in newspapers and in television
broadcasts by practising politicians. Some modern novelists, like
Günter Grass, use the lexical and syntactic elaborateness which is
typical of R3a, but with a fair leavening of Rl, often vulgar, variants.
Other recent writers try to avoid the complexity of R3a and aim at a
more informal register level, using variants which are predominantly
neutral R2.
1.2 Varieties according to user: regionalism
Other varieties of language relate to the social group(s) to which people
belong. We can frequently observe people, quite unconsciously, using
forms and expressions which indicate their membership of a particular
group. Small groups of young people, say, at a particular school or
college, often have a range of slang forms and expressions which are
peculiar to the group; the use of these excludes outsiders and signals
membership of this 'in' group.
Variation according to user is equally typical of very much larger
social groups. Within the German speech area we come across
linguistic variation which is related to the social class of a speaker and
to the region which he or she comes from. Sometimes the two factors
are linked, as is typically the case in England: Eliza Doolittle, in George
Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion, is marked by her speech as a lower-class
Londoner. This is less frequent in Germany, where, especially in the
South, regional variants are used by members of all social classes. In
fact, in the German-speaking countries the influence of social class is
most often seen in the ability (or willingness) to use a particular register,
as we saw earlier, and less educated speakers may characteristically be
less competent in more formal registers. Given the correlation between
more colloquial registers and the degree of regionalism, this may have
the secondary effect that such speakers use more regional varieties.
However, it is important for English learners of German to be aware
that, as a general rule, such local varieties, accents or dialects may be
widely accepted and used by all sections of society in a way that is not
found in England or some of the other English-speaking countries.The
kind of social stigmatism which in England is commonly attached to
broad accents like Eliza Doolittle's is much less usual in the German

speech area, although it is not unknown and may be increasing,
especially in the large northern industrial conurbations like the
Ruhrgebiet or Berlin. On the other hand, a standard German
pronunciation lacks the clear association with prestigious social groups
which is so characteristic of Received Pronunciation in Britain.
1.2.1 Regionalism and standard German
Regional variation is an important feature of German and the learner
will encounter it at a much earlier stage and to a much greater degree
than, say, in French. We need first to look at it in relation to the
standard German which is taught to foreign learners. This variety
(Hochdeutsch, die deutsche Hochsprache) arose from the time of Luther
onwards as a written standard language for the whole of the German
speech area. In the terms we are using, it was restricted to R3; even
nowadays, it is still frequently referred to as Schriftdeutsch. In its
modern form, which is labelled R3 in this book, it has a uniform
spelling, which has been recently revised (see 6.1) and for which the
Duden Rechtschreibung (2000) is regarded as authoritative. Its grammar
also has a uniform codification of what is considered to be 'correct'
German, and the Duden Grammatik (1998) is usually accepted as the
standard authority for this. In these aspects of language, accepted
regional variation is limited. There is more such variation in the realm
of vocabulary, where there is no universally recognized authority. In
particular there is considerable variation here between the various
German-speaking countries, with different words being in current use
in Austria and Switzerland from those in Germany. The most
important of these are given in 1.5.2. Divergences also emerged
between the DDR and the other German-speaking countries. Although
these were mainly in the field of political and state institutions, a few,
like Broiler for Brathähnchen and Plaste for Plastik, remain in common
everyday use in the 'new' Bundesländer, even after unification. Only
time will tell if these will ultimately survive as regional variants.
However, there are many instances where no single word has ever
gained full acceptance over the whole of the German speech area. The
case of Northern Sonnabend and Southern Samstag is well known, but
there are numerous others, although it is noticeable that they are more
prevalent in areas of everyday life, such as food and drink and
traditional trades, where the influence of the standard language may
have made itself felt less strongly.
1.2.2 Regionalism and spoken German
Certainly until 1800, and in many parts of Germany until 1900,
standard German (Hochdeutsch) was used for writing only. What people

spoke was their dialect, a language variety peculiar to a particular
locality. In German this often differs from the standard language in so
many respects - in pronunciation and grammar as well as in
vocabulary - as to be all but incomprehensible to a speaker from
another region, and certainly to the foreigner who has learnt only
standard German. By the end of the eighteenth century, though, a
spoken form of Hochdeutsch had arisen, based on a North German
pronunciation of the written language, initially for very formal public
speech, as in stage declamation, rather than for everyday purposes.
This came to be used more widely in the course of the nineteenth
century. It was eventually accepted for teaching in schools in all the
German-speaking countries and codified for use on the stage in 1898.
Largely because of its use in education, some form of this spoken
supraregional standard was adopted in the course of the twentieth
century by most Germans for everyday use, but the extent to which this
is the case still varies considerably with region and register. The foreign
learner is still most likely to encounter in Rl anywhere a variety of
German coloured to a greater or lesser degree by regional features, and
it must be emphasized again that the correlation between the degree of
regional variation and social class is much less marked than in England
and some other English-speaking countries.
As a general, if not invariable rule, such regionalism becomes
stronger and the difference from standard German more marked as one
proceeds from north to south. From Saxony, Hesse and the Rhineland
southwards, and especially in Swabia, Bavaria and Austria, much
natural everyday (Rl) speech is in dialect or a variety very close to
dialect, especially outside the larger conurbations. In German-speaking
Switzerland, the local dialects are used by all social classes in all speech
situations except the most formal. Standard German is used almost
only in writing or when talking to people who are not Swiss German.
In conclusion the close link between the degree of regionalism and
the degree of formality in register must be stressed again. This means
that an individual's speech often shows more local features in more
casual speech, for instance at home or in the pub, than in formal
situations. Many speakers have command over a considerable range in
this way, from broad dialect to a slightly accented form of standard
German.
1.2.3 Indicating regional variation
Regional variation in language can be extremely confusing for foreign
learners, who may, for instance, encounter three or four apparently
synonymous equivalents for a single English word and be uncertain
which one to use because they are not initially aware that they are
dealing with regional variants. In the main, they need merely to be
aware which words and forms are regionally restricted and which are

standard. In practice, learners are probably best advised to avoid
regional variants in their own usage, given the associations which might
be evoked. Outside the area in which such regionalisms are used they
can sound comical, whilst inside it they could sound patronizing or
condescending if used by a stranger or a foreigner.
Regional forms will be specified in terms of the following large areas
(see map on page 2). These are intended mainly to give a rough general
indication of where a particular form is current, rather than be
absolutely precise:
N: North of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into NW
and NE along the border of the new (post-1990) Bundesländer.
S: South of the river Main. If necessary, this area is split into SW
and SE along the western borders of Bavaria and Austria.
Forms specified as S, SW, SE are also current in Switzerland and/or
Austria unless a separate form is given, indicated as follows:
AU Austria
CH Switzerland
It must be stressed that the above are very broad indicators. It would
be impossible to give exact information about the regional distribution
of many words without overburdening such a book as this with detail. It
is also the case, in this age of mass communication, that words and
forms which have been typical of a particular area become more widely
known and often become fashionable in other areas. Over the last
twenty or thirty years, for instance, N tschüss 'goodbye' has been
spreading rapidly into southern Germany, displacing older regional
variants like SW ade, especially among the younger generation in towns
and cities.
1.3 Examples of variation: pronunciation
In this section we give some of the most frequently encountered
variants in the pronunciation of modern German which are linked to
register and regionalism, with the reservations explained in 1.1 and 1.2
that these cannot always be distinguished clearly.
Phonetic alphabet
The spelling of standard German gives a pretty clear guide to
pronunciation (unlike English), at least for careful, standard speech.
However, there are times when we need to indicate the sometimes very
different sounds of colloquial or regional speech. As far as possible,
such forms are given in this section in an adapted version of standard
German spelling rather than in phonetic transcription, so that we

CONSONANTS
Rl = spoken
colloquial
RL* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
write, for example, kommdn to represent the pronunciation of standard
German kommenden as it is often heard in fast colloquial speech.
Spellings like these are never usually found in print, but they are used
here for the sake of convenience and ease of recognition. However,
there are occasions when we have to use the special alphabet of the
International Phonetic Association (IPA) to make it quite clear exactly
what sounds we are dealing with. The following table gives all the IPA
symbols used here, with examples from German, (British) English or
French. Phonetic symbols are always given between square brackets,
e.g. Mann, pronounced [man].
1» Ger biVten, Engl heat Y Ger Fülle
Ger Mühle, Fr mur
i Ger bitten, Engl bit y*
e: Ger b^ten, Fr ^couter ce Ger Hölle
e Ger Betty Engl bed 0i Ger Höhle, Fr peu
e: Ger wäre, Fr seme ai Ger fein, Engl fine
a Ger Band, Fr passer au Ger Maus, Engl mouse
a: Ger Vater, Engl father ceY Ger Mäuse
o Engl hot 3 Ger bitte, Engl china
0 Ger kommen, Engl caught B Ger bitter
o: Ger Booty Fr eau e Ger Pension, Fr pain
Ü Ger Butter, Engl butcher a Ger Restaurant, Fr en
u: Ger Kuh, Fr trow 0 Ger Balkon, Fr on
P Ger fassen, Engl^ass 3 Ger Genie, Engl leisure
b Ger bitte, Engl bit X Ger Buch, Scots loch
t Ger fun, Engl ton 9 Ger mich, Engl Hugh
d Ger dumm, Engl dumb h Ger holen, Engl Aole
k Ger kommen, Engl come m Ger mich, Engl mine
g Ger gut, Engl good n Ger neun, Engl nine
f Ger faul, Engl foul Ger hing, Engl hung
V Ger ipann, Engl van 1 Ger /aut, Engl /oud
s Ger lassen, Engl sat K Ger rot
z Ger saß, Engl zero j Ger ja, Engl year
X Ger ließen, Engl sheet Y A sound between [x] and [g],
the voiced ch often heard in
the N pronunciation of
Wagen.
NOTES: (i) A subscript dot, e.g. [m], [n], indicates that the consonant
forms a syllable, e.g. in Ger bitten [bitn], geben [geibm], Engl button
[bAtn]. (ii) Stressed syllables are preceded by a stress mark, e.g.
ver'stehen (in phonetic transcription: |TA' Jteian]).

1.3.1 Regional variation in pronunciation
(a) The following pronunciations are used almost universally in the
areas indicated, irrespective of register:
Area Regional Hochdeutsch
NORTH -g- pronounced as
voiced -ch- [y]
between vowels
initial^)/- pronounced
as f-
-ung pronounced as
-unk
long vowels
pronounced short in
words of one syllable
-g pronounced as -ch
at end of words or
before consonants
long ä [e:]
pronounced as eh [e:]
Waghen [vaiyan] Wagen
Fund Pfund
Hoffnunk Hoffnung
Ratt, gropp, Tach Rat, grob, Tag
taucht, Zeuch taugt, Zeug
wehre, speht wäre, spät
SOUTH -ig pron as -ik dreißik dreißig [draisi9]
-
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
initial ch- pron as k- Kina China [91: na]
some long vowels
pronounced short,
especially before
[K]+ consonant
nasal vowels
pronounced as
simple vowel + n
unstressed -e
pronounced as [e]
different stress in
some words
Art [aKt], wird [viKt] Art [aiBt], wird
[viiKt]
Balkon [balkorn],
Pension [pensjo:n]
Balkon [balko],
Pension [pensjo]
gute [gurte] gute [guita]
Tun'nel, Kaffee,
Ta'bak
'Tunnel, 'Kaffee,
'Tabak

(b) The following pronunciations are mainly confined to Rl. They
are not necessarily found in the whole of the areas indicated, and major
exceptions and restrictions are noted:
Area Regional Hochdeutsch
NORTH initial sp-, stpronounced
with [s]
(especially Hanover,
Hamburg)
initial g- pron. as j-
(NE, Rhineland)
SOUTH-WEST ich-Laut [9]
pronounced as sch
S-tein [stain],
S-prung [sprorj]
Stein [Jtain],
Sprung [Jprurj]
jut, jemacht gut, gemacht
pronunciation of nicht nich nicht
-nd- pron as -nn- anners, Kinner anders, Kinder
word-final -en
pronounced as -e
medial and final st and
sp pronounced as
seht, schp
SOUTH p, t, k pronounced as
by dy g (also Saxony)
w, ö pronounced as i, e
(also Saxony)
a pronounced as 0 [0]
or a [D]
unstressed -e dropped
in all words
Teppisch, siebzisch Teppich, siebzig
komme, g(e)bliebe kommen, geblieben
beschte, Weschpe,
du bischt
beste, Wespe, du
bist
Abodehge, dodal Apotheke, total
Brieder, scheen Brüder, schön
Wässer, schlafen Wasser, schlafen
heut, Leut heute, Leute
pronunciation of nicht net/nit nicht
ge-, be-, pronounced
as g-,b-
1.3.2 Register variation in pronunciation
gmacht, bstellt gemacht, bestellt
Rl speech is characterized by less careful articulation. However, even
rather more formal spoken language tends to simplification, especially
of unstressed syllables. There is thus a gradual progression from the

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
most casual speech style, Rl, to the most formal, spoken R3, where
every letter is given its full value. R3 is, of course, primarily a written
register, and the extremely precise and distinct articulation it
represents is only found in rather special situations, like reading a
written text aloud in public or giving a lecture. Some German speakers
may insist that foreign learners ought only to use and be taught this
style of speech, as only it is 'correct'. But it can sound very stilted and
artificial in any but the most formal situations. The table below gives
the two extremes of pronunciation variation, but numerous
intermediate forms exist which are used depending on the level of
relative formality.
Rl R3
unstressed -en gebm [geibm] geben
reduced and kommdn [komdn] kommenden
assimilated to fahrn [faien] fahren
preceding consonant eigng'n [aigrjn] eigenen
sinkng [zirjkrj] sinken
simplification and Norpol [noBpoil] Nordpol
assimilation of Herbsflanse [heepsflansa] Herbstpflanze
consonant groups, scho ma [Joma] schon mal
especially at the ma tu doch [matudox] man tut doch
beginning and end of fuffzig [fuftsi9] fünfzig
words, and where dabbich [dabi£] da habe ich
compound words are gewart [gavaet] gewartet
joined un a is [un B?IS] und er ist
a hap mir [e hap mi:e] er hat mir
reduction of hammer [hame] haben wir
pronouns in simmer [simu] sind wir
conjunction with wissnse [visnsa] wissen Sie
verbs kommste [komsta] kommst du
isse [is3] ist sie
mussich [musig] muss ich
reduction of articles, da [dB], di [di], (d)s der, die, das
pronouns and other (d)n, (d)m den, dem
determiners n,ne(N)/e(S),n'n [nn] ein, eine, einen
nem/eim, ner einem, einer
meim, unsem meinem, unserem

articles fused with all
common prepositions
unstressed -e
dropped in verb
endings
unstressed -e
dropped in basic
form of some
adjectives
unstressed -e added
in some numerals and
other words when
stressed
foreign words given
German
pronunciation
denn reduced and
suffixed to verb
r pronounced as [B]
(similar to the vowel
of S. English but)
after vowels and in
the ending -er
Rl contd R3 contd
ausn, bein
mitn, in'n
nachn, von'n
mim, minnem
minner
durchn, durchn'n
ausm, hinnem
nachm
ich geh, ich komm
ich tu, ich könnt
ich sollt
aus den, bei den
mit den, in den
nach den, von den
mit dem, mit einem
mit einer
durch den, durch einen
aus dem, hinter dem
nach dem
ich gehe, ich komme
ich tue, ich könnte
ich sollte
blöd, feig, mild, trüb, zäh blöde, feige, milde,
trübe, zähe
fünfe, sechse, neune, elfe, alleine, vorne fünf, sechs, neun, elf,
allein, vorn
Schenie [Jeni:]
Restaurang [restorarj]
Genie feeni:]
Restaurant [restora]
Was machs'n du hier? Was machst du denn
hier?
wiä [vfe], Eäde [eeda] bessä [bese] wir, Erde, besser
1.4 Examples of variation: grammar
In this section we give some common examples of how the grammar of
German varies depending on region and register.

1.4.1 Regional variation in grammar
Regionalism is perhaps less significant in grammar than in
pronunciation and vocabulary. However, the following variant uses are
widespread and are sometimes found in writing (especially in the case
of S variants in Austrian and Swiss usage), although the foreign learner
is advised to keep to standard forms. Some of them (indicated with an
asterisk below) are beginning to be used outside their original
geographical limits and are now found more generally in Rl.
Area Regional Hochdeutsch
NORTH sein in perfect of
anfangen and
beginnen
splitting da +
preposition*
confusion of
accusative and dative
am + infinitive to
express continuous
action*
more nouns have a
plural in -s (see 3.1.3)
SOUTH wo used as relative
pronoun
ich bin angefangen
ich bin begonnen
Da weiß ich nichts
von
ich habe angefangen
ich habe begonnen
Davon weiß ich
nichts
Er hat mir gesehen Er hat mich gesehen
Mein Vater ist am
Schreiben
die Doktors, die
Onkels
nach used for zu Ich fahre nach dem
Zoo
das Auto, wo da
kommt
deviant verb forms gedenkt, gewunken,
bräuchte
nachdem used to mean
'as', 'since', 'because'
sein used in perfect of
liegen, sitzen and
stehen (see 4.3.3)
no -n in dative plural
of nouns*
nachdem sie erst
später kommen
kann,...
Ich bin gelegen,
gesessen,
gestanden
Mein Vater schreibt
gerade
die Doktoren, die
Onkel
Ich fahre zum Zoo
das Auto, das da
kommt
gedacht, gewinkt,
brauchte/würde
brauchen
da sie erst später
kommen kann
Ich habe gelegen,
gesessen,
gestanden
mit den Bücher mit den Büchern

Area contd Regional contd Hochdeutsch contd
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
different plural forms
used with some
nouns
some nouns used with
different genders
no umlaut in present
tense
dative used to mark
possession
definite article used
with names*
double auxiliary in
pluperfect tense*
es hat in place of es gibt
(SW)
different verb
valencies (see 4.1.4)
die Stiefeln
die Stücker
die Wägen
die Bach
der Butter
der Gewalt
der Kartoffel
der Radio
der Schokolad
die Stiefel
die Stücke
die Wagen
der Bach
die Butter
die Gewalt
die Kartoffel
das Radio
die Schokolade
er schlaft, lasst er schläft, lässt
Das ist mir Das ist mein(e)s
der Peter, die
Monika
Sie hat meinen
Vater gesehen
gehabt
Hat es einen
Apotheke hier in
der Stadt?
Er hat auf das Geld
vergessen (SE)
Sie hat mir
angerufen (SW)
Sie hat darauf
gedacht
1.4.2 Register variation in grammar
Peter, Monika
Sie hatte meinen
Vater gesehen
Gibt es einen
Apotheke hier in
der Stadt?
Er hat das Geld
vergessen
Sie hat mich
angerufen
Sie hat daran
gedacht
Usage is flexible with a number of these variants, but most German
speakers take care to avoid specifically Rl forms in writing, and, in
general, less casual spoken German (i.e. R2) tends to follow R3 norms.
The table below gives the two extremes of Rl and R3, with variations
and exceptions indicated.

no ending -en in
singular of weak
masculine nouns
in Rl
genitive case rarely
used in spoken
German (R1/R2)
(see 4.2.2)
no vowel change in
imperative of
strong verbs in Rl
demonstrative der
used for personal
pronoun in Rl
das... hier or
das... da used as
demonstratives
in Rl
wer used for jemand
in Rl
Rl R3
den Mensch
dem Mensch
meinem Vater sein Hut (Rl)/der
Hut von meinem Vater (R1/R2)
trotz dem Regen (also R3 in CH)
Ich erinnere mich an den Vorfall
(R2)
Ess deine Möhren!
Nehm's doch!
Geb's her!
Ich habe den gesehen
Die kommt heute nicht
das Buch hier
die Stadt da
solch not used in Rl so 'ne Farbe
so Ansichten (wie die)
was used with
prepositions in Rl
wie and als
confused in Rl
double negatives
used in Rl
tun used as an
auxiliary verb in
Rl
zu omitted after
brauchen in Rl
den Menschen
dem Menschen
der Hut meines Vaters
trotz des Regens
Ich erinnere mich des Vorfalls
Iss deine Möhren!
Nimm's doch!
Gib's her!
Ich habe ihn gesehen
Sie kommt heute nicht
dieses Buch
diese Stadt / (R3 only) jene Stadt
Es hat wer angerufen Es hat jemand angerufen
An was denkst du?
Von was lebt er?
Die ist größer wie (die) Petra
Die ist anders wie du
Der hat nie nix gesagt
Wir haben nirgends keinen Vogel
gesehen
Sie tut gerade schreiben
Ich tät's nicht machen
Wir brauchen nicht so schwer
arbeiten
eine solche Farbe
solche Ansichten
Woran denkst du?
Wovon lebt er?
Sie ist größer als Petra
Sie ist anders als du
Er hat nie etwas gesagt
Wir haben nirgends einen Vogel
gesehen
Sie schreibt gerade
Ich würde es nicht machen
Wir brauchen nicht so schwer zu
arbeiten

weil and obwohl
followed by main
clause word order
in Rl
extended adjectives
and participles
only used in R3
main clauses used
rather than
relative clauses
in Rl
wo + preposition
used in Rl for
preposition +
relative pronoun
da often used to
begin sentences
in Rl
elements are often
placed after final
verb in Rl
Pronouns and
auxiliary verbs
are often omitted
in Rl
dislocated
repetitions used
for highlighting
in Rl
past tense less
frequent in Rl
(especially in S)
(see 4.3.2)
the subjunctive is
used in indirect
speech only in R3
(see 4.5.3)
Rl contd R3 contd
..., weil der kann kein richtiges
Deutsch sprechen
die Sitzung, die auf Januar
verschoben wurde (R2)
die Zahlung, die vor Jahresende
geleistet werden muss (R2)
Es gibt Leute, die freuen sich
über die Fahrt
der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf
stehen
Da kann man in dem Fall einfach
nix machen
Sie hat Post bekommen von zu
Hause
Hab' ich ihm schon gesagt
Mal schauen, was da los ist
Willst mit uns kommen?
Der Peter, den kann sie nicht
leiden
Den hatt ich schon, den Wunsch
Dann sind sie nach Hause
gegangen
Ich hab nicht gewusst, was sie
gesagt hat
Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon
Er hat erklärt, dass er zu neuen
Verhandlungen bereit ist
..., weil er kein richtiges
Deutsch sprechen kann
die auf Januar verschobene
Sitzung
die vor Jahresende zu leistende
Zahlung
Es gibt Leute, die sich über die
Fahrt freuen
der Tisch, auf dem die Blumen
stehen
In diesem Fall kann man einfach
nichts machen
Sie hat von zu Hause Post
bekommen
Das habe ich ihm schon gesagt
Wir wollen mal schauen, was da
los ist
Willst du mit uns kommen?
Peter kann sie nicht leiden
Den Wunsch hatte ich schon
Dann gingen sie nach Hause
Ich wusste nicht, was sie sagte
Sie sagte, sie wisse es schon
Er erklärte, dass er zu neuen
Verhandlungen bereit sei

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
1.5 Examples of variation: vocabulary
1.5.1 Regional variation in vocabulary
As with pronunciation, it is not always simple to disentangle
regionalism from register in matters of vocabulary, and many regional
words are limited to Rl. Others, including the familiar case of
Sonnabend and Samstag, are used freely in all registers. This is
especially true of Austria and Switzerland, where a South German (SE
or SW) variant is often used, even in writing (R3).
The table below gives some of the most frequent regional variants,
together with their more generally used equivalent(s). None are wholly
restricted to Rl; although some are commoner there than in more
formal registers it is difficult to give hard and fast rules. Standard
German has sometimes adopted more than one regional variant, often
with a distinction in meaning. For example, Pferd, Gaul and Ross were
originally all regionally restricted words for 'horse'. But in standard
German (Hochdeutsch) the general word is Pferd, whereas Gaul and
Ross have the more specific meanings 'nag' and 'steed'. What were
originally regional variants have also sometimes become register
variants in general usage. For example, in much of South Germany, and
especially in Austria, schauen is the everyday word for 'to see'. But for a
majority of Germans it is a more formal (R3) word compared to sehen.
Area Regional Hochdeutsch
NORTH das Abendbrot das Abendessen evening meal
abwaschen spülen to wash up
die Apfelsine die Orange orange
belämmern belästigen to pester
buddeln graben to dig
denn dann then
doof dumm stupid
der Eierkuchen der Pfannkuchen pancake
der Fahrstuhl der Aufzug lift
Gehacktes das Hackfleisch minced/ground
meat
die Gören die Kinder children
die Hacke die Ferse heel
der Kasten die Schublade drawer
klönen plaudern to chat
kloppen schlagen to hit
kucken, kieken sehen to look

Area contd Regional contd Hochdeutsch contd
[NORTH] langskommen vorbeikommen to drop in
der Pott der Topf pot
die Pulle die Flasche bottle
der Schlachter, Schlächter der Fleischer butcher
der Schlips die Krawatte tie
NORTH-WEST extra absichtlich on purpose
flöten pfeifen to whistle
malochen schwer arbeiten to work hard
die Pinte die Kneipe pub
es schellt (also SW) es klingelt the doorbell's ringing
die Wurzel die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot
NORTH-EAST die Brause die Limonade fizzy drink
der Broiler das Brathähnchen roast chicken
die Fahrerlaubnis der Führerschein driving licence
das Kompott der Nachtisch dessert
plätten bügeln to iron
Sonnabend Samstag Saturday
die Stulle das belegte Brot sandwich
SOUTH arg sehr very
aufdrehen anmachen to switch on
der Bub der Junge boy
der Christbaum der Weihnachtsbaum Christmas
daheim
tree
zu Hause at home
freilich natürlich of course
der Gang (not AU) der (Haus)flur (entrance) hall
die Geiß die Ziege goat
die gelbe Rübe (not AU or CH) die Mohrrübe, die Karotte carrot
gell? nicht wahr? isn 't it?
gescheit intelligent clever
geschwind schnell quick(ly)
der Hafen der Topf pot
halt eben just
heim nach Hause home
der Kamin der Schornstein chimney
der Kasten der Schrank cupboard
kehren fegen sweep
das Kuvert der Briefumschlag envelope
langen fassen, greifen to reach (for sth)
es läutet es klingelt the doorbell's ringing
das Mädel, das Mädle das Mädchen girl
die Mappe (not AU) die Aktentasche briefcase

Area Regional Hochdeutsch
[SOUTH] der Metzger (not AU) der Fleischer butcher
pressieren Eile haben be in a hurry
der Rahm die Sahne cream
der Randstein der Bordstein kerb
schauen sehen to see, to look
die Schnake (not AU) die Stechmücke midge
die Schnur der Bindfaden string
sieden kochen to boil
die Stiege die Treppe stairs, steps
sich verkälten (not AU) sich erkälten catch cold
der Zahnweh die Zahnschmerzen toothache
der Zins die Miete rent
SOUTH-EAST all(e)weil immer always
Brösel Brotkrümel breadcrumbs
deppert dumm stupid
das Dirndl das Mädchen girl
eh sowieso anyway
der Erdapfel die Kartoffel potato
finster (also Saxony) dunkel dark
die Gasse die Straße street
der Gehsteig der Bürgersteig pavement
die Gösch der Mund mouth
gschert dumm stupid
heuer (also CH) dieses Jahr this year
heute in der Frühe/ heute heute Morgen this morning
früh (also Saxony)
der Knödel derKloss dumpling
die Nachspeise der Nachtisch dessert
der Schwamm der Pilz mushroom
die Semmel (also Saxony) das Brötchen bread roll
sperren schließen, zumachen to shut
stad still quiet
SOUTH-WEST als immer always
Brosamen Brotkrümel breadcrumbs
das Gaul (not CH) das Pferd horse
der Gehweg, das Trottoir der Bürgersteig pavement
der Lauch der Porree leek
die Mücke die Fliege fly
das Nachtessen das Abendessen evening meal
schaffen arbeiten to work
schmecken riechen to smell
springen laufen to run
der Weck(en) das Brötchen bread roll

AUSTRIA
1.5.2 Austrian and Swiss words
Usage in Austria and Switzerland is a rather special case, and it is in
many ways quite distinct from Germany. In the spoken register, dialect
is widely used - in Switzerland exclusively, in Austria still
predominantly, at least in informal registers outside the larger cities. In
writing, standard German is used, but over the centuries of political
separation from Germany independent traditions have grown up in
these two countries, especially in matters of vocabulary. Thus, the
regional words and grammatical forms (see 1.4.1 and 1.5.1) which are
widespread in speech in southern Germany are in these countries
commonly used in writing. Also, unlike in Germany, there has been no
movement to eliminate foreign words, so that, in Switzerland, for
example, we buy a Billett for the Tram, not a Fahrkarte or Fahrschein for
the Straßenbahn. In addition, each country has a stock of words peculiar
to itself which are almost always used in writing within the country and
are not always familiar even to Germans. The following tables list of
some of the most common. There are many more, though - Duden
(2000b) lists over 900 words which are specific to High German as used
in Switzerland. In some instances the Austrian or Swiss word can have
the meaning it usually has in Germany as well as a specifically Austrian
or Swiss meaning. For example, Mist can be used to mean 'dung' or
'rubbish' in Austria, whereas in Germany it only means 'dung'. In these
cases only the specifically Austrian or Swiss meaning is given below.
Austria Germany Austria Germany
die Abwasch der Spülbecken sink fallweise (also gelegentlich now and
CH) again
allfällig (also CH) gegebenenfalls if der Fauteuil der Sessel armchair
necessary
der Anrainer der Anlieger neighbour fesch(Rl) schick chic
aufscheinen vorkommen to appear die Gelse die Stechmücke midge
ausschauen aussehen to look der Gendarm der Landpolizist rural
(as if) policeman
außen draußen outside das Goal das Tor goal (soccer)
das Beisel die Kneipe pub der Hausherr der Hausbesitzer
home-owner
der Beistrich das Komma comma in Hinkunft in Zukunft in future
der Corner der Eckball corner innen drinnen inside
(also CH) (soccer)
da hier here inskribieren sich immatrikulieren to
register
entlehnen entleihen to borrow Jänner Januar January

Austria Germany Austria Germany
diejause der Imbiss snack der Polster das Kissen cushion,
pillow
kampieren zelten to camp der Professor der Studienrat high
school teacher
der Karfiol der Blumenkohl raunzen nörgeln to grumble, to
cauliflower whinge
die Kassa die Kasse cash desk, till die Retour- die Rückfahrkarte
fahrkarte return ticket
der Kerker das Zuchthaus prison die Ribisel die Johannisbeere
blackcurrant
komplett (voll) besetzt full das das Karousell
Ringelspiel roundabout
die Marille die Aprikose apricot der Sack (also die Tasche pocket
CH)
die Matura das Abitur school das Sackerl die Tüte (paper) bag
certificate
die Maut der Straßenzoll road toll die Schale die Tasse cup
die Mehlspeise der Nachtisch dessert die Schnalle die Klinke door-handle
die Melange der Milchkaffee white das der Schnürsenkel
coffee Schuhband shoelace
die Melanzane die Aubergine aubergine selchen räuchern to smoke
(meat)
der Mist der Müll rubbish, der Sessel der Stuhl chair
nächtigen
garbage
übernachten spend the skoren ein Tor schießen to score
(also CH) night (also CH)
das Nachtmahl das Abendessen evening
meal
der Spagat der Bindfaden string
das Obers die Sahne cream der Spezi der Kumpel friend, mate
ohneweiters ohne weiteres without das Spital das Krankenhaus
further ado (also CH) hospital
die Palatschinke der Pfannkuchen
pancake
der Sturm der neue Wein new wine
der Paradeiser die Tomate tomato der Turnus
(also CH)
die Arbeitsschicht shift
der die Bürostunden office der Vorrang die Vorfahrt priority
Parteienverkehr hours (traffic)
der Pensionist der Rentner pensioner die die Umgehungsstraße
Umfahrung by-pass
der Plafond die Decke ceiling sich verkühlen sich erkälten catch cold
das Zündholz das Streichholz match

SWITZERLAND
NB: in Switzerland, unlike Germany or Austria, the letterß is not used, only ss> see 6.1.3.
Switzerland Germany Switzerland Germany
der Abwart der Hausmeister die Extrafahrt die Sonderfahrt
caretaker special trip
der Anstösser der Anlieger der Fahrausweis der Führerschein
neighbour driving licence
die Attikawohnung das Penthaus die Falle die Klinke
penthouse door-handle
aufbegehren sich empören to der Fürsprech der Rechtsanwalt
protest lawyer
Auffahrt Himmelfahrt glätten bügeln to iron
Ascension Day
äufnen zusammenbringen to das Grosskind der Enkel grandchild
collect
der Automobilist der Autofahrer car grüezi! (Rl) hallo! hello
driver
beidseitig auf beiden Seiten on hässig verdrießlich morose
both sides
das Billett die Fahrkarte ticket die Identitätskarte der Personalausweis
identity card
bis anhin bisher until now innert innerhalb inside,
within
bis und mit bis einschließlich up inskünftig in Zukunft in future
to and including
die Busse die Geldstrafe fine das Kleid der Anzug suit
der Camion der Lastwagen lorry, der Kondukteur der Schaffner
truck conductor
der Car der Reisebus bus die Konfitüre die Marmelade jam
der Chauffeur der Fahrer driver lärmig laut noisy
der Coiffeur der Friseur das Lavabo der Waschbecken
hairdresser wash-basin
das Departement das Ministerium leid unangenehm
ministry unpleasant
einlässlich eingehend es macht kalt es ist kalt it is cold
thorough (ly) (weather)
ennet jenseits on the other manche viele many
side of
erst noch obendrein moreover merci! (Rl) danke! thank you
der Estrich der Dachboden attic das Morgenessen das Frühstück
breakfast
etwelche einige some das Motorfahrzeug das Kraftfahrzeug
motor vehicle

Switzerland Germany Switzerland Germany
nachten Nacht werden grow die Ständerlampe die Stehlampe
dark standard lamp
nebstdem außerdem in addition streng anstrengend strenuous
parkieren parken to park das Tram die Straßenbahn tram
der Parkingmeter die Parkuhr parking urchig urwüchsig original,
meter native
der Perron der Bahnsteig das Velo das Fahrrad bicycle
platform
der Pneu der Reifen tyre verunfallen verunglücken to have
an accident
das Poulet das Brathähnchen vorab besonders especially
roast chicken
die Primarschule die Grundschule zum vornherein von vornherein from
primary school the outset
der Redaktor der Redakteur editor der Vortritt die Vorfahrt priority
(traffic)
das Retourbillett die Rückfahrkarte währschaft tüchtig solid, reliable,
return ticket genuine
der Rodel das Verzeichnis list, der Wartsaal der Wartesaal
register waiting-room
die Rösti die Bratkartoffeln weissein tünchen to whitewash
fried potatoes
das Salär das Gehalt salary wischen fegen to sweep
die Serviertochter die Kellnerin waitress zügeln umziehen to move
(house)
1.5.3 Register variation in vocabulary
The effect of register is perhaps most obvious to the foreign learner in
respect of vocabulary. Many words are restricted to informal speech
(Rl) or formal writing (R3), and when these are used they signal very
clearly the degree of formality which the speaker or writer wishes to
give the text. There are also words (indicated as R2/R3) which are
characteristically rarely used in the most informal register, but are
widely encountered outside that. Similarly, there are words which are
widely used in all but the most formal written German (R1/R2). On
the other hand, there is a large core vocabulary of neutral (R2) words
which can be used equally in informal speech or formal writing and
have no such characteristic effect. The following list, which is arranged
in alphabetical order of the R2 words, gives some common examples of
this register variation in vocabulary.

Some of the equivalents given are not absolutely identical in
meaning. For example, the Rl word pumpen is used for 'to lend', 'to
borrow', i.e. = leihen (R2) or borgen (R3), only in the context of money.
Indications of such distinctions are given in some instances below, but
not all details can be covered in a summary of this kind.
Rl R2 R3
das Abi das Abitur school
leaving certificate
losgehen anfangen (R1/R2),
beginnen (R2/R3)
to begin, to start
protzen angeben (R1/R2) to
boast
Schiss haben (Rl*) Angst haben
(R1/R2) to be afraid
schuften (schwer) arbeiten to
work (hard)
sich fuchsen sich ärgern to get
annoyed
die Hochschulreifeprüfung
anheben (R3a)
prahlen, sich
rühmen
sich furchten
(R2/R3)
pleite broke arm poor mittellos,
bedürftig
die Puste der Atem breath der Odem (poetic
R3a)
cool, dufte,
fantastisch, geil,
prima, spitze, super
sich aufhalten to
stay (in a place)
weilen
aufmachen to open öffnen
ausgezeichnet
excellent
die Fisimatenten die Ausreden excuses
hinhauen, langen (S) ausreichen to be
enough
genügen
unheimlich äußerst extremely extrem
die Backe cheek die Wange (R2 in
AU)
verscharren begraben to bury beisetzen,
bestatten

Rl R2 R3
kriegen bekommen to
receive
eingeschnappt,
verschnupft
beleidigt offended,
hurt
empfangen,
erhalten
gekränkt
der Sprit das Benzin petrol der Treibstoff fuel
anstänkern beschimpfen to
abuse
meckern sich beschweren to
complain
schmähen
schmieren bestechen to bribe korrumpieren
bescheißen (Rl*),
mogeln, schummeln
besoffen (Rl*), blau,
voll
betrügen to cheat
der Kahn, die Klappe das Bett bed
anhauen bitten to ask, to
request
betrunken drunk berauscht
die Bitte request das Gesuch
ersuchen
käsig blass pale bleich (R2/R3)
blöd (R1/R2),
dämlich, doof
der Blödmann, der
Dussel, der Depp
(SE)
bleiben to remain, to
stay
verweilen
brauchen to need bedürfen,
benötigen
dauern to last währen (R3a)
dumm stupid einfältig, töricht
der Dummkopf
(Rl/R2)fool
der Tor
dunkel dark düster, finster (R2
in S)
miserabel dürftig wretched armselig
erfrischen to refresh erquicken

Rl contd R2 contd R3 contd
futtern, knabbern,
mampfen, naschen
erlauben to allow, to
permit
essen to eat speisen
gestatten, zulassen
die Fahrkarte ticket der Fahrausweis
türmen, verduften flüchten to flee fliehen (R2/R3)
der Kumpel der Freund friend
das Frühjahr spring der Frühling
die Kneipe die Gaststätte pub
das Kittchen, der
Knast
latschen, laufen (NE,
SW)
der Kies, die Kohle,
die Moneten, das
Zaster
das Gefängnis
prison
die Strafanstalt,
das Zuchthaus
gehen to go sich begeben
gehen to walk
das Geld money
klappen gelingen to succeed
die Fratze, die Fresse,
die Visage
das Gesicht face das Angesicht
(R3a), das Antlitz
(R3a)
der Mief der Gestank smell der üble Geruch
Schwein haben Glück haben be
lucky
die Pfote die Hand hand
der Arsch (Rl*) der Hintern backside das Gesäß
die Klamotten die Kleider clothes
die Birne, der De(e)z der Kopf head das Haupt
der Krach der Lärm noise
der Pauker der Lehrer teacher der Studienrat
(Gymnasium)
pumpen (of money) leihen to lend, to
borrow
borgen

Rl R2 R3
büffeln, pauken lernen to learn, to
study
die Biene, die Mieze,
die Puppe, die
Tussi
das Mädchen girl
der Alte der Mann husband der Ehemann, der
Gatte, der Gemahl
schief gehen misslingen to be
unsuccessful
erschossen, fertig müde tired ermattet
die Fresse, die
Klappe, das Maul
(Rl*), die
Schnauze
der Mund mouth
bloß nur only lediglich
der Löffel das Ohr ear
die Polente die Polizei police
piesacken quälen to torment peinigen
schicken to send senden
scheitern (R2/R3)
pennen, ratzen schlafen to sleep ruhen, schlummern
hauen schlagen to hit
mies schlecht bad Übel (R2/R3)
schmecken to taste munden
zumachen (R1/R2) schließen (R2/R3)
to close, to shut
dreckig,
schmuddelig
schmutzig dirty unsauber
die Penne die Schule school die Bildungsanstalt
(R3b)
dichthalten, den
Mund halten, das
Maul halten (Rl*)
schweigen (R2/R3)
to be silent
gucken sehen to see, to look schauen (R2 in S)

Rl contd R2 contd R3 contd
enorm, echt,
unheimlich,
verdammt (Rl*),
verflucht (Rl*)
klauen, mausen,
mitgehen lassen,
mopsen, stibitzen
abkratzen, krepieren,
verrecken, den
Arsch zukneifen
(Rl*)
der Schwof der Tanz dance
sehr very höchst, überaus
stehlen to steal entwenden
sterben to die abieben,
entschlafen,
verscheiden,
versterben
saufen (R1/R2) (Alkohol) trinken to
drink (alcohol)
kotzen (Rl*),
brechen (R1/R2)
baff, verdattert,
verdutzt (R1/R2)
trotzdem, dennoch
nevertheless
sich übergeben to
vomit
gleichwohl,
nichtsdestoweniger
(sich) erbrechen
überlegen to consider erwägen
überrascht surprised befremdet
das Pech das Unglück bad
luck, misfortune
der Käse (N), der
Quatsch
verpatzen,
verpfuschen,
versauen (Rl*)
losschlagen,
verkloppen,
verscheuern
der Unsinn nonsense
das Missgeschick
(R2/R3)
verbieten to forbid untersagen
verderben to spoil
vergessen to forget entfallen
verkaufen to sell veräußern
versohlen verprügeln to thrash züchtigen

Rl=spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
Rl R2 R3
behämmert,
bescheuert,
meschugge,
plemplem,
übergeschnappt
checken, kapieren,
mitkriegen,
schnallen
verrückt mad geistesgestört
(R2/R3)
verschwenden to
waste
verstehen to
understand
vergeuden
erfassen (R2/R3)
lauern (N), passen (S) warten to wait harren (R3a)
wieso? warum? why? weshalb?
abhauen, sich
verpissen (Rl*)
weggehen to go
away, to leave
schmeißen werfen to throw
blechen, löhnen zahlen to pay
sich entfernen
wehtun to hurt schmerzen
zeigen to show weisen
fackeln zögern to hesitate zaudern
1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register
In this section a selection of passages is given to show the reader how
the differences in register outlined in earlier sections are reflected in
longer texts. The progression is initially from least formal (Rl) to most
formal (R3), concluding with contrasting passages from a serious and a
popular newspaper. The most characteristic features are indicated
briefly after each passage.
1.6.1 Telephone conversation (informal colloquial speech)
This passage illustrates characteristic features of spontaneous informal
speech in private conversation between friends. Its specific linguistic
features all belong to this register (Rl).

Frau A: Ach so! Und die Wohnung, em. Der Typ hat sich no nich
entschieden, morgen ru/ ruft wohl noch jemand an, an dem er
noch mehr Interesse hat als als an uns, ne.
Frau B: Ah so.
Frau A: Aber wir sind ziemlich ..., weil...
Frau B: Naja, immerhin etwas.
Frau A: Ich nehm auch an, wenn en Typ so auf morgen verschiebt, ne, hat
der au nich so'n großes Interesse, oder?
Frau B: Wenn er das auf morgen ver/ ja, kann sein!
FrauA: Guck ma, wenn ich ne Wohnung unheimig gut finde, dann/ da
geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein, dass der die Wohnung jemand
anders gibt, ne?
Frau B: Jaja.
Frau A: Naja, jedenfalls isses 110 Quadratmeter.
Frau B: 110! Is ja irre! Wir ham nur 90!
Frau A: In nem gepflegten ... Altbau, ganz toll. Müssen wer allerdings
selber renovieren, ne, aber sie is nich in nem scheußlichen
Zustand, sondern zwar nich/ also die is bewohnt, ne. Alles
scheußliche Tapeten und so, aber sauber, ne, nich irgendwie in
nem ekeligen Zustand. Naja, bin ma gespannt! Also, den
Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts überhaupt nich ansonsten, ne.
Frau B: Toll, ja! Un das immerhin ... doch direkt in der Innenstadt, ne?
Frau A: Hm, günstig!
Frau B: Na schön, ja!
Frau A: Un es is, wie gesagt, für mich auch günstig nach Gummersbach,
ne. Muss ja ab 1.2. nach Gummersbach.
Frau B: Ja. Freust dich drauf, oder findsdes schlimm?
Frau A: Och, hab ich jetz noch keine Meinung zu.
Frau B: Ja.
Frau A: Ich mein, die erzählen immer viel von dieser Referendarzeit, ne.
Am Anfang soils wohl gemütlich sein, hinterher sehr
anstrengend, ich mach mir da jetz keine Gedanken.
Frau B: Naja.
(Ruth Brons-Albert, Gesprochenes Standarddeutsch: Telefondialoge, Tübingen:
Narr, 1984, pp. 59-60)
Pronunciation much ellipsis and elision no nich wir ham
ich nehm in nem
en Typ bin ma
au nich un
ne Wohnung findsdes
isses jetz
is soils

Grammar
verb forms only present and perfect tenses; no
subjunctive
Sentence
Sentence
construction
construction
case genitive case not used
demonstratives for
personal pronouns
hat der au nich
die is bewohnt
repetitions mehr Interesse hat als als an uns
highlighting den Quadratmeterpreis, den gibts
überhaupt nich ansonsten
subordination Over 80% of clauses are main clauses
initial da da geh ich doch das Risiko nich ein
sentences beginning with
und
Vocabulary der Typ bloke
ziemlich fairly
so'n like that
guck ma look
unheimig very, very
scheußlich awful
ekelig awful
Und die Wohnung, em
ellipsis of pronouns, etc. (das) Müssen wer allerdings
freust (du) dich drauf
(ich) bin ma gespannt
In general, sentence units are brief and emotive in tone
Interjections, Extensive use of these is very typical of this register.
particles and ach so allerdings
fillers em zwar
ne überhaupt
naja immer
oder? wohl
also kann sein
hm guck ma
och jedenfalls
wohl noch und so
immerhin günstig
auch schön
au nich wie gesagt
doch ich mein
ansonsten anywhere else
hinterher afterwards
bin ma gespannt I can't wait
irgendwie somehow
gemütlich relaxed
irre fantastic
toll fantastic

Regionalisms The speakers are from Cologne, which is in NW.
nich (N) cf: net, nit (S)
und so typical filler in NW
wir, wer (N) cf: mir (S)
(da) hab ich noch keine splitting da + prep (N)
Meinung zu
jemand anders (N) cf: jemand anderer (S)
1.6.2 Radio discussion (unprepared speech in a formal
context)
This passage illustrates unprepared speech in the formal situation of a
radio discussion where the participants do not know one another. It
shows fairly careful pronunciation, relatively elaborate sentence
structures and a choice of vocabulary which is almost exclusively R2 or
R3. Nevertheless, there are still several features which are typical of
informal German Rl.
Herr A: Ich wollte ganz gerne, Herr L., wenn es gestattet ist, noch eine
Anmerkung zu dem machen, was Herr Doktor S. sagte. Ich habe
vor kurzem mit Wissenschaftlern der Technischen Universität
Karlsruhe (die hier vor der Tür liegt) gesprochen, und die haben
mir erzählt, dass sie solche Modellversuche zur Zeit in der
Schweiz und auch im Lande Hessen, wo diese
Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig
Kilometer - (Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn ja in der Nord-
Süd-Richtung, wenn Sie da fahren) durchfuhren. Die sind also
der Meinung, man brauche einen bestimmten Zeitraum, um
überhaupt erst Erkenntnisse endgültig sammeln zu können, ob
sich das bewährt hat. Wenn Sie mich als praktischen
Verkehrsteilnehmer fragen würden, würde ich Ihnen sagen, ich
habe immer den Eindruck, dass sich zumindest auf der
Bundesautobahn an diesen Richtgeschwindigkeiten achtzig bis
einhundertzwanzig meiner Meinung nach kaum jemand richtig
hält.
Herr B: Ja also, wenn ich was sagen darf, ich halt von den
Richtsatzgeschwindigkeiten auch nichts, oder (ich möchte es
noch deutlicher sagen) gar nichts, denn es muss immer noch der
Autofahrer eigenverantwortlich entscheiden, wie schnell er
fahren kann,... wie überhaupt... So ist es auch nicht die
objektive, absolute, gefahrene Geschwindigkeit, die eigentliche
Unfallursache ist, sondern die relativ zu hohe Geschwindigkeit in
dem konkreten Fall, und wenn man die Unfälle
zusammenaddieren würde, die sich zum Beispiel bei höheren
Geschwindigkeiten, als zum Beispiel hundertzwanzig ereignen,
dann werden die sehr selten sein, (die liegen alle darunter),

und das zeigt eben, dass im konkreten Fall bei der Situation,
(sagen wir), bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand zu schnell gefahren
wird, das können schon achtzig sein, wo s zu schnell is, was er
nicht mehr sollte.
(Charles van Os (ed.), Texte gesprochener deutscher Standardsprache, Munich:
Hueber, Düsseldorf: Schwann, 1974, vol. 2, pp. 54—5)
Pronunciation little ellipsis or elision - just three was
instances ich halt
wo s zu schnell is
Grammar tense
most often no ellipsis ich habe, ich wollte,
etc.
Konjunktiv II
indirect speech
case
demonstratives
widely used for
personal pronouns
mainly present and
perfect tenses
one past tense
one future tense
mainly forms with
würde except for
modal verbs
(möchte, sollte,
wollte)
mainly in indicative
Konjunktiv I used
once
genitive case used
occasionally
Sie sehen das
die haben mir
erzählt
was Herr Dr. S. sagte
dann werden die
sehr selten sein
die haben mir erzählt
Die sind also der Meinung
dann werden die sehr selten sein
Wenn Sie mich ...
fragen würden,
würde ich Ihnen
sagen,...
ob sich das bewährt
hat
man brauche einen
bestimmten
Zeitraum
mit Wissenschaftlern
der Technischen
Universität

Sentence afterthoughts (Sie sehen das auf der Autobahn ..., wenn
construction inserted in the Sie da fahren)
middle of the
sentence
(parenthesis)
strings of words or die objektive, absolute, gefahrene
phrases Geschwindigkeit,... bei der Situation ...,
bei der Sicht, bei dem Abstand
extensive use of over 50% of all clauses in the text are
subordinate clauses subordinate
a few broken, ..., wo diese Richtgeschwindigkeiten etwa
incomplete or von achtzig bis einhundertzwanzig
truncated clauses Kilometer [speaker forgets to add a verb]
wie schnell er fahren kann,... wie
überhaupt...
It is very noticeable in general that, although sentences are complete in
the main, they are extremely long - Herr B's contribution consists of a
single sentence! The sentences are also very loosely strung together, as
the speakers expand what they have already said with afterthoughts
and qualifications.
Vocabulary The vocabulary is characteristically technical and formal, with several
compounds and many words typical of R3b. There are no Rl words at
all.
gestattet relativ
solche Zeitraum
objektiv bewährt
Modellversuche sich ereignen
eigenverantwortlich Verkehrteilnehmer
Anmerkung Richt(satz)geschwindigkeit
Erkenntnisse
Interjections, There are no also
particles, and interjections and ja
fillers noticeably few auch
particles. überhaupt
Each speaker defers wenn es gestattet ist
to the other wenn ich was sagen darf
participants by
starting with a
polite, formal filler.
Regionalisms These are lacking entirely, although the speakers are from SW.

1.6.3 Literary prose (Günter Grass, Die Blechtrommel)
Günter Grass's novel Die Blechtrommel was a best-seller in Germany
and many other countries and is one of the most famous German
post-war novels. This passage begins with the main character, Oskar, in
a psychiatric unit after the war, and continues in the second and third
paragraphs with recollections of his childhood in pre-war Danzig. The
whole passage has the typically rich vocabulary and complex sentence
structure of modern literary prose (R3a).
Fräulein Dr. Hornstetter, die fast jeden Tag auf eine Zigarettenlänge in mein
Zimmer kommt, als Arztin mich behandeln sollte, doch jedesmal von mir
behandelt weniger nervös das Zimmer verläßt, sie, die so scheu ist und
eigentlich nur mit ihren Zigaretten näheren Umgang pflegt, behauptet immer
wieder: ich sei in meiner Jugend kontaktarm gewesen, habe zu wenig mit
anderen Kindern gespielt.
Nun, was die anderen Kinder betrifft, mag sie nicht ganz unrecht haben.
War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers Lehrbetrieb beansprucht, so
zwischen Goethe und Rasputin hin und her gerissen, daß ich selbst beim
besten Willen keine Zeit für Ringelreihn und Abzählspiele fand. Sooft ich aber
gleich einem Gelehrten die Bücher mied, sogar als Buchstabengräber
verfluchte und auf Kontakt mit dem einfachen Volk aus war, stieß ich auf die
Gören unseres Mietshauses, durfte froh sein, wenn es mir nach einiger
Berührung mit jenen Kannibalen gelang, heil zu meiner Lektüre
zurückzufinden.
Oskar konnte die Wohnung seiner Eltern entweder durch den Laden
verlassen, dann stand er auf dem Labesweg, oder er schlug die Wohnungstür
hinter sich zu, befand sich im Treppenhaus, hatte links die Möglichkeit zur
Straße geradeaus, die vier Treppen hoch zum Dachboden, wo der Musiker
Meyn die Trompete blies, und als letzte Wahl bot sich der Hof des Mietshauses.
Die Straße, das war Kopfsteinpflaster. Auf dem gestampften Sand des Hofes
vermehrten sich Kaninchen und wurden Teppiche geklopft. Der Dachboden
bot, außer gelegentlichen Debatten mit dem betrunkenen Herrn Meyn,
Ausblick, Fernsicht und jenes hübsche aber trügerische Freiheitsgefuhl, das
alle Turmbesteiger suchen, das Mansardenbewohner zu Schwärmern macht.
(Danziger Trilogiey Darmstadt: Luchterhand, 1980, pp. 79-80)
Grammar tense The narrative in the second and third
paragraph is exclusively in the past
tense, but the first paragraph is in the
present tense to refer to the time of
narration.
indirect speech Konjunktiv I used ich sei... kontaktarm
gewesen, habe zu
wenig... gespielt
case genitive case used
freely
unseres Mietshauses
des Hofes

demonstratives the typically R3a mit jenen Kannibalen
demonstrative jener jenes...
is used Freiheitsgefiihl
Sentence war... doch used War ich doch so durch Gretchen Schefflers
construction in the sense 'but Lehrbetrieb beansprucht,...
then...'
use of phrases with von mir behandelt
a participle
extensive use of over 50% of all clauses in the text are
subordinate subordinate
clauses
sentence length There are 32 clauses in 8 sentences. Most of
the sentences have three or more clauses,
and some are extremely complex, e.g. the
single sentence of the first paragraph and the
last sentence of the second.
Vocabulary The sheer range of vocabulary is striking.
The first paragraph has some rather technical and formal terms such as
the psychiatrist Dr. Hornstetter would use:
kontaktarm näheren Umgang pflegen
The second paragraph has much rather lofty typically R3a diction. In
the mouth of this narrator, and linked to the very elaborate sentence
construction, this gives it a pompous ring which does not sound wholly
serious:
betreffen Gelehrten Berührung
mag meiden Lektüre
gleich einem nach einiger heil zurückfinden
The vocabulary of the third paragraph of third-person narrative is
rather less lofty, although it is all still characteristic of formal literary
writing:
sich befinden Ausblick jenes trügerische
sich bieten Fernsicht Freiheitsgefuhl
sich vermehren Schwärmer
A last noticeable feature is the extensive use of imaginative compounds,
some of which will be the author's invention:
Zigarettenlänge Buchstabengräber
Turmbesteiger Mansardenbewohner

Interjections,
particles and fillers
1.6 Passages illustrating levels of register 43
The use of these is very limited: typically the few that occur (nun,
doch, aber) are in the second paragraph where a first-person narrator
is 'speaking'.
Regionalisms Only Gören (N) children used deliberately to emphasize that these are
rough brats.
1.6.4 Non-literary prose {Fachsprache)
This passage is a characteristic piece of modern specialist writing
(Fachsprache) dealing with the situation of German as a minority
language in Italy (South Tyrol). It has many features typical of this
register (R3b); its complexity derives from the extensive use of noun
constructions rather than from subordination.
In der autonomen Provinz Bozen-Südtirol im Norden Italiens ist Deutsch
gleichberechtigte Amtssprache neben Italienisch. Im ladinischen Teil ist
zudem seit einigen Jahren Ladinisch dritte Amtssprache. Die
Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch ist garantiert im
Autonomiestatut von 1972, das eine Reihe von Bedingungen dafür festlegt,
insbesondere
(1) den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in der öffentlichen Verwaltung.
Binnen 30 Jahren (ausgehend von 1972) sollen die öffentlichen
Verwaltungsstellen proportional zur zahlenmäßigen Stärke der
Sprachgruppen besetzt werden.
(2) Verwaltungsbeamte müssen zweisprachig sein in Italienisch und Deutsch,
in den ladinischen Tälern dreisprachig.
(3) Deutsch und Italienisch werden in den Ämtern gleichberechtigt
verwendet. Bei Sitzungen der Organe der Provinz sowie der Gemeinden
und öffentlichen Körperschaften ist auch die Verwendung von Deutsch
allein zulässig.
(4) Die Gleichberechtigung von Deutsch und Italienisch in den Schulen. Die
Sprachgruppen haben jeweils getrennte Schulen; die ladinische Gruppe
hat ein mehrsprachiges Schulsystem. Im zweiten Grundschuljahr kommt
in den italienischsprachigen Schulen Deutsch und in den
deutschsprachigen Schulen Italienisch als Pflichtfach hinzu und bleibt es
bis zum Ende der Sekundarstufe. Hierdurch soll die generelle
Zweisprachigkeit der Bevölkerung erreicht werden.
Südtirol war bis zum Ende des Ersten Weltkriegs Teil Tirols und damit
Österreichs. Es war seit dem späten Mittelalter (1363) in Habsburgischem
Besitz, mit nur kurzer Unterbrechung während der napoleonischen Zeit. Erst
im Jahre 1919 wurde es von Österreich abgetrennt und - ohne
Volksabstimmung und sicher gegen den Willen der Bevölkerungsmehrheit -
Italien zugesprochen, gewissermaßen als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den
Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte. In der Zeit des italienischen Faschismus
(1922-1943) war die öffendiche Verwendung der deutschen Sprache verboten.
Durch repressive Sprachenpolitik gegenüber dem Deutschen und durch

gezielte Ansiedlung italienischsprachiger Bevölkerungsgruppen sollte das
Gebiet italianisiert werden. Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen sollte das
Geheimabkommen zwischen Hitler und Mussolini vom 23. Juni 1939 dienen,
das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die Entscheidung stellte, entweder
Südtirol zu verlassen oder die italienische Sprache anzunehmen.
(Ulrich Ammon, Die deutsche Sprache in Deutschland, Osterreich und der
Schweiz. Das Problem der nationalen Varietäten, Berlin and New York:
Walter de Gruyter, 1995, p. 405)
Grammar tense exclusively the present and (in the final
paragraph dealing with the history of the
region) the past tense
Sentence
construction
passive extensive use of the sollte das Gebiet
passive voice suits italianisiert
the impersonal tone werden
Konjunktiv II two instances of the simple form of
Konjunktiv II of the modal verb sollen, i.e.
sollte.
No other subjunctive forms are used.
case genitive case used Bei Sitzungen der
extensively (more Organe der Provinz
genitives than im Norden Italiens
accusatives)
constructions with
verbal nouns
'blocks' of noun
phrases linked by
the genitive or by
prepositions
Ausklammerung of
long phrases
Die öffentliche Verwendung der deutschen
Sprache
Zur Ergänzung dieser Maßnahmen
den Proporz der beiden Sprachgruppen in
der öffentlichen Verwaltung
als Belohnung für Italiens Eintritt in den
Krieg gegen die Mittelmächte
... wurde es ... Italien zugesprochen,
gewissermaßen als Belohnung für
Italiens Eintritt in den Krieg
use of phrasal verbs das die deutschsprachigen Südtiroler vor die
Entscheidung stellte
The preference for noun constructions rather than verbs and
subordinate clauses is very typical of this register (there are only two
subordinate clauses). As a consequence, very few full verbs are used,
and sein and haben make up a third of the verbs in the passage. The
effect is to reinforce the factual, impersonal tone and give an
impression of preciseness.

Vocabulary The vocabulary is highly specialized and abstract, consisting
exclusively of words which are R2 or R3.
Gleichberechtigung Zweisprachigkeit
Körperschaften zahlenmäßig
in Habsburgischem Besitz zusprechen
Verwaltung Ansiedlung
There are many words of foreign origin, often with specialized
meanings:
autonom Provinz garantieren
Proporz proportional Organe
generell repressiv italianisieren
There are many compound words, often with foreign elements. These,
too, often belong to specialist terminology:
Amtssprache Volksabstimmung
Verwaltungsstelle Bevölkerungsgruppen
Grundschuljahr Sprachgruppe
Sekundarstufe Schulsystem
Sprachenpolitik Pflichtfach
Autonomiestatut Bevölkerungsmehrheit
Verwaltungsbeamte Geheimabkommen
italienischsprachig
As might be expected in this very formal written register, interjections,
fillers and particles are entirely absent, and there are no regionalisms of
any kind.
1.6.5 Serious newspaper report: Die Welt
This passage and the following one (1.6.6) provide contrasting
examples of the register of journalism in the form of reports of the
same incident from a 'broadsheet' newspaper (Die Welt) and a 'tabloid'
(Bild).
After the striking headlines, which are designed to catch the eye, the
account in Die Welt maintains the serious and objective tone of a factual
report, with the aim of informing the reader fully about the event and
its causes as known at the time of writing. The register shares
characteristics of R3a and R3b (although tending more to the latter),
and many of the linguistic features are comparable to those found
in the factual writing of 1.6.4, with relatively simple sentence
construction, blocks of noun phrases and wide use of technical
terminology.

Beide Triebwerke ausgefallen: Todesangst im Urlauberjet
Flug 3378 musste mit 150 Menschen an Bord notlanden - Elf
Verletzte - Osterreichische Behörde vermutet Pilotenfehler
Die Rückkehr aus dem Urlaub wurde am Mittwoch fur 142 deutsche
Touristen zum Albtraum: Nur knapp konnte die achtköpfige Crew ihres
Airbus A310-300 mit der Flugnummer HF 3378 mit einer Notlandung in
Wien-Schwechat eine Katastrophe abwenden. Als die Maschine um 13 Uhr
auf Rückweg von Kreta nach Hannover gerade die ungarische Hauptstadt
Budapest überflog, meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust und Probleme mit
beiden Triebwerken. Schon beim Start hatten die Piloten Sorgen mit dem
Fahrwerk. Es ließ sich nicht einfahren. Um 13.10 Uhr ersuchte der Pilot um
Erlaubnis zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat.
Zu spät, wie die österreichischen Behörden meinen. Sie fuhren die
Bruchlandung des Airbus 310 auf einen Pilotenfehler zurück. Der Pilot habe
sich zu spät zu einer Notlandung entschlossen, nachdem er das Fahrwerk nach
dem Start nicht mehr habe zurückfahren können, sagte der Sprecher des
zuständigen Verkehrsministeriums. Die Maschine sei auf Grund des dadurch
höheren Luftwiderstandes der Treibstoff ausgegangen. „Der Pilot hatte den
höheren Verbrauch ausrechnen können", sagte der Sprecher. Es sei daher
unklar, warum der Pilot nicht schon in Zagreb oder Graz eine Notlandung
versucht habe.
Denn um 13.31 Uhr ging die Maschine, die den letzten Tropfen Treibstoff
verbraucht hat und mit ausgefallenen Triebwerken unterwegs ist, im Gleitflug
zur Notlandung in Wien-Schwechat über. Der Pilot setzte aus
Sicherheitsgründen neben der Landepiste auf. Der Airbus drehte sich um die
eigene Achse, verlor das Fahrgestell, die linke Tragfläche bricht. Die Maschine
kam auf einer Wiese neben der Landebahn 34 zum Stillstand.
Feuerwehr und Rettungswagen rasten zum Unglücksort knapp drei
Kilometer vom Hauptgebäude des Flughafens entfernt. Der Flugbetrieb
wurde für eine halbe Stunde zur Gänze eingestellt. Über aufgeblasene
Notrutschen verließen die schwer geschockten und großteils unverletzten
Passagiere das Flugzeug. Sie wurden medizinisch untersucht, elf von ihnen
mussten zur Beobachtung in Krankenhäuser der Umgebung gebracht werden.
Die wenigen Augenzeugen sagten im österreichischen Rundfunk, die
Maschine sei ungewöhnlich niedrig und geräuschlos geflogen. Sie habe
buchstäblich mit letzter Kraft die Umzäunung des Flughafens überflogen.
Dies wurde als Beweis dafür gewertet, dass beide Triebwerke bereits
ausgefallen waren.
(Die Welt, 13 July 2000, p. 36)
Grammar formal and correct in all respects
tense The report is predominantly in the past tense.
pluperfect used to ausgefallen waren
indicate remoter
past time

Sentence
construction
The 'historic' unterwegs ist
present or perfect verbraucht hat
tenses give an effect die linke Tragfläche
of immediacy at the bricht
dramatic highpoint
of the event.
complex verbal forms nachdem er das
used Fahrwerk ... nicht
mehr habe
zurückfahren
können
passive wide use of the Der Flugbetrieb
werden-passive in wurde eingestellt
the last paragraph, Sie wurden
giving an medizinisch
impersonal tone untersucht
passive equivalent Es ließ sich nicht
with sich lassen used einfahren
indirect speech consistent use of Der Pilot habe
Konjunktiv I sich...
entschlossen
die Maschine sei...
niedrig und
geräuschlos
geflogen
case genitive case used
freely (similar
proportion to
passage 1.6.3)
der Sprecher des
zuständigen
Verkehrsministeriums
Krankenhäuser der
Umgebung
sentence length Sentences are not unduly long (about 14 words
per sentence on average, with the longest
having 28 words). This corresponds to the
norm in R3b.
Subordination relatively little subordination (about 20% of all
the clauses are subordinate)
strings of main characteristic use of strings of main clauses
clauses placed side by side without any linking
conjunctions - the succession of short main
clauses at the highpoint of the event enhance
the dramatic effect of the presentation

constructions with Der Pilot habe sich zu spät zu einer
verbal nouns Notlandung entschlossen
... meldete der Pilot Treibstoffverlust
phrasal verbs ... ging die Maschine ... zur
(compare 1.6.4) Notlandung... über
Die Maschine kam auf einer Wiese ...
zum Stillstand
extended adjective auf Grund des dadurch höheren
constructions Luftwiderstandes
die schwer geschockten und großteils
unverletzten Passagiere
Vocabulary The vocabulary is relatively formal, with a high proportion of words
and phrases which are used exclusively in R3.
eine Katastrophe abwenden
sich zu einer Notlandung
entschließen
der höhere Verbrauch
sich um die eigene Achse drehen
zur Gänze einstellen
großteils unverletzt
zur Beobachtung
Umzäunung
um Erlaubnis ersuchen
das zuständige
Verkehrsministerium
aus Sicherheitsgründen
Unglücksort
schwer geschockt
medizinisch untersuchen
geräuschlos
als Beweis fur etwas werten
Several specialist terms relating to air travel are used, as
appropriate to the subject matter of the report. A significant
number of these are foreign words or compounds:
Crew
Treibstoffverlust
Fahrwerk
Pilotenfehler
Gleitflug
Tragfläche
Flugnummer
Triebwerk
einfahren
Luftwiderstand
Landepiste
Flugbetrieb
Notlandung
Start
Bruchlandung
Treibstoff
Fahrgestell
Notrutsche
As in other formal varieties of German, interjections, fillers and
particles are entirely absent, and there are no regionalisms of any kind.
1.6.6 Tabloid newspaper report: Bild
This report in Bild of the same incident as that dealt with in Die Welt in
1.6.5 is significantly different in tone and register. It is presented in a
much more dramatic, sensational and less objective fashion, to make
the readers feel as if they are experiencing the incident directly. The
emphasis is on the emotional responses as much as on the factual
event.

Ferien-Airbus: Kein Sprit mehr, Triebwerkausfall
Pilot rettet 142 Urlauber
Notlandung! Triebwerkausfall! Die Passagiere an Bord waren wie gelähmt.
Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest anzuziehen, trösteten zitternde Urlauber.
Auf dem Flug HF3378 von Chania (Kreta) nach Hannover fielen in 9000
Meter Höhe beide Triebwerke aus. 142 Urlauber litten Todesangst - und
feiern jetzt den Piloten wie einen Helden.
Er brachte den 122-Tonnen-Airbus A310 im Gleitflug runter!
Um 11.55 Uhr war das Flugzeug gestartet, Minuten später die erste
Alarmmeldung: Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren. Der erfahrene Pilot
Wolfgang Arminger (55, Münchner, 20 000 Flugstunden) und Flugsicherung
entschieden: Weiterflug, aber außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung in
Wien-Schwechat.
13.12 Uhr im Landeanflug, 25 Kilometer vor dem Wiener Airport, der
Notruf: „Flug HS 3378,9000 Meter, short on fuel!" Das heißt: kein Sprit
mehr! Eine Minute später: beide Triebwerke fielen aus! „Austro Control, wir
gehen in Gleitflug", funkte der Pilot. Die Fluglotsen antworteten: „Wir
räumen alles frei. Wir sind bei euch!"
Großalarm auf dem Boden, Feuerwehr und Krankenwagen fuhren auf.
Fluglotsen beobachteten auf dem Radarschirm, wie die deutsche Maschine
immer mehr an Höhe verlor.
13.32 Uhr, die Notlandung auf Piste 34: „Der Jet flog sehr tief an,
unheimlich leise, wie ein Segelflugzeug. Wackelte mit dem Heck. Er setzte vor
der Piste im Gras auf, kam gerade so über den Zaun", sagte die
Flughafenangestellte Anita Arshay.
Ein Feuerwehrmann: „Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine drehte sich
um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras."
„Als er stand, sind meine Leute hingestürmt. Wir hörten die Passagiere
rufen. Dann schössen die Luftkissen der Notrutschen hervor. Innerhalb von
drei Minuten hatten wir alle Passagiere raus. Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt
hat", sagte Dr. Bernhard Sigall, Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte.
BILANZ: Nur elf Passagiere verletzt, doch die meisten standen unter
Schock.
(Bild, 13 July 2000, p. 3)
A significant characteristic of this text is that, although most of its
features are still predominantly those of written German (R3, especially
R3b), a significant number are more typical of less formal Rl, so that a
deliberate impression is given of a kind of language much closer to
spontaneous colloquial speech (and thus to the everyday usage of the
intended readership). We have indicated the relevant register of all the
features listed below.
Grammar tense The report is exclusively in the past (or
pluperfect) tense, as would be expected in R3.
Present and perfect tenses only used in quoted
speech:
Wir räumen alles frei
Ein Glück, dass es nicht gebrannt hat

passive
quoted speech
case
Sentence incomplete sentences
construction
sentence length
subordination
The past tense is also used in much of the
quoted speech. This would not be the case in
actual spoken Rl, esp. in AU.
Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine
drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel
brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras
No passives with werden are used; the event is
not being presented in an impersonal,
objective fashion (Rl).
Passive equivalent with sich lassen (typically
R3b) used once:
Das Fahrwerk ließ sich nicht einfahren
There is no indirect speech, and thus no
Konjunktiv I (this mood is restricted to
formal R3). All quotations are given in direct
speech (although, as the past tense is used,
these cannot be the actual words and forms
employed by the people being reported).
The genitive case is used sparingly (Rl) - only
twice:
die Luftkissen der Notrutschen
Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte
Many 'sentences' are simply nouns or
phrases without a verb. This is typical of
Rl, and here it gives a breathless, urgent
tone to the report, emphasizing the drama
of the situation.
All sentences are very short, as in Rl (about 8
words per sentence on average; the longest
has 20 words).
The text consists chiefly (over 90%) of main
clauses, with only two subordinate clauses
and one infinitive clause. This is typical of
both Rl and R3b:
. . . , wie die deutsche Maschine immer
mehr an Höhe verlor
Als er stand, sind ...
Stewardessen halfen, die Gurte fest
anzuziehen

Vocabulary
strings of main As in 1.6.5, there are several strings of main
clauses clauses placed side by side without any
linking conjunction (Rl and R3b):
Fahrwerksteile rissen weg, die Maschine
drehte sich um 180 Grad, der linke Flügel
brach ab, der Jet schlidderte übers Gras
ellipsis of pronoun This is typical of Rl (see 1.6.1):
... Wackelte mit dem Heck
Some typical R3b constructions found in 1.6.5 are lacking entirely.
There are no constructions with verbal nouns, phrasal verbs or
extended adjective constructions.
The vocabulary is predominantly neutral (i.e. R2); typically, the R2
word Flügel is used, for example, rather than R3b Tragfläche as found in
1.6.5. However, there are several colloquial (Rl) words and phrases.
These are often expressive or have a high emotional content:
... wie gelähmt
brachte ... runter
Großalarm
wackeln
hinstürmen
Todesangst
kein Sprit mehr
unheimlich leise
schliddern
hervorschießen
feiern ... wie einen Helden
Wir sind bei euch
kam gerade so über den Zaun
übers Gras
... hatten wir alle ... raus
Some specialist R3b terminology is employed, as in 1.6.5, with some of
the typical anglicisms used in aviation. It will be assumed that the
paper's readership is familiar with these (or would like to think they
are).
Notlandung
starten
einfahren
Landeanflug
short on fuel
Notrutsche
Triebwerkausfall
Alarmmeldung
Weiterflug
Airport
Austro Control
Einsatzleiter der Rettungskräfte
Gleitflug
Fahrwerk
außerplanmäßige Zwischenlandung
Notruf
Fluglotsen
There are no interjections, fillers and particles, and no regionalisms.
Punctuation The exclamation mark is used liberally, both after single words and
sentences. This serves to heighten the sense of urgency and the
emotional, subjective tone of the report.

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
2 Words and meanings
2.1 Problems of meaning
More than two-thirds of errors made by advanced English-speaking
learners of German involve matters of vocabulary. The central problem
is that different languages reflect a different perspective of the world in
their vocabulary. Each language divides up things, ideas, events, etc. in
terms of words from a quite different viewpoint, categorizing and
drawing distinctions in an individual way. The result is not just that
there are words in German which are 'untranslatable', such as gemütlich,
but that for much of the vocabulary we do not find any one-to-one
correspondences between an English word and a German word. Cases
of exact equivalence, such as Baum/tree or Tisch/table are relatively
rare. Learning German involves learning how to break out of the
English framework of meaning and operate in the framework peculiar
to German. As we are dealing with individual words, there are no rules;
each word has to be taken on its own terms and there may be contexts
where more than one will serve equally for a particular English word.
The following sections aim to explain some of the most confusing
cases where the range of meaning of a word or group of words in one of
the languages does not correspond to that of the nearest equivalents in
the other.
2.1.1 Problems of meaning: English-German examples
This section gives, in alphabetical order, a selection of common English
words which have a number of German equivalents because they cover
a wider area of meaning than any single word in German. It aims to
help English-speaking learners to choose the word which best suits
what they want to say by explaining briefly the differences in meaning
between the possible German equivalents. There are, of course, many
more such words than can be dealt with here - more information is to
be found in the companion volume Using German Synonyms (Durrell
2000) - but the examples given will help learners with other groups of
words by showing the kind of information which needs to be looked for
when using a dictionary.

ACCEPT etw akzeptieren
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
2.1 Problems of meaning 53
jdn akzeptieren
etw annehmen
jdn [in etw] aufnehmen
etw einsehen
etw gelten lassen
etw hinnehmen
etw über' nehmen )
etw auf sich nehmen J
ACCIDENT der Unfall
ACCIDENTALLY
ACCOMPLISH-
MENT
ACTUALLY see really
das Unglück
das Malheur (Rl)
das Missgeschick (R2/R3)
versehentlich)
aus Versehen)
zufallig
die Durchführung (R3b)
die Fertigkeit
die Leistung
die Vollendung (R3b)
ADMIT etw zugeben
jdn (zu etw) zulassen j
jdn (in etw) hin-/hereinlassen i
ADVISE jdm von etw abraten
jdn beraten
jdm raten
jdn von etw in Kenntnis \
setzen (R3b)
jdn von etw verständigen /
jdm zuraten, etw zu tun 1
to accept, agree with sth (e.g.
suggestion)
to accept sb (e.g. as a friend)
to accept sth (i.e. take sth
offered)
to admit sb [to sth] (e.g. to a
club)
to recognize, realize sth
to take sth as valid (e.g. excuses)
to put up with sth
to take sth on (e.g. task)
less serious, not necessarily
fatal
fairly major, disaster (e.g. rail,
plane)
minor mishap (possibly
embarrassing)
mishap, misfortune
inadvertently
by chance
execution, implementation
skill (learned or acquired)
achievement, performance
completion
to confess (to) sth
to admit sb to sth, let sb in
to advise sb against sth
to advise sb at length (esp
professionally)
to advise sb (general sense)
to inform sb of sth
to advise sb in favour of doing sth

ADVERTISING/ die Annonce \
ADVERTISE- die Anzeige > small ad
MENT das Inserat )
das Plakat poster, bill, placard
die Reklame commercial advertisement
der Werbespot television commercial
die Werbung advertising (general sense)
AFRAID see fear
AGAIN noch einmal one more time
nochmals |
wiederum)
once again, stressing repetition
wieder once more as before
AGE das Alter length, stage of life; old age
das Zeitalter (historical) period
AGREE etw (mit jdm) abmachen (Rl) )
etw (mit jdm) ausmachen (Rl))
to agree (on) sth (with sb)
sich (zu etw) bereit erklären to be prepared (to do sth)
etw billigen (R3) to approve (of) sth
(sich) (mit jdm) einig/
einverstanden sein
to be of the same opinion as sb
mit etw einverstanden sein not to object to sth
sich (mit jdm) einigen to reach an agreement (with sb)
in etw einwilligen to consent to sth
übereinkommen to reach an agreement on a course
of action
(mit jdm/etw) übereinstimmen to agree with sb/sth (i.e. to
concur with sb, to tally with sth)
etw verabreden (R1/R2) 1
etw vereinbaren (R2/R3)J
to agree (on) sth (e.g. dates, plan)
jdm/etw zustimmen to be in agreement with sb's
opinion or with a proposed
course of action
zugeben, dass ... to admit that...
ALTER see change

APPEARANCE der Anschein (R2/R3)
der Auftritt
das Aussehen
das Äußere(s)
das Erscheinen
die Erscheinung
der Schein
impression (judged to be true)
entrance, appearance (e.g. on
stage, TV)
general look of sb or sth
outward appearance (e.g. clothes,
face)
action of becoming visible
appearance, phenomenon, vision
(i.e. what is seen, referring to
persons or events)
outward look (often false)
ASK jdn/etw anfordern (R2/R3) to request, require sb/sth (to be
provided)
(bei jdm/CH: jdn) anfragen to enquire (of sb) (simple enquiry)
jdn (zu etw) auffordern to challenge, require sb (to do sth)
jdn ausfragen to interrogate sb
jdn befragen to question sb (fully)
jdn (um etw) bitten |
jdn (um etw) ersuchen (R3) J
to request (sth) of sb, ask sb (for sth)
AVOID
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
jdn einladen to invite sb
etw erfordern (R3) to require, call for sth (of a thing)
sich nach jdm/etw
erkundigen (R3)
\
/
to enquire about sb/sth
nach jdm/etw fragen J
(um etw) flehen (R3a) to plead (for sth)
etw fordern to demand, require sth (with
insistence)
jdn fragen to ask sb (a question)
(jdm) eine Frage stellen to ask (sb) a question
(bei jdm) nachfragen to enquire (of sb) (repeated
questioning)
etw verlangen to demand, require, want sth
jdm/etw ausweichen
sich jdm/etw entziehen (R3a)
jdn/etw meiden (R3) 1
jdm/etw aus dem Weg gehen )
etwum 1 gehen
etw vermeiden
to steer clear of sth (e.g. danger)
to elude, evade sb/sth
to keep clear of sb/sth
to find a way round sth (e.g.
obstacle)
to manage not to do sth
\\\\\ V
77/7/r

56 2 Words and meanings
BAD arg(R3;S)
böse
schlecht
schlimm
übel
BANK der Abhang
die Bank
der Damm
die Sandbank, Wolkenbank
das Ufer
BEHAVE sich aufführen (R1/R2)
sich benehmen
sich betragen (R3)
sich verhalten
BELONG etw angehören
jdm gehören
zu etw gehören
BLAME jdn beschuldigen
jdm die Schuld (an etw) geben
jdn tadeln (R3a)
jdm etw vorwerfen
BOX die Büchse
die Dose
der Karton
das Kästchen
bad (possibly with serious
consequences)
evil, wicked, nasty
not good, of sth which can possibly
be good given other conditions
inherently bad, of sth which cannot
possibly ever be good (accident,
serious illness)
bad, nasty, repulsive, sick
slope
financial establishment
embankment
sandbank, cloudbank
shore of river, lake, etc.
to behave (making a particular
good or bad impression on
others)
to behave well, observe accepted
standards
to conduct oneself
to behave (act in a particular way
in response to sb or sth)
to be a member of sth (e.g. club)
to be the possession of sb
to be a part of sth, be one of sth
to accuse sb, fix the blame on sb
to blame sb (for sth)
to censure sb
to reproach sb with sth, accuse sb
of sth
can, tin, box (with lid) (less
common than Dose, except in
CH)
small box; tin can
cardboard box
small wooden box, casket (e.g. for
jewels)

der Kasten solid, fair-sized box or case; crate
(for bottles) (S also: cupboard)
die Kiste wooden packing-case or chest
(e.g. for tea, cigars)
die Schachtel flat, flimsy box, packet (e.g. for
matches, chocolates)
BREAK ein Ei aufschlagen to break an egg
(etw) brechen to break cleanly, of solid objects
(e.g. arm, mast, branch)
kaputt sein (Rl) to be broken
kaputtgehen (itr) (Rl) to break (almost anything)
etw kaputtmachen (Rl) to break sth (almost anything)
(etw) reißen to snap (sth), of non-hard things
(e.g. string); to rip or tear (e.g.
cloth)
etw unterbrechen to interrupt sth (e.g. journey)
(etw) zerbrechen to break (sth) into fragments (e.g.
window)
(etw) zerreißen to tear (sth) into little pieces
(non-hard things)
etw zerschlagen to smash sth into fragments (esp
deliberately)
jdn/etw zerschmettern to smash, shatter, crush sb/sth
BRIGHT glänzend gleaming (e.g. of metal, prospects)
heiter cheerful (e.g. of weather, day,
person)
hell not dark (of light)
intelligent clever
leuchtend glowing (of colours)
strahlend shining (e.g. of sun, eyes, jewel)
BRUSH der Besen broom, for sweeping
die Bürste stiff brush, for cleaning (e.g. hair,
shoes)
der Pinsel soft brush for applying sth (e.g.
paint)

58 2 Words and meanings
CALL jdn/etw abholen to call for sb, pick sb up
jdn (CH: jdm) anrufen to call sb on the telephone
jdn besuchen |
bei jdm vorbeikommen (Rl) J
to call on sb, visit sb
heißen to be called
jdn/etw herbeirufen to summon sb/sth (e.g. doctor, taxi)
jdn etw nennen to call, name sb sth
(etw) rufen to shout (sth) out
jdm etw zurufen to call sth out to sb (from a distance)
CARE die Fürsorge (R3b) care (of a sick or elderly person)
die Obhut (R3) care, safe keeping
die Pflege looking after sb/sth
die Sorge worry, anxiety
die Sorgfalt attentiveness, carefulness
die Vorsicht attention, caution, prudence
CAREFUL behutsam (R2/R3) cautious, careful, considerate
sorgfaltig painstaking, taking care in doing sth
umsichtig circumspect, prudent
vorsichtig cautious, avoiding mishaps
CARELESS leichtsinnig foolishly thoughtless
nachlässig negligent (opposite of sorgfältig)
sorglos carefree, unworried
unvorsichtig not paying attention
CASE see box
CASTLE die Burg medieval fortress
das Schloss stately home, palace
CATHEDRAL der Dom within German-speaking countries
die Kathedrale outside German-speaking countries
das Münster in a few specific cities mainly in SW
(e.g. Strasbourg, Basle, Freiburg,
Ulm, Essen)
CAUSE der Anlass cause, occasion (immediate cause or
trigger for sth)
der Grund reason, motivation
die Ursache sth producing an effect (i.e.
Wirkung)

CHANGE sich/etw ändern to change (sth) a lot, typically quickly
and producing a striking difference
sich/etw verändern to alter (sth) less radically, esp in
gradual process - typically a person's
appearance
etw tauschen to swap sth for one of the same value
'umsteigen to change (trains, buses, planes, etc.)
etw 'umtauschen to exchange sth (e.g. goods in a shop,
money)
sich 'umziehen to get changed (clothes)
jdn/etw verwandeln to transform sb/sth completely (e.g.
magic)
etw wechseln to substitute sth for another of the
same kind (e.g. job, topic, money)
CLEVER begabt gifted
clever (esp Rl) smart, sharp
gescheit (esp S) shrewd, quick-witted
geschickt skilful, dexterous
intelligent mentally gifted, bright
klug sensible, clear-headed
schlau astute, ingenious
CLIMB etw besteigen to climb, ascend sth (not necessarily
right to the top)
etw ersteigen to reach the top of sth (e.g. mountain)
auf/über etw klettern to climb, clamber up/over sth, using
hands
steigen to climb, ascend (intr)
auf etw steigen climb up (onto) sth, ascend sth
CLOSE etw dichtmachen (Rl) to shut sth (esp shop)
etw schließen (R2/R3) )
etw zumachen (R1/R2)J
to shut, close sth
COAT see jacket
etw sperren to close sth off (e.g. road); (SE): to shut
sth
zugehen (Rl) to shut

COLLECT jdn/etw abholen
etw ansammeln
sich ansammeln
etw aufsammeln
etw einnehmen )
etw kassieren (R1)J
etw einsammeln
sich/etw häufen
etw sammeln
sich sammeln
sich versammeln |
zusammenkommen)
COMPLAIN sich (über jdn/etw) beklagen
sich (über etw) beschweren)
(etw) reklamieren )
(über etw) klagen (R2/R3)
meckern (Rl))
nörgeln J
CONTENT(S) der Gehalt
der Inhalt
CONTINUE fortfahren, etw zu tun
etw fortsetzen (R3)J
etw weiterfuhren J
weitermachen (Rl)
to pick sb/sth up (e.g. at station,
airport)
to accumulate, amass sth
(indiscriminately)
to gather (crowds)
to collect sth up (things lying
around)
to collect sth (money, taxes)
to collect sth up/ in (things lying
around, or one thing from each
person in a group)
to pile (sth) up
to collect things to keep (e.g.
stamps) or for use (e.g. berries,
mushrooms, wood)
to collect (of things, or of people
assembling casually in a place)
to assemble in a place (of people, for
a specific purpose)
to express annoyance about sb/sth
to make a complaint (about sth)
to express concern, dissatisfaction
(about sb/sth)
to moan, grouse
content in terms of ideas;
proportion of sth in sth
contents, what is physically in sth
to continue to do sth
to continue sth
to carry on (intr)
NOTE: the most natural German equivalent of'to continue', 'to carry
on doing sth' is most often weiter with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4.

COPY die Kopie
das Exemplar
COW/CATTLE die Kuh
das Rind
das Rindvieh
das Vieh
replica, exact copy
one of a number (e.g. book)
cow, i.e. the female animal
head of cattle (Rl also: beef)
cattle as species (Rl*: term of abuse)
livestock, esp, but not only, cattle
CROSS NOTE: the most idiomatic R2 equivalent of'to cross' used transitively
is über etw gehen, fahren, etc.; used intransitively it is hinübergehen,
hinüberfahren, etc.
etw durch 1 queren (R3)
sich kreuzen
etw passieren
etw über 1 queren (R3)
etw überschreiten (R3)
CRY (etw) brüllen (esp Rl)
heulen (Rl)
(etw) rufen
schluchzen
(etw) schreien
weinen
to go across sth of wide area (e.g. desert)
to pass one another (e.g. trains, letters)
to pass through or over sth (e.g. frontier)
to go from one side of sth to the other
to step over sth (esp a line, e.g. railway)
to yell, roar (sth), esp in excitement or
rage
to bawl, howl (esp children)
to call (sth), usually articulate
to sob
to shout, scream, yell (sth), often
inarticulate (e.g. in fear)
to weep, cry
DAMAGE etw beschädigen to cause actual physical damage to sth
jdm/etw schaden to be bad for sb/sth
jdn/etw schädigen to be to the disadvantage of sb/sth (e.g.
reputation, business)
DARK dunkel
düster (R3)
1 stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
finster (R3)
trübe
not bright (opposite of hell)
gloomy, with little light and thus
unpleasant
pitch black, with no light and thus
sinister; S: dark, not bright
dull, dim (e.g. of light), murky (e.g. of
water)

62 2 Words and meanings
DECIDE etw beschließen
etw bestimmen
sich (fur etw) entscheiden
DEMAND see ask
sich zu etw entschließen
jdn veranlassen etw zu tun
DENY etw ableugnen (R2/R3)
etw in Abrede stellen (R3b)
etw bestreiten
etw dementieren (R3b)
(etw) leugnen
jdn/etw verleugnen
etw verneinen
jdm etw verweigern
DIE abkratzen (Rl) )
den Arsch zukneifen (Rl*) l
ins Gras beißen (Rl) (
krepieren (Rl)
entschlafen (R3))
verscheiden (R3) f
sterben
'umkommen (R2/R3)l
ums Leben kommen i
/
DIFFERENT ander
unterschiedlich
verschieden
DOUBT etw anzweifeln
etw bezweifeln
an jdm/etw zweifeln
to reach a decision to do sth
to fix, determine sth (e.g. time, place)
to decide (on sth) by choosing from the
available alternatives
to reach a firm decision to do sth after
due consideration
to make sb decide to do sth
to deny sth forcefully (with the
implication that the denial is not
credible)
to deny, dispute sth (accusation)
to deny, dispute, contest sth
to deny sth officially
to declare sth to be untrue (with the
implication that the denial is not
credible)
to disclaim a connection with sb/sth
to answer a question in the negative
to refuse sb sth
to croak, kick the bucket,
snuff it
to pass away (euphemistic)
to die (general sense)
to be killed (e.g. in an accident)
not the same as before, another
varied
not the same as each other, various
to cast doubt on sth (e.g. sb's honesty)
to doubt sth which has been taken to be
true or accurate
to have doubts about sb/sth

ENTRY/
ENTRANCE
2.1 Problems of meaning 63
die Aufnahme
der Auftritt
die Einfahrt
der Eingang
die Einreise
der Eintrag
der Eintritt
der Zugang
der Zutritt
EVENT die Begebenheit (R3)
das Ereignis
der Fall
das Geschehen
die Veranstaltung
der Vorfall
der Vorgang
das Vorkommen
das Vorkommnis (R3)
der Zwischenfall (R3)
EXAMINE etw kontrollieren
etw prüfen
jdn prüfen
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
jdn/etw untersuchen
EXPERIENCE die Erfahrung
das Erlebnis
FALL fallen
stürzen
admittance (e.g. to a club) as a member
entrance on stage
way in for vehicles
way in (on foot)
entry to a country
entry in book (e.g. dictionary, ledger)
act of entering, admission
(point of) access
right of entry, admittance
chance occurrence, esp extraordinary
event, incident (i.e. significant
ocurrence)
case (cf. im Falle eines Krieges)
events, happenings (esp sequence of
events)
organized function
unexpected incident
event seen as process (pi Vorgänge =
sequence of events)
occurrence (e.g. precious metals
minerals, etc.)
single occurrence, often unpleasant
incident, esp political or diplomatic
to check, scrutinize sth (e.g. passport)
to test sth for genuineness or accuracy
to subject sb (e.g. candidate) to an
examination
to subject sb/sth to careful scrutiny,
investigate sb/sth
knowledge, skills acquired over time
event, sensation which one has
experienced
to fall (general sense)
to fall violently, usually causing injury or
damage (e.g. from height, off bicycle)

64 2 Words and meanings
FAT dick corpulent, large, hefty (of people)
fett containing fat (Rl also = fat - of
people in pejorative sense)
fettig greasy, covered in fat
FEAR/ Angst haben (R1/R2) to be rather afraid, uneasy (fairly
FRIGHTEN weak)
jdm Angst machen )
jdn in Angst versetzen (R3)J
to scare, frighten sb
etw befürchten to be afraid that sth unpleasant
will happen
(vor jdm/etw) erschrecken (R3) to be physically frightened
NOTE: strong verb, see 3.3.4 (suddenly)
jdn erschrecken to startle sb, frighten sb suddenly
NOTE: weak verb, see 3.3.4
furchten, dass ... (R1/R2) to be afraid that (sth unpleasant
will happen)
jdn/etw furchten (R2/R3) to be in awe, dread of sb/sth
sich (vor jdm/etw) furchten to be frightened of sb/sth (fairly
strong)
(es) graut jdm (vor jdm/etw) sb has a dread (of sb/sth)
(R3)
es tut mir Leid(, dass ...) I am sorry, I regret (that...)
FEEL sich + adj anfühlen (of things) to feel + adj, e.g. hard,
hot, damp (to the touch)
etw betasten to feel sth to test quality
etw empfinden (R2/R3) to be sensitive to sth (e.g. cold);
feel emotions (e.g. joy, sorrow,
respect)
etw fühlen to perceive sth through the senses
sich + adj fühlen (of people) to feel + adj, e.g. well,
sick, tired
meinen(, dass ...) to feel, be of the opinion (that...)
etw spüren to be aware of sth, notice, sense
sth
(nach etw) tasten to grope, feel (for sth) searchingly
FIGHT etw bekämpfen to combat sth (e.g. disease,
fascism)
boxen to box
fechten to fence

2.1 Problems of meaning 65
sich hauen (Rl)]
sich prügeln ?
sich schlagen )
(gegen jdn/etw) kämpfen
sich (mit jdm) streiten
FINALLY im Endeffekt (Rl)
endgültig
endlich
letztendlich )
letzten Endes J
schließlich
zum Schluss
zuletzt
FIRE der Brand
das Feuer
(AT) FIRST erst
erst mal (Rl))
zunächst )
erstens
erstmals )
zum ersten Malf
zuerst
FLOW fließen
strömen
to have a fight
to fight (sb/sth), esp prolonged struggle
to argue, quarrel (with sb), possibly, but
not necessarily, physically; (R3) to
fight
in the end, in the final analysis
for ever, definitive(ly)
at last, after a long time (often
impatient)
ultimately, in the final analysis
eventually, after all
in the end, in conclusion
finally, in the end (last of a series of
events)
a fire, causing damage (e.g. house,
forest)
fire as element
first (followed by dann in series)
initially, for the moment
first(ly) - in list, followed by zweitens,
drittens, etc.
for the first time
before the rest
to flow (general senses)
to pour out, flow in large masses, stream
FOLLOW etw befolgen to act in accordance with sth (e.g.
orders)
etw besuchen to attend sth (e.g. course)
(jdm/etw) folgen (R2/R3) to follow (sb/sth)
NOTE: in the neutral sense of'to follow' an appropriate verb of motion
prefixed by nach- or hinterhere.g. jdm nachlaufen, hinterherlaufen, is the
most frequent equivalent in Rl and R2

66 2 Words and meanings
[FOLLOW] auf jdn/etw folgen
aus etw folgen
(jdm/etw) nachfolgen
jdn verfolgen
etw verfolgen
jdn/etw verstehen
FOOD das Essen
der Fraß
das Futter
das Gericht
die Kost (R2/R3)
die Lebensmittel (pl) )
die Nahrungsmittel (pl) f
die Nahrung
die Speise
FORCE jdm etw aufzwingen
jdn/etw bezwingen
etw (von jdm) erzwingen
jdn (zu etw) zwingen
FREEZE einfrieren
etw einfrieren
erfrieren
es friert
ich friere (N) )
mich friert (es) (R3; S) 1
frieren )
gefrieren (R3))
zufrieren
FRUIT die Frucht
das Obst
to succeed sb/sth in chronological
sequence
to follow from sth (logically)
to come after/behind sb/sth (i.e. come
on later); to succeed sb
to pursue sb (e.g. thief); persecute sb
to follow sth keenly (e.g. aims, TV
series)
to understand sb/sth (e.g. 'Do you
follow me?')
food (i.e. what is eaten for a meal)
animal food; (Rl) (lousy) grub
food for animals; (Rl) grub
dish
fare, type of food
foodstuffs, comestibles
nourishment, sustenance
dish (usually in compound, e.g.
Süßspeise; in R3 and S also =
nourishment)
to force sth on sb
to overcome sb/sth (e.g. enemy, fear)
to force sth (from sb)
to force, compel sb (to sth)
to freeze up (e.g. pipes), freeze in
(ships)
to freeze sth (e.g. food, post in
institution)
to freeze to death
there is a frost, it is freezing
I am cold
to turn to ice
to freeze over (e.g. of lake)
fruit (general sense)
edible fruit (e.g. apples, pears)

GARAGE die Garage
die Tankstelle
die Werkstatt
GATHER see collect
2.1 Problems of meaning 67
GRASP etw begreifen )
etw erfassen (R2/R3) j
sich jds/etw (gen)
bemächtigen (R3)
jdn/etw ergreifen (R3)
jdn/etw fassen
nach etw grapschen (Rl) \
nach etw greifen ?
nach etw langen (Rl) '
jdn/etw greifen (R3, S)
jdn/etw packen (R1/R2)
jdn/etw schnappen (Rl)
GREET jdn/etw begrüßen
(jdn) grüßen
jdn willkommen heißen
(R3)
GRIN feixen (Rl)
grinsen
lächeln
schmunzeln
GROW (UP) etw anbauen
aufwachsen (R2/R3)
erwachsen werden
groß werden (R1/R2)
heranwachsen (R3)
wachsen
adj + werden
place to store cars, etc.
petrol station, gas station
repair shop for cars, etc.
to comprehend sth
to seize hold of sb/sth (e.g. radio
station)
to grasp, take hold of sb/sth in sudden
movement (also: opportunity, power,
etc.)
to take hold of sb/sth (also of ideas,
usually in negative)
to grasp, snatch at sth
to seize, grasp, take hold of sb/sth
to grab (hold of), seize, catch sb/sth
to grab sb/sth quickly, to catch sb (esp
of police)
to greet, welcome sb/sth
to say hello (to sb); give one's regards
to sb
to welcome sb
to smirk
to grin, smirk, esp scornfully or
unpleasantly
to smile (can be pleasant or
unpleasant)
to grin in a friendly or pleasant way
to grow, cultivate sth (agriculture)
to grow up, spend one's childhood
to become adult
to grow (of children)
to grow up, stressing development
to grow (general sense)
to grow, get, become + adj (e.g. large,
red)

[GROW (UP)] etw ziehen to grow sth (plants)
zunehmen to increase in size or quantity
etw züchten to cultivate sth (plants)
GUESS etw erraten to guess sth correctly
(etw) raten to have a guess (at sth)
etw schätzen to estimate sth (e.g. weight)
auf etw tippen (Rl) have a guess at sth, predict sth
etw vermuten to suppose sth
HAPPEN/ OCCUR ausbleiben to fail to happen (against expectations)
ausfallen not to take place, to be cancelled
sich begeben (R3a) to happen, come to pass (significant
event)
sich ereignen to happen (unusual or remarkable
event)
erfolgen to take place (as a result, or in the
normal course of events), ensue
(jdm) geschehen to happen, occur (to sb)
(jdm) passieren (R1/R2) to happen, occur (to sb) (typically sth
unpleasant or harmful)
stattfinden to take place (organized event)
vorfallen (R2/R3) to happen (rather unexpectedly)
vorgehen to be going on
vorkommen to occur (i.e. be found); take place
(often repeatedly)
1
stressed syllables are
jdm wider* fahren (R3a))
jdm zustoßen (R3) f
to befall sb
preceded by a stress
mark
HARM see damage
HILL see mountain
HIRE see rent
sich zutragen (R3a) to take place, occur (noteworthy event)
HOLIDAY(S) der Feiertag public, bank holiday
die Ferien (pi) institutional break (e.g. from school)
der Urlaub leave (from work), vacation
NOTE: the distinction between Urlaub and Ferien is not always
maintained in Rl, and both are frequently used in the sense of
'vacation'.

IDEA die Absicht
die Ahnung
der Begriff
der Einfall
2.1 Problems of meaning 69
der Gedanke
die Idee
die Meinung
die Schnapsidee (Rl)
die Vorstellung
IMAGINE sich etw denken (R1/R2) |
sich etw vorstellen j
sich etw einbilden
IMPROVE jdn/etw bessern (R3)
INCIDENT see event
sich bessern
(jdn/etw) korrigieren
etw verbessern
sich verbessern
INHABITANT(S) die Bevölkerung
der Bewohner
der Eingeborene(r)
der Einheimische(r)
der Einwohner
intention, plan of action
inkling, suspicion
concept, generic idea
idea, plan which occurs to one
suddenly
thought
notion, thought; philosophical idea
opinion
nutty idea
image in the mind, idea one has of sth
to make oneself a mental picture of sth,
possibly correct, possibly not
merely to imagine sth which is quite
illusory
to make sb/sth rather better (in a
limited way; of people often in a
moral sense, 'reform')
to become rather better (esp. health,
morals, social conditions, situation in
life, etc.)
to put (sb/sth) right, correct (sb/sth)
to correct sth, bring sth nearer to ideal,
improve on sth (e.g. quality of
product)
to better oneself (in career); do better
(in sport); correct oneself
inhabitants of a city, etc. seen as a
collective whole
inhabitant, occupier, sb who happens
to live in a particular place, road,
house
primitive, aboriginal native
native, sb who belongs to a place
resident, permanent inhabitant (e.g. of
a city) with some legal or official
status

70 2 Words and meanings
JACKET dasJäckchen jacket (short, esp woman's)
die Jacke jacket (general sense)
das Jackett j
der Rock (S))
jacket, coat (man's, also of suit)
der Mantel (over-)coat
der (AU das) Sakko jacket (man's, separate)
JOB die Anstellung (position of) employment,
appointment
die Arbeit work in general (esp manual),
piece of work
die Aufgabe specific task set sb
der Auftrag order, commission, specific piece
of work relating to one's trade or
profession
der Beruf profession, employment of a
professional nature, (skilled)
trade
die Berufstätigkeit (R3b) j
die Erwerbstätigkeit (R3b) S
(gainful) employment
der Job (Rl) casual or part-time job
der Posten specific post, esp in
administration or commerce
die Stelle paid job, position of employment
die Stellung situation in general
KEEP etw aufbewahren (R3) to keep sth safe
etw aufheben to keep, look after sth
jdn/etw behalten not to give sth away, not to allow
sb to go
etw beibehalten retain sth (rather emphatic)
etw bewahren (R2/R3) to preserve, maintain sth (esp sth
abstract, in difficult conditions)
etw einhalten (R2/R3) to keep, adhere to, observe sth
(appointment, promise, rules,
etc.)
jdn/etw erhalten to keep, maintain, preserve sb/sth
(i.e. prevent deterioration or
t
loss)
jdn/etw halten to keep sb/sth (i.e. not allow to
move or change), to observe,
stick to sth

1 stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
sich halten
etw unter 1 halten
jdn versorgen
jdn/etw zurückhalten
KNOW bekannt sein
jdn/etw kennen
eine Sprache können
(etw) wissen
KNOWLEDGE die Erkenntnis
die Kenntnis
die Kenntnisse (pi)
das Wissen
to remain in good condition (e.g.
food), maintain a course or
position
to keep sth going, maintain sth
(e.g. building)
to provide for sb (e.g. family)
to keep sb/sth back, detain sb,
withhold sth
to be known
to be familiar with sb/sth
to be able to speak a language
to have knowledge (of sth)
knowledge, recognition,
realization (knowledge with
clear understanding)
specific (piece of) knowledge
specialized knowledge in a certain
field
knowledge in general, total
knowledge which a person
possesses
LEARN etw erfahren to learn sth by chance, find sth out
etw erlernen to learn sth completely (e.g.
language, skill)
(etw) lernen to learn (sth) by effort, through
study
LEAVE abfahren |
losfahren (Rl)j
to depart (in vehicle, by train, etc.)
jdn/etw dalassen (Rl) not to take sb/sth with one, leave
sb/sth behind
jdn/etw hinterlassen to leave sb/sth behind (after
death; for sb, as sign that one has
been there)
etw lassen to allow sth to remain (in a
particular place or in a certain
condition)
etw liegen lassen to leave sth behind (inadvertently)
losgehen (Rl))
(weg)gehen )
to depart

72 2 Words and meanings
[LEAVE] jdn/etw stehen lassen
(AT) LAST see finally
jdm etw über'lassen
etw verlassen
jdn/etw weglassen (Rl)
jdn/etw zurücklassen
LIFT jdn/etw aufheben
etw erheben (R3)
etw erhöhen
jdn/etw heben
etw hochheben
LIKE etw gefallt jdm (see 4.1.1)
LITTLE see small
jdn/etw gern haben
jdn/etw nicht leiden können
jdn/etw lieben
jdn lieb haben
to leave sb/sth behind (usually
intentionally)
to leave sth in sb's care, entrust
sth to sb
to go away from sb/sth
to leave sth out, let sb go
leave sb/sth behind (intentionally,
or leave a trace, or on death)
to pick sb/sth up (off the ground)
to raise sth up high (e.g. hand,
glass)
to make sth higher (e.g. wall,
prices)
to move sb/sth higher
to lift sb/sth up (in the air)
sb likes sth (esp on the basis of a
first impression)
to like sb/sth (esp an established
affection)
not to be able to stand sb/sth
to love sb/sth
to be fond of sb
jdn/etw mögen (see 4.6.1) to like sb/sth (esp people or food)
etw schmeckt jdm sb likes sth (food)
NOTE: referring to people and food, gern haben and mögen are very
similar in meaning. With verbs, e.g. 'to like doing sth', German most
often uses gern with an appropriate verb, see 5.2.4, e.g. Ich reite gern 'I
like horse-riding'.
LIVE leben to be alive, have a certain lifestyle
wohnen to dwell
LOCK (etw) abschließen )
(etw) absperren (SE) S
jdn/etw einschließen \
jdn einsperren I
etw wegschließen )
to lock (e.g. house, car, door)
to lock sb up, lock sth away
etw verschließen to lock sth (small, e.g. case, box)

LOVE see like
MAN der Mann male human, as opposed to
woman
der Mensch man as species, as opposed to
animals
MARRY heiraten to get married
jdn heiraten to marry sb
jdn trauen to marry sb (i.e. perform the
ceremony)
sich (mit jdm) verheiraten \
(R2/R3) [ get married (to sb)
sich (mit jdm) vermählen (R3) /
verheiratet sein to be married
MEAN etw bedeuten to signify sth
etw besagen to make sth clear, express sth
etw heißen to have a certain meaning (e.g.
foreign word)
jdn/etw meinen to have sb/sth in mind, intend
sb/sth (esp in questions, e.g.
'Who/What do you mean?')
etw vorhaben to mean to do sth
MEET jdn abholen to pick sb up
jdm begegnen (R3) to meet, encounter sb (by chance)
jdn kennen lernen to meet sb for the first time
jdn sehen to see, meet sb (frequent
equivalent in Rl)
jdn treffen to meet sb (by chance or
arrangement)
auf jdn/etw treffen to come across sb/sth
sich (mit jdm) treffen (R1/R2) to meet (sb) by arrangement
(mit jdm) zusammenkommen to collect, assemble, meet (in a
(R3) previously agreed place for a
specific purppose)
(mit jdm) zusammentreffen to have a meeting (with sb) (often
(R3) important people)
zusammentreten to meet, convene (public bodies,
etc.)

74 2 Words and meanings
MEMORY das Andenken
die Erinnerung
das Gedächtnis
der Speicher
souvenir; (R3) remembrance, memory
(solemn, e.g. of deceased)
remembrance, recollection
faculty of remembering
memory of computer or calculator
MISS etw auslassen to miss sth out
fehlen to be missing
etw über'hören not hear sth (deliberately or not)
etw über'sehen not see sth (deliberately or not)
etw verfehlen not to get the right sth (e.g. path,
purpose)
jdn/etw vermissen to notice, regret the absence of sb/sth
etw verpassen to come too late for sth (e.g. train), let sth
slip (e.g. opportunity)
etw versäumen (R2/R3) not to do sth one ought to have done (e.g.
miss an opportunity)
MISTAKE der Fehler
der Fehlgriff
der Irrtum
der Patzer (Rl) j
der Schnitzer (Rl) i
MOUNTAIN der Berg
der Hang
der Hügel (esp N)
das Gebirge
der Gipfel
NARROW eng
NOTE: in R1/R2 the German equivalent of English 'miss' is often
daneben with an appropriate verb, e.g. er hat daneben geschossen.
schmal
NECK das Genick )
der Nacken i
der Hals
die Kehle
error, fault, defect
mistake (esp wrong choice or judgement)
mistaken belief or judgement
boob, goof, blunder
mountain, hill
slope, incline
rather small hill, often solitary
mountains, hills (range)
summit
constricted, difficult to get through
(opposite of weit)
of small width or breadth (opposite of
breit)
nape, back of neck
whole neck or throat, also of bottles
throat (front of throat, inside or outside)

NOISE see sound
NOTICE jdn/etw bemerken
etw merken
2.1 Problems of meaning 75
etw spüren
NUMBER die Anzahl
die Nummer
OCCUR see happen/occur
OCCURRENCE see event
die Zahl
die Ziffer
ODD absonderlich (R3)
eigenartig
eigentümlich (R2/R3)
fremd
fremdartig
komisch (R1/R2)
merkwürdig (R2/R3)
seltsam
sonderbar
ungerade (Zahl)
unheimlich
wunderlich (R2/R3)
OFFER jdm etw anbieten
(jdm) etw bieten
OFFICER der Beamte(r)
der Offizier
to become aware of sth
to perceive, realize sth abstract
(e.g. intention, deceit)
to sense, feel sth (e.g. smell, pain,
cold)
rather vague, indefinite number
numbers in series applied to sth
(e.g. house, car, telephone)
quite specific number
actual digit (e.g. 4, 7)
peculiar, abnormal
peculiar, difficult to comprehend
peculiar, unusual
unfamiliar, strange, foreign, alien
strange, unfamiliar, exotic
funny, peculiar
strange, strikingly out of the
ordinary
odd, peculiar, unusual
strange, odd, disconcerting
odd (number)
uncanny, weird
strange, odd, very peculiar
to hand sth to sb for acceptance
to afford sth, make sth available
(to sb) (usually sth abstract, e.g.
opportunity)
civilian official (incl e.g.
policeman), civil servant (officer
of the state)
military officer

76 2 Words and meanings
ONLY bloß (R1/R2))
lediglich (R3) f
nur '
erst
OPEN aufgehen
aufhaben (Rl)
etw aufmachen (R1/R2)
etw aufschlagen
etw aufschließen
etw eröffnen
sich/etw öffnen (R3)
ORDER etw anordnen
jdm (etw) befehlen |
(jdm) etw gebieten (R3a) j
etw bestellen
etw ordnen
ORGAN das Organ
die Orgel
PACKET das Päckchen
die Packung
das Paket
PAINT etw (an)streichen
PATH see street
(jdn/etw) malen
limiting (i.e. that number and no
more, at that time and only then,
see also 2.6)
indicating more to follow, that
there is time left, or that sth is
not happening before a certain
time (see also 2.6)
to open, come open
to be open (shops, etc.)
to open sth
to crack sth open (egg, nut), to
open sth (book, newspaper,
(R3a) eyes)
to unlock sth
to perform the opening of sth (e.g.
school, exhibition, proceedings)
to open (sth)
to decree, instruct sth (esp of
official); to arrange sth according
to a system
to command, order sb (e.g. to do
sth)
to make an order to be provided
with sth (e.g. in shop)
to sort sth into order, organize sth
part of body, etc.
musical instrument
packet, pack, package (of goods,
quite small); small postal parcel
(under 2 kilos)
small package or packet (e.g. for
tea, cigarettes)
large package, packet; large postal
parcel
to put paint on sth (e.g. house,
fence)
to paint a picture (of sb/sth)

PAY etw begleichen (R3b) settle, pay sth (bill, invoice, debt)
etw begleichen (R3b)
(jdn/etw) bezahlen
(etw) blechen (Rl)|
etw löhnen (Rl) }
etw entrichten (R3b)
bei jdm zahlen
(etw für etw) zahlen
PEOPLE die Leute (pl)
PERSUADE
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
PLACE der Ort
to pay (sb/for sth)
to fork (sth) out (excessive sum of
money)
to pay sth (fees, dues, taxes, etc.)
to pay sb (i.e. waiter, bus
conductor)
to pay (sth - i.e. a sum of money -
for sth)
NOTE: the distinction between etw bezahlen 'pay for sth' and etw fur etw
zahlen 'pay sth (i.e. a sum of money) for sth' is no longer consistently
upheld, esp in Rl, and the two verbs are used almost interchangeably.
die Menschen (pl)
das Volk
people (seen as making up a
specific group)
people as a number of individuals
people as a nation or community;
the 'common' people
NOTE: in Rl the distinction between Leute and Menschen is blurred,
and Leute is used more generally. Neither Leute nor Menschen is used as
widely as English 'people', which often corresponds to man (e.g. Man
sagt... 'People say ...', see also 3.5.5 and 4.4.5).
jdn (dazu) bewegen, etw zu tun
(R3)
jdn (zu etw) breitschlagen (Rl)
jdm etw einreden
jdn über'reden, etw zu tun
jdn von etw über'zeugen
die Ortschaft
der Platz
die Stelle
to induce sb to do sth
talk sb round (to sth)
to talk sb into believing sth
to talk sb into doing sth
to convince sb of sth
place, spot, locality, location in
general, not precise
village, settlement
place to do sth specific (e.g. to sit
down, to play sth, etc.); square
(in town); room, space (of
sufficient size to do sth)
precise spot, usually with a
certain relevance or in relation to
surroundings

POUR (jdm etw) einschenken (R2/R3) to pour (sb sth, i.e. a drink)
sich ergießen (R3)
to pour (out) (large flow, also of
people)
(etw) gießen
to pour (sth) (only liquids)
etw schütten
to pour sth in large quantities
etw streuen
to pour, strew sth (having grains,
e.g. sand)
strömen
to pour (out), stream, flow (large
quantities of liquid; also air,
light, people)
POWER die Gewalt
die Kraft
die Macht
die Stärke
PRESENT aktuell
anwesend
augenblicklich
derzeitig (R3)
gegenwärtig
vorhanden
PREVENT jdn von etw abhalten
jdn/etw behindern
jdn an etw hindern
etw verhindern
etw verhüten
PUSH (jdn/sich) drängeln (Rl)|
(jdn/sich) drängen j
(jdn/etw) drücken
(jdn/etw) schieben
jdn schubsen (Rl)
(jdn/etw) stoßen
power exercised, force, violence,
might
physical strength
power, ability to control (esp
latent)
measurable strength, size,
intensity
topical, current, relating to the
present
in attendance
current, existing at the moment
current, of the present time
of/at the present moment
existing in a place, available
to stop, prevent sb doing sth
to obstruct, hinder sb/sth
to stop, impede sb in sth
to make sth impossible
to prevent, stop sth (undesirable)
to push, shove, jostle (sb) (of
people, esp in a crowd)
to apply pressure (to sb/sth, e.g.
door, button)
to move (sb/sth) by pushing (esp
along a surface)
to shove, push, nudge sb
to give a short, violent shove (to
sb/sth); CH also to push (doors,

2.1 Problems of meaning 79
PUT etw hängen to put sth so that it then hangs (i.e. hängt;
e.g. picture on wall)
etw in etw (hinein)geben to add sth to sth (e.g. salt to cooking pot)
jdn/etw legen to put sb/sth so that it then lies (i.e. liegt;
e.g. book on table, person on couch)
jdn/etw setzen to put sb/sth so that it then sits (i.e. sitzt;
e.g. child on chair, pot on stove)
jdn/etw stellen to put sb/sth so that it then stands (i.e.
steht; e.g. chair in corner, bottle, plate on
table)
jdn/etw stecken to put sb/sth so that it is then hidden
from view (i.e. steckt; e.g. hand in
pocket, letter in mailbox)
QUIET leise
ruhig
still
RAISE see Lift
READY bereit
fertig
REALIZE jdm aufgehen
etw begreifen
etw (be)merken
etw einsehen
etw erkennen
etw feststellen
jdm klar werden
etw verwirklichen
REALLY/
ACTUALLY
NOTE: in Rl, tun commonly replaces these more specific words.
echt
eigentlich
tatsächlich |
in der Tat J
wahrhaftig (R2/R3)
wirklich
not loud
calm (of people or things), undisturbed
silent, not talkative
prepared, willing
finished, completed (and ready to go)
to become apparent to sb
to comprehend sth
to notice sth (see NOTICE)
to acknowledge, accept, see sth
to recognize sth
to discover sth, find sth out
to become clear to sb
to make sth real (e.g. plans, aims)
real, genuine, not faked; esp Rl: really,
very
actual(ly), real(ly) (in actual fact, possibly
despite the appearances)
in actual fact, in reality (as opposed to
imagination or illusion)
really, truly; (as adjective, R3 only)
truthful
real(ly) (actually in existence)

80 2 Words and meanings
REFUSE etw ablehnen
(jdm) etw versagen (R3)j
(jdm) etw verweigern )
sich weigern (, etw zu tun)
etw nicht (tun) wollen
RENT etw mieten
etw vermieten
RISE aufstehen )
sich erheben (R3) J
steigen
ROAD see street
ROOM das Gemach (R3a)
die Kammer
der Raum
der Saal
die Stube (R3a, S)
das Zimmer
ROPE das Seil
der Strick
das Tau
to decline sth, turn sth down
to refuse, not to grant (sb) sth
to refuse (to do sth - of people)
to refuse (to do sth - of things)
to rent, hire sth (from sb)
to rent, hire sth (to sb)
to get up, rise
to rise upwards, ascend
chamber, apartment (e.g. in palace)
box-room; (R3a, S) chamber, bedroom
space (in most senses, e.g. for sth to fit
into); room (in public building)
very large room, hall (e.g. for concerts)
room (esp living-room, parlour)
room in private house
rope
thin rope, esp for tying things (also
hangman's rope)
thick rope, hawser (esp on ships)
SAME der gleiche another identical one
derselbe the very same one
NOTE: in Rl derselbe and der gleiche are used interchangeably.
SATISFY jdn/etw befriedigen
etw entsprechen (R3)
etw erfüllen
jdm/etw genügen (R2/R3)
gesättigt sein (R3)j
satt sein f
jdn (von etw) überzeugen
sich mit etw zufrieden
geben
(mit jdm/etw) zufrieden
sein
jdn zufrieden stellen
to fulfil sb's wishes, needs, desires, etc.
to fulfil, meet, comply with sth
to satisfy, meet, fulfil sth (e.g.
condition, requirement, equation)
to comply with sth; be enough for sb
to have had enough to eat
to convince sb (of sth)
to (have to) be content, satisfied with
sth
to be satisfied, happy (with sb/sth)
to make sb contented (e.g. customer)

SAVE etw aufsparen
etw ersparen
jdm etw ersparen
sich etw ersparen
jdn (vor etw) retten
etw schonen
etw sparen
SECRET geheim
heimlich
SEIZE see grasp
SHINE glänzen
SHUT see close
leuchten
scheinen
SHY scheu
schüchtern
SIMPLE einfach
einfältig)
simpel )
leicht
schlicht
SKIN das Fell
die Haut
die Schale
to put sth to one side for later
to save (money)
to save sb sth (esp unpleasant
details)
to avoid sth (e.g. trouble)
to save sb (from sth, e.g. danger)
to go easy on sth (e.g. eyes,
clothes)
not to use sth (e.g. money, time)
deliberately kept from public view
(kept) hidden, invisible,
clandestine
to reflect light, gleam, sparkle (esp
of things which do not give out
their own light)
to give out or reflect light (esp in
dark surroundings)
to give out light (of sun, moon,
lamps)
timorous, esp used of animals or
expressions of emotion (smile,
glance, etc.)
of a reserved, introverted nature
(of people)
simple, plain
simple-minded
uncomplicated, easy
plain, straightforward (not
negative sense)
animal skin with fur
skin of human or animal (no fur)
skin, peel, rind (e.g. fruit,
vegetable)

SMALL gering
klein
SMELL der Duft
der Geruch )
der Geschmack (SW)J
der Gestank
SOUND das Geräusch
der Klang
der Krach
der Lärm
der Laut
der Schall
der Ton
SPACE see room and place
SPEND Geld ausgeben
etw verbrauchen
etw verbringen)
etw zubringen i
SPREAD sich/etw ausbreiten
sich/etw ausdehnen
sich/etw ausweiten
sich/etw dehnen
sich erstrecken
sich/etw erweitern
um sich greifen
slight, low, small in value or importance
small in size
pleasant smell, fragrance
smell (general sense)
unpleasant smell, stench
any indistinct sound or noise (general
sense)
resonant, musical sound
crashing noise (in Rl also used for Lärm)
loud, unpleasant noise
sound made by humans or animals (e.g.
speech sound)
sound as a physical phenomenon (e.g.
Schallgeschwindigkeit); (R3) clear and
distinct sound (e.g. bell)
single musical note; tone (of voice)
to spend money
to use sth up, consume sth (e.g. strength,
energy)
to pass sth (e.g. time)
to spread (sth) (out), extend sth (evenly in
all directions, e.g. wings, map on floor)
to expand, extend (sth), stretch (sth) out
(in time or space, esp over a wide area)
to expand, spread, extend (sth) (esp
increasing in significance, e.g. riots,
plague)
to stretch, lengthen, extend (sth)
to extend, stretch over an area (without
movement, e.g. forest to horizon)
to expand, enlarge, widen (sth) (i.e. make
larger in area; also of abstract things)
spread out from centre (esp of pernicious
things, e.g. disease, fire, trouble)

2.1 Problems of meaning 83
etw (auf etw) schmieren |
etw (auf etw) streichen J
sich/etw verbreiten
sich/etw verteilen
STEP der (Fuß)tritt
der Schritt
die Stiege (S, esp AU))
die Treppe i
die Stufe
STOP jdn von etw abhalten
etw abstellen
STRANGE see odd
(jdn/etw) anhalten
jdn/etw aufhalten
(mit etw) aufhören
etw einstellen
halten
stehen bleiben
stillstehen
STREET die Gasse
der Pfad
(jdn/etw) stoppen (R1/R2)
die Straße
der Weg
to spread sth (on sth, e.g. butter
on bread)
to disseminate sth, i.e. spread sth
patchily over wide area (e.g.
disease, panic)
to distribute sth (e.g. forces,
payments, cushions round
room)
sound of human step
pace (of person); stride
stairs, staircase, flight of steps
individual step or stair
to stop sb from (doing) sth
to switch sth off (e.g. motor,
machine)
to stop (sb/sth) (person or vehicle
in motion, esp temporarily or
unexpectedly)
to prevent sb/sth from continuing
to cease (sth, e.g. an activity)
to suspend sth (e.g. work,
payment, production)
to come to a halt (esp of scheduled
stop for vehicles; also of people)
to come to a halt (people,
machines, vehicles)
to come to/be at a standstill, stop
working
to stop (sb/sth) (most senses)
lane, alley; (AU) street in town
path, track (narrow, not for
vehicles)
surfaced street or road
way, path, track (unsurfaced, but
well-defined)

84 2 Words and meanings
STRENGTH see power
STRING der Bindfaden (N) \
die Schnur (S) \
der Spagat (AU) J
die Saite
SUSPICIOUS argwöhnisch (R3a)
TAKE etw brauchen
misstrauisch
stutzig (only used with sein or
werden)
suspekt )
verdächtig)
jdn/etw wohin bringen
jdn/etw nehmen
TALL groß )
lang(Rl)/
hoch
THEN damals
dann
THICK dicht
denn (see also 2.6.2)
dick
THING das Ding
das Dings/Dingsbums/
Dingsda (Rl)
der Gegenstand
string (for tying things)
string (of musical instrument)
inclined to have suspicions,
distrustful
suspicious, distrustful
suspicious (as a reaction to sth)
arousing suspicion
to take sth (of time, e.g. to take
two hours to do sth)
to convey, accompany sb/sth to a
place (e.g. cases upstairs, sb to
station)
to remove, take hold of, receive
sb/sth
tall (of people)
tall (of things, e.g. tree, tower)
then (i.e. at that time in the past)
then (for sequences of events, or
referring to present or future)
then (in questions, i.e. 'What are
you doing, then?')
packed together, dense (e.g. trees,
hair, traffic); not leaky
measuring a long way through
(e.g. book, layer, wall); also of
soup
in sing: concrete object; in pi:
concrete objects; matters of a
serious nature
thingummy, whatsit
object

[THING] die Sache in sing: matter, affair, business; in
pl: personal belongings; matters,
affairs of a rather nebulous, less
serious kind
das Zeug/Zeugs (Rl) things, stuff, gear (often
pejorative)
NOTE: the German equivalent of thing(s) is often an adjective used as a
noun, e.g. das Wichtige 'important things', see 3.4.4.
THINK jdn/etw als jdn/etw \
betrachten (R3) /
jdn/etw fur jdn/etw halten/
to take sb/sth for sb/sth; think
that sb/sth is sb/sth
(etw) denken to form (sth) in the mind, have
(sth) in the mind as an idea
sich (dat) etw denken )
sich (dat) etw vorstellen)
to imagine sth
(etw) glauben to believe (sth)
viel (usw) von jdm/etw halten to think a lot (etc.) of sb/sth
(etw) meinen to hold (sth) as an opinion
NOTE: glauben and meinen are close in meaning and interchangeable in
many contexts.
(über jdn/etw) nachdenken to reflect (on sb/sth), consider
(sb/sth)
sich (etw) über'legen to consider, deliberate sth (e.g.
decision)
THREATEN (jdm) etw androhen to threaten (sb with) sth abstract
(e.g. punishment, revenge)
(jdm mit etw) drohen to warn, threaten (sb with sth) in
general way, not necessarily
involving force
jdn (mit etw) bedrohen to threaten sb/sth (with sth),
involving direct, physical force;
endanger sb/sth
TIME das Mal occasion
die Zeit time as duration, fourth
dimension
TOUCH jdn/etw anfassen | to touch (and get hold of)
jdn/etw angreifen (S)j sb/sth with the hand
jdn/etw nicht anrühren not to touch sb/sth (e.g. me, food,
(usually in the negative) money)

86 2 Words and meanings
[TOUCH] jdn/etw berühren to come into (slight) contact with
sb/sth
jdn bewegen (R3)|
jdn rühren j
to move sb emotionally
an etw rühren (R3) to make contact with sth
(slightly)
TURN abbiegen to turn off (e.g. from one road
into another)
sich/etw (von jdn/etw)
abwenden
to turn (sth) away (from sb/sth)
sich/etw drehen to spin, revolve (sth) (e.g. knob,
key, wheel)
wohin (ein)biegen to turn off straight course in new
direction
sich/etw herumdrehen turn (sth) (right) round/over
etw wohin kehren (R3) turn sth (esp part of the body) in a
particular direction
sich/jdn/etw 'umdrehen to turn (sb/sth)
(over/round/upside down - esp
on its own axis or round a
centre)
'umdrehen to turn round, back
'umkehren to turn round and go back
(etw) 'umkippen to turn (sth) upside down (e.g. car,
plate)
sich/jdn/etw wenden (R2/R3) to turn (sth) onto the other side or
1
stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
to face in another direction (e.g.
steak, page, car, glance, head)
mark wenden to turn (vehicles)
UNDER- die Einsicht insight, realization,
STANDING understanding of sth specific
das Einverständnis consent
die Vernunft good sense, reasonableness
der Verstand ability to understand, wit(s),
intellect, reason
die Verständigung mutual understanding, agreement

USE etw (auf etw) anwenden
etw (aus)nutzen (N),
(aus)nützen (S)
sich jds/etw bedienen (R3) 1
etw benutzen (N), benützen (S) f
etw gebrauchen
etw verbrauchen
etw verwenden
to apply sth (to sth)
to make full use of sth, exploit sth
to make use of sb/sth
to find a use for sth in accordance
with its intended purpose
to use sth up, consume sth
to utilize sth, often for a purpose
for which it was not intended
NOTE: benutzen, gebrauchen and verwenden are very close in meaning; in
Rl and R2 they are often used interchangeably.
etw verwerten (R3) to find a use for sth (e.g.
left-overs, ideas)
VIEW der Anblick sight (i.e. sth seen, often with
reference to the reaction of the
person seeing it)
die Ansicht view of sb/sth; opinion
der Ausblick outlook from a place, perhaps
restricted
die Aussicht (panoramic) view from a place,
prospect
der Blick look, glance, view (in general)
die Meinung opinion
die Sicht range of vision (e.g. in Sicht
kommen)
WAKE (UP)
aufwachen
erwachen (R3)
\
> to wake up (become wide awake)
wach werden (R1/R2) j
jdn (auf)wecken j
jdn erwecken (R3)J
to wake sb up
etw erwecken (R3) to awaken, arouse sth (e.g.
emotions)
wachen to stay awake, be awake, keep
watch
WALL die Mauer outside wall of brick, stone, etc.
der Wall (R3) rampart, fortification
die Wand wall of building, inside or outside

88 2 Words and meanings
WASH (UP) (etw) abwaschen to wash (sth) off, down; (N, AU)
to wash (sth) up (i.e. dishes)
(etw) spülen (NW, SW) to wash sth (up) (i.e. dishes)
etw wohin spülen to wash sth up in a place (of
waves, river)
sich/jdn/etw waschen to wash (sb/sth) (general sense)
WELCOME see greet
2.1.2 Problems of meaning: German-English examples
Mark Twain wrote that the word Zug had so many meanings you could
always use it in German if you didn't know the right word for the
context. This is something of an exaggeration, but many German
words have two or more quite distinct English equivalents. Such words
are called homonyms, like English bank (e.g. bank of a river, or bank
which deals in money, see 2.1.1). They can be confusing if you only
know one of the meanings and this section gives a selection of common
homonyms in German to help you to sort them out.
NOTE: With some of these words, you can use a compound if the simple
word is ambiguous. If this is so, the appropriate compound is given
below in italics. However, in all registers - and especially Rl - the simple
word is often preferred where there is no chance of ambiguity in the
context.
der Absatz heel (i.e. of shoe: Schuhabsatz)
paragraph half-landing (i.e. on stairs:
Treppenabsatz)
(R3b) sales (i.e. of goods or services)
etw annehmen to accept sth
to presume, assume sth
anziehen etw anziehen
sich anziehen
jdn/etw anziehen
to put sth on (clothes)
to get dressed
to attract sb/sth
etw bemerken to notice sth
to remark on sth
das Blatt leaf
sheet (of paper)
hand (of cards)

2.1 Problems of meaning 89
der Boden ground, soil
floor (Fußboden)
bottom (e.g. of cup, sea)
(N) loft (Dachboden)
die Decke ceiling
blanket (Wolldecke)
quilt, duvet (Steppdecke)
covering (e.g. surface of road: Straßendecke)
dicht dense (e.g. trees, fog)
thick (e.g. hair, feathers)
heavy (e.g. traffic)
close (to sth = an etw)
(water-, air-) tight (wasserdicht, luftdicht)
(Rl) shut (e.g. of shop)
dick fat (of people)
thick (e.g. tree-trunk, wall, soup)
(Rl) big (e.g. car, business, wallet)
einfallen einfallen (intr)
in etw einfallen
jdm einfallen
etw erklären to explain sth
to declare sth
to join in (e.g. singing)
to cave in
(R3a) to fall (e.g. night, winter)
to invade sth (e.g. country)
to occur to sb
erst first (if followed by dann, see 2.1.1)
only (see 2.1.1)
(also used as modal particle, see 2.6)
das Fach compartment (e.g. in bag)
pigeon-hole
subject (e.g. at school: Schulfach,
Studienfach)
der Fall fall
case, instance
die Farbe colour
paint
fertig finished
ready
(Rl) tired out

fremd strange
foreign
someone else's
der Gang corridor, passage
gait, way of walking
course (e.g. of events, of meal)
gear (in car)
operation (e.g. of machine)
die Geschichte story
history
(Rl) matter, affair, business
gleich same
equal(ly)
immediately, at once
der Grund reason
bottom (e.g. of sea)
ground
der Hahn cock, rooster
tap, faucet (e.g.: Wasserhahn, Gashahn)
hell bright (of light)
light, pale (of colours)
der Himmel sky (am Himmel — in the sky)
heaven (im Himmel = in heaven)
die Kapelle chapel
band
die Karte card (Spielkarte)
ticket (Fahrkarte, Eintrittskarte, etc.)
map (Landkarte)
menu (Speisekarte)
das Kissen cushion
pillow
kosten kosten
(etw) kosten
to cost
to taste (sth)
das Kreuz cross
small of the back
das Land country (as opposed to town)
country (i.e. a state or nation)
land (as opposed to water)
German province (Bundesland)

die Landschaft countryside
landscape
scenery
der, die, das Letzte the last
the latest
meinen meinen, (dass...)
jdn/etw meinen
to think, be of the opinion (that...)
to mean sb/sth
der, die, das Nächste the next
the nearest
the shortest, quickest (e.g. way)
packen jdn packen (Rl)
etw packen
die Politik politics
policy
der Preis price
prize
to grab, grip sb
to pack sth (e.g. suitcase)
(Rl) to manage (to do) sth
der Rat advice
council (e.g. of town: Stadtrat)
councillor, official
raten jdm raten
(etw) raten
reichen reichen (itr)
jdm etw reichen
to advise sb
to guess (sth)
to extend, stretch
to be enough
to pass sb sth
der Schein appearance
certificate
banknote (Geldschein)
light, glow (e.g. of sun: Sonnenschein)
(esp R3b) ticket (Fahrschein)
scheinen to seem, appear
to shine (see 2.1.1)
das Schloss castle, mansion, stately home
lock
sicher safe, secure
sure, certain

92 2 Words and meanings
die Stimme voice
vote
der Stock stick
storey, floor (in building = das Stockwerk)
der Stoff material, fabric
substance
subject, topic (e.g. of discussion)
tragen jdn/etw tragen
etw tragen
treffen jdn treffen
jdn/etw treffen
'umziehen umziehen
sich umziehen
unter'halten jdn/etw unterhalten
jdn unterhalten
sich unterhalten
to carry sb/sth
to wear sth (clothes)
to bear sth (e.g. name, costs)
to meet sb (see 2.1.1)
to hit sb/sth
to move (house)
to get changed (clothes)
to maintain, support sb/sth
to entertain sb
to have a talk, to enjoy oneself
der Versuch try, attempt
experiment, test
vorstellen sich etw vorstellen
jdn (jdm) vorstellen
wählen jdn/etw wählen
(jdn) wählen
jdn wählen
wählen
to imagine sth
to introduce sb (to sb)
to choose sb/sth
to vote (for sb)
to elect sb
to dial (on telephone)
weit wide, broad
long (e.g. way, journey)
far away (weit entfernt)
die Wirtschaft economy
pub (Gastwirtschaft)
zeigen jdm etw zeigen
auf jdn/etw zeigen
to show sb sth
to point at sb/sth
der Zug train
draught (Luftzug)
procession (Straßenzug)
feature, trait (Charakterzug)

Rl= spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
2.2 Easily confused words
2.2.1 Easily confused words: similar form - different
meaning
Some German words are easily confused because they look so much
alike. A selection of such words is given in this section, grouped into
pairs or sets. A number of these words are similar because they are built
up from the same root, often using the prefixes and suffixes explained
in 2.3. To help you recognize these sets more easily, some of them are
arranged according to the root, rather than in alphabetical order; it is
important to look at and learn each group of words as a whole.
die Achsel die Achse
shoulder axle
der Akt die Akte
act; nude (painting);(AU also = file) file
der Antrag der Auftrag
application order
etw beantragen jdn (mit etw) beauftragen
to apply for sth (= jdm etw auftragen (R3)
to instruct sb to do sth
die Auffuhrung die Ausfuhrung
performance carrying out (task, etc.)
die Aufgabe die Ausgabe
task issue; edition
aufrüsten jdn/etw ausrüsten
to arm (i.e. get weapons) to equip sb/sth
jdm etw ausrichten etw einrichten
to tell sb sth to furnish sth
etw verrichten
to perform sth (e.g. task)
der Ball der Ballen
ball bale

der Band (see 2.2.2)
volume
das Band
ribbon
die Bande
gang
der Verband
bandage; association
die Verbindung
connection
der Bund (see 2.2.2)
confederation
das Bund
bundle, bunch
das Bündnis
alliance
die Verbundenheit
solidarity
die Verbindlichkeit
obligingness
bedingungslos unbedingt
unconditional absolute
der Beruf die Berufung
profession calling; vocation; (legal) appeal
etw beurteilen jdn verurteilen
to judge sth to condemn sb
etw bezeichnen etw verzeichnen
to indicate, mean sth to record, note sth
das Bild die Bildung
picture, image education; formation
die Ausbildung
training
jdn ausbilden etw herausbilden
to train sb to form, develop sth
jdn um etw bitten (bat - gebeten) beten (betete - gebetet)
to ask sb for sth to pray
jdm etw bieten (bot - geboten) betteln (bettelte - gebettelt)
to offer sb sth to beg
blinken (Rl) blinzeln
to indicate (in car) to blink
jdn blenden
to blind sb
böse boshaft
wicked, bad; angry spiteful
böswillig
malicious

' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
etw brauchen etw gebrauchen
to need sth to use sth
der Brauch der Gebrauch
custom use
etw verbrauchen gebraucht
to consume sth used; second-hand
der Verbraucher gebräuchlich
consumer customary
der Busch die Böschung
bush slope
das Cafe der 'Kaffee (SE der Kaffee)
cafe coffee
der Dank der Gedanke
thanks thought
dauern etw/jdn bedauern
to last; (R3) to pity to regret sth; to feel pity for sb
bedauerlich bedauernswert
regrettable pitiful (R3)
die Decke der Deckel
ceiling; blanket (see 2.1.2) cover; lid
die Deckung das Gedeck
cover (to hide in) place (laid at table)
denken etw bedenken
to think to consider sth
jds/etw gedenken (R3)
to remember sb/sth
durch etw dringen jdn drängen
to penetrate sth to push sb (in crowd)
auf etw dringen auf etw drängen
to insist on sth to press for sth
jdn bedrängen
to put pressure on sb
etw drücken etw drucken
to press sth to print sth
etw ausdrücken etw eindrücken
to express sth to push sth in
jdn beeindrucken
to impress sb
der Ausdruck der Eindruck
expression impression

die Ehre die Ehrfurcht (R3)
honour reverence
der Ehrgeiz
ambition
ehrbar (R3) ehrenhaft
respectable honourable
ehrlich ehrwürdig
honest venerable
die Eigenschaft die Eigenart
quality; feature individuality
das Eigentum die Eigentümlichkeit
property peculiarity
einfach einfaltig
simple simple (-minded)
einheitlich einig
uniform in agreement
einsam einzig
lonely only (adjective)
einzeln vereinzelt
single; individual occasional, sporadic
jdm einfallen auf jdn/etw hereinfallen (Rl)
to occur to sb to be taken in by sb/sth
empfanglich empfindlich
receptive; susceptible sensitive
endlos endlich
endless at last; finally
unendlich
infinite
der Entschluss die Entschlossenheit
decision determination
erst (see 2.1.1) erstens
first; only first(ly)
zuerst erstmals
at first for the first time
die Etikette das Etikett
etiquette (AU, CH also: label) label
der Fahrer der Führer
driver leader; guide

etw fordern jdn/etw fördern
to demand sth to support sb/sth
etw erfordern (R3) jdn/etw befördern
to necessitate sth to promote sb; to transport sth
die Forderung die Förderung
demand; claim support; encouragement;
promotion
der Fotograf die Fotografie
photographer photograph, photography
geistig geistlich
intellectual; mental spiritual
geistreich
witty
die Gelegenheit die Angelegenheit
opportunity matter; affair
die Gemeinheit die Gemeinschaft
meanness community
die Gemeinsamkeit
common ground
etw gewohnt sein sich an etw gewöhnen
to be used to sth to get used to sth
der Gläubige(r) der Gläubiger
believer creditor
gleich gleichfalls
same; immediately (see 2.1.2) likewise
zugleich gleichmäßig
at the same time even; regular
gleichgültig gleichviel (R3)
indifferent none the less, all the same
das Grab der Graben
grave ditch
(etw) graben jdn begraben
to dig (sth) to bury sb
grausam grauenhaft
cruel atrocious, appalling
gründlich grundsätzlich
thorough fundamental

jdn grüßen jdn begrüßen
to say hello to sb, salute sb to welcome sb
der Hahn die Henne
cock, rooster; tap, faucet hen (i.e. female chicken)
das Huhn
chicken
der Handel die Handlung
trade action, plot
das Herd die Herde
stove (for cooking) herd
die Höhe die Anhöhe
height high point, hilltop
der Inder der Indianer
Indian Native American (Red Indian)
der Kegel die Kugel
skittle; cone ball; sphere
kostbar köstlich
precious exquisite
die Kost (R3) die Kosten (pi)
food, fare cost(s)
jdm kündigen etw verkünden (R3)
to give notice to sb, fire sb to announce sth
sich erkundigen
to inquire
künstlich künstlerisch
artificial artistic
lebendig lebhaft
live, living, alive lively, vivacious; vivid
etw legen (legte - gelegt) liegen (lag - gelegen)
to put, lay sth to lie, be lying (down)
lügen (log - gelogen)
to tell lies
das Leid das Leiden
sorrow, grief suffering; illness
die Leidenschaft
passion; enthusiasm

die Lerche die Lärche
lark larch
das Mahl (R3a) die Mahlzeit
meal, repast meal
der Gemahl (R3a)
husband
etw mieten etw vermieten
to rent, hire sth (from sb) to rent, hire sth (to sb)
der Muskel die Muschel
muscle (sea-)shell
namentlich nämlich
by name; in particular namely; because
namhaft
renowned
offiziell offiziös (R3b)
official semi-official
ein paar ein Paar
a few a pair
der Pfeil der Pfeiler
arrow pillar
die Post der Posten
post (i.e. mail), post office post (i.e. job)
der Pfosten
post (i.e. upright)
der Rahmen der Rahm (esp S)
frame cream
rascheln rasseln
to rustle to rattle
rauschen rasen
to roar (of water) to race; to rave
rau roh
rough raw
das Recht die Berechtigung
right, law entitlement
die Rechtfertigung die Gerechtigkeit
justification justice

eisen etw reißen
to travel to tear, break sth
römisch romanisch
Roman Romanesque, Romance
die Sammlung die Versammlung
collection assembly
schadhaft schädlich
faulty, defective harmful
der Schal die Schale
shawl bowl; peel; (AU) cup
der Schlager der Schläger
hit (record) tennis racket
schlecht schlicht
bad simple
die Seite die Saite
side; page string (violin, guitar, etc.)
sonderbar sonderlich
peculiar particularly
springen etw sprengen
to jump to blow sth up; to break sth apart
das Stadium das Stadion
stage (in development) stadium (sports)
jdn/etw stützen etw stutzen
to support sb/sth to trim sth
stutzen (intr)
to hesitate
stürzen (intr) jdn/etw stürzen
to fall heavily; to rush to fling sb/sth
das Tablett die Tablette
tray tablet
etw tauschen jdn täuschen
to change sth to deceive sb

2.2 Easily confused words 101
jdm/etw trauen jdm (or auf jdn) vertrauen
to trust sb/sth to have confidence in sb
jdm etw anvertrauen
to confide, entrust sth to sb
der Tropfen der Tropf (Rl)
drop dope; rascal
übrigens im Übrigen
by the way otherwise
ungewöhnlich außergewöhnlich
unusual out of the ordinary
unglaublich unglaubwürdig
unbelievable implausible; unreliable (of
person)
das Verhalten das Verhältnis
behaviour relationship
jdn/etw verschonen (R3) etw verschönen
to spare sb/sth to improve sth (appearance)
der Versuch die Versuchung
attempt temptation
vorher vorhin
previously; beforehand just now
der Wagen der Waggon
car, cart, carriage goods truck (railway)
etw wahren (R3) währen (R3)
to preserve sth to last
jdn vor etw bewahren sich bewähren
to protect sb from sth to prove one's worth
etw gewahren (R3) jdm etw gewähren (R3)
to notice sth to grant sb sth
etw aufbewahren sich wehren
to keep, store sth to defend oneself
wieder wider (R3)
again against
wunderbar wunderlich
wonderful strange; odd
verwunderlich
astonishing

sich wundern jdn verwundern
to be amazed, astonished to astonish sb
jdn/etw bewundern jdn verwunden
to admire sb/sth to wound sb
2.2.2 Easily confused words: different gender - different
meaning
A number of words in German have two meanings which are
differentiated by gender. For example, the masculine der See means
'lake', but the feminine die See means 'sea'. The following is a selection
of the most common of these:
der Band volume das Band (ribbon (pi "er)
(see 2.2.3) \bond (R3, pi -e)
die Band [bend] band, (pop) group
der Bulle bull (Rl also = cop) die Bulle (papal) bull
der Bund confederation das Bund bundle (e.g. twigs);
bunch (e.g. radishes)
der Erbe heir das Erbe inheritance
der Flur (N) entrance hall (in die Flur (R3a) meadow
house)
der Gang corridor; gait (see 2.1.2) die Gang [gerj] (Rl) gang (e.g.
robbers)
der Gefallen favour das Gefallen (R3) pleasure
der Gehalt content; (AU also = das Gehalt salary
salary)
der Golf gulf (on coast) das Golf golf
der Gummi rubber (eraser) das Gummi rubber (material)
das Harz resin der Harz Harz mountains
der Heide heathen die Heide heath

2.2 Easily confused words 103
der Hut hat die Hut guard (in the R3 phrase
auf der Hut sein)
der Junge (N) boy das Junge young (of animals)
der Kiefer jaw die Kiefer (N) pine
der Kunde customer die Kunde (R3) news
der Laster (Rl) lorry; truck das Laster vice
der Leiter leader die Leiter ladder
der Mangel lack; fault die Mangel mangle
die Mark Mark (currency) das Mark (bone-)marrow
die Marsch (N) fen der Marsch march
das Maß measure die Maß (SE) litre (of beer)
der Mensch human being das Mensch (Rl*) woman
(pejorative)
der Messer surveyor das Messer knife
der Moment moment das Moment (R3b) factor;
element
der Otter otter (also: Fischotter) die Otter adder (also: Kreuzotter)
der Pack pile; pack das Pack rabble
das Pony pony der Pony fringe (hair)
der Schild shield das Schild sign; (number-)plate
der See lake die See sea
der Single single (unmarried) die Single single (record)
person
das Single singles (tennis)
die Steuer tax das Steuer steering wheel; tiller
der Stift pen; pencil; peg das Stift foundation; institution
(esp religious)
der Tau dew das Tau rope; (ship's) cable
m\ v
///// r

der Tor (R3) fool das Tor gate
der Verdienst earnings das Verdienst merit
das Wehr weir die Wehr defence (mostly in
compounds, e.g. Feuerwehr, and
phrases, e.g. sich zur Wehr setzen)
2.2.3 Easily confused words: different plural - different
meaning
der Abdruck offprint
impression
das Band (see 2.2.2) ribbon
(R3a) bond
die Bank bench
bank
das Land country
(R3) region
die Mutter mother
nut (for bolt)
der Rat council, official
advice
der Stock stick
storey
der Strauß bunch (of flowers)
ostrich
A few words which have more than one meaning have different plural
forms for each meaning. These are some of the most common:
die Abdrucke offprints
die Abdrücke impressions
die Bänder ribbons
die Bande bonds
die Bänke benches
die Banken banks
die Länder countries
die Lande (R3) regions
die Mütter mothers
die Muttern nuts
die Räte councils, officials
die Ratschläge pieces of advice
die Stöcke sticks
die Stockwerke storeys
die Sträuße bunches
die Strauße ostriches
das Wort word die Wörter words (in isolation)
die Worte words (connected, e.g.
in phrase)
NOTE: in Rl the distinction between Wörter and Worte is often ignored and only Wörter is used.

2.2.4 Easily confused words: different form - same meaning
Several German words appear to have two distinct forms, so that, for
example, the learner often receives confusing answers from native
speakers or reference books as to whether the German for 'toe' is der
Zeh or die Zehe. These are called 'doublets', i.e. words with alternative
forms. However, few German doublets are totally interchangeable.
Often there are regional or register variations involved, and
sometimes the forms may replace one another freely in one meaning
but not in another. In all cases the most frequent variant is given on the
left.
die Backe (-n) der Backen (-) (S) cheek
die Ecke (-n) das Eck (-e; AU -en) (S) corner
NOTE: das Eck is used generally in compounds, e.g. das Dreieck, das Viereck.
der Felsen (-) der Fels (-en) (R3) rock
NOTE: in general R2 use a difference is usually made between der Fels 'rock as a substance' and
der Felsen 'individual rock'.
der Fleck (-e) der Flecken (-) stain, spot
NOTE: in practice, der Fleck is the commonest form in the singular and die Flecken in the plural.
In R3a der Flecken can also mean 'market town'.
der Karren (-) (S) die Karre (-n) (N) cart (Rl also: old crock)
der Korken (-) der Kork (-e) (N) cork
NOTE: der Kork is generally used to refer to 'cork' as a substance, whereas der Korken always
refers to an individual cork in a bottle.
der Nutzen der Nutz (R3a) use
NOTE: der Nutz is only found nowadays in set phrases, e.g. zu Nutz und Frommen ('to the
greater good of).
nutzen nützen to be of use
NOTE: nützen was originally S and nutzen N, but the forms with and without umlaut are both
widespread (also in derived verbs like benutzen/benützen).

106 2 Words and meanings
der Pack ("e or -e) der Packen (-) pile, stack
die Ritze (-n) der Ritz (-e) (S) crack
das Rohr (-e) die Röhre (-n) pipe, tube
NOTE: das Rohr and die Röhre are interchangeable in the most general sense, but for specific
types of'pipe' or 'tube', usage has become fixed, e.g.:
-rohr: Gas-, Wasser-, Seh-, Fern-, Blas-, Kanonen-
-röhre: Back- (= oven), Fernseh-, Röntgen-, Glas-, Luft-, Harn-,
die Ruine (-n) der Ruin ruin
NOTE: die Ruine is used to refer to a building, der Ruin for economic ruin.
der Schreck der Schrecken (S) scare, fright
NOTE: in the meaning 'terror', only der Schrecken is used.
schwätzen (S) schwatzen (Rl) to chatter
die Socke (-n) der Socken (-) (S) sock
der Spalt (-e) die Spalte (-n) gap, opening
NOTE: only der Spalt is used in the phrase einen Spalt offen (= ajar); die Spalte also = 'column'
(in newspaper).
das (CH der) Taxi
(-S)
die Taxe (-n) (Rl) taxi
die Truppe (-n) der Trupp (-s) troop
NOTE: die Truppe usually refers to a large company of soldiers, etc.; der Trupp is usually smaller,
e.g. a squad of soldiers or group of people.
die Tür (-en) die Türe (-n) (CH, AU) door
der Typ (-en) die Type (-n) type, character (Rl also bloke, guy)
NOTE: die Type is mainly used in the sense of'(printers') type' or '(odd) character', or in AU in
the meaning 'model' (of car, aeroplane, etc.).
der Zeh (-en) die Zehe (-n) (R3; N) toe

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
2.3 Word formation
An understanding of German word formation can help you to expand
your vocabulary because the meaning of a German word can often be
understood from the sum of its parts. This is more true of German
than of English. For example, the relationship of Frage to fragen or
Dankbarkeit to Dank is quite clear, unlike that of question to ask or
gratitude to thanks.
Complex German words can be made up by adding suffixes at the
end of a word, e.g. gesund 'healthy' —• die Gesundheit 'health'), or
prefixes at the beginning, e.g. besser 'better' -> verbessern 'to make
better, improve'. Sometimes the vowel is changed, especially by
umlaut, e.g. der Hammer 'hammer' —> hämmern 'to hammer'. This
section shows you more of the common ways in which words are
constructed in modern German.
2.3.1 Forming nouns
(a) By adding suffixes
-chen, diminutives (from nouns) (umlaut is usually added), e.g.:
-lein (esp R3a) die Stadt —> das Städtchen little town
das Auge —> das Äuglein (poetic R3a) little eye
-e (i) an action or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.:
pflegen —• die Pflege care
bremsen —• die Bremse brake
(ii) a quality (from adjectives) (with umlaut), e.g.:
groß -> die Größe size
stark —> die Stärke strength
-er (i) a person who does sth, or an instrument (from verbs), e.g.:
lehren —> der Lehrer teacher
bohren -> der Bohrer drill
(ii) the inhabitant (from town names), e.g.:
Wien —• der Wiener Viennese
Zürich —• der Zürcher person from Zurich
-erei (esp Rl),
Ge... e
repeated, irritating action (from verbs), e.g.
fragen die Fragerei, das Gefrage lots of annoying questions
-heit, -(ig)keit a quality (from adjectives), e.g.:
bitter —• die Bitterkeit bitterness
geschwind die Geschwindigkeit
heftig -> die Heftigkeit violence
speed

-in forms the feminine (from nouns) (with umlaut), e.g.:
der Arzt —> die Arztin lady doctor
-ler a practitioner (from nouns), e.g.:
die Kunst —> der Künstler artist
-ler can have a pejorative sense, e.g.: der Kriegsgewinnler war
profiteer
-ling (i) the person sth is done to (from verbs), e.g.:
prüfen -» der Prüfling examinee
strafen der Sträfling prisoner
(ii) person of that quality, sometimes derogatory (from
adjectives), e.g.:
feige -> der Feigling coward
fremd —> der Fremdling stranger
-mittel, -stoff, things used for sth (from verbs), e.g.:
-zeug heilen —• das Heilmittel cure
waschen -> das Waschmittel detergent
brennen -> der Brennstoff fuel
kleben —• der Klebstoff glue
fahren —> das Fahrzeug vehicle
rasieren das Rasierzeug shaving tackle
-schaft, -tum collective or quality (from nouns), e.g.:
der Beamte -> das Beamtentum civil servants
der Freund -> die Freundschaft friendship
der Student die Studentenschaft student body
-ung action or process (from verbs), e.g.:
bilden —• die Bildung formation
verwarnen —> die Verwarnung warning
-wesen collective organization of sth (from nouns), e.g.:
die Erziehung das Erziehungswesen education system
(b) By adding prefixes
Erz- (Rl), augmentative, intensive, e.g.:
Riesen- (Rl) der Reaktionär —• der Erzreaktionär dyed-in-the-wool reactionary
der Erfolg —> der Riesenerfolg enormous success
NOTE: Rl is very rich in other augmentative and intensive prefixes,
e.g.: Bombengeschäft, Heidenlärm, Höllendurst, Mordsapparat,
Scheißapparat (Rl*), Spitzengehalt, Superhit, Topmanager

Fehl-, Miss- opposite, negative, e.g.:
die Einschätzung —> die Fehleinschätzung (R3b) false estimation
der Erfolg -> der Misserfolg failure
Grund- (R3b) basic, essential, e.g.:
die Tendenz —• die Grundtendenz basic tendency
Haupt- main, e.g.:
der Bahnhof -> der Hauptbahnhof main station
Nicht- non-, e.g.:
der Raucher der Nichtraucher non-smoker
Un- opposite, abnormal, e.g.:
die Ruhe -> die Unruhe unrest
das Wetter —• das Unwetter bad weather
Ur- original, e.g.:
die Sprache —> die Ursprache original language
2.3.2 Forming adjectives
(a) By adding suffixes
-bar -able (from verbs), e.g.:
brauchen —• brauchbar usable
-(e)n, -era made of sth (from nouns), e.g.:
das Gold -> golden golden
das Holz -> hölzern wooden
-haft like sth (from nouns), e.g.:
der Held —> heldenhaft heroic
-ig
(i) having sth (from nouns), e.g.:
(sometimes with das Haar —> haarig hairy
umlaut) (ii) like sth (from nouns), e.g.:
der Riese riesig giant
(iii) duration (from time expressions), e.g.:
zwei Stunden zweistündig lasting two hours
-isch (i) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.:
das Kind —> kindisch childish
(ii) origin (from geographical names), e.g.:
England —• englisch English
(iii) relating to sth (from foreign nouns), e.g.:
die Biologie -> biologisch biological

-lich (i) relating to a person or a thing, e.g.:
(often with umlaut) der Arzt —• ärztlich medical
der Preis preislich in respect of price
(ii) having that quality (from nouns), e.g.:
der Fürst —> fürstlich princely
(iii) frequency (from time expressions), e.g.:
zwei Stunden —• zweistündlich every two hours
(iv) -able (from verbs), e.g.:
begreifen —> begreiflich understandable
(v) rather (from adjectives), e.g.:
rot rötlich reddish
-(s)los lacking in sth (from nouns), e.g.:
die Hoffnung —• hoffnungslos hopeless
-mäßig (esp R3b) (i) according to sth, e.g.:
der Instinkt —• instinktmäßig instinctive
(ii) with regard to sth, e.g.:
der Verkehr —> verkehrsmäßig relating to traffic
(iii) like sth, e.g.:
der Fürst —• furstenmäßig like a prince
Especially in R3, a large number of suffixes which were originally
separate words are now in common use, e.g.:
having sth: protected from sth:
-haltig koffeinhaltig -dicht schalldicht
-reich erlebnisreich -echt kussecht
-stark charakterstark -fest hitzefest
-(s)voll rücksichtsvoll -sicher kugelsicher
lacking sth: similar to sth:
-arm nikotinarm -artig kugelartig
-frei alkoholfrei -förmig plattenförmig
-leer gedankenleer -gleich maskengleich
capable of sth: needing sth:
-fähig strapazierfähig -bedürftig korrekturbedürftig
worth(y of) sth:
-wert lesenswert
-würdig nachahmenswürdig
(b) By adding prefixes
un- opposite, e.g.:
wahrscheinlich —> unwahrscheinlich improbable
ur- original, e.g.:
deutsch —> urdeutsch typically German

NOTE: many more intensifying adjective prefixes are found, especially
in Rl. Most of these come from separate words, e.g. erzkonservativ,
extralang, hochintelligent, saudumm (Rl*), scheißklug (Rl*), superklug,
tiefernst, todunglücklich, vollautomatisch.
2.3.3 Forming verbs - prefixes
The prefixes used to form verbs in German fall into two groups. Most
prefixes are 'separable'; they detach from the verb and go the end of the
clause, e.g.:
ankommen 'to arrive': Ich komme heute an 'I am arriving today'
'Inseparable' prefixes, on the other hand, always stay with the verb, e.g.:
erwarten 'to expect': Ich erwarte sie morgen 'I expect her tomorrow'
The prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, erge-, ver- and zer- are always
inseparable, and they are explained in section 2.3.4. Separable prefixes
are dealt with in section 2.3.5, and those few prefixes which are
sometimes separable and sometimes inseparable are treated in section
2.3.6.
2.3.4 Inseparable verb prefixes
The seven prefixes be-, emp-, ent-, er-, ge-, ver- and zer- are always
inseparable, emp- is a form of ent- used before roots in f-, e.g. empfinden,
empfehlen. ge- is now rare and only found with a few verbs, e.g. gefallen,
geschehen. The others are very widely used, and their main senses are
detailed below (although not all verbs with these prefixes fall into these
patterns). Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added.
be- (a) used with a verb, be- makes an intransitive verb transitive or converts a
prepositional object into an accusative object (see 4.1). The meaning
often changes slightly:
Er dient dem König Er bedient den König
Er drohte mir Er bedrohte mich
Er hat auf meinen Brief nicht Er hat meinen Brief nicht
geantwortet beantwortet
Sie kämpfen gegen das Unrecht Sie bekämpfen das Unrecht
(b) used with a noun, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing
something. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added:
etw beklecksen (Rl) to splatter sth (i.e. to provide with
spots)
etw belichten to expose sth (e.g. film) (i.e. to
provide with light)

etw bewässern to irrigate sth (i.e. to provide with
water)
jdn benachrichtigen to notify sb (i.e. to provide with
news)
(c) used with an adjective, be- makes a verb with the idea of providing a
quality. Sometimes the suffix -ig- is added:
etw befeuchten to moisten sth (i.e. to make sth
moist)
jdn befreien to liberate sb (i.e. to make sb free)
jdn beunruhigen to disturb sb (i.e. to make sb
uneasy)
etw begradigen to straighten sth (i.e. to make sth
straight)
ent- (a) with verbs of motion, ent- gives the idea of 'going away' or 'escaping
from sb/sth':
jdm entgleiten to slip away from sb (e.g. vase from
hands)
jdm/etw entlaufen to run away, escape from sb/sth
jdm etw entreißen (R3a) to snatch sth from sb
etw entsteigen (R3) to get /ie climb] out of sth (e.g. car,
train)
(b) with nouns, adjective or verbs, ent- has the sense of removing
something (cf. English de-, dis-):
etw entgiften to decontaminate sth (i.e. to take
poison away)
jdn entmutigen to discourage sb (i.e. to take
courage away)
etw entschärfen to defuse sth (e.g. situation), (i.e. to
make not sharp)
jdn/etw entspannen to relax sb, slacken sth (i.e. to make
not tense)
er- (a) with verbs and nouns, the sense of er- is often of getting something or
finishing something off. The root vowel often has umlaut:
etw erarbeiten to acquire sth by working for it (i.e.
to gain by work)
etw erbitten to ask for sth (i.e. to gain by
asking)
etw erkämpfen to win sth (i.e. to gain through
struggle)
jdn erschießen to shoot sb dead (i.e. to finish off by
shooting)

(b) with adjectives, er- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving sth a
certain quality. The root vowel often has umlaut:
erblinden to lose one 's sight (i.e. to become
blind)
erröten to blush (i.e. to become red)
jdn ermuntern to liven sb up (i.e. to make sb
cheerful)
etw erwärmen to heat sth (i.e. to make sth warm)
ver- This is the most frequent inseparable prefix. It has a wide range of
meanings, but it very often carries the idea of a change of state or of the
end of a process.
(a) with verbs, ver- often gives the idea of finishing or going away:
verblühen to fade (of flowers) (i.e. to finish
blooming)
etw verbrauchen to use sth up, consume sth (i.e. to
finish using)
jdn/etw verdrängen to oust, replace sb/sth (i.e. to press
away)
verklingen to fade away (of sounds) (i.e. to
finish sounding)
(b) with some verbs ver- expresses the idea of'wrongly' or 'to excess':
etw verbiegen to bend sth out of shape
etw verlernen to forget (how to do) sth (i.e. to
un-learn it)
etw versalzen to oversalt sth (i.e. to put in excess
salt)
sich verwählen to misdial (i.e. to dial wrongly)
(c) with nouns and adjectives ver- has the sense of becoming sth, or giving
sth a certain quality:
verarmen to become poor
vereinsamen to become isolated
etw verlängern to lengthen sth (i.e. to make it
longer)
jdn versklaven to enslave sb (i.e. to make sb into a
slave)
(d) with many nouns ver- gives the idea of providing with something:
etw verglasen to glaze sth (i.e. to provide with
glass)
etw vergolden to gild sth (i.e. to provide with
gold)
jdn verwunden to wound sb (i.e. to provide with
wounds)
jdn verzaubern to enchant sb (i.e. to provide with
magic)

zer- zer- (usually with verbs) always has the idea of'into pieces':
ab-
etw zerbeißen to crunch sth (i.e. to bite into
pieces)
zerfallen to disintegrate (i.e. to fall into
pieces)
etw zerstreuen to scatter, disperse sth (i.e. to strew
pieces about)
2.3.5 Separable verb prefixes
Most separable verb prefixes derive from prepositions or adjectives and
their meanings are quite transparent. A selection of the most common
is given below.
usually has the idea of'away', 'down' or 'off' - finishing sth in the
widest sense:
etw abdrehen
sich/etw abkühlen
Schuhe ablaufen
jdm etw ablisten
to switch sth off
to cool (sth) down
to wear shoes out
to trick sb out of sth
an- beginning sth, or doing sth partially:
anbrennen to catch fire, get scorched
etw andrehen to turn sth on
anfaulen to begin to go rotten
etw anfressen to nibble at sth
auf- 'up' or 'on', or a sudden start:
etw aufessen
auflachen
aufleuchten
etw aufpolieren
aus- expresses completion:
(etw) ausbrennen
ausdorren
ausreifen
ein- getting used to sth:
sich einarbeiten
etw einfahren
sich einleben
to eat sth up
to burst out laughing
to light up
polish sth up
to burn (sth) out
to dry up
to ripen, mature
to get used to the work
to run sth in (e.g. car)
to get settled in a place

los- starting off or releasing sth:
losgehen
etw loslassen
losquatschen (Rl)
to set off, start
to let go of sth
to prattle away
vor- demonstrating (i.e. doing sth for sb to copy), performing:
vorbeten to lead the prayers
etw vorführen, vormachen to demonstrate sth
etw vorlesen to read sth out
zusammen- 'up' or 'together':
etw zusammenfalten
jdn zusammenhauen (Rl)
sich zusammenrollen
zusammenrücken
durch-
separable or
inseparable
separable
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
to fold sth up
to beat sb up
to curl up
to move closer together
2.3.6 Verb prefixes which can be separable or inseparable.
A few prefixes can be used separably or inseparably, usually with a clear
distinction in meaning. The prefix is stressed in pronunciation if the
verb is separable, but unstressed if it is inseparable - this is the way the
difference is indicated here, as in most reference books and dictionaries
of German.
always has the idea of'through', whether separable or inseparable.
Many verbs form separable or inseparable compounds with durch-.
The meaning of the separable verbs is always 'right the way
through', whilst the inseparable verbs express penetration into sth,
rather than stressing coming out the other side. But the distinction
in meaning is often barely noticeable, e.g.:
Er ritt durch den Wald durch
Er durchritt den Wald
Er schnitt das Brot durch
Der Fluss durchschneidet die
Ebene
'durchfallen to fall through; to
fail
'durchfuhren to carry out
'durchhalten to hold out, to
survive
He crossed the forest on horseback
He rode through the forest
He cut the loaf in two
The river cuts through the plain
Many verbs form compounds with durch- which are only separable:
'durchblicken to look through 'durchkommen to get through, to
succeed
'durchkriechen to crawl through
'durchrosten to rust through
'durchsehen to look through

inseparable
überinseparable
separable
separable or
inseparable
A very small number of verbs form compounds with durch- which are
only inseparable:
durchdenken think through
durch 1 leben experience
durch 1 löchern make holes in
hinter- Verbs with hinter- are normally inseparable. Separable verbs are
restricted to S:
inseparable hinter'gehen to deceive hinterlassen to leave, bequeathe
hinter'fragen to analyse hinterlegen to deposit
separable 'hinterbringen (S) to take to the
back
'hintergehen (S) to go to the back
miss- miss- is normally inseparable except in the infinitive form of
missverstehen to understand: misszuverstehen.
1 stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with über-, with the
following meanings:
repetition
more than enough
failing to notice
über'arbeiten to rework
über'prüfen to check
überfordern to overtax (ability,
strength)
übertreiben to exaggerate
über'hören to fail to hear
über 1 sehen to overlook
über 1 denken to think over
über 1 fallen to attack
Very few verbs only form separable compounds with über-. They
are all intransitive verbs, with the literal meaning 'over':
'überhängen to overhang
'überkippen to keel over
'überkochen to overcook
Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with
über-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning
'over', and the inseparable verbs are transitive and have a more
figurative meaning similar to that with verbs which only form
inseparable compounds:
überfahren
überfuhren
übergehen
überlaufen
überlegen
separable
to cross over
to transfer
to turn into sth
to overflow; desert
to put sth over sb
inseparable
to knock sb down
to convict sb (R3)
to leave sth out
to overrun sb
to consider sth

uminseparable
separable
separable or
inseparable
unterinseparable
übersetzen to ferry across to translate sth
überspringen to jump over to skip sth
übertreten to change over to infringe sth (i.e.
law)
überziehen to put sth on to cover sth
Inseparable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'encircling' or
'surrounding':
um 1 armen to embrace um 1 ringen to surround
um 1 fassen to embrace, encircle um 1 segeln to sail round,
circumnavigate
um 1 geben to surround um'zingeln to surround, encircle
Separable verbs with urn- have the meaning of'turning round', 'turning
over', 'changing' or 'switching':
'umblicken look round 'umfallen fall over
' umbringen kill ' umschalten switch
'umdrehen turn round 'umsteigen change (trains, etc.)
Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with
um-, the difference in meaning usually corresponds to that given
above, i.e. the inseparable verbs express 'surrounding' and the
separable verbs 'changing' or 'switching', etc.:
separable inseparable
umbauen to rebuild to enclose
umfahren to run down to travel round
umgehen to circulate to avoid
umreißen to tear down to outline
umschreiben to rewrite to paraphrase
umstellen to rearrange to surround (R3a)
Many verbs only form inseparable compounds with unter-, with the
following meanings:
less than enough
unter'bieten to undercut
unterschätzen to underestimate
unterschreiten to fall short
'under'
unterdrücken to suppress
unter'liegen to be defeated
unterschreiben to sign
unter'stützend support
miscellaneous figurative meanings unterbleiben (R3) to cease
unterbrechen to interrupt
unter'richten (R3) to teach
unter'suchen to investigate

separable
separable or
inseparable
' stressed syllables are
preceded by a stress
mark
Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
vollseparable
inseparable
Many verbs form separable compounds with unter-, all with the literal
meaning 'under':
'unterbringen to accommodate 'unterkriegen to bring down
'untergehen to sink, decline 'untersetzen to put underneath
'unterkommen to find accommodation
Where verbs form both separable and inseparable compounds with
unter-, the separable verbs are mainly intransitive, with the meaning
'under'. The inseparable verbs have more figurative meanings
similar to that with verbs which only form inseparable compounds.
unterbinden
untergraben
unterhalten
unterlegen
unterschieben
unterschlagen
unterstellen
unterziehen
separable
to tie underneath
to dig in
to hold underneath
to put underneath
to foist sth on sb
to cross (i.e. legs)
to keep, store
to put on underneath
inseparable
to prevent (R3)
to undermine
to entertain
to underlay
to insinuate (Rl)
to embezzle (R3)
to assume (R3)
to undergo
The many separable verbs with the prefix voll- all express the meaning
'full':
'vollbekommen to manage to fill 'vollstopfen to cram full
'vollschreiben to fill with writing 'volltanken to fill up (car with
fuel)
Inseparable verbs with voll- all mean 'complete' or 'accomplish' and are
restricted to R3:
voll'bringen to achieve, voll'strecken to execute, carry out
accomplish
voll'enden to complete
voll'ziehen to execute, carry out
wider- Most verbs with wider- are inseparable:
inseparable wider'legen to refute wider'stehen to resist
separable !
Only two verbs with wider- are separable:
'widerhallen (R3) to echo, 'widerspiegeln to reflect
reverberate
wieder- Almost all verbs with wieder- are separable:
separable 'wiederkehren to return 'wiedersehen to see again
inseparable Only one verb with wieder- is inseparable:
wieder'holen to repeat

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
A
2.4 Idioms
mit Ach und Krach
bei jdm gut/schlecht angeschrieben sein
den Anschluss verpassen
sich schwarz ärgern
jdn auf den Arm nehmen (N)
jdm unter die Arme greifen
etw aus dem Ärmel schütteln
beide Augen zudrücken
unter vier Augen
B
etw auf die lange Bank schieben
Ich fresse einen Besen
in die Binsen gehen
den Bock zum Gärtner machen
Das sind für mich böhmische Dörfer
Ich habe ein Brett vor dem Kopf
ein dicker Brocken
D
jdm aufs Dach steigen
etw unter Dach und Fach bringen
die Daumen drucken
an die Decke gehen
mit jdm unter einer Decke stecken
auf gut Deutsch (gesagt)
Das geht nicht mit rechten Dingen zu
schwer auf Draht
Idiomatic expressions are a notorious pitfall for foreign learners because
their overall meaning cannot be understood from their individual parts.
The learner has no way of knowing that when Germans say, for
instance, schwer auf Draht (literally: 'heavy on wire'), they mean 'on the
ball'. The use of expressive idioms is most characteristic of Rl, but
some are restricted to more formal registers. Even in serious
newspapers idioms and what would normally be regarded as Rl
expressions can be used to enliven an argument or a factual account,
and much of the colloquial tone of popular newspapers derives from
their wide use of idiomatic expressions. Given below is a selection of
some frequent current idioms which differ markedly in phrasing from
their English equivalents, or which have no simple English equivalent.
They are arranged in alphabetical order of the key word.
by the skin of your teeth
to be in sb's good/bad books
to miss the boat
to get really mad
to pull sb's leg
to help sb out
to produce sth from nowhere
to turn a blind eye
in confidence
to put sth off
I'll eat my hat
to go down the pan
to choose someone totally unsuitable
I can't make head or tail of it
I can't think straight
a tough nut
to have a go at sb
to get sth all wrapped up and finished
to keep one's fingers crossed
to hit the roof
to be hand in glove with sb
in plain English (i.e. bluntly)
That's a bit odd
on the ball

E
etw aus dem Effeff können
im Eimer
jdn/etw zum alten Eisen werfen
F
Das ist nicht mein Fall
Es passt wie die Faust aufs Auge
Dann ist Feierabend
ins Fettnäpfchen treten
Du bist eine Flasche
zwei Fliegen mit einer Klappe schlagen
die Flinte ins Korn werfen
Sei doch kein Frosch
G
hinter schwedischen Gardinen
Darauf kannst du Gift nehmen
Der Groschen ist gefallen
H
Haare lassen
an den Haaren herbeigezogen
der Hahn im Korbe sein
fur jdn die Hand ins Feuer legen
Da liegt der Hase im Pfeffer
etw über den Haufen werfen
gleich mit der Tür ins Haus fallen
aus dem Häuschen sein
aus der Haut fahren
etw auf dem Herzen haben
Mir fallt ein Stein vom Herzen
auf dem Holzweg
mit jdm (noch) ein Hühnchen zu rupfen
haben
Da liegt der Hund begraben
wie Hund und Katze leben
Das ist ein dicker Hund
Das kannst du dir an den Hut stecken
K
Das war für die Katz'
die Katze aus dem Sack lassen
Die Katze lässt das Mausen nicht
eine Katze im Sack kaufen
to be able to do sth standing on one's head
gone west, broken
to throw sb/sth on the scrap-heap
It's not my cup of tea
It's totally out of place
Then it's all over
to put one's foot in it
You're a dead loss
to kill two birds with one stone
to throw in the towel
Be a sport, join in
behind bars
You can bet your life on it
The penny's dropped
to come off badly
far-fetched
to be the only man in female company
to vouch for sb
There's the catch
to throw sth out
to say sth straight out
to be out of one's mind
to hit the roof
to have sth on one's mind
That's a load off my mind
on the wrong track
still to have a bone to pick with sb
That's the snag, the trouble
to lead a cat and dog life
It's a bit much
You can keep it
It was a waste of time
to let the cat out of the bag
The leopard doesn't change its spots
to buy a pig in a poke

wie die Katze um den heißen Brei
herumgehen
Nachts sind alle Katzen grau
etw auf dem Kerbholz haben
das Kind beim Namen nennen
Mit dem ist nicht gut Kirschen essen
wie auf glühenden Kohlen sitzen
jdn vor den Kopf stoßen
sich den Kopf zerbrechen
jdm einen Korb geben
jdn/etw aufs Korn nehmen
Jetzt geht's ihm an den Kragen
Dagegen ist kein Kraut gewachsen
in Teufels Küche kommen
Was macht die Kunst?
L
Ich kann auch ein Lied davon singen
mit dem linken Bein zuerst aufstehen
Das mache ich mit der linken Hand
auf dem letzten Loch pfeifen
wie ein Loch saufen
Er geht gleich in die Luft
etw unter die Lupe nehmen (R2/R3)
M
Das ging mir durch Mark und Bein
eine Mattscheibe kriegen
Er hat eine Meise
in den Mond gucken
jdm mit gleicher Münze heimzahlen
N
die Nase (gestrichen) voll haben
der Nase nachgehen
jdn mit der Nase auf etw stoßen
gelb vor Neid
Der ist eine Niete
Null-Acht-Fuffzehn
O
bis über die Ohren verliebt
sich (dat) etw hinter die Ohren
schreiben
es faustdick hinter den Ohren haben
jdm einen Floh ins Ohr setzen
Der ist schwer in Ordnung
to beat about the bush
All cats are grey in the dark
to have done sth wrong
to call a spade a spade
It's best to stay out of his way
to be like a cat on a hot tin roof
to antagonize sb
to rack one's brains
to turn sb down
to hit out at sb/sth
Now he's for it
There's no cure for that
to get into a mess
How's things?
I can tell you a few things about that
to get out of bed the wrong side
I can do that with my eyes shut
to be on one's last legs
to drink like a fish
He's on a short fuse
to look closely at sth
It went right through me
not to be able to think straight
He's crackers
to go empty-handed
to pay sb back in his own coin
to be fed up
to follow one's nose
to make sth crystal clear to sb
green with envy
He's a dead loss
run of the mill, bog standard
head over heels in love
to be sure to remember sth
to be fly
to put an idea into sb's head
He's OK

P
Ich kenne meine Pappenheimer
Es ist keinen Pappenstiel wert
in der Patsche/Tinte sitzen
jdm den schwarzen Peter zuschieben
nach seiner Pfeife tanzen
Ich pfeife darauf
Er hat die Pfoten überall drin
Bei dir piepst's wohl
wie ein begossener Pudel dastehen
Er hat das Pulver nicht erfunden
R
das fünfte Rad am Wagen sein
jdm einen Strich durch die Rechnung
machen
aus der Rolle fallen
Rosinen im Kopf haben
jdm in den Rücken fallen
S
mit Sack und Pack
jdn mit Samthandschuhen anfassen
sein Schäfchen ins Trockene bringen
sein Scherflein zu etw beitragen
Das ist zum Schießen
jdn auf die Schippe nehmen (S)
aus dem Schneider sein
etw in den Schornstein schreiben
vom alten Schrot und Korn
jdm etw in die Schuhe schieben
Wo drückt der Schuh?
schwarzarbeiten
ins Schwarze treffen
aus dem Stegreif reden
den Stier bei den Hörnern packen
sich an einen Strohhalm klammern
sich zwischen zwei Stühle setzen
(R2/R3)
T
Er hat nicht alle Tassen im Schrank
Hier geht's zu wie im Taubenschlag
auf Teufel komm raus
den Teufel an die Wand malen
I know what those people are like
It's not worth a bean
to be in the soup
to leave sb holding the baby
to dance to his tune
I couldn't care less
He's got a finger in every pie
You're off your head
to stand there looking pathetic
He won't set the Thames on fire
to be out of place
to spoil sb's plans
to act out of character
to have big ideas
to stab sb in the back
with bag and baggage
to handle sb with kid gloves
to see oneself all right
to do one's bit towards sth
That's hilarious
to pull sb's leg
to be out of the wood
to write sth off
of the old school
to put the blame for sth on sb
What's the matter?
to moonlight
to hit the bull's-eye
to speak impromptu
to take the bull by the horns
to clutch at a straw
to fall between two stools
He's a few short of a full set
It's like a madhouse here
Come hell or high water
to tempt fate

unter den Tisch fallen
vom Regen in die Traufe kommen
zwischen Tür und Angel
W
jdm auf den Wecker fallen
Die Weichen sind gestellt (R2/R3)
Unter Wölfen muss man heulen (R2/R3)
aus allen Wolken fallen
jdm die Würmer aus der Nase ziehen
Jetzt geht's um die Wurst
Z
to go by the board
to fall out of the frying-pan into the fire
in passing
to drive sb up the wall
The course is set
When in Rome do as the Romans do
to be taken aback
to extract information from sb
This is the crunch
jdm auf den Zahn fühlen to sound sb out, grill sb
jdn in die Zange nehmen to put the screws on sb
Zier dich nicht! Don't be shy!
auf keinen grünen Zweig kommen to get nowhere
Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
2.5 Prepositions
Being able to use prepositions confidently is a real marker of
competence in a foreign language, and time spent working on them is
always worthwhile. Some German prepositions, like hinter 'behind' or
ohne 'without' are pretty straightforward and have a clear normal
English equivalent, but the meaning and use of many of the common
ones often seems very difficult to pin down. Apart from this, each
German preposition is followed by (i.e. 'governs') a noun in a particular
case, and this can sometimes vary according to context or register.
For these reasons, it is essential to memorize prepositions in
contexts, learning phrases and sentences in which they occur. In
sections 2.5.1 to 2.5.4 the German prepositions are explained according
to the cases they govern, giving details of their most typical meanings.
Section 2.5.5 lists the commonest English prepositions in alphabetical
order and gives the German equivalents for their most frequent
meanings. For each German and English preposition a selection of
widely used expressions is given where the choice of a particular
preposition is idiomatic and there is no parallel between the two
languages. The use of prepositions with verbs, so-called 'prepositional
objects', e.g. warten auf jdn 'to wait for sb', is treated separately in 4.1.4.
Since German prepositions govern particular cases, some familiar
English constructions are not possible in German, for instance:
(a) The same noun cannot be governed by two prepositions, as it can
in English. In German, the sentence has to be split into separate
phrases, e.g.:

BIS
I was rather astonished by and Ich war von dieser plötzlichen
pleased at this sudden turn of Wende etwas überrascht und
events freute mich sehr darüber
(b) In general, two prepositions cannot be used with a single noun in
German. The commonest alternative to this in German is to
replace one of the English prepositions with a directional adverb
(i.e. a compound of hin- or her- plus preposition), e.g.:
He looked across at me Er schaute zu mir herüber
The water poured down through Das Wasser strömte durch das
the hole Loch hinunter
He pulled it from under the bed Er zog es unter dem Bett hervor
She looked in at the window Sie schaute zum Fenster herein
2.5.1 German prepositions with the accusative case
(a)
(b)
(C)
The common prepositions which govern the accusative case are:
bis, durch, fur, gegen, ohne, um
Less widely used, but worth noting, are:
per, pro, wider
NOTE: bis is never followed by an article or any other determiner. It is
used on its own only with names, adverbs and some time words.
Otherwise it always has another preposition with it, and it is this
preposition which determines the case of the following noun.
bis expressing place = as far as, (up) to
bis (nach) Rostock
bis dorthin
bis zu meinem Hausl
bis an mein Haus ]
bis aufs Dach
bis expressing time = until, by
von Montag bis Freitag
bis morgen
bis dahin
bis auf weiteres
Kinder bis zu zehn Jahren
as far as Rostock
(to) there, as far as that
up to, as far as my house
right onto the roof
from Monday to Friday
until tomorrow, by tomorrow
by then, between now and then
until further notice, for the present
children up to the age of ten
bis auf can express exclusion = but for, down to (this can be ambiguous,
as the example shows)
Der Bus war bis auf den letzten
Platz besetzt
The bus was full down to the last
seat
The bus was full but for the last
seat

DURCH (a)
(b)
(c)
durch expressing place = through
durch das Feuer
through the fire
durch die ganze Stadt
throughout the town
mitten durch den Park through the middle of the park
durchs Examen fallen (Rl) to fail the exam
durch expressing means, cause = by, through (for the use of durch in the
passive, see 4.4.4)
die Erfindung des
the invention of the internal com-
Verbrennungsmotors durch bustion engine by Benz and
Benz und Daimler
Daimler
Ich lernte ihn durch eine I got to know him through a friend
Freundin kennen
durch Betätigung des
by activating the mechanism
Mechanismus (R3b)
durch expressing time = throughout (often reinforced by adding
hindurch)
durch das ganze Leben throughout one's whole life
(hindurch)
das ganze Jahr durch (Rl) throughout the year
FÜR (a) für in most senses = for
für meine kranke Schwester for my sick sister
für sein Alter for his age
für den Fall, dass ... in case ...
ein Sinn, ein Beispiel fur etw a sense, an example of sth
(b) fur expressing time = for (i.e. a period of time from 'now')
Ich habe das Haus fur sechs I've rented the house for six
Monate gemietet months
Tag für Tag day after day
Schritt für Schritt step by step
GEGEN (a) gegen expressing place = against, into
Möbel gegen die Wand stellen to put furniture against the wall
gegen den Strom schwimmen
(also fig)
to swim against the current
etw gegen das Licht halten to hold sth up to the light
gegen den Tisch stoßen to bump into the table
(b) gegen expressing opposition = against, for, compared with
gegen meinen Willen against my wishes
ein Mittel gegen Asthma a medicine for asthma
Gegen deinen Bruder ist er He is small compared with your
klein brother
(c) gegen expressing approximation = towards, about
gegen vier Uhr towards/about four o'clock
Es waren gegen 50 000 There were about 50,000
Zuschauer im Stadion spectators in the ground

126 2 Words and meanings
OHNE ohne = without
ohne mein Wissen without my knowing
ohne Mantel without a coat, without his coat
Ohne mich! (Rl) Count me out!
NOTE: ohne is used mainly without any following indefinite article or
possessive.
UM (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
urn expressing place = round
um die Ecke round the corner
(rund/rings) um die Kirche (right) round the church
um die Stadt (herum) (right) round the town
um expressing time = at (with clock times), about (with other time
phrases)
um zwanzig nach sechs at twenty past/after six
ungefähr um sieben at/about seven (o'clock)
um Weihnachten (herum) around Christmas
einen Tag um den anderen one day after another
um expressing measurement = by
um die Hälfte teurer dearer by half
um nichts besser no better
um in the sense of'concerning' = for; about
ein Streit um etw a quarrel about sth
(es ist) schade um etw (it's a) pity about sth
um nichts in der Welt for nothing in the world
PER
A few less widely used prepositions govern the accusative case.
per = by (mainly commercial R3b; often followed by the dative case)
per Einschreiben by registered mail
per 31. Dezember by, for 31 December
It has come to be widely used in Rl in some phrases, e.g.:
per Auto, per Bahn by car, by train
mit jdm per du sein to call sb 'du'
per Anhalter fahren to hitch-hike
PRO pro = per (originally commercial R3b, but now widely used in Rl; often
used with a dative)
50 Cent pro Stück 50 cents each
5 Euro pro Person 5 euros per person
WIDER wider = against (R3a, now rarely used except in a few set phrases)
wider alles Erwarten against all expectations
wider Willen against my (his, her, etc.) will
wider besseres Wissen against my (his, her, etc.) better
judgement

2.5.2 German prepositions with the dative case
The common prepositions taking the dative are:
aus, außer, bei, gegenüber, mit, nach, seit, von, zu
Less widely used, but worth knowing, are:
ab, binnen, gemäss, laut, zufolge
AUS (a) aus expressing place = out of, from
Sie kommt aus dem Haus
Er kommt aus Sachsen
(b)
(c)
aus der Flasche trinken
aus der Nähe
aus erster Hand
aus der Übung kommen
Aus dir wird nichts werden
(Rl)
She came out of the house
He comes from Saxony (i.e. that is
his native region)
to drink out of the bottle
from close by
at first hand
to get out of practice
You'll never come to anything
aus expressing material = (made) of
aus Holz, Stahl, Eisen made of wood, steel, iron
aus expressing cause, motive = for, from, out of
aus Furcht vor etw for fear of sth
aus diesem Grund for this reason
aus Überzeugung from conviction
aus Mitleid out of pity
AUSSER (a) außer expressing restriction = except (for), but for, besides, apart from
(b)
Außer dem Gehalt bekommt
er noch einen Zuschuss
Niemand hat sie gesehen
außer
außer expressing place = out of
Apart from/Besides his salary he
receives an allowance
Nobody saw her except (for) me
In modern usage außer is mainly used in this meaning in set phrases
with no article. In some the noun is in the genitive case, or, after verbs
of motion, in the accusative case.
außer Betrieb
außer Dienst (a.D.)
etw außer Acht lassen
außer Landes (R3)
Ich war außer mir (R2/R3)
Es steht außer jedem Zweifel
etw außer jeden Zweifel stellen
out of order
retired/not in active service
to disregard sth
out of the country
I was beside myself
It is beyond all doubt
to put sth beyond all doubt

BEI (a) bei expressing place, etc = by, at
Pinneberg liegt bei Hamburg
bei meinen Eltern
(dicht) bei der Kirche
die Schlacht bei Hastings
bei Günter Grass
Er ist bei der Bahn
Wir haben Englisch bei Frau
Henne
(b) bei expressing time = at, by
beim Frühstück
bei Gelegenheit
bei schönem Wetter
bei diesen vielen Problemen
das Schönste bei der ganzen
Sache
(c) bei with verbal nouns = on
Pinneberg is by /near Hamburg
at my parents' (house)
(right) by the church
the battle of Hastings
in Günter Grass's works
He works for the railways
Frau Henne teaches us English
at breakfast
when the opportunity arises
if/when the weather is fine
with/given these many problems
the best thing about the whole
business
This usage is particularly frequent in modern R3b, though it is by no
means restricted to it, see 5.2.3 and 5.3.2.
bei der Ankunft des Zuges (R3) on the arrival of the train
bei näherer Betrachtung (R3) on closer observation
beim Schlafen, Essen whilst sleeping, eating
bei der Arbeit when working
GEGENUBER This can come before or after the noun. It tends to follow words for
persons and always follows pronouns, otherwise it is commoner before
the noun. In Rl it is often followed by von rather than being used on its
own.
(a) gegenüber expressing place = opposite
mir gegenüber 1
gegenüber von mir (R1)J
gegenüber (von Rl) der Kirchel
opposite me
der Kirche gegenüber (R3) j
osite the
°PP
church
(b) gegenüber expressing comparison = compared with, towards
ein Fortschritt gegenüber den an advance compared with previous
Jahren davor
eine neue Politik gegenüber
years
dem Irak a new policy towards Iraq
MIT (a) mit in most senses = with
mit dem Schlüssel
mit meinem Freund
zusammen
etw mit dem Fuß stoßen
mit den Achseln zucken
mit anderen Worten
with the key
together with my friend
to kick sth
to shrug one's shoulders
in other words

mit leiser Stimme in a quiet voice
mit 20 Jahren at the age of 20
mit der Zeit in (the course of) time
etw mit Absicht tun to do sth on purpose
(b) mit expressing means of
transport = by
mit dem Flugzeug, Schiff, Zug by aeroplane, boat, train
NACH (a) nach expressing place = to (only with names and place adverbs -
except in N)
nach Genf to Geneva
nach Süden (hin) to the south
nach Finnland to Finland
nach innen, außen, oben, unten to go inside, outside, up, down
gehen
nach rechts, links gehen to go (to the) right, left
nach Hause gehen to go home
nach allen Seiten in all directions
Er geht nach dem Bahnhof (N) He is going to the station
(b) nach expressing time = after, past
nach fünf Jahren after five years, five years later
zehn nach sieben ten past seven
Ich bin nach ihm dran It's my turn after him
(c) nach in the sense of'according' = according to, judging by
NOTE: in this sense nach can follow the noun, especially in some set
phrases, in R3 and in the meaning 'judging by'.
nach dem Gesetz/ (R3) dem according to the law
Gesetz nach
meiner Meinung nach/nach in my opinion
meiner Meinung
der Reihe nach in turns
allem Anschein nach to all appearances
nach französischer Art in the French manner
Ihrer Sprache nach ist sie Judging by the way she speaks, she
Schweizerin is Swiss
nach allem, was er gesagt hat from all he said
etw nach dem Gewicht to sell sth by weight
verkaufen
SEIT seit = for (a period of time up to now), since (a point in time)
Seit drei Jahrhunderten gehört This house has belonged to the
dieses Haus der königlichen royal family for three centuries
Familie
seit Anfang des Jahres since the beginning of the year
erst seit kurzem not for long, only for a little while

VON (a)
ZU
(b)
(c)
(d)
von expressing place = from. Aus is added after the noun to stress the
point of origin, and in some set phrases; her can be added after the noun
to stress movement away from a point.
Er kommt von seiner Mutter
Sie fahrt von Aachen nach Köln
Von meinem Fenster (aus) kann
ich die Schule sehen
von mir aus (Rl)
von Natur aus
Die Stimme kam von oben
(her)
He's comin%from his mother's
She's going from Aachen to
Cologne
From (out of) the window I can see
the school
as far as I'm concerned
by nature
The voice came from above
von expressing time = from. It can be strengthened by adding an after
the noun.
von Montag (an) from Monday
von alters her (R3) from time immemorial
von Zeit zu Zeit from time to time, occasionally
von expressing possession, etc. = of. For the use of von or the genitive
case, see 4.2.2.
ein Stab von dieser Länge a bar of this length
der Verkauf von Diamanten the sale of diamonds
Das war nett von dir That was nice of you
von in passive constructions = by (see 4.4.4)
eine Oper von Verdi an opera by Verdi
Das wird von ihm behauptet That is claimed by him
(a) zu expressing place = to
Dieser Bus fahrt zum Rathaus
Er geht zu seiner Nichte
zur Decke (hin) blicken
zur Schule gehen
zu Hause
zu beiden Seiten
Setz dich zu uns
(b) zu expressing time = at
zur Zeit des letzten deutschen
Kaisers
zu Ende
zu Weihnachten
die Nacht zum Dienstag
Zu meinem Geburtstag hat
sie mir ein Computerspiel
geschenkt
zum Schluss
zu Mittag essen
This bus goes to the town hall
He is going to his niece's
to glance towards the ceiling
to go to school/attend school
at home
on either side
Sit down with us
at the time of the last German
emperor
at an end
at/for Christmas
in the night from Monday to
Tuesday
She gave me a computer game for
my birthday
finally
to eat lunch

(c) zu expressing purpose = for
zu diesem Zweck for this purpose
zu früh zum Aufstehen too early for getting up/to get up
der Stoff zu einem Kleid the material for a dress
zum Spaß for fun,for a joke
zum Glück fortunately
zu Fuß on foot
zur Not if need be, at a pinch
(d) zu expressing change
zu nichts werden to become nothing
jdn zum Präsidenten wählen to elect sb president
Das ist zum Sprichwort That has become proverbial
geworden
(e) zu expressing quantity
zehn Stück Seife zu je zwei Euro ten pieces of soap at two euros each
zur Hälfte fertig half finished
zum Teil partially
drei zu zwei gewinnen to win three to two
A few less widely used prepositions govern the dative.
AB ab = from
Originally ab was a typical R3b word, but it is now widely used in other
registers for von... an. In time phrases it can be followed by the
accusative case, especially in Rl.
ab allen deutschen Bahnhöfen from all stations in Germany
ab nächste(r) Woche from next week
ab Dienstag, dem/den 19. Mai from Tuesday, 19 May
BINNEN binnen = within is restricted to R3. It can occur with the genitive in
old-fashioned R3a.
binnen einem Jahr )
,. . „ v >
binnen eines Jahres (R3a))
. ,.
within a year
GEMÄß gemäß = in accordance with, according to. It can come before or (more
commonly) after the noun. It is mainly used in R3; if it is used in R2 or
Rl it sometimes takes the genitive.
gemäß den Anweisungen I accordance with the instructions
den Anweisungen gemäß )
LAUT laut = according to (i.e. verbatim). In R3 it is often used with the
genitive case if the following noun has an article, another determiner or
an adjective with it.

132 2 Words and meanings
laut unserem Bericht aus \
Berlin 1
laut unseres Berichtes aus [
Berlin (R3) )
Laut Hans-Joachim will er
nicht
ZUFOLGE zufolge = according to
unbestätigten Berichten
zufolge
einem Regierungssprecher
zufolge
according to our report from Berlin
According to Hans-Joachim (i.e.
what Hans-Joachim says is:), he
doesn't want to
according to unconfirmed reports
according to a government
spokesman
2.5.3 German prepositions with the dative or the accusative
cases
Ten German prepositions can be followed by a noun in the dative or
the accusative case, with a difference in meaning depending on which
case is used. These prepositions are:
an, auf, entlang, hinter, in, neben, über, unter, vor, zwischen
These prepositions are followed by a noun in the dative case if they
express 'rest', e.g. being 'in' or 'at' a particular place, but by a noun in
the accusative case if they express 'movement', or, more accurately, the
'direction' in which someone is moving or something is being put.
Compare:
Wir stehen an der Grenze We are standing on the border
(DATIVE)
Wir fahren an die Grenze We are driving to the border
(ACCUSATIVE)
Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch The book is lying on the table
(DATIVE)
Ich lege das Buch auf den I am putting the book on the table
Tisch (ACCUSATIVE)
Obviously, this rule cannot apply if these prepositions are used to
express time or some other meaning which doesn't refer to place or
direction, and in these other meanings they tend to be used all the time
with a single case, i.e. either the dative or the accusative. For most of
them this is the dative case, but with auf and über the accusative is
usual.

The following survey explains the common uses of these
prepositions, separating those with the accusative and those with the
dative to show the distinctive meanings.
AN (DAT) (a) an (dat) expressing position = on, at, by (i.e. on, at or by the side of
someone or something)
an der Grenze on/at the border
an der Universität Marburg at the University of Marburg
Er stand an der Wand He was standing by the wall
Das Bild hängt an der Wand The picture is hanging on the wall
am Rathaus at/by the town hall
nahe am Hotel near (to) the hotel
unten am Fluss down by the river
an einem Buch arbeiten to be working on a book
(b) an (dat) expressing time = on (esp with nouns denoting days or parts of
the day)
am 31. Oktober on 31 October
am Sonntag on Sunday(s)
am nächsten Tag/am Tag the next day/the following day
darauf
am Anfang in the beginning
am Ende finally
(c) an (dat) in other expressions
arm/reich an Bodenschätzen poor/rich in mineral resources
Es ist was dran There's something to it
Jetzt ist's an ihm It's up to him now
sieben an der Zahl seven in number
AN(ACC) an expressing direction = to, on
an die Grenze fahren to go, drive to the border
ein Bild an die Wand hängen to hang a picture on the wall
eine Bitte an seinen Onkel a request to his uncle
an das Klavier heran (right) up to the piano
AUF (DAT) auf (dat) expressing position = on (i.e. on top of); at (with public
buildings, events)
Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch The book is on the table
auf dem Mond landen to land on the moon
auf dem Feld in the field
auf dem Rathaus at the town hall
auf dem Land(e) in the country
auf einer Tagung at a conference
auf dem Weg nach Erfurt on the way to Erfurt
blind auf einem Auge blind in one eye

AUF (ACC) (a) auf (acc) expressing movement = on (to); to (with public buildings,
events)
Sie legte das Buch auf den She put the book on the table
Tisch
Er kletterte auf die Mauer He climbed (up) on to the wall
Ich gehe auf das Rathaus I'm going to the town hall
Ich gehe auf eine Tagung I'm going to a conference
auf die Tür zu towards the door
(b) auf (acc) expressing time = for (i.e. for a length of time from now. This
usage is now chiefly R3 except in set phrases)
Sie will auf ein paar Tage She's going away for a few days
verreisen
von heute auf morgen from one day to the next, at a moment's
notice
Das Taxi ist auf acht bestellt The taxi has been ordered for eight
auf unbestimmte Zeit indefinitely
(c) auf (acc) in other expressions
auf Deutsch, auf Englisch, auf in German, in English, in Russian
Russisch
aufs angenehmste/ most pleasantly
Angenehmste (R3)
auf meinen Brief hin following my letter
auf diese Weise in this way
auf den ersten Blick at first sight
««/keinen Fall on no account
auf eigene Kosten at one's own expense
auf den Gedanken kommen to get an/the idea
Auf Ihr Wohl! Your health!
etw ««/Raten kaufen to buy sth by instalments
Es kommt darauf an It all depends
ENTLANG entlang = along (often shortened to lang in Rl)
The commonest usage with entlang is as follows:
(i) expressing 'rest': entlang comes before a noun in the dative case (R3
also often the genitive case)
(ii) expressing movement: entlang comes after a noun in the accusative
case
(iii) an (dat) entlang is a common alternative for either rest or movement,
but it is not used in the sense of'along the middle of sth' (e.g. roads,
rivers, etc.)
Wir flogen die Küste entlang ]
Wir flogen an der Küste / We flew along the coast
entlang >

Entlang der Küste wachsen '
hohe Palmen Tall palm-trees grow along the
An der Küste entlang wachsen coast
hohe Palmen
Wir kamen die Straße entlang We came along/up/down the
street
HINTER (DAT) hinter (dat) expressing position = = behind
Er stand hinter der Garage He was standing behind the garage
20 Kilometer hinter der Grenze 20 kilometres beyond the border
Er ging hinter mir her He was walking behind me/
following me
hinter meinem Rücken behind my back
HINTER (ACC) hinter (acc) expressing movement = behind
Er lief hinter die Garage He ran behind the garage
hinter die Wahrheit kommen to get to the truth
IN (DAT) (a) in (dat) expressing position = in(side)
im Kühlschrank in the refrigerator
in der Hütte in(side) the hut
im Norden in the north
in der Schweiz in Switzerland
in der Nähe near by
im Ausland abroad
(b) in (dat) expressing time = in (i.e. within a period of time, or after a
period of time)
in einer Woche in a week ('in a week's time' or
'inside a week')
heute in acht Tagen a week today
im Winter in (the) winter
in der Nacht in the night
in der nächsten Woche (during) the following week
im vergangenen Jahr last year
in der Zeit nach dem Krieg in the time after the war
im voraus in advance
im letzten Augenblick at the last moment
(c) in (DAT) in other expressions
nicht im Geringsten/ not in the slightest
Entferntesten
im Durchschnitt on average
in dieser Weise in this way
in gewissem Maße to a certain extent
im höchsten Grad extremely
im Allgemeinen in general
in dieser Hinsicht in this respect

IN (ACC) in (acc) expressing movement =
Sie hat es in den Ofen gestellt
Wir gehen ins Theater
in die Schweiz fahren
etw ins Deutsche übersetzen
in die Arbeit vertieft
in einen weißen Anzug
gekleidet
sich in Bewegung setzen
etw in die Länge ziehen
in(to), to
She put it in (to) the oven
We're going to the theatre
to go to Switzerland
to translate sth into German
engrossed in one's work
dressed in a white suit
to begin to move, start
moving
to drag sth out, prolong sth
NEBEN (DAT) (a) neben (dat) expressing position = next to, beside
Er saß neben mir He was sitting next to/beside
me
Das Buch steht neben dem
Radio
The book is next to the radio
Er ging neben ihr her He was walking beside her
(b) neben (dat) expressing exclusion = besides, apart from
Neben einigen Deutschen Apart from a few Germans most of
kommen die meisten
Touristen aus Japan
the tourists come from Japan
(c) neben (dat) expressing comparison = compared with
Neben seinem Bruder ist er He is tall compared with his
groß brother
NEBEN (ACC) neben (acc) expressing movement = next to, beside
Er setzte sich neben mich (hin) He sat down next to/beside me
Er stellte das Buch neben das He put the book next to the radio
Radio
ÜBER (DAT) über (dat) expressing position = over, above, across, beyond
Das Bild hängt über dem The picture is hanging over/above
Schreibtisch the desk
Die Sonne ging über den Bergen The sun rose over the mountains
auf
3000 Meter über dem 3000 metres above sea-level
Meeresspiegel
Es lag (quer) über dem Weg It lay across the path
Er wohnt über der Grenze He lives over/across/beyond the
border

ÜBER (ACC) (a) über (acc) expressing movement = : over, across, via, beyond
Er hing das Bild über den He hung the picture over the desk
Schreibtisch
die Gänse flogen über das Watt The geese flew over the mud-flats
(hin)
Er ging über die Straße He went across the road/he crossed
the road
Er ist über die Grenze He swam across/over the border
geschwommen
Der Baum fiel uns (quer) über The tree fell across our path
den Weg
einen Pullover über die Bluse to put a sweater on over one's
ziehen blouse
Wir sind über Calais We came via Calais
gekommen
Es lief mir kalt über den Rücken A cold shiver went down my spine
über etw hinwegsehen to ignore sth
(b) über (acc) expressing time = over
über Nacht overnight
übers Wochenende over the weekend
über kurz oder lang sooner or later
(c) über (acc) expressing quantity = over
Es kostet über 1000 Euro It costs more than 1000 euros
ein Scheck über 100 Euro a cheque for 100 euros
über alle Maßen (R3a) beyond measure
(d) über (acc) in the sense of'concerning' = about
ein Buch über den a book about the Black Forest
Schwarzwald
über deine Mutter sprechen to talk about your mother
meine Freude über ihren my delight at her success
Erfolg
UNTER (DAT) (a) unter (dat) expressing position = under(neath)y below, beneath,
among(st)
Der Hund liegt unter dem Tisch The dog is lying under the table
unter der Erde beneath the ground
unter der Herrschaft der under the rule of the Empress
Kaiserin Augusta Augusta
Es gab Streit unter den Kindern There was quarrelling among the
children
unter uns (gesagt) between ourselves
unter vier Augen privately
unter anderem among (st) other things

[UNTER (DAT)] (b)
UNTER (ACC)
VOR (DAT)
VOR (ACC)
(c)
ZWISCHEN (DAT)
unter (dat) expressing circumstances = with, on, in, amid
unter größten Schwierigkeiten with the greatest difficulty
unter diesen Umständen in these circumstances
unter diesen Bedingungen on these conditions
unter tosendem Beifall amid thunderous applause
Sie gestand unter Tränen She confessed amid tears
unter (dat) expressing quantity = under, below
ein Fahrrad unter 500 Euro a bicycle under/for less than
500 euros
unter 20 Grad Kälte below -20 degrees (Celsius)
unter (acc) expressing movement = under, below, among
Der Hund kroch unter den The dog crawled under the table
Tisch
Er ging unter die Erde He went below the ground
Er lief unter die Kinder He ran among(st) the children
(a) vor (dat) expressing position = in front of ahead of
Er wartet vor dem Kino He is waiting in front of/ by the
cinema
Der Pazifik lag vor uns The Pacific lay before us
vor mir in der Dunkelheit ahead of me in the darkness
Er schlenderte vor mir her He was strolling ahead of me
Es liegt vor der Küste
It isojf the coast
(b) vor (dat) expressing time = before, ago
zwei Tage vor ihrer Ankunft two days before their arrival
zehn Minuten vor fünf ten minutes to five
heute vor acht Tagen a week ago today
erst vor einer Woche not until a week ago
(c) vor (dat) expressing a cause or reason for sth (typically involuntary)
NOTE: in this sense vor is used without a following article.
blass vor Furcht pale with fear
aus Furcht vor jdm/etw for fear of sb/sth
Vor Nebel war nichts zu sehen Nothing could be seen for the fog
Vor ihm ist keiner sicher Nobody is safe from him
vor (acc) expressing movement = in front of
Sie fuhr vor das Kino She drove up in front of/by the
cinema
vor sich hin to oneself
zwischen (dat) expressing position = between, among
Sie saß zwischen mir und She was sitting between me and my
meiner Frau wife
zwischen drei und halb vier between three and half-past

ZWISCHEN (ACC) zwischen (acc) expressing direction = between, among
Sie setzte sich zwischen mich She sat down between me and my
und meine Frau wife
Sie pflanzte Schneeglöckchen She planted snowdrops among the
zwischen die Sträucher bushes
2.5.4 German prepositions with the genitive case
There are four frequent prepositions which take the genitive case:
(an)statt, trotz, während, wegen
However, in Rl and CH they commonly take the dative case, and the
dative case is used in all registers if the following noun is plural and has
no article, e.g. wegen Unföllen. Other prepositions which take the
genitive are given below.
(AN)STATT (an)statt = instead of. The longer alternative anstatt is mainly used in
R3.
(an)statt eines Radios (R2/R3)\
. n „ mix
. , r
v '(
statt einem Radio (Rl) J
instead of a radio
statt Bildern instead of pictures
TROTZ
WAHREND
trotz = despite; in spite of
trotz des Regens (R2/R3) \
trotz dem Regen (Rl) J
trotz Einwänden
despite the rain
in spite of objections
NOTE: the dative is used with trotz in a few set phrases.
trotz allem /trotz alledem in spite of everything//^ all that
während = during
während meines Urlaubs \
(R2/R3)
during my holiday
während meinem Urlaub (Rl) J
während zweier Tage (R3) )
for two (whole) days
während zwei Tagen (R1/R2) j
NOTE: während, unlike during} is not normally used with nouns such as
Tag, Abend, Nacht, Jahr, etc. in the singular, see 2.5.5.
WEGEN wegen = because of (Rl often von wegen)
In R3 wegen occasionally follows the noun, but it is much more usual for
it to come first.

140 2 Words and meanings
[WEGEN] wegen des schlechten Wetters
(R2/R3)
des schlechten Wetters wegen ( because of the bad weather
(R3a)
(von) wegen dem schlechten
Wetter (Rl)
wegen Unfällen because of accidents
wegen Umbau(s) geschlossen closed for alterations
meinetwegen because of me (R2/R3)/ I don't
mind (Rl)
wegen mir (Rl) )
because of me
wegen meiner (SE) j
(a) A number of specific place prepositions are used with a following
genitive case.
außerhalb outside diesseits on this side of
innerhalb inside jenseits on that side of
oberhalb above beid(er)seits on both sides of
unterhalb below unweit not far from
If these prepositions are used in R2 or Rl, they are most often followed
by von, e.g.:
innerhalb dreier Tage (R3) \
innerhalb von drei Tagen > within three days
(R1/R2) )
(b) Other prepositions with the genitive
There are very many of these; they are mainly typical of R3b, e.g.:
angesichts dieser in view of these difficulties
Schwierigkeiten
anlässlich seines siebzigsten on the occasion of his seventieth
Geburtstages birthday
hinsichtlich dieses Briefes with regard to this letter
kraft seines Amtes by virtue of his office
mittels eines speziell by means of a specially
konstruierten constructed underwater studio
Unterwasserstudios
2.5.5 English prepositions
In this section the most common German equivalent of each frequent
English preposition is given first, with one or more examples (even if
the equivalent is not a preposition in German). Further examples are
then given of some idiomatic or less usual equivalents.

ABOUT (a) about in the sense of 'concerning^ über (acc)
a book about the war ein Buch über den Krieg
He knows all about it Er weiß darüber Bescheid
She doesn't understand anything Sie versteht nichts davon
about it
(b) about in the sense of'approximately' = etwa, ungefähr
about fifty people etwa!ungefähr fünfzig Leute
She is about thirty Sie ist etwa/ungefähr dreißig/
um die dreißig herum
(at) about seven gegen sieben/so um sieben (Rl)
(c) about expressing place = ... herum
to walk about the garden im Garten umher-/herumgehen
to sit about the house im Haus herumsitzen
ABOVE above= über (dat), oberhalb (R3)
above the village
the Rhine above the city of Basle
above all
über dem Dorf
der Rhein oberhalb der Stadt
Basel (R3)
vor allem
ACCORDING TO 1
nach - may follow noun in R3
laut - direct quotation
according to = , entsprechend, gemäß,
zufolge - all these are typically
R3b and follow or, less
k commonly, precede the noun
according to the regulations nach den Vorschriften
according to police reports laut Polizeiberichten
according to expectations den Erwartungen entsprechend
(R3b)
according to our principles unseren Prinzipien
gemäß/zufolge (R3b)
according to foreign press reports ausländischen
Pressemeldungen zufolge
(R3b)
ACROSS across = über (dat) - indicating rest
über (acc) - indicating direction
to walk across the bridge über die Brücke gehen
A tree lay across the path Ein Baum lag (quer) über dem
Weg
to go across the meadows durch die Wiesen gehen
She lives across the street Sie wohnt gegenüber

142 2 Words and meanings
AFTER (a)
AGAINST
ALONG
AMONG(ST)
(b)
after expressing time = nach
after the party nach dem Fest
the week after next übernächste Woche
the day after tomorrow übermorgen
day after day Tag fur/um Tag
after expressing place = hinter (dat)
She shut the door after her Sie machte die Tür hinter ihr zu
She ran after him Sie lief hinter ihm her
to shout after sb hinter jdm herrufen
against ==
against our decision
to sail against the wind
against expectations
to be leaning against the wall
to lean sth against the wall
along =
We are flying along the coast
Trees stood along the bank
Along the coast the weather is
fine
along the floor
among(st) =
among the crowd
among other things
She found them among(st)
the trees
He went among the children
She is among the best
fgegen
1 wider (R3, or in a few idioms)
gegen unseren Beschluss
gegen den Wind segeln
wider Erwarten
an der Wand lehnen
etw an die Wand lehnen
1 entlang followed by a noun in the
dative (R3 genitive) case,
indicating rest
entlang preceded by a noun in the
accusative case, indicating direction
an (dat) entlang indicating rest or
; direction
f Wir fliegen die Küste entlang
[ Wir fliegen an der Küste entlang
[ Bäume standen entlang dem Ufer
1 (R3: des Ufers)
| Bäume standen am Ufer
\ entlang
An der Küste ist das Wetter schön
am Boden hin
(unter (acc/dat)
\ zwischen (acc/dat)
unter der Menge
unter anderem
Sie fand sie unter/zwischen den
Bäumen
Er ging unter die Kinder
Sie gehört zu den Besten

AT (a)
at expressing place =
at the corner
at the station
at the town hall
at the butcher's
at our house
at university
at the office
at the bank, the post office
at home
at school
at a distance of400 metres
(b) at expressing time =
at five (o'clock)
at 7.20 pm
at about seven
at the weekend
at present, at the moment
at the same time
at the end of April
at Christmas
at night
at this time tomorrow
(c) at in other expressions
at a speed of 100 kilometres per
hour
at -40 degrees (Celsius)
at any rate
at two euros a pound
at all costs
at first sight
at bottom
to begin at the beginning
at his expense
an (dat)
bei - esp 'vaguely in the vicinity
of, 'at sb's house'
auf (dat) - with public buildings
an der Ecke/ bei der Ecke
am Bahnhof/ auf dem Bahnhof
(R3)
auf dem Rathaus
beim Metzger
bei uns
an (R3 auf) der Universität
im Büro
auf der Bank, auf der Post
zu Hause/ (S) daheim
in der Schule
in einer Entfernung von 400
Metern
um - with precise clock times
an (dat) - in most other contexts
um fünf (Uhr)
um 19.20 Uhr
gegen sieben/ungefähr um
sieben/so um sieben (Rl)
am Wochenende
zurzeit
zu gleich/ zur gleichen Zeit
Ende April
zu (Rl an, AU auf) Weihnachten
in der Nacht
morgen um diese Zeit
mit einer Geschwindigkeit von
100 Stundenkilometern
bei 40 Grad Kälte
auf alle Fälle
zu zwei Euro das Pfund
um jeden Preis
auf den/beim ersten Blick
im Grunde (genommen)
von vorn(e) anfangen
auf seine Kosten

BEYOND (a)
(b)
BY (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
beyond expressing place = { j j ^ j j ^
beyond the hills über den Bergen, jenseits der
Berge (R3)
20 kilometres beyond Frankfurt 20 Kilometer hinter Frankfurt
meaning 'surpassing' = über (acc)... hinaus
beyond human understanding über den Menschenverstand
hinaus
nothing beyond that nichts außerdem/sonst nichts
beyond doubt außer Zweifel
by expressing place =
by the window
by my side
to sit by sb
to take sb by the hand
to lead sb by the hand
We went by his house
by expressing time = bis
by Friday
by then (in future)
by then (in past), by now
by expressing measure = um
taller by a head
by the hour, metre
by far
by expressing means = mit
by train, bus, car
to pay by cheque
by expressing cause = durch (for by
the discovery of America by the
Vikings
by pressure on the button
by accident, by chance
by mistake
a play by Frisch
( an (dat) 'right by'
\ bei 'in the vicinity of
am Fenster/ beim Fenster
an meiner Seite
neben jdm sitzen
jdn an die Hand/ bei der Hand
nehmen
jdn an der Hand führen
Wir gingen an seinem Haus
vorbei
bis Freitag
bis dann, bis dahin
inzwischen
um einen Kopf größer
stundenweise, met erweise
bei weitem
mit dem Zug, dem Bus, dem
Auto
mit (einem) Scheck (be)zahlen
in passive constructions see 4.4.4)
die Entdeckung Amerikas
durch die Wikinger
durch einen Druck auf den
Knopf
durch Zufall, zufallig
aus Versehen
ein Stück von Frisch

[BY] (f) by in other expressions
one by one
to know sb by sight
side by side
by heart
by request
not by any means
DOWN
2.5 Prepositions 145
down =
We went down the street
She came down the street
He lives down the street
down the side of the house
down the centuries
Tears rolled down her cheeks
DURING during = während
EXCEPT (FOR)
during the war
during the day
during the night
except (for) =
except for me
The flat is finished except for
the kitchen
except for a few little things
einer nach dem anderen
jdn vom Sehen her kennen
nebeneinander
auswendig
aw/Wunsch
keineswegs / noch lange nicht
(Rl)
1
... hinab (R2/R3),... hinunter
- 'away from one'
... herab (R2/R3),... herunter
- 'towards one'
... runter (Rl) - 'away from one'
k or 'towards one'
Wir gingen die Straße
hinab/hinunter
Sie kam die Straße
herab/herunter
Er wohnt etwas weiter (unten)
seitlich am Haus entlang
durch die Jahrhunderte
(hindurch)
Tränen rollten ihr über die
Wangen
( wahrend des Krieges (R2/R3)
| während dem Krieg (Rl)
l im Krieg
am Tag
in der Nacht
{ außer
( bis auf (acc)
l abgesehen von
außer mir
Bis auf die Küche ist die
Wohnung fertig
außer/bis auf/abgesehen von ein
paar Kleinigkeiten
FOR (a) for expressing benefit = fur
room for us Platz fur uns
a present for her husband ein Geschenk fur ihren Mann
a reward for sth eine Belohnung fur etw
NOTE: with verbs, the person benefiting may be in the dative, but a
phrase with fur can also be used, especially in Rl (see 4.1.2), e.g.: ^

[FOR]
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
He bought a book for me
for expressing purpose = zu
for this purpose
What's it for, then?
for pleasure
for breakfast
for expressing time =
I have been sitting here for three
hours
I had been sitting there for three
hours
I am going to Kiel for three weeks
I sat there for two hours
He won't be back for a month
I'll do it for Monday
for years on end
for the first time
for hours on end
for expressing place
change for Dortmund
leave for Bochum
bends for 5 kilometres ahead
for in other expressions
not see anything/or fog
the thirst for knowledge
for example
as for me
a cheque for 100 euros
to do sth for love
for this reason
IEr hat mir ein Buch gekauft
Er hat ein Buch fur mich
gekauft
zu diesem Zweck
Wozu dient es denn?
zum Vergnügen
zum Frühstück
seit - 'for' a period of time up to now
für/ (R3) auf (acc) - 'for' a period of time
from 'now'
accusative noun (often with lang) - 'for'
any length of time entirely in the past or
future (Rl also a period from 'now')
Ich sitze seit drei Stunden hier
Ich saß seit drei Stunden dort
Ich fahre für drei Wochen/(R3)
auf drei Wochen/ (Rl) drei
Wochen nach Kiel
Ich habe zwei Stunden (lang)
dort gesessen
Erst in einem Monat ist er
wieder da
Ich mache es bis Montag fertig
jahrelang/(R3) Jahre hindurch
zum ersten Mal
stundenlang
nach Dortmund umsteigen
nach Bochum abfahren
Kurven auf 5 Kilometer
vor Nebel nichts sehen
der Drang nach Wissen
zum Beispiel
was mich angeht
ein Scheck über 100 Euro
etw aus Liebe tun
aus diesem Grund

FROM (a)
(b)
(c)
from expressing place =
She comes from Ireland (i.e. that is
her native land)
She is commgfrom Ireland (i.e. she
is travelling from there)
the train from Berne
the train from Berne to Basle
20 kilometres from the coast
to drink from a glass
from top to bottom
Where did you get that from ?
from expressing time =
from today
from 1 May
from the start
from (last) January
from (next) January
from morning till night
from childhood
from in other expressions
from 50 euros
from experience
from what F ve heard
from the outset
She was trembling from the cold
IN (a) in expressing place =
It is in his pocket
He put it in his pocket
in Brunswick
in town
in the country
in the picture
in the sky
von - coming from a place one has
been 'at', with the idea of direction
from (the opposite of zu)
aus - coming from, or out of a
place one has been 'in', with the
idea of origin (the opposite of in
i (acc))
Sie kommt aus Irland
Sie kommt von Irland
der Zug aus Bern
der Zug von Bern nach Basel
20 Kilometer von der Küste
entfernt
aus einem Glas trinken
von oben bis unten
Wo hast du das her? (Rl)
' von... an
; ab (esp R3b) - with precise times
von heute an, ab heute (R3b)
vom 1. Mai an/ab 1. Mai (R3b)
von Anfang an
seit Januar
von Januar an, Januar (R3b)
von morgens bis abends
von Kind auf/an, von klein auf
ab 50 Euro
aus (der) Erfahrung
nach dem, was ich gehört habe
von vornherein
Sie zitterte vor Kälte
in (dat) - position in
in (acc) - movement into
Es ist in seiner Tasche
Er steckte es in die Tasche
in Braunschweig
zu Braunschweig (R3a)
in der Stadt
auf dem Lande
auf dem Bild
am Himmel

[IN]
INSIDE
(b)
(C)
in heaven
in the direction of the station
to go in that direction
NOTE: both accusative and dative
frequent.
in the field
in (among) the trees
wounded in the arm
in your place
in expressing time = in (dat)
in autumn
in May
in mid May
in ten days
in earlier times
in 2001
in the evening(s)
later in the day
in the days when ...
in the long run
in advance
in used in other expressions
in any case
in that case
just in case
in German
in my opinion
in a loud voice
in vain
in this way
in all respects
four in number
all in all
not in the least
inside =
inside the house
im Himmel
(in) Richtung Bahnhof
in diese(r) Richtung gehen
cases are used but the dative is more
auf dem Feld/auf der Wiese
unter den Bäumen
am Arm verletzt
an deiner Stelle
im Herbst
im Mai
Mitte Mai
in zehn Tagen
in früheren Zeiten
2001, im Jahre 2001
am Abend/abends
später am Tag
zu der Zeit, wo (Rl/R2)/als
(R2/R3)...
auf die Dauer
im voraus
auf jeden Fall
in dem Fall
für alle Falle
««/Deutsch
j meiner Meinung nach
\ meines Erachtens (R3)
mit lauter Stimme
umsonst, vergeblich
auf diese Weise/ in dieser
Weise
in jeder Hinsicht
vier an der Zahl
alles in allem
nicht im Geringsten
in (dat)j innerhalb (R3) -
expressing place
in (acc) - expressing direction
in (dat)y innerhalb (R2/R3),
binnen (R3) - expressing time
{ im Haus/im Haus drin (Rl)/
\ innerhalb des Hauses (R3)

He went inside the house
inside a month
Er ging ins Haus (hinein)
in einem Monat
innerhalb eines Monats (R3)
binnen einem Monat (R3)
innerhalb von einem
Monat (R2)
INSTEAD OF instead of = statt, anstatt (R3), anstelle von
instead ö/flowers
instead of his brother
j statt/(83) anstatt Blumen
1 anstelle von Blumen
{
statt seines Bruders (R2/R3)
statt seinem Bruder (Rl)
anstelle von seinem Bruder
instead of me I
.statt meiner (R3)
statt mir (Rl)
an meiner Stelle
INTO into = in (acc)
She went into the room
Sie ging ins Zimmer (hinein)
to translate into Spanish ins Spanische übersetzen
to drive into a tree
gegen einen Baum fahren
OF (a) of expressing possession, etc.
the roof of the house
(c)
(d)
the danger of an earthquake
the discovery of America
of with names = apposition
the city of Cologne
the month of February
the University of London
of expressing material = aus
a house of straw
a table of beechwood
: genitive case or von (see 4.2.2)
( das Dach des Hauses (R2/R3)
1 das Dach vom Haus (R1/R2)
die Gefahr eines Erdbebens
die Entdeckung von Amerika
(b) of expressing quantity = apposition, genitive case or von (see 4.2.2)
a cup of coffee
eine Tasse Kaffee
zwei Gruppen junger Arbeiter
two groups of young workers
(R2/R3)
zwei Gruppen von jungen
Arbeitern (R1/R2)
all of them
sie alle
the fi\tof us
wir fünf
a friend of mine
ein Freund von mir
die Stadt Köln
der Monat Februar
die Universität London
ein Haus aus Stroh
ein Tisch aus Buchenholz

[OF] (e) of used in other expressions
of course
of its own accord
today of all days
to die of hunger
north of Kassel
the battle of Lützen
an example of sth
typical, characteristic of sb/sth
OFF off = von ... (her-/hinunter)
He jumped off the train
He took it off the shelf
ON (a)
10 kilometres off the main road
off the south coast of England
on expressing place =
The book is on the table
He put the book on (to) the table
The picture hung on the wall
He hung the picture on the wall
on the river
We are sitting on the floor
on the ceiling
on (the) stage
on top of the mountain
to kiss sb on the mouth
on the piano
on the way
on the left
on the wall
on the coast
on the telephone
selbstverständlich, natürlich
von selbst
ausgerechnet heute
vor Hunger sterben
nördlich von Kassel
die Schlacht bei Lützen
ein Beispiel für etw
typisch, charakteristisch für
jdn/etw
Er sprang vom Zug (hinunter)
Er nahm es vom Regal
(herunter)
10 Kilometer von der
Hauptstraße weg
vor der englischen Südküste
auf (dat) - 'on (top of)' - position
auf (acc) - 'on/onto (the top
of)' - direction
an (dat) - 'on (the side of)' -
position
an (acc) - 'on/onto (the side
of)' - direction
Das Buch liegt auf dem Tisch
Er legte das Buch auf den
Tisch
Das Bild hing an der Wand
Er hängte das Bild an die
Wand
( auf dem Fluss (on it, e.g. in a boat)
1 am Fluss (beside it)
Wir sitzen am Boden/auf dem
Boden
an der Decke
auf der Bühne
oben auf dem Berg
jdn auf den Mund küssen
am Klavier
auf dem Weg/unterwegs
auf der linken Seite/links
an der Wand/auf der Mauer
an der Küste
am Telefon

(b)
a house on the main road ein Haus an der Hauptstraße
on board an Bord
on the train im Zug
to go on the train mit dem Zug fahren
on his face im Gesicht
on the second floor im zweiten Stock
it says on the poster that... ... auf dem Plakat steht,
dass...
/ an (dat)
on expressing time = | bei 'on the occasion of (especially
I with nouns from verbs)
on Sunday am Sonntag
on Sundays sonntags/am Sonntag
on weekdays an Wochentagen
on the morning of 4 July am Morgen des 4. Juli
on the following evening am Abend darauf
on this occasion bei dieser Gelegenheit
on his arrival bei seiner Ankunft
(c) on in the sense of'concerning' = über (acc)
a book on German history ein Buch über deutsche
Geschichte
(d) on used in other expressions
to go on a journey auf eine Reise gehen
on the radio, the television im Radio, im Fernsehen
on no account «K/keinen Fall
on average im Durchschnitt
on purpose mit Absicht/absichtlich
on one condition unter einer Bedingung
It was improved on her suggestion Es wurde auf ihren Vorschlag
hin verbessert
OPPOSITE opposite = gegenüber
opposite me
(mir gegenüber (R2/R3)
1 gegenüber von mir (Rl)
/ gegenüber dem Rathaus
opposite the hospital | dem Rathaus gegenüber (R3)
l gegenüber vom Rathaus (Rl)
OUT OF, (nicht in (dat), außerhalb
OUTSIDE out of, outside = | (R2/R3) - position
l aus - direction
to be out of town nicht in der Stadt sein
außerhalb der Stadt sein (R3)
The car pulled up outside the house Das Auto hielt vor dem Haus
to go out of the room aus dem Zimmer
(hinaus)gehen

[OUT OF,
OUTSIDE]
OVER
PAST (a)
(b)
She looked out of the window
out of breath, danger, sight
out of control
outside office hours
over =
Clouds hung over the city
We flew over the city
the bridge over the Neckar
children over ten years old
over and above that
over a year ago
over dinner
over the years
past expressing place =
We drove past the house
just past the barn
past expressing time = nach
twenty past seven
ROUND round = um
round the corner
right round the lake
all round the house
all round Belgium
THROUGH through = durch
through the tunnel
through the city
to go through a red light
cancelled through illness
all through her life
all through the night
all through/throughout the city
Sie sah zur Tür hinaus
außer Atem, außer Gefahr,
außer Sicht
außer Kontrolle
außerhalb der Dienstzeit
( über (dat) - position
1 über (acc) - direction
Wolken hingen über der Stadt
Wir flogen über die Stadt (hin)
die Brücke über den Neckar
Kinder über zehn Jahre alt
darüber hinaus
gut ein Jahr her/ vor gut einem
Jahr
beim Abendessen
im Laufe der Jahre
j an (dat)... vorbei
\ hinter (dat) - 'beyond'
Wir fuhren am Haus vorbei
gleich hinter der Scheune
zwanzig nach sieben
um die Ecke
j um den ganzen See herum
1 rings/rund um den See
( um das Haus herum (outside)
\ im ganzen Haus (inside)
durch ganz Belgien
durch den Tunnel
durch die Stadt
bei Rot durchfahren
wegen Krankheit ausgefallen
ihr ganzes Leben lang
die ganze Nacht hindurch
{in der ganzen Stadt
1 überall in der Stadt

TO (a) to expressing direction has three main equivalents, depending on the
context, region or register:
(b)
(i) an (acc), auf (acc), in (acc) - movement to a particular place; the
preposition chosen depends on 'where' you will be when you arrive
(i.e. an, auf or in the place).
I am going to university (i.e. to
study there)
She walked (up) to the window
They went to the station
She went (up) to her room
to the Isle of Wight
They are going to town
I am going to the office
We are going to Switzerland
to go to bed
close to sth
a visit to my (girl-)friend
Ich gehe an die Universität
Sie trat an das Fenster
' Sie fuhren auf den Bahnhof
(R2/R3)/
zum Bahnhof (Rl)/
nach dem Bahnhof (N)
Sie ging auf ihr Zimmer
auf die Insel Wight
Sie fahren in die Stadt
Ich gehe ins Büro
Wir fahren in die Schweiz
ins Bett (R3 zu Bett) gehen
nahe bei/an etw
ein Besuch bei meiner
Freundin
(ii) zu - general direction towards a place - the opposite of von. Also
used with people. Often used in Rl instead of an or auf
I am going to the university Ich gehe zur Universität
(i.e. that is my destination)
Does this bus go to the station? Fährt dieser Bus zum Bahnhof?
to the butcher's
zum Metzger
the door to the yard
die Tür zum Hof (hin)
parallel to the wall
parallel zur Mauer
(iii) nach - 'to'with neuter names of towns or countries, or with some
adverbs. Often used in N instead of an, auf, in or zu.
We are going to Italy, to Rostock Wir fahren nach Italien, nach
Rostock
to the south
nach Süden
to the right
nach rechts
to the front
nach vorn(e)
Idative case
to expressing indirect object =
He gave the case to me
an (acc) - if the notion of
She has been a good friend to me direction is stressed
Er hat mir den Koffer gegeben
I wrote to her
Sie ist mir eine gute Freundin
gewesen
Ich habe ihr/an sie geschrieben

[TO] serving drinks to minors der Alkoholausschank an
Jugendliche (R3b)
He told that to his friend Das hat er seinem Freund
gesagt
(c) to expressing time = vor (dat) - in telling time
ten to six zehn vor sechs
punctual to the minute pünktlich auf die Minute
(d) to used in other expressions
What's that to you? Was geht dich das an}
Leverkusen won three to one Leverkusen hat drei zu eins
gewonnen
to my delight zu meiner Freude
200 inhabitants to the square 200 Einwohner pro
kilometre Quadratkilometer
to my knowledge meines Wissens
to work to rule nach Vorschrift arbeiten
to a great extent in hohem Grad, in hohem
Maße
an answer to your question eine Antwort auf Ihre Frage
to hold sth to the light etw gegen das Licht halten
TOWARDS (a) towards expressing direction = auf (acc)... zu
towards the door auf die Tür zu
She came towards me Sie kam auf mich zu/ mir
entgegen
towards Oldenburg nach Oldenburg hin
towards the north nach Norden hin/zu
(b) towards expressing time = gegen
towards the end of the last century gegen Ende des vorigen
Jahrhunderts
UNDER undpr — ( unter (dat) - position
MffM'Cr —
\ unter (acc) - direction
UNTIL/TILL
He parked the car under the bridge Er hat den Wagen unter der
Brücke geparkt
She put the money under the Sie hat das Geld unter
mattress die Matratze gesteckt
children under 12 years old Kinder unter 12 Jahren
under construction im Bau
until/till =
until 2009
until then
until the end of the month
Ibis - in positive sentence
erst + appropriate preposition -
in negative sentence
bis 2009
bis dahin
bis (zum) Monatsende

UP
until his death
until after his death
not until tomorrow
not until three hours ago
not until the 20th century
not until the late evening
not until after his death
up =
They went up the street
They came up the street
We live up the street
He lives up the mountain
up one's nose
further up this page
WITH with = mit
with a hammer
with his girlfriend
with a trembling hand
He lives with his mother
She lives with her boyfriend
I've no money with me
35 years with the firm
Do you want to go with us?
Put it with the others
to tremble with cold
with a hat and coat on
2.6 Modal particles
bis zu seinem Tod
bis nach seinem Tod
erst morgen
erst vor drei Stunden
erst im 20. Jahrhundert
erst am späten Abend
erst nach seinem Tod
... hinauf - away from one
... herauf - towards one
... 'rauf (Rl) - away from or
towards one
Sie gingen die Straße hinauf/
(Rl Yrauf
Sie kamen die Straße herauf/
(Rl Yrauf
Wir wohnen etwas weiter die
Straße entlang
Er wohnt (oben) auf dem Berg
in der Nase
weiter oben auf dieser Seite
mit einem Hammer
mit seiner Freundin
mit zitternder Hand
Er wohnt bei seiner Mutter
Sie wohnt mit ihrem Freund
(zusammen)
Ich habe kein Geld bei mir
35 Jahre bei der Firma
Willst du mit?
Leg es zu den anderen
vor Kälte zittern
in Hut und Mantel
Modal particles are small words like aber, doch Ja, mal, schon, etc.
which express the speaker's attitude to what is being said. They alter
the tone of what is being said and make sure that the speaker's
intentions and attitudes are clearly understood They can typically
appeal for agreement, express surprise or annoyance, tone down a blunt
question or statement, or help you to sound reassuring. They are very
characteristic of informal spoken German (Rl), but their meanings are
elusive and their use is difficult to paraphrase or explain concisely.

Rl= spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
In English we obtain these effects in other ways, typically through
changes in tone of voice or intonation, which are difficult to describe,
or through so-called 'tags', like don't you? or isn't it? The best way to
learn how to use them is to become familiar with as many examples as
possible and try to judge the meaning as they are used, and to help you
a number of typical examples of usage are given in this section. It is
helpful to separate out the use of particles in different types of sentence
(i.e. statements, questions, commands and exclamations), not least
because most of the particles are typically used in one of these types or
because, if they can be used in more than one, their meanings can be
slightly different in each. To help you get some idea of their effect, we
have given an indication of possible English equivalents - i.e. how you
might get a similar effect in English. However, these should not be
understood as standard translations; their purpose is only to convey
some idea of the force of the German particles.
Many words which are used as modal particles in German have other
uses, often (but not always) with related meanings. For example, aber is
used as a conjunction meaning 'but', and vielleicht as an adverb meaning
'perhaps'. In this section we concentrate on their use as particles.
2.6.1 Modal particles in statements
ABER expresses contradiction or insistence (it is rather weaker thm jedoch).
Possible English equivalents: but, though.
Mein Freund kam aber nicht My friend didn't come, though
Sie muss uns aber gesehen But she must have seen us
haben
AUCH confirms the case and may give reasons for a contradiction. Possible
English equivalents: too, you know, after all.
Er ist auch fleißig He does work hard, you know
Wir können's auch lassen After all, we can drop it
DOCH contradicts (if heavily stressed) or appeals for agreement (if more
lightly stressed). In this way, it can turn a statement into a question
expecting a positive answer. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb
(possibly do form), though, after all, negative tag, initial but.
Es hat 'doch geschneit It 'did snow, though
Ich habe 'doch recht gehabt I 'was right after all, wasn't I?
Wir müssen doch morgen nach We've got to go to Trier tomorrow,
Trier though
Er hat doch gesagt, dass er But he did say he was coming
kommt

EIGENTLICH
Das musst du doch zugeben
Den Wagen kann ich doch
morgen früh abholen?
Er ist doch nicht krank?
You've got to admit it, though
I'll be able to collect the car
tomorrow morning, won't I?
He's not ill, is he?
EBEN emphasizes an inescapable conclusion. Possible English equivalents:
well,... just...
Du musst eben zu Hause Well, you'll just have to stay at
bleiben home
Dann müssen wir eben den We'll just have to take the train,
Zug nehmen then
NOTE: eben is mainly used in N. In S halt is used, with the same
meaning.
tones down a refusal, an objection or a contradiction. Possible English
equivalents: well, actually/really, strictly speaking.
Wir haben eigentlich schon zu Well, really, we're already closed
Ich wollte eigentlich bloß eine Well, actually, I only wanted a new
neue Bluse blouse
Eigentlich darfst du das nicht Strictly speaking, you are not
allowed to
Wir haben eigentlich schon We've already lost, really
verloren
ERST (a) implies that something is the absolute limit. It is often strengthened by
adding recht. Possible English equivalents: really, simply.
Dann ging's erst recht los Then things really got going
Das konnte sie erst recht nicht She simply couldn't manage that
Das macht es erst recht That really does make it bad
schlimm
(b) Referring to time, erst suggests that it is earlier than expected or
desired. In this sense it is also used in other sentence types. Possible
English equivalents: only, not before/until, as late as.
Wir kommen erst recht spät in We shan't get to Munich till very
München an late
Sie können den Film leider erst I'm afraid you won't be able to
morgen abholen collect the film before tomorrow
Es ist erst halb fünf It's only half past four
(c) Referring to quantities, erst suggests that more is to follow. In this sense
it is also used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalent:
only... (asyet).
Ich habe erst zehn Seiten I've only written ten pages (as yet)
geschrieben
Sie ist erst sieben Jahre alt She's only seven years old

ETWA in negative sentences, intensifies the negation. Possible English
equivalent: really (not).
JA
Sie müssen nicht etwa denken, You really musn't think that I
dass ich ihn verteidigen will want to defend him
appeals for agreement, with the speaker insisting that what he or she
says is correct. Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form),
really, you know, of course.
Gestern hat's ja geregnet
Das ist ja eine Gemeinheit
Er ist ja schon längst im
Ruhestand
Sie wissen ja, dass es keiner
geschafft hat
Ich komme ja schon
It did rain yesterday, you know
That really is mean
He's been retired for a long time
now, you know
You do know, of course, that
nobody's managed it
I really am on my way
RUHIG in requests, especially with können, gives a reassuring tone. Possible
English equivalents: I don 7 mind, don't disturb yourself etc.
Sie können ruhig Ihre Jacke
ausziehen
Sie können mir ruhig die
Wahrheit sagen
You can take your jacket off, it's
OK by me
You can tell me the truth, I don't
mind
SCHON (a) Referring to time, schon suggests that sth is earlier than expected or
desired, or that sth has happened on occasions. In this sense it is also
used in other sentence types. Possible English equivalents: already, as
early as, sometimes.
(b)
(c)
Bist du schon fertig?
Sie kommen schon heute
Abend
Ich habe ihn auch schon im
Kino gesehen
Das habe ich schon 2001 geahnt
Warst du schon mal dort?
Da ist sie schon wieder
Have you finished already?
They're coming tonight (I know
we hadn't expected them so soon)
I've sometimes seen him at the
cinema, too
I suspected that as early as 2001
Have you ever been there?
There she is again (I know we
didn't want to see her so soon)
With the future tense, schon expresses reasonable expectation that sth
will happen. Possible English equivalents: all right, don't worry.
Ich werde schon aufpassen I'll watch out all right
Er wird's schon hinkriegen He'll manage it, don't worry
Dir werde ich's schon zeigen I'll (soon) show you all right
Expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed
by aber...). zwar and, esp. in N, wohl, are used in the same sense.
Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (Jo-form), well,

UBERHAUPT
WOHL
Paris ist schon eine schöne
Stadt(, aber ...)
Ich wollte schon
kommen(, aber ...)
Das schon, aber ...
Paris is a lovely city(, but...)
Well, I did want to come(, but...)
Well, may be, but...
makes statements more general. Possible English equivalents: anyhow,
anyway,... at all, all in all, in any case.
London is überhaupt eine London is a dreadful city anyhow
grässliche Stadt
Er sagt überhaupt sehr wenig He says very little anyway
expresses probability or supposition. It has a similar force to the future
tenses (see 4.3.1), and it is often used in conjunction with them.
Possible English equivalents: future tense (see 4.3.1), probably, I
suppose /presume ..., positive statement with negative tag, no doubt.
Franz ist wohl schon wieder Franz will be ill again, I suppose
krank/wird wohl schon
wieder krank sein
Sabine ist wohl gestern Abend
angekommen
Sie sind wohl der Letzte
Du bist wohl verrückt
geworden
Sabine will have arrived last night,
no doubt
I presume you're the last
You must be mad, mustn't you?
The combination ja wohl sounds more certain, cf English certain(ly).
Sie wird ja wohl noch in Essen She's pretty certainly still in
sein Essen
The combination doch wohl sounds rather less certain, but the speaker
hopes it is the case, cf English surely... with a negative tag.
Er hat doch wohl noch einen Surely, he's got another key,
Schlüssel hasn't he?
In N, expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often
followed by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or zwar.
Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (iö-form), may, well,
Er ist wohl mein Freund, aber Well, he may be my friend, but I
ich kann ihm nicht helfen
Anja ist wohl nach Kiel
gefahren, aber nur fur ein
paar Tage
can't help him
Anja did go to Kiel, but only for a
few days
ZWAR expresses agreement in principle, but with reservations (often followed
by aber...). This sense is the same as that of schon or, esp in N, wohl.
Possible English equivalents: stressed verb (do-form), may, well,...
Er ist zwar krank, aber er Well, he may be ill, but he's still
kommt heute Abend noch coming with us tonight
mit

AUCH
DENN
2.6.2 Modal particles in questions
(a) In yes/no questions, auch asks for confirmation of something which the
speaker thinks should be taken for granted. Possible English equivalents:
positive statement followed by negative tag, are you sure that... ?.
Hast du auch die Rechnung You have paid the bill, haven't you?
bezahlt?
Haben Sie's auch verstanden? You did understand it, didn't you?
(b) In B?A-questions, auch expects a negative answer. Possible English
equivalent: well,...
Was kann man auch dazu Well, what can you say to that?
sagen?
Warum musste er auch Well, why did he have to go away?
wegfahren?
tones down the question, making it sound less blunt. It is often added
almost as a matter of course, especially in zpA-questions. Possible
English equivalent: then (at end of sentence).
Hast du denn Renate gesehen? Did you see Renate, then?
Willst du sie denn fragen?
Wie bist du denn gekommen?
Wie lang fahrt man denn nach
Ulm?
Are you going to ask her, then?
How did you get here, then?
How long does it take to get to
Ulm, then?
NOTE: in informal Rl denn is often shortened to n and placed straight
after the verb, e.g.: Hast'n du die Renate gesehen?
EIGENTLICH tones down questions and makes them sound casual. It is often used
together with denn. Possible English equivalents: actually, tell me...
Kommt er eigentlich oft zu Tell me, does he visit you often?
Besuch?
Wie spät ist es (denn) What time is it, actually?
eigentlich?
ETWA in yes/no questions, implies that something is undesirable and that the
answer ought to be nein. Possible English equivalents: negative
statement with positive tag, don *t tell me.
Habt ihr etwa geschlafen? You haven't been asleep, have you?
Ist das etwa dein Wagen? That's not your car, is it?
Hast du es etwa gelesen? Don't tell me you've read it?
NUR in zpA-questions, stresses the importance of sth.
NOTE: bloß is often used in this sense in place of nur in Rl.
Possible English equivalents: -ever,... on earth.

Wo bleibt er nur (Rl: bloß)? Where on earth is he?
Wie kann er sich nur so einen How on earth can he afford a car
Wagen leisten? like that?
Was ist nur mit ihm los? What ever's up with him?
SCHON in ^-questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English equivalent:
negative statement, positive tag.
Wer wird ihm schon helfen? Nobody's going to help him, are
they?
Was heißt das schon? That's not supposed to mean
anything, is it?
UBERHAUPT casts doubts on a basic assumption. Possible English equivalent:... at
all.
Trinkt er denn überhaupt Does he drink wine at all, then?
Wein?
Kann er überhaupt Deutsch Can he speak German at all?
sprechen?
VIELLEICHT
WOHL
in yes/no questions, expects a negative answer. Possible English
equivalents: negative statement with positive tag, really.
Willst du mir vielleicht You don't mean to tell me
erzählen, dass .. ? that..., do you?
Soll ich vielleicht bis abends Am I really supposed to work till
um sieben arbeiten? seven at night?
signals uncertainty on the part of the speaker. Possible English
equivalents: possibly, I wonder.
Wer hat den Brief wohl Who can possibly have written that
geschrieben? letter?
Wie spät ist es wohl? I wonder what time it is
2.6.3 Modal particles in commands
ABER qualifies a previous statement. Possible English equivalents: but, though.
Du kannst ruhig etwas weiter Don't worry, you can go a bit
nach links gehen Pass further to the left... Look out
aber an der Tür auf! by the door, though!
AUCH reinforces a command. Possible English equivalent: Make sure...
Aber schreib ihm auch But make sure you write to him
morgen! tomorrow
Sei auch schön brav! Make sure you behave!

DOCH can sound impatient or encouraging. Possible English equivalents:
stressed do, negative tag, why not... ?
Hör doch auf! Do stop it
Mach doch nicht immer so ein Don't keep on making a face like
Gesicht! that
Leg dich doch zwei Stunden Why not go and lie down for a
hin! couple of hours?
Kommen Sie doch morgen Do call in tomorrow, won't you?
vorbei
EBEN stresses the lack of an alternative (halt is used for eben in S). Possible
English alternatives: well, just... then.
Bleib eben dort sitzen! Well, just stay sitting there, then
Fahr eben durch die Well, just drive through the city
Stadtmitte! centre, then
JA expresses a threat (usually stressed). Possible English equivalents:
stressed pronoun, just..., or else.
Sei ja vorsichtig! You just be careful(, or else)
Mach mir ja keine Just don't do anything silly(, or
Dummheiten! else)
MAL tones down commands, making them sound less blunt or peremptory.
Possible English equivalents: just, won't you, etc.
Lies den Brief mal durch! Just read the letter through
Gib mir mal das Buch her! Just give me the book, would you?
Hol mal schnell die Milch! Just go and fetch the milk, would
you?
Komm mal Montag vorbei! Just pop in on Monday, won't
you?
The combination doch mal softens the tone of a command even more.
Possible English equivaent: Why don't you...?, Why not... ?
Nimm doch mal ein neues Why don't you just take another
Blatt! sheet of paper?
Komm doch mal mit ins Kino! Why not come to the cinema with
us?
NUR when unstressed, makes a command sound more tentative. Possible
English equivalent: just.
Kommen Sie nur herein! Do just come in
Lass mich nur machen! Just let me get on with it
Sagen Sie nur! Just say the word
When stressed, especially in negative commands, expresses a warning.
Possible English equivalents: you added to command, just, better.

Komm »nur nicht zu spät! ( J^ 0 be late
"'*
I You d better not come too late
Fahr 'nur nicht so schnell! ( £ st ^ d ; ive 80 f f 1
( Don t you drive so fast
NOTE: In Rl, bloß is often used for nur to express a warning in
commands.
RUHIG gives a reassuring tone. Possible English equivalents: I don't mind, don't
disturb yourself etc.
Bleib ruhig sitzen! Don't get up for me
Mach ruhig weiter! Carry on, don't disturb yourself
SCHON gives commands a tone of urgency and emphasis, or, especially if the
sentence starts with Nun..., impatience. Possible English equivalents:
do... please).
Beeile dich schon! Do hurry up(, please)
Sag mir schon, was du Do tell me what you think. I shan't
denkst! Ich werde dir's nicht
übelnehmen
take offence
Nun, gib's schon her! Well, give it to me, then
Nun, fahr schon! Well, get a move on, then
WOHL makes a command sound more urgent, insistent or abrupt (often with
werden or wollen). Possible English equivalents: once and for all! right
away!
Hebst du wohl das Buch wieder Pick that book up again right away!
auf!
Wirst du wohl sofort wieder ins Will you go straight back to bed!
Bett gehen!
Wollt ihr wohl endlich still Once and for all, will you be quiet!
sein!
2.6.4 Modal particles in exclamations
aber, doch Ja and vielleicht all convert statements into exclamations
expressing surprise.
ABER possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag.
Das Bier ist aber kalt! Oh! This beer is cold!
Der Film war aber gut! Wasn't that a good film?
Das war aber eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't
it?

164 2 Words and meanings
DOCH possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag.
Die Milch ist doch sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour!
Heute ist es doch kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?
JA possible English equivalents: initial but, negative tag.
Die Milch ist ja sauer! Oh, but the milk is sour!
Heute ist es ja kalt! It is cold today, isn't it?
VIELLEICHT possible English equivalents: OA/, rhetorical question, negative tag.
Das Bier ist vielleicht kalt! Oh! This beer is cold!
Der Film war vielleicht Wasn't that a bad film?
schlecht!
Das war vielleicht eine Reise! That was quite a journey, wasn't
it?
NOTE: In exclamations of this kind, aber and vielleicht signal surprise
due to a difference in degree, whereas doch and ja signal surprise due to
a difference in kind, i.e. that something is the case at all. Compare:
Die Milch ist doch/ja kalt! But the milk is cold! (you hadn't
expected it to be cold at all)
Die Milch ist aber/vielleicht How cold the milk is! (much
kalt! colder than you had expected)
2.7 Greetings and forms of address
2.7.1 Greetings
The choice of formula for greeting and leave-taking is a matter of
register, determined by the relationship between the people involved. It
is important in an area of usage governed so much by social convention
that the English-speaking learner should be aware that more
conventional greetings are used in Germany than is now usual in
Britain or some other English-speaking countries. Not only are there in
German greetings such as Mahlzeit and Feierabend which have no
equivalent in English, but other standard forms of greeting are used
more frequently. It would, for instance, be considered impolite to enter
or leave a small shop in Germany without the customary Guten Tag!
and Auf Wiedersehen! The following table shows a progression from
informal greetings (used to friends) to formal ones (showing respect to
the person addressed).

Situation Rl R1/R2 R2
meeting Hallo!
Grüß dich!
Moin! (NW)
Servus (SE)

Situation contd Rl contd R2 contd
bedtime Schlaf gut! Angenehme Ruhe! (very formal)
journey 4 Gute Reise! •
going home Komm gut nach Hause! Gute Heimfahrt!
2.7.2 du and Sie
German makes a difference between the so-called 'informal' pronouns
of address, the singular du and plural ihr, and the so-called 'formal' Sie,
which is used for both singular and plural. Sie and its forms (Ihnen, Ihr,
etc.) are always spelled with a capital letter to distinguish them from the
forms of sie 'they'. When Sie is used as the subject of a verb, it always
has the ending (most often -en) of the third person plural.
This distinction is unknown in modern English, and this section
gives a brief description of modern usage in German. If you know
another European language, you should be aware that the use of the
'informal' and 'formal' pronouns in those languages can be different to
that in German. In particular, 'informal' French tu and (especially)
Spanish tu are used more widely than 'informal' German du.
Broadly speaking, du (and its plural ihr) are used
(a) when speaking to ...
• children (up to about the age of 15; in schools to the end of the
tenth school year)
• animals and inanimate objects
• oneself
• God
(b) between ...
• family members and close relatives
• close friends
• all schoolchildren and students
• workmates (blue collar)
• non-commissioned soldiers
• members of some clubs, interest groups and (especially left-wing)
political parties
Sie is used in all other situations. This is especially the case with
adult strangers and generally in white-collar employment (e.g. to
colleagues in an office).
However, matters are often less clear-cut. With changing social
attitudes and conventions the usage of du and Sie has come to be in a
state of flux, so that many Germans nowadays feel insecure about
which one to use in unfamiliar surroundings. Nevertheless,

consciousness of the need to use the 'right' one is as strong as ever. In
the 'wrong' situation du sounds too familiar, condescending,
patronizing and can signal contempt and a lack of respect verging on
rudeness, whilst Sie in the 'wrong' situation sounds stand-offish,
pompous, haughty, with a hint of arrogance verging on rudeness.
du signals intimacy, affection and solidarity. People who use du to
one another are conscious of belonging to the same group or standing
together. The modern move towards du, especially among young
people, reflects this clearly, du has become much more frequent since
the late sixties, and the old ceremony of Brüderschaft trinken associated
with the switch from Sie to du between acquaintances and friends is
practised less. It has been reported recently that the conventional shift
from du to Sie at the end of the tenth school year, on entry to the
Oberstufe, is no longer observed as rigorously as it once was. Certainly,
the use of du is more widespread among younger people than thirty
years ago, and it has definitely always been used more readily in S
(especially in Switzerland) than N.
Nevertheless, the trend towards du has shown signs of slowing down
and current practice can be quite variable. It is very important for
English-speaking learners to be aware that the use of du is still much less
widespread and acceptable than the use of first names in Britain or
North America. It can often signal a lack of respect rather than the
friendliness typically associated with using first names there. In a bank
or a shop, with a fairly formal, professional atmosphere, people who
work together every day can be on Sie terms for thirty years or more
without feeling in any way distant or uncollegial. A recent survey
reported that 67% of skilled workers, 59% of unskilled workers, 49%
of lower-level professional workers and 35% of more senior
professionals normally used du to colleagues of similar rank. The
example of a well-known Swedish furniture company which has
decreed that all its staff in its German branches should use du and first
names to each other, whatever their rank, is still very much the
exception. Finally, there is a very clear tendency for du to be used more
readily between people of the same sex than between the sexes.
In general, Sie is associated with using formal titles, e.g., Herr Meyer,
Frau Wimmer, etc., and the shift to du involves the corresponding shift
to the use of the first name. But the use of Sie with the first name may
be an intermediate stage before moving to du. It is common, for
example, when parents are speaking to their (older) children's friends.
It is also the norm in some television chat shows and interviews with
media or sports personalities, and it is reported to be widespread in
'trendy' circles (e.g. in the media), in these cases possibly in imitation of
American usage.
Finally, ihr deserves special mention, as its use is wider than simply
as the plural of du - i.e. to address more than one person all of whom
you would call du. It is quite common when speaking to any group of

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
people even if one might address individuals among them by Sie
(although less common if you would call all of them Sie). In this way,
ihr can sometimes function as a kind of neutral compromise to mask the
speaker's uncertainty about whether to use du or Sie.
2.8 Letters
The layout of letters in the German-speaking countries differs in
several respects from English conventions.
(a) Name and address on the envelope
Herrn
Prof. Dr. Albert Schröder
Waldstraße 27
35037 Marburg/Lahn
To a couple:
Herrn und Frau
Manfred und Ute Schwenk
Josefgasse 5
31787 Hameln
Frau
Angelika Trautmann
Korinthstraße 39
04103 Leipzig
To a family with children:
Fam.
Andreas Christmann
Am Kronberg 87
53181 Leverkusen
Note the position of titles, the lack of indentation and, in printed
addresses, the space left before the name of the town or village. The
house number comes after the street name, and the postcode before the
name of the town or village. If writing from outside the countries
concerned, an international indicator, i.e. A (Austria), CH
(Switzerland), D (Germany) is placed before the postcode, e.g.:
A-1080 Wien CH-3010 Bern D-35037 Marburg/Lahn
NOTE: Fräulein is now used, if at all, only to address young girls. Any
adult woman, irrespective of whether she is married or single, is
addressed as Frau.
(b) The sender's name and address
On personal letters, these are written as one line on the back of the
envelope, preceded by Abs. (— Absender), e.g.:
Abs.: Susana Hofmann, Bismarckplatz 19, 68165 Mannheim
In personal letters this information is not usually repeated at the top of
the letter, where just the place and date are given, e.g.:

In commercial or official correspondence the sender's address is
normally given at the top of the letter, above that of the addressee. The
latter is given in a form similar to that on the envelope, e.g.:
Susana Hofmann
Bismarckplatz 19
68165 Mannheim
Firma
Eugen Spengler
Rossgasse 17-21
07973 Greiz
Mannheim, 7. September 2001
(c) Opening and closing formulae
The choice of these depends on your relationship to the person you are
writing to. The following table shows the most common. The most
important thing to remember is that, unlike English Dear, German
Liebe (r) is not used in business correspondence to strangers, or to
anyone whose relationship to you is formal.
Openings R3 (most formal) Sehr geehrte Damen und Herren,
Sehr geehrte Herren,
Sehr geehrte gnädige Frau,
Sehr geehrter Herr Professor Dr. Schröder,
Sehr geehrter Herr Ahrens,
(less formal) Lieber Herr Pedersen,
Liebe Frau Havemann,
R2 (least formal) Lieber Wolfgang,
Liebe Uschi,
Liebe Mutti,
Lieber Opa,
NOTE: if you are writing to more than one person the adjective has to
be repeated, e.g.:
Lieber Wolfgang, liebe Uschi,
Closings R3 (very formal)
Older practice was to follow these with an exclamation mark (e.g. Sehr
geehrter Herr Hartmann!), but it is now usual to use a comma, in which
case the first word of the letter should not start with a capital letter.
R3 (most common)
Hochachtungsvoll
followed by Ihr(e) [sehr ergebene(r)] before
the signature
Mit freundlichen Grüßen
optionally followed by Ihr(e) before the
signature

R2 (less formal) Mit besten Grüßen
Herzliche Grüße
optionally followed by Ihr(e) or Dein(e)
before the signature
R2 (least formal) (Viele) liebe Grüße
Herzlich/Herzlichst
optionally followed by Dein(e) before the
signature
The least formal phrases are only used to a person addressed as du. In
correspondence, du (dich, dein, etc.) and ihr (euch, etc.) are no longer to
be written with capital letters according to the reformed spelling.
However, at the moment very few people appear to be following this
ruling.

3 Words and forms
3.1 Nouns: genders and plurals
For English speakers learning German, one of the most striking
differences between the languages is the way German nouns and other
words used with nouns have endings and other changes to show gender,
number and case. These inflections seem difficult at first, but they are
central to the way German works as a language. An important stage in
learning German is realizing the system which underlies them and the
role they play in showing how sentences fit together. It is vital, first, to
know the gender of any nouns you need to use and how they form their
plurals in order to be able to express yourself properly and understand
written and spoken German easily. In fact, gender and plural formation
in German is not as varied and unsystematic as would appear from
many books, and in this section we show you how you can master it
more easily.
It is easy to think that every German noun has an arbitrary gender
and an arbitrary way of forming the plural, and that both of these must
be learnt separately for every noun in the language. The meaning of a
noun, aside from the tendency for names of male beings to be masculine
and those of female beings to be feminine, rarely gives any indication of
gender. In practice, though, there are many helpful regularities. To
start with, the gender of 80% of German nouns can be immediately
recognized from their suffixes (or, less often, prefixes), and the plural
ending is also always predictable from the suffix. This leaves a relatively
small number of nouns with no suffix whose gender has to be learned
individually. But even then, there is usually a link between the plural of
a noun and its gender, so that if you know the one, then you have a good
chance of being able to pick the other correctly.
3.1.1 Suffixes as indicators of gender and plural
Most suffixes are almost invariably linked to a particular gender and a
particular plural, with a few common exceptions.

(a) Masculines Suffix Plural Examples
(b) Feminines
(c) Neuters
(d) Masculine if
persons, neuter if
things
-ler, -ner, j
-er (from verbs))
-an, -än, -är, -eur, \
-ich, -ig, -ling, >
-or (stressed) )
-and, -ant, -ent, -et,]
-graph, -ist, -krat,
-loge, -nom )
-e
-en, -n
{ der Tischler, der Redner,
der Lehrer, der Bäcker
Ider Kapitän, der Friseur,
der König, der Lehrling,
der Maj'or
der Komödiant, der Student,
der Athlet,
der Komponist, der Demokrat,
k der Astrologe, der Gastronom
-or (unstressed) -s, -en der Professor
NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Profess'oren.
-ismus -ismen der Organismus
Exceptions: das Labor, das Organ, das Restaurant
Suffix
Plural
Examples
-anz, -ei, -enz,
' die Bücherei, die Residenz,
-heit, -ie, -ik, -ion,
-keit, -schaft, -tät,
-en
die Panik, die Revolution,
die Eitelkeit, die Mannschaft,
-ung, -ur
k die Bedeutung, die Natur
-in
-nen die Freundin
Exceptions: das Abitur, der Atlantik, der Pazifik
Suffix Plural Examples
-chen, -lein, -sei, -tel - das Mädchen, das Viertel
-tum "er das Eigentum
-at, -ett, -il, -ment -e das Format, das Ventil, das Dokument
-um -en das Datum
NOTE: -um is replaced by en in the plural, e.g. die Daten.
Exceptions: der Automat, der Irrtum, der Reichtum, der Salat
Suffix Plural Examples
-al, -ar, -ier, -e der General, das Regal
-on (stressed) -e der Bar' on, das Mikro' phon
-on (unstressed) -en, -en der 'Dämon, das E'lektron
NOTE: the stress shifts in the plural: die Dä'monen, Elek'tronen.
Exceptions: der Kanal, die Moral, die Person

3.1.2 Suffixes or prefixes as clues to gender and plural
With other nouns, the link between gender, suffix (or, in one case,
prefix) and plural is less regular. However, it is worth knowing these
regularities, even if there are more exceptions.
(a) Nouns in -nis and -sal (pi: -nisse, -sale)
Nouns in -nis and -sal are
predominantly (70%) neuter
A minority of nouns in -nis and
sal (30%) are feminine
das Ergebnis, das Hindernis, das
Zeugnis, das Scheusal (R3a), das
Schicksal, etc.
die Besorgnis, die Erkenntnis, die
Erlaubnis, die Finsternis, die
Kenntnis, die Wildnis, die
Trübsal (R3)
(b) Nouns in Ge-
Nouns in Ge- usually have the plural -e if they have no suffix, e.g. das
Gebet 'prayer', die Gebete, but they have no ending in the plural if they
end in -e, e.g. das Gebäude 'building', die Gebäude.
Nouns in Ge- are predominantly
neuter (90%)
A few feminines (plural -en
or -n)
A few masculines (plural "e
except where indicated)
das Gebet, das Gebot, das Gebiet,
das Gebirge, das Gehör, das Gesetz,
das Gesindel, das Getriebe, etc.
die Gebühr, die Geburt, die Geduld,
die Gefahr, die Gemeinde, die
Geschichte, die Gestalt, die Gewalt
der Gebrauch, der Gedanke (-ns,-n),
der Gefallen (-), der Gehorsam, der
Genosse, der Genuss, der Geruch,
der Gesang, der Geschmack, der
Gewinn
Six neuters form the plural in "er das Gehalt, das Gemüt (R3), das
Geschlecht, das Gesicht, das
Gespenst, das Gewand (R3)

Nouns in -el, -en,-er
Nouns with these suffixes are predominantly masculine.
Nouns in -er from verbs are all
masculine
Other nouns in -el, -en, -er
are predominantly (60%)
masculine: They are
endingless in the plural
A quarter (25%) of nouns
in -el and -er are feminine
and have the plural -n
A small proportion (15%) of
nouns in -el, -en and -er are
neuter and are endingless in
the plural
der Bäcker, der Bettler, der Bohrer,
der Fahrer, der Lehrer, der
Redner, der Sprecher, der
Unternehmer, etc.
der Flügel, der Kümmel, der Löffel,
der Pegel, der Kragen, der
Schatten, der Schuppen, der
Wagen, der Adler, der Fehler, der
Weiher, etc.
die Formel, die Gabel, die Kugel,
die Regel, die Butter, die
Kiefer, die Schwester,
die Ziffer, etc.
das Kabel, das Segel, das Kissen,
das Zeichen, das Fenster, das
Messer, das Zimmer, etc.
There are some common exceptions to these regularities:
About twenty masculines
in -el, -en, -er have the
plurali.e. no ending is
added but the vowel has
umlaut, e.g.: der Vogeldie
Vögel
der Apfel, der Boden, der Bogen,
der Bruder, der Faden, der
Garten, der Graben, der Hafen,
der Hammer, der Kasten, der
Laden, der Mantel, der Nagel,
der Ofen, der Schaden, der Vater,
der Vogel
A few masculines in -el and der Bauer (-n, -n), der Muskel,
-er have the plural -n der Pantoffel, der Stachel, der
Vetter
Two feminines in -er have the die Mutter, die Tochter
plural"
Two neuters in -er have the das Abwasser, das Kloster
plural"

(d) Nouns in -e (all have plural -n)
Nouns in -e are predominantly
(90%) feminine
Some nouns in -e denoting male der Affe, der Bote, der Chinese, der
beings are masculine. They are Franzose, der Gatte (R3), der
all weak nouns (-n,
3.2.1;
see Kunde, der Riese, etc.
There are a few masculine nouns der Buchstabe, der Friede, der
in -e with the ending -ns in the Funke, der Gedanke, der Glaube,
genitive
der Name, der Wille
One or two other nouns in -e are der Charme, der Käse
masculine
A very few nouns in -e are neuter
die Biene, die Blume, die Bühne, die
Fichte, die Gabe, die Garage, die
Lampe, die Liebe, die Reise, etc.
das Auge, das Ende, das Erbe, das
Image, das Interesse, das Prestige,
das Regime
(e) Other nouns
Most of the remaining nouns of German are words of one syllable. In
practice, the gender of these is best learned by heart, but it is always
worth remembering how these nouns divide up between the three
genders, i.e.:
• 60% masculine
• 25% neuter
• 15% feminine
The way the plural is usually formed with these remaining nouns
differs between the genders. It is helpful particularly to learn those
whose plural goes against the normal rule for their gender, e.g. the
masculine nouns with the 'typically neuter' plural" er, or the neuters
with the 'typically feminine' plural -en:
Masculine Most of these der Arzt - die Ärtze
masculine nouns form der Bach - die Bäche
their plural by adding der Fuß - die Füße
-e, with umlaut if
possible
der Gast - die Gäste
der Stuhl - die Stühle
der Tisch - die Tische
A significant number der Arm - die Arme der Monat -
of common nouns take der Besuch - die Besuche die Monate
the ending -e, with no der Hund - die Hunde der Schuh -
umlaut (even if the
die Schuhe
vowel could have
umlaut)
der Tag - die Tage

Feminine
Neuter
Some names of male
humans and animals
are 'weak 9 nouns,
with -en, -en
der Bär - des Bären - die Bären
der Mensch - des Menschen - die Menschen
A dozen or so have a der Geist - die Geister der Rand - die Ränder
plural in 'er der Mann -- die Männer der Wald - die Wälder
A dozen or so have a der Dorn - die Dornen der Staat - die Staaten
plural in -en der Nerv - die Nerven der Strahl -die
Strahlen
Most of these feminine die Arbeit -
nouns (75%) form die Arbeiten
their plural by die Form - die Formen
adding -en die Flut - die Fluten
A quarter (25%)
have a plural in "e
Most of these neuter
nouns (75%) form
their plural by
adding -e
A quarter (25%)
have a plural in "er
A few have a plural
in -en
die Gans - die Gänse
die Hand - die Hände
die Kuh - die Kühe
das Bein - die Beine
das Brot - die Brote
das Gas - die Gase
das Bad - die Bäder
das Buch - die Bücher
das Ei - die Eier
das Bett - die Betten
das Hemd -
die Hemden
One has the plural "e das Floß - die Flöße
3.1.3 Plurals in -s
die Frau - die Frauen
die Last - die Lasten
die Pacht - die Pachten
die Luft - die Lüfte
die Maus - die Mäuse
die Stadt - die Städte
das Jahr - die Jahre
das Schaf - die Schafe
das Stück - die Stücke
das Haus - die Häuser
das Kind - die Kinder
das Tal - die Täler
das Insekt -
die Insekten
das Ohr - die Ohren
A large and increasing number of nouns of all genders have a plural
in -s. It is of relatively recent or regional (i.e. N) origin, and it has been
looked down on in the past by purists, especially in R3a. It is found
principally in new words, especially those loaned from French and
English, and it is current with the following groups of nouns:
• Words ending in a vowel other das Auto -> die Autos
than -e die Mutti —• die Muttis
• Abbreviations, names of letters, der LKW —• die LKWs
shortened words das L -> die Ls, etc.
die Lok die Loks (Rl)

• Other parts of speech (esp in Rl)
• Some N nautical words
• To refer to families
• With words for persons (Rl in N
only)
• In French words pronounced in
(semi-) French way
• In words recently adopted from
English
das Aber -> die Abers
das Blau die Blaus, etc.
das Deck -> die Decks
das Dock —• die Docks
der Kai die Kais
das Wrack die Wracks
die Müllers, Schmidts, Werners,
etc.
der Bengel -> die Bengels
das Fräulein die Fräuleins
der Onkel —> die Onkels
der Junge die Jungs, etc.
das Atelier die Ateliers
das Amendement die
Amendements, etc.
das Baby die Babys (!)
die Band -> die Bands
der/das Essay die Essays, etc.
With the following words, the plural in -s is now the most frequent.
Other plural forms (e.g. die Balkone, die Ballone, die Parke), are
restricted to very traditional R3a:
der Balkon
der Ballon
das Etikett
das Kabarett
der Karton
das Karussell
das Kotelett
das Labor
das Parfüm
der Park
3.1.4 Nouns with alternative plurals
das Porträt
der Schal
der Scheck
der Streik
A number of other words have alternative ways of forming the plural.
These are often associated with regional or register differences.The
most usual plural is given first, then the less frequent one, with notes
where necessary:
der Admiral -e (also "e)
der Bogen
••
(N-)
das Ding -e (Rl -er)
der Erlass -e (AU "e)
der Fasan -en (also -e)
der General -e (also "e)
der Geschmack -e (Rl "er)
die Kartoffel
der Kragen
-n
-
(RH
(S )

der Kran "e (also -e)
der Laden (N - 'shutters')
das Lager - (S, R3b ")
das Mädel - (N -s; S -n)
der Magnet -en, -en (also -e)
der Pastor -en (N"e)
das Ross -e (S "er)
der Stiefel - (S-n)
das Stück -e (S-er)
der Wagen - (S")
3.1.5 Foreign words with unusual plurals
Many words taken from the classical (or some other) languages have an
unusual plural, although in some instances this is only used in R3.
Some of the commonest are given below, with variant forms where
theyexist:
das Album die Alben (Rl -s)
der Atlas ->• die Atlanten
(Rl Atlasse)
das Cello die Celli (R1/R2
Cellos)
das Drama —> die Dramen
der Espresso —> die Espressi
(Rl Espressos)
das Examen —> die Examina
(R1/R2 Examen)
die Firma —• die Firmen
das Fossil ->» die Fossilien
der Kaktus die Kakteen
(Rl Kaktusse)
das Komma —> die Kommata
(R1/R2 Kommas)
das Konto —> die Konten
(Rl Kontos)
das Lexikon die Lexika (Rl
Lexiken)
das Material • die Materialien
das Mineral -*
die Mineralien (rare:
Minerale)
das Museum die Museen
der Mythos -•
die Mythen
das Prinzip -•
die Prinzipien
das Privileg -•
die Privilegien
das Reptil —• die Reptilien
der Rhythmus die Rhythmen
das Risiko die Risiken (also: -s)
das Schema —• die Schemata
(Rl -men/-s)
die Villa —• die Villen
das Virus —• die Viren
das Visum —• die Visen
(also Visa)
das Zentrum —• die Zentren
3.1.6 Differences in plural usage between German
and English
(a) In some instances German uses a singular word where English has a
plural:

der Anfang beginning(s)
der Arbeitsanzug overalls
das Archiv archives
die Asche ashes
das Aussehen looks
das Benehmen manners
der Besitz possessions
der Bodensatz dregs
die Brille glasses, spectacles
der Dank thanks
der Darm intestines, guts
das Einkommen earnings
die Eisenbahn railways
das Fernglas binoculars
das Feuerwerk fireworks
die Gebrauchsanweisung
instructions
der Gewinn winnings
der Hafer oats
das Hauptquartier headquarters
das schottische Hochland the
Highlands
der Hopfen hops
die Hose trousers, pants
der Inhalt contents
die Kaserne barracks
der Kehrricht sweepings
die Kundschaft customers
der Lohn wages
die Lunge lungs
das Mittel means
das Mittelalter the Middle Ages
die Mühe pains
die Pension lodgings
die Physik physics
die Politik politics
das Protokoll minutes
der Pyjama pyjamas
der Reichtum riches
der Schadenersatz (legal) damages
die Schere scissors
das Schilf reeds
der Schlüpfer knickers
die Schutzbrille goggles
der Stadtrand outskirts
die Statistik statistics
die Stehleiter stepladder
die Treppe stairs, steps
die Umgebung surroundings
das Unkraut weeds
die Unterhose underpants
die Waage scales
die Wahl election(s)
der Wald wood(s)
die Zange pliers, tongs
der Ziegenpeter mumps
der Zirkel compasses
der Zoll customs
All the above nouns must of course be used with a verb in the singular,
e.g.:
Meine Brille ist kaputt My glasses are broken
The same applies to singular collective nouns, which are often used
with a plural verb in English, but never in German, e.g.:
Die Polizei kommt The police are coming
Similarly with die Mannschaft, das Publikum, die Regierung, das Volk, etc.
In a few instances German uses a plural word for an English singular:
die Flitterwochen honeymoon die Ränke (R3) intrigue
die Kosten cost(s) die Trümmer rubble
die Lebensmittel food die Wirren turmoil
die Möbel furniture die Zinsen interest
die Pocken smallpox

(c) Incertain instances English and German differ as to whether certain
nouns can have a plural:
Singular Plural
der Atem breath
die Auskunft (piece of) information
der Blitz (flash of) lightning
das Brot bread, loaf
das Essen meal
der Fortschritt advance
die Hausaufgabe (piece of) homework
die Kenntnis (piece of) knowledge
die Nachricht (piece of) news
das Obst fruit
der Rasen lawn
der Schaden damage
die See sea
das Spielzeug toy
der Sport sport
der Tod death
das Versprechen promise
(d) Other instances of difference in the use of singular and plural:
Masculine and neuter nouns of measurement used with numerals keep
their singular form:
vier Pfund Rindfleisch sechs Paar Schuhe zwei Glas Bier
With words denoting clothes, parts of the body, etc., the singular is
used if each person has one of each:
Alle hoben die rechte Hand ... their right hands
Sie redete die Leute nie mit dem Namen an ... by their names
Manche haben ein leichtes Leben Some people have easy lives
3.1.7 Nouns with variable gender
die Atemzüge breaths
die Auskünfte information
die Blitze flashes of lightning
die Brote loaves
die Mahlzeiten meals
die Fortschritte progress
die Hausaufgaben homework
die Kenntnisse knowledge
die Nachrichten news
die Obstsorten fruits
die Rasenflächen lawns
die Schäden instances of damage
die Meere seas
die Spielwaren toys
die Sportarten sports
die Todesfälle deaths
die Versprechungen promises
The gender of a number of nouns is not fully fixed and a sample of
these is given below. The variation is often linked to regional and
register differences.

der (CH das) Aperitif
der (also das) Barock
der (S das) Bonbon
die (S der) Butter
das (occ der) Dossier
der (also das) Dotter
der (occ das) Dschungel
der or das Fakt
das (CH die) Foto
das (occ der) Gulasch
der (Rl das) Gummi
die (S der) Kartoffel
der (AU das) Keks
das (also der) Knäuel
das (CH, Rl der) Liter
das (AU, CH der) Match
der (also das) Meteor
das (AU der) Polster
der (CH das) Pyjama
das (S der) Radio
der (also das) Sims
das (CH der) Taxi
der (also das, Rl die) Joghurt das (Rl der) Virus
A few words have more complex variation:
Meter is nowadays usually masculine (i.e. der Meter), but, especially in R3a,
is quite commonly neuter (i.e. das Meter). Most compounds have the
same variation, but there are exceptions:
always masc: der Kilometer, der Gasometer
always neuter, das Barometer, das Thermometer
Mut is masculine, but some of its compounds are feminine:
masc: Freimut, Gleichmut, Hochmut, Kleinmut, Ubermut, Unmut
fem: Anmut, Armut, Demut, Großmut, Sanftmut, Schwermut,
Wehmut
Teil is nowadays always masculine in all its meanings, except in a few set
phrases where it is neuter, i.e.:
ich für mein (or: meinen) Teil
Er hat sein (or: seinen) Teil getan
It is neuter, too, in the sense of'detached part', esp in technical R3b:
jedes einzelne Teil
Its compounds are also usually masculine, except for the following:
das Abteil, das Einzelteil, das Ersatzteil, das Gegenteil, das Urteil
das (also der) Oberteil; das (legal R3b der) Erbteil
der/das Blackout der/das Deal
der/das Break der/die Forehand
der/das Cartoon der/das Go-slow
With many recent loan-words from English, no gender has yet become
established. The majority (over 60 per cent) are masculine and most of
the rest are neuter, but many show variation, e.g.:
3.2 Nouns: case
der/das Ketchup
der/das Looping
der/die Parka
der/das Plaid
der/das Radar
die/das Soda
The grammatical category of case relates to endings on nouns,
pronouns, adjectives and determiners which indicate the role played by

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
a noun phrase in the sentence. In English this is usually shown by the
position of the noun phrase before or after the verb, and English
learners need to be aware of this crucial difference between the
languages and, when they are reading or listening to German, get used
to paying attention to these endings rather than the position of the
noun phrase.
Case in German is most often shown through the endings of
determiners (especially the definite and indefinite articles) and
adjectives rather than endings on the noun itself. For most nouns the
only endings in modern German are:
(i) Masculine and neuter nouns add in the genitive singular.
(ii) is added in the dative plural if possible (i.e. if the plural does not
end in -n or -s).
singular plural singular plural
nominative der Vater die Väter das Kind die Kinder
accusative den Vater die Väter das Kind die Kinder
genitive des Vaters der Väter des Kind(e)s der Kinder
dative dem Vater den Vätern dem Kind den Kindern
There are a few exceptions to this pattern, and these are outlined in
3.2.1-4.
3.2.1 'Weak' masculine nouns
About 10 per cent of masculine nouns (mostly denoting living beings)
have the ending -(e)n in the plural and in the genitive, dative and
accusative singular.
• Most of these nouns end in -e.
der Kollege die Kollegen
des Kollegen der Kollegen
dem Kollegen den Kollegen
den Kollegen die Kollegen
• Those that do not end in -e often decline regularly in the singular in
spoken Rl, although this is regarded as 'incorrect' in written R2 and
R3.
Rl R2/R3
der Bär der Bär
des Bärs des Bären
dem Bär dem Bären
den Bär den Bären

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
Similarly: der Automat, der Bauer, der Bunch, der Fürst, der Graf, der
Held, der Hirt, der Kamerad, der Mensch, der Planet, der Prinz, der
Soldat, der Typ and many nouns ending in -ant, -ent, -ist like der
Student and der Komponist.
NOTE: der Nachbar and der Oberst always have -n in the genitive
singular in all registers, e.g. des Nachbarn, but often lack it in the dative
and accusative singular, especially in Rl, e.g. dem, den Nachbar (for
R2/R3 dem, den Nachbarn).
The singular endings are omitted in R2 and R3 if the noun has no
article or adjective with it:
die Gemeinsamkeit zwischen Mensch (not Menschen) und Tier
eine Herde ohne Hirt (not Hirten)
Some nouns have now switched entirely to a regular singular in all
registers, though older R3a may use weak endings, i.e.: der Nerv,, der
Papagei, der Pfau, der Spatz, der Vetter, e.g.:
der Vetter, des Vetters (R3a: des Vettern), die Vettern
der Herr has the ending -n in the singular, but -en in the plural:
der Herr die Herren
den Herrn die Herren
des Herrn der Herren
dem Herrn den Herren
3.2.2 'Mixed' nouns
Eight masculine nouns have a mixture of weak and regular endings and
are known as 'mixed' nouns, e.g.:
der Name
des Namens
dem Namen
den Namen
die Namen
der Namen
den Namen
die Namen
The other nouns of this type are: der Buchstabe, der Friede, der Funke,
der Gedanke, der Glaube, der Same, der Wille. However, with some of
these nouns, forms with a final -n in the nominative singular (e.g. der
Frieden rather than der Friede) are now more frequent in all registers
than the forms without -n. This applies to der Frieden, der Funken and
der Samen. The neuter noun Herz has a similar irregular pattern:
das Herz
des Herzens
dem Herzen
das Herz
die Herzen
der Herzen
den Herzen
die Herzen

3.2.3 The dative ending -e
Masculine and neuter nouns of one syllable sometimes add the ending
-ie in dative singular, e.g.:
dem Manne, dem Kinde, dem Bilde, dem Tische
This ending -e is restricted to R3a and it has become rather unusual
even there since the 1930s. However, it is still normal in a few set
phrases and idioms, e.g.:
• Always -e:
im Grunde genommen
bei Lichte betrachtet
am Rande bemerkt
jdn zu Rate ziehen
• Usually -e in R2/R3, but often
im Falle
bis zu einem gewissen Grade
in hohem Grade
zum Halse heraushängen
nach Hause, zu Hause
von Hause aus
aus dem Jahre 1897
im Jahre 2005
unter Tage arbeiten
zu Werke gehen
im Zuge sein
no -e in Rl:
auf dem Lande
im Laufe des Tages
im Lichte
in gewissem Maße
im Sande verlaufen
im Schwünge sein
in diesem Sinne
zum Zuge kommen
3.2.4 The genitive singular ending -(e)s
(a) -es or -s?
The genitive singular of regular masculine and neuter nouns has the
ending -s or -es. The following general rules apply for this:
• Nouns ending in -s, -ß, -sch or -z always add -es, e.g.:
des Hauses, des Fußes, des Tisches, des Netzes
• Nouns of more than one syllable or those ending in a vowel usually add
e.g.:
des Königs, des Bürgertums, des Lehrers, der Autos, des Baus
• Nouns of one syllable ending in a consonant can have -es or -s, e.g.:
des Kinds/des Kindes des Tags/des Tages
The choice between these often depends on register, with the
ending -es usually felt to be more formal (and thus preferred in R3a,
even, sometimes, with nouns of two or more syllables). But -es is often
used more widely for reasons of rhythm or ease of pronunciation.

Omission of the genitive singular ending
In certain instances, the ending -(e)s is often dropped, i.e.:
with foreign nouns ending in -s, e.g.:
des Organismus, des Atlas (but always: des Busses, des Kongresses)
with abbreviations and other parts of speech used as nouns, although
with these the ending -s is sometimes found in R3, e.g.:
des Ich, des Aber, des LKW, des EKG (R3: des Ichs, des LKWs, etc.)
with many foreign nouns, especially in R3b with technical terms, words
seen as specific names, and names of artistic styles and epochs, e.g.:
des britischen Establishment, die Werke des Barock, der Gebrauch des
Dativ
with foreign geographical names, e.g.:
die Berge des High Peak
with names of the days of the week, seasons and months (although the
months in -er often retain the -5), e.g.:
des Montag, des Mittwoch, des Januar, des Herbst, des Mai, des
Oktober(s)
with prepositions if there is no article with the noun (however, the
ending is preferred in R3a in these contexts):
wegen Geldmangel (R3a: wegen Geldmangels)
with names preceded by article (R2 increasingly has -s here), e.g.:
des modernen Deutschland (R2: des modernen Deutschlands)
Usage with personal names
Personal names have the ending -s and come first, e.g.:
Sabines Fahrrad, Vatis Auto
With multiple names, the last one has the ending -s and the genitive
phrase can come before or after, e.g.:
Helmut Kohls Politik OR die Politik Helmut Kohls
If the name has a noun preceding it, the name has -s and the genitive
phrase can come before or after, e.g.:
der Sieg Kaiser Wilhelms OR Kaiser Wilhelms Sieg
When Herr is used with a surname, both decline, e.g.:
Herrn Paulis Einladung
In the combination article, noun and name, the noun and the article
decline, e.g.:
der Sieg des Kaisers Wilhelm
In the combination of a name with an article and an adjective, all three
decline, e.g.:
der Sieg Wilhelms des Zweiten

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
3.3 Verbs: strong and weak
There are two main classes of verb in German, the 'weak' verbs, which
have a -t- suffix in the past tense and the past participle, like machen -
machte - gemacht, and 'strong' verbs, which have vowel changes in the
past tense and often in the past participle, like singen - sang-gesungen.
The weak verbs are far more numerous, but the strong verbs include
many really common verbs.
3.3.1 Strong verb classes
Although there is no way of telling from the infinitive whether a verb is
strong or weak, and so no real alternative to learning which verbs are
strong, the strong verbs with their principal parts (i.e. the infinitive, the
past tense and the past participle) fall into recognizable groups which
can help you to remember them.
(a) Present tense in -eibleiben
to stay blieb
beißen to bite biss
(i) Like bleiben are:
leihen to lend
meiden to avoid
preisen to praise
reiben to rub
schreiben to write
schreien to cry out
(ii) Like beißen are:
erbleichen to turn pale
gleiten to glide
greifen to seize
kneifen to pinch
pfeifen to whistle
reißen to tear
reiten to ride
scheißen (Rl*) to shit
geblieben
gebissen
schweigen (R3) to be silent
steigen to climb
treiben to drive
verzeihen to excuse
weisen to show
schleichen to creep
schleifen to sharpen
schmeißen (Rl) to throw
schreiten (R3) to stride
streichen to stroke
streiten to argue
vergleichen to compare
weichen to yield
With slight variations on these patterns:
leiden to suffer litt gelitten
heißen to be called hieß geheißen
schneiden to cut schnitt geschnitten

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
(b)
Present tense in -ibinden
to bind
schwimmen to swim
(i) Like binden are:
dringen to penetrate
finden to find
gelingen to succeed
klingen to sound
ringen to wrestle
singen to sing
(ii) Like schwimmen are:
beginnen to begin
gewinnen to win
rinnen to runf flow
band
schwamm
With a slight variation on these patterns:
sitzen to sit saß gesessen
(c) Present tense in -iebiegen
to bend bog
Like biegen are:
bieten to offer
fliegen to fly
fliehen (R2/R3) to run away
fließen to flow
frieren to freeze
gießen to pour
kriechen to creep
With slight variations on this pattern:
liegen to lie
ziehen to pull
lag
zog
(d) Present tense in -ehelfen
to help half
geben to give gab
fechten to fence focht
(i) Like helfen are:
befehlen to order
bergen to hide
bersten (R3) to burst
brechen to break
empfehlen to recommend
erschrecken (R3) to be frightened
gelten to be valid
sprechen to speak
gebunden
geschwommen
sinken to sink
springen to jump
stinken to stink
trinken to drink
verschwinden to disappear
zwingen to force
sinnen (R3) to think
spinnen to spin
gebogen
riechen to smell
schieben to push
schießen to shoot
schließen (R2/R3) to shut
verlieren to lose
wiegen to weigh
gelegen
gezogen
geholfen
gegeben
gefochten
stechen to prick, sting
stehlen to steal
sterben to die
treffen to meet, hit
verderben to spoil
werben to advertise
werfen to throw

(ii) Like geben are:
fressen to eat (of animals)
genesen* to get better
geschehen to happen
lesen to read
(iii) Like fechten are:
bewegen* (R3) to move
flechten to plait
heben* to raise
scheren* to shave
messen to measure
sehen to see
treten to step
vergessen to forget
schmelzen to melt
schwellen to swell
weben to weave
With slight variations on these patterns:
essen to eat aß gegessen
nehmen to take nahm genommen
werden to become wurde (R3a: ward) geworden
All strong verbs in -e-, except those marked*, change the vowel in the
second and third person singular of the present tense (i.e. the du and
er/sie/es-forms) and the singular (i.e. the du-form) of the imperative. In
most cases the vowel is -i-, e.g.:
helfen: du hilfst; er/sie/es hilft; hilf!
geben: du gibst; er/sie/es gibt; gib!
With variation on this:
nehmen: du nimmst; er/sie/es nimmt; nimm!
werden: du wirst; er/sie/es wird; werde!
treten: du trittst; er/sie/es tritt; tritt!
Most verbs with a long -e- [ex] change this to long -ie- [i:], e.g.:
lesen: du liest; er/sie/es liest; lies!
sehen: du siehst; er/sie/es sieht; sieh!
NOTE: In Rl, there is often no vowel change in the imperative of these
verbs, e.g. geb!
Present tense in -afahren
to go, drive fuhr gefahren
fallen to fall fiel gefallen
(i) Like fahren are:
backen to bake
graben to dig
laden to load
schaffen to create
(ii) Like fallen are:
blasen to blow
braten to roast, fry
halten to hold
tragen to carry
wachsen to grow
waschen to wash
lassen to leave, let
raten to advise
schlafen to sleep

With a slight variation on these patterns:
fangen to catch fing gefangen
All these verbs, with the exception of schaffen, have umlaut in the
second and third person singular (i.e. the du and er/sie/es- forms) of the
present tense, e.g.:
fahren: du fahrst; er/sie/es fahrt
fallen: du fällst; er/sie/es fallt
With slight variation on this pattern (i.e. no ending in the third person
singular):
halten: er/sie/es hält
laden: er/sie/es lädt
raten: er/sie/es rät
NOTE: In S, umlaut is often missing with these verbs, e.g. er/sie/es
schlaft, etc.
(f) Other strong verbs
These do not fit into any
betrügen to deceive
erlöschen (R3) to go out
(fire, light)
gehen to go
hängen to hang
kommen to come
laufen to run
lügen to tell lies
rufen to call
saufen (Rl) to booze
schwören to smear
stehen to stand
stoßen to push
tun to do
3.2 Deceptive weak verbs
of the above patterns:
betrog betrogen
erlosch erloschen
ging
hing
kam
lief
log
rief
soff
schwor
stand
stieß
tat
gegangen
gehangen
gekommen
gelaufen
gelogen
gerufen
gesoffen
geschworen
gestanden
gestoßen
getan
(er erlischt)
(er läuft)
(er säuft)
(er stößt)
All compounds and derivatives of strong or irregular verbs follow the
same pattern of changes as the simple verb, so that, for example,
bekommen 'to get, receive' has the forms bekam and bekommen.
However, a few verbs look as if they are derived from strong verbs, but
they are not, and their forms are weak. The following are
common:

eantragen to apply for beantragte beantragt
begleiten to accompany begleitete begleitet
beinhalten (R3) to comprise beinhaltete beinhaltet
fehlen to lack fehlte gefehlt
handhaben to manipulate handhabte gehandhabt
veranlassen to cause veranlasste veranlasst
verleiden to spoil verleidete verleidet
3.3.3 Irregular weak verbs
A few verbs have the typical endings of weak verbs, but have vowel
changes, too:
brennen to burn
kennen to know
nennen to name
rennen to run
senden (R3) to send
wenden to turn
bringen to bring
denken to think
wissen to know
brannte
kannte
nannte
rannte
sandte/sendete
wandte/wendete
brachte
dachte
wusste
gebrannt
gekannt
genannt
gerannt
gesandt/gesendet (see 3.3.4)
gewandt/gewendet (see 3.3.4)
gebracht
gedacht
gewusst
The present tense of wissen is irregular in the singular:
ich weiß wir wissen
du weißt ihr wisst
er weiß sie wissen
Some verbs usually have a regular past tense, but a strong past
participle:
mahlen to grind mahlte gemahlen
salzen to salt salzte gesalzen
spalten to divide spaltete gespalten
3.3.4 Verbs with strong and weak forms
Some verbs have both strong (or irregular) and weak forms.
With most of these there is no difference in meaning, although there
are then usually register or regional restrictions in usage. With
several verbs, though, the weak and strong forms have different
meanings.

acken to bake
fragen to ask
hauen to hit
melken to milk
saugen to suck
schmelzen to melt
stecken to be stuck
weben to weave
wenden to turn
(a) Strong and weak forms with no difference in meaning
buk (R3) gebacken er bäckt
backte er backt (Rl, S)
frug (N, R3) gefragt er frägt (Rl, S)
fragte er fragt
hieb (R3)
haute
molk (R3a)
melkte
sog
saugte
schmolz
schmelzte (R3a)
stak (R3a)
steckte
wob (R3)
webte
wandte (R3)
wendete
gehauen
gehaut (S)
gemolken
gemelkt (Rl)
gesogen
gesaugt
geschmolzen
geschmelzt (R3a)
gesteckt
gewoben (R3)
gewebt
gewandt (R3)
gewendet
(weak and strong forms are
equally frequent; weak forms
esp in Rl and R3b)
(stak only in intransitive uses)
(b) Strong and weak forms with a difference in meaning
bewegen (R3) bewog bewogen to induce
bewegen bewegte bewegt to move
hängen hing gehangen to hang (intr)
hängen hängte gehängt to hang (tr)
erlöschen (R3) erlosch erloschen to go out (e.g. fire, light)
loschen löschte gelöscht to put sth out (e.g. fire, light)
erschrecken (R3) erschrak erschrocken to be frightened (intr)
erschrecken erschreckte erschreckt to frighten sb (tr)
schaffen schuf geschaffen to create
schaffen schaffte geschafft to manage (SW also: to work)
scheren schor geschoren to shear, shave
scheren scherte geschert to concern
schleifen schliff geschliffen to sharpen
schleifen schleifte geschleift to drag
senden (R3) sandte gesandt to send
senden sendete gesendet to broadcast
weichen wich gewichen to yield
weichen weichte geweicht to soak

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
3.4 Determiners and adjectives
In German it is above all the endings of determiners and adjectives to
indicate case, gender and number which show the role of a noun phrase
in the sentence. In this way, they are central to the way in which
German works, and learning to use them and recognize their function
is a crucial aspect of mastering the language. Until you do this, you will
not find it easy to express yourself properly or to understand spoken or
written German fully.
These endings are in no way as daunting as they might appear at first
sight. There is a clear system to them, and grasping this makes it much
simpler to acquire confidence in using them. In this section the
emphasis is on explaining this system, with notes on those aspects
which you need to pay most attention to and where usage is uncertain.
However, it must be emphasized that you can only learn them properly
through practice in real phrases and sentences, not through tables. The
endings of the articles in particular are absolutely vital, because, more
than any other endings, they show gender, case and number fully and so
provide the clues as to how the sentence is constructed and what it
means.
The determiner is typically the first word in a noun phrase, and the
underlying principle of German inflections is that if it has an ending
which shows gender, case and number clearly, then the following
adjective can have a less distinctive, 'weaker' ending (i.e. -e or -en). On
the other hand, if there is no determiner, or the determiner has no
ending, then the adjective has to have more distinctive ('strong')
endings, which are very like those of the definite article. Determiners
and adjectives thus back each other up in making it clear what gender,
case and number we are dealing with in any noun phrase.
3.4.1 Basic determiner endings
The endings of the demonstrative dieser show the basic set of
distinctive endings clearly.
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative dieser diese dieses diese
Accusative diesen diese dieses diese
Genitive dieses dieser dieses dieser
Dative diesem dieser diesem diesen
All German determiners have endings which are related to this basic
set. Many decline like dieser, i.e.:

aller all
einiger some
etlicher some
folgender the following
irgendwelcher some... or other
jeder each
A few are only used in the plural:
beide both viele many
mehrere several wenige a few
The endings of the definite article are like those of dieser, with slight
variations:
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative der die das die
Accusative den die das die
Genitive des der des der
Dative dem der dem den
The indefinite articles ein and kein and the possessives mein, dein, sein,
unser, euer and ihr decline like dieser except that they have no ending in
the nominative singular masculine and neuter, and the accusative
singular neuter, e.g.:
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative mein meine mein meine
Accusative meinen meine mein meine
Genitive meines meiner meines meiner
Dative meinem meiner meinem meinen
3.4.2 Basic adjective endings
The basic principles are as follows:
jener that
mancher some
sämtlicher all
solcher such
welcher which
(i) If an adjective is used alone with a noun (i.e. it is not following a
determiner), then it has endings like dieser. These are called the 'strong'
adjective endings:
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative guter Wein gute Suppe gutes Brot gute Weine
Accusative guten Wein gute Suppe gutes Brot gute Weine
Genitive guten Weines guter Suppe guten Brotes guter Weine
Dative gutem Wein guter Suppe gutem Brot guten Weinen

Nominative
Accusative
Genitive
Dative
The only difference between these 'strong' adjective endings and those
of dieser is in the genitive singular masculine and neuter, which is -en
rather than -es. In practice, this only occurs in R3.
(ii) Adjectives preceded by a determiner which has no ending also have these
'strong' endings, e.g.:
mit viel kaltem Wasser manch braver Mann solch hartes Los
This applies particularly to the endingless forms of the indefinite
articles ein and kein, and the possessives mein, unser, etc.:
ein runder Tisch ein kleines Schiff kein neues Haus
mein neuer Mantel dein langes Ohr sein krankes Herz
unser treuer Hund euer altes Auto ihr rotes Kleid
(iii) On the other hand, when the adjective follows a determiner with an
ending, it has the less distinctive ('weak') endings -e (in the nominative
singular and the accusative singular feminine and neuter) or -en (in all
other cases).
Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
der neue Tag
den neuen Tag
des neuen Tages
dem neuen Tag
die blaue Luft
die blaue Luft
der blauen Luft
der blauen Luft
das weite Tal
das weite Tal
des weiten Tals
dem weiten Tal
3.4.3 Uncertainties and variation in current usage
There is some variation in current usage in a few contexts:
die weiten Täler
die weiten Täler
der weiten Täler
der weiten Tälern
• aller, mancher, solcher, welcher nowadays usually have the ending -en in
the genitive singular masculine and neuter if the noun has the
ending -(e)s. In practice this only occurs in written R3, e.g.:
trotz allen Eifers Er erinnerte sich manchen Tages
solchen Gedankens welchen Fortschritts
jeder is tending to follow the same pattern, if not always, i.e.:
am Ende jeden Abschnitts OR am Ende jedes Abschnitts
• When there is more than one adjective before a noun they all have the
same ending, e.g.:
bei nachhaltender, andauernder Wirkung
However, in the dative singular masculine and neuter, a second
adjective sometimes has -en in R3, e.g.:
mit unverantwortlichem individuellem Fehlverhalten (more usual)
mit unverantwortlichem individuellen Fehlverhalten (frequent R3)
• After a pronoun the strong endings are the rule, e.g.:
du armer Bursch mit mir jungem Kerl

However, the ending -en is usual after wir and ihr, e.g.:
wir fremden Leute ihr lieben Kinder
An adjective after uns and euch usually has the ending -e, e.g.:
das geht uns Deutsche an gegen euch arme Leute
Colour adjectives ending in a full vowel are not usually declined in R2
and R3, e.g.:
ein rosa Kleid ein lila Hemd
But they often are declined in Rl, usually with an -n- after the vowel,
e.g.:
ein rosanes Kleid ein lilanes Hemd
Adjectives in -er from city names are never declined, e.g.:
die Frankfurter Messe die Berliner Autobahn
The declension of adjectives after some indefinites is subject to
variation and uncertainty in all registers. Current usage in the plural,
where these words are most often found, is as follows:
alle, beide, sämtliche are usually followed by adjectives with weak
endings, e.g.:
alle fremden Truppen
aller fremden Truppen
allen fremden Truppen
In R3 the genitive plural occasionally has the strong ending -er, e.g.:
aller fremder Truppen
solche and irgendwelche can be followed by weak or strong endings.
The weak endings are more common, e.g.:
solche guten (gute) Freunde
solcher guten (guter) Freunde
solchen guten Freunden
manche can be followed by weak or strong endings. The strong endings
are more common, e.g.:
manche gute (guten) Freunde
mancher guter (guten) Freunde
manchen guten Freunden
einige, etliche, folgende, mehrere, viele, wenige are usually followed
by strong endings, e.g.:
viele gute Freunde
vieler guter Freunde
vielen guten Freunden
In R3 the genitive plural is occasionally weak, e.g.:
vieler guten Freunde
Some determiners can be used in combination with others. In this case
the second of them normally declines like an adjective. The following
such combinations are common:

die beiden ...
both ... ,the two ...
die folgende ...
the following...
ein jeder (...)
any (.. .) (see 3.5.6)
der meine, etc.
mine, etc. (see 3.5.3)
der sämtliche ...
all the...
ein solcher ...
such a ... (see 3.5.6)
viele solche ...
many such ...
die vielen ...
the many...
die wenigen ...
the few...
einige wenige ...
a few...
die beiden Postkarten
diese beiden Postkarten
die folgende Erläuterung
die folgenden Worte
eines jeden Pastors
einer jeden Mutter
das meine, dem deinen
der Ihre, den unseren
das sämtliche Geld
mein sämtliches Geld
ein solches Wetter
einem solchen Beträger
viele solche Menschen
vieler solcher Versuche
die vielen Anwesenden
dieser vielen Reisen
die wenigen Besucher
der wenigen Schallplatten
einiger weniger Großstädte
einigen wenigen Stunden
With declined alle, however, the second word keeps its own declension
(see 3.5.6):
alle die ...
all the...
alle meine ..., etc.
all my... , etc.
.4 Adjectives as nouns
alle die Bände
alle diese Operationen
alle meine Freunde
allen Ihren Träumen
In German almost any adjective can be used as a noun. This is not
possible in English, where we have to use adjectives with 'dummy'
nouns such as man, woman, person, people, one, things to express the
same idea, e.g.:
der Alte the old man Abwesende people absent
die Alte the old woman die Zuhörenden the people listening
das Wichtige the important thing ein Singender someone singing
Wichtiges important things das Grüne the green one
All adjectives used as nouns keep their adjective endings. It is
important to realize the difference between these and 'weak' masculine
nouns (see 3.2.1). Compare the endings for der Fremde 'the stranger',
ein Fremder 'a stranger' with those of der Kollege 'the colleague' and ein
Kollege 'a colleague':

Singular Plural Singular Plural
der Fremde die Fremden der Kollege die Kollegen
den Fremden die Fremden den Kollegen die Kollegen
des Fremden der Fremden des Kollegen der Kollegen
dem Fremden den Fremden dem Kollegen den Kollegen
ein Fremder Fremde ein Kollege Kollegen
strangers colleagues
einen Fremden Fremde einen Kollegen Kollegen
eines Fremden Fremder eines Kollegen Kollegen
einem Fremden Fremden einem Kollegen Kollegen
Similarly: einige Fremde 'some strangers', alle Fremden 'all (the)
strangers', solche Fremde(n) 'strangers like that', etc.
Many of these adjectives used as nouns are the equivalent of ordinary
nouns in English, and the following are very frequent. In most
instances they can be used as masculine or feminine with an
appropriate article, e.g.: der Fremde, 'the (male) stranger', die Fremde,
'the (female) stranger'. The exception to this is die Beamtin, 'the
(female) civil servant'.
der/die Abgeordnete representative
Angestellte employee
Arbeitslose unemployed person
Bekannte acquaintance
Deutsche German
Einheimische local person
Erwachsene adult
Freiwillige volunteer
Gefangene prisoner
Geistliche clergyman
Gelehrte scholar
der/die Gesandte (R3) emissary
Geschworene jury member
Heilige saint
Industrielle industrialist
Jugendliche (R3b) young person
Reisende traveller
Verlobte fiance(e)
Verwandte relative
Vorbeigehende passer-by
Vorgesetzte superior
Vorsitzende chair (of meeting)
A few adjectival nouns are always feminine:
die Linke the left (side), (political) left
die Rechte the right (side), (political ) right
die Illustrierte 'the magazine' is most often treated as a feminine
adjectival noun, e.g. in dieser Illustrierten. In the plural, though, it can
have the endings of an adjective or of a regular feminine noun, e.g. Wir
haben zwei Illustrierte/Illustrierten gekauft.
A few adjectival nouns are always neuter:
das Außere/ das Innere the outside/inside
das Freie the open (air)
Gehacktes mince
In Rl, the names of German regions are often given by using a neuter
adjective:
das Bayerische Bavaria
im Hessischen in Hesse

An adjective after the indefinites alles, etwas, viel and nichts is treated as
an adjectival noun (with the appropriate endings) and spelled with a
capital letter:
alles Gute all good things dative: allem Guten
etwas Gutes something good dative: etwas Gutem
viel Gutes many good things dative: viel Gutem
nichts Gutes nothing good dative: nichts Gutem
Names of languages usually appear in the form of a neuter adjective.
In most cases this is not declined, e.g.:
Wir lernen Spanisch, Französisch, Russisch, Englisch
In Hannover soll man das beste Deutsch sprechen
der Unterschied zum heutigen Deutsch
die Aussprache des modernen Deutsch
If it is used with a definite article and no other adjective, names of
languages are declined, e.g.:
Das Englische ist dem Deutschen verwandt
eine Ubersetzung aus dem Italienischen
Names of colours are dealt with similarly and do not usually decline,
e.g.:
das Grün der Wiesen
von einem glänzenden Rot
in Blau gekleidet
ein hässliches Gelb
Only in a few set phrases with the definite article are these colour
adjectives declined, e.g.:
ins Grüne fahren
ins Schwarze treffen
das Blaue vom Himmel herunter versprechen
Es ist das Gelbe vom Ei
3.5 Other words that decline: forms and uses
3.5.1 Demonstratives
The most frequent common demonstrative pronoun and determiner in
spoken Rl and R2 is der, i.e. a stressed form of the definite article. As a
determiner (i.e. when it is used with a following noun) it declines like
the definite article (see 3.4.1). As a pronoun (i.e. when it is used on its
own to refer back to a previously mentioned noun) it declines as
follows. Note the highlighted differences to the declension of the
definite article:

Masculine Feminine Neuter Plural
Nominative der die das die
Accusative den die das die
Genitive dessen deren/derer dessen deren/derer
Dative dem der dem denen
• In spoken Rl der is used as the equivalent of both English this and
that, e.g.:
der Tisch this table OR that table
Den mag ich nicht I don *t like this one/that one
• In Rl da and hier are often added for clarity or emphasis, e.g.:
der Tisch hier this table
der Tisch da that table
der da, der hier that one, this one
• In Rl der is often used instead of a personal pronoun, e.g.:
Die kommt heute nicht (R2: Sie kommt heute nicht)
• In Rl the genitives dessen or deren can be used instead of a possessive,
e.g.:
deren Kleid (R2: ihr Kleid)
dessen Frau (R2: seine Frau)
• In R3, the genitive can be used to replace an ambiguous possessive,
e.g.:
Manfreds Freund und dessen Bruder (i.e. the friend*s brother, NOT
Manfred's brother)
• The genitive plural derer is normally used (in R3) only before a
following relative pronoun (but see 3.5.2):
die Ansichten derer, die nicht anwesend waren
Otherwise deren is normal, e.g.: ihre Freunde und deren Kinder
• In written German (R2/R3) the determiner der could be confused
with the definite article, and so it is used less, although it is not
unknown. In these registers the usual demonstrative is dieser (see
3.4.1), which is used for both this and that, e.g.:
dieser Tisch this table OR that table
• jener, 'that', is restricted to R3, and is not common even there. It is
mainly used only:
(i) to contrast with dieser, e.g.:
Herr Schröder wollte nicht dieses alte Buch kaufen, sondern jenes
(ii) for something well known, especially if a relative pronoun follows,
e.g.:
die Ruinen jener Paläste, welche die deutschen Kaiser bauten

• For emphatic that, derjenige is increasingly frequent, especially in R3b,
either as a pronoun or an adjective. Both parts decline, e.g. denjenigen,
dasjenige, etc. It is used most when a relative clause follows, e.g.:
diejenigen, die ich traf
einige von denjenigen Büchern, die ich in der Schule lesen musste
• Usage with a following relative pronoun (= that which, etc.) is as
follows:
(i) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun der is common
in R2 and R3, despite the repetition:
die, die ich kaufen wollte
einige von denen, die gekommen sind
(ii) Demonstrative der followed by the relative pronoun welcher is
restricted to old-fashioned R3a
die, welche ich kaufen wollte
(iii) Frequent in R3b (and not uncommon in spoken Rl) is derjenige
followed by the relative pronoun der, e.g.:
diejenigen, die ich kaufen wollte
3.5.2 Relative pronouns
Relative pronouns introduce subordinate clauses (called 'relative
clauses') which describe or qualify nouns, e.g. die Frau, die heute kommt
'the woman who is coming today'; das Buch, das ich gerade lese 'the
book which/that I am just reading'.
NOTE: In English, we often drop a relative pronoun, especially in
speech (The book (which) I am just reading), but in German it can never
be left out like this.
The common relative pronoun in German in all registers is der,
which has exactly the same forms as the demonstrative pronoun (see
3.5.1). It takes the gender and number of the noun it refers to:
der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (masculine)
die Frau, die in die Stadt geht (feminine)
das Kind, das in die Stadt geht (neuter)
die Leute, die in die Stadt gehen (plural)
The case indicates the role the relative pronoun plays in the relative
clause:
der Mann, der in die Stadt geht (nominative subject of geht)
der Mann, den ich kenne (accusative object of kennen)
der Mann, dem ich helfen musste (dative object of helfen)
der Mann, dessen Buch ich geliehen habe (genitive indicating
possession [= whose])

Further information on relative clauses and relative pronouns:
welcher is occasionally used as a relative pronoun in R3a, but it can
sound old-fashioned:
usual R3: der Herr, der gestorben ist
less frequent R3a: der Herr, welcher gestorben ist
In the genitive plural and genitive singular feminine, deren is in
practice less common than derer, which purists consider incorrect, e.g.:
Correct R3: die Autorität, deren sich die Bischöfe in Polen
erfreuen
More frequent R3: die Autorität, derer sich die Bischöfe in Polen
erfreuen
was is used as a relative pronoun after alles, etwas, nichts, viel, das,
neuter adjectives used as nouns and to refer to whole clauses, e.g.:
alles, was er hörte
etwas, was ihm fehlte
das Beste, was sie gesehen hatte
Er sah mich nie direkt an, was ich nicht leiden konnte
In Rl das and was are often used interchangeably, e.g.:
das Zeug, was (R2: das) man da kriegt
etwas, das (R2: was) nicht stimmt
der is now the usual relative in all registers after prepositions when
referring to things. Using the compound wo + preposition in such
contexts is now restricted to old-fashioned R3a, e.g.:
usual: das Haus, in dem wir wohnten der Tisch, auf dem das
Buch lag
older R3a: das Haus, worin wir wohnten der Tisch, worauf das
Buch lag
In these contexts Rl often uses wo with the prepositional adverb, e.g.:
der Tisch, wo die Blumen drauf stehen
The compound wo + preposition is used in those contexts where the
simple relative pronoun would be was (i.e. to replace preposition +
was), e.g.:
alles, worüber sie sprach
etwas, womit er uns schlagen konnte
wo is commonly used after time and place words in Rl and R2, although
R3a may prefer other possibilities, especially a preposition plus a
relative pronoun, or da, e.g.:
das Land, wo (R3a in dem) wir wohnen
am Tag, wo (R3a da OR an dem) er gekommen ist
zu einer Zeit, wo (R3a zu der OR da) der Kaiser noch mächtig war
jetzt, wo (R3a da) er fort ist

• As the equivalent to English what after a preposition, German needs to
insert an appropriate form of the demonstrative das, e.g.:
Er wusste nichts von dem, was mich dorthin geführt hatte.
He knew nothing of what had led me there.
3.5.3 Possessive pronouns
There are a number of possibilities corresponding to English mine,
yours, hers, etc., depending on register:
R1/R2: meiner mine; deiner yours; seiner hisf its; ihrer hers, theirs;
unserer ours; eu(e)rer yours; Ihrer yours
R3 der meine, der deine, etc.
der meinige, der deinige, etc.
meiner, etc. decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). This means that, unlike the
possessive determiner (see 3.4.1), they have the ending -er in the
nominative singular masculine and -es in the nominative and accusative
singular neuter, e.g.:
Das ist nicht mein Koffer, sondern seiner
Ist das Ihr Fahrrad oder sein(e)s?
Wollen wir mit eurem Wagen fahren oder mit unserem?
The second parts of der meine, der meinige, etc. decline like adjectives,
e.g.:
mit der ihrigen durch das meine von den unseren
3.5.4 Interrogatives
Interrogative words are used to ask questions:
WER? wer? 'who?' declines for case:
Nominative wer? who? Wer ist gekommen?
Accusative wen? whom? Wen hat sie gesehen?
Genitive wessen? whose? Wessen Buch hat sie geliehen?
Dative wem? to whom? Wem hat sie das Buch gegeben?
In practice wessen is limited to R3 and is scarcely used even there, e.g.:
R3 (rare): Wessen Bücher sind das?
R2: Von wem sind diese Bücher?
common in all registers: Wem gehören diese Bücher?

WO + preposition? is normally used in R2 and R3 for English preposition + what? In Rl a
preposition is often used with was, e.g.:
WO?
WOHIN?
WOHER?
womit? (Rl mit was?) with what?
worin? (Rl in was?) in what?
NOTE: WOZU? (Rl zu was?) what.. .for?
For English where?, German always distinguishes place (wo?) from
direction.
to (wohin?) and direction from (woher?), wohin? and woher? are often
split in Rl.
Place: Wo wohnen Müllers?
Direction towards: Wohin muss ich es stellen? (Rl Wo muss ich es
hinstellen?)
Direction from: Woher kann ich es nehmen? (Rl Wo kann ich es
hernehmen?)
WAS FÜR EIN? The equivalent of what sort of?, e.g.:
Er hat einen neuen Wagen. Was fur einer ist es?
Mit was fur einem Zug ist er gekommen?
The case of ein in was für ein? does not depend on fur (i.e. it is not
automatically accusative), but on the role of the phrase with was fiir
ein? in the sentence.
In Rl was is often separated fromßr ein, e.g.:
Was hat sie fur einen Mantel gekauft?
In Rl was fur? and welcher? are used interchangeably, e.g.:
Was fur ein Hemd ziehst du an? (which?; R2 welches)
Welcher Vogel ist das? (what sort of?; R2 was fur ein?)
3.5.5 mariy einer, jemand
MAN man, 'one', unlike its English equivalent, is common in all registers. It
does not decline, and einem and einen are used in the dative and
accusative, e.g.:
Man weiß nie, ob sie es gut mit einem meint
As a possessive, sein is used, e.g.:
Man kann sein Schicksal nicht ändern
It is never referred back to by er, but always repeated, e.g.:
Man dürfte meinen, dass man (not er) jetzt weiterkommen sollte

204 3 Words and forms
EINER
KEINER
JEMAND
NIEMAND
ALL-
einer, 'one', and keiner, 'none', used as pronouns (i.e. without a noun
following), decline like dieser (see 3.4.1). They thus have an ending in
the nominative singular masculine and nominative/accusative singular
neuter, unlike the indefinite article, e.g.:
eines von diesen wenigen modernen Häusern
einer der schnellsten Züge
mit keinem ihrer Freunde
They are often used to mean 'somebody' and 'nobody', especially in Rl
and S, e.g.:
Sie hat wohl keinen gesehen (R2 niemand)
Es wird schon einer kommen (R2 jemand)
jemand, 'somebody', and niemand, 'nobody', have dative and accusative
forms jemandem/niemandem and jemanden/niemanden. However, these
do not have to be used. The endingless forms are more common in the
dative and accusative in all registers, e.g.:
Ich habe niemand gesehen (less common niemanden)
Sie wird jemand geholfen haben (less common jemandem)
The declension of jemand (niemand) anders, 'somebody (nobody) else'
varies regionally:
N jemand anders jemand(en) anders jemand(em) anders
S jemand anderer jemand(en) anderen () eman< j anderem
l jemandem anderen
einer and keiner are commonly used in S and Rl to mean 'somebody'
and 'nobody'. In Rl, wer is a frequent alternative to jemand, e.g.: Es ist
wer an der Tür
3.5.6 Some indefinites
•
•
•
•
The basic meanings are 'all', 'everybody' or 'everything'.
alle = 'everybody', e.g. Alle sind gekommen
alle also means 'all gone' in Rl, e.g. Mein Geld ist alle
alles = 'everything', e.g. Wir wollen alles wissen
in Rl, with wer or was, alles emphasizes quantity, e.g.:
Wer will denn alles mit?
Was will er alles gesehen haben?
• das alles OR alles das = 'all that', e.g. Das alles/alles das geht uns
nichts an
In the dative we find dem allen, all(em) dem or (R3) allem, e.g. Von dem
allen/all(em) dem wissen wir ja gar nichts

• aller is used for 'all' in the singular in R3. It declines like dieser (see
3.4.1), e.g. ein Hotel mit allem modernen Komfort
• all der = 'all the'; all does not normally have any endings in the
singular, e.g.:
all das Geschwätz nach all der Mühe
It can be used with dieser and the possessives, e.g.:
nach all dieser Mühe nach all meiner Mühe
In the plural alle, all die or (esp Rl) alle die are common in the sense of
'all the'. There is no distinction in meaning between these:
alle Kinder all die Kinder (Rl) alle die Kinder
• alle can also be used with dieser or the possessives, e.g.:
alle diese Kinder alle meine Kinder
NOTE: in Rl die ganzen is used for 'all the': die ganzen Kinder
EINIGE einige and etliche both correspond to 'some' or 'any'. They decline like
ETLICHE dieser and are used most often in the plural.
JEDER
MANCH
• einige refers to a limited number, like English unstressed 'some' (or 'a
few'). It is very close in meaning to ein paar.
Ich wolte einige Ansichtskarten kaufen
Der Zug war voll und einige mussten stehen
• etliche typically implies more than the expected number. In this sense it
is similar in meaning to English 'several' or 'a fair number of. It is quite
frequent in all registers:
Den Schülern gelang es, etliche nette Bilder zu machen
Etliche dieser Stücke sind relativ leicht
jeder = 'everybody', 'anybody', e.g. Das weiß doch jeder
In Rl and R2 ein jeder is a more emphatic alternative in the sense of
'anybody', e.g. Da kann doch ein jeder lernen
mancher declines like dieser (see 3.4.1). It always has the meaning of
stressed 'some', i.e. 'a fair number, but by no means all'. This can be
close to English 'many a' or, in certain contexts, 'several', e.g.:
Mancher will es nicht wahrhaben
manche Arbeitslose
Undeclined manch, with ein or an adjective, is used in R3a, e.g.:
Manch einer hätte Mühe
manch reiches Land

SOLCH The German equivalents of English 'such (a)' vary with register.
Singular Plural
Rl: so ein (so'n): so ein Wetter Rl: so: so Gerüchte
R2: (ein) solcher: (ein) solches R2/R3: solche: solche Gerüchte
Wetter
R3: solch ein: solch ein Wetter
solcher used on its own declines like dieser (see 3.4.1); after ein it
declines like an adjective, e.g. bei einem solchen Wetter
VIEL/WENIG • These do not usually have endings in the singular, e.g.:
viel Lärm, viel Wasser
wenig Mühe, wenig Geld
• These are not usually declined in the plural, e.g.: viele Bauern, wenige
Politiker
• Declined forms are found in the singular:
(i) in older R3a, in the nominative and accusative feminine and neuter,
e.g. vieles Rauchen, viele Hoffnung
(ii) in a few idioms and phrases, e.g. vielen Dank, mit vielem Fleiß
WELCH •
Undeclined welch occurs in exclamations in R3 (for Rl Was fiir
ein... /), e.g. Welch fürchterlicher Tag!
Declined welcher is used as an interrogative pronoun or determiner, e.g.:
Welches Buch nimmst du?
Da sind die Bucher. Welches willst du nehmen?
• In Rl it is used as an indefinite pronoun (i.e. = 'some', 'any'), e.g.:
Ich habe schon welche
Soll ich dir Brot reichen? - Danke, ich habe welches

Rl= spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
4 Grammar: cases, tenses and moods
4.1
(i)
(ü)
(iü)
(iv)
Verbs and cases: valency
In German, the link between the verb and the other parts of the
sentence is provided mainly through the use of cases. In English, we
can tell who is doing what to whom from the order of the various
elements: first the subject, then the verb, and then the objects (in the
order indirect object - direct object). In a sentence like My sister gave
her friend Monika the tickets yesterday we cannot move the elements
round without saying something quite different, e.g.: Her friend gave
my sister that book yesterday. In German, though, we can move the
various elements around in the sentence (mainly for reasons of
emphasis, as explained in 5.1) without changing the essential
meaning:
Meine Schwester hat gestern ihrer Freundin Monika die Karten
gegeben
Ihrer Freundin Monika hat meine Schwester gestern die Karten
gegeben
Die Karten hat meine Schwester gestern ihrer Freundin Monika
gegeben
Meine Schwester hat die Karten gestern ihrer Freundin Monika
gegeben
Realizing how the cases work to form the framework of a sentence is an
important step in being able to use German effectively.
With different verbs we find different ways of expressing these links
to the rest of the sentence. Some verbs, like schlagen, have an accusative
object, others, like dienen, have a dative object, whilst some, likz geben in
the example above, have both an accusative (direct) object and a dative
(indirect) object. Finally, a large number of verbs, like warten, have a
construction with a preposition rather than a case. We can usefully
classify verbs in German in terms of what cases, etc. they 'govern' (i.e.
how sentences with them are constructed). This is called the 'valency'
of the verb. The valency of a verb is often related to its meaning, but
this is no sure guide. German provides many examples of verbs which

have very similar meanings but govern different cases or constructions,
e.g.:
to impress sb jdn beeindrucken
jdm imponieren
to congratulate sb jdn beglückwünschen
jdm gratulieren
to damage sth etw (dat) schaden
etw beschädigen
to laugh at sb jdn auslachen
über jdn lachen
As German uses cases to make the connections between the various
parts of the sentence clear, German verbs are often less flexible than
their English counterparts and restricted in the constructions which
they can be used in. It is not unusual to find that an English verb can be
used either transitively or intransitively, or with a person or a thing as
object, but that this is not always possible with the verb which appears
to have the same meaning in German. We often find that we have to use
different verbs or different sentence constructions for the different
uses of a single English verb. The following common examples
illustrate this:
answer She answered her friend
She answered the letter
climb The plane climbed (intr)
We climbed the mountain
cut He cut the meat
The paper cuts easily (intr)
drop I dropped the pencil
The stone dropped (intr)
feel She felt the pain
She feels ill
force He forced us to do that
He forced it from us
grow The child is growing (intr)
He grows flowers
keep We kept the book
These apples will keep (intr)
leave He left today (intr)
He left the town
open They opened the door
The door opened (intr)
Sie antwortete ihrem Freund
Sie beantwortete den Brief
Sie antwortete auf den Brief
Das Flugzeug stieg
Wir bestiegen den Berg
Er schnitt das Fleisch
Das Papier lässt sich leicht schneiden
Ich ließ den Beistift fallen
Der Stein fiel
Sie fühlte den Schmerz
Sie fühlt sich krank
Er zwang uns das zu tun
Er erzwang es von uns
Das Kind wächst
Er züchtet Blumen
Wir behielten das Buch
Diese Apfel halten sich gut
Er fuhr heute ab
Er verließ die Stadt
Sie machten die Tür auf (R1/R2)
Sie öffneten die Tür (R2/R3)
Die Tür ging auf (R1/R2)
Die Tür öffnete sich (R2/R3)

sell We sold the books quickly
The books sold quickly (intr)
sink The ship sank (intr)
We sank the ship
stand It is standing in the corner
She stood it in the corner
wake up We woke up (intr)
He woke us up
walk We walked home (intr)
He walked her home
wash I washed at seven (intr)
I washed the dog
Wir verkauften die Bücher schnell
Die Bücher verkauften sich schnell
Das Schiff sank
Wir versenkten das Schiff
Es steht in der Ecke
Sie stellte es in die Ecke
Wir wachten auf/(R3) erwachten
Er weckte uns/(R3) erweckte uns
Wir gingen nach Hause
Er brachte (R3 begleitete) sie nach
Hause
Ich habe mich um sieben gewaschen
Ich habe den Hund gewaschen
Many further similar examples may be found in 2.1.1. In many
instances a transitive verb can be formed from an intransitive verb with
the prefix be- (see 2.3.4).
In the rest of this section we give lists of common verbs classified
according to the cases or prepositions they govern, concentrating
particularly on those which show differences from their usual English
equivalents, and on those which have different constructions with
different meanings.
This means that you should always remember German verbs in
typical constructions (e.g. einem etwas mitteilen, auf meinen Freund
warten, etc). To help you, German verbs in this book are usually given
with an indication of their valency, i.e. the sentence construction they
are used in.
4.1.1 Verbs governing the dative case
Many German verbs have an object in the dative case, but no accusative
object. There is no direct equivalent to these in English, and you have
to learn which verbs 'govern' the dative case. With many of these verbs,
the dative object is a person who in some way benefits from the action
expressed in the verb (or is disadvantaged by it). The following are the
most typical common verbs which are used with a dative, and you
should make sure that you know them:
antworten to answer
begegnen (R3) to meet
danken to thank
dienen to serve
drohen to threaten
Der Junge hat mir auf meine Frage
geantwortet
Sie ist einem älteren Herrn begegnet
Ich danke Ihnen sehr fur Ihre Mühe
Er dient dem König von Schweden
Er drohte dem kleinen Jungen mit
einem Stock

einfallen to occur to sb
folgen to follow
gehorchen to obey
gehören to belong to
gratulieren to congratulate
helfen to help
nutzen to be of use
passen to suit
passieren to happen
raten to advise
schaden to harm
schmeicheln to flatter
trauen to trust
Zu diesem Thema fiel dem Mädchen
nichts ein
Er folgte ihr ins Exil
Sie gehorcht ihrem Vater
Dieser Wagen gehört dir doch nicht
Sie wollte ihrer Freundin zum
Geburtstag gratulieren
Er hilft seiner Mutter bei der Arbeit
Das nutzt ihnen doch gar nichts
Das neue Kleid passt dir gut
Was ist dir denn passiert?
Er wollte seinem Sohn raten lieber in
Gießen zu studieren
Rauchen schadet der Gesundheit
Damit hat sie dem Professor
schmeicheln wollen
Ich konnte meinen Augen nicht
trauen
Apart from these, it is a general rule that verbs with the prefixes bei-,
ent-, entgegen-, nach-, wider- and zu- have an object in the dative case
(though some have an object in the accusative as well, see 4.1.2, and
there are a few exceptions). For example:
jdm beistehen (R3) to stand
by sb
etw (dat) entsprechen to
correspond to sth
jdm entgegenkommen to
come to meet sb
jdm nachschauen to follow sb with one's
eyes
jdm widerfahren (R3) to befall sb
jdm/etw zuhören to listen to sb/sth
In a few verbs the German phrase in the dative case corresponds to the
subject of the closest equivalent verb in English:
etw entfallt mir I forget sth etw gelingt mir I succeed in sth
es fallt mir leicht I find sth etw reicht mir I have had
easy
enough of sth
etw fehlt/mangelt mir \ etw schmeckt mir I like sth
es fehlt/mangelt mir > / lack sth (food)
an etw )
etw gefallt mir I like sth etw tut mir Leid / am sorry
etw geht mir auf / realize sth about sth
With the following impersonal verbs, the phrase in the dative case
corresponds to an English subject. With the one exception indicated
below, these verbs are restricted to R3a.

mir bangt vor etw / am afraid of sth
mir (OR mich) ekelt vor etw / am disgusted by sth
mir (OR mich) graut vor etw I am terrified by sth
mir (OR mich) schaudert vor etw I tremble at sth
mir schwindelt (R2) / feel dizzy
4.1.2 Verbs governing the dative and the accusative cases
Many German verbs, typically verbs of giving and taking, have an
accusative ('direct') object (usually a thing) and a dative ('indirect')
object (usually a person), e.g. Ergab seinem Onkel (dat) das Geld (acc).
It is always helpful to remember them as einem etwas verbs. With one
or two rare exceptions (i.e. the verbs kosten and lehren), if there are two
objects with a verb in German, one will be in the accusative and one in
the dative, i.e. you should never have two accusatives in the same clause.
The German dative often corresponds to an English prepositional
phrase with to, e.g. He gave the money to his uncle. In German the
indirect object is indicated simply by the dative case, and no
preposition is needed, i.e. you do not say * Er gab das Geld zu seinem
Onkel in German.
• There are too many einem etwas verbs in German to list in full here, and
you should consult your dictionary if you are uncertain. Here are some
common examples:
anbieten to offer Die Firma hat mir eine Stelle
angeboten
empfehlen to recommend Ich kann dir diesen Film sehr
geben to give
leihen to lend
mitteilen to inform
nehmen to take
verweigern to refuse
empfehlen
Er hat seinem Freund das Buch
gegeben
Mein Bruder hat ihr sein Fahrrad
geliehen
Ich habe Ihnen meine neue Adresse
mitgeteilt
Wir haben ihr die Tasche genommen
Ich kann dir diese Bitte nicht
verweigern
• With some verbs the German dative and accusative construction is
different from that of the nearest English equivalent:
jdm etw ermöglichen to make sth possible for sb
jdm etw erschweren to make sth difficult for sb
jdm etw mitteilen to inform sb of sth
jdm etw nachmachen to copy sth from sb
jdm etw umbinden to tie sth round sb
jdm etw verschweigen not to tell sb about sth

Where the German phrase in the dative case is some kind of beneficiary
(i.e. = English for) it is increasingly common in German in all registers
to use a phrase with fur rather than a dative, e.g.:
Sie will ihr/für sie Blumen kaufen
Er hat uns/für uns die Tür aufgemacht
Die Mutter hat ihm/fur ihn eine Wurst gekocht
This is especially the case if there is ambiguity. The following sentence
could mean He wrote a letter to his father or for his father:
Er hat seinem Vater einen Brief geschrieben
But the following is quite clear:
Er hat für seinen Vater einen Brief geschrieben
With some verbs of sending, etc. a phrase with an (acc) can be used
rather than a phrase in the dative case. The effect is to emphasize the
person on the receiving end, e.g.:
Er schickte das Manuskript an die Universität Passau
Er verkaufte sein altes Fahrrad an meinen Freund Peter
Er schrieb einen Brief an seinen Vater
As you can see, using an can also resolve the kind of ambiguity
mentioned above.
Many verbs governing dative and accusative can be used with a dative
reflexive pronoun, e.g.:
Ich will mir Ruhe gönnen
Du erlaubst dir aber viel
Das hat er sich aber nicht verweigern wollen
With the following verbs a dative reflexive pronoun with an accusative
object is the usual construction in the meaning given:
sich (dat) etw aneignen to acquire sth
sich (dat) etw anmaßen (R3) to claim sth
sich (dat) etw einbilden to imagine sth
sich (dat) etw verbitten to refuse to tolerate sth
sich (dat) etw vornehmen to intend to do sth
sich (dat) jdn vornehmen (Rl) to have a word with sb
sich (dat) etw vorstellen to imagine sth
With some other verbs the reflexive pronoun is in the accusative case,
and there is an additional dative object in the given meanings:
sich jdm/etw anpassen to adapt to sb/sth
sich jdm/etw anschließen to join sb/sth
sich jdm/etw ergeben to give in to sb/sth
sich jdm/etw fugen (R3) to bow to sb/sth
sich jdm/etw nähern to approach sb/sth
sich jdm/etw widersetzen (R3) to oppose sb/sth

Verbs with a
genitive object
alone
Verbs with a
genitive
object and an
accusative object
Reflexive verbs
with a genitive
object
4.1.3 Verbs governing the genitive case
The use of a genitive object with verbs, e.g.: Sie erinnerte sich dieses
Tages 'She remembered that day', is quite rare in modern German. In
general such constructions are only found in R3, and many such verbs
are peculiar to legal R3b. Below you find a list of the verbs which are
still used with a genitive object in R3, together with the equivalent
constructions which are used in their place in R2.
R3 R2
jds/etw (gen) bedürfen to need sb/sth
jds/etw (gen) gedenken to think of
sb/sth
jds/etw (gen) harren to wait for
sb/sth
jdn etw (gen) anklagen to accuse sb of
sth
jdn etw (gen) berauben to rob sb of sth
jdn etw (gen) versichern to assure sb
of sth
sich jds/etw (gen) annehmen to look
after sb/sth
sich etw (gen) bedienen to make use
of sth
sich jds/etw (gen) bemächtigen to
take hold of sb/sth
sich jds/etw (gen) entsinnen to
remember sb/sth
sich etw (gen) erfreuen to enjoy sth
sich jds/etw (gen) erinnern to
remember sb/sth
jdn/etw brauchen
an jdn/etw denken
auf jdn/etw warten
jdn wegen etw anklagen
jdm etw rauben
jdm etw versichern
sich um jdn kümmern
etw benutzen
jdn/etw in seine Gewalt
bringen
sich an jdn/etw erinnern
etw genießen
sich an jdn/etw erinnern
sich etw (gen) rühmen to pride oneself auf etw stolz sein
on sth
sich jds/etw (gen) schämen to be sich wegen jds/etw schämen
ashamed of sth
A few other verb constructions with the genitive are found in set
phrases. They are mainly restricted to R3, e.g.:
der Gefahr nicht achten to pay no heed to danger
jemanden eines Besseren belehren to teach someone better
sich eines Besseren besinnen to think better of something
jeder Beschreibung spotten to beggar description
jemanden des Landes verweisen to expel someone from a country
seines Amtes walten to discharge one's duties
jemanden keines Blickes würdigen not to deign to look at someone

4.1.4 Verbs governing a prepositional object
Very many German verbs are followed by an object introduced by a
preposition, e.g. Sie hat auf mich gewartet 'She waited for me'. These
are quite different from usual prepositional phrases, as the preposition
involved loses its full meaning, and the choice of preposition depends
simply on the individual verb. It is always best for you to learn the
combination of verb and preposition as a whole. In this section we give
some of the commonest examples of German verbs used with
prepositional objects.
• Some common prepositions are sometimes followed by the accusative
case and sometimes by the dative case, depending on their meaning (see
2.5.3). However, only one of these cases usually occurs when these
prepositions are used in prepositional objects. For example, auf is
almost always used with a following accusative case in prepositional
objects, and vor with a following dative case.
• Many verbs are used with an accusative or dative object in addition to a
prepositional object, e.g. Sie hat ihn an seinem langen Bart erkannt 'She
recognized him by his long beard'. These verbs are clearly indicated in
the following lists, e.g.: jdn an etw erkennen 'to recognize sb by sth'.
• For the use of the prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r)-\- preposition) when
these verbs are followed by an infinitive phrase or a rfass-clause, see
4.1.5.
AN (+ dative) an is most often followed by the dative case in prepositional
objects, often with the idea of'in respect of, 'in connection with':
an etw arbeiten
jdn/etw an etw erkennen
an etw erkranken
an etw fehlen (see 4.1.1)
sich an jdm/etw freuen
jdn an etw hindern
jdn an etw interessieren
an etw leiden
sich an etw orientieren
an etw riechen
an etw sterben
an etw teilnehmen
an etw zweifeln
to work at sth
to recognize sb by sth
to fall ill with sth
to lack sth
to take pleasure in sb/sth
to prevent sb from (doing) sth
to interest sb in sth
to suffer from sth
to orientate o.s. by sth
to smell at sth
to die of sth
to take part in sth
to doubt sth
AN (+ accusative) an is used in a prepositional object with the accusative case after
a few verbs, which mainly denote mental processes:
an jdn/etw denken to think of sb/sth
jdn an jdn/etw erinnern to remind sb of sb/sth
sich an jdn/etw erinnern to remember sb/sth

sich an jdn/etw gewöhnen
an jdn/etw glauben
sich an jdn/etw halten
to get used to sb/sth
to believe in sb/sth
to stick to sth
AUF (+ dative) The dative case is used in prepositional objects with auf with a very
small number of verbs. They all express very clearly the idea of not
moving:
auf etw basieren (R3) to be based on sth
auf etw beharren (R3) to insist on sth
auf etw beruhen to be based on sth
auf etw bestehen to insist on sth
auf etw fußen (R3) to be based on sth
AUF (+ accusative)
FÜR
auf with the accusative case is
prepositional objects:
auf jdn/etw achten
auf jdn/etw aufpassen
etw auf etw beschränken
sich auf jdn/etw beziehen
auf etw drängen
auf jdn/etw folgen
sich auf etw freuen
auf etw hoffen
sich auf etw konzentrieren
auf etw reagieren
auf jdn/etw rechnen
sich auf etw spezialisieren
sich auf jdn/etw stützen
sich auf jdn/etw verlassen
auf etw verzichten
auf jdn/etw warten
auf jdn/etw zählen
etw auf etw zurückfuhren
the most frequent preposition used in
to pay attention to sb/sth
to keep an eye on sb/sth
to restrict sth to sth
to refer to sb/sth
to press for sth
to succeed sb/sth
to look forward to sth
to hope for sth
to concentrate on sth
to react to sth
to count on sb/sth
to specialize in sth
to lean, count on sb/sth
to rely on sb/sth
to do without sth
to wait for sb/sth
to count on sb/sth
to put sth down to sth
AUS aus usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects:
aus etw bestehen to consist of sth
etw aus etw entnehmen (R3) to infer sth from sth
sich aus etw ergeben to result from sth
etw aus etw folgern/schließen to conclude sth from sth
fur usually has the meaning 'for' in prepositional objects:
sich für etw bedanken to say thank you for sth
sich für etw begeistern to be enthusiastic about sth
jdm für etw danken to thank sb for sth
sich fur etw eignen to be suitable for sth

[FÜR] sich fur etw entscheiden
jdn/etw für etw halten
sich fur jdn/etw interessieren
IN (+ dative)
IN (+ accusative)
MIT
to decide on sth
to consider sb/sth to be sth
to be interested in sb/sth
in with the dative case is used in very few prepositional objects:
in etw bestehen to consist in sth
sich in jdm/etw täuschen to be mistaken about sb/sth
in is used with the prepositional object of a number of verbs with the
accusative case. Its meaning is very varied.
jdn in etw einfuhren to introduce sb to sth
in etw einwilligen to agree to sth
sich in etw ergeben (R3) to submit to sth
sich in jdn verlieben to fall in love with sb
sich in etw vertiefen to become engrossed in sth
mit usually has the meaning 'with' in
sich mit etw abfinden
mit etw anfangen/beginnen
mit etw aufhören
sich mit jdm/etw befassen
sich mit etw begnügen
sich mit jdm/etw beschäftigen
jdm mit etw drohen
mit jdm/etw rechnen
mit jdm telefonieren
mit etw übereinstimmen
sich mit jdm unterhalten
jdn/etw mit jdm/etw vergleichen
sich mit jdm verheiraten
jdn/etw mit etw versehen
mit etw zusammenstoßen
prepositional objects:
to be satisfied with sth
to begin/start (with) sth
to stop sth
to deal with sb/sth
to be satisfied with sth
to occupy o.s. with sth
to threaten sb with sth
to count on sb/sth
to telephone sb
to agree with sth
to converse with sb
to compare sb/sth to/with sb/sth
to get married to sb
to provide sb/sth with sth
to collide with sth
NACH In prepositional objects, nach often has the sense of'for' with
verbs of calling, asking, longing or seeking:
sich nach jdm/etw erkundigen
jdn nach etw fragen
nach etw greifen
nach jdm/etw rufen
nach jdm/etw schreien
sich nach jdm/etw sehnen (R3)
nach etw streben
nach jdm/etw suchen
nach jdm/etw verlangen
to enquire after sb/sth
to ask sb for sth
to grab for sth
to call for sb/sth
to shout for sb/sth
to yearn for sb/sth
to strive for sth
to search for sb/sth
to long for sb/sth

With verbs of smelling, etc., nach has the sense of'of
nach etw aussehen to look like sth
nach etw duften to smell (nicely) of sth
nach etw riechen to smell of sth
nach etw schmecken to taste of sth
ÜBER (+ accusative) über is always used with the accusative case in prepositional objects.
It is most often used with verbs of saying, etc. in the meaning 'about':
sich über jdn/etw ärgern to be annoyed about sb/sth
sich über jdn/etw freuen to be pleased at/about sb/sth
jdn über etw informieren to inform sb of/about sth
über jdn/etw lachen to laugh at sb/sth
über jdn/etw nachdenken to think about sb/sth
über jdn/etw spotten to mock sb/sth
über jdn/etw sprechen to talk about sb/sth
sich über etw streiten to argue about sth
über jdn/etw urteilen to judge sth
über etw verfugen to have sth at one's disposal
sich über jdn/etw wundern to be surprised at/about sb/sth
UM um commonly means 'concerning' or 'in respect of in prepositional
objects:
sich um jdn ängstigen to be worried about sb
sich um etw bemühen to take trouble over sth
jdn um etw beneiden to envy sb sth
jdn um etw betrügen to cheat sb out of sth
jdn um etw bitten to ask sb for sth
jdn um etw bringen to make sb lose sth
Es geht um etw It is a matter of sth
sich um etw handeln to be a question of sth
um jdn/etw kämpfen to fight about sth
sich um jdn/etw kümmern to take care of sb/sth
sich um jdn/etw sorgen to be worried about sb/sth
sich um etw streiten to argue about/over sth
VON von usually has the meaning 'of or 'from' in prepositional objects:
von jdm/etw abhängen to depend on sb/sth
jdm von etw abraten to advise sb against sth
von etw absehen to refrain from sth
jdn von etw befreien to liberate sb from sth
sich von etw erholen to recover from sth
von jdm/etw herrühren to stem, originate from sth
jdn von etw informieren to inform sb of sth
von jdm/etw sprechen to talk of sb/ sth
von jdm/etw träumen to dream of sb/sth
jdn von etw überzeugen to convince sb of sth
jdn von etw verständigen to inform sb of sth

VOR (+ dative) vor is always used with the dative case in prepositional objects. It
has the meaning 'of with verbs of fearing, etc.:
ZU
Angst vor jdm/etw haben
sich vor etw drücken (Rl)
vor jdm/etw ekeln
vor jdm/etw erschrecken (R3)
sich vor jdm/etw fürchten
sich vor jdm/etw hüten
sich vor jdm schämen
sich vor etw scheuen
jdn vor jdm/etw warnen
to be afraid of sb/sth
to dodge sth
to have a horror of sb/sth
to be scared by sb/sth
to be afraid of sb/sth
to beware of sb/sth
to feel ashamed in front of sb
to shrink from sth
to warn sb against sb/sth
vor often has the meaning 'from' with verbs of protecting, etc.:
jdn vor jdm/etw beschützen to protect sb from sb/sth
vor jdm/etw fliehen (R3) to flee from sb/sth
jdn vor etw retten to save sb from sth
zu has the meaning 'to' with
persuading, etc.:
jdn zu etw berechtigen
jdn zu etw einladen
jdn zu etw ermächtigen
jdn zu etw ermutigen
jdn zu etw herausfordern
jdm zu etw raten
jdn zu etw treiben
jdn zu etw überreden
jdn zu etw veranlassen
jdn zu etw verfuhren
jdn zu etw zwingen
verbs of empowering, leading,
zu with other verbs has a variety of meanings:
etw zu etw beitragen
zu etw dienen
sich zu etw eignen
sich zu etw entschließen
zu etw führen
zu etw gehören
jdm zu etw gratulieren
zu etw neigen
zu jdm/etw passen
jdn/etw zu etw rechnen
sich zu jdm/etw verhalten
jdn/etw zu etw zählen
to entitle sb to (do) sth
to invite sb to (do) sth
to empower sb to (do) sth
to encourage sb to (do) sth
to challenge sb to (do) sth
to advise sb to (do) sth
to drive sb to (do) sth
to persuade sb to (do) sth
to cause sb to (do) sth
to seduce sb into (doing) sth
to force sb to (do) sth
to contribute sth to sth
to serve as sth
to be suitable as sth
to decide (to do) sth
to lead to sth
to be one of sth, be part of sth
to congratulate sb on sth
to tend to sth
to suit sb/sth
to count sb/sth as one of sth
stand in a relationship to sb/sth
to count sb/sth as one of sth

4.1.5 Infinitive phrases and //^-clauses with verbs governing
a prepositional object
Verbs with a prepositional object are often followed by an infinitive
phrase or a rf^-clause. This is often anticipated in German by the
prepositional adverb (i.e. da(r) + preposition), e.g.:
Wir bestanden darauf, dass er die Rechnung sofort bezahlte
We insisted on his paying the bill immediately
Ich verlasse mich darauf, ihn morgen sprechen zu können
I am relying on being able to speak to him tomorrow
As you see from these examples, German puts things in a very different
way to how we do it in English (often with the -ing form of the verb,
see 5.3), and you need to learn how to recognize and use constructions
like this.
With some verbs, the prepositional adverb can be left out in
sentences like this, e.g.:
Sie hat sich nicht (davor) gescheut, ihm die Wahrheit zu sagen
Sie haben sich (darüber) gefreut, dass er gekommen ist
There are no precise rules about when the prepositional adverb is used
or not, and it is often left out with some common verbs. If it is used, it
tends to emphasize the following clause more strongly. In general, it is
more commonly included in R3, whilst it tends to be dropped more
often in Rl. The following list gives some of the most common verbs
with which the prepositional adverb is often omitted:
abhalten von
abraten von
Acht geben auf
anfangen mit
(sich) ärgern über
aufhören mit
aufpassen auf
beginnen mit
sich beklagen über
sich bemühen um
sich beschweren über
bitten um
sich ekeln vor
sich entscheiden für
sich entschließen zu
(sich) erinnern an
fragen nach
sich freuen auf/über
sich furchten vor
glauben an
hindern an
hoffen auf
sich hüten vor
klagen über
raten zu
sich scheuen vor
sich schämen über
sich sehnen nach
sorgen für
sich sorgen um
sich streiten über
träumen von
überzeugen von
urteilen über
sich wundern über
zweifeln an
In addition, the prepositional adverb can be omitted with all the
transitive verbs used with zu, like jdn zu etw ermutigen, which are listed
in 4.1.4.

4.1.6 Verbs with varying constructions
absehen jdn etw absehen
Many verbs can be used in more than one construction, most often with
a clear difference in meaning, register or usage, and some common ones
are given below in sentences illustrating the different constructions.
von etw absehen
achten etw achten
es auf jdn absehen (Rl)
auf jdn/etw achten
angeben etw angeben
angeben (Rl)
angehen angehen
etw angehen
jdn um etw angehen
jdn angehen (Rl)
ankommen ankommen
bestehen bestehen
mit etw ankommen
auf etw ankommen
etw bestehen
aus etw bestehen
Er hat mir diesen Kunstgriff abgesehen
He copied that trick from me
Ich sehe von etwas ab
I am refraining from sth
Sie hat es auf mich abgesehen
She 's got it in for me
Ich achte ihre Leistungen
I respect their achievements
Wir haben auf ihn geachtet
We paid attention to him
Sie müssen den Grund angeben
You must state the reason
Er hat gewaltig angegeben
He boasted dreadfully
Das Licht ging an
The light came on
Wie sollen wir diese Aufgabe angehen?
How are we to tackle this task?
Er ging mich um Unterstützung an
He asked me for support
Das geht dich nichts an
That's none of your business
Wir kommen gleich in Münster an
We shall shortly be arriving in Münster
Mit so einer Bitte kommst du bei mir nicht
an (Rl)
You won't get anywhere with me with a
request like that
Es kommt sehr auf das Wetter an
It depends a lot on the weather
Das Schloss besteht nicht mehr
The castle doesn 't exist any more
Er muss die Prüfung bestehen
He has got to pass the examination
Der Teller bestand aus reinem Gold
The plate was made of pure gold

in etw bestehen
auf etw bestehen
bringen jdm etw bringen
jdn auf etw bringen
es auf etw bringen
jdn um etw bringen
es zu etw bringen
jdn zu etw bringen
drängen jdn drängen
auf etw drängen
jdn zu etw drängen
sich eignen sich fur jdn eignen
sich zu etw eignen
sich ergeben sich jdm ergeben
folgen jdm folgen
sich in etw ergeben (R3)
sich aus etw ergeben
aufjdn/etw folgen
aus etw folgen
Das Problem besteht darin, dass wir es
nicht beweisen können
The problem lies in the fact that we can't prove
it
Sie besteht auf ihrem Recht
She is insisting on her right
Er hat mir die Äpfel gebracht
He brought me the apples
Sie hat mich auf diese Idee gebracht
She put this idea into my head
Er hat es auf 10 Punkte gebracht
He managed to get 10 points
Das hat mich heute um den Schlaf gebracht
That made me lose my sleep today
Sie haben es im Leben zu nichts gebracht
They achieved nothing in their lifetime
Das wird mich noch zur Verzweiflung
bringen
That will drive me to despair
Die Polizei drängte sie vorwärts
The police pushed them forward
Sie drängen auf Zahlung
They are pressing for payment
Sie drängte ihn zu dieser Entscheidung
She urged him to (take) this decision
Der Film eignet sich nicht fur Kinder
The film is not suitable for children
Er eignet sich nicht zum Lehrer
He is not suitable as a teacher
Er hat sich mir ergeben
He gave in to me
Sie haben sich in ihr Schicksal ergeben
They submitted to their fate
Das eine ergibt sich aus dem anderen
The one follows from the other
Sie ist ihm heimlich gefolgt
She followed him secretly
Auf Karl II. folgte Jakob II.
James II succeeded Charles II
Aus diesem Brief folgt, dass ...
It follows from this letter that.. .

sich freuen sich über jdn/etw freuen
gelten gelten
sich auf etw freuen
sich an jdm/etw freuen
als etw gelten
jdm gelten
halten halten
es gilt etw zu tun
jdn/etw halten
auf etw halten
von jdm/etw halten
zu jdm halten
kommen kommen
liegen liegen
jdn/etw für etw halten
auf etw kommen
hinter etw kommen
um etw kommen
viel/wenig an etw liegen
jdm liegen
an jdm liegen
Ich habe mich über seinen Erfolg gefreut
I was pleased about his success
Sie freut sich auf Ihren Besuch
She is looking forward to your visit
Er freut sich sehr an seinen Kindern
He gets a lot ofpleasure from his children
Diese Fahrkarte gilt nicht mehr
This ticket is no longer valid
Es darf als sicher gelten, dass ...
It may be regarded as certain that.. .
Diese Bemerkung galt mir
That comment was meant for me
Jetzt gilt es einen Entschluss zu fassen
Now it is necessary to reach a decision
Der Wagen hält nicht
The car is not stopping
Er hielt das Kind im Arm
He was holding the child in his arms
Ich halte sehr auf seine Meinung
I attach a lot of importance to his opinion
Ich halte viel von ihm
I think a lot of him
Du hast immer zu ihm gehalten
You 've always stood by him
Ich halte sie für eine Freundin
I consider her a friend
Heute kommt sie nicht
She 's not coming today
Wie bist du auf diese Idee gekommen?
How did you get that idea?
Ich bin hinter sein Geheimnis gekommen
I found out his secret
Er ist um ein Vermögen gekommen
He lost a fortune
Das Kind lag auf dem Boden
The child was lying on the floor
Es lag ihm viel an diesem Beruf
This job was very important to him
Diese Arbeit liegt mir nicht
I don y t like this work
An mir soll es nicht liegen
It shouldn 't be up to me

passen passen
jdm passen
zu etw passen
passieren etw passieren
passieren
rechnen auf jdn/etw rechnen
mit etw rechnen
zu etw rechnen
reichen wohin reichen
jdn etw reichen
jdm reichen
sich schämen sich wegen etw schämen
sich vor jdm schämen
sich fur jdn schämen
schließen etw schließen
stimmen stimmen
etw aus etw schließen
fiir etw stimmen
etw stimmen
Ich passe
I pass (at cards)
Das Kleid passt dir gut
The dress fits/suits you
Er passt nicht zum Lehrer
He 's not suited to be a teacher
Wir passierten die deutsche Grenze
We crossed the German border
Was ist dir gestern passiert?
What happened to you yesterday?
Ich rechne auf dich
I'm counting on you
Du musst mit dem Schlimmsten rechnen
You have to reckon with the worst
Sie rechnet ihn zu ihren Freunden
She counts him as her friend
Die Felder reichen bis zum Wald
The fields extend to the forest
Sie hat mir den Teller gereicht
She handed me the plate
Das Geld reicht mir nicht
I haven *t got enough money
Er schämte sich wegen seiner Feigheit
He was ashamed of his cowardice
Du sollst dich nicht vor ihm schämen
You don y t need to feel ashamed in front of him
Sie schämte sich für ihn
She was ashamed for him
Ich habe die Tür geschlossen
I have shut the door
Aus seinem Verhalten kann man auf seinen
Charakter schließen
You can deduce his character from his
behaviour
Stimmt das, was er sagt?
Is what he says correct?
Für diese Partei habe ich nicht gestimmt
I didn y t vote for that party
Ich muss die Gitarre stimmen
I've got to tune the guitar

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
4.2 Cases: dative and genitive
German has four cases, nominative, accusative, genitive and dative.
Their most important role is to show the relationship of noun phrases
to the verb, and this has been explained in 4.1. German prepositions are
also always followed by a noun phrase in a particular case as detailed in
2.5. The dative and genitive cases, though, have other uses, and these
are dealt with in this section.
4.2.1 Possessive dative
The dative has the widest range of all of the German cases, with many
idiomatic uses. One of the most important (which is quite different to
any English construction) is to mark possession.
To indicate possession with parts of the body, clothing, etc. German
often uses a dative of the person(s) concerned. The body-part, etc. then
has a definite article, not a possessive construction, e.g.:
Sie fuhr dem Jungen über das
Haar
Er sah ihr in die Augen
Dem Kranken wurde der
Blinddarm operiert
She ran her fingers through the
boy's hair
He looked into her eyes
The patient's appendix was
operated on
Especially in R3 this dative phrase can appear a long way from the
noun it refers to, e.g.:
Dem in seiner Zelle
The image of his father pressed
Eingeschlossenen drang sich itself into the memory of the man
das Bild des Vaters in die shut up in his cell
Erinnerung
When more than one person is involved, the singular of the noun will
be used if each person has one of each (see 3.1.6), e.g.:
Ihnen klopfte das Herz Their hearts were beating
Er hat uns das Leben gerettet He saved our lives
In most cases a construction with the genitive (at least in R3) or with a
possessive is possible in such contexts, e.g.:
Ich verband dem Kind die Hand j
I bandaged the child's hand
Ich verband die Hand des Kindes J
Ich verband ihm die Hand 1
I bandaged his hand
Ich verband seine Hand )
However, the construction with the dative case stresses that the whole
person is directly affected as well as the body-part specifically
mentioned, and it is usually preferred. In some contexts there may

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
be a clear difference in meaning. Compare the following pairs of
examples:
Regen tropfte ihm auf den Hut
Regen tropfte auf seinen Hut
Rehe liefen mir über den Weg
Rehe liefen über meinen Weg
(i.e. he was getting wet)
(here it is not clear whether he was
actually wearing it at the time)
(i.e. they startled me)
(i.e. across my path - not someone
else's)
With some verbs an accusative of the person involved is used rather
than a dative, e.g.:
Er hat mich/mir auf die Schulter He tapped me on the shoulder
geklopft
Die Biene hat ihn/ihm in den The bee stung his finger
Finger gestochen
Sie hat ihn/ihm ins Gesicht She laughed in his face
gelacht
It has been claimed that there is a distinction between the accusative
and the dative in such contexts, with the accusative emphasizing more
strongly that the person is directly affected. This is rarely adhered to
and in practice the two cases are used interchangeably with these verbs,
although the dative is usual in Rl. In R2 and R3 the accusative is
common with the following verbs:
beißen, küssen, stechen, stoßen
With the following verbs the accusative is sometimes found in R2 and
R3 but the dative is more frequent:
hauen, klopfen, schießen, schlagen, schneiden, treten
4.2.2 Genitive or van}
This section deals only with the use of the genitive case to link nouns;
its use with prepositions is covered in 2.5.4, with verbs in 4.1.3.
The use of the genitive case is very much dependent on register: the
more formal the register, the more it occurs, as the texts in 1.6
illustrate. It is widely used in R3 and it is particularly frequent in R3b,
but it is avoided entirely in Rl, except with names, e.g.:
Alfreds Tasche, Monikas Schwester, Angelikas Handschuhe,
Vatis Schuhe, Frau Mayers Bluse
A common alternative to the genitive is a phrase with the preposition
von, e.g.:
Rl: das Dach vom Haus
R2/R3: das Dach des Hauses
Although the genitive is used regularly in R3 and commonly in R2,
there are constructions where a construction with von must be used
even in the more formal registers, and others where it is quite frequent.

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
(a) von must be used, even in R3:
• if a noun stands by
itself, without any
article or adjective
which declines
• with personal pronouns
• after viel, wenig
(b) von is more usual than the genitive, even in R3:
to avoid consecutive
genitives in -s,
especially with names
if a noun has an
adjective, but no
article
with indefinite
pronouns
der Geruch von Benzin
die Wirkung von wenig Wein
eine Mutter von sechs Kindern
der Tod von Tausenden
der Vater von zwei Töchtern
(R3a also: der Vater zweier Töchter)
jeder von uns
eine Tante von mir
viel von dem, was sie sagte
wenig von dem guten Wein
die Tür von dem Haus meines
Bruders
die Ubersetzung von Goethes
Taust'
die Antwort von Martins Freund
der Bau von modernen Kraftwerken
ein Erzeugnis von höchster Qualität
die Produktion von reinem Stahl
der Preis von sechs neuen
Fahrrädern
eine Dauer von mehreren Jahren
in der Gesellschaft von einigen
Freunden
die Ansicht von vielen
Wissenschaftlern
(c) von is often found in R2 and R3, although more formal registers often
prefer the genitive:
• with words of quantity
in partitive
constructions
• with geographical
names
die Hälfte von diesem Buch
eines von diesen neuen Häusern
drei von unseren Nachbarn
ein Teil von den Zuschauern
viele von den Maßnahmen
die Zerstörung von Dresden
die Hauptstadt von Deutschland
das Alpengebiet von Kärnten
die Straßen von Frankfurt

(d) In other contexts R3 always has, and R2 usually has, a genitive, but in
Rl von is normally used:
Rl R2+R3
die Adresse von meiner Tante
in der Nähe vom Rathaus
das Dach von der alten Kirche
das Benehmen von den Kindern
die Abfahrt vom Zug
(e) von is even commonly used with names in Rl:
das Buch von (der) Petra
das Haus von (der) Frau Müller
(f) To express possession with persons, the most casual Rl often uses a
paraphrase with the dative. This construction is never used in higher
registers.
(S: dem) Jürgen seine Tasche
(S: der) Mutter ihr Schlüssel
meinen Freunden ihre Fahrräder
• The genitive case also occurs in a number of set phrases. Some of
these are used in less formal registers, as indicated:
letzten Endes (R2/R3) when all is said and done
allen Ernstes (R3) in all seriousness
meines Erachtens (R3) in my view
stehenden Fußes (R3) immediately
erhobenen Hauptes (R3) with his head held high
erster Klasse fahren (R2/R3) to travel first class
ich bin deiner Meinung (R2/R3) I agree with you
frohen Mutes (R3) in good spirits
er ging seines Weges (R3) he went his way
meines Wissens (R2/R3) to my knowledge
• The genitive also occurs in some time expressions which are used in
all registers:
eines Tages, Abends, Nachts, etc. one day, evening,, night, etc.
eines schönen Sommers one fine summer
4.2.3 The position of genitive phrases
die Adresse meiner Tante
in der Nähe des Rathauses
das Dach der alten Kirche
das Benehmen der Kinder
die Abfahrt des Zuges
In modern German, a phrase in the genitive case follows the noun it
qualifies, e.g.:
die Gefahr eines Erdbebens
die Hälfte meines Vermögens
die Kultur des Ostens
die Auswirkungen dieser schweren Krise

The only exception is with names, e.g.:
Manfreds Stereoanlage) nonml b a„ re^sters
Antjes neue Bluse )
Frau Müllers Sohn Rl also: der Sohn von (S: der) Frau
Müller
R2-R3 also: der Sohn der Frau Müller
Goethes Werke R3 also: die Werke Goethes
R1-R3 also: die Werke von Goethe
Frankfurts Straßen R3 also: die Straßen Frankfurts
R1-R3 also: die Straßen von Frankfurt
In R3a other genitives can come first. However, this construction is rare
and usually sounds rather old-fashioned (or facetious), e.g.:
des Mannes Ehre
des kühnen Helden blankes Schwert
des Postministers Kabelpläne
4.2.4 Measurement phrases
(a) The most common usage in all registers is for the nouns to be in the
same case, e.g.:
eine Menge Fehler
ein Glas badischer Wein
ein Kilo italienische Tomaten
Er trank eine Tasse schwarzen Tee (accusative)
mit einem Zentner polnischer Kohle (dative)
(b) In R3a the genitive case can be used if an adjective is present. This has
an archaic flavour, especially in the singular, e.g.:
ein Glas badischen Weines
ein Becher frischer Milch
ein Dutzend erbaulicher Bücher
(c) von is often used with vague quantity words such as Anzahl, Haufen,
Menge, especially if they are plural, e.g.:
eine Menge von Fehlern
eine Anzahl von Touristen
zwei Gruppen von Schulkindern
vier Kategorien von Ausnahmen
eine ganze Reihe von Beispielen
(d) With these vague quantity words, the genitive is quite frequent in R3 if
an adjective follows, e.g.:
ein Haufen alter Zeitschriften
eine Anzahl deutscher Touristen
Millionen hungernder Menschen

PRESENT
PAST
PERFECT
PLUPERFECT
FUTURE
4.3 Tenses
German has six tenses, as the table below shows:
ich kaufe
ich kaufte
ich habe gekauft
ich hatte gekauft
ich werde kaufen
FUTURE PERFECT ich werde gekauft haben
Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
I buy
I bought
I have bought
I had bought
I shall/will buy
I shall/will have bought
These German tenses are very similar in form to the English tenses,
with two simple tenses of a single word, i.e. the present tense and the
past tense, and four compound tenses, formed with the auxiliary verbs
haben, sein and/or werden and the past participle and/or the infinitive,
i.e. the perfect, pluperfect, future and future perfect tenses.
In general, the uses of the corresponding tenses in German and
English are also very similar. This section explains the most important
contexts where there are significant differences between the two
languages.
4.3.1 Present and future
The future tense is used much less in German than in English,
particularly in Rl. As long as there is no real risk of ambiguity, German
can use the present tense where the future tense must be used in
English (whether the future tense with will/shall/ 7/ is used in English
or the construction with to be going to, which has no equivalent in
German), e.g.:
In zwei Stunden bin ich wieder da
Weitere Einzelheiten erteilt
Ihnen unser Fachpersonal
Ich erwarte, dass sie kommt
Sie findet es nie
Wir sagen es ihm morgen
Fll be back in two hours
Our specialist staff will give you
further information
I expect that she will come
She '11 never find it
We're going to tell him tomorrow
Only if the future meaning is not clear is it absolutely necessary to use
the future tense in German, e.g.:
Er wird wieder als Ingenieur He will be working as an engineer
arbeiten again
(Er arbeitet wieder als Ingenieur could only mean: He is working as
an engineer again)

The future tense often expresses a prediction or a probability. This is
similar to English, and it is frequently strengthened by wohl in German
(see 2.6), e.g.:
Er wird den Zug (wohl) noch erreichen
Dagmar wird (wohl) auch kommen wollen
Die Vorstellung wird (wohl) gegen 11 Uhr zu Ende sein
Schalke wird (wohl) auch in München verlieren
The future tense can also stress determination to do something, e.g.:
Ich werde es heute Abend noch erledigen
Wir werden es schon schaffen
The future perfect tense is uncommon in any register, and the perfect
tense is often used in its place. It often expresses a supposition in the
past, e.g.:
Bald wird er es geschafft haben = Bald hat er es geschafft
Er wird (wohl) nicht ohne = Er ist wohl nicht ohne Absicht
Absicht gekommen sein gekommen
Er wird (wohl) seinen Schlüssel = Er hat wohl seinen Schlüssel
verloren haben verloren
4.3.2 Past and perfect
NOTE: The term 'imperfect tense', which is sometimes used to refer to
the German past tense, is better avoided as it is misleading. Unlike the
French or Spanish imperfect tenses, the past tense in German and
English does not express any idea of uncompleted or continuing action.
In modern German there is little real difference in meaning between
the past and perfect tenses. Both ich kam and ich bin gekommen can
express much the same idea and both can be used to translate I came or
I have come. Which one is used depends largely on region and register.
Broadly speaking, written registers (R2/R3) prefer the past tense,
whereas spoken German Rl prefers the perfect, especially in S, e.g.:
Rl: spoken German R2/R3: written German
Sein Bruder Robert ist gestern Sein Bruder Robert fuhr gestern
mit ein paar Freunden nach mit ein paar Freunden nach
Hamm gefahren, wo sie Uwe Hamm, wo sie Uwe Fuhrmann
Fuhrmann besucht haben besuchten
(a) The past tense is not used at all in speech in S. In N, however, it does
occur, especially:
• in als- and wie-chuses:
Als ich sie sah, hat sie mich nicht erkannt
Ich habe gehört, wie er die Treppe herunterkam
• in the passive, with modal auxiliary verbs, with verbs of saying,
hearing and feeling and many very common verbs, such as sein,
haben, bleiben, gehen, kommen, stehen, etc.:

Da blieb ich stehen und sagte nichts
Ich konnte auch nichts sagen
Ich war vor ihm dran
Sie hatte nichts dagegen
Er wurde schlecht behandelt
(b) The perfect tense is normally used in written German R2/R3 to stress
a result, to express the immediate past or actions which have continued
up to now. In all these contexts English typically also uses a perfect, e.g.:
• stressing result:
Es hat geschneit (i.e. I can see the snow)
Wir sind gelandet (i.e. we're on the ground)
Man sieht, dass er schwer gearbeitet hat
• immediate past:
Jetzt hat Kahn den Ball eingeworfen
Damit haben wir unsere kurze Einleitung beendet
In diesem Augenblick ist der Zug abgefahren
• events continuing up to now:
Seit dem Sommer hat sie zwanzig Bücher gelesen
Das habe ich wiederholt gesagt
Bis jetzt hat alles geklappt
(c) The past tense is not unknown in R3 in the contexts listed under (b),
especially in R3b (newspaper headlines, etc.). However, it is much less
frequent than the perfect, e.g.:
• stressing result:
Das ist der erste solche Bericht, der uns erreichte
• immediate past:
Sie hörten soeben eine Sendung des österreichischen
Rundfunks
• events continuing up to now:
Noch nie wurde ein Auto so oft gebaut
4.3.3 haben or sein in the perfect?
The German perfect tenses can be formed with the auxiliaries haben or
sein, e.g.:
perfect Sie hat es gekauft Sie ist schnell gelaufen
pluperfect Sie hatte es gekauft Sie war schnell gelaufen
future perfect Sie wird es gekauft Sie wird schnell
haben gelaufen sein
With most verbs the choice between haben and sein is quite
straightforward.

(a) The following verbs form their perfect tenses with sein:
• intransitive verbs which express a change of place, e.g.:
Sie ist geflogen/geflohen/gegangen/gelaufen, etc.
• intransitive verbs expressing a change of state, e.g.:
Es ist geworden/gestorben/verblüht, etc.
• verbs meaning 'to happen', 'to fail', 'to succeed', e.g.:
Es ist geschehen/passiert/vorgekommen/zugestoßen, etc.
Es ist gelungen/misslungen/geglückt, etc.
[NOTE: es hat geklappt (Rl)]
• the verbs sein and bleiben, e.g.:
Er ist gewesen/geblieben
• some other verbs in certain regions only, i.e.:
N: anfangen/beginnen
S: liegen/sitzen/stehen
(In standard German these always form their perfect tenses
with haben.)
(b) The following verbs form the perfect with haben:
• transitive verbs, i.e. those which have an accusative object, e.g.:
Sie hat ihn geschlagen/gesehen/getragen/gewaschen, etc.
• reflexive verbs, e.g.:
Er hat sich beeilt/gefreut/verabschiedet, etc.
• intransitive verbs which express a continuous action, e.g.:
Wir haben gewartet/gearbeitet/geholfen, etc.
• impersonal verbs, e.g.:
Es hat geregnet/geschneit/gedämmert, etc.
The choice between haben and sein is not linked to the particular verb
in German, but depends on the meaning as given above. Several verbs
can fall into more than one of the categories above if their meaning
varies, or if they can be used transitively or intransitively. In this case
they sometimes take haben and sometimes take sein. The following
examples show the effect of this with some common verbs:
Die Katze hat ihn angesprungen The cat jumped up at him
Der Motor ist angesprungen The motor started
Ich habe das Geschenk I received the present
bekommen
Die Muscheln sind ihr nicht The shellfish didn f t agree with her
bekommen
Er hat die Röhre gebogen He bent the tube
Wir sind um die Ecke gebogen We turned round the corner
Er hat das Rohr gebrochen He broke the pipe
Das Rohr ist gebrochen The pipe broke
Sie hat auf Zahlung gedrungen She pressed for payment
Wasser ist in das Haus gedrungen Water penetrated into the house
Er hat einen Audi gefahren He drove an Audi

Er ist nach Gießen gefahren
Sie hat ihm gefolgt
Sie ist ihm gefolgt
Es hat in der Nacht gefroren
Der See ist gefroren
Da haben Sie sich geirrt
Da sind wir durch den Wald
geirrt
Er ist in die Stadt gelaufen
Er hat sich die Füße wund
gelaufen
Sie hat sich ein Loch ins Kleid
gerissen
Der Strick ist gerissen
Er hat ihn in den Kopf
geschossen
Das Unkraut ist aus dem Boden
geschossen
Sie hat ihn zur Seite gestoßen
Ich bin an den Schrank gestoßen
Er hat es aus Versehen getreten
Er ist in das Wasser getreten
Sie hat am Strick gezogen
Sie ist nach Emden gezogen
He drove to Gießen
She obeyed him
She followed him
It froze during the night
The lake froze
You were mistaken
We strayed through the forest
He ran into town
He got sore feet from running
She tore a hole in her dress
The rope broke
He shot him in the head
The weeds shot out of the ground
She pushed him to one side
I bumped into the cupboard
He kicked it by accident
He stepped into the water
She pulled on the string
She moved to Emden
A rather special case concerns some verbs of motion which can take sein
if they express movement from one spot to another, but haben if they
just refer to the activity as such, e.g.
Er hat den ganzen Tag gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/
geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt
Er ist durch die Stadt gebummelt/ gefahren/ geflogen/
geritten/ gerudert/ geschwommen/ gesegelt/ getanzt
The tendency in Rl is to use sein with all these verbs in both meanings,
and this usage is also well established in R2 and R3. Only with rudern,
segeln and tanzen is the distinction kept at all consistently.
4.4 The passive
We typically express actions by using the active voice, both in English
and in German. This tells us what is happening and who or what is
doing it, e.g. Der Bürgermeister eröffnete gestern die Ausstellung. But we
can present a different perspective on an action by using the passive
voice, which places the emphasis simply on what is happening,
without necessarily mentioning who or what is doing it, e.g. Die
Ausstellung wurde gestern eröffnet.

Rl = spoken
colloquial
RL* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
4.4.1 werden- or s^m-passive?
German has two forms of the passive voice, using the auxiliary verbs
werden or sein together with the past participle of the main verb:
The werden-passive (e.g. die Stadt wurde zerstört) expresses a process
(in German it is called the Vorgangspassiv). It is closely related to the
corresponding active voice.
The ^m-passive (e.g. die Stadt war zerstört) expresses a state (in
German it is called the Zustandspassiv). Its use is more restricted than
that of the werden-pzssive.
The werden-p&ssive is formed from the appropriate tense of the verb
werden with the past participle of a verb indicating the action:
Present Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet
Past Die Ausstellung wurde eröffnet
Perfect Die Austeilung ist eröffnet worden
(NOTE: worden is used as the past participle of werden in
the passive voice)
Future Die Ausstellung wird eröffnet werden
The ^/«-passive is much less frequent than the werden-passive. It is
formed with the present or past tense of sein (other tenses are rarely
used) and the past participle, and it is essentially descriptive, with the
past participle being equivalent in meaning to an adjective, e.g.:
Die Tür ist geöffnet = Die Tür ist offen (i.e. somebody
has opened it)
Der Brief ist geschrieben = Der Brief ist fertig (i.e. somebody
has written it)
Die Stadt war zerstört = Die Stadt war kaputt (i.e.
somebody had destroyed it)
Compare these examples with sentences with the werden-passive:
Die Tür wird geöffnet (somebody is in the process of
opening it)
Der Brief wird geschrieben (somebody is in the process of writing
it)
Die Stadt wurde zerstört
(somebody carried out the action of
destroying it)
For this reason the sm-passive is often the equivalent of an English
perfect or pluperfect tense, e.g.:
Der Brief ist geschrieben The letter has been written
Die Stadt war zerstört The town had been destroyed
In practice, the difference in meaning may be very slight between the
German ^'«-passive and the perfect or pluperfect tenses of the
wrcfew-passive, e.g.:
Der Brief ist geschrieben / Der Brief ist geschrieben worden
Die Stadt war zerstört / Die Stadt war zerstört worden

On the other hand, the werden-passive, especially in the present, often
corresponds to an English progressive tense because it indicates an
action in progress, e.g.:
Der Brief wird geschrieben The letter is being written
Der Antrag wird bearbeitet The application is being dealt with
As the sm-passive expresses a state resulting from a previous action, it
is only ever used with verbs which have some tangible result, like
verletzen, e.g.:
Meine Hand ist verletzt i.e. you can see the resulting injury
Der Wagen ist beschädigt i.e. you can see the resulting damage
Verbs which do not express a clear result cannot be used in the impassive
at all, e.g.:
Das Mädchen wurde bewundert The girl was admired
war bewundert is quite impossible, as admiring does not produce a result
which can be seen. Other common verbs which similarly cannot be
used in the sein-passive are:
anbieten bemerken erwarten schmeicheln
befragen brauchen hindern schulden
begrüßen erblicken loben zeigen
In N and CH the sew-passive may be more widely used to refer to an
action, e.g.:
Die Anwesenden sind aufgefordert, ihre Plätze einzunehmen
(In standard German, only werden is acceptable here.)
Only in a very few cases is the distinction between werden and sein
unimportant in standard German, most commonly when we are
dealing with a general truth or a permanent state of some kind, usually
referring to things, e.g.:
Die Stadt wird/ist von etwa eine Million Menschen bewohnt
Das Zentrum wird/ist durch die Ringstraße von den
Außenbezirken getrennt
4.4.2 The impersonal ('subjectless') passive
A characteristic and frequent use of the passive in German is in an
impersonal construction to refer, in general terms, to an action or
activity going on. It is particularly common in written German
(especially R3b), but it is by no means restricted to that register. The
following examples illustrate this construction:
Es wird wieder getanzt The dancing is starting up again
Es wurde abgestimmt A vote was taken
Es wurde noch lange diskutiert The discussion still continued for a
long time

If another part of speech is in initial position in a main clause statement,
or in questions and subordinate clauses, the es is dropped (though the
verb still agrees with it), giving the so-called 'subjectless' passive, e.g.:
Jetzt wird wieder getanzt
Nachmittags wurde Karten
gespielt
Er langweilte sich, weil noch
lange diskutiert wurde
Wurde noch lange diskutiert?
4.4.3 The passive with dative objects
The dancing is starting up again now
People played cards in the afternoons
He was bored because the discussion
still continued for a long time
Did the discussion still continue for a
long time?
In German, only the accusative object of a transitive verb can become
the subject of the passive, e.g.:
Herr Altmann baut das Haus
Der Feind zerstörte die Stadt
Das Haus wird von Herrn
Altmann gebaut
Die Stadt wurde vom Feind
zerstört
This means that dative objects and prepositional objects can never
become the subject of a passive sentence; they remain as datives or
prepositional phrases in the passive. This is quite different in English,
e.g.:
Sie schenkte dem Mädchen
eine Puppe
Er antwortete dem König
nicht
Sie sorgten für die Kinder
4.4.4 von or durch with the passive?
Dem Mädchen wurde eine
Puppe geschenkt
The girl was given a doll
Dem König wurde nicht
geantwortet
The king was not answered
Für die Kinder wurde gesorgt
The children were looked after
The equivalent of English by in the passive can be von or durch in
German, von is much more frequent and is used for the agent, i.e. the
'doer' or the cause of an action. This is most often a person, but it can
sometimes be some natural agency, e.g.:
Holger wurde von seiner Schwester informiert
Diese Zeitschrift wird eher von anspruchsvollen Menschen gelesen
Sie wurden von einer Lawine mitgerissen

durch refers to the means of doing an action, which is commonly a
thing, or to an intermediary, e.g.:
Die Stadt wurde durch Bomben verwüstet
Die Fähigkeit des Fahrers wurde durch Alkohol erheblich
gemindert
Die Katastrophe wurde durch die ungewöhnliche Kälte
herbeigeführt
However, this distinction between von and durch is not always strictly
adhered to, especially in Rl. In particular, there are many instances
where it is not clear whether one is dealing with a 'doer' or the means of
doing an action, and either von or durch can be used, e.g.:
Die Stadt wurde durch/von Bomben verwüstet
Alle unsere Erzeugnisse werden durch/von Fachexperten geprüft
NOTE: In general, von/durch phrases are only used with the
werden-passive, not with the sm-passive.
4.4.5 Alternative passive constructions
It is rather misleading to say, as some books do, that the passive is used
less in German than in English. If it is true to any extent it is because
German can use an active construction with something other than the
subject in initial position in a way which is not possible in English
(see 5.1.4). However, the German passive is widely used, if rather more
in R3 (especially R3b) than Rl, and it is certainly not to be 'avoided'
almost as a matter of course.
Nevertheless, German is rich in alternative means of expressing
passives, and it is worthwhile knowing these constructions. They are
very frequent, and they can provide useful variation and differences in
emphasis.
(a) man can be used if the subject is truly indefinite. It is much more used
in all registers than English 'one':
Man sagt = Es wird gesagt
Das tut man nicht = Das wird nicht getan
Man schloss die Sitzung = Die Sitzung wurde geschlossen
(b) bekommen, erhalten (R3) or kriegen (Rl) can be used to emphasize the
person receiving something, e.g.:
Ich bekam den Weg von einem = Mir wurde der Weg von einem
Passanten beschrieben
Passanten beschrieben
Er erhielt das Geld ausgezahlt = Ihm wurde das Geld
(R3)
ausgezahlt
Die Kleine hat eine Puppe = Der Kleinen wurde eine Puppe
geschenkt gekriegt (Rl)
geschenkt

(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
gehören (S) has the force of müssen or sollen, e.g.:
Das gehört doch bestraft = Das muss/soll doch bestraft
werden
Dem gehört das deutlich gesagt = Ihm muss/soll das deutlich
gesagt werden
Phrasal verbs, especially with kommen, are frequent in R3b, e.g.:
Es kommt demnächst zur
Entschiedung (R3b)
Die Verhandlungen kommen
heute zum Abschluss (R3b)
Die Angelegenheit soll einer
gründlichen Überprüfung
unterliegen (R3b)
= Darüber wird demnächst
entschieden
= Die Verhandlungen werden
heute abgeschlossen
= Die Angelegenheit soll
gründlich uberprüft werden
Reflexive constructions are often used instead of passives in all
registers, e.g.:
Sie nennt sich Hildegard = Sie wird Hildegard genannt
Der Schlüssel wird sich sicher = Der Schlüssel wird sicher
noch finden noch gefunden werden
Das Buch liest sich schnell = Das Buch kann schnell
gelesen werden
The natural German equivalent of many English passive (or
passive-like) constructions is a reflexive verb, e.g.:
sich ärgern to be annoyed sich schämen to be ashamed
sich freuen to be pleased sich verbinden to be associated
sich lassen, with an impersonal subject, has the force of können, e.g.:
Das lässt sich noch machen = Das kann noch gemacht
werden
Der Apparat lässt sich nicht = Der Apparat kann nicht mehr
mehr reparieren
repariert werden
Dieser Satz lässt sich nur = Dieser Satz kann nur schwer
schwer übersetzen
übersetzt werden
sein with an infinitive phrase (the so-called 'modal infinitive'
construction) has the force of können, müssen or sollen (and may then be
ambiguous), e.g.:
Die Arbeit ist bis morgen zu = Die Arbeit muss bis morgen
erledigen
erledigt werden
Diese Säulen sind an jeder = Diese Säulen können an jeder
Straßenecke zu finden
Straßenecke gefunden
werden
Diese Ausdrücke sind tunlichst = Diese Ausdrücke sollen
zu vermeiden
tunlichst vermieden werden
This construction can be converted into an extended adjective based on
the present participle. This is very typical of R3b:
Diese tunlichst zu vermeidenden Ausdrücke ...

Das Ergebnis bleibt
abzuwarten
Das Radio geht noch zu
reparieren (Rl)
(i) Adjectives in -bar (and some in -lich) have the force of passives with
können, e.g.:
Die Pfirsiche sind kaum essbar = Die Pfirsiche können kaum
Solche Wörter sind jederzeit
bildbar
Seine Antwort war
unverständlich
4.5 The subjunctive
gegessen werden
The use of the subjunctive in German is subject to considerable
variation dependent on register. 'Rules' which are given in many
grammar books are only kept to strictly in R3. Everyday Rl usage can
be very different, particularly in the area of indirect speech.
4.5.1 Forms of the subjunctive
= Das Ergebnis muss
abgewartet werden
= Das Radio kann noch
repariert werden
= Solche Wörter können
jederzeit gebildet werden
= Seine Antwort konnte nicht
verstanden werden
In English, we usually call the main forms of the German subjunctive
the present subjunctive and past subjunctive. However, the difference
in meaning between these has nothing to do with time differences, and
it is common practice in books on German nowadays to refer to them as
Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv //, as follows:
Konjunktiv I present subjunctive er schlafe
perfect subjunctive
er habe geschlafen
future subjunctive
er werde schlafen
Konjunktiv II past subjunctive
er schliefe
pluperfect subjunctive
er hätte geschlafen
conditional
er würde schlafen
The terms Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II are used in this section as
they are less misleading and make it simpler to explain the use of the
subjunctive in modern German.
The forms of
Konjunktiv I
Konjunktiv I only has a distinct form in the third person singular,
except for the verb sein, and this is formed simply by dropping the -n of
the infinitive. There are no irregularities or vowel changes with any
other verbs.
er mache er solle er habe
er nehme er werde

The forms of
Konjunktiv II
Rl = spoken
colloquial
RL* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
Other forms sometimes found in grammar books, e.g. du machest, ihr
machet, are artificial and never used in practice, even in R3.
The verb sein has distinct forms for all persons:
ich sei wir seien
du sei(e)st ihr seiet
er sei sie seien
In practice only the third person singular and plural are at all frequent.
The other tenses of Konjunktiv I are formed with auxiliary verbs, i.e.:
perfect subjunctive the present subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3)
with the past participle of the main verb:
er habe geschlafen er sei gekommen
future subjunctive the present subjunctive of werden with the
infinitive:
er werde schlafen
There are three tenses of Konjunktiv II:
(a) past
subjunctive
(b) pluperfect
subjunctive
(c) conditional
a one-word form based on the forms of the past tense.
For weak verbs it is identical with the past tense; for
strong (and some irregular) verbs it is formed by
umlauting the vowel of the past tense, if possible, and
adding -e, if possible, e.g.:
machen
ich machte
du machtest
er machte
wir machten
kommen
ich käme
du kämest
er käme
wir kämen
gehen
ich ginge
du gingest
er ginge
wir gingen
ihr machtet ihr kämet ihr ginget
sie machten sie kämen sie gingen
können
ich könnte
du könntest
er könnte
wir
könnten
ihr könntet
sie könnten
the past subjunctive of haben or sein (see 4.3.3) with
the past participle of the main verb:
er hätte geschlafen er wäre gekommen
the past subjunctive of werden with the infinitive:
er würde schlafen
NOTE: A few strong verbs have an irregular past subjunctive, with a
different vowel, sometimes as an alternative. Only the following are
used nowadays, even in literary R3a:
helfen: ich hülfe (less common: hälfe)
stehen: er standi (less common: standi)
4.5.2 The use of the past subjunctive and conditional forms
The compound conditional form is often used instead of the simple
past subjunctive, in exactly the same meanings and contexts, so that,

for example, people often say or write ich würde kommen or ich würde
wissen rather than ich käme or ich wüsste. The one which is used
depends on the individual verb involved and on register. German
school-teachers and stylists have often tried to encourage the use of the
simple forms as a mark of good style, but in practice they often sound
stilted or archaic, and most people avoid using them in any register.
Modern usage can be summarized as follows.:
(a) With weak verbs the one-word form is sometimes used in R3, if the
meaning is otherwise clear from the context, i.e. from a distinct
subjunctive form in the other half of a conditional sentence, e.g.:
Wenn er noch lebte, würde ich diese Frage nicht beantworten
Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachten, hätten wir ein bisschen frische
Luft hier im Zimmer
However, the conditional form with würde is always preferred in Rl,
and it is used quite commonly in R2, and often in R3, e.g.:
Wenn er noch leben würde, würde ich diese Frage nicht
beantworten
Wenn wir das Fenster aufmachen würden, hätten wir ein bisschen
frische Luft hier im Zimmer
(b) With very common irregular verbs (i.e. sein, werden, haben and the
modal auxiliaries) the one-word past subjunctive is almost always
preferred in all registers, so that:
wäre dürfte müsste
hätte könnte sollte
würde möchte wollte
are almost always preferred to würde sein, würde haben, würde können,
etc. This also means that the forms of the pluperfect subjunctive always
have hätte and wäre, e.g.:
Ich hätte es getan Wir wären gefahren
(c)
Forms like Ich würde es getan haben for English 'I would have done it'
are very rare.
With a few other common strong or irregular verbs the one-word
past subjunctive forms are about as frequent as conditional forms with
würde in the registers indicated:
Rl, R2 & R3: kommen: käme tun: täte wissen: wüsste brauchen: (S)
bräuchte
R2 & R3: finden: fände gehen: ginge heißen: hieße stehen: stünde
geben: gäbe halten: hielte lassen: ließe
(d) With a limited number of other strong or irregular verbs the
one-word past subjunctive forms are found in R3 only, and even there
they are less frequent than conditional forms with würde. The
following are still not unusual in R3:

leiben: bliebe
bringen: brächte
denken: dächte
fallen: fiele
fahren: führe
gelingen: gelänge
geschehen: geschähe
hängen: hinge
helfen: hülfe
kennen: kennte
laufen: liefe
liegen: läge
nehmen: nähme
scheinen: schiene
schlafen: schliefe
schlagen: schlüge
schreiben: schriebe
sehen: sähe
treffen: träfe
tragen: trüge
verschwinden:
verschwände
ziehen: zöge
(e) With the remaining strong and irregular verbs, the one-word past
subjunctive forms are still very occasionally found in R3a, but the
conditional forms with würde are far more usual. These one-word
forms, especially irregular ones in -o- and -ü- (e.g. begönne, hübe, würbe,
etc.) sound pompous and comical nowadays and are best avoided
entirely.
(f) The one context where the one-word past subjunctive forms and the
conditional forms are not interchangeable is where the sense is of a
'future-in-the-past', i.e. where the speaker or writer is looking forward
within a past-tense narrative, and there is no sense of it being a
supposition or merely a possibility, e.g.:
Manfred wusste, dass sein Freund es nie so weit bringen würde
Ich beschloss das Buch zu lesen, sobald ich groß sein würde
The conditional is always used in these contexts, never the one-word
past subjunctive.
4.5.3 Indirect speech
In indirect speech (sometimes called 'reported speech') we report what
someone said by putting it into a sentence of our own, typically
introduced by that. This contrasts with direct speech, where we quote
what someone said in the original spoken form. Compare the following
English examples:
Direct speech: He said, 'She knows it'
Indirect speech: He said that she knew it
In German the subjunctive is regularly used to indicate indirect speech.
However, usage is highly variable and determined mainly by register.
Grammatical 'rules' are widely ignored and those given in many
reference works are misleading, inaccurate or unrepresentative of actual
usage. A basic starting point is that whereas the most formal R3 uses
Konjunktiv I wherever possible, informal Rl avoids it almost entirely.
Typical R3 usage • Konjunktiv I is used to indicate indirect speech, as long as
there is a distinct subjunctive form. In practice, this means in
the third person singular, or with the verb sein. The same tense
is kept as in the original direct speech, although if this was the
past tense, the perfect subjunctive is used:

original tense direct speech
PRESENT : „Sie weiß es"
PA s T : „Sie wusste es"
PERFECT:
FUTURE:
„Sie hat es gewusst"
„Sie wird es wissen"
indirect speech
Er sagte, sie wisse es
Er sagte, sie habe es
gewusst
Er sagte, sie habe es
gewusst
Er sagte, sie werde es
wissen
• However, if there is no clear Konjunktiv I form (typically in the third
person plural of all verbs except sein), the corresponding Konjunktiv II
forms are used:
original tense
PRESENT:
PAST:
PERFECT:
FUTURE:
direct speech
„Sie wissen es"
„Sie wussten es"
„Sie haben es gewusst"
„Sie werden es wissen"
indirect speech
Er sagte, sie wüssten es
Er sagte, sie hätten es
gewusst
Er sagte, sie hätten es
gewusst
Er sagte, sie würden es
wissen
• If the one-word Konjunktiv II form is unusual (see 4.5.2) then the
würde-form is used, e.g.:
Direct speech: „Diese Bäche fließen alle in den Neckar"
Indirect speech: Sie sagte, diese Bäche würden alle in den Neckar
fließen
(the one-word form flössen is no longer used)
This pattern is most closely adhered to in the R3b of newspaper
reports, where the subjunctive provides a handy means of indicating
reported speech, for example (from Die Zeit):
Der iranische Parlamentspräsident Rafsanjani ist mit dem äußeren
Erscheinungsbild der schiitischen Revolutionäre unzufrieden. Die
fundamentalistischen Moslems würden immer mehr mit Begriffen wie
„ungewaschen, unrasiert und unordentlich gekleidet" gleichgesetzt.
Außerdem sei es an der Zeit, den revolutionären Eifer etwas zu zügeln. [... ]
Im übrigen solle man den Personenkult um den Ajatollah Chomeini nicht
übertreiben. Etwas weniger Porträts des Imam täten es auch.
Note the alternation of Konjunktiv I and Konjunktiv II forms and the
lack of any explicit verb of saying; only the subjunctive shows us that
this is reported speech.

There are one or two common deviations from this pattern in R3, as
follows:
(a) If the conjunction dass is used, the indicative is as frequently used as
Konjunktiv I (but normally still in the tense of the original direct
speech), e.g.:
Er sagte, dass er schon länger hier wohnt
However, if dass is omitted, then Konjunktiv I is essential, e.g.:
Er sagte, er wohne schon länger hier
(b) The indicative is often used even if the Konjunktiv I form is not clear
(i.e. in the third person plural), e.g.:
Sie sagten, sie arbeiten schon in der Schweiz
If the indicative is used in indirect speech, there is no difference in
meaning to the subjunctive, i.e. it does not represent 'fact' as opposed
to 'mere report'.
(c) Konjunktiv II is common even when a clear Konjunktiv I form is
available (i.e. in the third person singular), e.g.:
Er hat gefragt, ob sie schon lange in Göttingen wäre
Er behauptete, er hätte ihn nicht geschlagen
If Konjunktiv II is used, there is no difference in meaning to Konjunktiv
/, i.e. it does not imply 'doubt' as opposed to 'mere report'.
R2 usage R2 usage differs from R3 mainly in that Konjunktiv I forms are less
frequent:
(a) Konjunktiv II forms are used rather than Konjunktiv /, with the exception
of sein and haben:
Sie sagte, sie wüsste es schon
Sie sagte, sie würde es versuchen
Sie sagte, sie sei müde geworden
(b) One-word Konjunktiv II forms are used only with a few common verbs
(see 4.5.2), e.g.:
Er sagte, er käme heute nicht
Sie meinte, sie könnte es schon machen
(c) Otherwise, würde-forms or the indicative are used, e.g.:
Der Schaffner sagte, dass unsere Rückfahrkarten nicht mehr
gelten/gelten würden
Viele behaupten, sie lesen keine Tageszeitung mehr/ ... sie würden
keine Tageszeitung mehr lesen

Rl usage
(a)
(b)
(c)
In Rl, Konjunktiv I is not used at all (except in SW).
The indicative and Konjunktiv II are used interchangeably, with the
indicative predominating, e.g.:
Sie hat gesagt, sie weiß es schon / sie wüsste es schon
Sie hat gesagt, sie hat es verstanden / sie hätte es verstanden
Sie hat gesagt, sie wird es versuchen / würde es versuchen
If Konjunktiv II is used, it is in the würde- form except with a few common
verbs (see 4.5.2), e.g.:
Sie sagt, sie würde auf dem Land leben
Er hat gesagt, er käme heute nicht
Konjunktiv II is used mainly if there is a longer stretch of reported speech
covering more than one sentence, e.g.:
Der sagt, dass er 'nen neuen Wagen gekauft hat. Der hätte über
30 000 Euro gekostet und hätte eine Klimaanlage
4.5.4 Conditional sentences
• Typical conditional sentences consist of a subordinate clause,
introduced by the conjunction wenn (= English if), expressing a
condition, and a main clause, expressing the consequence. There are
other kinds, with the condition expressed in other ways, e.g. through an
adverbial. Konjunktiv II is used in all registers in German in
conditional sentences which express a possibility, e.g.:
Wenn wir Zeit hätten, könnten wir einen Ausflug machen
Die Europäer wären erleichtert, wenn England wieder austreten
würde
Wir würden es begrüßen, wenn du uns besuchen könntest
Ich würde mich freuen, wenn sie es schaffen würde
(R3: schaffte)
Wenn sie auf der Autobahn gefahren wären, hätten sie die Fähre
auch rechtzeitig erreicht
Bei dem Wetter wäre ich nicht in Urlaub gefahren
Ich würde sonst das Fenster aufmachen
Ich hätte schon an sie geschrieben, nur habe ich ihre Adresse nicht
gewusst
The choice of the one-word past subjunctive form or conditional
würde-form depends on the individual verb or on register, see 4.5.2.
Either can be used in either part of the sentence, as the examples show.
This is different to English, where we typically always use a past tense
in the if-clause, and a conditional with would in the main clause.

• A common variant in conditional sentences in all registers, but very
frequent in Rl, is the combination of sollte in the wenn-clause and a
future (or present) tense in the main clause. This is similar to the use of
should or were to in English, e.g.:
Wenn er sich dazu entschließen sollte, werden wir
zusammenarbeiten können
Wenn sich die Umstände nun ändern sollten, wird die Situation
wohl etwas besser aussehen
Sollte ich die Vase fallen lassen, zerbricht sie sicher
wollte is also a frequent alternative, especially (though not only) in R3
with wenn omitted, e.g.:
Es würde uns zu lange aufhalten, wollten wir alle diese Probleme
ausfuhrlich behandeln
• For 'real' or 'open' conditions, where the present and future tenses are
used in English, German uses the indicative, e.g.:
Wenn ich Zeit habe, komme ich Ifl have time, 77/ come with you
mit
Contrast:
Wenn ich Zeit hätte, käme ich mit Ifl had timey I would come with you
4.5.5 Other uses of the subjunctive
(a) In comparative clauses with als ob and other conjunctions with the
meaning 'as if, Konjunktiv II is commonly used in all registers, e.g.:
als ob sie sich amüsierte
als ob er nicht einverstanden wäre
als ob sie nicht kämen
als ob sie nicht bezahlt hätten
In R3, Konjunktiv I is sometimes found, if there is a distinct form.
However, it is less frequent than Konjunktiv 77. There is no difference
in meaning, e.g.:
als ob sie sich amüsiere
als ob er nicht einverstanden sei
In R2 and Rl, würde-forms are frequent in appropriate cases (see
4.5.2), e.g.:
als ob sie sich amüsieren würde
In Rl, the indicative is equally common, especially in N, without any
distinction in meaning, e.g.:
als ob sie sich amüsiert
als ob er nicht einverstanden ist
als ob sie nicht kommen
als ob sie nicht bezahlt haben

For English 'as if, als ob is possible in all registers. In written R3, it is at
least as usual for ob to be dropped and the verb to be brought forward
to a position immediately after als, e.g.:
als amüsierte sie sich
als wäre er nicht einverstanden
As alternatives to als ob, als wenn is used in R3, e.g.: als wenn sie nicht
kämen, and wie wenn, usually with the indicative, is frequent in Rl, e.g.
wie wenn sich nicht kommen.
(b) Consecutive clauses with als dass, ohne dass
Konjunktiv II is fairly regular with these in R3, e.g.:
Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist viel zu teuer, als dass ich sie mir leisten
könnte
Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je
deutscher Meister geworden wäre
The indicative is used in other registers (and, in practice, main clause
constructions are often preferred in Rl, see 5.2) and is not unknown in
R3, e.g.:
Diese Hi-Fi-Anlage ist zu teuer, als dass ich es mir leisten kann
Diese Mannschaft ist seit Jahren in der Bundesliga, ohne dass sie je
deutscher Meister geworden ist
(c) Purpose clauses with damit
Konjunktiv II (or Konjunktiv /, if there is a clear form) is occasionally
found in R3a, e.g.:
Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sähen
Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufe
Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariere
However, even in R3, the indicative is now more usual, i.e.:
Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie repariert
Nevertheless, the most natural construction in these sentences in all
registers is to use können or sollen, i.e.:
Er zog sich zurück, damit wir ihn nicht sehen konnten/sollten
Er gab ihr Geld, damit sie einen neuen Mantel kaufen
konnte/sollte
Ich will ihm die Uhr bringen, damit er sie reparieren kann/soll
(d) Idiomatic uses
Konjunktiv II is very common, especially in spoken Rl and R2, and
particularly in S, to moderate the tone of an assertion, a statement, a
request or a question and make it sound more polite, e.g.:
Das wäre eigentlich alles, was ich dazu zu sagen hätte
Ich würde auch meinen, dass es jetzt viel zu spät ist
Das dürfte Peter gewesen sein
Das wäre nun das Letzte
Somit hätten wir es geschafft
Könnten Sie mir bitte sagen, wo hier die Paulskirche ist?
Würden Sie mir bitte das Salz reichen?

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
Konjunktiv /, in particular of the ^m-passive, is frequent in technical
R3b to express a proposition, e.g.:
In diesem Zusammenhang sei nur darauf verwiesen, dass diese
Hypothese auf Humboldt zurückgeht
Hier sei nur vermerkt, dass ihm dieses Experiment nie einwandfrei
gelungen ist
4.6 The modal auxiliaries
The verbs dürfen, können, mögen, müssen, sollen and wollen are known as
'modal auxiliary' verbs. They typically express the attitude of the
speaker to the content of the sentence, expressing volition, possibility,
necessity, permission, etc. They are very common, and the
English-speaking learner needs to pay particular attention to them, not
least because they all have a wide range of meanings which shade into
one another, because they have a number of idiomatic uses, and because
the English verbs to which they are deceptively similar are themselves
irregular and elusive in meaning. It is good practice to treat each
possible combination of modal auxiliary and main verb, in the various
tenses and moods, separately and to know the possible equivalent(s) for
each in the other language. In this section these major correspondences
are illustrated as fully as possible.
A significant initial difference between these verbs in English and
German is that, whereas the English modals have at most only a
present tense and a past tense (often with conditional meaning), the
German modals have a full range of moods and tenses. The following
forms, illustrated here with können, are the most common and they
have to be learned for all the verbs:
Tense Construction Example
present + infinitive sie kann es machen
present + past infinitive sie kann es gemacht haben
future + infinitive sie wird es machen können
past + infinitive sie konnte es machen
perfect 4- infinitive sie hat es machen können
past subjunctive + infinitive sie könnte es machen
past subjunctive + past infinitive sie könnte es gemacht haben
pluperf subjunctive + infinitive sie hätte es machen können
NOTE: There is no real difference in meaning between the past and
perfect tenses of these verbs (see 4.3.2). In general usage, the past tense
is commoner with most of them, even in Rl (except in S). Only with
können and müssen is the perfect equally frequent.

4.6.1 The German modal auxiliaries
DÜRFEN dürfen expresses permission or, in Konjunktiv //, probability, e.g.:
Sie dürfen hereinkommen
IThey may/can come in/ III let
them come in
Sie dürfen nicht hereinkommen
Das darf als Vorteil betrachtet
werden
Das darf doch nicht wahr sein
Wir freuen uns, Ihnen mitteilen zu
dürfen, dass ... (R3b)
Sie werden spielen dürfen
Er durfte diese Reise machen
Endlich durfte er die Augen
aufmachen
Dürfte ich das Fenster aufmachen?
Das dürfte sie doch gar nicht
wissen
Sie dürfte krank sein
Sie dürfte krank gewesen sein
Das hätten Sie nicht
unterschreiben dürfen
They are allowed to come in
f They mustn 7 come in
I They aren't allowed to come in
That can/may be seen as an
advantage
But that can 7 be true
We are pleased to be able to
inform you that...
They will be allowed to play
He was allowed to go on that
journey
At last he could open his eyes
again
Would you mind if I opened the
window?
She ought not to know that
(i.e. it shouldn't be allowed)
She will be ill/ She is probably
ill
She will have been ill/ She was
probably ill
You ought not to have signed
that (i.e. it shouldn't have
been allowed)
KÖNNEN können expresses ability. In some contexts it can express possibility
and, in Rl, permission, e.g.:
1 stressed syllables
are preceded by a
stress mark
Er kann gut schwimmen
Sie kann es nicht machen
Du kannst Fußball spielen (Rl)
Er kann jeden Augenblick kommen
Sie kann es (auch) verloren haben
Er kann es (auch) gesehen haben
Er kann es nicht gesehen haben
Er kann es auch 'nicht gesehen
haben
Er kann Spanisch
Du wirst es schon finden können
He can swim well
She can 7 do it/ She isn7 able
to do it
(You can/may play football
1/7/ let you play football
He may come at any moment
She may (well) have lost it
He may (well) have seen it
He can 7 have seen it
He may not have seen it
He can speak Spanish
You 7/ be able to find it

[KÖNNEN]
MÖGEN
Ich konnte ihm nicht helfen ) (/ couldn 9 t help him
Ich habe ihm nicht helfen können) 1/ wasn y t able to help him
Ich könnte genau so schnell laufen
Das könnte schwierig sein
Er könnte (wenigstens) seine
Schulden bezahlen
Könnten Sie ihn darum bitten?
Er könnte uns belauscht haben
Er hätte uns belauschen können
Sie könnte den Brief nicht
geschrieben haben
Sie hätte den Brief nicht schreiben
können
Sie hätten etwas höflicher sein
können
II could run just as fast
I would be able to run just as
fast
That could/might be difficult
He could/might (at least) pay
his debts
Could you ask him for it?
He could have eavesdropped on
us (i.e. it is possible that he
did)
He could have eavesdropped on
us (i.e. he would have been
able to, but he didn't)
She couldn y t have written the
letter (i.e. it wasn't possible
that she did)
She couldn't have written the
letter (i.e. she wouldn't have
been able to)
You might have been rather
more polite
NOTE: the use of können to express possibility (= English may, see
4.6.2) is limited to cases where it is not ambiguous (i.e. where it could
not be interpreted as expressing ability = English be able to). It is
most frequent with a past infinitive, but even then, especially in the
negative, auch is usually added to resolve the possible ambiguity.
mögen expresses liking or desire, normally in the present or
Konjunktiv IL In R3, and some more generally used set phrases, it
can express possibility (like English 'may'). In this case, it often has a
concessive sense, with the force of'although'.
Sie mag keinen Kaffee
Wir mögen den Lehrer nicht
Das mag (wohl) sein
Wie dem auch sein mag
Er mag etwa dreißig (gewesen) sein
(R3)
Wie schwierig es auch sein
mag/(R3) möge
Das mag deutschen Ohren etwas
fremd klingen, aber ... (R3)
Das mag vielen nicht einleuchten,
aber ... (R3)
She doesn f t like coffee
We don 9 t like the teacher
That may well be
However that may be
He is (was) perhaps about thirty
However difficult it may be
That may sound rather strange to
German ears, but...
That may not be clear to many,
but...

MÜSSEN
Er sagte ihr, sie möge unten warten
(R3)
Das Zeichen x möge ein Winkel
von 30° bezeichnen (R3b)
Die Herren mögen sich beim
Direktor melden (R3)
Er mochte etwa dreißig sein (R3)
Er hat sie auch nicht gemocht
Er möchte nach Wien fahren
Möchten Sie noch Wein?
Ich möchte Sie nicht langer
aufhalten
Sagen Sie ihr, sie möchte
(R3 möge) zu mir kommen
Ich möchte, dass sie sofort weggeht
Ich möchte dein Gesicht gesehen
haben
He asked her to kindly wait
downstairs (indirect command)
Let x be an angle of 3(P
Would the gentlemen be good
enough to go and see the
principal
He was probably about thirty
He didn't like her; either
He would like to go to Vienna
Would you like some more wine?
I wouldn 9 t want to keep you
any longer
Ask her to be kind enough to come
and see me (indirect command)
I want her to leave immediately
I would like to have seen your
face
müssen expresses necessity, compulsion or certainty, e.g.:
Wir müssen jetzt gehen
Wir müssen noch nicht gehen
Das muss das Richtige sein
Etwas muss passiert sein
Sie wird sich beeilen müssen
Ich musste zu Hause arbeiten \
Ich habe zu Hause arbeiten \
müssen )
Ich musste einfach lachen
Etwas müsste passiert sein
Du müsstest den Chef fragen
Er müsste es eigentlich besser
wissen
Er müsste schon dort sein
Er müsste langst angekommen sein
Er hätte heute ankommen müssen
(We must go now
I We have (got) to go now
We needn 9 t/ don 9 t have to go
yet
That must be the right one
Something must have happened
(i.e. just now)
Shell have to hurry
I had to work at home
I couldn't help laughing
Something must have happened
(i.e. a long time ago)
You would have to ask the boss
He really ought to/should know
better
He should/ought to be there by
now
He should/ought to have
arrived long ago (i.e. we can
assume that he has arrived)
He should/ought to have
arrived today (i.e. he ought to
have done, but he hasn't)

SOLLEN sollen most commonly expresses an obligation, occasionally an
assertion, a supposition or a condition, e.g.:
Ich soll hier bleiben
Du sollst die Tür zumachen
Er soll sofort kommen
Ich soll nicht hier bleiben
Er hat gesagt, ich soll unten warten
(indirect command)
Hier soll das neue Rathaus gebaut
werden
Sollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen?
Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig sein
Sie soll sehr ehrgeizig gewesen sein
Wir sollten uns dort treffen
Es sollte eine Überraschung sein
Jeder sollte das Buch lesen
Das solltest du mal probieren
Sollte das wahr sein?
Er sollte den Freund nie
wiedersehen
Wenn/Falls es morgen regnen
sollte
Ich trat zurück, damit sie mich
nicht sehen sollten
Jeder sollte das Buch bis Freitag
gelesen haben
Jeder hätte das Buch voriges Jahr
lesen sollen
Das sollte ihr inzwischen klar
geworden sein
Er hätte es mir doch gleich sagen
sollen
{I'm supposed/meant to stay here
(I've got to stay here
I want you to shut the door
{He is to/has got to come at once
I Tell him to come at once
{I'm not supposed to stay here
\I mustn 9 1 stay here
He told me to wait downstairs
The new town hall is to be built
here
Shall we look round the town?
She's supposed/said to be very
ambitious
She 's supposed/said to have
been very ambitious
It was agreed that we should
meet there
It was meant to be a surprise
Everyone should/ought to read
the book
You should/ought to try that
Could that be true?
He was (destined) never to see
his friend again
If it should/ were to rain
tomorrow
I stepped back, so that they
shouldn't see me
Everyone should/ought to have
read the book by Friday (i.e. I
would expect it of everyone)
Everyone should/ought to have
read the book last year (i.e. it
was expected of everyone, but
they didn't)
She should/ought to have
realized that by now (i.e. I
would expect she has)
He should/ought to have told
me right away (i.e. I would
have expected it, but he didn't)

WOLLEN
NOTE: the form sollte is potentially ambiguous, as there is nothing to
show the difference between indicative and subjunctive. Er sollte
mitkommen could mean 'He was supposed to come with us' or 'He
ought to come with us', depending on the context.
wollen most often expresses desire or intention, occasionally a claim
or necessity, e.g.:
Ich will das Klavier verkaufen
Willst du uns nicht helfen?
Der Regen will nicht aufhören
Er will, dass du es liest
Wollen wir uns die Stadt ansehen?
Das will geübt sein
Ein solcher Wagen will gut gepflegt
werden
Er will krank sein
Er will krank gewesen sein
Sie wird dort nicht arbeiten
wollen
Sie wollte ihn darum bitten
Sie hat ihm darum bitten wollen
(Rl)
Das Fenster wollte nicht zugehen
Ich wollte, ich müsste es nicht tun
Wenn er es nur zugeben wollte,...
Wenn wir ihn fragen wollten,
würde er es bestreiten
Es sah aus, als wollte er jeden
Augenblick einschlafen
Ich hätte es auch nicht machen
wollen
4.6.2 The English modal auxiliaries
(7 want to/will sell the piano
lI'm going to sell the piano
Won't you help us?
The rain isn't going to stop
He wants you to read it
Shall we look round the town
That needs to be practised
A car like that needs looking
after well
He claims/says he is ill
He claims/says he was ill
She won 9 t want to work there
She wanted to ask him for it
She was going to ask him for it
(The window wouldn 9 t shut
I The window refused to shut
I wish I didn 't have to do it
If he would only admit it...
If we were to ask him, he would
deny it
It looked as if he was going to
fall asleep at any moment
I wouldn 9 t have wanted to do it
either
In this section we take the various forms of the English modal auxiliary
verbs and give their most common German equivalents.
CAN • can most often expresses ability or possibility, and können is the usual
German equivalent. However, können is ambiguous, and if the context
permits, it is naturally interpreted as expressing ability (i.e. = 'be able
to'), vielleicht or a paraphrase has to be used in such sentences, rather
than können, to make it clear that possibility is meant.

1 stressed syllables
are preceded by a
stress mark
She can play tennis
Pigs can't fly
I can't come tomorrow
He can 'not come
Can he be mending the car?
Sie kann Tennis spielen
Schweine können nicht
fliegen
Ich kann morgen nicht
kommen
Er kann auch 1 nicht kommen
Repariert er den Wagen
vielleicht?
Kann es sein, dass er den
Wagen repariert?
Ist es möglich, dass er den
Wagen repariert?
NOTE: Kann er den Wagen reparieren? = Can he mend the car?
He can't be mending the car Es ist unmöglich, dass er den
Wagen repariert
NOTE : Er kann den Wagen nicht reparieren = He can't mend the car.
Can they have missed the
connection?
The road can be blocked
Können sie den Anschluss
verpasst haben?
Haben sie vielleicht den
Anschluss verpasst?
Die Straße kann gesperrt
werden
• In all but the most formal English, can expresses permission.
This is usually expressed by dürfen in German, although können
is quite common in Rl, or where there is a sense of possibility,
e.g.:
Can I go to the cinema?
This can be regarded as a valid
objection
Darf (Rl: Kann) ich ins Kino
gehen?
Das darf/kann als
berechtigter Einwand
angesehen werden
• With verbs of sensation (e.g. see, hear,; smell, feel) can is often used in
English with no real idea of ability. In these contexts können is not used
in German, e.g.:
We can hear the music Wir hören die Musik
I can see him quite well Ich sehe ihn ganz gut
COULD • could can be used as the past tense of can in the senses given above
(i.e. = was able to). In such cases appropriate past or perfect tense
forms will be found in German, e.g.:
I could swim well then
' Ich konnte damals gut
schwimmen
Ich habe damals gut
schwimmen können

I couldn't come yesterday
She could go out whenever she
liked
They could see the church
Ich konnte gestern nicht
kommen
Ich habe gestern nicht
kommen können
Sie durfte (Rl: konnte)
ausgehen, wenn sie wollte
Sie sahen die Kirche
Sie haben die Kirche
l gesehen
• could frequently has a conditional sense (i.e. = would be able to). The
German equivalent is könnte (or dürfte, if permission is involved). As
with can, it may be preferable in some contexts to use vielleicht or a
paraphrase with es ist möglich to avoid ambiguity.
I would be pleased if you could
come
Could I open the window?
You could be right
That could be difficult
Could the train be late?
Could he be mending the car?
Ich würde mich freuen, wenn
Sie kommen könnten
Dürfte/Könnte ich das
Fenster aufmachen?
Sie könnten Recht haben
Das könnte schwierig sein
' Könnte der Zug Verspätung
haben?
Hat der Zug vielleicht
Verspätung?
Wäre es möglich, dass der
Zug Verspätung hat?
Repariert er den
Wagen vielleicht?
Wäre es möglich, dass er den
Wagen repariert?
NOTE: Könnte er den Wagen reparieren? could mean Would he be
able to mend the car?
• could have is ambiguous and has two possible equivalents in German
depending on the sense of the English:
He could have done it (i.e. it is Er könnte es getan haben
possible that he did it)
He could have done it (i.e. he Er hätte es tun können
would have been able to, but he
didn't)

MAY
• There are a number of German equivalents for couldn't help:
She couldn't help laughing
Sie musste einfach lachen
Sie konnte nicht anders, als zu
lachen
Sie konnte nicht umhin zu
lachen (R3)
Sie konnte nichts dafür, sie
musste lachen (Rl)
• may expresses permission in rather formal English (for more usual
can). The equivalents are dürfen or können (see can above).
You may go now Sie dürfen (Rl: können) jetzt
gehen
We may take it as our starting point Wir dürfen/können davon
that. .. ausgehen, dass ...
• The commonest use of may is to express possibility. The usual
German equivalent is vielleicht or a phrase with möglich (see can above).
können can be used, often in the past subjunctive form könnte, but only
if it cannot possibly be misunderstood in another sense (i.e. 'be able to').
mögen is restricted to R3 or S, apart from a few set phrases, and most
often expects or implies a concessive qualification, e.g. that may well be,
(but...).
Vielleicht stimmt diese
Umfrage
Es ist möglich, dass diese
This survey may be correct
Umfrage stimmt
Diese Umfrage kann/könnte
stimmen
Diese Umfrage mag
, stimmen(, aber ...) (R3)
Vielleicht stimmt diese
Umfrage nicht
Es ist möglich, dass diese
This survey may not be correct
Umfrage nicht stimmt
Diese Umfrage kann auch
t nicht stimmen
NOTE: ... kann nicht stimmen would mean'... cannot be correct'
I Es kann sein, dass
er im Garten arbeitet
Vielleicht arbeitet
He may be working in the garden
er im Garten
Es ist möglich, dass er im
i Garten arbeitet
NOTE: Er kann im Garten arbeiten means 'He is able to work in the
garden'. Er könnte im Garten arbeiten means 'He would be able to
work in the garden'.

MIGHT
The road may be blocked
He may have seen the bear
He may not have seen the bear
Die Straße ist vielleicht
gesperrt
Die Straße kann/könnte
k gesperrt sein
Er kann/könnte den
Bären gesehen haben
Vielleicht hat er den Bären
gesehen
Er kann den Bären auch nicht
gesehen haben
Vielleicht hat er den Bären
nicht gesehen
• may after verbs of hoping, fearing, wishing, etc. and after so that, has
no equivalent in German:
I hope that he may recover Ich hoffe, dass er sich bald
erholt
I am telling you this so that you Ich sage Ihnen das, damit
may know exactly what I am going Sie genau wissen, was ich
to do vorhabe
• might is sometimes used to ask permission (= dürfte), e.g.:
Might I ask you a favour? Dürfte ich Sie um einen
Gefallen bitten?
• The most frequent use of might is to express possibility. This is close
to could (see under could above) and the usual German equivalent is
könnte, unless this is ambiguous, as explained above under can and
may.
She might be in Berlin now
The road might be blocked
You might shut the door
(reproachful)
He might not come
Sie könnte jetzt in Berlin sein
Die Straße könnte gesperrt
sein
Du könntest die Tür
zumachen
I Er kommt möglicherweise
nicht
Er kommt vielleicht nicht
Es wäre möglich, dass er
' nicht kommt
NOTE: Er könnte nicht kommen = 'He wouldn't be able to come'
• might have, like could have, is ambiguous in English and the two senses
have different German equivalents:
IEr könnte umgekommen sein
Er ist vielleicht
umgekommen
He might have been killed (i.e. it is Er hätte umkommen können
possible, but he wasn't)

He might have toldUrsula
(i.e. it is possible that he did)
He might have told Ursula (i.e.
possible, but he didn't)
He might not have received it
Er könnte es Ursula gesagt
haben
Vielleicht hat er es Ursula
gesagt
Er hätte es Ursula (doch)
sagen können
Er hat es vielleicht nicht
bekommen
Er hat es möglicherweise nicht
bekommen
Es wäre/ist möglich, dass er
es nicht bekommen hat
MUST • must expresses necessity or compulsion; müssen is the usual German
equivalent, e.g.:
I must talk to him today Ich muss ihn heute sprechen
They must leave at seven Sie müssen um sieben
abfahren
Sabine must be mad Sabine muss verrückt sein
They must have left at seven Sie müssen um sieben
abgefahren sein
I must have lost it Ich muss es verloren haben
• mustn V is usually nicht dürfen. nicht müssen (see under müssen above)
= English don't have to or needn 't (although it is sometimes heard for
mustn 7 in N):
You mustn't play football here Ihr dürft hier keinen Fußball
spielen
I mustn't forget that Das darf ich nicht vergessen
(Sie hat den Brief wohl nicht
SHALL
gesehen
• The use of shall is much restricted in Sie modern kann English. den Brief Apart nicht from its
use to form the future tense (see under will gesehen below), haben its usual German
equivalent is sollen:
Shall I bring you the flowers? Soll ich dir die Blumen
bringen?
He shall pay for this Er soll mir dafür büßen
Thou shalt not steal Du sollst nicht stehlen
• Shall we... ? often corresponds to Wollen wir... ? rather than Sollen
wir ... which has more the sense of'do you want us to ... ?', e.g.:
Now what shall we do? Nun, was wollen wir machen?
Shall we have lunch here? Wollen wir hier zu Mittag
essen?

SHOULD/
OUGHT TO
• In English, should is usually interchangeable with ought to in its
commonest sense of expressing obligation or probability. The German
equivalents are sollte or müsste, which are close in meaning but not
always interchangeable: sollte carries more the sense of being obliged,
whereas müsste has rather the idea of probability or necessity.
We should/ought to try that
She should/ought to be in the
office today (i.e. it is her duty)
She should/ought to be in the
office today (i.e. it is most likely)
We ought to hurry (i.e. we are
obliged to)
The letters ought to be on my desk
(i.e. it is probable)
Das sollten/müssten wir mal
probieren
Sie sollte heute im Büro sein
Sie müsste heute im Büro
sein
Wir sollten uns beeilen
Die Briefe müssten auf
meinem Schreibtisch
liegen
• For negative shouldn V or ought not to, sollte nicht is the usual
equivalent, but dürfte nicht emphasizes the idea that something ought
not to be or have been allowed, e.g.:
She ought not to know that
Sales shouldn't/ought not to have
fallen off so much
Das dürfte/sollte sie
eigentlich nicht wissen
So viel dürfte/sollte der
Absatz nicht nachgelassen
haben
• Simple dürfte can also express the idea of probability, and in this
meaning it is very close to that of the future tense (see 4.3.1), e.g.:
That should/ought to be enough Das dürfte/müsste reichen
That should/ought to be right Das dürfte/müsste stimmen
• should have/ought to have is ambiguous in English, but the ambiguity
is resolved in German by using sollte/müsste with a past infinitive or
hätte... sollen/müssen, e.g.:
He should/ought to have grasped
that now (i.e. it is an obligation on
him)
You should/ought to have told me
that yesterday (i.e. it was an
obligation on you, but you didn't)
He should/ought to have written
the letter by now (i.e. it is probable
that he has)
He should/ought to have written
the letter yesterday (i.e. it was most
likely, but he seems not to have
done)
Das sollte er nun begriffen
haben
Das hätten Sie mir gestern
sagen sollen
Er müsste den Brief schon
geschrieben haben
Er hätte den Brief schon
gestern schreiben müssen

[SHOULD/
OUGHT TO]
WILL
• should is used in some subordinate clauses in English as a kind of
subjunctive substitute. In most cases this has no equivalent in German,
although sollte is found in damit-clauses in R2 and R3 (see 4.5.4).
I am pleased that she should have Ich freue mich, dass sie
come
It is surprising that he should have
failed
gekommen ist
Es ist erstaunlich, dass er
durchgefallen ist
• should is sometimes used rather than would (see under would below)
in the first person conditional, but it is frequent, alongside were to, in
other conditional sentences, where German uses sollte (see 4.5.3), e.g.:
If you should/were to change your Sollten Sie es sich anders
mind, please let me know überlegen, dann sagen Sie
If he should/were to arrive in the
morning, I can pick him up from
the station
mir bitte Bescheid
Wenn er schon am
Vormittag ankommen
sollte, dann kann ich ihn
am Bahnhof abholen
• will (often simply '//) is in its most familiar use the auxiliary verb for
the future tense. This may correspond to a present or a future in
German (see 4.3.1). However, if will has a sense of desire or intention,
then wollen is quite possible as an equivalent in German, e.g.:
He will do everything in his power Er will alles tun, was in seiner
The door won't close
Will you come with us tonight?
He won't listen
That'll be the postman
He'll have left from Hamburg
yesterday
Macht steht
Die Tür will nicht zugehen
Wollt ihr heute Abend
mitkommen?
Er will nicht hören
• If the future tense expresses probability, German, too, can use a
future, often with wohl (see 2.6). Common alternatives are dürfte or,
especially in Rl, simply wohL
i Das wird (wohl) der
Briefträger sein
Das dürfte der Briefträger
sein
1 Das ist wohl der Briefträger
' Er wird (wohl) gestern von
Hamburg abgefahren sein
Er dürfte gestern von
Hamburg abgefahren sein
Er ist wohl gestern von
t Hamburg abgefahren
• will can also express a characteristic or habitual activity. This has a
variety of possible equivalents in German, depending on the context,
e.g.:

WOULD
1 stressed syllables
are preceded by a
stress mark
Pigs will eat anything
Boys will be boys
She will sit there for hours doing
nothing
Schweine fressen nun einmal
alles
Jungen sind nun einmal so
Oft sitzt sie stundenlang da
und macht nichts
• would (often simply *d) is characteristically used for the English
conditional (= Konjunktiv //, see 4.5.4). However, it can occur for the
past tense of will in the other senses given above:
She wouldn't come when I called Sie wollte nicht kommen, als
her
The lift wouldn't come
Every evening he would go for a
walk by the river
She would get up early in the
morning
It 'would rain today
He 'would say that
ich sie rief
Der Aufzug wollte nicht
kommen
Jeden Abend ging er am
Fluss spazieren
Sie stand gewöhnlich
morgens früh auf
Sie pflegte morgens früh
aufzustehen (R3)
Ausgerechnet heute musste
es regnen
{
Natürlich hat er das gesagt
Von ihm war ja nichts
anders zu erwarten

5 Syntax and word order
5.1 Word order
German word order is much more flexible than English word order.
Apart from the basic framework, it is rarely a matter of'rules' and
'exceptions' because the order can often be varied for emphasis. This
section gives some simple basic guidelines to help you construct
sentences in German.
5.1.1 The verbal bracket
The basic framework for any German sentence (or clause - the
distinction is unhelpful in this context, and both are called Satz in
German) can be seen as a pair of'brackets' which is made up of the
verb and certain other elements linked to the verb. The position of
these is fixed and most of the rest of the sentence is contained between
these brackets. There are three main types of'bracket' construction in
German:
Initial element Opening bracket
[
Central elements Closing bracket
]
Type 1 (a) Gestern hat er früh damit aufgehört
(b) Warum hat er gestern früh damit aufgehört?
Type 2 (a) Hat er schon damit aufgehört?
(b) Hören Sie sofort damit aufl
Type 3 (a) weil er gestern damit aufgehört hat
(b) statt sofort damit aufzuhören
The three types of bracket construction in German are as follows:
Type 1: The opening bracket is formed by the finite verb, which is always in
finite verb second place after a single initial element (see 5.1.3). The closing
SECOND bracket is usually another part of the verb, i.e. a separable prefix, an
infinitive or a past participle, although this is of course lacking in
the simple tenses of simple verbs. This type is found:

Type 2:
finite verb FIRST
Type 3:
finite verb LAST
Rl= spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
(a) in statements, including those where clauses are joined by und,
aber, denn, oder and sondern
(b) in ß?A-questions: the initial element is always a question word
such as was, wer, warum, welcher, etc.
The opening and closing brackets are formed by the same elements
as in type 1, but the finite verb is the first element in the sentence.
This type is found:
(a) in yes/no questions
(b) in commands
The verb is also first in conditional clauses if the conjunction wenn
is left out, see 4.5.4.
The opening bracket is formed by a conjunction or preposition and
the closing bracket is formed by all parts of the verb. This type is
found:
(a) in subordinate clauses: here the opening bracket is a
conjunction
(b) in infinitive clauses: the opening bracket may be one of the
prepositions ohne, (an)statt or urn but otherwise there is no
word in this position.
This basic framework covers all German sentences in all registers;
the only exception is that, especially in Rl, some element may
follow the closing bracket (see 5.1.6).
5.1.2 The closing bracket
The closing bracket may be formed by more than one element. The
order is then as follows:
Closing bracket
Full verb Auxiliary verb
Er hat es mir nicht sagen wollen
Das ist mir doch gesagt worden
Er wird es bald geschrieben haben
..., ohne es mir gesagt zu haben
In subordinate clauses the finite verb usually follows all infinitives and
participles:

Closing bracket
Full verb Auxiliary verb Finite verb
..., weil er es mir nicht gesagt hat
..., weil er es mir nicht sagen will
..., weil es mir nicht gesagt worden ist
..., weil es mir nicht gesagt werden kann
..., weil er es bald geschrieben haben wird
There is one exception to this rule. If there are two infinitives at the
end of the clause (e.g. in the compound tenses of modal verbs), then the
finite verb comes before them:
Closing bracket
Finite verb Full verb Auxiliary verb
..., weil er es mir hat sagen wollen
... , weil er es mir wird sagen müssen
5.1.3 The initial element in a main clause
It is an invariable rule of German that in main clause statements (i.e.
type la clauses) one and only one element can occur before the finite
verb which forms the opening bracket. This initial element can be a
single word, a phrase or a subordinate clause:
Initial element
Finite verb
t Central elements ]
Gestern haben wir hitzefrei gehabt
Vor drei Tagen sind wir nach Ulm gefahren
Als ich klein war, habe ich in Berlin gewohnt
Sometimes an interjection, a name or certain adverbs are placed before
the initial element, usually separated by a comma. These are not really
exceptions to the basic rule that the verb is the second element; they are
simply too loosely linked to the rest of the sentence to be thought of as
part of it. The most common of these apparent exceptions are:
(a) Interjections, exclamations, names, etc. e.g. ach, ja, nein, du liebe Zeit,
Herr Kollege',
Ach, dort kommt sie!
Mensch, das ist doch nicht wahr!
Karl, du spielst auch, oder?
Gut, das machen wir!

(b) Some linking adverbs or phrases, e.g. das heißt, weißt du, kurz (gesagt),
mit anderen Worten:
Kurzum, er hat unrecht
Wissen Sie, das hätte er mir doch gestern sagen können
(c) A few adverbs can occur initially with another element or be placed in
their usual position in the clause. The commonest are: aber, also,
allerdings, freilich, höchstens, immerhin, sozusagen, übrigens, wenigstens,
e.g.:
EITHER: Sonntag also kannst du nicht kommen
OR: Also kannst du Sonntag nicht kommen
OR: Sonntag kannst du also nicht kommen
(d) Two elements can precede the verb if one simply extends the other.
This is commonest with adverbs of time or place, e.g.:
Dort in der kleinen Dorfschule hat der Junge wenig gelernt
Morgen um zwei Uhr kommt ihr Zug an
(e) Main clauses which begin with two or more elements are common in
English. Apart from the few cases explained above, in the
corresponding German sentences all but one of these elements will be
shifted into a position between the brackets (with no commas), e.g.:
IDann ist er jedoch eingeschlafen
Er ist dann jedoch eingeschlafen
Jedoch ist er dann eingeschlafen
5.1.4 The use of initial position in German
In German main clause statements (type la in the table in 5.1.1), almost
any element can occupy initial position. It is thereby given prominence
as the 'topic' of the clause, about which some new information is given
later on in the sentence. Very often it refers back to something just
mentioned or is something well known to both speaker and listener.
Time phrases are particularly common in this position.
This facility in German of using the initial position whilst keeping
the basic construction of the clause intact is not shared by English,
where the subject must come before the verb. In English the position of
the subject is the only way we can tell that it is the subject, because,
unlike German, the subject is not distinguished by having special
endings (i.e. for the nominative case). As a result, things are often put
in a different way in German compared to English; we have to use
complicated constructions in order to manoeuvre an element into
initial position to make it the topic of the clause if it is not the subject of
the verb. The following examples show how German can cope with
such shifts in emphasis within the basic bracket construction and has
no need for the complex constructions which we often use in English.

Subject there/es
In both English and German the subject can be moved out of initial
position to give it more emphasis later in the clause, in which case it is
replaced by there in English and es (or in Rl, da) in German, e.g.:
There was no-one ( Es hat niemand auf sie gewartet
waiting for her l Da hat niemand auf sie gewartet (Rl)
On the other hand, German does not need to use this construction if
there is another element which can be placed in initial position, e.g.:
There was no one waiting for her
There are some pages missing in
this book
There's no one there, though
Auf sie hat niemand gewartet
In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar
Seiten
Da ist doch niemand
have + participle
In English we can shift something into initial position by making it the
subject of to have; the 'real' verb of the sentence then becomes a
participle. There is no need for this construction in German, where the
elements are simply shifted within the basic construction, e.g.:
This book has some pages missing
They've had their windows
smashed
The room next door has a student
living in it
In diesem Buch fehlen ein paar
Seiten
Ihnen wurden die Fenster
eingeworfen
Im Zimmer nebenan wohnt ein
Student
Passive
A common reason for preferring a passive construction in English is to
put what would normally be the object of the verb into initial position.
This is usually unnecessary in German, where we can simply move the
object and the subject round within the basic construction, e.g.:
These words must now be followed
by deeds
They were being helped by the
gipsies
Auf diese Worte müssen nun
Taten folgen
Ihnen haben die Zigeuner
geholfen
Cleft sentences
An element can be shifted into initial position in English by putting it
into a clause of its own, usually with it and the verb to be. These
so-called 'cleft sentence' constructions are unnecessary in German; the
relevant element simply goes into the initial position of the basic
construction, e.g.:

It was only yesterday that I saw him Erst gestern habe ich ihn
gesehen
It's that television I wanted to Über diesen Fernseher habe ich
complain about mich beschweren wollen
It's what you do that counts Was man tut, zählt
There are many variations on this construction, all of which have
simpler equivalents in German, e.g.:
That's the book I'm supposed to read Das Buch da soll ich lesen
This is where she lives Dort wohnt sie
That's the sort of man he is So einer ist er
Autumn is when it's lovely here Im Herbst ist es hier schön
5.1.5 The central section of German clauses
[VERB 1
Gestern hat
Möchten
Hat
Except for the initial element in type 1 clauses, all the words in a
German clause come inside the bracket explained in 5.1.1, i.e. between
the various parts of the verb. The relative order of these central
elements is exactly the same for all clause types. The table on page 269
gives a rough guide to the most usual order of these elements. A more
detailed explanation is given in (a)-(e) below.
(a) Pronouns
We must distinguish:
(i) the personal pronouns: ich, dir, Ihnen, ihm, etc.
(ii) the demonstratives: der, dieser, etc. used without a noun following.
The order is then:
(i) Personal pronouns come before demonstratives, e.g.:
pronoun demonstrative VERB 2 ]
mich
Sie
er
der
diese
die
nicht
gleich
wohl
erkannt
mitnehmen?
gesehen?
(ii) Personal pronouns have the order: nominative-accusative-dative,
e.g.:
[VERB 1
nom acc dat VERB 2 ]
Wann werden Sie es ihm geben?
Wenn er sie Ihnen bringt,...
...., statt es mir zu sagen

However, in Rl an unstressed 's can follow a dative pronoun, e.g.:
Er will mir's nicht sagen
The only exception to the rule that pronouns are always found
immediately after the opening bracket is that a subject noun in the
nominative can come before a pronoun, e.g.:
EITHER: Gestern hat mein Mann ihn in der Stadt gesehen
OR: Gestern hat ihn mein Mann in der Stadt gesehen
However, it is common in all registers for the pronoun to come first.
Adverbials and subject/object noun phrases
Within the bracket, adverbials and subject/object noun phrases come
immediately after the pronouns and before the complements. The table
on page 269 shows the order in which they most commonly occur in
relation to one another. It must be stressed, though, that this order is
not an absolute rule of German grammar; much variation is permitted
for reasons of emphasis. Basically, the more we want to stress one of
these elements, the later it will come. Conversely, an element may be
given less prominence by being placed earlier, e.g.:
Das hat er dann seinem \
Vorgesetzten nach langem In the second sentence who he
Zögern mitgeteilt I told is seen a more important
Das hat er dann nach langem
Zögern seinem Vorgesetzten
mitgeteilt
than the hesitation, and the
dative object follows the adverb.
Der Lehrer hat nach der Pause When the action took place is less
dem Jungen das Heft gegeben important, and the adverbial
precedes both objects.
Die Tatsache, dass der EG What will run out is by far the
unausweichlich 2004 das Geld most important piece of new
ausgeht information, and thus the
subject comes last.
Ich habe mir diesen neuen \ T , . . , ,
. . rr , , ~ In each case it is the second
Anzug im Herbst gekauft I , , . , . . -
, , , . . Tf i / phrase which is given the
Ich habe mir im Herbst diesen
greater emphasis.
neuen Anzug gekauft
Adverbials
An adverbial is an optional element giving additional information about
the circumstances of an action, i.e. how, when, where, etc. it took place.
It is not dependent on the verb in the way that complements are.
Adverbials can be:
(i) single words: schlecht, trotzdem, vorhin, gründlich, etc.
(ii) noun phrases: den ganzen Tag, eines Abends, eine Weile, etc.
(iii) preposition phrases: in der Kirche, zum Glück, ohne Zögern, am
Ende, etc.

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These differences in form do not affect word order in any way. The
same form can have different functions, though, and its position
changes accordingly, e.g.:
Verb complement dependent on the verb. It cannot be left out and is
always the last element before the closing bracket (see (e) below):
Er wohnt seit drei Jahren in Frankfurt
Phrase qualifying the preceding noun and placed immediately after
it:
Im Römer in Frankfurt wurden die deutschen Kaiser gekrönt
Adverbial giving extra information. It is in the usual position for
adverbials:
Er möchte in Frankfurt Jura studieren
The table on page 269 shows that most adverbials - with the exception
of adverbials of manner, which invariably come immediately before the
complements - tend to come between the dative object and the
accusative object, whether the adverbial is a single word such as
trotzdem or a phrase such as voriges Jahr or in der Stadt. If there is more
than one adverbial, they will most often appear in the order given in the
table on page 272. However, this order, too, can be varied for emphasis;
an adverbial can be stressed more or less by being placed later or earlier,
e.g.:
Wir sollten zehn Minuten vor dem Bahnhof auf sie warten
Wir sollten vor dem Bahnhof zehn Minuten auf sie warten
Er hat ihr trotzdem gestern geschrieben
Er hat ihr gestern trotzdem geschrieben
Sie hat sehr lange dort gewartet
Sie hat dort sehr lange gewartet
The position of nicht
In general, nicht (and all other negatives, such as nie and kaum) comes
after all adverbials except those of manner and after the accusative
object, but before adverbials of manner and all complements, e.g.:
after place and time adverbials but before manner adverbials:
Die Berliner haben gestern in Frankfurt nicht schlecht
gespielt
Sie haben sich seit langem nicht mehr ausführlich unterhalten
after the accusative object:
Er will mir das Kleid nicht kaufen
Sie hat die Vase nicht zerbrochen
before all complements:
Wir fahren morgen nicht ans Meer
Er ist sicher nicht groß
The above guideline applies if nicht is understood to refer to the whole
clause. With a change in emphasis, though, i.e. if a particular element

1 stressed syllables
are preceded by a
stress mark
in the sentence is to be negated, then nicht precedes it. In such
instances there is usually an implied contrast with sondern, e.g.:
Er will mir nicht 'das Buch
geben
Ich war nicht am 'Sonntag in
der Stadt
Ich fahre nicht mit meinen
'Eltern nach Italien
not that book, but a different one
not on Sunday, but some other
time
not with my parents, but perhaps
with someone else
(e) Complements
Complements are those elements which are most closely linked with
the verb in a sentence (or 'governed' by it, see 4.1) and 'complete' its
action in some way. With the exception of the subject and the
accusative and dative objects, which have their own place in the clause
(see above), they invariably come last, immediately before the closing
bracket. The following list gives all the types of complement to which
this rule applies:
(i) Genitive object (restricted to R3, see 4.1.3), e.g.:
Das Gericht hat den Hausierer zu Unrecht des Diebstahls
beschuldigt
(ii) Prepositional object (see 4.1.4), e.g.:
. .., weil sich die Mutter nun um ihre beiden Kinder
kümmern wird
(iii) Phrases of place after verbs expressing position, e.g. bleiben,
wohnen, sitzen, stehen, liegen, sich befinden (R3), sich aufhalten (R3),
e.g.:
Warum willst du unter keinen Umständen in Würzburg
wohnen?
(iv) Direction phrases after verbs of motion, e.g.:
Dann hat Peter den Stein in den Bach geworfen
Ich will schnell mit dem Auto in die Stadt fahren
(v) Nominative noun phrases and adjectives after the verbs sein,
werden, bleiben, scheinen, heißen, e.g.:
Immerhin ist Hans-Jürgen längere Zeit der beste Schüler
gewesen
Hedwig ist in den letzten Jahren sehr groß geworden
(vi) The noun portion of phrasal verbs, e.g.:
Der Betriebsrat hat uns gestern davon in Kenntnis gesetzt
5.1.6 Can anything follow the closing bracket?
It is by no means an absolute rule of German that the verb has to go
right to the end of the clause, i.e. that a sentence (or clause) must
end with the closing bracket. This has never been the case in
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Nevertheless, there are limitations on what can follow the closing
bracket, as follows.
(a) Some elements are rarely enclosed within the bracket in any register.
These include:
(i) Subordinate clauses. In particular, constructions where a number
of clauses are enclosed within one another (the so-called Schachtelsatz),
with a cluster of verbs at the end, are now avoided, even in R3a:
NOT: Mein Vater, der selten, obwohl er immer zeitig aufstand,
frühstückte, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote
RATHER: Mein Vater, der selten frühstückte, obwohl er immer zeitig
aufstand, aß an dem Tag vier Butterbrote
To achieve this, even a relative clause can be separated from the noun it
refers to:
NOT: Else hatte dem Fremden, dem sie am Tag vorher mittellos auf
dem Paradeplatz begegnet war, geholfen
RATHER: Else hatte dem Fremden geholfen, dem sie am Tag vorher
mittellos auf dem Paradeplatz begegnet war
(ii) Infinitive clauses are not enclosed unless they consist merely of
the simple zu + infinitive, and even this is only common in R3:
Er fing zu weinen an (R3)
Er fing an zu weinen
NOT: Er hat eine kleine Atempause zu machen beschlossen
RATHER: Er hat beschlossen, eine kleine Atempause zu machen
(iii) Comparative phrases with als or wie are never enclosed, e.g.:
. .., wo wir uns bewegten wie Tiere auf der Wildbahn
Gestern hat es mehr geschneit als heute
(b) Less regular, but still common, is the postponement of prepositional
phrases of any kind or, in Rl only, of any adverbial.
(i) In Rl, a prepositional phrase or an adverbial may follow the closing
bracket, either as an afterthought or to emphasize it, e.g.:
Du hast ihn doch gestern gesehen in der Stadt (Rl)
Der wird doch nix lernen bei dem Lehrer da (Rl)
(ii) Especially in written R3, a long prepositional phrase may be
postponed in order not to make the bracket construction too long, or if
a further clause depends on it, e.g.:
Diese Aufgabe kann nun gelöst werden auf der Grundlage eines
einheitlichen Systems des Bildungswesens (R3b)
Von dieser Höhe aus konnte er wenig sehen von der kleinen Stadt,
die am anderen Ufer im Dunst lag (R3a)

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses
A characteristic feature of modern German is a tendency not to use
subordinating constructions if alternatives are available. This varies
from register to register, i.e.:
Rl: main clauses used predominantly.
R2: some subordination, but each main clause will rarely have more
than one subordinate clause dependent on it.
R3a: fairly free use of subordinate clauses, but complex sentences
with numerous such clauses are still less frequent than in English.
R3b: little subordination and a clear preference for phrases with
verbal nouns instead.
The texts in 1.6 illustrate how the extent of subordination varies with
register, but English uses subordinate clauses in all registers much
more readily than German. This means that, if English learners of
German express themselves in German using the main and subordinate
clause constructions which sound most natural in English, their
German can sound rather forced, artificial and foreign.
It is difficult to give any hard and fast rules for this. Subordinate
clauses are not ungrammatical in German; they are simply used less,
and other constructions often sound much more natural. For this
reason it is important for English-speaking learners to be aware of
possibilities of expressing themselves in German through main clauses
or noun phrases - rather than through the subordinate clauses which
may often appear to be the nearest equivalent to the corresponding
English sentence.
Examples of these possibilities are given in the following sections.
However, the possibilities are endless and the list cannot hope to be
exhaustive.
5.2.1 Alternatives to relative clauses
The main alternatives to relative clauses include the use of extended
epithets (esp R3b), compounds (esp R3b) and simple main clauses
(esp Rl).
Subordinate clause
construction Alternative
das Gebiet, das an Bodenschätzen das an Bodenschätzen reiche
reich ist,... Gebiet... (R3b)
das Gebiet, an Bodenschätzen
reich,... (R3)

Subordinate clause
construction Alternative
ein Ereignis, das das Leben ein lebensbedrohendes
bedroht,... Ereignis ... (R3b)
Die Stahlarbeiter, die um ihre Die um ihre eigenen
eigenen Arbeitsplätze fürchten, Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden
wollen nicht streiken Stahlarbeiter wollen nicht
streiken (R3b)
Ich bemerkte den Mann, der Ich habe den Mann bemerkt,
neben meiner Frau saß der hat neben meiner Frau
gesessen (Rl)
Techniken, durch die Abgase Abgasreinigungstechniken...
gereinigt werden, (R3b)
Techniken zur Reinigung von
Abgasen ... (R3b)
ein Formular, in dem ein Auftrag ein Auftragsbestätigungsbestätigt
wird formular (R3b)
5.2.2 Alternatives to noun clauses with dass or wie and
infinitive clauses
Especially in R3b, verbal nouns (often compounded) are used as an
alternative to noun clauses with dass or wie and infinitive phrases. Rl
often uses main clause constructions if possible.
Subordinate clause
construction Alternative
Vorschläge, wie das Vorschläge zur Neugestaltung
herkömmliche Jurastudium neu des herkömmlichen
gestaltet werden kann Jurastudiums (R3b)
Sie haben dagegen protestiert,
dass zwanzig Zechen stillgelegt
werden sollen
Sie haben gegen die geplante
Stilllegung von zwanzig
Zechen protestiert (R3b)
Zwanzig Zechen sollen
stillgelegt werden, und
dagegen haben sie protestiert
(Rl)

Subordinate clause
construction contd
Er bestreitet, an dieser
Demonstration teilgenommen
zu haben
Er bestreitet, dass er an dieser
Demonstration teilgenommen
habe
Alternative contd
5.2.3 Alternatives to other subordinate clauses
Er bestreitet die Teilnahme an
dieser Demonstration (R3b)
It is worth knowing some common alternatives to subordinating
constructions with other conjunctions:
Subordinate clause
construction Alternative
als Als sie hinausging, bemerkte sie
einen roten Schein in der Ferne
als dass Das Wasser ist zu kalt, als dass
man da baden könnte (R3)
als ob (see 4.5.5) Es sieht aus, als ob es in der
Nacht geschneit hätte
außer wenn Ich gehe spazieren, außer wenn
es stark regnet
bevor Bevor er einschlief, hat er den
Brief gelesen
damit/um... zu Wir machen es immer so, damit
Missverständnisse vermieden
werden
Wir machen es immer so, um
Missverständnisse zu
vermeiden
Beim Hinausgehen bemerkte
sie einen roten Schein in der
Ferne (R3)
Sie ging hinaus, und da
bemerkte sie einen roten
Schein in der Ferne (R1/R2)
Das Wasser ist zu kalt, da kann
man nicht baden (R1/R2)
Es sieht aus, als hätte es in der
Nacht geschneit (R2/R3)
Ich gehe spazieren, außer es
regnet stark (Rl)
Er hat den Brief vor dem
Einschlafen gelesen
Er schlief ein, aber vorher hatte
er noch den Brief gelesen
Zur Vermeidung von
Missverständnissen machen
wir es immer so (R3b)
Wir machen es immer so; so
können wir auch
Missverständnisse vermeiden

dadurch,...
dass/indem
5.2 Alternatives to subordinate clauses 277
Subordinate clause
construction Alternative
Sie verrieten ihre Ziele dadurch,
dass sie die demokratischen
Institutionen missachteten (R3)
Sie verrieten ihre Ziele, indem sie
die demokratischen Institutionen
missachteten (R3)
nachdem Nachdem er Monate lang gewartet
hatte, erhielt er die Nachricht von
seinem Erfolg
Nachdem ich den Brief
geschrieben hatte, ging ich im
Park spazieren
obwohl Obwohl er alt ist, geht er jeden
Sonntag im Wald spazieren
ohne dass/
ohne... zu
Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne
dass er jemals ein Hauptseminar
belegt hätte (R3)
Er hat jahrelang studiert, ohne
jemals ein Hauptseminar belegt
zu haben
Sie ging in die Stadt, ohne dass er
es wüsste (R3)
seit(dem) Er hinkt, seitdem er vom Fahrrad
gestürzt ist
Sie verrieten ihre Ziele durch
ihre Missachtung der
demokratischen
Institutionen (R3b)
Nach monatelangem Warten
erhielt er die Nachricht von
seinem Erfolg (R3)
Ich schrieb den Brief und ging
dann im Park spazieren
Trotz seines Alters geht er
jeden Sonntag im Wald
spazieren (R3)
Er ist zwar alt, aber er geht
jeden Sonntag im Wald
spazieren
Er ist schon alt, trotzdem
geht er jeden Sonntag im
Wald spazieren
Er hat jahrelang studiert und
hat nie ein Hauptseminar
belegt (Rl)
Sie ging ohne sein Wissen in
die Stadt
Sie ist in die Stadt gegangen,
und er hat nichts davon
gewusst (Rl)
Er hinkt seit seinem Sturz
vom Fahrrad
Er ist vom Fahrrad gestürzt,
und seitdem hinkt er (Rl)

278 5 Syntax and word order
Subordinate clause
construction contd Alternative contd
so dass Er stand mitten im Gang, so dass
keiner vorbeikommen konnte
während Während er in Marburg
studierte, hat er immer den
evangelischen Gottesdienst
besucht
weil Hier gibt es eine Umleitung,
weil die Marienkirche
restauriert wird
wenn Wenn man diese Zeitschrift
regelmäßig bezieht, erhält man
viele Sonderangebote
Wenn der Dollar nochmals
aufgewertet würde, so würde
das zu einer schweren Krise
fuhren
Er stand mitten im Gang, also
konnte keiner vorbeikommen
(Rl)
Während seines Studiums in
Marburg hat er immer den
evangelischen Gottesdienst
besucht (R3)
Hier gibt es eine Umleitung,
die Marienkirche wird
nämlich restauriert (Rl)
Wegen der Restaurierung der
Marienkirche gibt es hier eine
Umleitung (R3b)
Hier gibt es eine Umleitung,
denn die Marienkirche wird
restauriert (R2/R3)
Die Marienkirche wird
restauriert, deshalb gibt es
hier eine Umleitung
Beim regelmäßigen Bezug
dieser Zeitschrift erhält man
viele Sonderangebote (R3b)
Bezieht man diese Zeitschrift
regelmäßig, dann erhält man
viele Sonderangebote (R3)
Eine nochmalige Aufwertung
des Dollars würde zu einer
schweren Krise fuhren (R3b)
Wir werden es schon schaffen, Wir werden es schon schaffen,
wenn wir auch wenig Hilfe allerdings können wir wenig
erwarten können Hilfe erwarten (Rl)
Wir werden es zwar schaffen,
aber wir können wenig Hilfe
erwarten
Wir können wenig Hilfe
erwarten, aber wir werden es
trotzdem schaffen

5.2.4 Adverbials rather than clauses
(a) In many cases German can use an adverbial construction or a
subordinate clause where English generally uses a clause. In general the
German constructions on the left, with adverbials, sound more
idiomatic.
Das ist allerdings richtig Ich muss zugeben, dass das
richtig ist
I have to admit that this is correct
Er wird allmählich (Rl Er beginnt ungeduldig zu werden
langsam) ungeduldig
He is beginning to get impatient
Er ist angeblich krank Er behauptet, dass er krank ist
He claims to be ill
Er ist anscheinend nicht Es scheint, dass er nicht
gekommen gekommen ist
He seems not to have come
Hast du auch deine Socken Bist du sicher, dass du deine
eingepackt? Socken eingepackt hast?
Are you sure you *ve packed your socks?
Wir können Ihnen Wir bedauern, dass wir Ihnen
bedauerlicherweise nicht nicht weiter behilflich sein
weiter behilflich sein (R3b) können
We regret that we can be of no further assistance to you
Er ist bekanntlich ein Es ist bekannt, dass er ein
hervorragender Physiker hervorragender Physiker ist
Everyone knows that he is an outstanding physicist
Hier können Sie beliebig lange Hier können Sie so lange bleiben,
bleiben wie Sie wollen
You can stay here as long as you wish
Thomas kommt bestimmt mit Ich bin sicher, dass Thomas
mitkommt
Vm sure Thomas is coming with us
Es ist freilich nicht einfach Man muss zugeben, dass es nicht
einfach ist
It must be admitted that it isn y t easy
Gegebenenfalls kann man auch Wenn es nötig sein sollte, kann
eine andere Taste wählen man auch eine andere Taste
wählen
If the need should arise, another key may be chosen

Hoffentlich erreicht er die Ich hoffe, dass er die Hütte vor
Hütte vor Sonnenuntergang Sonnenuntergang erreicht
I hope he reaches the cabin before sunset
Sie kann leider nicht kommen Ich furchte, dass sie nicht
kommen kann
I'm afraid she can't come
Meiner Meinung nach ist er Ich meine, dass er dazu kaum
dazu kaum fähig fähig ist
I think that he is hardly capable of it
Er kommt möglicherweise noch Es ist möglich, dass er noch vor
vor dem Abendessen dem Abendessen kommt
It is possible that he will come before dinner
Die Firma stellt diese Ersatzteile Die Firma hat aufgehört, diese
nicht mehr her Ersatzteile herzustellen
The firm has ceased/stopped making these spare parts
Alle Passagiere sind vermutlich Man vermutet, dass alle
ums Leben gekommen Passagiere ums Leben
gekommen sind
It is presumed that all the passengers lost their lives
Er hat wohl keine Lust dazu Ich nehme an, dass er keine Lust
dazu hat
I imagine/suppose he doesn *t want to
Zweifellos ist dieses Jahr die Es besteht kein Zweifel darüber,
Ernte besser als letztes Jahr dass dieses Jahr die Ernte besser
ist als letztes Jahr
There is no doubt that the harvest is better this year than last
In some cases a German adverbial is the only natural idiomatic
equivalent for an English verb.
Er hat andauernd gelacht
Es wird bestimmt regnen
Sie stört mich dauernd
Im Sommer spielt er gern Tennis
Sind Sie mit dem Lesen fertig?
Er hat früher im Garten
gearbeitet
Sie zieht sich gern/oft
extravagant an
Er arbeitet abends gewöhnlich
im Garten
Jetzt sehe ich ein, dass ich mich
geirrt habe
He kept on laughing
It is sure to rain
She keeps (on) disturbing me
He likes playing tennis in the
summer
Have you finished reading?
He used to work in the garden
She tends to dress extravagantly
He tends to work in the garden in
the evenings
I have come to realize I was wrong

Im Winter spielt er lieber
Handball
Er kam nicht rechtzeitig an
Sei ja/nur pünktlich!
Nimm dir ruhig noch etwas zu
trinken
Er las weiter
Ich habe sie zufallig in der
Straßenbahn gesehen
5.2.5 Other alternatives to subordinate clauses
He prefers playing handball in the
winter
He failed to arrive on time
Mind you're on time!
Don 9 t be afraid to help yourself to
another drink
He continued to read
I happened/chanced to see her in
the tram
(a) Some modal verb constructions correspond to more elaborate
constructions in English (see also 4.6), e.g.:
Wir dürfen hier nicht so viel
Lärm machen
Man muss nicht so fest ziehen
Ich soll den Brief morgen
schreiben
Er soll bleich geworden sein
Dieses Zeugnis soll uns helfen
Sie soll eine Fünf in Latein
gekriegt haben
Du sollst das Licht ausmachen
Es sollte ein Geschenk sein
Er will es ihr erzählt haben
We're not allowed to make so
much noise here
It is not necessary to pull so hard
I'm supposed to write the letter
tomorrow
People say that he went quite pale
This certificate is intended to help us
I've heard that she got a five in
Latin
I want you to switch off the light
It was meant to be a present
He claims to have told her
(b) Especially in R3, German often uses adjectives and participles as nouns
where a full clause is needed in English.
Die Farbe dieser Vögel war das
für mich Interessante
Er hat sich über das Gesagte
aufgeregt
Sie hat das Übrige kaum
beachtet
Er wollte die Ankommenden
begrüßen
Das Erschreckende an diesem
Vorfall war seine scheinbare
Unabwendbarkeit
The colour of these birds was what
interested me
He got annoyed about what had
been said
She hardly paid attention to what
remained
He wanted to welcome the people
who were arriving
What was terrifying about this
occurrence was its apparent
inevitability

(d)
Where emphasis can be given in English by the use of cleft sentences
with two clauses, German almost always prefers a single main clause
construction, using the initial position to give emphasis (see 5.1.4 for
further details), e.g.:
Dort sind wir uns begegnet
In diesem Haus wohnt sie
It was there that we met
This is the house (which) she lives
in
Klar will er nicht mitmachen It's obvious that he won y t join in
English often uses to do to repeat the idea of a previous verb. German
does not use tun in this way but prefers constructions without a verb at
all.
Ein Gebiet, das alle Tiere
meiden, nur die Vogel nicht
Ich schreibe genau wie meine
Mutter
Er fühlt sich jetzt besser als
gestern
An area which all animals avoid
and only the birds do not
I write just like my mother does
He feels better now than he did
yesterday
5.3 The present participle in German and English
The English ing-iovm (sometimes called 'present participle' or
'gerund') appears to correspond to the German present participle
in -end, e.g. lachend, lesend, sterbend, etc. However, it is used far less
often than the English ing-form, and English-speaking learners of
German need to know when present participles can occur in German -
and when German prefers to use other constructions.
5.3.1 The use of the German present participle
• The German present participle is used most often simply as an
adjective or an adverb; this is found in all registers, e.g.:
die schreienden Vögel das kochende Wasser
die streikenden Arbeiter das laufende Jahr
überraschend schnell überzeugend dargestellt
• Like all adjectives, it can be used as a noun (mainly R3), e.g.:
der Hinkende etwas Erschreckendes

Rl = spoken
colloquial
Rl* = vulgar
R2 = neutral
R3 = formal
R3a = literary
R3b = non-literary
(see 1.1.5)
It can be used with zu to make an adjective from an infinitive (typically
R3b), e.g.:
das abzufertigende Gepäck die zu schreibenden Briefe
It can be compounded with a noun (most often in R3), e.g.:
von atemberaubender die fußballspielenden Jungen
Schönheit
die Arbeitssuchenden die Zuspätkommenden
The use of extended adjectives with a present participle is
characteristic of R3b, e.g.:
diese von den vorgeschriebenen Normen abweichende
Aufmachung
A few present participles have become true adjectives and can even be
used after sein, sometimes with a change in meaning. The most
common are:
abstoßend
abwesend
ansteckend
anstrengend
anwesend
auffallend
aufregend
bedeutend
beruhigend
dringend
drückend
einleuchtend
empörend
entscheidend
glühend
reizend
rührend
spannend
überzeugend
umfassend
verblüffend
verlockend
zwingend
Note that there are very few of these. English speakers must beware of
confusing them with the ing-forms of the progressive tenses. Only the
above are real adjectives and can be used after the verb sein, e.g.:
ein überzeugendes Argument
das Argument ist überzeugend
Compare the above with:
die fehlenden Seiten
die Seiten fehlen
a convincing argument
the argument is convincing
the missing pages
the pages are missing
A sentence like *die Seiten sind fehlend is not possible, since fehlend is
not an adjective and present participles are not used in German to form
progressive tenses.
A present participle can be used in isolation, most commonly in R3:
Er antwortete mir lachend
Die Kinder strömten singend durch die Gassen
Phrases with present participles are sometimes to be found, e.g.:
Ich saß, meine Puppe auf den Knien haltend, zwischen
meinen Eltern am großen Tisch

AU = Austrian
CH = Swiss
N = North
NE = North East
NW = North West
S = South
SE = South East
SW = South West
(see 1.2.3)
Using present participles in German like this is limited to R3a and,
although it is not uncommon there, there are complex restrictions on
when it can be used, and English students are best advised not to
imitate it but instead to use one of the alternative constructions detailed
in 5.3.2.
5.3.2 German equivalents of English in^-form constructions
As the German present participle is used almost exclusively as an
adjective or an adverb (see 5.3.1), the German equivalents for the many
constructions possible with the English wg-form need to be mastered.
The possibilities are almost endless, and only the most common are
illustrated below. In many instances, some registers of German may
prefer alternatives without subordinate clauses, the details of which are
given in 5.2.
(a) ing-form qualifying a noun
German usually uses a relative clause or, especially in R3b, an
extended adjective:
The passengers waiting to be Die Reisenden, die auf Einlass
admitted were becoming warteten, wurden ungeduldig
impatient
The steel-workers, fearing for Die um ihre eigenen
their own jobs, did not want to Arbeitsplätze fürchtenden
strike Stahlarbeiter wollten nicht
streiken (R3b)
(b) mg-form expressing simultaneous actions or attendant
circumstances
The commonest German equivalent in all registers is simple main
clauses joined by und, possibly with dabei to stress the link. Note that
in modern German a clause with indem is not found in these contexts.
He gazed into the book, biting his
up
He would sit watching her for
hours
She turned round, her heart
beating with joy
Er starrte in das Buch und biss
sich (dabei) auf die Lippe
Er saß oft stundenlang da und
sah ihr zu
Sie drehte sich um, und dabei
klopfte ihr das Herz vor Freude

If the English sentence begins with a phrase with an wg-form, a clause
with als or wenn may be possible in German if the actions are
simultaneous:
Looking out of the window, we saw
the policeman
Als wir zum Fenster
hinausschauten, sahen wir
den Polizisten
Wir schauten zum Fenster
hinaus und sahen den
Polizisten
Depending on the sense of the English phrase, other conjunctions
may be appropriate in German:
It being late, they decided to take
a taxi
Standing on top of the tower you
can see both the streets
Having changed the wheel, he set
off
Finding the door open, I
nevertheless rang the bell
ing-iovms used as nouns
Da es schon spät war,
beschlossen sie, ein Taxi zu
nehmen
Wenn man oben auf dem Turm
steht, kann man die beiden
Straßen sehen
Nachdem er das Rad gewechselt
hatte, fuhr er los
Obwohl ich die Tür offen fand,
klingelte ich
The German equivalent for these is most commonly a dto-clause, an
infinitive clause with zu or, especially in R3b (see 5.2), a verbal noun:
Es ist wichtig aufmerksam
zuzuhören
Es ist wichtig, dass man
Attentive listening is important
aufmerksam zuhört
Aufmerksames Zuhören
k ist wichtig (R3b)
Er gab zu, dass er das
He admitted having broken the Fenster zerbrochen hatte
window
Er gab zu das Fenster
zerbrochen zu haben
Entering the operating-theatre is Das Betreten des Operationsaals
forbidden
ist verboten (R3b)
I can't imagine her selling her ring Ich kann es mir nicht
vorstellen, dass sie ihren Ring
verkauft
the art of writing
die Kunst des Schreibens

y
on
Where a verb (or noun or adjective) takes a preposition, the same
options are available in German, but the rf^ss-clause or infinitive clause
will usually be anticipated by the adverb da(r) + preposition. (More
details about this construction are given in 4.1.5.)
I don't remember having met her
their objection to entering the hall
of the temple
(d) iwg-form after prepositions
Ich erinnere mich nicht
(daran), ihr begegnet zu
sein
Ich erinnere mich nicht
(daran), dass ich ihr
\ begegnet bin
(ihr Einwand dagegen, die
Tempelhalle zu betreten
]ihr Einwand gegen das
Betreten der Tempelhalle
by + wg-form: a common equivalent is a clause with dadurch .. ., dass
or indem, or durch followed by a verbal noun, e.g.:
Wir konnten ihr dadurch helfen,
We were able to help her by
postponing the deadline
dass wir den Termin verschoben
Wir konnten ihr helfen, indem
wir den Termin verschoben
Wir konnten ihr durch eine
Verschiebung des Termins helfen
on + ing-form: a common equivalent is a clause with als or wenn, or
beim followed by a verbal noun, e.g.:
On reading the letter she
blushed
(Als sie den Brief las, wurde sie rot
{Beim Lesen des Briefes wurde sie
l rot
for for + wg-form: a common equivalent is (um)... zu, or zu followed by
a verbal noun, e.g.:
She no longer has any time
for practising
They use them for drinking
beer out of
(Sie hat keine Zeit mehr, (um) zu
\ üben
VSie hat keine Zeit mehr zum Üben
Sie benutzen sie, um daraus Bier zu
trinken
with with + ing-form: there are various possible types of equivalent for this,
e.g.:
She stood in the hall with Sie stand im Flur, und Tränen liefen
tears Streaming down her ibr (dabei) über das Gesicht
face

see, hear, feel
The proposal was accepted Der Vorschlag wurde akzeptiert,
with France voting against wobei Frankreich dagegen stimmte
We could see the old town Wir sahen die alte Stadt, über die das
with the castle towering over Schloss emporragte
it
Mit dem Anstieg der Arbeitslosigkeit
auch in Deutschland können
With unemployment wir wenig Verbesserung in den
increasing even in übrigen europäischen Ländern
Germany, we can expect erwarten
little improvement in the Da die Arbeitslosigkeit auch in
other European countries Deutschland gestiegen ist, können
wir wir wenig Verbesserung in den
übrigen europäischen Ländern
i erwarten
It's lovely here in autumn,
with the leaves turning
With enemy troops
approaching from the East,
the position is hopeless
(e) Other miscellaneous instances with verbs
Es ist im Herbst hier schön, wenn die
Blätter sich verfärben
Jetzt, wo sich die feindlichen Truppen
von Osten nähern, ist die Lage
hoffnungslos
fWir sahen, wie sie näher kamen
We saw them approaching |
tWir sahen sie näher kommen (R3)
[Er fühlte, wie sein Herz heftig
He felt his heart beating J 1 schlug
wildly ] | Er fühlte sein Herz heftig schlagen
1 (R3)
Sie hörten, wie die Jungen um
They heard the boys crying Hilfe schrieen
for help
Sie hörten die Jungen um Hilfe
k schreien (R3)
keep We were kept waiting Man ließ uns warten
leave She left her things lying Sie ließ ihre Sachen herumliegen
about

288 5 Syntax and word order
have I have a coat hanging in the Ich habe einen Mantel im Schrank
closet hängen
go We went sailing Wir sind segeln gegangen
come They came running towards Sie kamen auf uns zugelaufen
us

6 Spelling and punctuation
German spelling and punctuation are markedly more consistent than
English, but some of the rules are quite different, and the most
important differences are explained in this chapter. An important
distinction from English is that spelling and punctuation are set down
officially for the German-speaking countries on the basis of agreements
between the countries involved, and not simply left to the compilers of
dictionaries and guides to style, and these official rulings (including
those for the placement of commas) are taught systematically in
schools, with considerable attention paid to correctness in all respects.
A uniform official spelling for German was only finally established
just over a hundred years ago, and many people came to feel that the
rulings made then still left some unnecessary inconsistencies and
anomalies. For this reason, the countries where German is used as an
official language agreed in 1994/95 on a set of reforms which began to
be introduced in 1996. For a transitional period the old and the new
spellings are permitted, but from 2005 only the new spellings will be
regarded as correct. This spelling reform has been immensely
controversial and generated much vociferous opposition. Although
most books and newspapers now published have gone over to the new
rules, not all are using them fully and consistently, and it is by no means
certain whether the target date of 2005 for the abandonment of the old
rules will be held to. Most people who grew up with the old rules are
still keeping to them for private and business correspondence, and
there seems to be considerable variation in practice even in schools. In
late 2002 opinion polls reported that only 10 per cent of German
speakers accepted the new rulings and used them consistently. It is
quite possible that both systems (and mixtures of them) will continue
to co-exist for many years yet.
In this book, the new rulings have been adhered to consistently
throughout, with the exception of certain texts in 1.6 which were
published before the new rules were introduced. Foreign learners of
German (and their teachers) are best advised to adopt the new rulings
consistently for their own usage (they are in many ways much simpler,
particularly in respect of punctuation). In this section we set out the
main features of the new rulings, pointing out the most important
differences to previous practice.

6.1 Spelling
6.1.1 Capital letters
It is a basic rule of German that every noun is written with an initial
capital letter. However, there are a few areas of uncertainty and
variation, although the intention of the revised spelling rules is to
extend the use of capitals to all cases where there may have been doubt.
(a) Other parts of speech used as nouns have a capital letter, e.g.:
das Entweder-Oder das Ich
eine Fünf das Warten
das Für und Wider das Zögern
This is in particular the case with adjectives used as nouns (see 3.4.4),
e.g.:
der Alte
alles Angenehme
ein Bekannter
das schon Gesagte
etwas Neues
nichts Schlimmes
There are a few (mainly apparent) exceptions to this rule:
(i) A small letter is used for an adjective if a preceding or following
noun is understood, e.g.:
Die grüne Bluse gefällt mir nicht, ich nehme die rote
Es ist sicher das schnellste von diesen drei Autos
(ii) Superlatives with am have a small letter, e.g. am schnellsten. In
the revised spelling superlatives with aufs can be spelled with a
small or a capital letter, e.g. aufs heftigste or aufs Heftigste.
(iii) ander and beide always have small letters, even where it would
appear that they are being used as nouns, e.g. etwas anderes, diese
beiden.
Under the old spelling rules there were many occasional exceptions to
the rule that all nouns should have capital letters, in particular in
respect of set phrases like im allgemeinen 'in general' or im voraus 'in
advance', and number words like das erste, das nächste, das letzte, etc.
Most of these exceptions have been eliminated under the revised
spelling, and capitals are to be used consistently, e.g.:
im Allgemeinen im Klaren sein des Öfteren
das Erste das Letzte im Voraus
als Erstes das Nächste
However, small letters are still to be used in a number of idiomatic
expressions where we are not dealing with distinct nouns. The most
frequent are:

ei weitem by far
durch dick und dünn through thick and thin
gegen bar for cash
ohne weiteres without thinking
schwarz auf weiß in black and white
seit langem for a long time
über kurz oder lang sooner or later
von klein auf from childhood
von nah und fern from near and far
von weitem from afar
(b) A few nouns in set phrases have small letters, in particular in the
following indefinite expressions of number:
ein bisschen ein paar (see 2.2.1)
The number of these has been much reduced in the revised spelling,
and most nouns in set phrases are now spelled with a capital, e.g.: außer
Acht lassen, Recht haben. In practice, a small letter is now to be used
only in very few instances, i.e. the above expressions of number and
nouns in phrases with the verb sein, e.g.:
ihr ist angst er ist schuld daran
das ist schade ich bin es leid
(c) Nouns used as time adverbs generally have small letters, e.g.:
abends morgens vormittags
anfangs sonntags zurzeit
beizeiten tagsüber zuzeiten
derzeit von morgens bis abends
However, under the revised spelling rules:
(i) nouns indicating periods of the day used with gestern, heute and
morgen are spelled with a capital letter, e.g.:
gestern Morgen heute Vormittag morgen Abend
(ii) nouns indicating a period of the day have a small letter when used
with days of the week (or can be written together with them), e.g.:
Dienstag mittag OR Dienstagmittag
(iii) -mal can be compounded with numerals, e.g. einmal 'once', dreimal
'three times', hundertmal 'a hundred times' and in two or three
other phrases, i.e. diesmal 'this time', ein paarmal 'a few times', ein
andermal 'another time'. In all other contexts Mai is written as a
separate word and given a capital letter, e.g.:
das erste Mal jedes Mal zum ersten Mal
Compounds like das erstemal, jedesmal are no longer used.
(d) Adjectives of nationality are spelled with a small letter when they
are used as adjectives or adverbs. This contrasts with usage in English,
e.g.:

das deutsche Volk the German people
ein britisches Schiff a British ship
italienische Weine Italian wines
russische Lieder Russian songs
Der Minister hat mit ihr deutsch gesprochen
Redet sie jetzt deutsch oder niederländisch?
However, they have capital letters when used as nouns to refer to the
language, e.g.:
Er kann kein Wort Deutsch
Das ist (kein) gutes Deutsch
Sie spricht / kann / liest (kein) Deutsch
Das Buch ist in Deutsch und Englisch erschienen
Under the revised spelling rules this also applies to usage after the
preposition auf, e.g.:
auf Deutsch, auf Englisch in German, in English
(e) Nouns which have become prepositions have small letters, e.g.:
angesichts kraft mittels statt trotz
(f) As in English, capitals are used for titles and proper names, e.g.:
das Deutsche Eck die Olympischen Spiele
der Heilige Abend der Rote Milan
Karl der Fünfte das Schwarze Meer
die Lange Gasse
die Letzte Ölung
der Stille Ozean
However, adjectives in idiomatic combinations which are not names of
unique things are spelled with a small letter, e.g.:
die erste Hilfe first aid
die goldene Hochzeit golden wedding
das schwarze Brett the notice board
der schwarze Markt the black market
Adjectives from proper names ending in -sch or -sch are written with
small letters under the revised spelling rules:
das elisabethanische Drama das ohmsche Gesetz
(g) The pronoun Sie and its forms (Ihr, Ihnen, etc.) always have capitals. In
letters, the pronouns du, ihr and their forms (dich, euch, dein, etc.) are no
longer to be written with capitals under the revised spelling. This
ruling is being widely ignored.
6.1.2 One word or two?
The general principle of German spelling is that compound words are
written as a single word if they are felt to express a single idea (even if

' stressed syllables
are preceded by a
stress mark
the resulting words can be quite long). If, on the other hand, the
individual words are still felt to retain full meaning, they are written
separately. The word stress often gives a clue to this, as a true
compound only has one main stress, whereas separate words are still
stressed independently. Compare the following:
'gut 'schreiben to write well 'gutschreiben to credit
'so 'weit so far 'soweit on the whole
There has always been considerable uncertainty about how to apply
this principle, and the revised spelling rules have attempted (not always
successfully) to eliminate some of the more troublesome
inconsistencies. The general principle of the revised spelling rules is to
prefer spelling as separate words in cases of uncertainty. The rest of
this section gives details on some of the main areas of difficulty and the
major changes prescribed by the revised spelling rules.
(a) Separable and other compound verbs
Separable verbs are normally written as a single word when the prefix is
not at the end of the clause, e.g. ankommen, angekommen, anzukommen,
wenn sie ankommt. However, there are some exceptions and
uncertainties in respect of this ruling.
• Combinations of a noun with a verb are written consistently as separate
words. The noun has a capital letter:
Acht geben to pay attention
Eis laufen to skate
Halt machen to stop
Leid tun to be sorry
Maß halten to be moderate
Not tun to be necessary
Rad fahren to cycle
Ski laufen to ski
Weh tun to hurt
However, some nouns are taken to have lost their full meaning in
combination with a verb, i.e.:
heim- irre- preis- stand- statt- teil- wett- wunder-
These are seen as separable prefixes and written together with the verb,
e.g.:
heimgehen to go home stattfinden to take place
irreführen to mislead teilnehmen to participate
preisgeben to expose wettmachen to make up for
standhalten to stand firm wundernehmen to surprise
Combinations of an adjective, an adverb, an infinitive or a participle
with a verb are normally written as separate words, e.g.:
anheim fallen to fall victim to liegen bleiben to remain lying
durcheinander bringen to muddle up nahe legen to suggest
fallen lassen to drop
gefangen nehmen to take captive
kennen lernen to get to know
leicht machen to make sth easy
spazieren gehen to go for a walk
stehen bleiben to stop
übrig bleiben to be left over
verloren gehen to be lost

However, adjectives and adverbs are seen as forming fixed idiomatic
combinations with the verb and written together with it if they cannot
be used in the comparative or with sehr without changing the meaning.
For example, fernsehen 'to watch television' is regarded as a single idea,
because ich sehe sehr fern can only have the literal meaning of 'I am
looking a long way'. Similarly:
bereithalten to have ready gutschreiben to credit
bloßstellen to show up schwarzarbeiten to moonlight
festsetzen to fix totschlagen to kill
Combinations with the verb sein are always written as separate words,
e.g.:
da sein to be there
inne sein to be conscious of
los sein to be up
vorbei sein to be past
zufrieden sein to be satisfied
zurück sein to be back
Compound verbs which are only used in the form of the infinitive
and/or the past participle, like brustschwimmen 'to swim breast-stroke'
and seiltanzen 'to walk the tightrope' are always written as a single
word. These verbs tend to have specialized meanings and are especially
frequent in R3b.
Combinations of prepositions with a noun
These form adverbs or prepositions and they are written separately if
the individual words are still felt to retain independent meanings. The
noun has a capital letter, e.g.:
mit Bezug auf with reference to
zu Ende gehen to come to an end
nach Hause gehen to go home
in Kraft treten to come into effect
Such combinations are written as single words if they are considered to
be single entities, e.g.:
beiseite to/on one side
infolge as a result of
inmitten in the middle of
vonnöten necessary
vorderhand for the present
zurzeit at present
Alternative forms are accepted in some set phrases where it is
questionable whether the words involved retain their separate meanings
or not, e.g.:
anhand/an Hand on the basis of
anstelle/an Stelle instead of

aufgrund/auf Grund on the basis of
imstande/im Stande sein to be capable
infrage/in Frage stellen to call into question
mithilfe/mit Hilfe with the aid of
zugrunde/zu Grunde gehen to perish
zugunsten/zu Gunsten in favour of
zumute/zu Mute sein to feel
zustande/zu Stande bringen to manage
zuwege/zu Wege bringen to manage
(c) Combinations of a noun or an adverb with an adjective or
participle
• In principle these are written as separate words, with the noun being
given a capital letter, e.g.:
ein Aufsehen erregendes Ereignis
die weit gehende Ubereinstimmung
ein schwer beschädigter Wagen
die Eisen verarbeitende Industrie
die dicht bevölkerte Stadt
ein hoch gelegener Ort
• Idiomatic combinations with an adjective (i.e. those where the meaning
is not literally the sum of the parts) are written as a single word, e.g.:
altmodisch old-fashioned
schwerwiegend serious
zeitraubend time-consuming
• Combinations with a noun which come from a phrase are written as a
single word, e.g.:
das bahnbrechende Werk (from: sich eine Bahn brechend)
die staubbedeckten Bücher (from: mit Staub bedeckt)
(d) Other common forms (irgendso-, wie-, -viel, -wenig)
• All compounds with irgend are spelled as one word under the revised
spelling rules, e.g.:
irgendetwas something
irgendjemand somebody
irgendwo somewhere
However, if another word intervenes, all are spelled separately, e.g.
irgend so etwas.
• Combinations with so or wie are spelled as one word if they have a
distinctive meaning, but separately if each word retains its own
meaning, e.g.:
sobald as soon as so bald so soon
solange as long as so lange so long
sooft as often as so oft so often

wieweit? to what extent? wie weit? how far, what distance?
woanders elsewhere wo anders? where else?
womöglich possibly wo möglich if possible
NOTE: The conjunction sodass 'SO that' can alternatively be spelled as
two words, i.e. so dass.
• Combinations with viel and wenig are all spelled with two words under
the revised spelling, e.g. so viel, wie viel?, zu wenig, etc. However, as a
conjunction, soviel is spelled as a single word, e.g. soviel ich weiß 'as far
as I know'.
6.1.3 The use ofß and ss
The letter ß (usually called scharfes s or eszet) is used universally, both
in handwriting and printing, throughout Germany and Austria.
However, it is not normally used in Switzerland, where only ss is usual
and one sees, for example, Bahnhofstrasse rather than Bahnhofstraße. It
is advisable for foreign learners to follow the majority practice and use
ß where appropriate.
Originally,^ was only used as a small letter and not used in capitals,
e.g. Straße, but STRASSE. However, it has become increasingly
common to useß in capitals, too, e.g. STRAßE.
The ruling on the use ofß and ss is probably the most obvious
change brought about by the revised spelling rules, affecting the largest
number of common words. The new rule is that, in the middle or at the
end of a word:
(a) ß is used after a long vowel or diphthong:
beißen der Fuß, die Füße groß, größer der Maß, die Maße
(b) ss is used after a short vowel:
dass müssen, ich muss, ich musste
der Fluss, die Flüsse das Wasser
lassen, er lässt wissen, ich wusste
This ruling extends the principle of German spelling that short vowels
are indicated by being followed by double consonants, long vowels by a
single consonant. It means that there is no longer the confusing
alternation between ss and ß in the declension of many common
words.
6.1.4 Miscellaneous spelling changes
• The spelling of a few other words has been revised in the new spelling
rules. The aim is to achieve greater consistency. Some of the most
noteworthy are:

new spelling old spelling
aufwändig costly
belämmert sheepish
die Gämse chamois
nummerieren to number
die Rohheit roughness
sich schnäuzen to blow one's nose
der Stängel stem, stalk
überschwänglich effusive
der Zierrat decoration
aufwendig
belemmert
Gemse
numerieren
Roheit
sich schneuzen
Stengel
überschwenglich
Zierat
Some words borrowed from other languages have an alternative
spelling which corresponds more closely to their pronunciation in
German. In all these cases either spelling is permissible, although the
one given first is preferred:
die/der Chicoree/Schikoree chicory
der Fotograf/Photograph photographer
die Fotografie/Photographie photography
das Getto/Ghetto ghetto
der/das Joghurt/Jogurt yoghurt
die Majonäse/Mayonnaise mayonnaise
das Mikrofon/Mikrophon microphone
das Portmonee/Portemonnaie purse
potenziell/potentiell potential
die Soße/Sauce sauce
der Spaghetti/Spagetti spaghetti
das Telefon/Telephon telephone
6.2 Punctuation
6.2.1 The use of the comma
The comma in German is not used to mark a pause in speaking but to
show the beginning and end of a grammatical unit (especially clauses).
English learners should be aware that Germans regard the placing of
commas as part of correct spelling, and mistakes in comma placement
are penalized in German schools in the same way as spelling words
incorrectly.
The previous rules for the placement of commas were full of
exceptions and inconsistencies, and the new rules represent a
considerable (and very welcome) simplification. The basic principle is

that all clauses within a sentence should begin and end with a comma,
e.g.:
Der Bauer, der dabei war, seinen dicken Wintermantel anzuziehen, war
der Meinung, dass man in den nächsten Tagen Schnee erwarten dürfte
Among other things, this means that, unlike typical English usage,
adverbials within a clause are never surrounded by commas, e.g.:
Sie hat jedoch recht gehabt She was, however, correct
Nach dem Krieg ging er However; after the war; he returned
jedoch nach Köln zurück to Cologne
There are a few exceptions to this basic rule:
(a) No comma is required before a clause beginning with und or oder, e.g.:
Der junge Mann öffnete ihm die Tür und er ging mit ihm hinein
Almut rief an und er erzählte ihr, was passiert war
Gehst du morgen ins Theater oder bleibst du zu Hause?
However, a comma can be used if the writer feels the need to make the
sentence clearer or avoid ambiguity:
Jürgen fotografierte die Berge(,) und seine Frau lag in der Sonne
Leaving the comma out might lead you to think, on first reading, that
Jürgen took a photograph of the mountains and his wife.
(b) No comma is required before clauses with an infinitive with zu or a
participle:
Sie beschloss den Betrag von €2000 möglichst bald zu überweisen
Ich brauche heute nicht nach Mannheim zu fahren
Ich konnte nichts tun um sie zu beruhigen
Er verließ ihr Haus ohne gesehen zu werden
Aus vollem Halse lachend nahm er das Geschenk entgegen
Er sank zu Tode getroffen auf das Bett
However, a comma may be used if the writer feels it necessary to avoid
ambiguity or make the sense clear. Compare the following pair of
sentences, where the placing of the comma shows which clause heute
belongs to:
Das Kind versprach heute, nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen
Das Kind versprach, heute nichts mehr von dem Kuchen zu essen
(c) A comma is always required before infinitive clauses which are
anticipated by es or a prepositional adverb with da(r) in the preceding
clause, e.g.:
Ihm steht es nicht zu, ein Urteil zu fällen
Wichtig ist es vor allem, den Satz richtig zu verstehen
Wir sind dazu bereit, Ihnen darüber Auskunft zu geben
Sie erinnerte sich daran, ihn in der Stadt gesehen zu haben
(d) Insertions, exclamations, interjections, explanatory phrases, phrases in
apposition and the like usually have commas, e.g.:

Fleisch, insbesondere Rindfleisch, war jetzt sehr knapp geworden
Er war, wie schon gesagt, durch den Tod seines Freundes bestürzt
Wir wurden durch Herrn Meißner, den Direktor des Instituts, in der
Eingangshalle empfangen
Petra, komm bitte schnell in die Küche!
6.2.2 Other punctuation marks
(a) Quotation marks are used much as in English, though it is normal
practice to place the first set on the line rather than above it, and foreign
learners should follow this, e.g.:
Er sagte: „Vater will, dass ich Jura studiere."
NOTE: a colon is used to introduce direct speech.
(b) The exclamation mark is normally used with commands, e.g.:
Komm bitte sofort in den Garten!
Geben Sie mir diese beiden Schachteln!
This rule is not adhered to consistently, and a full stop is now
sometimes preferred. For the use of the exclamation mark in letters, see
2.8.

Index
The index gives all the German and English words, and the grammatical and linguistic
topics about which specific information is given in this book. Individual words in lists
illustrating points of grammar or usage are not included.
To facilitate finding particular entries, German words are given in regular type,
English words in italics and grammatical (and other general) topics in SMALL
CAPITALS (with any German terms ITALICISED). Prefixes and suffixes are indicated
with a hyphen, e.g. an-, -lich, etc. Phrases are listed under the head-word, e.g. zum
Schluss under Schluss.
ab 131,147
ab-114
abbiegen 86
ABBREVIATIONS 176, 185
Abdruck, der 104
aber (conjunction) 158,
159,263,265
aber (particle) 156,161,
163
abfahren 71
sich abfinden 216
Abgeordente(r), der 197
abgesehen von 145
abhalten 78,83,219
Abhang, der 56
abhängen 217
abholen 58,60,73
abkratzen 62
ablehnen 80
ableugnen 62
abmachen 54
about 141,217
above 141
abraten 53,217,219
in Abrede stellen 62
Absatz, der 88
abschließen 72
absehen 217,220
Absender, der 168
Absicht, die 69
absonderlich 75
absperren 72
abstellen 83
abstoßend 283
abwaschen 88
Abwasser, das 174
(sich) abwenden 86
abwesend 283
ACCENT 10
accept 53
accident 53
accidentally 53
accomplishment 53
according to 141
ACCUSATIVE CASE 19,
146,211,225\ see also
accusative object,
preposition
ACCUSATIVE OBJECT
207,211,213,214,
232,236,270; see also
word order
Achse, die 93
Achsel, die 93
Acht geben 219,293
achten 213, 215, 220
across 141
ACTIVE VOICE 233
actually 53,79
ADDRESSES 168
ADJECTIVE
AFTER PRONOUN 194
COMBINED WITH
NOUN OR ADVERB
295
DECLENSION 193-6
FROM NAMES 195,
292
OF COLOUR 195
OF NATIONALITY 291
STRONG DECLENSION
193,194
USED AS NOUN 85,
196-8,201,281,282,
290
WEAK DECLENSION
194
WITH SEIN 271
see also extended
epithet, word
formation
Admiral, der 177
admit 53, 279
ADVERB/ADVERBIAL 264,
273,279-81,298
DIRECTIONAL 124
OF ATTITUDE 272
OF MANNER 270, 272
OF PLACE 265,270,272
OF REASON 272
OF TIME 265,270,272,
291
see also prepositional
adverb, word order
advertisement 54
advertising 54
advise 53
afraid 54, 280,281
after 142
again 54
against 142
age 54
AGE (effect on register) 6
AGENT 236
agree 54
Ahnung, die 69
Akt, der 93
Akte, die 93

aktuell 78
akzeptieren 53
-al 172
Album, das 178
all-/alles/alle 193-6,198,
201,204-6
allerdings 265, 279
im Allgemeinen 290
allmählich 279
allow 281
ALLTAGSSPRACHE 1\ See
also spoken German
along 142
als 'than' 21, 273
als 'when' 230,276,285,
286
als dass 247,276
als ob 246,276
als wenn 247
also 265
Alter, das 54
alter 54
although 250
among(st) 142
an 133, 143,144,150, 151,
153,212,214-15
an-114
-an 172
-än 172
an ... entlang 142
an ... vorbei 152
anbauen 67
anbieten 75,211,235
Anblick, der 87
-and 172
andauernd 280
Andenken, das 74
ander 62-3,290
(sich) ändern 59
androhen 85
sich aneignen 212
Anfang, der 179
anfangen 19,216,219,232
anfassen 85
anfordern 55
anfragen 55
sich anfühlen 64
angeben 220
angeblich 279
angehen 220
angehören 56
Angelegenheit, die 97
angesichts 292
Angestellte(r), der 197
angreifen 85
angst sein 291
Angst haben 64,218
Angst machen 64
in Angst versetzen 64
sich ängstigen 217
anhalten 83
anhand/an Hand 294
anheim fallen 293
Anhöhe, die 98
anklagen 213
ankommen 220
Anlass, der 58
sich anmaßen 212
(sich) annehmen 53,88,
213
Annonce, die 54
anordnen 76
sich anpassen 212
anrufen 58
anrühren 85
(sich) ansammeln 60
Anschein, der 55
anscheinend 279
sich anschließen 212
Ansicht, die 87
anspringen 232
(an)statt 139,149,292
(an)statt... zu 263
ansteckend 283
anstelle/an Stelle von 149,
294
Anstellung, die 70
anstreichen 76
anstrengend 283
answer 208
-ant 172,183
Antrag, der 93
antworten 209
anvertrauen 101
anwenden 87
anwesend 78,283
-anz 172
Anzahl, die 75, 228
Anzeige, die 54
(sich) anziehen 88
anzweifeln 62
Aperitif, der/das 181
appearance 55
APPOSITION 149,298
-ar 172
-är 172
Arbeit, die 70
arbeiten 214
Arbeitsanzug, der 179
Arbeitslose(r), der 197
Archiv, das 179
arg 56
(sich) ärgern 217, 219
argwöhnisch 84
-arm 110
den Arsch zukneifen 62
ARTICLE 17-18,226; see
also definite article,
determiner, indefinite
article
-artig 110
as if 246
Asche, die 179
ask 55
ASSIMILATION 17
at 143
-at 172
at last 72
Atem, der 180
Atlas, der 178
auch 156,160,161,250,
279
auf 133—4,143,146,150,
153,214—15,292
auf- 114
auf... zu 154
auf Wiederschauen 165
auf Wiedersehen 165
aufbewahren 70,101
auffallend 283
auffordern 55
sich auffuhren 56
Aufführung, die 93
Aufgabe, die 70,93
aufgehen 76,79, 210
aufgrund / auf Grund 294
aufhaben 76
aufhalten 83
aufheben 70,72
aufhören 83,216,219
aufmachen 76
Aufnahme, die 63
aufnehmen 53
aufpassen 215, 219
aufregend 283
aufrüsten 93
aufsammeln 60
aufschlagen 57, 76
aufschließen 76
aufsparen 81
aufstehen 80
Auftrag, der 70,93
auftragen 93
Auftritt, der 55,63
aufwachen 87
aufwachsen 67
aufwändig 297
aufwecken 87

aufzwingen 66
augenblicklich 78
aus 127,147, 149, 151
aus- 114
ausbilden 94
Ausbildung, die 94
ausbleiben 68
Ausblick, der 87
(sich) ausbreiten 82
(sich) ausdehnen 82
Ausdruck, der 95
ausdrücken 95
ausfallen 68
ausfragen 55
Ausfuhrung, die 93
Ausgabe, die 93
ausgeben 82
AUSKLAMMERUNG 22,
271
Auskunft, die 180
auslassen 74
ausmachen 54
ausnutzen/ausnützen 87
ausrichten 93
ausrüsten 93
aussehen 217
Aussehen, das 55,179
außer 127,145
außer wenn 276
Äußere(s), das 55,197
außergewöhnlich 101
außerhalb 140,151
Aussicht, die 87
AUSTRIA 13,23,26-7
ausweichen 55
(sich) ausweiten 82
Automat, der 183
AUXILIARY VERB 20, 21,
229,231-4,240,263;
see also modal
auxiliary verb
avoid 55
Backe, die 105
Backen, der 105
backen 188,191
bad 56
Balkon, der 177
Ball, der 93
Ballen, der 93
Ballon, der 177
Band, der 94,102
Band, die 102
Band, das 94,102,104
Bande, die 94
bangen 211
bank 56
Bank, die 56,104
-bar 109,239
Barock, der/das 181
basieren 215
Bauer, der 183
be-111-12,209
be able to 250
be going to 229
be intended to 281
be meant to 281
be supposed to 281
Beamte(r), der 75
BEAMTENDEUTSCH 9
beantragen 93,190
beauftragen 93
(sich) bedanken 215
bedauerlich 95
bedauerlicherweise 279
bedauern 95
bedauernswert 95
bedenken 95
bedeuten 73
bedeutend 283
sich bedienen 87,213
bedingungslos 94
bedrängen 95
bedrohen 85
bedürfen 213
-bedürftig 110
beeindrucken 95
sich befassen 216
befehlen 76,187
befolgen 65
befördern 97
befragen 55,235
befreien 217
befriedigen 80
befurchten 64
begabt 59
sich begeben 68
Begebenheit, die 63
begegnen 73,209
sich begeistern 215
begin 279
beginnen 19,187,216,
219,232
begleichen 77
begleiten 190
sich begnügen 216
begraben 97
begreifen 67,79
Begriff, der 69
begrüßen 67,98,235
behalten 70
beharren 215
behave 56
behindern 78
behutsam 58
bei 128, 143,144,151,286
bei weitem 291
bei-210
beibehalten 70
beide 193,195,196,290
beid(er)seits 140
beinhalten 190
beiseite 294
beißen 186,225
beitragen 218
bekämpfen 64
bekannt 71
Bekannte(r), der 197
bekanntlich 279
sich beklagen 60,219
bekommen 232,237
belämmert 297
belehren 213
beliebig 279
belong 56
sich bemächtigen 67,213
bemerken 75,79,88,235
sich bemühen 217,219
sich benehmen 56
Benehmen, das 179
beneiden 217
benutzen/benützen 87
beraten 53
berauben 213
berechtigen 218
Berechtigung, die
bereit 79
sich bereit erklären 54
bereithalten 294
Berg, der 74
bergen 187
bersten 187
Beruf, der 70,94
Berufstätigkeit, die 70
Berufung, die 94
beruhen 215
beruhigend 283
berühren 86
besagen 73
beschädigen 61
sich beschäftigen 216
beschließen 62
beschränken 215
beschuldigen 56
beschützen 218
sich beschweren 60,219
Besen, der 57
sich besinnen 213

Besitz, der 179
(sich) bessern 69
bestehen 215,216,220
besteigen 59
bestellen 76
bestimmen 62
bestimmt 279,280
bestreiten 62
besuchen 58,65
betasten 64
beten 94
betrachten 85
sich betragen 56
betrügen 189,217
betteln 94
beurteilen 94
Bevölkerung, die 69
bevor 276
bewahren 70,101
bewähren 101
bewegen 77,86, 188,
191
Bewohner, der 69
bewundern 102,235
beyond 144
bezahlen 77
bezeichnen 94
sich beziehen 215
bezweifeln 62
bezwingen 66
biegen 86,187,232
bieten 75,94, 187
Bild, das 94
Bildung, die 94
billigen 54
binden 187
Bindfaden, der 84
binnen 131,148
bis 124, 144,154
bis auf 124,145
bitten 55,94,217,219
blame 56
blasen 188
Blatt, das 88
blechen 77
bleiben 186,230,232,239,
242,271
blenden 94
Blick, der 87
blinken 94
blinzeln 94
Blitz, der 180
blöde 18
bloß 76,160,163
bloßstellen 294
Boden, der 89
Bodensatz, der 179
Bogen, der 177
Bonbon, der 181
Böschung, die 95
böse 56,94
boshaft 94
böswillig 94
box 56
boxen 64
BRACKET
CONSTRUCTION see
word order
Brand, der 65
braten 188
Brauch, der 95
brauchen 21, 84,95,235,
241
break 57
brechen 57, 187, 232
breit 74
breitschlagen 77
brennen 190
bright 57
Brille, die 179
bringen 84, 190,217,221,
242
Broiler, der 11
Brot, das 180
brüllen 61
brush 57
Büchse, die 56
Buchstabe, der 183
Bulle, der 102
Bulle, die 102
bummeln 233
Bund, der 94,102
Bund, das 94,102
Bündnis, das
Burg, die 58
Bursch, der 183
Bürste, die 57
Busch, der 95
Butter, die 181
by 144-5,236,286
Cafe, das 95
call 58
can 238
CAPITAL LETTERS 166,
290-2
care 58
careful 58
careless 58
case 58
CASE 181-5,192,207,
224—8; see also
accusative case,
dative case, genitive
case, nominative case,
valency
castle 58
cathedral 58
cattle 61
cause 58
cease 280
Cello, das 178
chance 281
change 59
Charme, der 175
-chen 107,172
Chicoree/Schikoree, die
297
claim 279, 281
CLAUSE 262; see also
comparative clause,
conditional clause,
itfss-clause, infinitive
clause, main clause,
purpose clause,
relative clause,
subordinate clause
CLEFT SENTENCE 266,
282
clever 59
clever 59
climb 59,208
close 59
CLOSING BRACKET see
verbal bracket
CLOTHING, ARTICLES
OF 180,224
coat 59
collect 60
COLLECTIVE NOUNS see
nouns
COLLOQUIAL SPEECH
see spoken German
come 280,288
COMMA 169,264,265,
297-9
COMMANDS 161-3, 263,
299
COMMERCIAL
CORRESPONDENCE
169
COMPARATIVE CLAUSES
246
COMPARATIVE PHRASES
273
complain 60
COMPLEMENT 268,270;
see also word order

COMPOUND TENSE see
tense
COMPOUND WORD see
word formation
CONDITIONAL see
subjunctive
CONDITIONAL
SENTENCE 245-6,
263
WITH 'OPEN'
CONDITIONS 246
congratulate 208
CONJUNCTION 263
content (s) 60
continue 60,281
CONTINUOUS ACTION
19
copy 61
could 196
couldn't help 196
cow 61
cross 61
cry 61
cut 208
da 22,201,266
da sein 294
DA (R) + PREPOSITION
see prepositional
adverb
dabei 284
dadurch ..., dass 277,
286
dalassen 71
damage 61,208
damals 84
damit 247,276
Damm, der 56
daneben 74
Dank, der 95,179
danken 209,215
dann 84
dark 61
Darm, der 179
das (demonstrative)
199-200
dass 244
DASS-CLAUSE 219,275,
285
DATIVE CASE 19, 153,
209
EXPRESSING
POSSESSION 20,
224-5,227
see also dative object,
noun, preposition
DATIVE OBJECT 207,
209-12,214,236;
also word order
dauern 95
dauernd 280
DAYS OF THE WEEK 185,
291
decide 62
Decke, die 89,95
Deckel, der 95
Deckung, die 95
DECLENSION see
adjective, noun
DEFINITE ARTICLE 20,
182,193,199,224
(sich) dehnen 82
demand 62
dementieren 62
DEMONSTRATIVE
(DETERMINER/
PRONOUN) 21,192,
198-200,267
(sich) denken 69,85,95,
190,214,242
denn (conjunction) 263
denn (particle) 18,84,
160-2
deny 62
DEPENDENT CLAUSE see
subordinate clause
der see definite article
der (demonstrative) 198,
267
der (relative pronoun) 200
der ... da/hier 199
derer 201
DERIVATION see word
formation
derjenige 200
derselbe 80
derzeitig 78
DETERMINER 17,182,
192-206
DECLENSION 192-6
see also definite article,
demonstrative,
indefinite article,
possessive
Deutsche(r), der 197
DIALECT 10,12
dicht 84,89
-dicht 110
dichtmachen 59
dick 64,84,89
die 62
dienen 209,218
dieser 192, 199,267; see
also demonstrative
diesseits 140
different 62
DIMINUTIVES see word
formation
Ding, das 84,177
Dings, das 84
Dingsbums, das 84
Dingsda, das 84
DIRECT OBJECT see
accusative object
DIRECT SPEECH 242
DIRECTION PHRASES
271
do 282
doch 156,162, 164
doch mal 162
doch wohl 159
Dom, der 58
don f t have to 236
Dose, die 56
Dossier, das/der 181
Dotter, der/das 181
DOUBLET 105-6
doubt (noun) 280
doubt (verb) 62
down 145
Drama, das 178
(sich) drängeln 78
(sich) drängen 78,95,215,
221
(sich) drehen 86
dringen 95,187,232
dringend 283
drohen 85,209,216
drop 208
drucken 95
(sich) drücken 78,95,218
drückend 283
Dschungel, der/das 181
du 166-8,292
Duft, der 82
duften 217
dunkel 61
durch 125,144,152,236,
272,286
durch- 115-16
durch dick und dünn 291
durcheinander bringen
293
Durchführung, die 53
durchqueren 61
dürfen 249,281
during 145
düster 61

-e (noun suffix) 107, 175,
182
eben 157,160-2
echt 79
-echt 110
Eck, das 105
Ecke, die 105
ehrbar 96
Ehre, die 96
ehrenhaft 96
Ehrfurcht, die 96
Ehrgeiz, der 96
ehrlich 96
ehrwürdig 96
-ei 172
Eigenart, die 96
eigenartig 75
Eigenschaft, die 96
eigentlich 79, 157, 160
Eigentum, das 96
eigentümlich 75
Eigentümlichkeit, die 96
sich eignen 215,218,221
ein- 114
ein bisschen 291
ein paar 99,205-6,291
einbiegen 86
sich einbilden 69, 212
Eindruck, der 95
eindrücken 95
einer 203,204
einfach 81,96
Einfahrt, die 63
Einfall, der 69
einfallen 89,96,210
einfältig 81,96
einfrieren 66
einfuhren 216
Eingang, der 63
Eingeborene(r), der 69
einhalten 70
Einheimische(r), der 69,
197
einheitlich 96
einig (sein) 54,96
einige(r) 193,195-6,
205
sich einigen 54
Einkommen, das 179
einladen 55,218
einleuchtend 283
einnehmen 60
einreden 77
Einreise, die 63
einrichten 93
einsam 96
einsammeln 60
einschenken 78
einschließen 72
einsehen 53,79
Einsicht, die 86
einsperren 72
einstellen 83
Eintrag, der 63
Eintritt, der 63
einverstanden sein 54
Einverständnis, das 86
einwilligen 54,216
Einwohner, der 69
einzeln 96
einzig 96
Eis laufen 293
Eisenbahn, die 179
(sich) ekeln 211, 218,219
-el 174
empfänglich 96
empfehlen 187,211
empfinden 64
empfindlich 96
empörend 283
-en (adjective suffix) 109
-en (noun suffix) 174
im Endeffekt 65
endgültig 65
ENDING see adjective,
noun, verb
endlich 65,96
endlos 96
eng 74
ent-112,210
-ent172,183
entfallen 210
entgegen- 210
entlang 134,142
entnehmen 215
entrance 63
entrichten 77
entry 63
sich entscheiden 62, 216,
219
entscheidend 283
entschlafen 62
sich entschließen 62,218,
219
Entschlossenheit, die 96
Entschluss, der 96
sich entsinnen 213
entsprechen 80
entsprechend 141
sich entziehen 55
-enz 172
-er (adjective suffix) 195
-er (noun suffix) 107,172,
174
er- (verb prefix) 112-13
Erbe, der 102
Erbe, das 102
erbleichen 186
erblicken 235
-erei 107
sich ereignen 68
Ereignis, das 63
erfahren 71
Erfahrung, die 63
erfassen 67
erfolgen 68
erfordern 55,97
sich erfreuen 213
erfrieren 66
erfüllen 80
sich ergeben 212,215,216,
221
sich ergießen 78
ergreifen 67
erhalten 70, 237
(sich) erheben 72, 80
erhöhen 72
sich erholen 217
(sich) erinnern 213, 214,
219
Erinnerung, die 74
erkennen
Erkenntnis, die
erklären 89
erkranken 214
sich erkundigen 55,98,
216
Erlass, der/das 177
Erlebnis, das 63
erlernen 71
erlöschen 189,191
ermächtigen 218
ermöglichen 211
ermutigen 218
-ern 109
eröffnen 76
erraten 68
Erscheinen, das 55
Erscheinung, die 55
erschrecken 64, 187, 191,
218
erschweren 211
(sich) ersparen 81
erst 65,76,89,96,154,157
erst mal 65
erst recht 157
das Erste 290
als Erstes 290

ersteigen 59
zum ersten Mal 65
erstens 65,96
erstmals 65,96
sich erstrecken 82
ersuchen 55
erwachen 87
erwachsen 67
Erwachsene(r), der 197
erwarten 235
erwecken 87
(sich) erweitern 82
Erwerbstätigkeit, die 70
Erz- 108
erzwingen 66
es 266, 298; see also
pronoun, personal
Espresso, der 178
essen 188
Essen, das 66,180
-et 172
Etikett, das 96,177
Etikette, die 96
etliche(r) 193,195,205
-ett 172
etwa 141,158,160
etwas 198,201
-eur 172
event 63
Examen, das 178
examine 63
except (for) 145
EXCLAMATION 264,298
EXCLAMATION MARK
169,299
Exemplar, das 61
experience 63
EXTENDED EPITHET 22,
238,274,283,284
Fach, das 89
FACHSPRACHE 7, 43-5
-fähig 110
fahren 188,232,233,242
Fahrer, der 96
fail 281
Fakt, der/das 181
Fall, der 63,89
fall 63
fallen 63, 188,242
fallen lassen 293
fangen 189
Farbe, die 89
Fasan, der 177
fassen 67
fat 64
fear (A
fechten 64,187
feel 64,208,287
Fehl- 109
fehlen 74,190,210,214
Fehler, der 74
Fehlgriff, der 74
Feiertag, der 68
feige 18
feixen 67
Fell, das 81
Fels, der 105
Felsen, der 105
FEMININE see gender
Ferien, die 68
Fernglas, das 179
fernsehen 294
fertig 79,89,280
Fertigkeit, die 53
-fest 110
festsetzen 294
feststellen 79
fett 64
fettig 64
Feuer, das 65
Feuerwerk, das 179
fight 64
finally 65
finden 187,241
finish 280
FINITE VERB see verb
finster 61
fire 65
Firma, die 178
(at) first 65
Fischotter, der 103
flechten 188
Fleck, der 105
Flecken, der 105
flehen 55
fliegen 187, 233
fliehen 187, 218
fließen 65,187
Flitterwochen, die 179
flow 65
Flur, der 102
Flur, die 102
folgen 65,66,210,215,
221,233
folgende(r) 193,195,
196
folgern 215
follow 65
food 66
for 145-6,212,286
force 66,208
fordern 55,97
fördern 97
Forderung, die 97
Förderung, die 97
FOREIGN WORDS 18,
177,178,185
FORMAL SPEECH 38-40
FORMAL WRITING see
written German
-förmig 110
fortfahren 60
Fortschritt, der 180
fortsetzen 60
Fossil, das 178
Foto, das 181
Fotograf/Photograph, der
97, 297
Fotografie/Photographie,
die 97,297
eine Frage stellen 55
fragen 55,191,216,219
Fraß, der 66
Frau, die 168
Fräulein, das 168
freeze 66
-frei 110
Freie(s), das 197
freilich 265, 279
Freiwillige(r), der 197
fremd 75,90
fremdartig 75
fressen 188
sich freuen 214,215, 217,
219,222
Friede(n), der 183
frieren 66,187,233
frighten 64
from 147
Frucht, die 66
früher 280
fruit 66
sich fugen 212
(sich) fühlen 64
führen 218
Führer, der 96
Funke(n), der 183
für 125,145,146,212
(sich) furchten 64, 218,
219
Fürsorge, die 58
Fürst, der 183
fußen 215
Fußtritt, der 83
Futter, das 66
FUTURE PERFECT
TENSE see tense

FUTURE SUBJUNCTIVE
see subjunctive
FUTURE TENSE see tense
Gämse, die 297
Gang, der 90,102
Gang, die 102
ganz 205
Garage, die 67
garage 67
Gasse, die 83
gather 67
GDR (GERMAN
DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC) 11
Ge- / Ge-... -e 107,173
geben 79,187,211,241
gebieten 76
Gebirge, das 74
Gebrauch, der 95
gebrauchen 87,95
gebräuchlich 95
Gebrauchsanweisung, die
179
gebraucht 95
Gedächtnis, das 74
Gedanke, der 69,95,183
Gedeck, das 95
gedenken 95,213
gefallen 72,210
Gefallen, der 102
Gefallen, das 102
gefangen nehmen 293
Gefangene(r), der 197
gefrieren 66
gegebenenfalls 279
gegen 125,142,154
gegen bar 291
Gegenstand, der 84
gegenüber 128
gegenwärtig 78
Gehacktes 197
Gehalt, der 60,102
Gehalt, das 102
geheim 81
gehen 189,217,230,239,
241
gehorchen 210
gehören 56,210,218,238
geistig 97
geistlich 97
Geistliche(r), der 197
geistreich 97
Gelegenheit, die 97
Gelehrte(r), der 197
gelingen 187,210, 242
gelten 187,222
gelten lassen 53
Gemach, das 80
Gemahl, der 99
gemäß 131,141
Gemeinheit, die 97
Gemeinsamkeit, die 97
Gemeinschaft, die 97
GENDER (effect on
register) 6
GENDER (of noun) 20,
171-81,195
DOUBLE 102-4
FEMININE 172-6
MASCULINE 172-5,
180,182,184
NEUTER 172-6, 180,
182,184
VARIABLE 180-1
General, der 177
genesen 188
Genick, das 74
GENITIVE CASE 21, 149,
213,224-8
IN MEASUREMENT
PHRASES 228
POSITION OF
GENITIVE PHRASES
227
IN TIME EXPRESSIONS
227
see also genitive object,
preposition
GENITIVE OBJECT 213,
271
genügen 80
Geräusch, das 82
Gerechtigkeit, die 99
Gericht, das 66
gering 82
gern 72,280
gern haben 72
Geruch, der 82
GERUND 282
Gesandte(r), der 197
gesättigt 80
geschehen 68,188,242
Geschehen, das 63
gescheit 59
Geschichte, die 90
geschickt 59
Geschmack, der 82,177
Geschworene(r), der 197
Gestank, der 82
gestern 291
Getto/Ghetto, das 297
gewahren 101
gewähren 101
Gewalt, die 78
Gewinn, der 179
gewinnen 187
sich gewöhnen 97, 215
gewöhnlich 280
gewohnt 97
(es) gibt 20
gießen 78,187
Gipfel, der 74
glänzen 81
glänzend 57
Glaube, der 183
glauben 85,215,219
Gläubige(r), der 97
Gläubiger, der 97
gleich 80,90,97
-gleich 110
gleichfalls 97
gleichgültig 97
gleichmäßig 97
gleichviel 97
gleiten 186
glühend 283
go 288
Golf, der 102
Golf, das 102
Grab, das 97
graben 97,188
Graben, der 97
Graf, der 183
-graph 172
grapschen 67
ins Gras beißen 62
grasp 67
gratulieren 210,218
grauen 64, 211
grauenhaft 97
grausam 97
greet 67
GREETINGS 164-6
greifen 67, 82,186,216
grin 67
grinsen 67
groß 84
groß werden 67
grow (up) 67,208
Grund, der 58,90
Grund-109
gründlich 97
grundsätzlich 97
grüßen 67,98
guess 196
Gulasch, der/das 181
Gummi, der 102

Gummi, das 102,181
gutschreiben 294
haben 230-3,241
Hafer, der 179
-haft 109
Hahn, der 90,98
Hals, der 74
halt 157
Halt machen 293
(sich) halten 70,71,83,85,
188,189,215,216,
222,241
-haltig 110
Handel, der 98
sich handeln 217
handhaben 190
Handlung, die 98
Hang, der 74
hängen 79, 189, 191, 242
happen 68,281
harm 68
harren 213
Harz, der 102
Harz, das 102
(es) hat 20
(sich) hauen 65, 191,225
Haufen, der 228
(sich) häufen 60
Haupt- 109
Hauptquartier, das 179
Hausaufgabe, die 180
Haut, die 81
have 288
have + PARTICIPLE 266
hear 281, 287
heben 72,188
Heide, der 102
Heide, die 102
Heilige(r), der 197
heim- 293
heimlich 81
heiraten 73
heißen 58,73,186,241,
271
-heit 107,172
heiter 57
Held, der 183
helfen 187,210,240,242
hell 57,90
Henne, die 98
her- 124
herab 145
heranwachsen 67
herauf 155
herausbilden 94
herausfordern 218
herbeirufen 58
Herd, das 98
Herde, die 98
hereinfallen 96
Herr, der 183,185
herrühren 217
herum 141
(sich) herumdrehen 86
herunter 145
Herz, das 183
heulen 61
heute 291
HIGHLIGHTING 22
hill 68
Himmel, der 90
hin- 124
hin-/hereinlassen 53
hinab 145
hinauf 155
hindern 78,214,219,235
hindurch 125
hineingeben 79
hinnehmen 53
hinter 142,152
hinter- 116
hinterher- 65
hinterlassen 71
hinüber- 61
hinunter 145
hire 68
Hirt, der 183
hoch 84
HOCHDEUTSCH see
Standard German
hochheben 72
höchstens 265
hoffen 215,219
hoffentlich 280
Höhe, die 98
holiday (s) 68
HOMONYMS 88
hope 280
Hopfen, der 179
Hose, die 179
Hügel, der 74
Huhn, das 98
Hut, der 103
Hut, die 103
sich hüten 218,219
-ich 172
idea 69
Idee, die 69
IDIOMS 119-23
-ie 172
-ier 172
*/245
-ig (adjective suffix) 109
-ig (noun suffix) 172
ihr (second-person
pronoun) 166,292
-ik 172
-il 172
Illustrierte, die 197
imagine 69, 280
immerhin 265
IMPERATIVE 21,188
IMPERFECT TENSE see
tense
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
see passive
IMPERSONAL VERB see
verb
impress 208
improve 69
imstande / im Stande sein
295
in (German preposition)
135-6,147-9,151,
153,216
in (English preposition)
147-8
-in (noun suffix) 108,172
incident 69
INDEFINITE
(DETERMINER /
PRONOUN) 195,
204-6
INDEFINITE ARTICLE
182,193,194
indem 111, 284,286
Inder, der 98
Indianer, der 98
INDIRECT OBJECT see
dative object
INDIRECT SPEECH 22,
242-5
Industrielle(r), der 197
INFINITIVE 186,229,248,
262,283
MODAL INFINITIVE
238
PAST INFINITIVE 248
WITH AM 19
see also infinitive clause
INFINITIVE CLAUSE 21,
219,263,273,275,
285,286,298
INFLECTION see adjective,
noun,verb
infolge 294

INFORMAL SPEECH see
spoken German
informieren 217
infrage / in Frage stellen
295
ING-FORM 282-8; see also
participle
inhabitant(s) 69
Inhalt, der 60,179
INITIAL
ELEMENT/INITIAL
POSITION see word
order
inmitten 294
inne sein 294
Innere(s), das 197
innerhalb 140,148
INSEPARABLE VERB see
prefix, verb
Inserat, das 54
inside 148
instead of 149
intelligent 57, 59
(sich) interessieren 214,
216
INTERJECTION 264, 298
INTERROGATIVE 202-3,
263
into 149
INTRANSITIVE VERB see
verb
-ion 172
irgend- 295
irgendwelcher 193,195
irre- 293
irren 233
Irrtum, der 74
-isch 109
-ismus 172
-ist 172
ja 158,162,164,281
ja wohl 159
Jäckchen, das 70
Jacke, die 70
jacket 70
Jackett, das 70
jeder 193,194,196,
205
jedoch 156
jemand 21,204
jener 193,199
jenseits 140,144
jetzt 280
job 70
Job, der 70
Joghurt/Jogurt, der/das
181,297
JOURNALISM 45-51,231,
243
Jugendliche(r), der 197
Junge, der 103
Junge, das 103
Kabarett, das 177
Kaffee, der 95
Kaktus, der 178
Kamerad, der 183
Kammer, die 80
kämpfen 65,217
Kapelle, die 90
kaputt sein 57
kaputtgehen 57
kaputtmachen 57
Karre, die 105
Karren, der 105
Karte, die 90
Kartoffel, die 177,181
Karton, der 56,177
Karussell, das 177
Käse, der 175
Kaserne, die 179
kassieren 60
Kästchen, das 56
Kasten, der 57
Kathedrale, die 58
kaum 270
keep 70,208, 287
keep on 280
Kegel, der 98
Kehle, die 74
kehren 86
Kehrricht, der 179
kein 193,194
keiner 204
-keit 107,172
Keks, der/das 181
kennen 71, 190,242
kennen lernen 73, 293
Kenntnis, die 71,180
(in) Kenntnis setzen 53
Kenntnisse, die 71,180
Kiefer, der 103
Kiefer, die 103
Kissen, das 90
Kiste, die 57
klagen 60,219
Klang, der 82
klar werden 79
im Klaren 290
klein 82
klettern 59
klingen 187
klopfen 225
Kloster, das 174
klug 59
Knäuel, der/das 181
kneifen 186
know 11, 279
knowledge 71
komisch 75
Komma, das 178
kommen 189,222,230,
241
KONJUNKTIV i/nsee
subjunctive
können 71,238,239,
247-50,257
Konto, das 178
kontrollieren 63
sich konzentrieren 215
Kopie, die 61
Kork, der 105
Korken, der 105
korrigieren 69
Kost, die 66,98
kostbar 98
kosten 90,211
Kosten, die 98,179
köstlich 98
Kotelett, das 177
Krach, der 82
kraft 292
Kraft, die 78
Kragen, der 177
Kran, der 178
-krat 172
krepieren 62
Kreuz, das 90
Kreuzotter, die 103
sich kreuzen 61
kriechen 187
kriegen 237
Kugel, die 98
Kuh, die 61
sich kümmern 217
Kunde, der 103
Kunde, die 103
kündigen 98
Kundschaft, die 179
künstlerisch 98
künstlich 98
küssen 225
Labor, das 177
lächeln 67
lachen 217
laden 188,189

Laden, der 178
Lager, das 178
Land, das 90,104
Landschaft, die 91
lang 84,146
langen 67
langsam 279
Lärche, die 99
Lärm, der 82
(sich) lassen 71, 188,238,
241
Laster, der 103
Laster, das 103
laufen 189,233,242
laugh 208
laut (preposition) 131,141
Laut, der 82
learn 71
leave 71,72,208,287
LEAVE-TAKING 165
leben 72
ums Leben kommen 62
lebendig 98
Lebensmittel, die 66,
179
lebhaft 98
lediglich 76
-leer 110
legen 79,98
lehren 211
leicht 81
leicht fallen 210
leicht machen 293
leichtsinnig 58
Leid, das 98
leid sein 291
Leid tun 64,210,293
leiden 186,214
nicht leiden können 72
Leiden, das 98
Leidenschaft, die 98
leider 280
leihen 186-90,211
-lein 107,172
leise 79
Leistung, die 53
Leiter, der 103
Leiter, die 103
-ler 108,172
Lerche, die 99
lernen 71
lesen 188
LETTERS OF ALPHABET
176
LETTER-WRITING
168-70
Letzte, der/die/das 91,
290
letzten Endes 65
letztendlich 65
leuchten 81
leuchtend 57
leugnen 62
Leute, die 77
Lexikon, das 178
-lieh 110,239
lieb haben 72
lieben 72
lieber 281
liegen 19,98, 187,222,
232,242
liegen bleiben 293
liegen lassen 71
lift 11
like 72,280
-ling 108,172
Linke, die 197
Liter, der/das 181
LITERARY REGISTER 7,
9,41-3
little 12
live 12
loben 235
lock 12
-löge 172
Lohn, der 179
löhnen 77
-los 110
los- 115
los sein 294
löschen 191
losfahren 71
losgehen 71
love 73
lügen 98,189
Lunge, die 179
Macht, die 78
Mädel, das 178
Magnet, der 178
Mahl, das 99
mahlen 190
Mahlzeit, die 99
Majonäse/Mayonnaise,
die 297
mal (particle) 162
-mal 291
Mal, das 85
malen 76
Malheur, das 53
man 77,203,237
man 73
mancher 193-5,205
Mangel, der 103
Mangel, die 103
mangeln 210
Mann, der 73
Mantel, der 70
Mark, die 103
Mark, das 103
marry 73
Marsch, der 103
Marsch, die 103
MASCULINE see gender
Maß, die 103
Maß, das 103
Maß halten 293
-mäßig 110
Match, der/das 181
Material, das 178
Mauer, die 87
may 250
mean 73
MEANING 52-170
MEASUREMENT
PHRASES 180,228
meckern 60
MEDIUM (effect on
register) 4
meet 73
mehrere 193,195
meiden 55,186
meinen 64,73,85,91
Meinung, die 69,87
meiner Meinung nach
280
melken 191
memory 74
Menge, die 228
Mensch, der 73, 103,183
Mensch, das 103
Menschen, die 77
-ment 172
merken 75,79
merkwürdig 75
messen 188
Messer, der 103
Messer, das 103
Meteor, der/das 181
Meter, der/das 181
mieten 80,99
might 196
Mikrofon/Mikrophon,
das 297
milde 18
mind (verb) 281
Mineral, das 178
Miss- (noun prefix) 109

miss- (verb prefix) 116
miss 74
Missgeschick, das 53
misstrauisch 84
miss ver stehen 116
mistake 74
mit 128-9, 144, 155, 164,
216,272
mithilfe / mit Hilfe 295
mitteilen 211
-mittel 108
Mittel, das 179
Mittelalter, das 179
mittels 292
Möbel, die 179
MODAL AUXILIARY
VERB 230, 241,
248-61
ENGLISH MODAL
AUXILIARIES 253-61
MODAL INFINITIVE See
infinitive
MODAL PARTICLES 155,
272
IN COMMANDS 161-3
IN EXCLAMATIONS
163^4
IN QUESTIONS 160-1
IN STATEMENTS 156-9
mögen 72,250-1
möglich 196
möglicherweise 280
Moment, der 103
Moment, das 103
MONTHS 185
MOOD see imperative,
subjunctive
morgen 291
mountain 74
Mühe, die 179
Münster, das 58
Muschel, die 99
Museum, das 178
Muskel, der 99
müssen 238,248,251,258,
281
must 258
Mut, der 181
Mutter, die 104,174
Mythos, der 178
nach 19,129,141,142,
152, 153,216
nach- 65,210
Nachbar, der 183
nachdem 19,277
nachdenken 85,217
nachfolgen 66
nachfragen 55
nachlässig 58
nachmachen 211
Nachricht, die 180
Nächste, der/die/das 91,
290
Nacken, der 74
nahe legen 293
sich nähern 212
Nahrung, die 66
Nahrungsmittel, die 66
Name, der 183
namendich 99
NAMES 185
GEOGRAPHICAL 185,
226
OF ARTISTIC STYLES
185
OF CITIES 195
OF COLOURS 198
OF GERMAN REGIONS
197
OF LANGUAGES 198,
292
PERSONAL AND
PROPER NAMES 20,
185,226-8,264,292
namhaft 99
nämlich 99
narrow 74
neben 136
necessary 281
neck 74
needn't 196
NEGATIVE 21 \ see also
nicht
nehmen 53,84, 188,211,
242
neigen 218
nennen 58,190
-ner 172
Nerv, der 183
NEUTER see gender
NEUTRAL REGISTER 7-8,
29
NEWSPAPER REPORT
45-51
nicht 16,270-1,281
Nicht- 109
nicht mehr 280
nichts 198,201
nie 270
niemand 204-5
-nis 173
noch einmal 54
nochmals 54
noise 75
-nom 172
NOMINATIVE CASE 265,
271
NON-LITERARY
REGISTER 7, 9,
43-51
nörgeln 60
NORTH GERMAN 13, 15,
16,19,23-*
Not tun 293
notice 75
NOUN
COLLECTIVE 108, 179
DATIVE SINGULAR IN
-E 184
DECLENSION 171-85
FROM OTHER PARTS
OF SPEECH 177, 185,
290
GENITIVE SINGULAR
IN -(E)S 182,184-5
MIXED 175,183
USE OF SINGULAR
179,180,224
VERBAL NOUN 128,
274,275,285,286
WEAK MASCULINE 21,
172, 175, 176, 182-3,
196
see also adjective, capital
letter, doublet,
gender, measurement
phrases, plural,
umlaut, word
formation
NOUN CLAUSE see
dass-chwst
NOUN PHRASE 192
NUMBER 192; see also
plural
number 75
NUMERALS 18,180
Nummer, die 75
nummerieren 297
nun 163
nur 76, 160, 162,281
Nutz, der 105
nutzen/nützen 87, 105,
210
Nutzen, der 105
oberhalb 140,141
Oberst, der 183

Obhut, die 58
OBJECT see accusative
object, dative object,
genitive object,
prepositional object
Obst, das 66,180
obwohl 22, 111
occur 68,75
occurrence 15
odd IS
oder 263,298
of 149-50
off 150
offer IS
officer IS
offiziell 99
Offizier, der 75
offiziös 99
(sich) öffnen 76
oft 280
des Öfteren 290
ohne 126,272
ohne... zu 263,277
ohne dass 247,277
ohne weiteres 291
on 150-1,286
-on 172
only 76
open 76,208
opposite 151
-or 172
order 76
ordnen 76
Organ, das 76
organ 76
Orgel, die 76
sich orientieren 214
Ort, der 77
Ortschaft, die 77
Otter, der 103
Otter, die 103
ought to 196
out of 151
outside 151
over 152
Paar, das 99
Pack, der 103,106
Pack, das 103
Päckchen, das 76
packen 67,91
Packen, der 106
packet 76
Packung, die 76
paint 76
Paket, das 76
Papagei, der 183
PAPIERDEUTSCH 9
Parfüm, das 177
Park, der 177
PARTICIPLE 22,298
PAST PARTICIPLE 186,
229,262
PRESENT PARTICIPLE
282-4
see also extended
epithet, have +
participle, ing-form
PARTITIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS
226
PARTS OF THE BODY
180,224
passen 210,218,223
passieren 61,68,210,223
PASSIVE 233-9,266,272
ALTERNATIVE
PASSIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS
237-9
IMPERSONAL PASSIVE
235-6
SE/N-PASSIVE 234-5,
248
SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE
235-6
TENSE USE 230
VORGANGSPASSIV 234
WERDEN-PASSWE
234-5
WITH DATIVE
OBJECTS 236
ZUSTANDSPASSIV 234
past 152
PAST PARTICIPLE see
participle
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE see
subjunctive
PAST TENSE see tense
Pastor, der 178
path 76
Patzer, der 74
pay 11
Pension, die 179
people 11
per 126
PERFECT TENSE see tense
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
see subjunctive
PERSONAL PRONOUN see
pronouns
persuade 11
Pfad, der 83
Pfau, der 183
pfeifen 186
Pfeil, das 99
Pfeiler, der 99
Pferd, das 23
Pflege, die 58
Pfosten, der 99
PHONETIC ALPHABET
13-14
PHRASAL VERBS see verbs
Physik, die 179
Pinsel, der 57
place 11
Plakat, das 54
Planet, der 183
Plaste, die 11
Platz, der 77
PLUPERFECT TENSE see
tense
PLUPERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE see
subjunctive
PLURAL, OF NOUNS 19,
20,171-80
ALTERNATIVE
PLURAL 177
DATIVE PLURAL 19,
182
DIFFERENT USAGE IN
ENGLISH AND
GERMAN 178-80
DOUBLE PLURAL 104
IN —5 176-7
see also noun, umlaut
Pocken, die 179
Politik, die 91,179
Polizei, die 179
Polster, das/der 181
Pony, der 103
Pony, das 103
Portmonee/Portemonnaie,
die 297
Porträt, das 177
POSSESSIVE (DETER-
MINER/PRONOUN)
193, 194, 196, 199,
202,224
possible 280
Post, die 99
postcode 168
Posten, der 70,99
potenziell/potentiell 297
pour 78
power 78
prefer 281

PREFIX
INSEPARABLE VERB
PREFIX 111-14,
115-18
NOUN, SHOWING
GENDER 171, 173
SEPARABLE VERB
PREFIX 114-18,262,
293
see also word formation
preis- 293
Preis, der 91
preisen 186
PREPOSITION 18,
123-55,214
COMBINED WITH A
NOUN 294
ENGLISH 140-55
PREPOSITIONAL
PHRASES 273
USED WITHOUT
ARTICLE 185
WITH ACCUSATIVE
CASE 124-6
WITH ACCUSATIVE OR
DATIVE CASE 131-9
WITH DATIVE CASE
127-32
WITH GENITIVE CASE
139-40
see also prepositional
object, relative
pronoun
PREPOSITIONAL
ADVERB 19, 22, 201,
203,219,286,298
PREPOSITIONAL
OBJECT 111,207,
214-19,236,271
present 78
PRESENT PARTICIPLE see
participle
PRESENT SUBJUNCTIVE
see subjunctive
PRESENT TENSE see tense
presume 280
prevent 78
PRINCIPAL PARTS see
verb
Prinz, der 183
Prinzip, das 178
Privileg, das 178
pro 126
PROGRESSIVE TENSE see
tense
PRONOUN 17,22
PERSONAL PRONOUN
21,199,226,267
PRONOUNS OF
ADDRESS 166-8
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
212
see also demonstrative,
indefinite, possessive,
relative pronoun
PRONUNCIATION 13-18
Protokoll, das 179
prüfen 63
sich prügeln 65
PUNCTUATION 289,
297-9
PURPOSE CLAUSE 247
pushlü
put 79
Pyjama, der/das 179,181
QUESTIONS see
interrogatives,
jpA-questions,
yes/«ö-questions
quiet 79
QUOTATION MARKS 299
Rad fahren 293
Radio der/das 181
Rahm, der 99
Rahmen, der 99
raise 80
Ränke, die 179
rascheln 99
rasen 99
Rasen, der 180
rasseln 99
Rat, der 91,104
raten 53,68,91,188,189,
210,218,219
rau 99
'rauf 155
Raum, der 80
rauschen 99
ready 79
reagieren 215
realize 79
really 79
rechnen 215,216,218,223
Recht, das 99
Rechte, die 197
Rechtfertigung, die 99
REFLEXIVE PRONOUN
see pronoun
REFLEXIVE VERB see verb
refuse 80
REGIONAL VARIATION 7,
13,15-16,19-20,
23-9
REGISTER 3-10, 16-18,
20-2,29-51
regret 279
reiben 186
-reich 110
reichen 91,210,223
Reichtum, der 179
reisen 100
Reisende(r), der 197
reißen 57, 100, 186,233
reiten 186,233
reizend 283
Reklame, die 54
reklamieren 60
RELATIVE CLAUSE 22,
200,273,274,284
RELATIVE PRONOUN 19,
200-2
AFTER PREPOSITION
201
rennen 190
rent 80
REPORTED SPEECH see
indirect speech
Reptil, das 178
retten 81,218
Rhythmus, der 178
riechen 187,214,217
Riesen- 108
Rind, das 61
Rindvieh, das 61
ringen 187
rinnen 187
rise 80
Risiko, das 178
Ritz, der 106
Ritze, die 106
road 80
Rock, der 70
roh 99
Rohheit, die 297
Rohr, das 106
Röhre, die 106
romanisch 100
römisch 100
room 80
rope 80
Ross, das 178
round 152
rudern 233
rufen 58,61,189,216
ruhig 79, 158,163,281
sich rühmen 213

ühren 86
rührend 283
Ruin, der 106
Ruine, die 106
'runter 145
Saal, der 80
Sache, die 85
Saite, die 84,100
Sakko, der/das 70
-sal 173
salzen 190
Same(n), der 183
same 80
(sich) sammeln 60
Sammlung, die 100
sämtliche(r) 193,195,196
Sandbank, die 56
satisfy 80
satt 80
saufen 189
saugen 191
save 81
say 281
Schachtel, die 57
SCHACHTELSATZ 273
schade sein 291
schaden 61,210
Schaden, der 180
Schadenersatz, der 179
schadhaft 100
schädigen 61
schädlich 100
schaffen 188, 189,191
-schaft 108,172
Schal, der 100,177
Schale, die 81,100
Schall, der 82
sich schämen 213,218,
219,223
schätzen 68
schaudern 211
Scheck, der 177
Schein, der 55,91
scheinen 81,91,242, 271
scheißen 186
Schema, das 178
Schere, die 179
scheren 188,191
scheu 81
sich scheuen 218,219
schieben 78,187
schießen 187,225,233
Schild, der 103
Schild, das 103
Schilf, das 179
schlafen 188,242
(sich) schlagen 65,225,
242
Schlager, der 100
Schläger, der 100
schlau 59
schlecht 56,100
schleichen 186
schleifen 186,191
schlicht 81,100
schließen 59, 187,215,223
schließlich 65
schlimm 56
Schloss, das 58,91
schluchzen 61
Schlüpfer, der 179
zum Schluss 65
schmal 74
schmecken 72,210, 217
schmeicheln 210,235
schmeißen 186
schmelzen 188,191
schmieren 83
schmunzeln 67
schnappen 67
Schnapsidee, der 69
sich schnäuzen 297
schneiden 186,225
Schnitzer, der 74
Schnur, die 84
schon 158-9,161,163
schonen 81
schottische Hochland, das
179
Schreck, der 106
Schrecken, der 106
schreiben 186,242
schreien 61,186, 216
schreiten 186
SCHRIFTDEUTSCH 11
Schritt, der 83
schubsen 78
schüchtern 81
schuld sein 291
die Schuld geben 56
schulden 235
schütten 78
Schutzbrille, die 179
schwarz auf weiß 291
schwarzarbeiten 294
schwatzen 106
schwätzen 106
schweigen 186
schwellen 188
schwimmen 187, 233
schwindeln 211
schwören 189
secret 81
see 279,287
See, der 103
See, die 103,180
seem 279
segeln 233
sehen 73,188,242
sich sehnen 216,219
Seil, das 80
sein (possessive) see
possessive
sein (verb) 19,230-4,238,
239,241,271,283,
291,294
5£/N-PASSIVE see passive
seit (preposition) 129,146
seit(dem) (conjunction)
111
seit langem 291
Seite, die 100
seize 81
-sei 172
seil 209
seltsam 75
senden 190,191
SEPARABLE VERB SEE
prefix, verb
setzen 79
shall 229
shine 81
should 246
shut 81
shy 81
sicher 91
-sicher 110
Sicht, die 87
Sie 166-8,292
simpel 81
simple 81
Sims, der/das 181
singen 187
Single, der 103
Single, die 103
Single, das 103
sink 209
sinken 187
sinnen 187
SITUATION (effect on
register) 5
sitzen 19,187, 232
Ski laufen 293
skin 81
small 82
smell 82
so-295

so dass / sodass 278,296
so (ein) 206
sobald 295
SOCIAL STATUS 6
Socke, die 106
Socken, der 106
solange 295
solch/solche(r) 21,193-6,
206
Soldat, der 183
sollen 238,246,247,248,
252-3,281
sonderbar 75,100
sonderlich 100
sondern 263,271
sooft 295
Sorge, die 58
(sich) sorgen 217, 219
Sorgfalt, die 58
sorgfältig 58
sorglos 58
Soße/Sauce, die 297
sound 82
SOUTH GERMAN 13, 15,
16, 19-20,24-5
soviel 296
sozusagen 265
space 82
Spagat, der 84
Spaghetti/Spagetti, die
297
Spalt, der 106
Spalte, die 106
spalten 190
spannend 283
sparen 81
Spatz, der 183
spazieren gehen 293
Speicher, der 74
Speise, die 66
SPELLING 289-97
spend 82
sperren 59
sich spezialisieren 215
Spielzeug, das 180
spinnen 187
SPOKEN GERMAN 4, 29,
35-40
Sport, der 180
spotten 213, 217
spread 82
sprechen 187,217
sprengen 100
springen 100,187
spülen 88
spüren 64,75
ß (letter) 28,296
Stadion, das 100
Stadium, das 100
Stadtrand, der 179
stand 209
stand- 293
STANDARD GERMAN 9,
11-12,23
Stängel, der 297
-stark 110
Stärke, die 78
STATEMENTS 263
Statistik, die 179
statt see anstatt
statt- 293
stattfinden 68
stechen 187, 225
stecken 79,191
stehen 19, 189,230,232,
240,241
stehen bleiben 83, 293
stehen lassen 72
Stehleiter, der 179
stehlen 187
steigen 59, 80,186
Stelle, die 70,77
stellen 79
Stellung, die 70
step 83
sterben 62, 187, 214
Steuer, die 103
Steuer, das 103
Stiefel, der 178
Stiege, die 83
Stift, der 103
Stift, das 103
still 79
stillstehen 83
Stimme, die 92
stimmen 223
stinken 187
Stock, der 92,104
-stoff 108
Stoff, der 92
stop 83,280
stoppen 83
stoßen 78, 189,225,
233
strahlend 57
strange 83
Straße, die 83
Strauß, der 104
streben 216
street 83
streichen 76, 83,
186
Streik, der 177
(sich) streiten 65,186,217,
219
strength 84
streuen 78
Strick, der 80
string 84
strömen 65, 78
STRONG ADJECTIVE
DECLENSION see
adjective
STRONG VERB see verb
Stube, die 80
Stück, das 178
Stufe, die 83
stürzen 63,100
stutzen 100
(sich) stützen 100, 215
stutzig 84
SUBJECT 265,268; see also
agent, nominative
case, word order
SUBJECT MATTER (effect
on register) 5
SUBJECTLESS PASSIVE
see passive
SUBJUNCTIVE 22,
239-48
CONDITIONAL 239-42,
245-6
FUTURE
SUBJUNCTIVE 239,
240
KONJUNKTIV I
239-40,242-8
KONJUNKTIV II
239-47,249
PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
239-42,245
PERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE 239,
240
PLUPERFECT
SUBJUNCTIVE 239,
240
PRESENT
SUBJUNCTIVE 239
WÜRDE-FORM 240-2
SUBORDINATE CLAUSE
263,273-82
such (a) 206
suchen 216
SUFFIX
OF NOUN, SHOWING
GENDER 171-5
see also word formation

SUPERLATIVE
WITH AM 290
WITH AUFS 290
suppose 280
sure 279, 280
suspekt 84
suspicious 84
SWITZERLAND 12, 13,23,
26,28-9
Tablett, das 100
Tablette, die 100
tadeln 56
TAG QUESTIONS 156
take 84
tall 84
Tankstelle, die 67
tanzen 233
tasten 64
in der Tat 79
-tat 172
tatsächlich 79
Tau, der 103
Tau, das 80,103
tauschen 59,100
(sich) täuschen 100,
216
Taxe, die 106
Taxi, der/das 106,181
Teil, der/das 181
teil-293
teilnehmen 214
-tel 172
Telefon/Telephon, das
297
telefonieren 216
tend to 280
TENSE 229-33
COMPOUND TENSE
229
FUTURE-IN-
THE-PAST 242
FUTURE PERFECT
TENSE 229-31
FUTURE TENSE 158,
159,229-30,246
IMPERFECT TENSE
230
PAST TENSE 22, 186,
229-31,248
PERFECT TENSE 19,
229-33,248
PLUPERFECT TENSE
20,229,231
PRESENT TENSE 20,
229,246
PROGRESSIVE TENSE
283
then 84
there 266
thick 84
thing 84
think 85,280
threaten 85
through 152
till see until
time 85
tippen 68
TITLES 292
to 153-4,211
Tochter, die 174
Tod, der 180
Ton, der 82
TOPIC 265
Tor, der 104
Tor, das 104
totschlagen 294
touch 85
towards 154
tragen 92, 188,242
TRANSITIVE VERB see
verb
trauen 73,101,210
träumen 217,219
(sich) trefTen 73,92, 187,
242
treiben 186,218
Treppe, die 83,179
treten 188,225,233
trinken 187
Tritt, der 83
Tropf, der 101
Tropfen, der 101
trotz 139,272,292
trübe 18,61
Trümmer, die 179
Trupp, der 106
Truppe, die 106
tschüs(s) 165
-tum 108,172
tun 21,79, 189,241,282
Tür(e), die 106
turn 86
Typ, der 106,183
Type, die 106
übel 56
über 61,136-7,141,144,
151,152,217
über- 116-17
über... hinaus 144
über kurz oder lang 291
übereinkommen 54
übereinstimmen 54,216
überhaupt 159,161
überhören 74
überlassen 72
sich überlegen 85
übernehmen 53
überqueren 61
überreden 77,218
überschreiten 61
überschwänglich 297
übersehen 74
überzeugen 77,80,217,
219
überzeugend 283
übrig bleiben 293
im Übrigen 101
übrigens 101,265
Ufer, das 56
um 126, 143,144,152,217
um-117
-um 172
um ... zu 263,276,286
umbinden 211
(sich) umdrehen 86
umfassend 283
UMGANGSSPRACHE 1 see
also spoken German
Umgebung, die 179
umgehen 55
umkehren 86
umkippen 86
umkommen 62
UMLAUT
IN NOUN PLURAL
174-6,177-8
IN PAST
SUBJUNCTIVE 240
IN PRESENT TENSE
OF VERBS 20, 189
IN WORD FORMATION
107-10,112,113
umsichtig 58
umsteigen 59
umtauschen 59
(sich) umziehen 59,92
un- (adjective prefix) 110
Un- (noun prefix) 109
unbedingt 94
und 263,284,298
under 154
understanding 86
unendlich 96
Unfall, der 53
-ung 15,108,172
ungefähr 141

ungerade 75
ungewöhnlich 101
unglaublich 101
unglaubwürdig 101
Unglück, das 53
unheimlich 75
Unkraut, das 179
unter 137-8,142,154
unter- 117-18
unterbrechen 57
unterhalb 140
(sich) unterhalten 71,92,
216
Unterhose, die 179
unterschiedlich 62
untersuchen 63
until 154
unvorsichtig 58
unweit 140
up 155
ur- (adjective prefix) 110
Ur- (noun prefix) 109
-ur (noun sufüx) 172
Urlaub, der 68
Ursache, die 58
urteilen 217,219
use 81
used to 280
VALENCY (verb) 20,
207-23
VARIANT 1
VARIATION 1-51
VARIETY 1
ver-113
verabreden 54
(sich) verändern 59
veranlassen 62,190,218
Veranstaltung, die 63
VERB
AGREEMENT IN
SINGULAR 179
CONJUGATION 18,
186-91
EINEM ETWAS VERB
211-12
FINITE VERB 262-5
GOVERNMENT 207-19
IMPERSONAL VERB
232
INSEPARABLE VERB
111-14,115-18
INTRANSITIVE VERB
111,208,232
IRREGULAR VERB
186-91,240-2
PHRASAL VERB 238
PRINCIPAL PARTS 186
REFLEXIVE VERB 211,
213,232,238
SEPARABLE VERB
114-18,293-4
STRONG VERB 21,
186-91,240-2
TRANSITIVE VERB
111,208,232,236
VERBS OF GIVING
AND TAKING 211
VERBS OF MOTION
112,232,233
VERBS OF SAYING,
HEARING 230
VERBS OF SENDING
212
VOWEL CHANGE IN
PAST TENSE 186-9
VOWEL CHANGE IN
PRESENT TENSE
188, 189
WEAK VERB 186,
189-91,240,241
see also auxiliary verb,
imperative, modal
auxiliary verb,
subjunctive, tense,
valency, word
formation, word
order
VERBAL BRACKET see
word order
VERBAL NOUN see noun
Verband, der 94
(sich) verbessern 69
Verbindlichkeit, die 94
Verbindung, die 94
sich verbitten 212
verblüffend 283
verbrauchen 82,87,95
Verbraucher, der 95
(sich) verbreiten 83
verbringen 82
Verbundenheit, die 94
verdächtig 84
verderben 187
Verdienst, der 104
Verdienst, das 104
vereinbaren 54
vereinzelt 96
verfehlen 74
verfolgen 66
verfugen 217
verführen 218
vergessen 188
vergleichen 186,216
sich verhalten 56,218
Verhalten, das 101
Verhältnis, das 101
sich verheiraten 73,216
verheiratet 73
verhindern 78
verhüten 78
verkünden 98
verlangen 55, 216
(sich) verlassen 72, 215
verleiden 190
verleugnen 62
sich verlieben 216
verlieren 187
Verlobte(r), der 197
verlockend 283
verloren gehen 293
sich vermählen 73
vermeiden 55
vermieten 80,99
vermissen 74
vermuten 68
vermutlich 280
verneinen 62
Vernunft, die 86
verpassen 74
verrichten 93
versagen 80
sich versammeln 60
Versammlung, die 100
versäumen 74
verscheiden 62
verschieden 62
verschließen 72
verschonen 101
verschönen 101
verschweigen 211
verschwinden 187,242
versehen 216
aus Versehen 53
versehentlich 53
versichern 213
versorgen 71
Versprechen, das 180
Verstand, der 86
verständigen 54, 217
Verständigung, die 86
Verständnis, das 86
verstehen 66
Versuch, der 92,101
Versuchung, die 101
(sich) verteilen 83
sich vertiefen 216
vertrauen 101

verurteilen 94
verwandeln 59
Verwandte(r), der 197
verweigern 62, 80,211
verweisen 213
verwenden 87
verwerten 87
verwirklichen 79
verwunden 102
verwunderlich 101
verwundern 102
verzeichnen 94
verzeihen 186
verzichten 215
Vetter, der 183
Vieh, das 61
viel 198,201,206,226,296
viele 193, 195,196,206
vielleicht 161,164
view 87
Villa, die 178
Virus, der/das 178,181
Visum, das 178
VOCABULARY 23-35,
52-170
VOICE see passive
Volk, das 77
voll- 118
-voll 110
Vollendung, die 53
von 130, 147, 149,217,
225-8,236,272
von... an 131,139,147
von ... her-/hinunter 150
von klein auf 291
von nah und fern 291
von weitem 291
vonnöten 294
vor 138,154,214,218
vor- 115
im Voraus 290
vorbei sein 294
Vorbeigehende(r), der 197
vorbeikommen 58
vorderhand 294
Vorfall, der 63
vorfallen 68
Vorgang, der 63
VORGANGSPASSIV See
passive
vorgehen 68
Vörgesetzte(r), der 197
vorhaben 73
vorhanden 78
vorher 101
vorhin 101
vorkommen 68
Vorkommen, das 63
Vorkommnis, das 63
sich vornehmen 212
Vorsicht, die 58
vorsichtig 58
Vorsitzende(r), der 197
(sich) vorstellen 69,92,
212
Vorstellung, die 69
vorwerfen 56
VULGARISM 8
Waage, die 179
wach werden 87
wachen 87
wachsen 67,188
Wagen, der 101,178
Waggon, der 101
Wahl, die 179
wählen 92
wahren 101
währen 101
während (conjunction) 278
während (preposition)
139,145
wahrhaftig 79
wake (up) 87,209
Wald, der 179
walk im
Wall, der 87
wall 87
walten 213
Wand, die 87
want 281
warnen 218
warten 215
was (interrogative) 21,
203-206
was (relative pronoun) 201
was für ein 203,205-206
waschen 88,188
wash (up) 88,209
WEAK ADJECTIVE
DECLENSION see
adjective
WEAK MASCULINE
NOUN see noun
WEAK VERB see verb
weben 188,191
wechseln 59
wecken 87
Weg, der 83
aus dem Weg gehen 55
wegen 139,272
weggehen 71
weglassen 72
wegschließen 72
Weh tun 293
Wehr, die 104
Wehr, das 104
sich wehren 101
weichen 186,191
sich weigern 80
weil 22,278
weinen 61
weisen 186
weit 74,92
weiter 60,281
weiterfuhren 60
weitermachen 60
welcher (interrogative)
193,194,203,
205-206
welcher (relative pronoun)
200,201
welcome 88
wenden 86,190, 191
wenig 206,226,296
wenige 193,195,196,206
wenigstens 265
wenn 245,263,278,285,
286
wer 21,202,206
werben 187
Werbespot, der 54
Werbung, die 54
werden 67,188,234,241,
271
WERDEN-PASSIVE See
passive
were to 246
werfen 187
Werkstatt, die 67
-wert 110
-wesen 108
wessen 202
wett- 293
what 202
WH-Q UESTIONS 160-1,
202-3,263
wider 101,126,142
wider-118,210
widerfahren 68
widerhallen 118
sich widersetzen 212
widerspiegeln 118
wie 21,230,273,275
wie- 295
wie wenn 247
wieder 54,101
wieder- 118

wiederholen 118
wiederum 54
wiegen 187
wieweit 296
will 229
Wille, der 183
willkommen heißen 67
wirklich 79
Wirren, die 179
Wirtschaft, die 92
wissen 71, 190,241
Wissen, das 71
with 155,286
wo 19,201,203
WO + PREPOSITION see
prepositional adverb
woanders 296
woher 203
wohin 203
wohl 158,159,161, 163,
230,280
wohnen 72
Wolkenbank, die 56
wollen 80,246,253,281
womöglich 296
WORD FORMATION
107-18
ADJECTIVES 109-11
BY PREFIXES 108-18
BY SUFFIXES 107-10
COMPOUND WORD 17,
274,283,292,294
DIMINUTIVES 107
NOUNS 107-9
VERBS 111-18
VOWEL CHANGES 107
see also umlaut
WORD ORDER 262-73
ADVERBIALS 268-70,
272
AFTER THE CLOSING
BRACKET 271-3
CENTRAL SECTION
267-71
COMPLEMENTS 271
INITIAL POSITION
262,264,282
OBJECTS 268
PRONOUNS 267
SUBJECT 268
VERBAL BRACKET
262-4
Wort, das 104
would 245
wozu 203
WRITTEN GERMAN 4,
7-9,29,41-51
wunder- 293
wunderbar 101
wunderlich 75,101
sich wundern 102,217,
219
WÜRDE-FORM see
subjunctive
-würdig 110
würdigen 213
YES/NO QUESTIONS
160-1,263
zähe 18
Zahl, die 75
zahlen 77
zählen 215,218
Zange, die 179
Zeh, der 106
Zehe, die 106
zeigen 92,235
Zeit, die 85
Zeitalter, das 54
Zentrum, das 178
zer- 113
zerbrechen 57
zerreißen 57
zerschlagen 57
zerschmettern 57
-zeug 108
Zeug, das 85
Zeugs, das 85
Ziegenpeter, der 179
ziehen 68,187,233,
242
Zierrat, der 297
Ziffer, die 75
Zimmer, das 80
Zinsen, die 179
Zirkel, der 179
Zoll, der 179
zu 19, 130-1, 146, 153-4,
218,286
zu-210
zubringen 82
züchten 68
zuerst 65,96
zufällig 53,281
zufolge 132,141
sich zufrieden geben 80
zufrieden sein 80,294
zufrieden stellen 80
zufrieren 66
Zug, der 92
Zugang, der 63
zugeben 53, 54
zugehen 59
zugleich 97
zugrunde / zu Grunde
gehen 295
zugunsten / zu Gunsten
295
zulassen 53
zuletzt 65
zumachen 59
zumute / zu Mute sein
295
zunächst 65
zunehmen 68
zuraten 54
zurück sein 294
zurückfuhren 215
zurückhalten 71
zurücklassen 72
zurufen 58
zurzeit 294
zusammen- 115
zusammenkommen 60,
73
zusammenstoßen 216
zusammentreffen 73
zusammentreten 73
zustande / zu Stande
bringen 295
ZUSTANDSPASSIV See
passive
zustimmen 54
zustoßen 68
sich zutragen 68
Zutritt, der 62-3
zuwege / zu Wege bringen
295
zwar 158,159
zweifellos 280
zweifeln 62,214,219
zwingen 66,187,218
zwingend 283
zwischen 138,142
Zwischenfall, der 63