Part II Archaeological Excavations - Center for the Study of Eurasian ...

Kurgans, Ritual Sites, and Settlements: Eurasian Bronze and Iron Age
northwards to the small-leafed forests, and is represented by
multi-grass meadows and birch-aspen coppices. To the south
of the forest-steppes, the steppes are composed of multi-grass
and feather-grass vegetation that until recently has been the
predominant ground cover. As a whole, the landscape of the
Ural-Siberian forest-steppe is characterized by alternating geographic
zones and a mosaic distribution of vegetation–forests
meadows, swamps, and steppes.
The largest part of the area under study geographically belongs
to the Tobol province, and is characterized by a slightly elevated,
undulating surface which has many lakes. A very important
factor of the Transural relief is the riverine valleys, principally
the Tobol, Iset, Miass; all of which have rich soils. In
the Tobol valleys, rich vegetation is associated with alluvial
soils. The ancient Tobol terraces are characterized by a predominance
of saline soils with their corresponding types of flora.
On the high terraces the sandy soils are covered by coniferous
and birch trees. Aspen groves and small birch forests consume
over 60% of the surface in the northern forest-steppe and not
more than 5% in the south. In the drained areas, hawthorn is
profuse, and several kinds of cherry trees, wild roses, honeysuckle,
rowan trees, and currants grow. In the hills, where some
of the initial steppe land is preserved, the black soils are covered
with meadows, an abundance of bean plants, meadowsweet
grass, different varieties of cereals, wormwood, and tarragon.
The fauna is mixed and both forest and steppe species of animals
are found, including elk and bear and, until recently, large
numbers of beavers, wolves, steppe antelopes, roe deer, wild
pigs, foxes, and other animals.
The environments described above and the botanical areas
currently found in the region had already formed by the
beginning of the Iron Age. These areas were especially favorable
for livestock breeding–the basis of subsistence for
the local populations–especially during the Iron Age. The
bones of these livestock animals are well represented in all
of the excavated sites.
According to some Russian specialists, the climatic and landscape
conditions of the Holocene changed several times. It is
considered that at least three climatic fluctuations occurred from
the third to the first millennia BC. During the second half of
the third millennium BC, and at the turn of the second and the
first millennia BC, periods of high precipitation dominated.
Low precipitation apparently occurred from the middle of the
second millennium BC onwards.
During the late prehistoric period, the above-described landscapes
were occupied by cultures of different social levels
and economic orientation–these consisted of nomads, seminomads,
settled pastoralists, specialists in metallurgy, and
hunters and fishers. Their linguistic attributions were distinct,
and they are assumed to have been proto-Iranian and
proto-Ugrian speakers. Compared with the populations that
occupied the core Eurasian steppes, the tribes that occupied
the areas of marginal contact with the forest-steppe
peoples are much less understood.
64
Chronological frames and cultural context
The temporal sequence we are dealing with extends through
the first millennium BC through to the beginning of the first
millennium AD. The project is focused mainly on the Sargat
Culture which occupies the area between the Ural Mountains
and the Baraba lowlands. The project also includes several subcultures–the
Gorokhovo, the Itkul, and the Baitovo–as well as
cultural types–the Kashino and the Prygovo. These cultures
and sub-cultures are archaeologically represented by various
fortified and open settlements as well as by numerous kurgans
(barrows).
The end of the Bronze Age during the 8th century BC witnessed
the formation of metallurgical centers in the Urals, with
the Ananyino center in the west and the Itkul center in the east.
These two centers were rather closely connected and had a common
foundation, but their spheres of influence differed. The
Ananyino center lay mostly within the Scythian cultural zone,
while the Itkul center was more closely connected to the Saka,
the Sauromatian, and the Sargat zones.
Despite influence from the north, the Tobol-Irtysh forest-steppe
region became one of the principal components of the cultural
and economic system which extended to Middle Asia and the
Kazakhstan steppes. This predetermined the future contacts that
local chiefdoms made with the Middle Asian states, and with
the Eurasian steppe nomadic confederations. A very unique flexible
mechanism of cultural genesis had been determined. Innovations
were synthesized without prejudice to local cultural
originality (Koryakova and Epimakhov forthcoming).
Research strategy
The research strategy used in this study was based upon the
combination of multidisciplinary investigations that included
the excavation of basic settlements and cemeteries, and the
subsequent analyses of the excavations. The research team consisted
of specialists in archaeology, topography, and aerial photographic
analysis, paleoanthropology, environmental sciences
(paleozoology and sedimentology), and the study of pottery.
The excavations included intensive site evaluations through
non-destructive methods that included aerial photography and
topographic surveys, and trenching, in addition to large-scale
excavations that were as extensive as possible depending upon
time and financial resources.
Practical results
The joint excavation and multidisciplinary analysis of five cemeteries
(which contained aristocratic and ordinary burials) and
four settlements (including both permanent and temporary sites)
was partly accomplished over a period of six years (Table 1).
Chronologically, the sites covered the continuous time period
from the 7th century BC to the 3rd century AD. Some Late
Bronze Age and Medieval structures were also included in the
research programme (Koryakova and Daire forthcoming).
Space does not permit the presentation of the complete site
data, but particular structures encountered at two of the excavated
sites are discussed below.