cor'."'rrrE !&II!'! BENEX'ITS OF ENVTRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND ...

"u# #Hr" ) 

cor'."'rrrE !&II!'! 

BENEX'ITS OF ENVTRONMENTAL, HEALTH, 

AND SAF'ETY R,EGULATION 

PRTPANED IIOR TEE 

COMItrITTEE ON GOYER,NIIENTAL AX'FAIRS 

UNITAD STATES SENATE 

BY TIIX 

CENTER FOR POLICY AI,TERNATIVES AT THE 

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY 

W 

MARCE 25, 1S80 

Pdnted lor the use of the ComDltt€e o! GovemDental Afal!! 

U.S. OOYERNMDNT PAINIING OTFICE 

l?-?!o O maEINGaON : 1980 

I'or srle by tlc gup€ ntendeDt of Documents, t].S. GoYerdnent PrlnUng Omce 

WasbtngtoD, D.C. 20i102

lIENEY lL .J-{CKSON, Washiiston 

IIIOrIAS l'. iL',\(ll,l,TON, )Iissoirri 

I--\\rT0]- CHII-Ib:S, Uorid'r 

S,\lI NU\N. (icorBia 

JOIIN {lLIi\N. Ollio 

.IIII SASSER. T€nDessec 

I),\VII) I'RYOR,'\rliatrtsas 

('-{RL LllvI\, lttchigen 

('()MMlla'lllr) ON (IOVEIi\MIiYI'AL .\l'!'AIRS 

-\BRAIIAII RIBICOI'F, ConDecttcut, Chatrtnan 

CHi\RLES H. !'IJRCY, Illinois 

JACOR K..I-\r'I1s, \crv Yor\ 

\\'ILLI-{II l'. IiO'I'II, Jn., Dtla{fe 

l'DD STIIvDNS, {l:rska 

CH-.\.RLl!S v.C. \I1THlAS. Jn, trIarvland 

J0IIN C. D.\N!'ORTll, llissourl 

NII-LIA}{ S. C0IIIh-, Ileitre 

I)AYID DUriD\BDnGItB, \llnneEota 

Itrcn^lI|D -{. WE{:uAN, Chitl Couns.I tttt.I Etnfi Dit.ctor 

JaMEs DL (:ftAHAM, Cor{rel 

Coxsl^NcD B, It\'.!Ns. Iitotittl Srnt rtire.tot 

Itr,rzlBDI}I '\. l'ItE^sr, CtidJ C/€rti 

*

Center for Pol lcY Altern€tlves 

l'lassachusetts I nst i tltte of Technology 

Cambr i dqe, tlassachusetts 02139 

TH€ 

EEXEF ITS OF ENV I RONIIE IITAL ' HEALTH 

AIID SAFETY REGULATIOII 

(APPENDTCES) 

Nicholas A. Ashford 

Co-pri nci Pa I investigato. 

Christopher T. Hi | | 

co-pri nc ipal investigator 

Yil l iam tlendez, Jr. 

Proj ect r,lanager 

Roger K. Chisholn 

Ri chard Frenkel 

Georqe R. Heaton ' Jr. 

Y. Curt iss Priest 

lhe research underlying thls report vras carried oul under contract fr6n 

if'" Crrnfai." on covern.entat Affairs, United states senate' to the tenter 

for Policy AlLprnalive< aL Lhe taa5sachuserts Inslitute ol lecnnoroqY 

e.v ..i.;1"..-ir.Jinqi. concrusions. or recommerdar ions 

::"'":"9 !:*r' 

aretho5eoftheauthorsanddonotnecessaril)reflectthe 

il;.;;-i;. Poiicy Alternatives' the l'lassachusetts rnstitute of rechnoroev' 

or the Committee on Governrental Affairs. 

(III) 

t 

t;

LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL 

U'S' Srxern' 

Counrrrrnn or GoYMNITIINTAL i\rnr' rRst 

Il/aahingtttt. I t.(!.. 'll o r (,h 25. | 98t). 

The PnssnrLr or rlrn SENATT' 

A.8. Senate, 

Wash.inqtrm. D.C. 

I)u,rt ]ttr. Pnnsronr.rr: For the pa.t several vears, 1|tP Qorrrnittec on 

Gov""'rrr"ont"l Aflairs has been actively scartlllit,g tol rvavs-to tlake 

Fedcral requlltion tDolc clficient and effectirc. TtL thc lrst ( ongress' 

llr" ilo-uriit"" prrblislrctl tltc six volrrrncs oI it: '\tuJv nn F' d"n! 

\V- 

"latitytt'. *Itich ^l.ls contlrtcte

s 

CONTEN T S 

?!gr 

Executivc summarY---------- 

1 

1. Introdu(tioD 

5 

zl ili" tt,,t,t.. i,r the bellefits of elvironrueDt ]. health, nrrd safety regulatiorr 

U 

2.1 .\ d$ssilictltirJn of the llcrelits of rcgnlotion--- 

tt 

2.2 .\ fralrre$-olli for Delslrring the l)enefits of reguhtiotr------ -- 

3. Issues;r lsses-sirrg tltc l)eDcfits oI rcguhtioD 

11 

3.1 -ii.i l,in)ited brse of scielltili(: :rnd teclDiclrl liloivledge-----_------ l1 

itrar,itiiy to trreclirt ihe nte tr d (lilection of tecbnological 

innovatioD 

3,3 AnrlJtic:rl lssn lssnllrl)tior)s rl)tior)s concetniDg concerrlDg tht' tlrt' effecliYeness errecli {)f regu- 

I ti.Ds -- 

3.4 Irradeqtate ecol)Dr))ic r))odcls rrld techniques------------------ 

:1.5 l\rn,l1.trrs Nith \rlhrrrliorl ln(rcednr'('s 

of benrfi ts o!ti,nlrtiorr--- 

nrl(l (l(r'isioD r1IakiDg----- 

4. 'Ihe bel('fits of selected regtllator] prograDrs----- 

4.1 JntroductioD 

4.2 Benefits of rrir lnllutid\ contlol regulations- 

4.3 Ilelrefits of rutonrotive 'qafety regulations-- 

4.4 Iicrlcfits oI collsllnler product,sAfet]' regulotlons-------------- 

-1.5 Ircrl'fils ('l 13 

14 

19 

20 

20 

20 

foo(l. (h s xrrd cosxrfli(' IeFrrl^tions- 

27 

4.6 ReDrfits ot fooal saletr :rrrd qu{lit}' reguhtioDs------'- 

29 

4.7 Bonr'lits of (xcllpatidrNl saletl :tllal health regulations--- ---- 

4.6 In'reliis of \vater pollutiort control regulationg- 

34 

-l.l) li('uolitsofothero vironlllontrrl, hexltb. rlr)rl s{rfety ,r'eg[lati on s 36 

5. Cot|clusiorrr l r,,I r'r1,nrIrpnd|lliot 

3E 

;.1 

't'hc 

l)r'rl()hts of selected legulatory progt:lrDs-- 

38 

'5.2 SuDrrDuy of sourc beneflts oi regulatioD-- 

38 

5.3 The state {)f lho-.rrt 

40 

5.4 ReconDrclrdations 

43 

.lclill() rr k,(lgr'rxcD t-! 

43 

Tto authors- ----- 

M 

Litera lure ciled--- --- ----- 

4?t 

.\ppeDdiccs: 

.\. The l,iletaturc Survey-----. - - 

R. Riblingraphy 59 

C. Suh.ienl Tnrlcx 

{vrr)

BENEFITS OF ENVIRONMENTAL' HEALTH' AND 

SAFETY REGUI,ATION 

Exrcurrl'r Suuuar'Y 

Substantial bonefits have beel rcalizcd from federal environmental, 

health and safety regulations. 'lhese benelits which are summarized rn 

this leport. ir, iud," dilcct ecorr()mic guitrs. imptouements in public 

bealth and in thc strtrdard of living, and enhrtrced envrronrnellt&l 

dua.litv. lvo htvc nol nltempted to atirile uL u total vllu('of tlll thesa 

lienefiis, in doll.rr or in othe-r terms. Ilowever, it is clear that they-ars 

sizable when compared with ihe costs that havs been attributed to 

these regulatory piograms in other studies. 

The r:"urnose of thJ utsent research was to compile end ch&racterize 

existiri piivatc arrd prrblic sector studies on the benefits of "n'ironmentaih.r 

lth. u rrtl sr ict y regu lat iott,s. .\ , omputcrized bibliograph,v"of 

over 350 documents was constructed and abstracts were prepaled for 

about one-half of these studies. Regulatury ana)yses and other documents 

were obtained from six fcdctrl regulatorv tgencies (Cottsumer 

Product Safety Cornmission, Environmental Pri'teclion Agency. Food 

and Drus .{d r irin istration. Food Sa fetv r rrd Qualitv Service, }*rrt ional 

Hichwrv Trrftic Safetv Adrnin istra r,ion. and the Oicupational Safety 

and-Heilth Arlministirtion ). Brsed on this documentation, tlle r€port€d 

benefiis o[ regulations irr seven mitior regul&tory lre&s a,re 

iummarized. and an "assessment 

is madc of the lttte-of-the-art of 

estimatins benefits. It should be not€d thot no efiort has been made 

to critica y evalua,te the particular methodologies used ia fhe lar.ious 

stuorcs. 

The philosophical, analdical. and empirical limitations on benefits 

studies need t; be kept fiimly in mind wlrt'n thc,.e estimtrtes are dis' 

cussed. Nevertheless. it is clea; that thc public benefits are substantial. 

Enuironme n tal pol I ution 

The benefits of regulating air pollution from major soureas has 

been estimatcd to raiigc froir $.-' to $58 billion per yerr. lith automotive 

pollrrtion contlols alonc rvorth $2.5 to $10 billion per year' 

Estinrates of water Dollution control benefits include reduced incidencs 

of n'aler-horne diseise n il.lr monetary benefits of $0.1 to $l billion per 

year, recreational use benefits estimated at up to $9.4 billion per 

ie[r. "wnte.rwavs. and substantia] increases in DroDt:rtv v{rlies ncrr once-Dolluted. 

These nollution-rclated benefiis do not inclutlc the benefits 

of piograms diiecteil lt long-term ot lurgc sclle prohlems such as 

chroni; he;lth h&zrrcls (such rs-carcinogens) in wrtci srrpplics, stratospheric 

ozone depletion, or long-range sulfate transport irnd acid rain. 

Worlcplace safety and health 

The total anmral cost of industrial accidents has been estimatetl at 

nearlv $15 billion. Fet{eral and state occupational safetv and health 

regulations have helperl to rcduce accidental iniuries and deaths. For 

erample, OSIIA safety and health inspection activitics arc estimated 

(1) 

!

2 

to have prevented between {0,000 and 60,000 lost workday accidents 

and.up to 350 ileaths- in boih 1974.nnd 197b. Regulations limiting 

worker exposure to asbestos may rrltinrate)r' resrrlt"in a rerluction oT 

630.to 2500 dealhs pcr year-from lurlg,"rnier rnd asbesiosis. Signiti. 

cant additional benefits will occur in the fornr of reduced incidence 

of cancer and other discase dne to OSHA regllation of such htzar.ds 

as vinyl chloride, cotton clust, lead, and noise. 

- 

Atdomobile and con*umcr sofety 

It has been estimated that the motor vehicle occurrant rrrotection 

standards promulgated lretrvcen 1966 antl 19i0 saved o'ver 2i.000 liyes 

n.an.8 Jear periorl, 1966 lo.1t?4. This rras o,luiYalent to I lb to B0% 

r€ducDton In dcalhs anil :orio j in.jurios ns colnparod wilh older clrs. 

The seat bcft requirenrenL lrrs lctl io a 2oVo rpeiuctjon in derth and a 

34lo rcdlction in rui.'rnol'ile acciderrt injrrrics. despite rolatir.oll- low 

uso rat€s. Substantial benefits lrrve also been estimited for consuner 

product safety regulations tlesigned to contlol specific haz.rrds. For 

exampler child-resistant drug parkaging rules pre^verrtcd an cstimatccl 

34,000 injuries due to accirlcntril ,lrug inlgestioniretrvccn 19?B ancl 1g?6. 

Crib safety starxlard_s_ have r_educcd irib--rclated injuries to infants by 

44/o sirroe 19i-1. Fullr- irrrplcmented, fabric flaminabilitv standarcLs 

could have reduccd by aboui 20af thr- frcquencies oI deathj and senous 

burns expcrien,.ed br"clrildren in 1g75. 

Footl and tlrug nlety ard, quality 

Tho bcnefits of fcdcr:rl inspnclion of meats. norrltrv and nroeesscd 

food rre manifest in tlro olcr.rull quality and puiitv of .\mnrica'. feed 

supply. They halc become rJeepiy irr-grlincd in'ihe qrralir.r'-(,onirol 

efrorts of tlre fo-od prucessing nnd-disiiibur iorr industry -inc"e regulation 

began in 1800. Recent strrdies of the benefits of clianges in iood 

-.af ett' an d q uali ty reguh tion s_ have {ound, f or example, c*onsiderablo 

D€nents rn the torm oI reduco(l consumer exposure to potentially car_ 

cinogcnic.food preservatir-cs-and jn the form;f both m;rc efficierit utilrza.tion 

of mcat carcas.es lnd cosi savings lo meat procFssors, 

^ Tho benetil s of food. dnrg and cosrr re.t ic regulations hrr.e been quantifiql 

in onll' a few instances. Clearly, large bienefits have resulteci from 

FD.\ regulatiols. I,-or cxumple, the banning of nitrofurans arrtl diethvlstilbestrol 

as aninrul fr'e.d additives ln? the banning of other 

earr.inogcnic srrbslances ts ingr.edienls in food are expecred io rnsrrlt, in 

decreasnd risk of ca nr-e r lronr cxposure I o these comporrn ds. Tlre FD A's 

ban on flrroroc:rrbon propollanti in certain types o'f aerosol cans will 

contribute to a lowet incidencc of skin cancer aid to less en.r,ironmcntal 

damago than xould otherwjsc result fro_rn dcpletion of the ozone layer. 

Tt hm been estimltprl tlr at the bcnofits o{ t ho dr.ug offi,"1cy reqrr iren ronrs 

under the 1962 Kcfauyer-Ilarris .{mendments iar,-e bern a'reduction 

of $100 to $300 million per yerr in consumer purchases o{ insfiective 

dmm. 

C on cl,usion q nd rec omnlenda ti ons 

Er'-en thorrgh elTorts have lrr.en devoted to nssessing the beneffts of 

onvrronmcnl al. lteall h and sa felv requlations. lhere reitain maior ana_ 

lytical, empirical. and philosopliirai prolrlems n.iilr such stu,lie"s. Some 

ol tne analytrcal and empi cal issues can bo resolved through addi_

3 

tional research and applications in such areas &s toxicology, epidemiology, 

onvironmentaf inodeling and risk &sscssment. Hoievei, tliere 

will rcurain scriorr-. sholtcorrrings in the availabilitv of ernpilicul clrrta 

ou man.y hcalth rntl ccologicai'cffects, as well as inarlequncies in the 

norlt:ls uscd to inllrrprtt tlrt'rlltl. Ftrlthetmorc, thc pltilosophicLtl and 

ethi,'ul issues r''Lisrd bv l.,lrcirg c

BENEFITS OF ENVIITON-NIENTAI. HEALTII, AND 

SAI'E'IY ITI]GULATION 

1. Ixtnoovcrrox 

In the lest decede, the na.tion has exPanded its commitment to improvjng 

t}o quality bf tlre environrrrenl antl thc health and salcty of 

its ciiizens. Congreis Iras int'relscd suppoll ful rlxisting cllolls lrnd has 

cfeat{d tl{.w tgencles t0 dev{'lop lnd i}dlnlllISIer. rcgulirtofy lrl'ogr&ms 

to attuirr llr(.'c important goals. It is lrattlculrlrlJ pl)ropl'latc l}t. thrs 

limc of glowirrq lnten.slln regulatotv rcfolttt lo exatrtinc what is 

known aFout llrJ benefits of ll,osi recotri tegulatoty efforls. trloreovcr, 

it is only against an- undersl.unding of t lrc-txrretiG o-[ rcg.ulation thaL 

recenl aiteritpts lu docurrront ils costs trrtr bc lr,'.rningfully assessed' 

(lYeidenbaum ' and Del,'ila, 1978; Arthur Andemen & Co., 19?9).' 

The bcncfits of regulation have not bccn ertensively examirred until 

recentlv Ior several reas-ons. -t'jrst. wlren most of tlre nerv regulations 

werc uiurrted. {,ltere was broad agl'cttrLnl on tLc striousnels of the 

prol,luls, arrtl it was l:rrgely assurictl I )rat the benolits to society of a 

tle,rn, r' crrvironrnenl, hr;ltirier workplule end s&Ier products rrould 

be woll rvorth the cbsts of colrpliutcc. Sccond, those rvho stitld to 

benefit thc most from health a.nd safetv requlirtions havc not had the 

resoulccs to study thcir benefits in dttiil, ind irr ruost cuses, have not 

bccn orgrnized 5r rrrotivated to press for such u:st's.rlents. Third, 

thcre .r.re inherent corrceptual and methodological difiiculties in assessing 

thc bencfits of regulation-it is gcnerull-!' mucll nors dillicult to 

cstirrrltc the benefits tharr the cosls of ( olr t) lia rc( . 

'-fhe pur'losc of the present research by thc IIIT Center for Policy 

Alterrrit i vi* (MII-Ci'A) wus to cotttl,tl,' arrtl characterize existing 

Drivatc a)rd public scctor: studies on thc benefits of environtnental, 

i.oalth, arLd srfety regulations.'lo deal witlt thc rnany didercnt issucs 

treat{i in a-rrulyJs oiregulatory benefits' II t'I' ( 'l "\'.applorr lrcr i this 

rcsearclr ustttg [l, multl-dlsclpl lna ry l4am wlul t \ln nise lll ('(ollollllcst 

biology, biocFeuristry, gt'nefics, chemistry, chemicll etrgineerirtg, and 

law. 

The MIT-CPA research team constructed a, computerized bibliocraphy 

o[ oyer i]50 documenls utt llte benetils of regulatiorr alld prtiarid 

obst.uct" of about one-lralf oI these stu.lies. Itegulatory arralyses 

and other docutncnts rserc obluined fronr .ix fedetal legulatoly ugcncies 

(Consunter Product Safetv Comtrrissiotr, Flnvironmenttrl Protcction 

i\sency, Foorl and Drug AdministraLion, Ir'ood Srrfcly rrrd Qualitv 

Seivicti, ' Nrtional H igliv.!.y 'I'rulfic Safely lLltttilrist,r'rtion, and 

ttie Occupai ional Safcty und llealth.\,lministr:rlion). In addi(ion' 

several cofnputeriz,:tl biblirrr{r1r phic data bascs nnd the Journal oJ Ecolomic 

Liteiature werc s.aichcd for relcvant articles. r\ppendiccs to 

rcitatlorE *tth authora' traEeB anal dates refer to tbe Ust ot "Llteratute Clted" at 

tt€ erd o! thls repolt. 

(6)

this report contain details of the literature searched, the bibliography, 

ano a subrect lndex. 

l3a:cd iargell on thc litprature abstracts. the estirnatecl benefits of 

rogulrlroll ln Sct'on i||tirorlfl t regulator\ alcts tl'cre sunrmlrizcd and 

djs,"u-setl. I|hile a consitlcrable portiori oI lhi- repor.t is dcrored to 

plrilosophi,-rl. coltcel'lrtrl. rnalvtrcal and practi,aI issuej ll,tlt limit 

thc putcntral ultlrty c'l l,onefit tnallses in generlJ. llre resorrrr.ps availablc 

u-ete lrsrflictort to ltttsttpt a critical revierv of each studv. I{owever. 

it n'as possible to drntv sorrrc conclusions r.eglrcling tLe itate-ofthe-art 

of benelits assessment and to offnr scme recomriendations for 

nolicv. - 

Thc remaindel of tlis report consists of four maior sections. Section 

2 is a gerreral discu,s.iol ot the nanv forms taken bv the benefits of 

enyirorinroltal. health and safetv regulations ald lrriw thosc benefits 

might bc measured. Section 3 disculses some of the theoretical and 

placticll tlifliculties eorumonl_y encountered in attempts to assess the 

beneiits of rr.guhtion. Section 4 surmtar.izes the res.ulG of somc o{ the 

rno|c unportant studies of the hurrcfit: ol sclected r.eguhterry progranr.. 

Scction .:r.presetrls corr,"lrrsiorr. l|lLl I e(omI lendtt io]|. regirdrng 

tuturp Llrtecttons fbt. regulltor\ polic_\'. 

2. Tna Narunn ot' rgn Bnnnnrs or Euluolqurxru,r,, Iloer,ra, ero 

SErnry Rrcur,.a.nor{ 

2.1 A CLASSIFICAfiON OI'1IEtr BENTT'ITS OF R.EGULATION 

The benefits of environmental, healti ancl safety " resulfltion can bs 

considered to fall in four broad classes ; 

The reduced costs of injury, of disease and of a,esthetic and 

othcr dumage lo natrlnrl les.,rir,.es and ecosvstems: 

The improrcd productivity of workers, if consirmers, and oI 

natur.al 

-s-r'stenrs 

srrch rs_forests. agricultural land, nnd rvetlands I 

The development and adopiioir of new. more Droductir.e in: 

du.llirl I'ro"nssos and rnorc eileclir,, nr.otlucts: 

. Improlements in society, such as tfie formaiion o{ new institutrons.rn 

rndLrst-t r. €toretrLment, and labor unions. or changes in the 

orstn btltron oi lncome. 

-. An exr mple shol-s how these bencfits arise. The costs of oceupational 

rltscl.e irrnlrrrl'. not onll thc costs of rneCical care. bllt also otlier costs 

associrte,l wir h pain rnd sufrering. the dis";;fort ;;d dii*oiion "".poliorrr'nrl 

l,.r frrrrih lrrd fliends. ilre rtor.li,.r's losl rtrges, and'th" "mplover's 

losi of the services of an experienced u".i orfiulii"" *o"t ".. 

ncgulation that rcduces the incidcnic of *o"t -."ta't"a air"o"_." ."duces 

each-of tbese costs. and these cost reductions n." u -u1o, part. of the 

regrrlatorr program's benefi ts. 

-. In additibn io the benefits thlt flow from the reducerl costs of iniurv. 

diseaso c,nrl. damage.-tlre- indrrstrial resl,onsc-i. *""iif"." *n ,i,itir', 

rrenltcn v lncl]ldes 'lo\.elnl)monl of a ncw Droccss or orodrtr"t tlt:rt not 

only.mcets the legal stanrl:rrrl but also is rnore efficidnt or of higher 

orrrr,i' fl,rn tic nnF tt 1or,l11qe5. h othel cases. adontion of n ljitter 

ter"hnolo,.v is nceelcrafed br. I new regnlation. fn either case. the deve'opment.and 

use of nervr improved technolog, is n further regulatorv 

benelit, 

;

7 

Furthernora, regulation often causes chenges in social institutions 

with benefits oritsile the regulatetl erea. For;xample. new progrems 

established under the Occupational Safetv tnd Health Act to assess 

sorkplace ltazards ltave provided errlv sarninss of potentilrl hazards 

to the general populatidn, as in thc case of vinll chloride. Another 

kind of-institutiorial chanse with substantial benefits is a modification 

of the \yxv industr-y approaches rclated hazards. Industry is encourlged 

bv one rogulrtoiy'acli,)n to atoid futtrr,' sanclions'by using or 

tiioducine less hazardius products rnd Dmcesses ir generll. Tn other 

irolds t lre"r'c is r "lr'r,'r'rgin-g cft.ct'' on t h-e nrrtrrre of indrrstrial production 

(-.\slilortl. 1979). 

There are ihporlant limitations in placing values on regulatory 

bcnefits. Not all;f the sisnificant benefiis of r"egulrtion can be monetized 

(that is, expressed ii dollarsl, irnd somp "annot evcn be quantified 

satisfactorilv. For example, (bere is no appropriric wr.r' to put a 

dollar lalue on tiro "osls of tlic pain rnd s,rlTnr:ing *ndrrre,l il,r'oufhout 

a life time bv a child who is a-victim oI a sleepwear fire. nor can we 

begin to coniprehend in numerical terms the côsts enduied bv other 

people who krow, see, or even think about such a victim. Thus, no 

anaiysl can satisftrctorilv ouantify or monctize a7l the benefits of a 

rtguiation prohibiting -flammnble fabrics in children's sleepwear. 

Clca.rh.'it iinot enoryh to total up only the reduced costs of medicsl 

treatment. 

Thl costs and bcnefits of regulation usually fall on difierent parties' 

l\{ore,over, the benefits of regilation to one part o{ society can o{ten 

exceed iLs costs to another. For examplo, an air pollution rcgulation 

might require a factory to cease cmittins a haZardous m€til dust. 

Tvpicallr-. fhe costs of resnlatorv control borne by the factorv and 

srjhseqrrenllv bv iis customcr.. rnd owners mighi rinqe from tins of 

thousnnds to hirndred.- of thousanrls of dollars. IIowevcr. depending 

on the nature of tJre dust. the population density. and the type of surrounding 

devclopment. tho henefrt-. of reducing-di-"chargc oiihat ilust 

could be enormdus-equilalent to millions ol dollars. Avoidins the 

costs of cleaning up the surrorrnding region after dama,ge ha-. occirrred 

coultl far exceed the costs to the firm of oroner initial control. Put another 

wav. "An ounce of nrevention is *orth a nound of crrre," 

This cise is dramaticallv illustrated bv the sitiration at Love Canal 

in Niasara Fall-.. Ncrv Yoik. in rrhich hu"ndrcds of homes and families 

were contaminrted bv chcmical rva,st€s cscaning from an abandoneil 

landfill. Cmt,s of relocatins families and ofcoiistruction rcquir.ed to 

control the remainins wasie rlroadv exceerl $9o million (Glaubinger, 

et al.. 1979). anrl larvsuits have hecn filed totallins over $2.65 biliion 

for pronr.rl v rlanrrges. rliseasc and birth defccls iraceable to the wasles 

(Rrbr.ri. tg7g), Yet proper manirgemcnt of lhe wastes. rcsponsr\e to 

regulution or not. would have cosi onl-v r fraction of this lmount. 

2.2 A IBA}IEWORE I't]R MDASURING THD BNNDtr-TTS OF REGUI-{TION 

. Generallv. environmcntal. health and safety regulations are desirned 

to ctimpel a chanqo in the nature or pal t crn of commercial, instittriional. 

or personal ar"tivih. Regllalion rrright. for examnle. be intended 

lo cirrse a rcdu,'tion in an indrrslrial efluent. an'increased 

attention to the production ard sale of safe products, 6r the removol 

.{

6 

of a toxic substance from ths workplace. These chlrrges, in turn, ore 

intended by society to reduce the iisU ot n".i -i" 

ii."pt" "" t" *. 

envrronment. rnd thus to improve the quality of their iives and their 

standard. of liling. Thrrs. ideally tne fdnentJ ot ree;iailo;;;fiouta Ue 

Te9surt-d by .rmprovcme_nls -in ihe quality of life or in the standard of 

tlvrn& but, thls connot be done in practice and compromise measures 

must be used. 

Tho choiee.of wha-t.quantity to measure in practice ott€n depends 

on 

5 ÂT! 

the ayarlabrlrty of appropriate duta or on the abili(y of 

englreers and flnalJSls to make prediriions ;n complos circumsta-nces 

as rt does on ihe closeness of lhe quantilv being incrsured to what 

should idoall.y be.mersurrd. For cxainple, "upp;#;;;;;;; -.nr_ 

ur€ ol e\l rmtte the bcnefits of a reguJation riquiring elimination of 

asDcstos ! rorn automo(ilc brake pads. In ihis caic, it $orrld bc difrcult 

to mcasure the dollar value of a reduced incidenic of urb"sios_lint"d 

otsease or eve.n to esiimate the redrrction in lhe nrrmber of cases of 

rung can.er. or asbestosis irac€able to asbestos rrsed in brake pads., 

.. 

Therefore, the best a.vailable ^"o"ur" oi tlie b"""ntu,] tfri, ""g,rlu_ 

rronrnay be tne reduclinn.of rkh oI harm mclsured b-y the reduced 

nulD.oor ot asbpsLos brake lrnrngs in use. The fact I.hat tliis measurc of 

th6 benehts rs not monetizable and the fact that it is far removed from 

tho rrlfimato benefit of ilrprored heal r do "oi *"a["r. ti.u *se fo" 

l:q:-!r!r_' 

jhl.,y.e of asbestos. It only means that benefit_cost analysis 

oase(r on moneirzed health care cost sa,vings is of ^no help in mak-ing ' 

decisions uboul whether and bow to regula% u.* of u.t "iil"r' 

. Tigot". t illustratcs an abstr-act mode[of how-iu-riiivitiiiti^ t".n.. 

lnoustnal plodu-clron, auto driving, home paint stlit,ping) lead'to 

soc,ral costs. 

.perfomlng an odioity often creai_es tbe jieseiie of haz_ 

ards. rheso hazards letd to etposure if people or natiral sJ.stems are 

i,i, jl."^^.lllgydiags. Exposuro leads io iome o-"""t "t ,ii',,*gi 

(.drselso,. t 

llyry, reduced-environmental quality). Tlris damage rs rsso_ 

cra.f,ec wlln both monetrzeble and non-moncnt izable coste. which can 

follow directly or indirectly frorn the damage. 

As an l usf,ratlon ot the cost calogories irl t]re model, the dollar costs 

of psychiairic care.foS-Lhe disturbe? "p"u.u oi un n;"iiou .iu-.t ui.tiro 

LrB tna,trcat nwnetazable cosls th&t, follow from an i.ndirect "t"l^ 

(the 

othcr -a cosb 

psychiatric disturbance) which i_n t."" i"I"*s 

direct 

otner.cost ( the deat-h of r-spouse) as .well as from a direct nnrntizable 

cost (lost wages of thc deceased soouse)- 

Regulation may be.designed to intcrr/ene at various points in the 

mooel ot cosLs shown rn ! r!'ure I, and- it may cause beneficial cha nges 

il:l :_1"^! 

l.g!. rhe demriir rs, dependin g ;i. i h;;"r "G;-aih.,"gu_ 

ra[ory sy$em desrgn and on tho responses of the regulated pafl ies. fhe 

rogulotory ben€tits may be.manilest as clranges in patterns of human 

ur t,re.l)r.esenr"e oI 

1l!lllll:_5,I"1,_"."rronsr 

or exposurc to a hazard, as 

roqucf,rons tn the mcldence ol dem&ge, or as reductions in the vanous 

categories of cosh 

. t Tbe .dltrcultt.E tnclude tbe .omptcr rcla onshtps amorg asbesrol use, lts Fres€Dce h 

llf X$"*?*:f"ff1_"""1::"","J"",",ifl*ui"""';_".",1Iu-nan 

ixposu re- r o ii : i ri. i.i,g'iitiiiy. per.roa 

substarc;s sucb ;i cr;;";;ft -ilr;:il0 ,i,"'"'.X?iH"r""ii"':'J#,lf,fr1,18-,'."1""""','"".t'J;fflfi 

lor tlertlog such dlserre,

I'io neti zab le Co sts 

iqo net i zab I e Costs 

A Human Act i vi ty 

P rese nc e of a Hazard 

Exposure to a Hdz ard 

lncidence of Danage 

ll i rect Costs of oamaga 

Indirect Costs of Damage 

0ther Costs 

0 ther Co sts 

FrouBE l.-Ifow coste follow from hulrl&n activities tliat introdua€ h{sard8 lnto 

the hrrDlr]l l1rlrd r]atrrrtl enlironruents 

57-7900-80-2

10 

In measuring the benefits of a regul*tion, one o{ten has availablc 

data on chan'gei at difierent.le.vels ofthe model in Figure 1. It nay be 

nec€ssary to report bene.fits in tenns of, for.e.xanple, ieduced exposure 

to a hazard, rnther than in tcrrrrs of reducerl dollar cost^_s. It ls also 

important nbt to engage in doubie , e,unting; {or.rxarr11,lr., onr shoulcl 

not count, as benefits both a reductiorL irt eipa*tt, rnrl r redrrction in 

dama,ge. Simlkrrl.y_, thc hcalth costs of air I'ollutiorr mry dcl1.es5 plopertl 

lalups irr l,olluted tret:, lltd rvlrln rl'g1tlr,t ion i. ir,'pris'd,lbrrble 

counting nul ro*ult if botlt innelsc,l I'r'oDetiv lalues and rc'll,.erl 

hr.rllhcarecoslsarcireriedas benefils-' 

Regulation can also cause changcs in human activity th&t havo beneffts 

or"er and aboye those that leid to the redrrctions in r:osts of darnage. 

The-sc include u,.e of better ttcJrnologies for. pertulming the lctir'itv 

I re.

l1 

Reduced. irrcidence of damage-{ontin ue.rl 

Dcath ; 

\-cg.t rt itrrr damrgp r 

I'arm anirnal loss; 

Fish r nrl rviLdiifc loss; 

F:, oj\.stPrn ,liversitY los.I 

'Ioosoil 

loss: 

Litter. 

Ileduced direct costs of dsrnage: 

l\l on, tizrt,h. : 

Healllr cal e costs; 

Lost rvages I 

\\'ork.rs' \'o r rl)cllsaLion ; 

Plocluct liabilit-y al'ards ; 

Rc,lrr, cLl rrgr r, 'r lt rt ra I and forest output: -. 

Ptol', r1.r' , iatrrrgl J ua t o rr"r'idents-and nollution i 

Lost outdoot reirt'ttion oppottrtnities. 

Non-rrtonctizable : 

I'aiu lnd srrlTcrirrg; 

I rrrprir."l l,lr.v.iological frtnctioning: 

Aesthetic lo-rs. 

Reduced irrrlireot uosts of dalnrge: 

Monetizable : 

Loss of industrial output due to imprired worker productiyity: 

EiJenditrues bv friends lnd relatives of diseased and intured 

ncrsons; 

Cosl . r, f r'lolrr ing rtp danrngcd a reas' 

Non rnonetizable : 

P.r,.lr i, , o.t. [ol fri"rrrls.r:clalirc:.(o-workers: 

,\i-ricly for llroje not 'lilYcrll affr'cte'l but exposed to slnular 

hnzards. 

3, IssuEs lx Assrsswc rrtn BnNnnns or RDGULATToN 

Numerous methotlological and concepttral diflicrrlties. are-f.aced when 

r";;iT;;;G ia, ""tnss i'"d o'aluate the rliftercnt kinds of benefits of 

in"it"""iltiu,f. li",,Xh ,,,,,1 s;tfelr tegrtlrtri-ott. Tlre.e. 'lifficullies rrlise 

ironi (1) tho lirnitcd basc of sciintifie rrnd tecltnicrl knol4eclgc' (2) 

n". i"nt itii" r'r prc,lict thc ratc and tlircction of technological innovatli", 

ial tl,., nssur,,ptions thrtt. must be trtrde irbout the clTectivenoss of 

:l t-"tir1iti"". ili inudoqo"t" econornic modcls and techniques, and 

i5) ?uttd",""nt,,l Ir',t,l, nr. r'ith trrlurlion Ilocedttres rrnrl 'lt' ision- 

-"tii'g. Ni,nt"."ud tosc,tr, ltnrs ltrvc r(iorrrl-'lcd I.ritrrc io glil's nith 

thcsc issues. Ilorvever'. rtlan-v of f hl. llnrth t-lrrr I r-ll-ttlr'lllf lcs relrraln unresolved, 

atrcl some of ihe jssuos lln lvrt l csolrrrl 'lo hy tnllt sis}ut must 

bc left to individual judgmcnts of citizcns rnrl rlecrslon-mlk('rs' 

3.1 IJI]IITI.]D B.\SD OF SCMNTIFIC AND TECHNICAI' KNOWLEDGE 

Sotiotts ntohletns oflen exist regar''ling tlrc availrrl'ilii v of lhe scierrlific 

anrl'technical informrtion or explanatory theorJ nec€ssary to 

*.,u"r." n" t" n""clict the cfiects of e\posltre to hlz:rrds. i'e , to perform 

'a 

j

T2 

a risk assessment. In this regard, no fewer than six issues need to be 

corsidered. 

C atwe - and - e f ect is harrl. to dertum,strate 

The rclrtionship between exposure to a heaith or safety hazard and 

the harm that it iauses is oftc; difiicult to establish. This mav be thc 

case beclrrse of 11) I tilre lag (latencv) betwct'n the initial e"-xposure 

lnd the appearance of hann. ( I ) the exist€nce o{ confourrding oiintor- 

-vening causal factors. or (13) irrrpcrfcct data. lThore the relationship 

between cxposule and harn is hird to establish. ii is equlllv difficrrit 

to projecl how n regllati,,n nrighl rrfrr'r'r the dcgrco of harrn, 

For exatnple. it t, roli murrr t-aars after thev li'ere cxposed to asbestos 

for nsbestof worl

13 

D o s e -respo'n"se urne r tabrlieS 

Estimating beneffts from requlation is complicated bv nroblems in 

Ir'lat ing the exposrlo io :r lraznrd to its lrnrltir efl""r..Ofien. reliable 

dose_ r'esponse data are tvailable onlv fnr r.elatir.elv high exposure 

lc,r'els. Extrapolntion of thesc drtrr often suggest that iignifictrnt-health 

cfT,.cts rrill oc'.ru rt ilro lorrer.rloses iypi,.al of occupiiional or ent.irtirrrentll 

cxposur.c. but contr.or elsy eii.ts o.r.cl tlre lrroper mode of 

e\tI al)ola,tion, Theoretical nrodels hitr-o lreerr proDoierl io sirnport variort. 

er(rapolation l)rocc,lrlrer. brrt tlrpr.e i. no s"iontiticallv srire *.av to 

do so. Frrrtlrorrrrorr'. nstirnrting the responsc to the level of exposure 

rtsrtally encountelctl is nade quite rrncei'rain by thc fact that the statisticll 

crlor. in the lesporrst girrl's ts the

t4 

- -Regulatiorr mav hring about both product and proeess innovation. 

.ttlosl producL innoratjon re'ulis from forces orrfsidp tlte firm. such 

as nelv market detrand or changcs irr thc reguhtorl.climatc. piocess 

irrtrorliion. wh:nh is rr.rnll.r.morjlrtpd br'tlre nr,,.rl {o letlirre cosls 

crn l,i. stimlrlrfc,l bl r.esulrtiou ns u.'ell as bv nrarket factors. A new 

procpsi nrlll sprctrl tlrrougL,rtt an inclustry or to other inclu.rtrie-s, ltror:tolng 

rrnllents to mtnl, Dxtttes. 

Thr. nocd io r.om p l-r- rr ir lr neu- r.egrr lr t ions- espo,.ia llv rhose n.it lr strin_ 

gent rcqlriromcnls. ctn p|o,lrrcc a_flrrr.rY of innor.utit-e triir ii.r, rrnd 

eycn clrange the pfltteln or.r'ol. of innovntion in an industrv. Government 

regnlation that specities performance rcquirenrents foi llorlucts 

mav assist prrduct innil'ation -liv reclucinq the risk of markcf failure. 

Rcgllation rnay also acccleratr. thc pacc ol thc innovativc activitv that 

might e\'enirraily hl|e,r, r'rrIrptl :rr+ rvar. Prt,c< c: .trrIrqr empnlr 1||ny 

Ilr'n r'\crr.,l ilro.,'Dor'csbar.r Ior.col|rpli:rn,r'. lJ{lI r,rr|,l|trlc.:ti rltt'ds 

requiring renovtrl of lead from grr..olinc r."sult*d irr innovation not 

only in gn-solinc but nlso in the catalv:t emplotc,l h1,the r.efiner.res. As 

a result, refineries became more pioductive (Asliford rnd Ileaton, 

19?9). 

Rosearclr and development aimed trt compliance \ryith health or 

safety regulations can jncr.asc orerall productivitv because thc productiou 

si'.trrrr lx.r'omes nrore tightlv crrclosed, redicilg emissions. or 

because the instruments used t6 control it aie improiied {h'crstiue 

antl Kinnld, 1979). ,\lso. rnaking changcs itr I plu, r.lss to non)plv \\,ith 

regrtluiion oftcrr loquir.,.s s'rspension of irr irr,lrriirial operati('n: Iiur irg 

such downtinrc. firrirs.rrn irlie rdvrrrl:rgr' of rhe np,;,oiirrniiv ro irr-taii 

nes tcchnol"gt totall.t rrrrlelated to tlre clrlngcs mido to a,ihiet.e corrrpliarrce 

- 

(Rorrrlr'r et rl.. 19?6). 

Adclitional benellts inay be cxpectecl as societv gains e:rrericnce rn 

handlirg regulnted situaiions. lirchirres and coirsurrrer pr'oth.rts rvill 

be deiigrrctl l.ith srfetv of th, rrscr.in rrrind from the stari. poteni:irllv 

h:rzardorrs eomporrnd-: will lr. les- fr.cqrronrll considere,l for ,rse in 

products. IIenltL ull safcty rrillbc cnhancid by such nnticipatory 

&crlons. 

r.3 ,IN.iIYTICAL r'o\l-f RN lN(t THE EFI'liCTTlTliESS OF 

fn estinrating regulatorv berrefits, ndditional problems arise frorr: 

&ttempts to rnodel the effectiveness of regrrlation. The benefits attrib. 

utablc to a rcgulation depend on the morkl rrseLl to cstinratc lhcm anrl 

olr thc lissurnptions nrarlc rrbout l)irarncter-s of the moilel. In addition. 

assumptions rnadc about q'hat n'ould hlve happorerl irr thc absence o1 

the regrrlrtion unrlcl studv carr lnake r legulation look better or.rr-orse 

in letirrs of lrollr cosi> eipcnded rntl lrin''fiti leceiled. Tlris.-ecriorr 

examines some of the more inportr,nt analytic:rl assumptions ancl their 

rmprlcaI,lons. 

8 el ecti on. o f tI e baseline f or com.para tiue an alysis 

One of thc central consiclcrations in estilrating beneffts is to project 

wliat might happen ilr the absence of the rcgulation in question. The 

choice o{ a. baselinc for conrpalison can havc a profound efiect on the

l5 

sizs of the ostimated benofits and costs. Among tho baseline assurnp' 

tions that can be nrade are: 

No acti,on._qT-lte no-action assumptintr projccts past conditions 

of little or no control into the futulL'. Ihc benefits of the legula' 

tion are comparetl rsith rr hvpothetir:al sttte of the !'orld in rvlrich 

nothing is d6ne to rLtl,lrcss-tlre prob)elrr :rt hrnd. (Of cours€' if u 

hazaltf is rccolmized, it is difficult to inruginc thnL nothing will 

bo dono about it.) 

No action rwu.-This assutrrtrtion presumes thtlt regulation will 

be imposed at sonrr I imc in t lr,'- futrrrc' That is, if a sei jous I'azr rd 

exisls: thc nolitical trrocps- rrill evcrr(urrlly be a, tivrrtcd, ,rnd' a 

resulaliur ivill be iml,ose,l. T)rrt., tlre l-,crtcfits:rn,Lcosis of r llropo'sc.l 

re{ulation are comt)ared with the benefits and costs of I 

iimilar riculrtiorr irnt,osed rt a latcr Jate. 

Cul lcctiT e-bat,t,r i,ittll "orutr'ol.-lhis assrunption takes accourrt 

of tlrc .tact ihut- rrotliits trray Largtrjtr jol l]reir o\vn prot€ction 

fron a hazard under thc ternis of :r contract' Ihis upploach mtry 

providc qreater or lessel l,enefits and greater or lessel costs for inilustrl 

th-an the contttrtpllted rcgulation. 

' T'oit liabilitu.-1.ind6r this ba-seline assumption, if the hazard 

undel consider:r,tion is not l-'rought undcr rcgullLory control' individual 

parties rvho are injured by it ma1 s, ek comPeusation 

through thc courts, 

llaTket rc iectic.'t'.-'tYithout resort to any regulatory action, 

ciiizcrrs uruyichiovo solnc rtbalenrent of a Ircilllr or sufety lrazard, 

'l'lre) 

with rtterriant costs and IJenltil*. crn, for , rrrtrrp[o, silnp)y 

relusc lo bu! unsafe l,toducli or to wotk in drlng('toul places. Ot 

coulsc. lhe f-ailure of lrrarlici lorces lo idcntify arrtl rejcct hazar.ls 

is a nrajor rcrrcn for establisl'irrg r,'gullliorr' Thus, thi.s upl)r'orch 

mav not lre as efiective as dilect regulltion. 

Freqriently. '.ruthors of benetil ,/cosb ;tudits of regulation do not 

nrrke lhcir baselirte rssunrptiorr explir"it. ltr otlter initulr','s, they nroke 

tl:e "no nction" assumptioir and negiect tlrc strong pos.'iLjlity that ore 

or more of ihe otlrer condilions mi-ght b'' morc realistic. For example' 

'misht Droduct liability srrits regrr.littg utisu fc ot itreffettivc pharmaceulicals 

l,at" c"ruietl chlngct itr lho trltull: of Jrug researclt and marketinu"in 

the last twcnty t turs, ,'r'err if i hc 1062 utnerrdments had nol been 

nra"dc to lhe Food, D-nig an,l ( usntel ic .\ct. Some regulatory progranrs 

Irave been irr place foiso lorrg and lro so much l,:lll oI indusrtill 

Dractice, thttt -no reasonable aisuruption can be nitdc lbout the situ!ilon 

under :r nol-rtgulatt'tl basclinc. I'-ol erumplc, it is difficult to 

irnasine what thc 1o;(l tlistribution s1'stenr rrrighl be like irL the abs€nc; 

of the 90-ycar oltl -\Ieat and l'oLiltry Inspcctiou Program in the 

Food Safety and Quality Service. 

l'rojcct io'n of comt)li'ttk'P behrtui'or 

In resulrlor'\' analrsis it is often assumed that there will be 100 perccnt 

coiiplianc-c with a. regulation. In practice, the extent of compliunce 

may be much less thai cornplcte, ilepending on iho n-ature of the 

hazard. ihe cost of conrpliance, rhe ease oI enforcemctrt, ihe avai]able 

agency resources, anrl tlrc degree- of_cooperalion b1 t lre regulated.o.arties. 

,lll of the"c f ,'tols rtc drlhculL lo proJccl ' rnd lcud to consrderable 

uncertainties in benefits in rnany circumstances.

l6 

t\co1te ol octi,on ond outcornes r:on"siclered 

ll.rny studics of the belclits o{ regulation examinc a limited geoglrrphic 

regior, a palticulal segrr.ui of thc popuhtion or r lirriited 

]reriod of time. flncertainties irr lh, c.tinrLtrsôf b,:ncfits ar.e corlpou.ndecl 

rrhen results of srrclr studies are extrlDoleted to all afiected 

pouple or lo t lrc rra I ion a.. rr rs lrole. 

Somei inres not all tlrc r:fiocts of rr rtguhtut.r Drogtilnr lrr considtred 

in r:stirnating benelits. I'or. .xlmple. rrnrir.s'cs of the b"nelits of 

cornplialcc l'ilh the nntional alrbjcnf nil ql:rJity :tatrdlrds usuall-1. 

ignore thc interaction-q arnong thc critcria liollrrtint-.. Thus. contloi, 

Jilg errrissions of sul{ut oxicles rnnv simrrltancouslv lcclur:c ernissiorrs 

of particulates rvith additionrl hcalth hencfits. Sirnihrt-, procluct 

r.ufcty ,stanclards can lcad to tcl,litional bencfits fol l.orkcr.s ind thc 

gencrll cnvironrlcrt if thel- lclr'l to rsc of lcss-lr lza rdorrs lrr.otlucts. 

Prospectiae or retrospectia e unalysis 

Benelils identified and estimated in analyses done before a regulation 

takes efrect often difier greatly from those observed wh-en a 

r-e-gllation is in piace. Inevitably, difierent kinds of information and 

different type"s of models are used in the two cases. The relative nlerits 

of altcrnatir.rr plogrNms canlrot bc reliably asscs,scd if some art evalullc'l 

I,ro.lx', ii\ i ll un,l orlrprs t.errospect ir.clr'. For. cxrrnrpl,., ii is crrr. 

rently - fasfiionable to extol the r-irtrics of incentires ,rfpro:rches as 

rlternativcs to rtconln.lt('l-l1l{l-c(}rtrol" regulrtion. Ilowevar, this comparison 

i. ttstt;tlh ttrlrlr.in tltF ill,:plre of prtrli'.rl oxpcrierrc, rritlt 

incentir-es, r hilr. fhere is a lons histolv on rvhich to uroiect the success 

trnd ploblerns of stantlards. Tliese conparisons musiihei'efore be made 

\.rith great care, 

Appr opr i o te b enr:hm,orhs f or e.r: olua t ing bercfits 

l4conomic eflicicncy and cost-elTectir.eness are onlv two of the possible 

critoria for eva)uating regulations. The leeisiatile mandai-o js 

yet another stan(larr'l by rrhich tlrc I,errefits of regilrtion must be cvalrrtted. 

Ccrtain lrcnefits of a rcgnlrfion lr.rt lJe cletrlr expncted bv 

the Congrcss and society, anil a.'regrrlation whir.lr cloes iot rchieve thi 

expected levcl of benefits must be, consialorotl against, the lcgislalive 

benchmark as well as ngainst more na"r'owij. focused e"conomic 

crllelta. 

3.4 INAnEQIIAIE IOOIIOMIO MODpLg AND TECIINIQIES 

The tools of economic decision making Dror,ide the basic framowork 

for estimating thc bene6ts rnd thc cosis'of regulrtion nn.l for cornparing 

them. fn tho cnvironmenirl. hoalth rnd safeLl treNS. lrow{.ver, 

thcre art'scriou,s und {undamtrrtrl lirnitations on thc lt'nlicll'ilitv of 

economic tools. These 'limit-q have to do with the demands of the -economic 

approach for tttaching price," to all goods. ser.i,iccs and amcnrtics, 

lnrl for roppxl-it o the l:alue-" of costs antl bcncfits that accrue at 

dilTerent times to the srme or difrerent per:ons and groups. 

Probl ema i.n ntta.chin q prices to non-Inbed outcome* 

Frequeltlv. the economic costs of enyironmenial damage or of the 

consequences of hcalth and safetr. hazards for dlmaee or for life itself 

rrre infelled from inrlircct evirlcnce srrr.h a. markpt prir"es on lelrtcd

t7 

goods nnd services, Fol e\rnlple. there are tro prices on scenic vistas, so 

the benefits of controlling air pollution that olrscurps a vierr have to be 

obtained inrlirectlr. 'l-et one of the relsons fot establishing rcgulation 

is to colroct tlrt' failrrrr. of the marketplui c lo sct apptoprintc prrces on 

health or envilonnrental oualitv. 

A serious concern in thi asseisment of such beneffts is that ottachins 

monetarv outcomes to events involving harm to people and the enl 

vironmeirt nnavoidably reflects the va.lue choice-q oi thie persons doing 

the analvsis ralher than those of citizens or policvmakcrs. 

Henltir-relatcd hazards involvc r largel component of intangible 

costs than other situations. This nives lise to the necd to account for 

such costs as pain and sulfering, elnotinnal sfrcss, and the loss associated 

l-ith [rcrcrvenrcnt. In a?diti,,rr.,.tirrr:rfing tlre vl]rtl of environmenta'l 

amenit.ies (such as the prcscn ation o{ wildlife) poses a 

yarietv of difficult conceptaral and ernfiricnl pr,oblcns. Traditional 

vahation analy-"es tvpically neglect or understate the beneffts of 

regnlation in these flreas. 

Tu-o t,', lrni,rrros lr,'r l hcpn rr"ed bv analvsts tn in fer from othcr evidencr. 

thc h.nofit. oI rvoidirrq rlamace costs: (1) "rvillingtrc,ss to pay." 

ru nrl (:.t; "rL.vcale,l lrlefrrclces." Rolh techniqucs represrnt tdvanc€s 

in rescarch nretlrlrlr-but both haye rveaknesses iqhich icquire qualificationi 

irr iheir rr.r', 

ttWil/.inqrtess 

161 paq\' 1npty'1od,.-One wav to estimate the yaltte of a 

benefit wlicn that beriefit has no mrlket irrieo is to rsk peoplc s'hat 

thev think thc bencfit is lorth. Often this takes the form of nsking 

peonle dirL.ctlr'lrorl rnrrch monev ther-arc silliu,. lo nav to lyoi,[ a 

iiskof inirrll ol nnrilnnrrenrrt damrilo. .\ltelnuiii', lr'.'peoplc mn.t he 

rr.ke,l lo,ihoo.. flom a sct of lrrr,.,r:rre.. i.n.. ro irrliclre cbsis bv v.ri.ing 

fot'ol lgainst variotrs options. Fol nrrrncrons Iensons thc ansrqers to 

sttch qucstions ale not tirr-strlolthv, thorrgh tlrt'v mav be better than 

rrothing. PcopJe mav gilc anslcrc jrrst io gct i:id of tlro questioner. 

Furthernrolc. it is rrnlikclv that thc rcsponse rvill rclrresent much 

thought. ln'l l)col,l, lr:rro ,llfli"rrltr. reslr'ldilg to lrrnotlrotical r.onccnlj 

llr:lt irr', lnr.l for tlrenr io risrrllizi'. For er'tr'rplo. if I river has 

Ilecn rliltr for I l"rLg tilre. ;'"oplq don't knou't'hat ii w

18 

trecessory that the real esLate rnrrket be in equilibrium, not in a state 

of transition. It must be assumed. furthermole. that all citizens have 

cood information on the qualiiv 6f the air in their own a,nd all other 

icishborhoods. It is also neceslarv to assume that all relevant variablis 

other than air qualitv have b6en understood by the residents nnd 

r"onirolled lor b-v tho-anrl-isls. One must rssume ihirt p('ople {ully unrterstand 

the haim lLaL rii pollution can do, and thirt ihei &re willing 

and able to move and to pay more to obtain betttr air quality. 

( Whether DeoDle pav to ai-oid polluted nir depends not o'nlv 6n 

rvhct her th& will nir vi but on n het^her thev can affdrd to pav, Thii fact 

means that. .ilean aii ivould be found to 6c rnore v&Iuadle'to the rich 

than the poor'-a result that is not entirely satisfactory.) With all 

these qualifications. it. is not surprising that the revcaled preference 

results are controYersral- 

Another widely-discussed exa.mplo of the revealed preferences approach 

is to use data from the labor rnarket on the extra pay, or risk 

premiurn, that workerc appear to demand to work in haza.rdous environmsnts. 

By making some hcroic assurnptions, one can cr-en extrapolate 

-tronidata on"reages vcrsus dcgree irf nazard to estimaCe the 

wages a worker would demand to face a 100tb chance of death, and 

then one could call this amount the ('yalue" of a human life (Thaler 

and Rosen, 1973). However, there are four major objectiols to this 

approach to lrrersrrringt the benefits of rloiding risk of harm, or of 

death. First, it has been lound that individurls sreatlv underprotect 

themselves in low probabilily, high loss situ:rtiois (Kunreuther and 

Slovic, 1978). Thus, it is fallacious to extrapolatc data from low 

to high proba.biJity circumsLances. Second, woikcrs in hazardous indusLries 

mako decisions to arcept particular wases and face those 

hazards be{ore they cxperience- ha-rnr, rather tlian alter they are 

injurcd or diseased and the costs of damage become apparent to them. 

As in other ar€as of sk assurnption. neoDle value r.isi

l9 

place .higher values ou firtrrlc bcnefits than rr ould be suggcsteLl by discounting 

them to prcsenL valuc. In practice. the use of anv narticular 

discounl rate for-futrrre L,cnefits oi regulation is rlwavi i noint of 

disagreement, especially since the futrire l,encfits lrrtl -cundnt costg 

oftcn fall on dillerent parties rvhose interests may or may not be wellarticulated. 

.Accounting lm lang-ter.tn benef,ts,-Tlrre benefits derived from 

dilect regulation of a lialticular hazard rre onlv a part of the benefits 

I hat can ['e dcrived fr.,m thu regulatorv process.' Intiirect, ol let:eraged, 

benofits arcrue from t h. rer.t' pfus"nce of 'r lrr rr icu lrr reqrrlll ion rvfi ich 

induces industly tn contr'oj lrnreguluG,l lrrrzar.ds in inticir,u(ion of 

regulation, to innovate. and to find nirls to meet Lhe prrblic's'need for 

a cleaner. healthier cnvironment whilt, rnaintlining inLlrrstrial caprrcitV.'l'lro 

lu|lg-tolrrr, 1','siri\'r.sideeffcr't-:rccrrrnt,itrrririg,r r',,qr r llt ion rieed 

to be included in a cor,,1')'.1a .lssessmcnl of rJre I,i,npfirs ,rf a regulalory 

st rrtegy. Anerampl" of I,.r.craging is tlre fr.r tlrrr clrerrrical ,"oirpanies 

atp now louiinel-v condrrcling sho-rl,tet'tr lc-t< or nA\tr chcmicals for 

possiblc carcinogenic.rct ir itv. even tltouglr s1rc, ific regrrlaton reqrriremenLs 

under lh'. Toxir Srrh:trrrrcss Control .ict lrave nol be,,n r,r.omrrlgated. 

Theso long-t,'r.m lmnefits are substantill, though diffrcult to 

gug..nti.fy Their ,.xclusion ornits from estimatps of bendfrts what may 

be lhc largest.or)tribrriion of regulation. 

3,5 PROBLEMS WITE VAIJUATION PROOEDORES AND DFiISION MAKINO 

The oakte of life 

.. -A.major r.ea'on to qugstion the validity of analvtic attempts to valuo 

ltte rs-tlrlri 

'I 

lhc\. do not consider hrrman li[e excopt. in econornir inrrns, 

h:r L tar ls I o { ,,nsider l}r" r'alue placcd on h umun li fe b1 ou l r,,ligious 

bllicls lrrrl ,'rltrrlrrl lrclirrrg,.. \'rrirurtiorr:rtletll,is tltlt frirrrs,,rr .oir,-idstrrrons 

Sucll as logses rn carllrngs dlr(r to p-r€nrtturc clcrth fail to cnptum 

the fundamental sensc of tEe r.rrlue oi lif" fo.. sa1.. someone rvlio 

is re,"r.iling ucJfan. irs.istlnc,. rrnd is not earnirrg an iircomo. A value 

Inusl br. rl.lt'"hpd lo lrrrmln lif,, thrt reflecl, lros r.'good" culture 

values li{e in ordor that it ancl its pe.ople survir-e. genelatTon to generat 

ion, attd surh th:rt its rn'lfarc is optinrized. Irntil iocietv bcttc,r'uuclerstands 

this \ tlur, cunent rrna.lytic valuations of lifc must always be 

lnrdr.,lr..rtr) and ca,nlot he dirtctl,v comparcd rvith the monetary costs 

or l".rlfiis of rr regulaiion. 

Fi.gation on the qutntitati,ue and monetaty factors 

"-Decision-m,ak.rs considering the level of _regrrlation that. is socially 

desrnr[e \trttr Ii'spe.ct to u prrticular hazfl,rd r1,s 1,onf...1ed rvith cstima,tc.i 

ol coits ot n'gulalor1 r'ornplilncc thal un. l,l.osenled nrosth in 

lllollolrlr'\'tcr'l r:ltr(l cstlDlllll.: Of lDrrr.hrs llrtl llr.,prcsentod in both 

monetarn and rronmonctltl tcr.ms. _{ sctious prcrblern arises for ricci_ 

srrr-maker-s \1'hen gi\-pn srrch choices. The clecision_.rlaking process 

n\l krs ' )n lho o,rrrl)ar.isoD of thc monol.a.r1, ter.lrs andJ{ils to srifliiiently 

nonmonetirry 

lt]-"iMTf 

te rms in the decision. There is a strong 

rend"nc.y 1or I (le{ lsron-maker and for other. I}trties.riiiquing lh; 

Pr(r,'ss io comp&r| oDll iho monclrrr.y lerms itparl. fr.orrr'the rrorr_ 

monetflII tprms, rnrt to intlod[c€ the nonmoncttry tcrns AS a rrrar_ 

ginal adjusting factor, if at all ( Tl.erskv and Kalr",i-urr, i,gtt) . fVh""

20 

tho nonmonetary terms are insignificant therc is little harrn ; towever. 

when nonmonetary t€tms shorl ld Play a largc role ln tne declslol)' 

u""h'o*ing that ilecisioi on the qrrantii:rt ite term- is a major drngn ' 

Th" ptobfn- of fixai,ion on tn.,n' tr r.r' tornrs can be reduced-bv choosing 

rlguluto* dccision-makprs rslro rro more capable of resisling tlris 

teidency and bl more opcnlr exlmining-llrc crlliqucc. of. ollrers lol' 

fixation. Nevertheless, evpn those wllo prolpbs -to 0e mollr-{}ted ny nonrno""tuay 

values nntl' concens exhihif a-tendenr-r' .to 

emphasize.the 

qualtitatiTe. Thus. the very process of lrnal}"srs i'a1I drstolt thc dccrsronmakrng 

process. 

.4. Trrr, BnNnrrrs or Srlncten Rl.cur-{ToRr Pnocanlts 

4.1 INTRODTCTION 

This section summarizes the results of selected recent studies of thc 

benefits of cnYironmcnttl. health anrl safetv regulation-s' It inclurles 

not onlv slrtdips ol the henofits of cxi.ting regrtlaiorv progr:lrrtj' brlt 

fl,lso stri.lies of the potenlirl henefil" of legttlating in relrtlc'l areas' 

Quantitatir.e estimatê,q of hcnefits lle enrl-thlsized rvhcrr tlrey rre available. 

and qualitative statcrllents of L'enehts rl|c uli lu'le't lrnen neces- 

*n.ii ffl" t'"""nt" of the ..elccted rcgrtlrtory lrrlrgrrrtrc rtre strmmnrized 

i" i"t ui"r to""r fol night proglrttnnrrtic lrer.s llrrt( , or'r'cspond rorlglrll' 

if ifr"- iuti"al"tinns of Ficlerul regulatorv rrgctrcies ol theit srr'brlivislons. 

ihl stuilies describcd in this suction relresent onll' rr. sample of 

the benefits of environmental. hoalth and safety re€iulations trItny 

oih"".f,,,1i.. of tcgrrlriion. lpppll ill ihc l]lerrttttro. rrrd nol rll rngrtlîinr't" 

1t"t" becn itrrdie,l. Fuithermore. the studics examittctl here do 

,rJlii"l"a" all of thc strrclies catlied oLrt b1 ol tor tlrc r rrious rcgrrlain,l,l 

ro"n"i".. Tlr'' lenrulrllotr io srtrrt rtl'-all of thc hetrcfils oI regttlriiorr 

cli:russeLl Lele sh,,ul,1 I'e at'oider'I, sincc t'lonblc cottntittg rnaT 

oc.c.ui: the benefit neasttres rre nol comP:t I lhle atnonq strrdics. tnd 

thc set of |vq1cfif-s i,c not completc. -{ nnnlhel of the stndres lravc tssisncd 

rnonctary yahles to hrlmrtn life. to pain antl:-uffnrin'' or to 

ch-ronic impairment of heRlth. Tlre-'e lalurtions rrre suLrie-ct to thc iirrriiations 

,'lisiu,.setl in Section 3. arrd are tcnortcd here without endorsemcnt 

ot critiquc. 

4.2 B!NI]tr'ITS OI' AIR POLLUTION CONTROIJ RDGULATTONS 

Resulations uuder the Clenn Air Act of 1970 ?rre alnong the most 

thorfirshlv researched of all environmental control eiTorts' Sq'erll 

mrinr ltrt.lips of thp nalionrti,lo I'pncfit' of :rir';'ollrrtion cnnitol reguiuti'on 

u"u sutnnarizccl in Tahlc 2, along with- stutlies of lir quality 

L"""ntr tn" to"ot arcas and fol substanccs not covered bv the 1070 '\ct' 

fr.ing r'lrlr lrorn ihn tg6o's. T.rte atrd Scsl

2l 

for S2.5 to $? billion in benefits nationwide. The U.S. Sena,te Comrnittee 

or Public Il'orks (1974) estinated automobile exblust control 

bcnefils to bc $2.5 to 910 hillion annually rrsing 1974 |ri.es. Ilermnn 

(19??) concludeil fronr l reading of 23 st,rdies that thc rrtorhidity reduction 

alone rs a |esult of cleaner a.ir x'as $1 to $10 billion per year', 

Crocker and colleagues (1979) provided estimates in 19?8 prices which 

inclinats annunl beiefit" of $5 io $58 bi'llion lrom rcduceil morbidity 

nationrvide as a result of cleaner air. Kneese (1978) cited thc same 

results and also showed that benefits of $26 to $63 per montlr per household 

mav be expected lrom a30/o reductiotl irr pollutrrrrts in a heavily 

Dolluted atct. Httlison cstimatcd that bv the trventieth anniversarv 

of thc tltTO -rtrt. tutornobile cxhaust cntission rcgulations rT'ill resrrlt in 

81c/c Jess ctrlbon ttrortoxides, 680l less plxrto-chernictl oxirlants' and 

48f less nitrogen oxides being found in the air (llarrison. 19?5). 

TABt-€ 2.-S0Mt Bt|r€FtrS Ot AtR PotLUTlOn RtGUtATl0lls 

Cl6.n Air tut (Hr.rlson tnd Rubifl- ll|t.08 b |101-61 p.t hoBehold in Boston-, Ravetlsd pt.ferrncas lpproeh. 1970 

f'ld I978a) 

Pnces 

rgb-i}t'jiia-"iiltr orlinaocc tl'vin. 15..5 mrllron d€crs e in hellth erp.idi- oniy ddd.rs. |n s0, consid.rtd: l97l 

1977r ' 

lures: tlo.l million dereass In damage prices. 

to materrrl obi*tsi 138 million in('ease 

in DroDelY taluos, Ph'l.delphit SMSA 

Clsrn Ar r Act (Smith, 1976) ... ll5-t?0 b,lhon pff y..r nilio'rlllttom lll l9?3 Pric$ 

sor,k.s contr0 €rt; lt.>I/ bltxon Del 

te.r ral'onrllv lron aulomobile3 'l0ne 

Cl.rn 'i;;;; Air Act (U.S. Sanlto Commir $?:rflo Dillion psr tear nalionallY lrom I97{ pdc.ti p4lu!-ntt .$r.d 

P,bli; t$ri'. 1974). automobrls coritroli; saurs on dnect wetoc0 fio.' 0r'so" prrtlcultt.t 

medhsl6sts ol t0.t t] billior Der Y6.r' 

3tvin! 15,000 livos per vear' evin. ls 

million d.vs ol lllnsss Per Year. 

Policv analvsir-lar on sulohur $3.6 billion b;nelits r€sull rrom tax ol ?0i Ptotp.ctivo sititnat . 

.fiiissions trom co.l (S.ilottmdn per pound ot sulphur emissrons. 

crii'inli eiiisrirdrl tg77l -.-- 5 porcont redu(hon in t6.llh tnd malsnll Pollutlnts con3id.r.d v'r! c0'. 0" 

dlmaie lor lotel elinintlion ol urbtn air sor' nvdQltrbons Drrucurtra3i 

DolrutionclussdbY.utomobir€s. 

iiff:"r"J,,::""€rt6Dorrtroror 

Clsrn An Ad(Moll, at!1., 1977), 166 parsoFyears ot lile-e4schncv in' 

ase trom .tdium removed bY scrubcl..n 

Ak act (H.'m.n, lert) --- tl"i[' ilo.'ll'iTf '?Ji*on h€rrth cqt3 tttliot-drlccltt rtn.t.t! pollu].trb 

n.rrcna'y 

iii1iT":,"H:i:1ft,i:?;r 

gri,:& 

:i"1 l";"'1i'i:i'1"i'1",:,J:1 :i i 

Pollulrnis 

Clcln Air A.l---.utonobil. smi3- Rtduc.d mortalilY ol 12 to 16 p.r v€at and 8o;ton .re, onlv Marn purpose 

- ol 

io s ii"iiiio" inl nttinteto, i;iids.d prop;dv value oi ls2 lo IgG paper to thlw di3lributidn Nnd 

f978b). D.r vsrrlor households *rth income less lev'l0l Denetns 

thrti t3,000 per yetr. neducsd moti.lilv 

clc.n ai' Act (c'oct6r, 

0l ll7 lo 126 per vear a'!d Increasod 

oroDertt value 0l ll58 t'o S2l3 ps' vatt 

tor houaeholdt r ith ir.om.5 r, ertot |nD 

reduced mortaritv. arrlourcos arr polurio! re7E p'ic's' 

l28't|toI58.lb||||onl|on|edUcedmoFfl.|ion.l|ssu|t' 

[triitv.' - 

stmples 60u perc€nt nductio' 

s 

!r!r.. "^1, luYl;tofuifl'lfii' ,rom 

ct.rn Air acr (*n..!6, le78). - _ _. t26 ro t63 pe, monrh p.r ho{36h0rd...._ ^',t 

Jll5lf;"r,,illil;l'l"r&if,iil: 

Author alrc cites Crocrer, et al. 

Clo.n -;;;;iatb)1.**:- Air Act (S€ne., Asch -'- & - Br.n- ' f.duction of dstlh3 bv 2,0i2 p.r torr. lisw.l.rsev onlv l0-r: .particulale! 

iitiiiit li"si 'i*a i0.r to r2.r birrron "Jll,""*lj:T-,, tttji,,J 

per ve'r' 

# ,il 

ch:n Air Act (tnvironment l stud' &0 lo t70 p6l bn of ilo' t.movid tuom considsG 'll sources 0l 0t' 

i$ 8o!rd, 1978), air. 

Clea; Air Ait (H!iri!on. 19?1) ' - 8l D€ksrt llductlon -i;o' in CO in litr 68 D.F PfiY5ical mea5u?5 us'd 1970 h!!'. 

.fii;;;; 

in air: a8 De'i;it ieeo !e'm'nar vs'r' Didributiotr 

redu(tion in N0. in tir. oilmit (orsrd€red 

: 

:_:

22 

Studies have been made of the benefits of pollution stnndards for 

local areas and for other than the criteria pollutants. For example, 

Illot and Fritrurcni (1976) founrl that lrrng, nasopbaranx atrd skin 

ctnccrs trc elcvaterl trmong rnale rcsiclents of at:as rlith conr:cntlations 

of plper, clrcmical. pel11'lculr, pclrnllrerrrical lrrd trrn.p,'t{atiou inclustriis. 

;\ ri-raior bcirclit oI regriluting Lhese industr:ies t'ou1d be a reduction 

il the exucctt:rl occurrence of cancers, 

llarrison trnd Rubirrfell (1e7841 studicd the Boston uea and found 

benefits of $47 to $101-r per. hou.schold pel year as a, result of cleaner' 

air. Ihe sanre truthols found thut, plol,trty lalrre benefits langed front 

$52 to $213 per rear lrtl leduc.d rr,rrlalirr bencfits llnged flom $2 to 

$26 p.r' ) ' uipcrl lruusrlroltl dcpentling on t'hc incotttr, oi t-he household. 

Thc clistribrrtion o{ tlre benefits tt:nd,r 1o favor the p

t3 

cotlifvins the nntttrc of auto accidents rrnd the lesultant inlnrics' fatalities. 

f,nd co6ts. Thns, it is generlllv rhle to project the hencffts of 

pr'.'1',,-r.,1 rrriotrt,riilr' .lfeil i,'q'rlrrti;rr. nitlr i,'rn, dogtco of r-ortff- 

61c11ic. 1;t'srunittc tlrlrt tlrc cficctillrr(':q {)f the prollosctl nlcasllres can 

br. cstirirrl c,l. Tlret c flt r'. d illi.rrlr ios irr , rt itrrrrl inl l lrr ' liloct hcncfit" of 

slrl'civ r','grtlt1i,,rr lri.o plin"il'llll florrr ( l) rtnccllliltiios in ihe estinlttcj 

of rroglirlrr cfT,, fivnncis lathcl than ftont rtncertainties in the 

assessrncnts of the cxisting clcgrees of hnzrttd oI loss. ltttl (2) f|om 

thc wav in l'hich \H'l'S-t lrlrtcs loss of lifc anr'l Dain anrl srrl{cring 

Thclos.,,f lift'. irirtlios tntl othct costs rsscx'itrtetl rvith nrotor r-chiclc 

nccirlorls in tlro I-.S. aro crrolnlous. Ior'1975. DO'f cstimated the 

lnnnrl lossos 1r-- srrir'lr'of motolr.clriclc uccidctrt.s to lx olcr $3? bil- 

11976). 

lion (\IITS,\. 

'l'hesc 

rost,q inclrtlo $13.,1 billion fol fatalities. 

(f'lrc societrl losses tcsttltittg from t fatulitv llelc ttkcn to bc $287,000. 

brsed ol ir, contlovclsial aralvsis thnt rrscd rra,rc losses ts t rnaior component. 

Tho lirnitrtion. of this anplo:r"h t'olr- cliscussed in Socfion 3.) 

,\nother strrdr'. bast'rl on intq ritin's rlith tlllfic :tccidelrt lictims. conclrrrle'd 

thlt conlcntional n,"citlcnt sevcriir- rllolslul's tend to trndero.lir 

rlo rhn.ncill rrrr,l p.r'clro1,'qicrrl inrPacts of setiolrs lIafllc 8cr"irlents 

(Callar.ar' & l)r'rrckcr'. 1979). 

Several strrdics irarc cramincrl tlrc ln'ncfits of passenger cftr safetv 

stnndrrds lrasecl or actrral

tu4 

highest for young drivers and whites, and in newer, smaller cars. 

( Stutl,s and Reinlurt, 1978) lnjury costs were found to bo reduced by 

24/o rusing lap belts only and by 38/o using lap-shoulder bclt, combrnations 

(Reinfurt, Si-lva and Seila, lgi6;. Itobcrrson ( 1977) found a 

20/o reduction in automobile occupant deaths due to seat bell requirements, 

whereas Peltzman (1975b) found no benelits from the same 

requrrement. 

In a study based heavily on the work by Reinfurt, the General 

Accounting Office found that all the occupant protection strndards 

promulgatid between 1966 and 19i0 saved-a totil of 28,280 lives between 

1966 and l9?1. (Comp(rollcr General. 1976) GAO also noted 

a reduction of. 15 to Zb/o in deaths and serious iiriuries in 1966-68 

cars as compared with earlier models, ard s" 9b to 30c/o reduction in 

1969-70 cars. No further improvement was noted for 19?1-19?8 carc. 

Stutts and Reinfurt ( 1978) fbund that the 55-mph spccd limit reduced 

injury to belted drivers by 28/o and to unbel(ea drivers by tlolo. 

A major ar.pa of currenl legrrlrtor.l. action b-y NH1'S-\ is the pro. 

mulga0lon of an amendment ro Federal ]Iotor Yelricle Safetv Stindrurd 

208. This ar:rcndmcnL requires passive proiecrion for fionl sear, 

occup€nts o-t passenge| crrs [o be iirstal]ed-on a gradutr.ted basis in 

model J-ears 1982-f984. DOT has published an extensiye economic impact 

assessment of this standard and alternatives to it (NHTSA, 

1977). Ihe benefits of alternatile approaches to occuprnt brotection 

reporlcd in t he DO1' .tudy tlr'pend nol only on t lreir eflecr ivciress uhen 

0ctllirlly uscd bui also on th.'ir oxpected frequcrrcv of use. 

DOT found that the combination iap/shoulder 6c1t is the most efiecfilg.apnroach 

in reducirg minor to severo injuries, rrrd that the.lap 

belt/air cushion combinrtion is most efiecti\.e at reducing moro sonogs 

nnd fatal jnjuries. At_DOT's gxpeqled use rrtes, thc ai"r cushion/lap 

belt combina,tion would saye 9000 liyes and eliririnate or reduce thi 

severity of 65,000 accidenk annually. Passive belts woukl save ?000 

lives and 78,000 injurics. Annual net irsurance premium savilgs would 

be $16 to $30 per car. \o estimates of the uncenainty in ihes-e figures 

were given, and no attempt was made by DOT to monetize dea i a.nrl 

rnlury s&vrngs. 

DOT has also examined the benefits of FMVSS O1B which would 

requiro ihat child res( rtint devices meet a more stringent perforrnance 

standard Lhar would rrise thcir prices 1NHTS.{, 1979). The beneftk 

of the sxtra protection from more efieitive restiaints'was estimated 

to be a reduction of 7 fatrlitics and 989 injuries per year. No dollar 

valuation was attemnted. 

_ With the exception of the work of Peltzman. the studies reviewed 

find^that sea.t bglts. if used. can reduce injury and death significantlyby 

30 tn 57/o. I'urthermore. tho rclual risebf seat belts blv aulo or.cupants.in 

combination wiih the _other standards adopied t[rough t9?l 

have been found to reduce dealhs and serious injur'res overall by 1b to 

30Vo. 

4.4 BENTTTIA OF CONSIIIIER PRODI'CT SAFNTY RXGUI,ATIONS 

. Approximately 20 million .{merinans are in irrred eneh vear in the 

home as a result of ar"r"idenis inr.olving unsale consumei products. 

Theso accidents result in about 

P0,!!g lt"Slhr a"a tfO,OOO perinanently 

disabling injuries (Dardis, ot a1., 1978). tr'ew, if any'reliJbiu .tuti"ti"s 

'i

25 

indicate the extent of the rnore subtle health risks associnted with 

"o"ir-,lc. p"oau"ts, but the recent discoveries of asbestos. vinvl chlo- 

.ide ,rnd oither ca,rcinogens, -quch as TRIS. in consumct prodrtcts suggest 

tlrll ihese hcrlth -risks lrc tr ilr('it of itlcrcasittg conceln' 

- 

Cotrsttmer nrodtt, i srfeil regltlnliolr is not a rccenl rlcreloPlrrcnt' 

For examplc.'food safeiv siandirds hlve n long his.lorJ. itttd,Con-gr-ess 

lias often 'adtin'ssed 

pariicnlar problems tvith spccific lrus related' for 

"ian'rrl", to rtfriqeiatc,r sr[r'ti. lead-l,rsnd priirrt. irrr(l packagirrg oI 

poisons, lrr ll7J. ltolrelot,lt trtorc coor,liltllcil l|.glll:rl')l t' ellort was 

inaugulrterl l'1 the passrrge of llte ('ottstttrrct lrfo'lrr"L Salety. -\ct 

(l'rri,li,. l,,rrr g.>1,?r.'t.; t'S('....jn51-*1. ltitir. shiclr estal,liJrerl the 

bo"",ii"".r: pr-ocluct Sa{et1, (lommissiol (( PSC) -l'ith 

rurtlrolitv to 

administcr earlier produci safety hrvs lrnd to regulate a u'itle variety 

of additional hazalds. 

Since ihe pnssuqe oI the CPSA. cost-benefit analyses of consrrmer 

oroduct safciy reiulalions hrle proliferatcd. irr paii l'ecause of the 

iequirements irr tiie Act thrl ihe'CPSC rrndertakc Iariotts analvses 

beiore rule Dromulsation. including t determination of the (rnecd" 

f,,r' rcgrr)aliin trd"its impacl on "rriilitv. r'ost an,I rvr-ilrrl'il'tty'' 

of consumer nroducts. Trr rrd,lltion. rll rttlt's tnttsl bc "reasonabl-v necessary 

lo elirninalc or tedrtce Nrr rrrtlers'trll,lo lisk of injurv"' 

liable 4 sutnmtrtizcs several anxl-l'ses that attcmpt to quantify tho 

benefits of sorne CPSC tegulation.s. For example'-there- lrrte been 

studies of childrerr's aspirii packagirtg (Clark anrl lValton. 1978)' 

other child-proof contaiirors lHowci. iili*). rnd crib.srfety (CPSC' 

19?9). Acc.iltiirs to llr(so slrt'li('s, t'egttlation of ,lrildren's aspirin 

paclingi rrg has leduccrt tLc inciclence of nicidenttl ingestion by children 

Lv tt,io 5f perccnt sin( (' 1970. Regulation of crib design has reduced 

ciib inlurieiby 447a and. deaths by 33/o srnce 7974. 

Flfo dolscloc (w6t€tnrn, 3t d., 

1978). 

TABTT 1.---SOIt!t STNIFITS OT C()NSUMTR PIODUCT SATETY REGULAIIOIIS 

Thc nre ut€ in households wilh d€tedor3 Aulhot! drd not evatuat0 lif._rtving 

sar onlv about l0 D€(enl ot lhe rale ol b.nelik 0t rre d€tecr0r! svsn 

ih;';withNl det€ilors. The cost berel'1 thoush thit i! therr primary b€n.fil. 

ratio based oi property damale alone 

tlon. td.vi3ion r6cclY.r, (Engsl, t'tdiiiiiii-ptareo omttrs and In uriet are Dala dr$reD.ncier and emphalit or 

1976). 

caujedbv lie.trl'malesol.umbersvary cost'benentmetn ooroSy maxscal' 

tiom 157 derlhs and 968 inr.rre5 (rndur .ulalron ol Denelrtr v6ry 3p€c0htn 

dala) ocer a l0.tear Deriod ro Gov_ lrve 

E;nm€ni esihare3 of 12 ooo lo 14.000 

inruIos, lt wa! not (lear trom lho nudv 

to sh.t ertont rerul.t,on holld reduc. 

ihc!e @3t3. 

Poi$n Dr!vadtion oetlsinr(tlorar, c.'iiii'd,i-iii''.,alp5 ror r€nulated and Autlu i. (.16lll mt lo .ttr ibut. toltl 

1978r clarr and Walbn, l97E). no;;eiul,iad ;ubn,n.er. toand lhat tor .txl to r.gulrtl.n. 

nonreiulated !ub5tai.€5 Inruriet had in_ 

creased 20 Dekent betaeen 1973 and 

1976: whereas iniuries Jom reg!laled 

suhia.ces decreased .hout X. E lamates 

that aboul 34,000 iniori.3 w.rc 

eliminrted. 

Cdb tllsty standard (consudr n"iiiiliii'iiil '' **.'it' ""'.ombined with 8a3!d on d.ltfi dltr.lrom 197|-76' 

Producl Satetv conmisrion, l9/9). i'- iiiiiiii'iiiiiiiil,,ie;t"i irrs rn use somc problomr with d'ta ruco8' 

since 1971 iniuries hive been reduced 

hv 44 osrcent and dearhs bv ll Derc€nt 

trtric nammability dandad (&t- rgii ,iiri-i,iiiiiiri it ii;";8 ro 34 ch,rd Quesrrnabl€ 

dk, Aaron3on and lin, l97E). 

nerh0dolosv or bsn.[t!. 

burn death5 odu'red and noro ihan valualr0n €!pe(Dllv In rnc.ca3€ or 

7 nno h.cnilatized burn riiurt65. The (trldren wh01e ruIUre earnrnss ar€ 

liiii iiiifriieiin"iiiji,i ii ;i tt'";; tpecLrati'e dnd lirerv to be di!woufd 

h.ve been Dr€venl€d bv lhe (ounted r0 r n nrmar sum wtro' 

iii"?rriinit i"iiutatia ii" oottar'rrne- .trreorB!ronor pain and 3unering 

r,lr 6t lh€ dandrrd Ddred or med'cal l.ade lo und.rellrmale ol 0enetflt' 

cosb and fltute earnint! 

s7-7900-80-3

26 

TABII l,-Soilt BENEF|IS OF COtrlSUtttER PROOUCT SAFETY REGULATTONs_Continued 

Po*cor larnmowerr (Brock€t! et at., A$umed standdrd *outd prevert 50 per_ Lack of supportinr daia tor 

cenr 

asrufto- 

ot rnlLne!- vatued oearh dt !t3u.000 tmn3 

and p€rm?n€nr 

weakens anatysis, 

pdlrdt 

ai doss iir- 

rr tur, ar lLb,iluu. srsrence 0n d0llar valuation ot tilo 

rouno untdr'oraote cost,b€1ent rario even and heallh but0missionof 

though adnihed 

Dain and 

ignorance 01 accidenl suferint.osls. 

pronte. 

Ule ol NHISA dala. 

which includes Inransrbte taciorr 

r0sults in benefils 5 ttmes as tarlo 

Ciild 

,_prclectrm 

and--toy rrr.ty tstrmare3 

(nurns 

tiat 34,500 Injune, 

_ and rasorabte cosl-benefit r.tio. 

occurred 

0rd, 

in 

€t.r,,1978), 

rxr€nsq€ dat 0n injury 

19/6. 

bu i 

conctuded 

t dr! 

thai orodud d8i!; cussron of regulatory desirn. 

$andards trom lhe food and 0ru! Adminisrrarion 

woutd hetp to Drevenamost 

o. al or inlunes. 

Several studies havs been made of-prcposed prod.uct, sa,feby 

ards. 

sta[d_ 

W&t€rqlan, et aL (lg7gj round LhaL rhe rncldencc oI fircs rc_ 

&uthorrtrss 

ryIT,9 

by households equipped lvith lire detectors was 

:!:t:f }vry .us mgn &s rose not so equrpped. \Vithout considerirg str,v- 

PgF,rn rnlury .rnd death, fire detectorfi,ero found. to jiave a fav;rable 

ucnorrL.[o-cost ialro based on rc$u.ce{ propgrly dalnrrge alone. lhrdis, 

et. el. (1978) projected that fabric flamriabiiitv stanltlard.s oould eliuullate 

abollr, olc-fifth of child lrunr dcrtllrs trrdilrjurie$ (& 5avings 

8 

of 

to:J4deaths.and ?000 injuries_arurnurlyj. O"gJ 1rl,%) ,i"" """Uf" 

p. rg19l1e. qrajor discrepaircies between Lwo sourccs of data for I'V_ 

X:, *1",*d- rn;unes- an_d was therefore unablc to determine 

r 

whether 

v 

.set 

sltety- sta,ndards t-ould be cost-beneficial. It is dillicuh 

tract 

rc er_ 

straightforward estimates of benefits trom tlrat si"af a"" 

complox 

to tt e 

analytic method used. 

- AJ-96t all of these studies are v_ery narrow in scope, focussing on 

one rnstance of single-product regulation- It is therof6rd 0.e." hini"""tt 

t^:'ff,3: -,1+:l 

1.b"yl c!" magnitide .f rh" ;;;;;;;;;ii,,i;;{"ry 

,ry:.tlli],: th,..,sludres lrrro tristorically deali rvirlr .-rlct1 Lrrardi, 

lE9,",nC for the.most p&ri tlre issues of corsumer health 

rxtt 

lrrzards. 

I| al)pedrs [o ho kno]'n a Lrouf crinsrrmer ]rehavio| either bcforc or 

1ffe1 r,e.gulationr and thus it-is d.ifrcult to evaiuate if* *"*"q,,""*, "t 

regutanon. _Ejven wherc levels of injury can be established fiom existlng 

dara. many commentators have simply translaied t.he arcident rc_ 

ductiorrs attribu-table to regulation in6 "dollar [""Jei'ilo"""r. 

anaryse,s 

s*h 

typrcally use lost wages as the sole measures ofthe cost 

lnlIry 

of 

oI rlcath, and rgrrore more intangible accident costs 

pain 

such as 

anrl sufrering. Tb; aliscount rate applied i_n manv studi"s effec_ 

jll"'{.T.o"T* the vatue of. children,s injuries to a minimal srrm. In all, 

tno studres show an unsonhisticated notion of the beneffts to be gained 

j:j.::f^"." and henlthiei cplrs]lmer p*ao.ir. u"J qeIcSII iil"y t",ia'ro ,n_ 

mlle Ptotr J lrr'..r' holefi tS that I re r rrr l.r.zed. 

.Luther measures- oJ aceident-costs provitle an interesting contrast 

f,ne 

to 

me-csures used in lhe studies reviersed herp. For example. 

area 

in the 

of consumer product safety,.more tla" in a"1, oih* ;"di;-tr"f 

eontext, individuals also look tL tt e p.ivJ" l"enl'"l;".- ii-n.orriA" 

nlonet&ry compensation for economiCharm, lost waqes, rrr"dicll 

pcnses, 

ex_ 

rndpain and.i-ufiering. Tort compendaiio" -"? tfrr..'fr" j"rt"a 

upnn as.perha_ps the r(fullest"-valuation o-f accident coJts- Tort awards 

ror dcath andilor perma,nent disabilitv often reach into the several

27 

millions of dollars. Even an average for o.ll types of products liability 

erflards typically fall in the $20.,.000 to $J00,000 range (Research 

Group, t9?6). While it is certailly true that tolt uctions are bas€d oII 

an, urrepresentative samplc of colsurner product-related injuries, the 

r-aluation oI litc and health that has ariscn out of tort actions uloi'ides 

an important coDtrasting nreasurc of accident cosls flom thft in ths 

sxistins cost-benefi t studies. 

Anoiher theme thot runs through the legislative history and case 

law of the CPSA, as wel.l as court decisjon in product liability actiorut 

isacotr(r.nr Ior r.quity or luiln*"s,'l'lro l:r,t tlrat,L,L.lu11. Iegul tiolr,the 

costs o-t unsafe products werc "externalized" to consurn6rs has been 

seen as both a market ('imperfecti.on" and "unreasonable" (ASG v. 

CPSC. 1979 ). 'fort liabilitv also rcsts on the tleternrination of an unreasonablc 

risk, usilg as its sta.ndard of care the prevailing social 

attitudes toward risk. Thus, the protcction of certain individuals or 

groups from health or srfet-y rishs is seen as contributirrg to {airn,'ss, 

ind ihis outcome is an adhitional societol and r:crsorr]al benelit of 

resulation. -!,xisting 

nrrlyses of ccrlrin consurrcl t)rodrLi srlfct] standardst 

s hils don6 ivit.h ion:idolable ana l.yt icr l s.pliist icat ion, te;d to systematiclrllv 

underestirnatc the benetils of suih reculation. especi;]ly as 

coupaied with court awrrds for sir,ilrl irijuiies. Neuertirclessi the 

bendtts of particuler standards in ternrs of iniulies prevent€d, lives 

saved. and ^property darlacc avoided are subitantiai. Ir'or cxample, 

file saftty sian-dar'.ls havc"bccn forurd to rcrlnce death, injury, ind 

plop{.riv damrgo by 90 to 90jb. rvlrilc safr' l,rckaging larvs have reducctf 

28 

growth stimulant u,-ere both intended to rcduce cancer incidence (F.DA 

1976a. 1976h, 1977a). The ban on fluorocarbon propel)ants in ioods. 

drttgs rurd cosnroiir"s rrls irrlonrlod to reduce skiri cahcel 

'ncll 

incidencc. ls 

rs to rerlrrro er rr ironmcn tl I d:rmage bv slos.ing tho rrle of llmosphcric 

ozono deplction (FDA, t9??b). 

IAELE 5.-SOME 8TI{EFITS OF FOOD, DRUG AIIO COSITETIC REGUI-ATIOIIS 

8!r!of saccharin at r tood rddiliv€ Bimination ot tio ri3k or Hadd.r canc.r_. - Thei€ stud,e3 performcd bv tho FoA 

^ (ru^, rr//4. consider tho cost inoactbt varioui 

compounds rn urrnrnationorth€cancer risl r$uttinrtrom 0ro0osed rssuhttona. Benefrti rre 

animrl feeds (FoA, t976b). ing€srion of animat ritsues condinin! - ioi'q uatiiieii oe€ uie or thei,un- 

. 

nilroluran rpsrdues. 

lnoin marnitude of the canrer 

Ean 0r drethylsllb€slrol a3 animal Etimination o, (.ncer ,rsk reruttirr t,om ri3k. and b-ecr$e of the FDA 3 

sroi/ih io'none (FDA, 1976a). Ir_SElion_ 0r animat tisiues conlainins - tesi;t.red mrndare ro rar rood aA, 

DES residues 

diiieer which are rhown to be 

Bm.or ponicirrinner,.cycrine con- Rev€6e the ingeanng Incid€nce or bac- t#'ill$Ttii ha,m or Inc,ea3rn! 

11nrn8- pr€m|le! In anim3r reed reriat drug resistan.? ot 3uch bacl€ria ar bacierirl reli3tance lo antibictira 

(ruA, re/u). larmonerta to antibitrlics. Estimaled is nor auantitied. The satnone a 

yearly benerrt trom reducrng satmonetta incrdenio benett ,$ume3 that 

Incidence or gl.l ni ion annua v. A tur. inlo€cli.nr and educa(on $illcon. 

rher bcnefr is a reduction in the rato al trct satnon€fla poi3onins in the 

*h'cn new drug reiistrnt pathogen3 are absene oftreateA fe€ds. 

E n on thomcrrhon pr0psttanb in lho continued use or chtoroflouro€rbon A more recent itudv hai shown th.t 

lptay can3 (FDA, 1976b). pmp€llrnts coutd b€ exp€.rea to re,tuie irri irone riiii ir oolereu rnore 

the ,mount ot 3tr.tospheric done. tris 0uicth than 0reriouitv thourht. 

woutd r€su[ in rn increas€ in uttravrotet thu, rheje t,ri,e! unde.jrato -ine 

radirtion (UV) !tlhe sudace. A 7-Dercenr 0otentiat beiefib- Beneft! .r€ 

decre.$ i n ozon. coutd be €rpected iiom atated in tsrm3 ot trertmeit cosrs 

cortinued flouroclrhon u5e. Ih,5 rcutd onti: it ii ouit€ tik.tv that iidividresult 

in 31,000 ca3$ ot nonmelanoma uati woutd b€ *i ini ro oav more 

3kin cance. D€r year and 8.400 ca3e5 or rhrn trearmenr cosriro aio,d skin 

m€tanoma skin c.nce6 (ot which 2.600 can.e. Ihts hen€ffts dre undeF 

woutd be fatat within 5 yea6). Aniuat srated tor thii .saion stju. 

costs ot treatnent *outd be $20 mi ion 

(1976 do au). The ban on flourocaruon! 

as spray pro!€l?nts woutd Droduce ontv 

a ima fftction ot th$e totat bensntr. 

however. 

nsquidng p.tisnt lrD€nns ior gre. In consonir sr:rveys, consumers havo in- Ouantitative henet,b are not catcu. 

.crrflron dru8 product! (tDA. qnrted thev desn. such Inro,mrrion. tared b€(ause rhe eft€cr ot Darienl 

re/v). rhur, one benefit i! the Drovrnon ot hbetinr on druc use and inkuss 

desired inlormation. Studies hrve ri- are unaert in. However, the tarse 

dic?ted that writtan intomation cai in- saze 0r heatrh-retated cdst! (whj;h 

provecomlliEnc.lith resimelfo.ccrtain .G eiunerated in the srudr) indrug 

lrertnents. Prtient trbetins coutd dicare lhal F!en !ma imiiove, 

thur incr€are the eflectiEnesr etfectiEiest oi rrsar- treat- mente menis In in d'ug drug effciency dr denent 

and Dr€vent pr€venr lhe ne€d lor tor refilh refith 0r mr!* rcaser ii in abuse witt wil ie\utr i*utr in 

addilidnal lrertment Drut-dru8 and benpr.t5 jn erce(s o! the r.ther 

rood-drue interrclion3 @utd ats0 be re- hrninal tabetinqcosls. Thc Dubtic's 

duced. lt k eltimat d that drur reactrons 

.richr 

ro t(ndw ' consilires , 

r!162.n"'dNeFnaii,s,,ro,",', u"',l"il,l',T,'"",*Y3,"llXli'"i'ilil',.';,,,", 

n Ine rood, Drus.nd cosnetica In.fectiue druss have beei catcutarsd. about I he m athodotosy and a3sutnpecl 

reqlirins proot ol efrc?cy for Tjese rdnge trom lt00 milion annua y tio;; ;mptoyEd in "J,i.,nc 

,res 

Ew- orqs_ enures (P€tEman. (Petkmrn, 1973) to 9300 mi ion.nnua i rirur$. Thase cat(Ltariona mu3t 

r!/r, le/5a, Jondrcw, 1972, (londrow. l9/2)El t970 and 1966 pricoj, b; Irrrdod a! open to quesrion. 

llcQuire, €l at., 1975). ierDectirety. (se€ -Mccuir!, s or creaseJ creaser in abuse will r*ult in 

and Ind benenls in excess ot lhe rather 

re- hinimallabelingcosb,I 

hinimal labelinscosb. 

'tight 

Thc Dublic's 

to know" co 

furlher, intansiblo, b€nl 

r ot There has been consid€B 

lsd. abour themathodolosy a 

ally tion3 €mployEd in derj 

alb rigur$. Th€se cal(ulal 

bc rararr,.d .! ode. k 

19i5.) 

":,i,",n'"I'i!?l,,iTii,liTif;0.0,,. 

. In a sludy of a ban on penicillin and tetracvcline in :rnimal feerl 

(not covereal by the Del:rney clruse).1 relrtiveli small berrntir of g l.l 

million per vea r was csl imai ed hascd on ar.oid inc I he .os(s o f I r.ct I ins 

antibio[ir.- resisi an t 'almonella, poisoning. -A. frr larger'. blL rrorr ,lrrrnli 

fiable benefil was cxpe,.led tn resrrlt froir slowins ihe . rtrrpnl r r+Rd ol 

an increasing degrce of antihiotic r.esistance in bicteria attribrrtable to 

an imal fccdirrg prar"lir"cs (FDA.l978). 

fn tLe drrrg aiena, l'oth tangible arir'l intangible benefits wert, attributnrl 

to a _proposa I to r.r.quirn patient information labe.lling for prescrrptron 

drrrgs (FI)A, 1g?9). The tangible benefits were a r:eduction,

w 

to an unknown deqree, of tbe annual costs of ailverse drug reactions of 

$156 to $520 million. The less tangible bcneffts include'an il)rprovernent 

in the uublic's rccess to the infortnation to which it is ent.itled. 

The I(efauver-FIarris Amendments to the t'ood, Dnrg nntl ('osrrtctics 

rlct rtdoptecl in 1069, r'cquile that r)ew drugs be shorvn to be both safe 

and efteitive in their adi'ertised uses. Thc irumber of nerv clrugs finding 

iheir rvay to rnallit:t fcll aftcr the prssngc of these t rr( n,llutnts &rrd 

soirc rutlrors luu'c attributetl tlris decnlsc almost entilcl] to the inr:reased 

testing lequirernents. The tienefits of the 't{Iicricy testingt' 

requirements ilepend on the extent to rvhich consumers wcre lluving 

inefiectual or oi'erly expensive ('new' drtrgs prior to the regulation' 

Peltzmrn (197:,, 19i5r)-rn(t .Iondrol' (19?2);ttempted to aiiess this 

issle lrnd found a grois bencfit of $100 to $300 mil]ior p.r Ytar for 

rttrrg consumers.'flie technicll problems atrcl rtnclltirittties. lrolet'et, 

are large and substantjal criticisin hns Lecn lcr t Ied at the nrethotlology 

of cach ntternpt lrr. for exanlrle, McGrrir" { t 11. ( 19i5 ) . ,A.sh forcl ct al. 

( 19i7). and I I ill. t irccnbcr'11, \ewl,urgol Ir,I lYlrit rrlier (1075). 

'l'ho 

bonefiis of rcgrrlrttioir bv Ftt.\ of foo,l ltlctv.,lrug slfolv rnrl 

efre,ctivenc-

30 

what al rrnregrrlated state of rllairs rnight be like. As a rcsult. it is 

ersicr for FSQS to assess the imprcts of changes in its programs, thnn 

to assess the bcnefits of its programs in their entiretv. 

FSQS has begun to publish econornic irnpact assessments of proposed 

lctions, inclrrding scttirrg nerv strnclrrds. The FSQS reports 

are bricf, gencrall.y 10 pagcs or so in lcngth. Fol sonte acfions to set 

sta.nd&rds that woulcl facilitatc tlades. quantitrtive cstimates of bcneffts 

hnve bren ma.dc bv I.'SQS. I{orvcr,er', l:oneffts of :r fi'tv r e,latetl 

actions are generallv stated brieffy ancl onl1.- in qrtrlitatit'e terrns. 

Tnble 6 summarizes typical hcnefits statemcrlts frotn thcse leports, 

TABI' 6._SOMf BEIIETIIS OF fOOD SAFTTY AND QUATITY RTGULAIIONS 

PreD6rat,on and lahelin!ol Droc.*ed m€at oroducb 

sithout nrtr are and/oiniti, te. Ako Drohibrh nilrat€ 

and/or nitrite in bab!, junior, and toddler $ett 

products 

(FSQS, 1979a). 

". . . lholld incr.*s the 6vaihbilitt ,nd clBomplion ot nitEte 

nitrite lr.e 0rocersed msol Droducb and cor4oondindv r€dule 

conesmltion ol lhe lradilr$nall! cured neni trodtrrte. A reduL 

tion in the inseslion ot nitrale, nitrite 0r Ditlo3amiret ovor line 

misht result in a lower incidence ot tiose typ€sothum.i caocer 

.aused by lhese chenical compounds. In economic lerh!, a 

lotier Inc,dpnce would provide 'everal benel s. increased 0ulpLt 

and waAe! ard imaller €,ppnd,lor€5 for med,ral cai.. (ll) i5 not 

expeted to result in any increase in incidence ol f@d poiionins 

tom Clostridium botulinum toxin typer A and B,thme Drirnarily 

a!3ocialed wiih red 

''meaG." 

. . will benelit consun6B 0l bacon I'y r€ducing th€ir etposurc 

to can(e,-caunnS nrlro3.nines. IIis rill \ar'e the crecl of reduc- 

'ir the riil of cance' and thus, is .rg' i .anl In p'otertrrg lh€ 

herlth and ralely 0t the D0pulation. 

qr llF same I'nF, I'ir reSularion 

l^/all a$ure thrt the consumer wrll not be exoosed to the 

p0slb'lrty ol botulism port0ni"g, qh l +ould rn .trel( be 3 

!io.ifi.anl h.rlth ha2rrd 

"..:willpomol6 

efiicient utilnation 0t the totalcarca33. Indudrial 

eltr(iency and produclivily *ill be rnharr"d 'nd, lhe supplyof 

hich rrotein b?eland o0rr. D,oducls {illin rea'Pin both doflettdsid 

vorld marketi- Tha lairtv. qholeloneness. nuirtional 

iitssrity and prcper lab€lins of ' Limile addillon ol sodiun or Dolaisit]|n nitrit. to 

bacin and reouires .ddition ol sodium sscorble 

or erythortate with nitrit€. Pruhibils addition ot 

nittate to tacon. timits nitrosamine t0 l0 Drrls 

per billion in tst year and to 5 pads per billion 

theroafter (FSQS, 1978a). 

Permits use ot mechanically deboned rneatbyestrb. 

lishing Celinilions, permilled uies, and labeling 

requkemenrr (FsQs, 1978b). 

M*hanically Prccessed (spF 

cie!) Product" willbe assur€dj aid, proce$o.s'will he allowed to 

res!me prodlctjon.'- 

P€nnits lhe use .r in-plant s|reeninr methods on 

''... 

will erDedile lheanah!ir ol neealive sd veilrancesanoler and 

dii(y atlh cr'qs*r 3urDecledofcontahiua ti- redrce conconitanl @ns Dl labaralory aâl'les. Swib teslinr 

liolk reiduer in excers or preslbed toleiance wrllldenliry neS.liue !u,!eilldlLp enr0lei at lhe poinlor slaushlsl 

lev€ls (fsos. 1979b). 

rnd .llow hbor.lort eflo'ls to be d,reded to the andl{3is ot anli 

bioth residue tevela In p0siriq. ranples. The S IOP pi!8rrn k,l_ 

incrc.se the scoDe of the surveillrnce Dha5. whrch should rn. 

crerse producers' consciousness ot lhelmporlanceotfollowing 

.lorrge in!lruclion on therdpeutrc d'Lg lrbd! IeslinS c03ls lol 

neCtliE su,veilrrnce !amples will be e''u("d 1on approxinat€ly 

190 per carcass lo ll3 Der ca,cass,lr.'ebrallosins mor€ tinancial 

relo rces to be dnect€d lo dpleclion rrd an.lyset of poiitire 

Two of the actions are designed to reduce the population exposr.ue 

to rritlatcs and nitrites in :rrnrrt ltroducts rnd ther.ebv to reduce the risk 

of lturnrn clncrr attrihutable to thcsc chemiclls an,l their derivatives 

(TSQS, fg?Sa nud 1979a,). It was not. possiblc to estirnntc quantitatively 

thc cxlrcctt'il lcduction il clncer o^ccuruence rlnc to tircse actions. 

Horvever, since both lctions lre designed to encorrrage, usc of sub-stitute 

approachcs to mcrl 1rresen'alion tirrl arc tltorrgl,i lo lrose less risk. 

ihtly were ir rdged by t hc a genov io bl I orth rrir ilc. 

fh" rction desigirerl to-frrciiittte sale of mechanicallv cleboned metrt 

would allow for mole efrcient. use of alailahlc moat suirply lrntl v-ould 

allow. certajn prr:rducers to resume productjorr (FSQS.-1l7fh). No 

quantitative benefits estimates wcre tttcDrpte.l, The tr:tion io perrnit 

in-plant scrconing of, clair-y. cattle c-a_rcassis suspected of tontrrining 

unacceptnblc le.vcls of antibiotic rcsiducs rvas dciermined to ilrprove

3l 

Drducer compliancs with dosage guirlelines for antibiotic u.se and tn 

i;i,;;i;-p;;d;-; operations bv-ali-owing resources to h.' shifted from 

suivcillarice io test irig of susperl carcrstr'i ( F-SQS. I 07tlb ).' Sincn the re 

is considerab e scientific unc€r1&inty regrrctrng tht - r'rsli to.human 

it""iifr r"a Lo animal productivity oi antibioticId'litions lo-tlrr']tr''rt 

l'.i"irG. it ** r"i posiiul" to estiinalo tho rluanlilativc I'enefit. 'rf lhis 

aciibn".'Thev are, hb*,'r.r. PotlntiallJ vorv greri.-rtrc||rrItng 1tto5p11ation 

of the 'elTcctivene-ss 

o{ lntibiotics in freotlng lrtnrriln (tr'€ase' 

tm- iiOS-i"rrd irt,, fnel an' clrrtged wilh etrsrtrirrg thaL the 

ttlio"'" ioi.t suppiv '"main sife nn.l l''inlthy Doilg :o lrrs I'ecome 

;;;;';"; imno\ionr in view of rho ,:orrrp)ixi(y &rrrl scoP,' of lhe 

i'ioanr" a itt Jtii,t ion-oriented footl inrlrrstry. The tnajor bon-efiL of the 

f""a-r"+iv pi:"gtuttti of botlr agtncies is that consttm"t'nnd.prcdtrccr 

""tda"n"""iti i}? g,'neral food iuppl. ls tnrinJrirod. I conrliliorr ilrrt 

.,i'oJ,i--rr"-t-lii."r t:,,t ';;"'tti1 in tlii ,il,s,'l.t of r igo.ous regul'rtion of 

tho products and practices of the industries involved. 

4.? BENEFITS OF OCCUPAT{ONAL SAtrTTY AND IIEALTI{ RI]GIII-\'TIONS 

One of the most controversial arr,a's in a.ss ssing the benefits of 

""cttl;i.t has been the study of the effeci of ocertpaliona.l safcty and 

health rrceulations on the rate"s of injnty itnd drseos(' Incl'ltnd) ln 

iioiiiins ;"r',,l"lions. I\[rrclr of ilris conir,ir'.'rsy rrose rs a losttlt of I 

stutlv it'it,o efiect o[ OStIA inspcctions :rnd onforcotnonl olr tlle 

nrtir'rtl lrLto of occrtltatiotrtll iniru ic'. n hit'lr found no detect:rblc cflcct 

"t O.Snq. regrlation on inittr:v rntes (Z,eckhausc.r' and Nichols. 19??) ' 

A ntrmber of studies of the cffc

32 

in Califorrria. Furthermore. if the California experience was tvpical 

of the entire U.S., hetwern 40.000 and 60$00 lost-rnorhdavs ac.citlents 

per year vere prcvcntcd by OSH.{ inspeclions jn - 1974 and 1975. 

Grecn antl liraitzman (i.o?91 1.nto recentll' cxtlapolated thc lcsults 

of the studies by Smith and bv lfendoloff in an rttempt to measnre the 

social costs of the injnlics and dealhs nrevented b1' CISHA. They con' 

cluded tlurt C)SIIA inspcctions nrobablv prn cnt :rbout 350 deaths per 

yetr in thc Il.S., and th:rt thc iocial cdst,s of the accident's prevented 

by OSH,L rlc on the order of .${.6 billion pcr.r.errr'. This latter esti' 

mate. )rowever. depenrls rather hcar'llv on thc nsi'of upper.bound esti. 

mntes for both the number of iniuries Drer-eniod and the cstimated cosl 

of lost-workday accidents, rnd the rrs; of mid-nrrgc cstimrtcs wonld 

girt a lower vahre. 

Two strrdies inc'hrdcd in Table 7 measulc tlre notcnfial benefits fl.r'ail' 

able from prcvcntion o{ occuprtion'rl rr,'cidcnts. The first of these 

stndies (ERON Rcsearch Systenrs. l9?9) cstimates tho tottl costs of 

nll iniuries and rlctrth resrltinq from irrdnstlirl uccident: in 19?5 to be 

$14.7 billion. Thc slcond strrr'lv (l'MC. 1976) rrsed a sinrilar rretlrodologv 

to estimate thNt thc total sr-cial

3{} 

Droiected that the vinvl chloride standard would prevent 2000 deaths 

i.o,h.on""" over ihe'period 1976-2000 (Ashfortl, Zolt cr al'. l9?9). 

The Research Triarrslc Instirrrtt (19?9) cstimrted thtt the cotton dust 

standard would rcdiice the incidence of byssinosis ("brown lung') in 

textilc irrdustry workors by 174C.ases injtilllv lnd bY 21.?6+ cases 

eventuallv. 

The firial rraper reviorved in Table 8, ivhich clealt l'ith oxposure to 

toxic substaicei (Bridbord et, 41., 1978), estitrrated the reduction in 

cancer rates that coultl be achieled bv the control of worker cxl)osule 

io "h.r"i""t "ur"irrugott.. ;fhe authors (scientists from NCI, Nil'lHS. 

md NIOSII) cstirnrterl that rbout 22 to 38% of all cancer now occtrr' 

rinE il the iinited Statcs is us-socirtcd with occupational chemical 

exp;surcs. This Lighly contto'-crsial lesttlt ltas been challenged on the 

grounds thtt scrious'errors were na(lc in the estimation procedute. 

dausing thc ostim:rtes to 5g 1111c115otrrl,lr- Irigh. ITorvever, lhc {act that 

the estinrate clocs not in

34 

{.4 BENXFTTA OF WATER POINIITION @NTROL RDOUIATIONS 

In tho early 1930's, eost-benefit analysis was doveloped and then regurred 

for evaluflting the desirability.of public projeits involving the 

qevelopment of waler rcsources. It might be expectcd, llroreforleihcI 

t largo number of studies relating to i.he benefits of acl ions in i lrc I.etat€d 

areas of wa,ter pollution coritrol would be available in the litera_ 

ture,_Ilowover, prioi to major studies of watcr qualiiy in ilie Ohio 

and Uelaware Riler Lrusirr ir It60 rntl I966, r,es poct i r.oi 1.. ferl of thc 

numorous studies addrossi_ng the issue oi water pollution"eonrrol bene_ 

lits used mefl rodologiei r lrat con forrned ro I lre [,aiic pr.inc inles of nr icrooconomic 

analysis. or that could bo used for the puiposc 6f seneulizatron.and 

^comparison. It.is only quite recently ihai the teihnique of 

cost-benefit anuly"is Irn. t,ecn applicd to \r.alci pollution ,.ontrol onalysis 

in a consistent, fashiorr. .\n cicellnnt rer.ierr"and clilique of studies 

of water pollution control benefits pcrformed prior to 1g73^can be found 

in Tihansky (19?4). 

. After the passage of the Federal lVater pojlution Control Act 

Amendments of 1972, the g€neral thrust of wat€r pollution control 

evrllr tion l.lirltged frorn an emphlris ol loduccd hunicinlj rrcatment 

costs and the suitabilitv of water {or asricrrltural and lndustrial 

use to concern with the benefits of water pollution control that more 

directly afect largcr segments of ihe go'neral population. The first 

study summarized in Table 10, for esnmple. deasures the efrecl of 

rvater quality variables on property values near lakes. rirers and harbors 

(Dornbusch and Barrager, ig?B). Basect on an'analvsis of the 

market value -of _single-family r€sidences in four ar.eas of ihe U.S., it 

rva^s coneluded that the r.alrre of rcaterfront properLv near nolluted 

rvalerwavs was depressed I to 25/o.ompar",l to vilues in'sinrilar 

areas. but_ on unpolluted lsatcrways. ltVhen these difrercnces rsere extrapolated 

to the entire U.S. jt wai estimated that wat€r nollution cost 

,tll.o*T"T^gl property on polluted waterways between 90.6 and gB.2 

tl]rron tn lYJit DrlCes 

Mrlntonrnce of rvrlsr quallly in 

rl!er!, l.le!, on roistal shoralino 

(Dornbusch aid garrr€r, 1973). 

Wrltr llllullon control lr n 16l 

(fisrlhslL st rl., 1978). - 

rantonlnc. of wrler duatity in th. 

Souih Platt. Rtv€r bilin in ftlo. 

rdo (Walin, et al., 1978), 

TABLE IO.-SOI.IIE 8EI{EFITS OF WATTR POLLUNOTT RMULATIONS 

Tne henefit! r.uld h? nuch hlft.r in 

curent dolk.!. Erlrapolatlon of $a 

3ludv tesulis tton a lew irmDle 

areai to the ertire unitsd statrs 

depends hsavily on 5s!umDtions 

frade about weisttinr !choi;r. tor 

various hiods of benefti. dirmunl 

rate. 

Prlnarily a cithal revi* ol benslttt 

estimation- Dlfi.tent .rlinit ! ol 

Denelits are trom difiocnt dodi6r.

Railllttlon 

.tD 

TABLE 10.-S0tlE BEllttlTS 0f WATER FOLLUI|oll ntcul'ATl0l{S-tontinud 

8en.ft of r.ducinr emkion ol a3- ficd|jction o{ ..lim.t d 9l to 195 ctncer 

beslos.c0ntainini mine lailin$ death3 annually lnone local ieridenls, 

into L.ke Sup*ior (Peletson, thal would b€ produced by arbeslos er- 

1977). polure. The "lolal benenl lroni complere 

ce!3.lron ol lailin8i duFprni inl0 

La^c SUDB'or w€re Lakulated lo be 16.3 

,rj,lror ps year (1975 dolhrs). 

t3iimrt€s ol fo33 ol lile d.pend 

heavily on accrBcy of assumplion3 

about the level ol asbeslos .x- 

posure experienc€d by residents, 

nature 0l dose-responte rela1r0n. 

shiD Ior Droduction ol cancer by 

.stiestc. Eilimates ol tdtal cod ol 

dumping include heauh cosis, loit 

ol lost lishins, recreational opportunili€s, 

water tr€atment co'ts, 

C6t ot Torr.y Canyon oil roill (8u.- Direcl corh ol !hi9 .nd c.r& lcr.rtam.tod Cost! today wo0ld be nuch, mrch 

ow!. Rowl.y, ov'en 1971 !,0). lo be 6.5 n'illion Doundi, €nvnonm€ntal hisher- The Totrey Canyon wai t 

coslr *tif,.l€d al I 4illion paundt relr,ivelr s0rll rhip .onprrcd to 

3(errlng. 

n'odern suDPrlinl€s. A u!3ful 

analy3is ol a larRe fldde oil 3Dill, 

Eficcts ol pollulanl5 in dtinting DirLDsser 'mpr0!.d pLblr( hedllh lrom re- Modlv oual,lat,ce drs(ussion. fieduc. 

$ater on human heallh (National durFd biolornalco'ldm,nal'on ol drinl. tio'i in brcrorial contamination 

Rersarch CounLil, )9//). 

in8 saler, Dor.rble healll cor sequ€ncas modly due to municipal aaier 

of orsanrc ch€mical pollutanb, 

treatm€nt. Some Dotentially danserou3 

chemicals ar€ podlc€d tY 

trealment sy3t€mr desiSned ro 

.ontr0l nicrobial contaminaiion. 

Dvaluation of rvater pollution control benelits has moved recently 

towarl the rrrcasurenrcrrt of willirrl.rrcss-to-p1y for the ler:reationnl 

rrst: of rrnpollutcrl stlctlrs. r'ivers, atr-d hkcs. -\ iC?+ strrrti stttrrtrtnrized 

by Ilclsh,rft ct rl. (11)?s) extltrpolrtul frortt t'wo strrdics of limited 

g6ographical regioni to istiuat'e that tlrc total nrtionll berrc{it of 

s'trtcr' pollrrtion t.ontrrrl ploglarls rlcliving frrrnr irrcreased lcclelttioutl 

nctivitv is $9.4 billion per' .r'car'. ,\notlrt'i. Irorc tochrrictllv solihisticatetl, 

strrdv of this kinrl (\Yal-.h et al.. l1)78), is llso ittclrrdetl ir 'l'tble 

et al.. l1)78), is llso ittclrrdetl ir 'l'tble 

catetl, strrdv of this li 

10. 1l). L-sing ri bidding- l,-i,lding'garrrl rlrlrnique {rue tl)lt :ItlfrrDterl :Itlfrrpt('.l to allevittc sortre 

o1 thc tlrc prrrblems 1,r:,,l,lems inirl'trirrirrg in irlrtrining rr, irccrrt r'unrtc irtr. l rr iIlingnoss-to-pay i I litrgnt ss-to-pu)' irfollnntion 

infoltnntion 

tlic investisators sttllit'rl thc attitu(lcs o{ r't'siLlrnts of the Soutlr Platte 

Ilasin in (oolonrlo torv:rll prrsclviug thc avaihbility of unpolluted 

watcr fol lccleatiorral rrse. Thcr, found tllat the 87/o oI thc lespondcnts 

rvho statcd thll tJroy n'grrlllly rrrarlc ttsc of thc rv:rtel resorrtces 

for recreational l)ullx)ses rvcrc rvilling to_plv $79.28 pcr'.velt,r' per 

housclnld to plcsoLvc locnl n'ater rlrlliir'. liven thc 19!i of thc restdents 

u-ho n-tnlr,il tlllt tlrct rlirl not p]au to ritx]ir rr-.r,oI tho local lr'ltcr' 

rcsoulcc for tccrcntiorurl pnlposcs statcd tlrtt they rvould pav an aleragc 

of lii41.1-ri Ix'r'r'crr lxrr houst'holil to prtscllc thc option to do so il 

tirc frLtulc foi tlrrirrrselvc-., thcir rlosccrtiirrts. uttrl otlu'r's, I,lxtrnpolating 

to all of thc houscholds in the basin. tLi-^ irrrplied that fhe total 

beicfit receivetl bv resirlents of tht: basin tlue to the mailttentrnce of 

wrter resources in a conilition usablc for recreationtl furposcs rv:rs $61 

million oer vear. 

Onc iirrcitigrrtol cstirttrttt.d tltc lotal rlarnngc flotrt tlatcr'pollrtfiotr 

(the potcltiui lrcrtt'fits frt:rrr rcdttcitrg nll pollrrtlnts to ''thl'sholcl" 

Iovels) to Lrc bctrvecl $il.l-r tnd $18.7 billion nnrrrrnllv (scc Hclstrlft ct 

ul., l07x). ()f llris! rrl)l,roxi|lrrlcl-\'sfi.3 [,illi,,rr t$J.i to $ll.(i) rrrrs in 

the fctrrri of incrcase^d recrcatiolal o1rJrottnrritics, about $1.i', billion 

($0,6 to $i!,.t ) s'as tcllterl to "lcsthcti' rrn'l ,'cologicrrl" intprolcntents, 

about $0.6 billion ({i0.::t to $1.0) tooli thc form of lecluctions of l aterbournc 

iliseaso urcl tborrt {ii.? billion ($1.1 to !i9.3) canrc fnrtn inclcasecl 

Prorlrtc'tir.e captcity as t rcsttlt of availalrilitl' of rnore clean 

rvater fol intlustrial use,

36 

Three studies in Table 10 estimate the cost of faililg to preyent or 

deal adequately with particular water pollution incidlentsl The ffrst 

(Peterson, 1977) attempts to estimato ths costs of all of the conlequexres 

or t|c durrp rg oi asbestos-contairring .rrriue ta.rlirrgs ilto 

Lake Sul,elior. It i. ostirrnrpd rlrut sur"h drrrrrpiirs js r""por'"i"bl" for 

between 91 and 195 cancer deaths per year among"local residents and 

tlat the total social cost of allot'ing the dumpinl to occur was about 

$6.i nrillion !,er .\'oal as of l9ij. 1'$o strrrlrr.. eslunarL. ljjo ,.osts oI thc 

?omey Canyon o1,l spill ofr tte llritish coast in 1967 (Burrows, Rowley, 

(hver ljr;+a. 1';i{b1. l\'lire the costs of a sinilirr accident todri.l: 

would be much greater, these papers describe in deta,il the likely con: 

sequences of a moderate-size offshore oil spill and provide a useful 

slalljirg.lnrirrl f,)r rLal\"ses of p|ogTallr. dcsrgned to rroid or prevent 

sucn rnct(lents 

A number of studies have attempted to measure the ellects of rva,ter 

pollution conlrol on public health. Several studies reporlefl in Hersha{t 

et al. (19?8) have estimated the benelits from Iqater pollution 

control, in tcrms of reduced outbreaks of disease, to be betiveen $120 

million and $1 billion per ve&r. In addition. the last entrv in Table 10 

sunrrnrlizes r useftrl a rid ,',inr prehensi r.e sturiv of this irnpbrtant policy 

area (National Research Coirncit, 19?7). I}is primarily qunliiativi 

r'liscussion deals n'ith both the llrhrctioti ir' ,li""r,-n [,rou{]Lf ltrout by 

improved water quaiity (mostly due to impror-ed munilipal water 

trertment) and the possible arh-clse ellects on hurrrtn hcaltl of the 

presence of chcmical pollutants in tL inking rvatcr. One itnportanr pornt, 

made irr the studv is that the presence of many potentiallv harhful 

organic chemi.ald in drinkins iater mav be duL: in nart to'the interact-ion 

of rqlter trcotnrents. r'ahich are intended to ieduce biological 

poilution, with the chemical,s that ocrcur in municipal wnter suppli6s as 

a result of environmental chemical Dollution. 

fn summary, relatively fev sludies have been mnde of the benefits 

of water pollrrtion control legulations, and most of thcse htve been 

narrowly focused, Nevertheless, this fragmentary evidence suggests 

that sucl benefits are in thc rrurge of bill"ions of dollars, includl'ng n 

considcrable inprovernent in human health. 

4.S BENiET'ITS OF OTIIER ENVIRONMEN'TAI,. IIE.{I]TII A}ID SAFETT 

REGUI,ATfONA 

Several other regulations are treated in this section. Of necessitv, 

only a few are cons-idered. Some of thc studies included here do not fft, 

into nn\ of the cateEorie5 of previolrs sections. ryhile others arc so 

broadly conceived thit ihey transcend many o"[ t]ose catcgories. 

Land rtse 

Thn use of land is often regulateali zoaing regulations and controls 

on relrl ostate rlevelopment are most familiar. Cropland rr.e regrrlalions 

can prodrrcc substaritial belefits. as is shorrn in frtblc 11. Tlie yrroper 

use of cropland can reduce sediment loads in streams bv over onefifth; 

however. feasible leyels range {rom 5 to 10 percent is shown bv 

lVado arrd T{ert'lv (1977. 1978).Ixrs-cof ]rnd ifself can l:o lrrevented and 

the benefit is the tonsoil retained. Proprr tillage pra"tices mrntlated 

for the l\{ississippi Delta could save one inch of topsoil every 16 to 28 

; 

' 

j 

: 

I

37 

'i'ciroleurrr 

veors (Parvin. 1976) Timmons has equated soil loss to the export of 

us a nrli6n.rl prublem to be suitabll rr.gulatetl ('finrmons, 

re79). 

IABLI lt,--so E 8[NEFlTs oF oTlltR lltvltolll{Et{TAt lltAtrH, AllD sArtw REGuLATlotls 

soil @dervatiod nea3urer (ffid€ I 

Hardy, 1977, 1976). 

Soil coniervatioi msrsur$ (P.ryin, 

1976). 

Sno|v' rt liurbb betsft! ot 5.) to 9.3 pet- tlrliotal nodel, 3imulation. Colt in' 

c.nt rrdudlon in itr.an walsr lrdiment ctcas.s of 01 to 2 9 pGrcsnt 

loadr: correrpondins decr.ate In topsoil t6quited. Peguhtion r€latsd t0 

t63. 

uno u3e. 

Si.rnr6lo l0lon30l roitDer vear or I inch Ba3.d or Mkli3ipPi 3oik and 

ot top$l euery 16 to 28 yerl!. Pti(licer. Iilla8. praclic€3 r08u' 

Ailpod noi!s (Mi$kot3[i I S.D.r, Curont beneiiti ot noils conttol at Toronlo Inm€diah nicro€conomic sl{ect. 

1978). 

Aioon were estimated at i50 million in 

l9ll, P.oiecbd to 1980, tendftb rore 

ll35 million. 

PCB 3tandard-EPA (Nttionll no- Roiluiiion in iiooDhitic dilord€c ,--,--- ll.llth 3roct3 3lblls tid lons-t rn. 

s.anh Coun il, 1979). 

flonnuorinated halomethanes (tU- Rcdtiction Dl cancor trom chlorolotm .nd onlv dnvitonn.ntal erpolur. con. 

tional Research Council, 1979). carhontetrachhrideoroo3ur€, sid6ted- occuPalional erposura 

lik.h to b€ v€ry harardoLs. 

lluclear wa3ts disposal (8ro0lshir. Savins l3l,lIl liv$ liom pr.venr,ns Edia- s.me numb.rold€sth3erpect€dlron 

A Schulr., l9//). 

tion accident atdumD of nuclear w8le. ou€r cause3, rt corl 13 u3e0 ro 

8'nerale e'edric'tY' 

Other land use resulation deals directlv with living conditions. 

Regulation of airport"noise or regulation ofioca{ion of lrorrsing would 

oro'duce [,encfils ;f S130 million-in the area rround thc Toronto airnolt 

(.1\tiesli()wski and Saper. lC?8). Since neitlrer tlte airport nor the 

icsiildntial rrers arc reaililv moved, thc land use problem usually 

translates into the regulation of airplane noise. 

Generaf, ernironm.ent 

Somc efiects on ecosystems arc both subtle and all-pervasive. Soil 

erosion is fairlv simpl"e compared with the more coniplicated problems 

ass.'ciatcd with tiiccay ofihe ozone layer ('!l'estman-, 1977). Regulation 

of fluorocarbons ca-n be exoectcd to'producc benefits in the fo-rm 

of f"ncr skin cancers. especiallv'non-melanomt tvpes. A reducfion of 

.kirr cirrrcers lr-y 9.1o0 lrr'15.0t)(ilr.r,r crrtr bo tr1'enind for oach I perccnt 

level of ozone presewed (Council on Enyironmental Qualityt 

1975). Carbon tetrachloride has been susponlctl of re,lur'ing stratosn\elic 

ozorrc. rrnd Loth , irrbon tctlrchlolidc aud qhloroform are also 

chrcinogens. tlro regulation of whir"h should help reduce cancers (Environmintal 

Sturlie-s Board, l9?9). Bonefits of-regulaiion of speeiffc 

conuxrrrrr,ls such as nolvchlorinated binhenvls arc rclatiyelv uncertsirr'irr 

tolrns of lhe' number of lives saved. rnd estimatinq thi maqnit 

udp of i hc benefits is d ifficx 11 sin". little is known about ihe transiort 

of thc compounds in the environment, (N&tional Research Council, 

1079). The efiects o{ numerous other chemicals in the environnent 

may bo srtch thtt onlv t rride-rrnging traile oll an.lysis rrill adequatel.y 

capture the scope and magnitude of the benefits (Ashford, 

Zolt ct al.. 1979). 

Eadiatitm 

It is ccrtain that the benefits of resulation of radiation sources are 

snbstantial, but titile has been done to studv them. Since the l-'eneffts 

of plesent regulation will be realized far in the furrrrc. calculation 

of the benefits is dfficult. One study estima,ted a benefit of 131,111

38 

lives saved b.y regulation of nuclear waste disposai. Ifowever. with 

d iscounting over t-he lengthy period, the monetail, value of gB4 billion 

rilrilrrrled fo fhc bpncfits seemed small (Brookslrire and Schrrlze. 

10iit.-Furtlrer.-one rnah'sis has suggestcd ilut ihe pore,ntial gcnetic 

harm. flom rrucJear power planrs mal be Jes" llnn ihar {rorn tradilronirl 

(oll_hlc'I phnts. ({ir.rlr|. 1st7ti.;, at,',,n tirolc, r.ese{r'c]r in this 

alea 1S necoed. 

5. Coxcr,usroxs eNn RrcoultnlrparroNs 

5.T TIIE BDNDFIIT'S Or. SELXCTED RDGULATORY PROCRAIIS 

This examination of existing sttr.lics |as identified a large amount 

of evidence that substantial benelits have been realized fr.o]n federal 

cnvironmental. ltealth and slfety regulatiols. Ihe benefits of these 

regulations, which are summarizecl in- this leport, include direct econonric 

grins, improvements in public liealthlnd'in the standard of 

llvlug. rnd onhlnced erryjronrnerrrrl qrnllt.r'. \\'e, lrarc rrot altempted 

to arrive ai a total valuc of all tl,cse Lrcne_fiti, in dollar r)r otler terms. 

flou *re r, it is clen tlut tlrty ulo sizable.rvhen compar.ecl.with the costs 

lllrlt lrxyc I'ectr rrtttilrrrtctl to tlrcse lcgulatorJ progl rDs iD otht,r.studies., 

No asscssrnclt of, t.he impact oI regulilti-on'ou the oclolomy or. 

on thc soctety ts u rvholc can be ldequnte or. appropriate unleis it 

accounts firl rlrc berrctits as well as I hc iosts- 

I)r'err thorrgh eflrlts lraye been devoted to assessing the benefits of 

entrrlrr n te'nrl l. lrclltlr and sr fr.il lcgu lu I ions. r lrere rcinl irr ma iol urra_ 

Iy"lr''rl. empilicul, ud plrilosoplricc f pr.oblerns rvirlr "rrclr srudici. Sc,me 

{)1 ttre anal)ttc l lnrl clrpit.icaJ issues r,arr Lr. r.esolr.eLl rlr|ough tldi_ 

Llonet lesealclr arrd cpplications in .uch irIea. as toxicolocv. dpiLlcmi_ 

oto€J'. enur.onm(,ntrl rnudeling and l.isk assessmenr. Hoivwei, there 

lvlrI rorn rn senous shorlcomings jl flr{, alrrilability of cmpirica] dnta 

on l||trr! Ir(.rt t arld t'r'ologicul cfl'cct5, as tvell as inrcleqtLicies in the 

rnodels uscd to rntorpror the data, F urthelmore. tlre plril6sophir-rl and. 

:,1,,i:1'- ]:.llT rrrsed.bJ 

.ptacing cconomic values ori suclr ihtangibles 

rs umall. tllc. chronlc.drsetsc. i|ljury, and pain rn,l srrllering w fcon_ 

rrnuo lu mlt.lhe abttrlJ-ol rnlll-sts to per{orm lrcnefils stu-dics xith_ 

:::"llou?,lut ly,mrulrrng value. jud,gments that Are morc properly 

p.errormed bJ' pubhcry accountable decision_makers or by thi. sdciety 

at large. 

,. Tlre-nexr 

.part of this section summarizes 

qrsco|ered 

some of thc maior benetits 

ln the studre€ we reviewed in each regula tory'area. 

soqrtenll;-. 

Sub_ 

summaIy commct)is.ur'c, maoc t.cgtr(tn)g r lre staLc-of_lhe- 

art of-beuelits estimation, trinrlly, somc recdnrneniiations arc oficred 

regarding Ure.role of benefit-coit and related ;"cd;i J,ruty.,. _ 

regu 

lal orJ tlecision-makins. 

5,2 eunnrrARy oi' *o*" *u*r"rru or. REGLrrrAr.roN 

",J11: i*fig. higllighis some oJ-tbe more dramatic 

n^\s,relLewed 

resulalorv bene_ 

rn- SecLion J. Details, qualifications, 

add 

"na-"ornrn8nt. 

rt ronir I benetits 

"o 

can be fourd r hero. ,The 

benefft. 

lrr_vo,.not 

oi-*, "ll p.rg*_" 

beer cxamirred. in detail, in the literature. 

benehts 

and oilj l.elccted 

are summarized here for the programs i hal have beei assessed,

39 

Air poltutbn control 

trfan.y stirdies lave been made of the beneffts of reducing air pollution 

flnnr hrrth stntionrry and mobile (antomotivc) sources. Tvpical 

estinrtes of mobilc source control bcnefits arc $2.5 to $10 billion per 

ycrr. Benefits of rcdrrcing SQ" lnd parlicrrlalos. mninlr- flnnr .rrtibnary 

sorlrcqs) lravo been estinratcd to inciu'lo r 7 perccni r','rlrrcriorr in 

total discasc morfality. The total nationrvide benefits of the control 

of nir pollution from-mtjor sourc€s havo been estimatcd by difrerent 

aulhors io range from $li to $20 billion io $5 to si58 I,illiori per year, 

Other esiimatc-: of lalgc benefits havc boen made lor "po,"ifii haiarilorrs 

pollrrtanls or for limiled gcographi, regions. For exnmnl.', the 

bcrr..fils of reduction of SO, rii pollrriion in Philadelphia alonn have 

lrt'rr cstirrtted nt $120 rlillion. $'lril, r,', grtnd totri lr:rs l,r.,.n cstinral.r:rl, 

the benefits of air pollution rc{:rrlltion totrl nnlr.billions of 

dollals and substantial reductions in carly dcath and disease annually, 

Aut amotio e s af et.t 1 re qulolion 

Motor vehiclc accidcnts in the U.S. were estimat€d by the Department 

of, Transp_ortation.to cost oyer gB? billion in 197f (inclucling a 

cost of 513.,1 billion attlibuteil to the molc than 45.000 dcaths in tEat 

year). Thesr costs do not include tJre costs of pain arrrl snfiering for 

vjclims or lhc anguislr osperienced by their frienrls rnrl frrnilies. 

It has hcn cstimated fhat the ociupant protcction standalds promulgatcd 

bctrvcen 1966 and 1970 savcd ovcr-28,000 lives betwcen i966 

rnil 1974. Tlris rcas eqrrivalent to a 15 to 30 pcrccnt rcduction in deaths 

rnd sel i, 'rr. irjrrrics as com pared rrii lr oldorj r'.r rs. The seat belf r.eqrr irement 

hls ied to a 20 pcrceirt rechrctiorr itr cleath nnri t 84 l)lrcelrt leduction 

in automobile accident injrrlies. despitc rclativeiy low use 

rates- 

Con"sumnr product saf etu regulatinm 

_ Ar-,"idents involving rrnsafe consumer products lt'e responsible for 

nborrl. il0-.00{ I doalhs :rrrrl 111.rr00 permrrncnlly .li.:rlrlirrg inirrrres per. 

yenr in thc Ilnitcd Statcs. Substrnlial lu.nefitjhrr.r. l","ri estiruutr:cl ior 

consu mer-plodrr,.t 

irfg!i] regulations dcsigncrl to contlol specific 

h&zrlds. lr'or oxanrplo, it.hasleen estimatttl llrrrr t:hikl_rcsistanf dmg 

prckrgrng, Iules p_ror-cntcd 84.000 injurit.s due to accidental dru! 

lngestron betrvecn 197,3 and 1976. Crib safetv stuJar.ds lrrve reduced 

erilr-relaled irrjrrr.ios to infanls by J4? sinr"c lgZ4. F,,lii. i.t,t.n,"ntea, 

lrt',f, fJarnrnxl);liil slen,llr,ls clulrl lravc n.drrcc,l br. rl,orii Zn% the 

-frcqrrencics of deriths and scrious brrrns cxperiericcil t,v "tliidr"n in 

1971-r. 

Footl, rlnug otul cosmetic rugalatimr 

..Jle_ lx.rrofits of foorl. rl rr rg rrrrd cosm-ctic regnlations have been quan- 

Dned rn oJrlJ :r fclr- insti r,,es. Clcarly,large benefits have resrrlted ?rom 

FD.\ rnsrrlrtiorrs. Fol oxanrplr,, tlic h:rining of nit.ni,ii.,,i,r-,,n,f ai_ 

cthylstilbt'stlol ts:rnimal fetd'ldditives ",ia tn" t n""ing oi, other 

clrcinogonic srrbstrnces us ingredicnts in food nrc "l

40 

the ozone layer. It has been estimated that the benefits of the alrug 

cfficac.y requi_rements tnder the 1g62 Kefaui,er-Ilar'ris AmendmenG 

ln.tude a rcductron of $100 to $800 million per year in consumer 

purchases of inefiective dmgs. 

lToorl safety and qtnli.ta reqr+latzotr 

'lVhile 

the Food Srfeil'and. Quality Sen.iee was established by 

exccrl rt.p aItlroriLJ in 1977, lhe fedr.tal qorerrrmnnt iDjpp,.iion ;f 

meats. L,oultr'l' anrl processed food began in1800. lhc beDefiis oI these 

rrrtrvitiFs xro rjr;lnifest in thc orelall iluality anrl plritv oJ -\rrrelicars 

lood-supply and ure d"cplr ingrrincd in ilic,luatirl corrtrol eflorts of 

thc food processing rnd dislrihrriion indusrrr.'l lrri- rhel arc ,liffiL.ult 

fo g.grl;ze toda\'..Reccnt studias thrtqnuntiil rlre h,,n,.fiis of nhrrrges 

ln l5(J:i regulirttons- irave found. Ior er;rmpJo. corr,irler.rrble Lcnr.tii,: in 

llre lorl ol n.dllceil co||sllntel i'xpo$||re to polcnlirrllv r,tl...i ogenic 

foocl preservatives and in the lorm of botli mtire.:ffi.,ient rrtilizatiEn of 

meat carczrsses and cost sat'ings to meat processors. 

O ccupatictrutl nf cty atul hzo)th regulation 

The total cost of industrial accidents in 19?5 has becn estimateil ot. 

$14.7_biliion. Several studies have found that ted".al anif siote o""r,pationrl 

safetl and herltli regulrtions hrrve helpcd to rcduce accidcnial 

ur;unes and deaths. In both 1974 anrl 19?5. OSH.\- safetv nnd healtlr 

irrspoction actir-itios pler-nnted betrvcen 40,000 and 60,000 )6si-n-orkday 

flccrderts and uD to 310 deaths. 

-_ Rg,crlations limiting ^rrorkor clpo_surg to asbestos may ultinrately 

res ll In ir lpdu( lion of 630 lo 2.i00 rlplths per yelr fronill|ng ftrncer 

and rsLo.lo"i-.. Sigrrificant ad,lirionrrl b*ncfiG rvill .,""u" in rhe-f,,,.m of 

re(llc{ d lnct,ll'ltcr. of clncer a nrl.nl I rer diser.e rluo rn OSHA regrr ll t ion 

of srrclr hrrzr rd- as vinl l clrlori,lc. ,"oi ron d ust. le,rrl. ;",.l ;;iri 

W ater p ollu,tiott, requl ati,om 

^ Watcr ;'ollution control regulation has been shorr.rr to produce benefits 

rn lerms ot impror..d" l,rrblic lrlalth. incr,.rs,,J I,roperil values, and 

cxpa.nded nppor{unities fot rcr-roaIionrrIuseol $.rter lp.otir.ce5. gqy.rrl 

studles hitye esttm{rted thlt r.educccl incidence oi rr.aterborn disease 

due to rva-ter. pgllution rrgrrlatiou has rtsultecl in-be""di. ,;oi""a "t fr.- 

I wcr.n g1:15 mrllion 

-and 

Sl I'illion l,or -\.ear,. Srldies of thc public.s 

\vllnngress to pct'for rocrontional rr.e of waler rosourccs in ser.erll 

rpgrons of lhe counl rr. har.e sugge.ted that thc pfl.se|valion of rrltcl 

qualrl\ lor rncrettt(\|lal u"es mat-be rvor.ilr a. nrirch sS9.J billiorr pol. 

vear nationrvide. Studies have ilso found that the valirc ni 

on rrnl'ollrrlcd 

1xnp"i.t"- 

\riicr\r!!s rnlr be as nrrrrlr rs 2.iA higl,.,.il,r'n-"il,,irj- 

'*" 

llent propertv located orr yi;ibh, pollnted lr"t";;;o;. 

6.3 THD STAIIE-OF-TIIE-ANT OF BENRFII1I DSTIIfATION 

. . Estimating the benefits of environmental.- health and safetv 

tionsis 

regula_ 

a neri; art form that is still i" n p;iriai;; ,;i;f ;fi;;i;-""r. 

Despite the fact that *"". i"nestigaiiniii - f.,"r:. io"l,i;foa ""a 

flllclrl,ted to Ineuslr^ thp henefiis ,'f .lrenifin regllalorv pr.ogl.rrrns. ii 

rnu,qt bc recalled that estimating the bcnetits oi ""g,.i,itiirr-ir..,rr, ".*treme_I1' 

cornplox analr-1ical iask {or whlch rpnrinriain j,,,, ,,^d 

models are ofion rrnar-ailable. F'rrth"rmore. ihor'i i,." '"".1o,,.ii.r.,t"-"

4l 

associated rtith nttachins values to such inturrgibles ts iniury, chronic 

disease. death, aud pain dnd sufiering. This stction summrrrizcs the discussion 

of these issules frorn Sections 2 and 3. 

Estinrating the benefits of regulation generally rnvolves three kinds 

of uotivitv. First. thc dcg|ee of lrtrm r{ltich :r substlrnco. lgcnt or 

activitv cimscs to'indivicltiul olqani-sms or spet'ie's nttt-.t lrt'mcasured. 

Tlris rrirl inlolve lnboratorv strrdies or clinical sturlies ou strtall selected 

pollrl - xtlon5, 

iecon.[. tlrc deglee of exposrlc likcll to.l'e exl)i'ricnced bv the popltlatton 

l&tron or ecologtcal ecologrcal S_tslcm slstem irl irt ll,sli tr:li rlust l||ll:l De be eitlnratcdr estr.nlatcd, an(t tlrc lll{_llKcly lrxety 

eficct of tlut exposule trrrrsr bc yrredicted or tuctrsured. Such risk 

lsscssment actir-ities mlv iuvollr.errgirrtcrJug stndies, s,vstems r,nalvtic 

te,:lrrriques. 

techlioues. rnidemiolosical cpidemiologicll idemiological strrr-lies. strrdies. or or_thc tlt. thc rtereiornrettt rteveiopntent o{ mathenramat}retrramrt}retrralicl 

I rrro,lol. l'or ur',.dict'ingexDosrrle rtrd rcil,on:e. 

'l'lrc 'lhe 

final tin.rl task, ,,'iirrruti"ng 

t'stirrrating the llre p, econornic unotrric lrrl ancl so, social iul bcnefits b('nefilr o{ of u a regu regulatolv 

latoly l

42 

validity or of the efiect of alternative judgments on the -- benelit -"'-' esti_ 

mates. Suclr judgmonts are madc.in at lea'st fi-ve ar"uri 

,(.t). Urerumpltot.is on mo et[zqble b, ttefts._Often, benehts 

wlrrcll r.lrin_ol bc r.lgorously qutntified or puC in monetarv terms 

or omirl 

l:"_l:_-"iqh":,J"d 

ed f rorn anu lyses. Such .,intarigi 

bles, 

1: qiTJ-Tg .,ll "' r rrg. psl.r.JrotogicaJ drmlge produced by hizards, 

or aes[net tc deg.r dallon at.e often umiltcd.frorn rrrll]:ses or are 

le::.Tr::i o|-r{1!nelly., I rre non_moner izalrle costs of -illness, 

in_ 

lurJ, 

enq dearh may be large conpared with the monetizible 

rosses such as lost rncome or.medical costs, 

,flus, 

focusing only on 

monetr?able benclits may glerrtly undervllo. tt "-G"o'nL ot a 

regu.l0,tlon. 

(n) Assigning arlu$ 1e injury or deat,h._A major problem in 

-_,,-nt,)l* O,"nt|'its rs whet,her.and how ro assign a r:alui to.injury 

or .toss o^f.llfe. -Oftcn, rn tle studies that werd reviewed. the Lsti_ 

mates ol benehts depend hear ily on rJre usrignmenL o{ mo clary 

vatues 10 these outconles even tlrough tlrere is no colrsensus on 

horv.to do so, or on rlherlrer doing so l"=", "" opp-["int". *-" 

.(iii1 T-/w r$e of irulireu pt oced.ur$ to detennine ecorwniz 

eat ues.*l,rocul\rres such:ri u-ill ingness_t o-pay or. revea)ed pref_ 

elerrces requ.i r.e Jreroic assur r Lpl ion.-about lrdw-$.el I mui k"G roort 

or_ho-\v,rreLt peopte undersrard ihe risks they face. It is by no 

means c.teal. Lirat flre r.pprorclLes ar.e \'llid, esfecially in the case 

or long-term health ha,zards- 

(iv | I'reatmc nt ol bene/its occutring ot d)f erent tines._Oftnn 

i::tiil";."1,1:T,{lii.i}'fr if"','r'J,ilt jll#.Tl';:"H jii,,"T, ff; 

the values.of thcie quantities are rhen aG""rnila """.'ii-u - 

pre{ls9ly fhe bamc manner cs monetarJ cosls or benefiis. fn tlrds 

$ruauon..the magnrtudos of benefits lnd costs depend heavilv 

on tno dlscounl, Iate clrosen. Ful.tl re r.trror.e. goo,l iLealtlr and "a 

clean environment ar.e becorning more hiElil]:;alu;cl* o"i.'"rl rr_u 

l-e.lative lo oilrer guuds. Discourrii|'g such b%n;fit; i; ;ni"*n, ,,*" 

rn Lne same way o||e dNcounls costs obscrrres the incieasinrr rela_ 

tive- yalue of thi benefits. Further, ai""" *ooiuty t u. .oH"'.?"porrsibilirJ 

lor rts irreversible r'mpacts on f"t"* g""."."t1""s. binefits 

f,nal oc,cur rar rn te iutul.c must bc calcfully considered and 

included. 

, (r) fdA posl u tp--ln -marly studies it is impticir lv assumed 

rnur socrerJ \\.outd puy thc same irnount 10 reduce thi risk 

llKerJ 

of a 

e\-cnr, or to$-se\cnly rat ii u.ould pay io rcdunc the risk 

:^f *Lql,l,j: y 91911 

of hilh ser"rirr. rro""i..r, soci"r.;: "pp"u"" 

ro De wlltrn!. to oav comna rflt tve ly mor.e t o ar oid fhe mo-re si,iious, 

although tess ti)*eiy, evinr. In f;:,i,ll,"ld;j;,;,i" r,'llr"o"Ji"" "r 

::,tll lg*n"il" require tlrrt special effolrs b-e made to avoid espe_ 

clallv gTaye hflrm. 

(vi) Di*tri.bution_ ol costs,.and. bgpefrts arytng indiai.d.uals, 

q:!!?t- _.[Iany 

!!d,t;r,r. 

srudies 

"wf,, 

avoid ciiscussing 

wno c"j". "rU 

toses, rI jurvone, wlrcn a rrguJrtion is put in-place io control 

a lrazrrd. Yct. sbcieiv is concer.ned .\rtth 

\.lro.paJs and who gains, 

and failure to examine this aspect of .eguli,tion suU_"ini" un

43 

impodant policy consideration. Socieiy uses decision rules other 

thrn economic efliriencv to judge the worth of regulatory pmgrrnls: 

equllv &n4 lrlrnoss tre also lnlpnrlllll. 

Tl-re .lecisioris tirat arral.r'sts rnake in copirft u ith these problems can 

drastictllv aflect the estimatcs of lrcnefits. On'lv rarelv do investigators 

dis{lrss more thrn a fel'of thc.r.rrcial lssrrmptions thel Llvc made, 

not do they oftsn examine the eilcct of altcr.native assumptions on thd 

magnitudc of the esti.nrrtetl benelit:.. Thc lesult is thrt benefirs estruratcs 

in the literaturc srrrveycd arc oftcl pr.csentul as if the sourees 

of uncertaintv in thern irlc iechnical rneriulement problems, rvhen, 

in flct. thel' rleperd lrerr il-r- ()11 nltny spccific tncl oftcn contror-crsiai 

i'alue judgmenti. -\nll.y-v.s of tlris t.lire i'an mrke it more. rather than 

less- difficult, fol decision -nr alters to'6valuatc the s'orth of regrrlatory 

policies. 

5.4 RECOMME}ID.\TIONS 

The curlent primitive stat€-of-the-art of the assessment of benefits 

of cuyilollre,ntu i. bcnlth and safetr- regrrl:rtion srrggest.; thlt it rvoulrl 

not bc udr.isablo to trlopt l. stlilf , r,si-lrlrrr.fit 1r1,1'roa,lL f'rr I.'crlcr.al 

rr'grLlltior. ('eltrrirrl-1 ,.r'rlr'-r lr 1r1,r'op liltr. effolt shorild be rnadc to more 

frrllr i,l"nrif1 rlrn 1iro.je, re,l ,.nn-n.1,,er,,.e. ,,f I'r'o1,o.,.r1 r.egulllor.\. tction. 

llrrt the findings of this rr'1r,,r.t stl,,ngll irltgest thaf 1'h,"irg too 

g|t'at il tr'liance on srrr'h rlnulr.-*"- \'onlrl n,,[ lr' irr t]re l,rrl,ii, itrtc|est. 

llrhcn it is desirable to conduct or r.e4uir.e dctriled inrlr.scs of the 

benetits of speritic rcgulrtorr 1,r.ogram..l,lrticipltion of lird communrcrlion 

betrrcrrr dr.i isj,rr-rrrlifr.s! tlrc public, and cxpcrts in all the relci'tr.tit 

fliscipliles 

slrorrlrl^bc tncorrr':rgoLl. flcrelsed mul ti-disciplinary 

participulion irr lho pelfor.rrrrrrr,.,' of Lent.fit rrrrrrlrsc. rtould hell' g'19dttce 

molo rerlistic nnd-completl I'c:rr'fir osr irrr;rtcs. lrrd would lrelp insure 

that'impoltant technical lnrl r.alur. issucs ar.e- adrlressed and^that 

impoltrnt sour(:{'li of uncertlinty ar.c consirlcled. 

. Ittentlon needs to be gilen to svstetnatic :rnrl rliscriplined elTotts at 

improving the state,of-tho nrt. of'r.isl< assessnent trncl benefits estirnation 

tccJrniques. Srrclt rvolk sLoultl be cauicd out in close nssociation 

lritlt on-g'cring re,grrlttor y cflortr- to helD insure thorough cxamination 

of thesr. issuos *-ithin thc limitations of models. -datr rnd 

metliods and in full recognition of the role of value judgments in 

social dccision-making. 

I t. m rrsl. ll. l ccog'n izc.l t lrri . in somc cases. dct I ilerl qltanti I lt ive benefil 

strr,li"s crr.rr mrrli,. irnj,orrlrrr c.ntr.ihrrlions io impr.ovcd ,lo"isionmI|krng. 

$lrlll- |ouglr. less st sfcnlltrc and dotailcd assessntcnts rnav 

suflicc in otlters. Fufthermote. the timc alrl elTor.t u,quired to nerfolm 

clul'orrLte I'cguhtor.r' analvse.s must be u t:ighcrl tJ-ruinst t'hc use of the 

srnre 1rrrhli,. r','sonr.cfs l ithout dcltv to protcct health &nd safetv and 

to prcsenrt' onlilonrrrcntal qurliiv thr,orrgJt vigorous rcgrriatoly 

programs. 

.{OI{NOWLTDGDMENTS 

The authors wish to acknorvledge the assistance of thc fcderal agcncv 

stafr members who holp,'d io acriuire lgen.v-pcr.forn,od or .t on.or"i 

s(ndies for th i. proioct. Tlrcsn inclrrdn: 

| 'et.r4??t{.t 'TT'arren /'t'otltri ,ltftt\ ('onn is.gion. ,Il dith M. Pitcher and 

Prunella- 

: 

I 

"' 

'.

44 

_,Enaironm.en,tal Protecf.ion Agency,_Fldwin H. Clark, Deborah 

Ta1'lor. and ,lames R. I{ihbs. 

Drug Administrntion._-E en lViliams rnd 

,Vffr":^r* 

Rar 

n*;:,l 

8"f*, and Quo.tity Betwice.-Iohn }lcCutcheon and l{ax 

,,_""xiirn:li;,tr*#;rg:#,f *;;;Ti::l;::;;!trf "I;f;; 

_-l!e a-l1o l'ish to thnnk our rcscarch assistant-s. Francine l.lancini. 

gli.-,i.r"l "i',.TiYb"YH.::ft 9,,*1"".1'.:1i9,.1,1,?,T 

$lilHt lix"Jf .'?i 

able assistance. 

THD ATTIIORS 

Nicholas A. Ashford is associatc professor.of technology and policy 

ii1,3?l':?lf.:l'ff$.',{,ll; 

r- 

f".lsi 

F;li.! Ar!;;;"iil,"" "'t'lrrt. 

crrrrennv,."",.", o'. "rioiii-J; ;iirtl \*lili:i llt"]si;,i;;1l.7f ?;,ll$ 

!:fJi'#ii,.,ffi1,"lli'fii ni,T,tii;,ti til,#.1:* :f"i*"'"1*.:,m; 

rlegrce. both.from thc ft'nivcrsitv rr+ Cfri".,,S", irir;";'ir" 

glnduate 

"il. "*"ir.a 

ilaining in cconorrrics. 

__Roger K._Chiiholm is profcssor of economic_q at }lemphis State 

liii:1il]'ll.."TiiT'iii llll i',:,','.'lf ,T::lu"i*ir;:"i,*l'fi'"*iTi 

ing. llefhods," .'f ntrrolgauizlrior"t fj""t"loii lfnffi,;;';;i",,r,",", 

;l;',1: il.:'lil,ll";'f ii"'illi',';,ll:'','m'n' 

r eTs )' Dr" cil'rotin'' ""- 

#iri'..ox #ujlf i;lii;tr "1j&!?ill is,s Fre h.,,is a 

+_rJer 1,ili;"f . ii;",."*;iii;:;;i iT'iljl'l;ill.ll ;,.:lI,l"1h".',.*: ?,m 

ll-'J,1"';,f;;:l,ll'il,::,i:,,::."::, 'l:i,.ili;l:;1 

-''' i"i,,i1r,l;,:"1li;l.lln; 

lrrrlelorof.scinnne,lcgrc.. 

" 

in l,i"l,,r.-r {ion, F ii,ri,1,i;"iL'\." 

,"5: T,'1i;;ft i":l';;,1":iTfi,l:,H'Jilf,li"lJ1l; l#.::t iLJ,T 

iinirirl-t il *Hi ll ll; jlf;li:i;i*"'fi ii"1,q'i'i "r;i;;; 

.li].li.llll.S. ;I.qo.snrcli. and. rr lr rr;r g,,d ,, si ,r,J r l,.a,jile r',, i hc I 

i iir H'll#'Tl il*ll,lrtjil tln, 

" r. 1'n' 1 " " i r"gi i; i' i i,; ; ;;';l'i i"; 

l rr..ersirvanrt i.a-.,n1,, ""rir,'"1lll,liil,l,:,lli!;l;.-r'ne 

fronr Bosfon 

3i i:ffi ;; Ilii.t li;"i : ;,: :m;,my:ii:l':iy,lf, ::H; 

lf n;il"f ; j'i' Ti,,H'iil;:,,t., 

p"r i"i i.';"--i ;:i;u',r" i il". nr" " 

r,", i.r .r. i-",.r,,,";;; 

'(ii.;i,.li:".'frii-.."ilf, 

f,,,r::;;1,,,3ff:;ii"""T 

i'ilJ;" 11;',,3ia:,T[,:1fr"lili;] ;i*ii l:li: Jii*i:i',-',.J;;11ia 

ii!; !ili:iiii q,;:t"r,,iirli;l _"::,:ll,' Xm iil 

+l*r;ru 

i:Wf ll,t;l;:l;,1?,\tilljfl;],- " ,t?,,.i"''""'i,,ir'i",i"ir "n'gin"",'r;!

45 

William tr'Iendez is a research associate at the MIT Center for Policv 

Alternatives. IIe is ths co-author of !(Mobilizins Resources for the Coritrol 

of Occupational CancerJ for the OIIice of TecltnoJogv Assessment 

and of "Caie Study and Teaching llatelials: Ilcg-uiation \rinyl 

Chloride in the Worhplacc') fol the Dukt. Rand GL;rdrratc Institute. 

Dr, Mendez holds a doctorate in biochetrristry from the University of 

Chicago and is currentll' a. candidate fol th,'mrrster of publir: policy 

degree -\\'. at the llan'ald llniversity Kennedv School of Government. 

Curtiss ]lriest is ir rcsctrclr associatc lt the I.IIT Center for 

Policv Alterlatir,es. He is the mrthor of "Railroad Safctv Economics: 

A Griideb"ok for tlre -fnalvsis o{ Regrrlations" for the Fedenrl Railroad 

-ldnr in ist lrr tiorr, rrrtl co-u rrthor of "Xvaluating Chenrical Regulations 

: 'I'radc-OiI Analv,sis und Ilrpact Assessruont fol Environmental 

Decision-tr'Itliing" for'the Counciion Envir'orurerrtal Qualitv rnd the 

Envirorrrnerlal Protection ,lsencv. Dr. Pricst holds a doitoratc in 

management science rvith an empliasis on econornics from Renlsalaer 

Poh'tcchnic Instiirrfp. 

l

is:i:di;i"i:.r;tq. 

46 

L ITERATURE 

CITED 

Arthur An^dersen & Co., Cosr of 0o vsM!llB9gqlql!9!!!!!ry, for the 

Business Roundtdb le, NeF-Yorffiew ,ur (, ,1drcn ryl q. 

Ashf ord, Ni chclas.A.,_.,'T}|e Usef ulness of Cost-Benef it Andlysis,, i n 

Representat i ves ! July 30, 1979, 

. No. 70-1216 

';.!:'ilH:'", 

Ashford, N. 

_A., 5. Butler, and ivl, Zolt, ,,Co|rnent 

on Druq Requlation and 

_lnnovation in the Paannaceutlcal Industry,,, poper preseited'to Htll Revrew 

Panel on New Drug Regulatjon, February 

'l977- 

Ashford, N, A., 0. Hdttis et al., "Fcoro4ric 

and Sociat ImDact of 

UccupaLrond I ilo tse R.qLldtion, " U. S. EnvironmenLdl p"oteci jon Aqency 

office of Noise Abatement and Control, 1976. 

Ashford, N.-A..and G, R. Heaton, "The Efiects of Health and Environfiental 

:areIy,,Kegu rat ]0n_on Techno l og ical Change i n the Chemical lndustry,,, in 

i.rl; il,li;"ii'1,W, 

Hdshineton' 

Ashford, N. A., 6. R. rleaLol. J-. , dnd l,t. C. priesl, .,tnvironmeFLal 

flealth Health dnd Safety SdferJ Requldti"n 

Regulaijcn dlo ancileLhnolooicirl 

Iogica1 lnn1vdrion., 

Innovation," in :n C C. T. I Ni]I 

and J. l'1. Utterback, Eos., Technologjcal I inno!ation Inno!ation fqr for a Dynami; 

Dvnami. 

Economy, Nerv York: Pergamoi-?i-s s, 

49hford,.N, A-, E. t4. Zolt, D. Hattis, J. I. Katz, G. R. Heaton. and 

tJ, C. Priest, "tvalLdLiag 

Chemrcdl Regulations: irade-ort n"ifi,sii anO 

tmpact Assessr,ent I./ Ll.iyonmellrl Lecision-l4akinq,,, J,:, Counail on 

En vi ronmental Qual ity, 1979. 

Blot, hl, J.and J. F. Fraumeni, Jr., ',Geographical patterns of Lunq 

cancer : Industri at Correl ation s - " g9{gq!41glgl!g!@i!!!y, Vo t. 

103, No. 6, pp, 539-550. 1976. ' 

Bo01, Allen and Hani tto . lnc., Study 

Ia\pect ion 5y!Ler, U.S, Depa-treiT-T of the gedera I fleat 

Eoucher, l,]. et al., Federil Incentjyes for Innovatlon, Denver Research 

lnstituLe, Un ivers i rt;aje-Oen vrt, -Toloiado;-dnG;t-gi 

6. 

Bridbord, K. et al., ,,Estjmates 

of the Fractions of Cancer in the Unlted 

States RelaLed to occutatio4el Fdctors," U.S. Department of Health, 

Edu.aLion and Helfare, l9/8. 

BroLle,L et al,, 'An [conomic Analysjs of the Consuners Lnion proooseo 

sarely J!andard t0r poleer Lawn IitoFers," Standford Research lnstjtilte 

19 75. 

: 

.1 

.i

47 

Brookshire, D. S, and }{. P. Schulze, "An Economic Analysis of the Risks 

of Lonq-Term Nucledr hdste Storaoe.'' Re\earch Paoer l6l. U.S. 

lnviro;nentdl Protect'on Aqency,'197 | , 

Brown. li1. H.. "Love Canal and the Poisoninq of Arerica." Atlantic, Vol, 

244, N0.6, pp. 33-47, Decerb'r 1979. 

8urrows, P., C. Ro|'ley, and D, Owen, 

"The Economics of Accidental-0il 

Pollrition by Tankers in Coastal llaters," Journal of Public Econonics' 

Vo l, 3, pp. 251-268, 1974a. 

, "Torrey Canyon: A Case Study in Accidental 

Pollution," Journal of Pol I itical Econony, 

EcononyVo1. 

2l' No. 3, pp. 237-258, 

llovelrber ,rlovearber 19,1461-- 

Callanay, D. and C. Drucker, National HiOnay Traffic Safety 

Admin j strat ion, oepartment of Transportation, 

"Socidl Consequences of 

Acci dents. " 1979. 

Clark, A. dnd H. lla?ton, "The Effects of Safety Packagirq 04 Children'5 

Asp irin lngest rons. " Consumet Product Saiety c-onwi ss ion,- 1978. 

Comptroller General of the Unjied States, Effectiveness, Benefits and 

!ost' or re!erat ialety srg'roa@ 

uccupantsr benerd I Accounl ln9 urr rcet Ju ry rvlo. 

Consumer Product snfety Comnission, 0ffice of Strategic Planning' 

"Importance 

of Crib Safety Actjvities on Injuries dnd 0eaths Associated 

wi th Crjbs, 

" 1979. 

Council on Environmental Quality, Federal Task Force on Inadvertent 

l,lodification '19 

of the 5trdtosphere, Fluorocarbons and the fnvironrnent' 

75. 

Crocker, J,0., t, Schulze, 5. 8en-David and A. Y. Kneese, 

rrHethodl 

0evelophent for Assessinq Air pollution Control," }ldshinqton' u'L.: 

0ffice of Research and Developnent, lJ.S. Environmental Protection Agency' 

February 1979, 

Dardis, R., S. Aaronson and Y-tl. Lln, "Cost Benefit Andlysis of 

Flamnability Standards,' Anericdn. Joilrnal of Agricultural Econonics, vol' 

60, N0.4, ftovember ]978.- 

0ornbusch, D, f4, and S. l'1. Barrager, 8e!!llits of Hater Pollution |:ontrol 

on oroperiy \'alLes, u,S. Lnvironipnta@ 

Re seaiirr oiro TevElopnenr, kashingLon. D.(.-,lJlt. 

Ebon Research systems, A I'lodel of Inplicit cost Functions Relevant to 

Istimatinq the Cosl to an Econory of 0ccupationa] lnjL.ies and Illnesses, 

lnpdct, l979. 

Engel, J. H., "Cost-Benefit (and Economic lmpact) Analysis of a Proposed 

|landatory Consuner Product Safery Stdrdard for dore Television 

Receivers,rr Underwri ters Laboratories, Inc., 1976' 

J 

: 

: 

'

48 

Environmental Studies Board, r'Nitrates: An Environmental Assessment," 

Na ti ond I Research Council. 1978. 

Fl'lC Corporation, Accident Cost lndicator l4odel to Estjrnate Costs to 

Indu stry and soci@ground 

Food and Drug Adninistration, DepdrtnrFnt of i,edlth, Fducation and 

Uelfdre, "ln{ lation i$pdcl StdLe'rent of Proposed RLlefiaking: 

0iethyl st i lbestro I, " 1976a. 

, "Infldtion Impact Statenent of proposed 

mTenaFTnj-fi roTura n-Tf- N I iRo) { orpoLnd;, 1976b. 

, "lnflation lnpdct Statenpnt oF Proposed 

ItTefiIlnd--$cchefin-and its Salts il ioods. Drugs, Arimal Feeds, 

Animal Dru9s, Cosmetics, and as a Food AddiLi,ve, Prohibition of Use, 

, "Cert ai n Fluorocarbons (Cnlorofluorocarbons) 

$Too6;-Tdi Tdtritl,r e;-Drug , Animal Food, Aninal Dnrg, Cosmetic and 

Med ical Oevi ce Products_as Propel l ants i n Se lf -Pre ssLrri zed Containers; 

Prohibition on Use," 197 7b. 

, "Conbined €conoftic Impact Assessment of Series 

of Proposal s Regnrdi ng Penic i I I i n/Telracycl ine- Containi ng Premixes," 

19 78. 

, "Reguldtory Andlysis: Patient Labeling 

Requireinents for Prescription Druq Drod r.ls," 1979, 

Food Safety and Quality Service, U.S. Department of 

i trates. Nitrites and A or lso 

,run-i:--E; rd. 

- 

Aqri cu I ture. lmoact 

ascorbates) in Bacon, 

, Final lmpdct Statement: Nitrate and NrtriLes- 

, Fi nal Impdct SLatenent: Residue 

pro 

TalT-n-P rem ia-i-fSfTF ); ffi 

General Services Adninistration, u.S- Goler ient l.1anual, p. 119, tlay 1978. 

6laubirger, R. S., P. 14. Kohn and R. Remirez, "Love Canal Aftemath: 

Learning from a Tragedy," Cheoicdl Engineering, pp.86-92,0ctober 22, 

Grabowski, H. c. and J- [.1. VernDn, The Impact of Requ]ation on lndustrial 

Innovdtjon, report prepared for the@ 

nfirr-nqIbn, D.C. , 1979.

4 9 ' 

Grahn, 0., 

and K. 

197 6. 

"Cost-Benefjt as tleighed on Genetic Scales,' ln R. A. K.rdi' 

Z. l'1or9an, Energy and the Environment: Cost-Benefit Analysis, 

Green, M. and N. Vlnitzman, Business llar on the [aq: An Analysis of the 

Benef i t s of Federdl Fealth@ 

@ 

Harrison. Jr.. 0,. LJho Pays for Clean Air?' Canbridgel Bnlllng€. 

Publ ishi;o co: - 1975.-- 

Harri son, Jr., D. and0. 

L. Rubinfeld,'Hedonic 

Denand for Clean Air," Journa I of Envi ronrent a I 

Vo 1. 5, pp. 8l-102, 19 

nerln an r Stexar t 1,1., TheHealth 

Costs of Air Pollution--A Surve 

StudiesPub 

I r shed l9;F /.trnerr can LUng ss0c I at ron, i 

Hershaft, A. (ed,), A. l'1. Freenan III, T. P. Crocker, and J. B. Stevens, 

Critical Revier'r of Estiratjng Senefits of Air and flater Pollution 

Protection Aqency, June l9lu. 

Distribution of Benefits from Im0rovements in 

of Environmental €conomics aid lldnagement, 

Hill, C. T., E. Greenberg, 0. J. Ne'rburger and G. R, ||hitaker, nA State 

of the Art Revien of the Effects of Requlation on Technoloqical 

Innovation in the Cheilical and Al lied ProilucLs indLrstries, 

" report to 

the National Science Foundation, Uashington University, St' Louis' M0' 

1975- 

Hor{er, 0., rAn Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Child-Resistant 

packaging,rr Consuner Product Safety comission' 1978. 

lriin, T. R., 'A Cost-Benefit Analysis of Sulfur 0ioxide Abatement 

Reoulations in PhilddelDhia," Etrsi;ess tconorics' Vol' i2, No' 4' 

ppl1z-zo, 1977. 

Iverstjne, J. C. and J. L, Kjnard, "The lfi,pact of Environirental 

Protectio; Requlations on Research and Developnent in the lndustr'jal 

Chemical Induatry," in C. T. Hill, Federal Re,rulation and Chemical 

Innovnlion, i'iashington, D'C.: lvneriia-n -6he'n-i?iT.Toc 

r-e-Ty ' -T9I9:_- 

Jondrow, J, 1"1., 

"A 

l.leasure of the 14onetary Eenefits and Costs to 

Consumers of the Requlat'ion of Prescription Druq tffectiveness"' 

Unpublished Pb,D, Dissertation, UniversitJ of i,,lisconsin, August 

,t972. 

Kneese. A. v.. "Benefit Analysis and Today's Regulatory Problems'" Public 

I n Lereit Economics Foundation. 1978, 

Kunreuther, H, and P. Slovic, "Economics, Psychology and Pfotectlve 

Eeh av i or, ' Amer i c dn Economic RevieN Papers ahd Proceedings, May 1978. 

r 

a

(utta. -R . fi. , 

ie cnno togy, S. 

50 

Lave. L, B. andE, P. Seskin, Air Pollution and Human Health, Saltirnore: 

Jo hn' s Hopkins University pre s{-IfII 

I'lccuire, T. et al., ,,An Evaluation of Consuner protection Legislation: 

the 1962 Amendments: A Cofinent,,, Journat of politicai Econo;y, Vot. 83, 

N0. J, pp.655-661, l9/ 5. 

Mendeloff, J., Reguldting Safety: An Econornic and potitical Analysis of 

occupat iondl Sa 

l'4ieskowski, P. and A. 1,1. Saper, ,,An 

Es t imateof 

the lffects of Airport 

Noise on Property Values,,' Journalof 

LlrbanEconomi 

c s, Vol.5, pp.425- 

440, 19/8. 

l',1oll, K., S. Buam, E. Copener, F. 0orsch, R. lirjght, G. Jones, 0. Starret 

and C, Starry, "Haza|dou5 

Wdstes: A Risk-Benefit Framework Apiljed to 

La0mrum and Asbestos,, l,tdshington, 0,C,, U.S. Invironmental protectron 

Agency 0ffice of Research and Developrent, 1977. 

National Hjghway Traffic Safety Ad inistration, 0epartment of 

Transportatjon, "Economic 

Impact Assessrient--A'iendnent to FIlVS lio. 208, 

(0ccupant Crash Protecton)--part I I, tsenefits,,' Ju ly 1977. 

Netional Highway Traffic Safety Adfiinistration. "Final Reaulatorv 

Evaluatlon: Chlld Restratnt Standard (F VSS 2t3)',, liovemb;r 1979. 

Iational Highuay Traffic Safety Administration. 0eDdrtrnent of 

Transportation, 1975 Societal Costs of l'lotor Vehicle Accjdenis, DOt-HS 

80Zll9, Dec"rterffi 

l{atjonal Research Council, Avisor} Center on Joricoloqy, Drinkinq warer 

and Heal Lh, U,S. Nat iona I Acaden/ of Sc iences, 1977. 

National Research Council, potych lorinated I jphenyls, Natjonal Research 

Counci I, 197 9. 

Nelson, J. P,, "Residential Choice, Hedonic prices and the Denand for 

Urban Air Qualjty," Journal of Urban Econonics, Vot. 5, pp, 357-369, 1978. 

Parvin, D. H., Jr,, ',Farm l"tanageinent Irnplications of 

Agricultural Pollution Related to Cotton Production Reduci ng 

in Mi ss i ss ippi; " 

, Vo t. 58, N0.5, pp.978-983, 

Peltzman, S,, "An tvalutjon of Conswer Frotection Leqislation: The 1962 

orug Anendments," Journal of Poljtical Economy, Vol, 81, tio. 5, pp. 

1049-1091, 1973b. 

- 

,','An l-vdtuation of Consuner prol,ection 

Legislation:' A Reply," Journdl of Political [conoay. Vol, 83, llo. 3, pp. 

663-667 , 1975a. 

,, 

:

51 

. xThe Effects of Aulrnobile Safety - Requiation.'Journal ' 

of 

Pb-TTFiEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEETT-C 

onoiy, Vol. 83, pp, 6t7-725, l975tr. 

Peterson, J. !1. , "Estimatjng 

an 

Case, 

" 

Effluent Charge: The Reserve t4ining 

Land Econonics, Vol, 53, No, 3, pp, 328-341, August 1977. 

Reinfurt, D. |ll., C. Z. Silva, and A. F. Seila, A Statistical Analysls of 

Seat Seli !ffectiveness in 1973-1975 ttooel Cais-lnvol veo-l r, t,,wawlv- 

Lrd\hest Vo'.! I, llnrvPrsllJ ol l\0rth Larollnd, Rep0rL lo tle U.J 

lEp-dif mEifTl-TFa n sp o rt at i on, l976, 

Resedrch GrouD. Product Liabilitv Leodl Studv. Vol. III. ror the 

rnreragency ias< roTce 0n ProoLc! Lrabr trty, u.), uepdrt fpnt ot Lofinerce, 

kdshingtoo, )976. 'ee a)so lnsr.aarce Services Office, lloduct liabjlity 

Clo\ed-Cldin survFy, ua5hrngron, D.(-, 197/. 

Re5eJrch friangle Irstitute, "lnflationary tmpact Stdtement: Cotton 

Dust," U. S. Departfient of Labor, oSHA, 1979. 

Robertson, L. S,, "A Critical Analysis of Peltzman's 

'The Effects of 

Automobile Safety Regulaton, 

'' 

,lournal of Economic Issues, Vol. ll, flo, 

3, pp.:87-600, Sep tenbe" 1977.- 

Schlottflan, A., and L. Abrams, "Sulfur Emissions Taxes and Coal 

Resources," Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol, 59, 1977. 

Seneca, J, J., P. Asch and (. Erenndn, "&ortality nnd Air Pollution in 

New Jersey," Neli Jersey Economjc Policy Council, t979. 

Settle, R., "Benefits and Costs of the Federal Asbestos Standard," U.S. 

Department of Labor, 1975. 

Snal l, K. A., "Estlmating 

the Air Pollution Costs of Transport l]lodes,rl 

Journal of Transport Economics and Policy, vol. ll, pp. 109-'132, l'4ay 1977. 

Smith, R. S., "The Impact of oSHA Inspections on Hanufactufing Injury 

Rates," The Journal of Human Resources, vol. 14, No- 2, pp. 145-l/0, 

Spri ng l9/9.. 

Sm ith, V. K., Thefc 

onomic 

Stutts, J. C. and D. UJ. Reinfurt,.lmpact of Recent Chanqes in the Higlyll 

Safety Invironrelt: A Projpct ov;r !-lit;l;l v;iiiat-T-li6iTE-C;roTin a, 

ffiatio1, 

lo/ i. 

Thaler, R. and S. Rosen, 

"The Value of Saving a Life: €vidence Fron 

the Labor l'1arket," paper presented at the NBER Conference on lncome 

and l,lealth, Household Production and Consumption, Inshington, 0.C,, 

No'?embe. 30, l9 73. 

Tihansky,0., "A 

in Cos t-Uenefi t 

l{a slt rig to n, 

Survey 

i 

:

Tjfinons, J, F., 

November 

l9 79. 

52 

Tillery, ll., 'Snfety and Health Provisions Before and After 0SlA," U.5, 

Departnent of Labor, BLredu of Labor StaListics. 1975. 

"soil 

Losses Like Exports,r' The lowa Stater, p. 7, 

Tversky, A. and 0. Xahneman, "Judgments 

Under Uncertajnty: Heuristics and 

B i ases, Science, Vol. lB5, pp. 1124-l l3l, 1]974. 

u.S. Scna-p CorriLLee on Public llorks, Air QualiLy and ALtorobile 

E nission Corrrols, l,Jashington, D.C., U.3.-Go wFiiie r, r PiinFino-oFfice, 

Tfr4 .-_- 

Utterback, J, 11., ,'Creating 

a Clinate for l4ore Innovative Responses to 

Requlation," paper presenLed at the 32nd l!dLiondt Conference bn the 

Advancenent 

'le 

of Research, Denver Research Institute, Unjversity of oenver, 

/ 8. 

l,1ade, J.E. and E. O. Heady, 

,,Controlling Nonpoint Sedjment Sources |^Jith 

Cropland fianagefient: A National Economic Assessflent,', Anerican Journal 

of Agrjcultqlql Economics Assessment," Vol. 59, ltO. t, p[lT3:2?JS7.- 

, "fieasuremeni 

-rfa of Sedjnrent Contro l Impacts on 

FgJ.iI?TIf'rre-:. GFTp saur. )s or'-odych Yol. 14, No. 1, pp. l-8, 1978. 

l,lalsh, R,6- et al,,0ptjor Values, Preservntion Values and Recreational 

Eene' I I s of lr orovec-tri=pffi 

Rivcr 8rqi1, L:1o"..0, LJ.(. flvirorlertdl ?, ol-ititn Tq -;.talli-rce of 

Reieadi anTneve Eement, Hashington, 0,C., 1973, 

llateman, T. E., K. R. Mniszewski and D, J, Spadoni, "Cost/Benefit 

Analysis of Fire 0e+"ectors," report by the IIT Research instjtute for the 

Naiional Science FcunCation and the llational Fire Prevention and Control 

l\dnrinistration. SeDtember 1978, 

l{eidenbdun, l,l. L. and R,oeFina, The Cost of Federal Req'Jlatjon of 

EconomicActivities,Reprintlto,SE,Ane-;lcan-Enferpr$e*Tnsf iiuie, 

iiishi4rloroloronl-dif itaay1978. 

Hejss, 1,1-, "Lung 

Cancer Mortalily and urban Air pollutjon,,' American 

Journal of Public Health, Vol.6B, No.8, pp.773-775, August-T9f 

Hestman, l,l. t., "How 

14uch are I'lature's Services l,iorth?,', Science, Vol. 

197, pp. 960-964, September 2, 1977, 

Yu, E, S. H., "Aesthetic 0anage and Househol{j Behavior,,' Journal of 

Environnental llanagement, Vol. 7, pp.261-?6a, 1978. 

Zeckhauser, R. anC A. Nichols, ,,Government 

Comes to the Horkplace: An 

Assessnent of 0SHA," U,S, Congress, Senate Conmitteeon 

Goyernnent 

0perat i ons, l9 77. 

'1

APPENOIX A: THE LITERATURE SURVEY 

a- l Ovcrview of the Li ter.ture txanln.d 

This aDDendix di3cusses the ljterature survey Pcrforn€d for this pro- 

ject and the construction of a computerized bibliograPhv of that literature' 

The objective of the survey was to conPile, acquire' and review as much of 

the current literature as Possible on the benefits of environniental, health 

and safety regul at ion. 

s.g!9:g-!99!:Ea!: 

o.' 

The orimarv sources for i|anv of th. docur€nts contalned ln the bibli_ 

ography are the federal r€gulatorv agencies.* In addltion' Congression6l 

documents containing inforn tion ot the benetiti of requlstioD, including 

bolh corittee reports and rePorts Produced bv the Conqressional Research 

servlce were used. A third major source of material cofrpiled here is the 

open literature. Docunents in the scie.tific' 'nedical' public health, en_ 

gineering. and some econo.ic journals $/€re located bv coaputer searches ol 

the data bases at the Nation.! Librarv of I't'edicine, the congressional In- 

fornation service, and elsewhere. In addition, manual searches of the last 

five years' issues of the Journal of Economic Literature also produced manv 

relevart titles. Finally, the retiai.der of the literature reviesed in this 

(eoort is nade up of docu€nts alread'/ ot' hand .l the Center for PolicY 

Alternatives and those obtained after brlcf s€arch€s of thc catalogues of 

the MIT I ibrari e5. 

Of the 356 docum€nts in the file, 229 src classlfled as "articles," 45 

as "books." and 82 as "corporate or governEnt." About one_third of all of 

the documents in the bibliography were wrltten by emploYees of, or contractors 

to, the federal qovernment SorE of their contributions are characterized 

or "articlest' either becalse thev were publ ished as articles in 

*A--Tist oiE6

1,1 

govern'n€nt journals te.g., the fionthly Labor Review) or because th€y \,{ere 

najor reports that were pubtished in book forn (e.g., the National Researcn 

Council report on ft uorocErbons). 

The nunber of do€uments In the bibtiography pubtished o, contracted b, 

the various branches of the federat sovernment and the regutatory agencies 

is summarized in Table A.t. This distribution of doclments does not indicate 

the .elative degree of concern uithin the agencies for the study of 

benefits, but reftects the fact that there was not sufficient tifre to locaie 

and obt6in many docloents that woLjld have bees retevant to this survey. 

TABLE A.I 

ITUIIBERS OF DOCUT{E}IIS IN THE BIBLIOGMPHY 8Y AGENCY OF GOVERNI1ENT 

AGENCY 

Congress ional Docunents ('ot inctudirs 

cRs, cao, cBo) 

Consumer Product Safety Commission 

Department of fransport6tion (mostty NHTSA) 

Envi ronmental Protection Agency 

Food and Drug Administration 

Department of Labor (rp6t1y osHA) 

Nat ion6l Science Foundat ion 

National Academy of Sciences, National 

Rescarch counci I 

Depa rtnent of Energy, ERDA 

Counci I on Environhental Quatity 

Department of the Intertor 

(Eureau of iies) 

Departrent of Health, Education and 

NUI1BER 0F DoCU,,1ENTS 

IN B I8L IOCRAPHY 

l4 

3O 

20 

27 

9 

7 

5 

3 

2 

I 

I 

i 

..q

Ll teralure Searci StrateoY 

DO 

ln deciding lrhich docurents to obtain for the bibliograPhy' . number of 

basic aqiding principles were generally fol loNed. The highest priority 

was given to documents that develoPed quantitative €stimates of the bene- 

fits ot specific regulatory initiatives. The next highest Prioritv !a5 given 

to tDo kinds of documents: doc!rents that included quantitative estimat€s 

of the pg!9Elgl behefits of resulation (estimates of the health costs of 

aJr pollotior, for ssntPte) and docunEnts that made imPortant theoretical 

or nethodoloqical contrtbutions to the state of the art in be'efits estil'a_ 

tions. Finally, sorle effort was iEde to include documents which contained 

purelv qualitative descriptions of the kinds of benefits of regulation which 

are not conrnon ly mentioned as such or v/hich are lnherentlv dlfficult to 

Decisions w€re also made to exclude certain kinds of literature from the 

bibl ioqraphy. Generally, fe{ epidemiological studies of the effect of 

specific subslances on huoans ,ere included. (sumaries a.d reviews of 

epidemioloqicai literature, and studies of inPortant seneral envire.')ental 

pollutants are included, hov/ever' ) In addition, few documents which 

attemDted to elucidate dose-response relalionshiPs or damage funciions for 

the effects of speciflc pollutants on specific plant or animal species 

other than humans were included. There is conside.able literalure In these 

field5, however, h+lich could be comPiled and evaluaced in the future' 

Nature of the Bibl ioqraphv on the Eenetits of Requlation 

The bibliograPhv on the benefits of federal environment'l' 3af'tY' and 

health resutation is me6nt to be both a codpendium of ioportant studiet of 

the benefits of resulation, as well as a stid!l!s to further research in 

the area. lt thus contains not only ProsPec!lve and ret.ospective a'alyses 

of qovernment requlatory programs in many policy are35' but also manv 

articles and references on the theoretical asPects of benefits estimation_ 

A nLrmber of importint policY areas and technical issues are addressed in 

this bibl iograPhY 

:i

56 

Table A.2 suniarlzes the number of artictes in the bibliography retated 

to various areas of regulatory policy. Son|e arricles deat with nDre th.n 

one ;rea, so the totai number of articles in.the table exceeds the number 

of articles (156) in th€ bibliography. tt c.n be seen th6t the targest 

hunber of articles is devoted to air pollution, with wat€r poll!tion, oc- 

cupational safety and health, and toxic substances (in senerat), consumer 

prodoct sdfety and transportation al I sel l-represented. 

TABLE A,2 

NUI{BER OF DOCUI1ENTS tN BIBLIOERAPIIY RELATfD IO SEIECTEO POLICY AREAS 

occupational Safety ,Dd Heat th 

Toxic SubstaDces 

Consumer Product Safety 

Energy 

Noise 

Drugs 

Note: Catesories are not nutua|y exctusive, For exahpte, a docgri€ot coutd 

t3 

48 

\2 

35 

30 

20 

examine air po ution produced by different energy use patte.ns or 

t ransportat ion svsterjs. 

t9 

llr 

l0 

t0 

] 

:

As can be 5€.n ln Tablc l.r, cBt-beneflt aaary5ts tl,s a Prd',ln.nt 

place atron9 th€ nethodologies us€d in the literEture. Sources dealing with 

closely-related sets of technlques for ev6luating policiet involving un_ 

certainty about fut!re events such as risk-benefit analysis, also.pp€ar 

often ib the bibliography. A general pol icy_analytic approsch i5 taken In 

6l of the documents. Fifty docunents were clas5ifled asrrtheoretic6l'r, 

Eaning that their prihary focus uas on discusstng the techoical, economic 

or ethical aspects of benefit assessment nethodolosies rather than on the 

actual performance of benefit ass€ssnent. There are 6 nunber of pEpers 

under this heading which address the difficult issues (dlscussed ih Section 

3) of the val!ation of health benefits and approaches to assessing and 

evaluating the equity and red;stributiooal aspects of safety and he.lth 

regulation, lt can also be seen that l7 docunents either conduct risk 

assessment o. .n"tyt.s of risk assessment ne!hodologies. The approach taken 

to risk assessment in 25 docurents ;s through the use or performance of 

human ep idef,iologi ca I studies. 

TABL€ A.l 

I{UI,IBER OF DOCUNE TS IIt BIETIOGRAPHY EHPLOY IiIG S€LECTED ITETHODOLOG IE5, 

ADOR:SS IN G SPECIFICTECI 

N ICAL iSSUES 

Cost-Benefi t Ana lys is (theoretical 

dimens ions and case studles) 

Risk-8enef it Ana lys t s 

General Pol icy Analytic Tech.lques 

Theoretical Aspects of Senefits AssessflI€nt 

- Val!ation l ssues 

- Equity and In.ome Distributlon 

Ep i demiology 

l.1ul ti pl e Re gresslon, Econoo.trlc Techn iquca 

llote: Categories are not mutuallv exclusive. For.xample, a docurEnt could 

ol 

I t0 

disclss the theoretical aspects of costjbenefit analvsi5' 

5?-?900-t0-5 

5O 

t7 

40 

:1 

:i 

i 

* 

,t 

l

58 

4,2 Descriptlon of the glbttography and Reference Atd3 

Appendix I contains a bibliography of 3j5 entries, I tsted €lphabett- 

cally by author, and Appendix C conrains 5 subject iodex. Each citat,on 

is uniquely identified by a I2 digit reference number. The reference 

identifier begins with the Ietter I (benefjts) and was cohstructed by ustng 

the first I letters of the author's last name, first initial, tast 2 digits 

of the year or publication, and the ftrst 4 letlers of the first 4 signiftcant 

vrords in the title. App€ndix B ls therefore.lso organized atphabeti- 

cal ly by i dent i fier. 

it -{ 

n 

j 

.: 

1 

il 

)^. 

t 

*i 

,d 

il 

l 

:l 

1 

,* 

ri 

{ 

j 

4 

'3 

.i 

I 

1 

,l

APPENDIX B: BIBLtOGRAPHY 

59 

!rlRlrTt Eo!P .lb!tt5!rt, 1. ttt.!. 

,cF!rllne, D.l. D. 

"th. EroroEic. o! lnvitou..t.I ?....!v.ti.!: CoEE.Et" 

A!ericsn E.orooic i.vi.e, rol.54, !o.6, Dec.!b.!, l9)4' P. 

1025-10?9 

BIC(E! 73osll A.k€r!.tr, A.uc. l. 

Ac k€ !!a!, sutr! loaa 

It.ode!.on, Dt l. lL 

"The tr.ce!t.iE Se.rch for tnvi!odr.nt.1 Policy: lhe Co.t. 

.nd Benefit6 of Controlliua ?oll,utioa Aloog th. D.1ts!!. 

Bive!" 

Phil,d€tphia, P4. u.iver6i!y of r€a!rytvlnl. ltr l.vi.t. 

vol. l2l, ro,6, Jube, 1973, P. 1225_1308 

llcS*rCEaER9 Cheaical 8od EnEitreerins €e3 

f,!. f,nwironr..t.1 Reg!1.tioa con. loo Pt!?: I D.b!t. o! lh. 

Co.tr ve! 3u5 th. Ben€fit5 

cheoi.al lnd rnsinee!ing nce., t979 

arcloJ76lal1{v ac ton, Jan P. 

"xe.3urin8 

!be Nodet.rt v!lu..f Ltf.t.Yin! lroti.r.' 

vrasbio8Lon, Dc: rhe R..d corpor.rion, 1976 

!AtlDtl,JT5SEaA Andreei r lLH, Ch!ist.trson, C,I. 

"sode 

Econdnic Fa.to!s lff..ting 

!i!uEino!6 coal )t!Des: A corrent" 

S.f.ct in UDd.tarouna 

South.r! Ec oDoE ic Jourtral, 1975 

lrP6.A+Qsscl2 

rir P6ttution CoDrrol as3oci.tion Qu.b.c ChApr.t 

Clc.ner Air: Costs-Bene!itr--SrtPoaiu! of the Ai! lolrution 

contro I As.oci6!iori 

Air torlutio! con!rol ,{s3ociati.n QuEb.c chqpte!, l9r2 

Aocr ican ret!o l.uE Institut€ 

P.o.€€dins! ot the )g)J 0il siill 

Aehrviou!, Cotrtiol, cleatup) 

A6er i c.n Pe!!oleuo rrsliture, H.!ch, 

lAsS!!r79ECRr 

Zolt I E. X. 

(.rr. J. r. 8..!on, c.l. 

€v,li.ti.s Ch.di..l xegolrtiont: 

Irplct asserslent for Euvi!onE.nt.l 

Plielt, ra. c!!ti.. 

tt.de-otl an.lytit 

D.ci.ioD- aLi!8 

.nd 

HIT Cent€r fo! Poli.t AIt.rnstive., 1979 

IASBLA' 6EAlE 

!'AILE'4IAIA 

!BAILET 6IAN' 

A.hley, Bolt Rudo.n, Bi.hlrd l. 

l,Ihippl e, chi!tophe! 

Ene!ay and Lh. !.viro.o.bt: A Ri6i a.n.fit 4PPto.ct 

Ietr Yo!k, IY: Pe!ttron ?!.r., l9?6 

B.iiey, xliz.rl.th E, 

" I!trov.t ion !n'l R.gulatiotr" 

Jo!!nal of ?ubtic iconooic., vor.3, !974, !. 285-2t5 

lailey, !Ii!rb+th E. 

"Ilnovatiot tad Reaul.tio!: l lcPlt" 

ConfG!!qc. ( P!.v!nt ion, 

t97 7 

t j 

-! I 

-:' 

: 

j 

it 

: 

.] 

4 

l

IEAILET6IAI' 

!aALloT TArtD 

traiAH?6r0Ec 

ltAR!a73|l t 

t!AislTTAOEt 

lrtsHttEEsAU 

!tLAllt?83sTo 

!!0Ltli77!aco 

D!Ottx77C!tF 

!BOTDtI6EAOE} 

ltREIU77BCAl 

60 

Jour..1 ot lub1tc A.o'o!i.!, vol.5, t976, p. 393-!t4 

Brldt.tii, o. !. 

"An App!o..h to th. D.relBis.clon ol th€ E.onoDic 

tffe.tiveo.r. of Irv..tu.nr i! pu!1ic f,.!tthtr 

$.r.koo, vo1. 12, so.5, Spring, t977r !. 84-95 

l6r.E, Uichrel S. 

"l.gulations 

of Environoetrt!t Car.inoAen.. th, Co.r-tei.fir 

An.ly.is ay !€ Irrrrfut to you! ne!tthr! 

CaobridSe, uA: Technology Revies, JutI/AuAu.r, t975, p. 

40-42 

Darlidg, A!tbu! !, 

"Me.suring E.nefit! Cen.rared by Ur!m ral.! p..k." 

LaDd EcoDoEic., voL 49, I973, p,22-34 

!.!seil, A.v, Jok.iEovic, v. Sil.dr. !.A. 

''4tr Ass€ssDerr .f XTCn Accidenr Cons.queic..!,'- 

Nlclea! Saf€rt, vo1. 18, oo. 6, Noveobe!, I9f1, p. f6l-773 

si.hopr Richa!d C. 

rrEndad8e!ed speci.. .od lrc.r!.iDtt: th. Econ.ric! of t S!!c 

ADe!ican Joulr.1 of Aari.ultut.t E.o!o!ic!, vol. 60, tro. I, 

Felrua!r, 197€, t. l0-18 

!1ar.y, Bich.rd !. 

"Settins 

S.rsse ?re.t..n! I,..r Cb.ra. d.!..: . Co!r/!.a.!ir 

x€n,g.oent Accou!tiog, Deceob.r, l9?a, p, l97g 

Bureeu of N.rional AfIair. rnvironienral R.po!!e! 

&CBA S€en Fo!.ing Che!ic!t tndust!y Ioto- no!. rffi.i.!t 

Hr..6eren t !!actice! 

trashihEroo, DC: !ure.u ot n.rion,t A!frii. Environoert.I 

R.porce!, AuEust 31, t9?9, F. lO77-78 

Bolle, Xa!y J.!e 

Benefit. and Co3t. of the O.cup.!ion.l Sr!ctt .nd E€.tth 

Act: A R€vier of rhe Avlila6t€ LiEe!atqr. 

T!rbinacon, DC: US Libra!t of conEr.!ir Cone!.6sional 

Re sexrch Se!! ic e r 1977 

Bolle, l{.!y J.n. 

cost-Benefit studi., for OSBA Sr.rAard.: Ir.. 

l,os lDg.l,es, Crt: US Li!..ry 

Re r earcn Servi.e, 1977 

oa colalc.!, corA.... i o!.1 

3ond, it,B, Blckurlr.!, J,t. perti!, D,E. 

-an occ!patioo.I Fe,lrh ProErrr--cosrs vs !en€fjrr" 

A.chiv.s of EDvi!oodeDt.1 fiealrh, t968 

Breuer, x, Itervey 

"lealth Cos!6 and B€nefitr of EconoEic policy.l 

cr6bridg€, MA: InLe(narional Journ.l of Sc.t!h g.rvic.., 

I 

t 

1 

.rq {

a 

l!BocT?5EAOT 

ltaooDT tEtor 

!!a00J78tlvl 

!!t0TR?650T1 

!BBUCLT 5Af,BA 

tauaepT 7 Er'tE 

!!utRrT4loAo 

lt0atPT4tctc 

ol 

!!oct.tt, t. Dor lrom. tl.lcoh c. Riret, Lrtrt li' 

sh.r!cr. D!!i.l D. lroodt.rd. llioE G. 

Itln t.on.!ic a[.lttit ot rh. con6uber! unio. !!oro.ed s.f.ty 

St.!d.!d loE Por.! Lrvn ltoee!3 

I,Ii6hiDsro!, DCr 5ttn!ord l....rch Ib.titu!.' 1975 

a!oot€h i!€, !!vid S, 

Schul ze, Diltiro D. 

"^n E.o;ori. rntl y!.it ot !h. litl. of LoEt l.r. rtcl..! 

lrniver!ity ol x.r lt.ri,co, 1977 

"T!yior to vrlu..lif." 

.rouinal ot iublic !coDo.ic., vol,9' l9tl, ?.91-l0O 

lrosn, f,al pb J. 

"A 

Studt o! th€ hP..r o! th. 9et1.nd. E..eoant ?roat.r .r 

Ag!ic!ltural l,.n d 9.1u.. 

!!od Ecooo!ic!, vol.52, ro.4, Noredb€r, I976, P. 509_517 

Bru.*oen, L.oar!d Rubino, Robert A. 

"A.b!6!o.: BaLion,r€ B.hird ! ?ropos.d Air Q!!lity St.ndrrd'l 

Jourr.l of th€ Ai! ?ollutioD Coni!o1 A3.ociatio!' vo1. 25' 

.o. 12, DeceEler, 1975' P, 1207_l2ll 

luraer,, liil l i oD 

DiaErn!rdinis, loui. 

Spei.er, Ptatrk r. 

ItExpo.u! e ro AutoEo! iI. 

l!ch ives of Ervironneot.l 

325-329 

lrh.!rt tll ! ln Envi!on!.nrrl 

E..tth, vot.25, Jn!.' 1973, P. 

Bnrrors . Pdul Rouley, Ch.!1.! 0v.r ' David 

"The rc;nooic. Of A.(ideit,l oil Pollution Bv Tank.r. in 

Corsta), r{are!3'! 

Jo!r\al ot !ubtic Eco!otj,c., vo1.3, 19r4, !. 251_268 

ru!!oes, ?a!l lorl.y, Cha!1.. orEtr' Drvid 

''Tortey caryon: A cr!e study in Accid.ot.l loltution" 

Jouln.l of Political EconoDy, vol. 21, Do. 3, Iov€!b.a' 

!974, p.237-25a 

C!!!be1l, Rit. Rica!do 

"r!osr€ctive, 

Cort-a.n.fit An!lyti. of ! ll.t Drsl 

"Tasi;ent": Duod..r l ulc.r" 

-D.c.!b!r' 

xoove! Inrtiruti.., sttnfo!d U.ive!!itt' 

1977 

lclRLiTTGRtA csrlson, RDg.r s. !.2!.2r f.A: 

I'cro'th led!ction in t!.rica6 svcrEore (rrant..sr 

occide.t!1is) csused bv ?b-Cd lnteraction" 

!nvi!ondental !ot!ution, vol, 12, 197t, ,.243'2Jt 

lcllELJT4cotA chel iqs, Jabes B. 

"the Control o! 1ndus.!i.l Accideut.: Econotic Tb.ott ldd 

EsPiiic!1 rYider.t" 

!.; snd contedpor6iy Probl..., rol.38, 1t74, P' 699-719 

1 

4 

n 

I 

.

!ct0oL76roPc 

!cIcccT6EEOA 

ICL4RETT 

IEOE 

lcogiJT30Dtc 

!coLlD75tPAf 

!c0 ltB? ?ctBA 

!coNLt76VOf,L 

acotLBTa$0Ilt 

lco0rP78TVOfi 

!ciEnJT ?CASI 

lctuT!76IOCI 

lcrJ!1t730tts 

62 

Cn!8h, L.l C. l:!eD.r, lichr.! U.b.pr!r., S. 

"tltrct 

o! Pollu!ion R.aulrtioD. on che i.rt.t RiEt o! 

Securiries i! rhe !. s.tr 

Jouro.l of E.onobic St!di€6, rol.5, !o, l, xry, !978, p, 

Cicclr.tti, Cbrr l., J. 

Fi.h.., lntbony c. 5!ith, v. (.r!t 

"An Eeo6o!.r!ic Er.1.!!rio! ot. c.i,e!!liz.d conr!o.r lurptus 

!e..u!e: the ireral (ina Conr!ove!!y', 

EcoEor.rric., vo1. 44, !o, 6, Nov€&be!, t916, p. L259-t2j6 

CIaE!., !de.!d 8. 

xsoci:l 

lslurtion..o! 

eev.arioB Ploc e. s 

Eqviton!.!t!1. Qustitt bt the D.D.!!t 

t' 

D!iv€ r6i! y of Chic.8o, l9?t 

Coh.n, J.rry J. 

"Oo D€ceroirinS the Co!r of 4!di.tion Expo6o!. to 

Populrrion. to! pu!p..es of Cost-!enefit Ao.lyriE'! 

&earth ?hyEice, eo!..25, nor.!b.rr r97t, p. 52?-:28 

Colla!d, D.v id 

"EoviroDaeat.l 

!olicy.!d E.onooi. !tt.!!al it i.r,' 

London, ux: fh€ Econooic Jo!!nr1, S.?terber, r975, p. 655-6 

Corooner, !.rry 

" C o 6 t - I i s k - I e n e f i t Analy!iB of xit!oae! !er!ili..rion: I 

c€ ee girtor!" 

Albio, vol._5, !o.2, l9??, p. 157-l6l 

Conl ey, artar C. 

rrtte ValuE oi 8sr.! Lifa i! ttr. DeBard f6r Sstett" 

Aoeric!n !.onoEic r.vi.r, vol.65, no. t, x.!ch, rr75, p. 

45-55 

Conley, l!y.. lt. 

'rthe value of qo!!n !ife in tb. De!.n.t for Safery: f,tte,rioE 

A6ericatr EconoEic Revi.*, vot. 68, no. 4, S.pteibe!, t978, 

p. 7 7IJ-120 

Coor, Philip j. 

'rThe 

Vrlue of luE.n Lif. i! rh. D.r.nd fo! S.tetr: CoEDenr.' 

lEeric€o Ecotroaic Reviee, vot.68, !o.4, s.Dr€;b.;, 19t8. 

p. 710-7ll 

Cr€oeans ! Johf, !. 

"con.eprual 

.rd SEr!i.tiarl Ir!ue5 in D.v.loping 

lnv i!oroent a I u€as!.e.--l.c.nr U.S. !xpe(i.nc." 

Revier of IncoEe !nd \,lertrh, vol. t3r no- Z, r9t?, E- 9.t-rt5 

C!ut3e!, P.ul J. 

"flie 

ID!..t of rle chto!ocarbon Indu6try oD tte Oroa. t.ye." 

Jo!rral of c€ophysical Rese.rch, vot. 81, tro. 

1, J6auary, 1978, D. 345-163 

ril 

t : 

$ 

rF 

;i 

il 

,$ 

rt 

.rd 

l 

!i 

I 

4 

'n 

I 

i,i 

l 

,.i

lct[,tlttottS 

lc0xr'tr74EoEt 

tcult9.rAoor 

tc0rtrfiIooo 

IDAlt6DT6XDAPRaoe 

e y, Drvid D. 

"A 

Note on rlir r.l1slio., 

IDAIDRTTC'AO Dr!dir, Rache I fhorD.o!, 

trCo.t_lenefil 

Anal ys i t of tr'. 

for spnotrreled rutnitu!e" 

Universit y of x.ty1.nd, l9?7 

IDIIIE'8EOSE 

!DEVGJT5CIAAcr..ff 

, J. D. v. 

"cosr-Eenefir An!!yri.. l ctitic.l vi.," 

the South Af!ican Journa! of !cotroiic., tol. 43, !o. 2' 

1915, r, 731-744 

tDE'/t!74tP9l 

63 

non rh. lcorocic !orrl!..ra ti. v.lq. ot Lif.! 

!utl.tin ot Ecoloric Rc....ct, vol, 2t, 19t3, ?.61_tl 

CuEcins !, nonald Iotto., virgil 

iir'. 

Eioi..l"" of !!viro.D;!t.l-Pr...!v.tioo: 

ADe!icaD EconoDic l.vi.r, vo1.64, !o.6, 

l0rt-10?a 

a cor..!rn 

D.ce!ter' l9t4' D. 

Cur i nglotr, Di 1l i$ t. 

"An.ly.i. ot osEA'. ldpact o. th. t!.qo.!ct .6d 5.r.!ilt o! 

Occur!!io!.r Inj ur i.." 

Sy!iau.e, tY: rh. I.xv.tI school, l..lth 5tuai.. !.otr.r 

CurinAtotr, tilli!o l. 

"rhe 

irp.it of osx^ on th. !!.qu.!cv .qd s.v.ritv o! 

Occ!pe!io!.1 lrjuri€s" 

Syracuse, {.Y.: The ll.xe.lI School, $"lth Stqdit' ?roA!!r 

L.nd Ecooonicr, vol. 52, no. 

tDAtDf,tSC!AO 

"Coit-Ben.fiL 

An.lysis of !Iat!.bilitt 8t.nd!tdt" - 

Aoerican Journdl oll Aaricultural E.ono!i.r, voL.50' n.. 4' 

Itov€ole r, t978, p, 695-700 

tDottft6!st0 

lD0R!R7rt0tE 

Deni5on, Edv.!d l. 

"nff€.t3 of selected ch a o8.. 

tnv i ronoent Upon O!tput r.! 

Surv. y of Csrresr Bu.in..., 

i! rh. Inrtitution.l end 8un.n 

J.ru.ry, I978, r.2l-44 

D.t.&, li&othr l- stith,9. x.!r, 

"R;!idential ?!o!.!ty v.1u.t .nd Ait t.llqtion: aot. X.t 

Qu.rE..lt i.ei.e of !co..ric. ud 

susin€s., vol. l{' lov€o!er, 1974, P. 93_100 

Dor lE.n, r.nct r. 

"The soclal V!l!. ol s.ving a !if." 

AEe!ican !ublic !.alth At.oci.tiotr' l9t6 

DorfDan, Rob. rt 

"IDcidence or th. !.!.t!tt .!d Cott. ot lnviion!.nt'1 

Iroa!r!r" 

9..iinsEob, Dc: ,|.!ic.o E.ono!i. t.vi€r 

P.oP2t ty vtlu.. lnd Fi.c.l 

r, x.r, l9?6, r.230-234 

!!o po tGa fI.!!.!ilitt St.nd.rd 

.? 

; 

i 

i 

i 

: 

,t 

: 

; 

I

!EADSCT8tOAt 

"the 

TEDI|US 

TttICA 

tEDtusTSrIol 

!r!LtD77ClAA 

rE!LtJT8lOSO 

B'ANRA**CEI2 

!tELtttSc,|Bo 

B FIRGAT6SOE 

I 

ltEtiB?EtlEO! 

B!ISCBT6CBAA 

!FISI{A'2EOE? 

IFISNAT4EOIP 

t978 

64 

!.trefit. oJ !.tt.! !6ne!ir. E.rlE.rioro 

!ubl ic Itrtere.t r.oiooic! tosn.t!!ion, 

l.t!un d d , Sr aht I 

"E!v 

i!ohrenr rl IEpa.r., Costti.tE 

N'naseE€nt revi'v, 'or ' 9, !o, 3, Sprins, r977, 

;:';iii"'" 

E

a 

tx) 

lll6lA74!oE? Cicci.rti - ch!rlc. J. 

"Th. 

E.ohooic! Ol Envi!oo!.!t.l PrG..lrttiot: toltl.! 

Di !c r.. iotr,' 

A!.tic.q Ecooosic R.vi.e, vol.64, no.6. Dec.rb.r' l9t4r P. 

t030-1039 

!flSEAtSBcE! lish.(, /|n!hont q. I!utill.' J.ln ?. 

"r.!oui.. 

con.art.tion. heir.!r.b!.1 P!...rv.tio!. 

l.tG o! Dir.ount" 

Qu.rt.rLy Journal of Econoiic., eor.69, no. 3' 

359-370 

tfISStt6trE.l 

laoRsL? 6 sBaD 

r!RAUJt5Cl{IU 

l975, p. 

Firh.t, &thont C. 

?.te(ron, Fr.d.ric l. 

''lh. 

EaviroM.Dt ia lcotroric.rl S!rv.y" 

Jourtrrl 

p. l-33 

ol Ecoro'i. Li!.r.tur., vol. 14, no. I, I|.tch, l9t5i 

ao!.t.r, D. Lynn 

"Silul!ted 

B€ef teeillot !.hrvi,our sta.! Alt.rn.tie. L.t.r 

Potlution cont rol lu1.!' 

Are!i.an Joulnal of A8!icslturrl lcono.ic., rol.57, io. 2. 

Hay, 1.975, p. 259-268 

{oover, Robe!t 

Fr6uDeni. Jo.cDb 1.. Jr. 

"c.nc.r norr!ri!r ii !.S. Coubt!i.. tfith Ch..i..l Inarrrri.. 

: ErvirooD.ntal R.!..rch, vol,9, 1975, p, t96-2O7 

IIRAUJT5C!OL !lor, r,lilli& J. 

Fr.uE.n i ; JD.eph F., Jr, 

"CeoE!sphic!l 

a.tt.dr ot !!rt C....r. lad06ari.l 

r ltlllJ7?crru 

IttEEAT4ttt! 

IFREEA.'4OEAI 

AEe!rc.n Jou!.al o! Elid.riolott, rol.. lO3, oo.6, 1976, p. 

t39-550 

!lur r lliIli.E J. Brinto!, Louirc A. 

ar.@.ni, Jor.ph l. J!., 

"C.!c.! 

Hortali!t i,r U.S. Cou.lri!3 9ltl Pe!r.ltur 

science, vol. 198, r977, p.5l-53 

!r.ena! r A, Utricl, III 

rAi. Pollurio! .nd ?rop.rtt V.l!.s: A l!!tb.r CooE.nt" 

Reviee ot EcoooEic. altt S!.tiEtic., !or, 56, 1974, E. 

5 54-55 6 

F!..ian, A. ItyricL r IIt 

'ron E6tibdrirR Air !ollutioE Conrrol 

!€..1i . 3 froo !.ad 

Chicago, !L: Jou!!ar of Envi!onr..t.l Econoric. .nd 

Hanaaeeent, wol- l1 1974, p. ?4-83 

EIAEEATtTa!E Free!.n, A. HyricL, ItI 

r'?he th.or.ti..l !..ir to! ErDitic.! l.rtrr.r.!tt of 

3.n.!it." 

j 

: 

:1 

.4 

I '! 

'.. 

1 

t 

l

l!i,EEAttT!!t 

aFR!tl79l0t I 

rcl(sJ78 totA 

IGATiSR' 

TEAA! 

lc!rzulSEt!i 

BGIBSJ'5IOPPcibson, 

Joh! J, 

''Th. 

Interp!.r€rion of !!op.!ty pric. Ch.n!€r for. u.!sure 

or rhe t{elf.!. !en.fit. of poltution 

Co!r!ol: Lo S.irDl. 

!G0tDv74EOP5Coldlerg, 

vic cor !. 

''the 

t.onooic r of !rodrct 

Be rl Jotr!oal oI Econoric! 

1974, p. 683-688 

tcnAtaT8EOLA 

66 

!!b1irl.! iot rnoh, 1977 

F!eeDaa, A. Uyric L, III 

rhe l.!efir. ol Elvirondetrt.l I!D!oicoeDt 

E.ltiEor€, tD: John. !oplin. Vniv.!sity Et... lor l.ro!!... 

!o! rrle hture, 1979 

cat6 r dt ter, J..t [. 

CalIabEn, 

"The 

Cl.reDce A. 

rEp.ct ol !ro.itty Applied 

oD Eut rophic,t ion Con!rotr' 

EfItue!! pbo.pboru! gt.nd.rd. 

raale! 8e!ources R€.er!cI, 

r155-r158 

vot. la, tro.6, D€..rbe!r !978r D. 

"EconoEic AE!1ysi, .!d Edi!onr.!r.t !,egrt!tiorsl 

: u.6. lrvironr.nt.t !rot.crioD AB.ncy, Dlv. o! rco.. 

C.r z, t.lcotr Eu.nB, iuh-chila 

-coD.uEe! Revear.d Preferenc€ for tbviro.reEr.l cood3,, 

th€ Revier of EconoDica ard statisric5, !ol. 60, 1978, !. 

449-45a 

UrbaD studie., vor, 13, 1975, p,45-50 

G!.boeski, EeDry c. 

ve!!on, Johtr U. 

'tCotr.ub€! !!oduc ! Saf .rt 

Aoe! ic an xconooic Bevier. 

284 -9 

g.!c tt ard hrerfect In!o!&.tion', 

rDd l{.oas.Deot S. icd.e, vor , 5, 

vo1.68, tro. 2, xrr, I9?€, !, 

lcxAttDt6csAgr 

nCost-Benefir 

.s tl.ished ob C.netic sc.1.e!' 

rtr.ysy rEd the Envi!oD6err: cost Benefir Analy3i., 

371-386 

I976, D. 

rcREt T9lFOt 

IGRIIJT4EEO' 

lctulu?5c!at 

Green, rlark l,a i tzdar, Normen 

Bn.i!€ss Da! otr tie r,ar: An Aaalt.i. of r!. !.ne{ir. of 

Fede! a I lrealrh/Saf€!y Erfo!ceo.n! 

rhe Corporar€ Accoubtlrrility &ese!!.h Cro!p, l9?9 

G!tffib: JaDe s K. 

'tAo 

EcoooDerric Ev.l!.tion or tulfur t.xe." 

Jouinal of poliiic.l Ecotrobt, vol. B2, 1974, !: 669-I326 

"Cos!-!enefir 

Analysis ir thG Fore!t!y Se.tor'r 

E 

; 

I 

: 

I 

. 

1

!crDlt?5clll 

!f,Atrxs 74 ! caR 

lxA!otttrtr* 

tlaf,lJTl tall 

!nARntT8tsaE 

luAetDT 5r{!Fc 

llArrD?7cttI 

laAllDT6A!A? 

!lAnD7!DCrA 

!tAtiDt6DosF 

lElltDT6aaPA 

67 

tbc louth ltrlc.r Jo.r!.1 .t tco.orlcr' r.t. ltr ro. 2' 

1975, p. 187-!04 

E.oL.. st.v. B, l,!lL.r. llcb.!a 

nt:..iit-4.;r 

An.1r.i. rec;!.td.E.il: ^! !v.lurtio. ol th. 

xid- st.t. !!oj ec!rl 

t,t.r t.!ourc.6 v6o.8.!.!t, vol. 10, tlo.5, Octob..r 1974' 

p. 898_904 

"li!t-!.!efit An.ltti.r Putci!! .ltlG. o! tout Li!.n 

: At I rnt ic xasrzi!., 1979 

n.rirB, Jo tepn l| 

v.. Dev.!t.r. Alren 

"I.direct 

.oA Irduc.d t...!i!-Co.! l..ltti.r C.r. Studt" 

rh. R.viee ol Econoni...nd 

312-318 

st.ti.tict, io1. 60' 1978' D' 

E.rnisor, Los.l1 !. 

"Toxic Sqb.t.Dc.. !nd H..1th" 

u.s. !!b1ic ue.1th s.!vic.. Adiinintrrllou-_Public 

Il.!lth Re]o!ts, vo1. t3., oo. I, J!nu.rt. l9tE, P.3-10 

l.r! i.oa I Drvid, Jr. 

tho !.y. for Clean Airr t!. Co.t .rd tG..fi! Di!tribut:ot ot 

r.d.!.r Autoro! il. e EDi.!io. Control. 

c.rb!idE€, uA: !.llinge! ?ubli.biDg cooPrlt' l9?5 

[.rr i.ot, Dav id, Jr. 

"Cotr!ro1iinS 

Autoeobile xooiriont: noe ao 

Billiotr P.r re!r .td €lt tha Poot 7oo" 

c.Dbridae, 

t21-553 

lll: Publi. Polict. vol ' 25, no. 

6.v. Ho!. lt.n 5l 

r, r.rr, rlrr, p. 

Il.! r i 3on, Drvid, J!, 

Rub in f€ td, Dlniel L. 

"The Ai! Pollurioa .ad Ptop.ttt t.lu. !.b.t.: so.e EoPi!lc.l 

Ev i d.n..i' 

tt. Reri.r of Ecoiooic! rn.t St.titlictr vol. 60' ro. 4, 

l{oveobe!, 1978, p. 635-638 

Xar! i rot, Dlvid I Jr. 

Di'ttibutiv. con.id.r.tion. in 1.....ir! tt. lctc!itr .l 

ne.lth.!d stfert R€Au1.E iot." 

Ber&e1y sp!g3, c.YA: !ubIic I!iG!..t 

1978 

Eco.oric. !outd.ti.on' 

U.rr i.on, Drvid, J!. 

Rubinfeld, D.. i. t L. 

"Ihe Dist;i!!tiotr of lcne!it. lrot ioDlov.!€!t. ln orb.n lir 

Journ!l of lnvi!onr.nt.l Econosi.. .ltl t.n.a...!t, to!. 3, 

1978, p. ll3-ll2 

B..risotr, D.r id , Jr. 

rubinfeld, D.1i.1 L. 

"s.donic nou.inB r!ic.. .n.t th. D.trnd lor Cl.tn Air" 

i: 

! 

-i 

I 

a 

4 l 

4 

. 

; 

{

IIABRD?E!EPI 

A!AVIRl'D!OY 

EtrDClilr69 POB* 

!nEcRDTttt0! 

EtENAC?409I1 

lf,E&t{s77tcol 

IxILAllr 7FlllC 

!BOCSET6EOEP 

!TOTECTTDIA! 

IttvIt? ?caAo 

!Jf,Nt{A74!t!P 

BJEFNVT?AZKE 

!JONDJT2UOtC 

68 

Jour!rl ol Elvlrollcn!.1 !.onortc, .Erl l.D.a.rcEt r vol. 5r 

t9t8, D. 6l-I02 

Srve!a!, loberr E, 

gei!brod, lur.o! l', 

'D. fi!ina Benetit' of ?ublic 

Poli.y Ana1y. i." 

: Pub I irb er Nor Rnoun 

EochrrD, Balold lt. Rodae!., J.De. D. 

"Idreto 

opt iEal R.di!tribsrio!" 

AE.!ica! aconoiic Revi.e! vol. 59, 1969, D. 542-j5? 

t€ck.r, D.Dia1 

''uanpoue! 

IEDrct .f E.ite!!l !ollution conr!ol Erp.nditut€st' 

Uonthly L.bo! t.vicr, vol. t8, J.nur!y-Jun., 1975, p. 54-56 

"Opriotr valuGe in tne Ecouolier of Ir!epI.c..blc A.s.r.r, 

r€viei o! EcoDoric studi.r. 1974 

f,€rorn, Sler.rt W. 

th€ Health costs of Ai! PollqtioD 

Aae!ican Luns Assoc i.! io!, 1977 

UilaEti, Earvey J. 

"Facto!r 

i! ltor. Co6tlt lc.id.Dts D!rsn f!o! Core..sared 

Xonthly Labor Revi.e, vot. lOO, Julr-DEc.r tr77, p.4l_43 

ItgchDaD, Ei!hatr Zilb.rE.n. Drvid 

'Exsrrn.rion 

of Erviro.!.nr.t policie! U!irg ?rodrcEion !na 

lol I ut ion tic!opar.Dere! Disrribu!io!.I 

E..nobetiica, vol- 46r so.4, JuIy, 1978, D. 739_Z5O 

$ole, Cha! I es L. 

"Disllaced 

Faciliries arit aEnefit Calc!tations: ColEent., 

L€nd EcoooEic5, ro1. 53, !o. 4, NoveEbe!, t977, p. 496_498 

lrviq, l\oEAs R. 

'A 

Cost-BeneIir Analysir of hLfu, 

leaul aE ions in ?hi1adelDhir" 

!ur in€s s EcoDoricc, l9?i 

"rhe 

lenefirr ro the pubtic 

XE.3!rina rhe IrnDeisurablE!' 

ol V.hict. leaisletion _ 

Itech.nical tnsineering pu6licarioosr 

Ltd., 1974 

Jenner, Von Juraen 

rur xoDstrutrion eine3 UorEltE!,.briDdirato!s 

E.trict(lunssEoglichkeite! und c!enzen--- Ar Appr6rct Tos.rd 

rn 0ve!a1l Envi!onber r al rrdicaior" 

Janrbuchei f$ Natio.atokobie uDd s!.tisrik, vol. l9A, no. 

2, Septenbe!, 1977, '. 148^170 

Jotd!oe, Jahes X. 

"rre!.riprion 

Drus Ef f.ctive..js,, 

lrogr!!!: so!. coidlac. to! 

Dior ide Ab.t.!eDr 

I 

I 

i 

r 

- I 

!;l

I 

rJoxDJT2XOlC 

!JONEnT4VOC I 

lroiatT8voll 

Dt(AtEt.t8DA0E 

ItItLGTaSOCl 

ITLEITT8DATA Bleinilorfe!, Paul l. 

Run! e ulh.!, Bos!rd 

I'D.sc.iDtiv. and PrescriPtiv€.!tect3 of n€.lth .Dd S!f€tv 

rl(!rf,EA78AAAt 

ttoL}(s76}s.i 

BriIf,vT8EEO{ 

DLAO'L? 6DA'C 

lLA9ELTTlPXt 

69 

!D!q!1irh.d Di....t!tion, Itriver.itt o! ri.con.i!' lt72 

Joner-!.., x i. b..l 

"rtr" 

v.rui ot ch..sGt i! th. Pro!.!ilitt of D.t!h ot Isjurv 

Joutnrl af Politic.r E.o!o!t, iol. !1, l97a 

Jotr" r-la., l. P. 

fthe varo; ol HuEa! Life i! thc Deo.nd fo. S.fEtv: ao!!'nt" 

a!erlc.q €coro!ic nevica, Yol.58, Do' 4' se!!!Dber' l9l8l 

9. 712-lt6 

Ri.& .t!r.r!!.tt ol Ervitolsent.l E.t.!a 

Iee rotl(: John riley .na so!!, !9r8 

Xi r l ough, J.J. Till, J.E 

"sceua;i;s lor catbon-14 n.le.r. rto! th. lrotlil lscI..t 

!o,er tDdu6try ftoo !9?5 t. 2020 .nd th' Etti!'t'd 

Xrdioloaical lop.c t " 

lrucl€ar safety, !o1. 19, so' 5, 5.pt.sbe!' l9?E' !. 602-6I7 

l.it"ty 

1978 

sp-e", T.va: Public llt.re.t i.o!o!ic. found.rio!' 

llxEEAlTllEU *n.e6e, aller vscbulze, 

Iril l i.E D. 

"Eavittonaenr, ttes I r h, .nd !.onoDic.--- 

A6.rjcan Econori. l.viet' vol. 67 ' 

?26- 13 2 

Th€ Clie of c.!c.tr' 

I€niu.ty, 1977' 9. 

rnee.e. lll.! V. 

"B€n€fit 

A!!1tti. !.d tod.Ye R.But.!ory lrol l.t.' 

Ber](€l' spia., lt. va: Prblic tDr.i.!t !conooic! !ouit.tlon, 

1978 

Iol!, s e ! E e- Ch ! i s to Ph. 

"Public 

safety" 

A!.!i.an tconoEic r..ti.e, 

382-78' 

tol.66, no. 3l Jur., 1t76, ?. 

!liealt\ tff.ct. of Loi.e Er!o!ut." 

ro"'n.r ot so!nd !ib!ation, vol.59, ro. l, 19t8, D' 65-71 

Irv€. L€rret B- SGttrnr luacn. ?. 

"Do€; air Polru.ioo cqu6e Lortalitv?" 

li.e Iotk, NY: R.tourcct for th€ rrrurG ' l9t6 

!!v€, L€ s t€! B. Serki., Euae.. !. 

!rAir Po11u.iotr 6 Hort.lity: 

Th. sitti.tic!t 

r;ofessioral En8ir.er, J*i,e, r9?7' t, l9-21 

j

llAlaP76tD0D 

E LEADB 75IOU! 

!ttlEs t4cBAO 

70 

"th. 

l.rc of Di..our in Co!r-B.D.fit Studie.,, 

Jo!!n.l of t!u!po!t !.ononic. lnd policy, rol. 

S€pt€{b€! 

10, 

, 1916, !. 263-266 

Leade!.! r !! i.tr t. 

zaer!ni rti, *.6ec c ! t, 

Stolsijt, JaD l.J, 

;B;-ili:i:""t 

EGarch !en.fit, du€ to f,.d!.tior. tn ^rbi..t 

!er-to.tr 

r. 31-3 7 

r|Y: Eovi!onnerrar {an.Bereot, vot, l, !o. r, 1926, 

Leb.rgott, st inl et 

{cost-aenefir Arrryri. of Cheoical.: Ad Eco!o!is?.. point.t 

u.s, N!rio!al Ac.d.!y of s.i.trc.r (unpubli.ted), l9?4 

ALIiTTDTSPDRA 

"?he 

Privare Di3cou!t Aare artt !€sosrc€ Co.se.v.!ion.', 

ca!adia! ro!rr!1 ot Ecotrooicr, vot. E, no. :, e"e""i, tgr:, 

p. 3 51- l6l 

ttt50J75 rAta 

"Ionovation 

lnd tesul.tioD: A Co!!.nt' 

Journal of publi. EcoroDics, vol,5, l9?f, ?. 3S9-!91 

Let o!roet, Al.ia 

"Saare! 

Ervilonee!r 

Auto{r d 

!t Consoarationr te.tic!1. Di.cu..io! 

"un !LETOA?5SAaC 

Bode l€', 

&evue xconoeique, vol.27, 1975, p. 4Ol-432 

8LIfiDa7 6QtcA 

"QuanEifyinS 

the Co!t! of !ne.ttrr 

Lrtion6l Insrirut. of t.di.tio! ?!ot.criDn, Syc.t.!, l9?5, p. 

347 -407 

slIlF!7 9EA*r 

!xAcIA**CSAO 

rrAJolT5Er{E!( 

ataBrIlt5!tAE 

!lrlzzttrra0At 

Lipferr, trederic r. 

I'Env 

i roEoen !.1 R.!ula!ionn 

ch€oicdl lnd rnSiie.rina N.,!, JuBe, I979, D. 36-t9 

xac ln r yre, A.gu! 4. 

I'AD 0utsider" Vi.e of rhe DDt Decision,' 

U.s, Nrcioa!1 l.rdery of s.ience, N.cional ne!.rrcb Coulcil 

llajocchi, Albe!to 

"EconoD€t!ic 

llethod, to! Be..!!ia8 th. Sbiftirt o! !ortu!ion 

CoDtrol Cosrr o! pri.c...!d rne En.ui!g rIt.cr; or ExEottin 

Rivirtr Inr€rDa.ionile di scien.. Eco!;,i.he e co.,"i.i"ii, 

toL. 22, 1975, p, t09-129 

x!it in, trilliaD E. 

t'E.onoric 

tt.enirud., .!d tcotroEic AtrGloativ.. in Lo,er 

a..i! Ure of Coro!ado River fl.te!'l 

N.tu.a1 &esources Jotro.t, vot. rjr J..uary, l9?5, I, 

229- 219 

{!z rocchi. Anthodv 

""An 

!v!1;.rion oi c.ns".et prot.cti.n 

L.8irl.iioo: rhe 

::.I 

'.1 

!

t 

BrrAZtATrtOtY !952 DlqE rr.ad..att"i .l Cott.t! rh. !t62 D!u! Ar.!d.'att": 

l Corr.bt th. t962 Dsus lcsndD.nt.": A CorD.nt" 

Frieddr ol th. E.rtb. 1977 

7l 

lxcG0t75EOCl xcCuir. ' lhoost 

"Th. 1962 D!uA ltcnd!.!!.": A corEent" 

B.!tf.!dr CT: JoutD.l of Politicrl x.ono!t, vol.83r !o. 3, 

1975 

Dt{cLAs75!oro {ccl.rahli!, 8..ocl 

!sr!.r. 

"Effect! 

lob.!t L. 

of Fluorlde on Photo.ttrth.!i, .ni! i.tDit.!lol o! 

!oD€ gouth-East AEe!ic!n 

Environoent.r P.ll!tion, 

!ote3i Tree." 

vol. 8, 197J, r. 9l_96 

lHcr{Il75xaGB x.xi11.!, .lvirre 

""xe.s{!in8 renefi!. c..!t.lcd bt ltb.n 9tr!r ?t!tt": 

Coboert" 

L.!d EconoDic., vol.5l, no.6r roveEb.t' l9t5' !. 379_361 

!ttELtlt9EA0P t{.!delrohD, lob.rt 0rcutt, G!t 

"Ao EEpi!i;.1 aE.lt6i3 ol ait iollutio! Do.e-l"Po!.' curv" 

Journal of Envi!on!€ntrI EcoDoGics.nd tt!!.g.!edt' vol. 6' 

l9 79, p. 85_106 

a|(ItSITEEOIE t{i.szkos3ki, Petet Saaer, A!th!r l{. 

ilo E6tirate of the Etfect..I Ai!Port ois€ on tloP'rtt 

v!1!e 5" 

x€' Yo!t, NY: Joq!na1 of u!bad Econooics, !o1. J' r978, D' 

425-440 

!tt1LLR77EAuP !ilIe!, lict 

nE!tirrtins. 

locho.n, 

Redo!ic Ptice 

Od.d 

FuDctloi of ltoP.ttt vrlut' 

Alons River Basios in the ctricsAo sxSl tilh !trti'!l!! 

EDph a3 i s ot saLer QuaIirY" 

l,!iv..sit y of cnicaso, l97t 

!t{ISffE78DlOl -- xirhrn. E.J. 

;li"r'it"ii'. rEDlic!tior. of Eco!ooi. c.n!!olt" 

B.tL.1y gPis. 1978 

' T'Vl: Publi. !Dt.!..t EcoioEict fourd'tio!, 

llloll-AtTEGAU r{or1e!, A.8e 

ntroe Cooil Ate Lot& fiois. St.nd.rdt?" 

Nes scientist, J.nud.y 27' r97?' ?' lt2-19' 

lltoll(TtlBAr no 11, KeDdall J. 

tih,osky, Denni. P' 

"Risk-!en.fit Ao.1y6is aor Itrdst!ri.1 .nd Soci'l !l'Gdtrr 

Aderi... Id

EtoBRCTS||PA! 

I|lUSEJT'A IAR 

ANELSJTSEAOl 

lxtLtJTSiCfiP 

r ELIvT3P!TC 

!II Ctr{7 715EA 

!NOt?t78IOO* 

!of,cD*EDSLO5 

||orri., Chri. r itr. Or!.tr 

72 

;l?:.i 

P.1t".r.", A.t.rpt.ir rcd.r.l control o! airEt.r. 

r..hi!aror, DC: irro..l 

1978, p.521-638 

t.rosrc.. Jour!.1, rol. lE, Julr, 

Hu!tin, J€.old l. 

8o!!..r itro, John 4., J!. 

"Erte!n!lities 

i! . leallrr.d tEdu.try: rhc Airc!.rr ioi!. 

,tDe!ic.! EcoEolic rlvie,, vol, 52, no;4, s.pt.rb.r, 1977, 

p. 170-4 

x.r !on, Joh! P. 

l.onoric An!ty!i. of T!r..port!tioo oire lbarerelr, 

Carb!i.lEa, XA: r!tlinEe! publishins Corp.oyr t9r8 

n.l .on , J.ho p - 

"R.6ideDri.l 

Choice, Eedoric prlc.., .nd tb. D.r.!d fo! 

u.brn Ait Q!.1i ry.t 

35j_369 

Joullrl of u!b.! r..nori.., eol.5, 1918, p. 

lesill, r.!n r. 

"Pollutiotr'. 

Prire--the CoEL i. Uuben n..trhI 

r.renc€ .nd pu!tic Affair., 0ctobrr, I9?3, p. {?_49 

Nicho l son. triltia! J. 

'loric 

Sub6tan..!: !.ctE!o!!rt .!rt irtu!. of rh. X![.n n.alth 

loxic subrt.r..3 Lae! & tea!l.rion!, !977 

l{., Jerrey Econodic policy Coulcil 

to!talitt lrd Air polluEion i! Nev J€!6€, 

iJ.shiDeron, D.C.: tl.s Je!rey A.onoric poiicy Council, 1979 

orrhrup, Eerb.rt R. 

loran, Rich.rd t,. terrt, Ch.rte. l 

Th. Irp.c L of oS{A 

lerinsro!, r(A: s$.rror School, lriv. or rentrrrlv.El., tr78 

OtBadi6.tiotr !o! Econoiic Co-ope!atiod !nd Dev.topoent 

EtrvironDe!c.1 Daorae co.rs 

Pari6, Fr.!.e: orBroi!.rioE For Ecotro!ic Co_op.r.rio! r.d 

Dev€1opoenr, t 974 

OtsEnisaLi.n for EcoooEic 

EDvitonr.nt Di!.cto!rt. 

So c 1.1 Co.t of Xoi.e 

Co-Oper.rio! atrd D.velopE.nE, 

P.ri3) r!.uce: O!B.nis.rion for Econo!i. 

D€ve I opD.tr!, EtrviroaDeDt Direcro!At.r 1976 

Co_Op.i.rioa !n,t 

trTbe lcon.Eics of ?roducr Srf.r,', 

.3ell.Journ.l of EconoEi.s .rd x;nr8eo.n! scr..ce, vol, 4, 

no, |, r971, p. 3-28 

1 

: 

: 

1

tor.ira74Eol8 

!oIr*rJ740lEo 

!0lcucTtAol|ll 

IPAGEJT4OItIT 

IPAI'YDT6Il|tIO 

aPAULtTl CAI{X 

!P!AtDt6LOCA 

DPIIIA?2T!AC 

!PELTST5EOAI 

IPELtST5EOCP 

?3 

-i6. ;a;;;.i;. o! p.odoct 3rf.tr: a rejoind€!' 

AGll Jouid,l of Econo!ic. Etd x.nrSenent 5ci.!.., rol. 5, 

l97a, D, 689-6t5 

'or tbc f,.oDori.t ol Ind!.lri.l 3.f.t'" 

L.y rnd coot.!por.rt Probl.r., vol. 3E, 1974' !.569-619 

r!.ntl in, st.Ph.r D. 

liendel6oho. nobert sEiti, Jroet D. 

"appl i.rti;n. ol tt i . r o s i 6 u I . r i o r tl.thodologt: Doe. toa! 

Plobability oI De..h Depetrd oo Yonr Envi!onb.!t? I 

Hic roanal yt ic study" 

Ale!i.an Ecolotic xevi.er ?.pe!i.ntt 

!o. l, Febru.ry, I911 , 9. 760'264 

lrooeediog., vo!. 6?' 

craaff, J. D. r|. ltunsinB, P€ler t{. 

''occuDation.l 

4..1t.6.!d the Fed!r.l cov€!n!.tt: 

^.€ stirl rirt.!" 

JD. Itrg.s 

Lar .trd conteEpo!.ty P!oblGr!' 1t74, E. 651-661 

P.!vi.. D,vid r,L. Jr. 

"rarn'Banas.neni lEDlic.tiotr! of ledu.ed Aatlctltulrl 

Pollution Ielrr.d tD crttoq rroductior in Mis!i!6ippi" 

Ao€xican lournal of AsriculruraL E.ouosics, vo1.58, no. 5' 

DeceolEr, 1976, !, 978-983 

"can 4i!cr.ft Noi3. Nui3.ncc tol.. h€ Measu!ed ln Noaev?" 

Lolddn, uR; oxtord E.oooEi. ?!Ders, vol. 13, tro' 3' 

XoveEber, 19 71, p. ?97-322 

'!rhe I ir it. ol .Cort-BeE.f!t 

Env i!6nxent.l rolicrl 

Kyk Lo !, vo1.29,.o. I, 1976 

ITrre 

Ben;fi!..!d Co.t. of der Drus t.tcl.tlo..' 

Uriversit, of Cn ic aAo ' 1972 

!'rr' e aff€ct6.t Atto6obile Salety 

JorrnEI of Political rconoEy' vol, 

l!!rrii3 .. . alide to 

83, L91t I t. 577-123 

'r"An Ev!tu.tio. of Cont!!e! Prot.c!ion l,.gi.l!tioo: Tb. 1962 

D!u? Arend!.nt! 

nAr Eval!atio. o( con.uog! Prot"tio! 

L.RislrLion: Th. 1962 Drug AEendE.nt.": A R.Prv' 

Jouinal of Policictl Iconody. !ol. 83, no. 3, l9l5' l. 

663-661 

tPEPiDT TCBAA P.€!ce, D.!id 

"cost-Benefi! ^n.lr!it !!d lnviron!€lt.l loli.t: A l.Prv to 

Elliot atrd Y.r!ou.!d ar I th' 

lytror, l97t

PE8,1 7oP!OV 

rPESl(lt75CEll{ 

BPETEJTTE4EC Peterson. 

"E.tiE,rins.! 

ierrotd |{. 

EfIIu.rr ch.rae: Tb. R...!v. Xiring C....1 

raod Econooic., vol. rt, oo.3, AuB!.r, r9??, p. i2s_ia1 

rPrEsD?4ErSC 

!POLI475APA! 

lPiM?!Daf I 

SBlUSC 74tlAE 

IRICRGT4E4O! 

BtorELt TCAO? 

!EO!!!t?tt?* 

BAOS!AT 

t SnrT 

74 

t. r rone r !ichola, 

l-l:!i.i"" P.'.E ou v.hicre s.r.r, 

'b' c'thoric 

;:;:::i:::',,?3' 

'Dniv.r!rt' 

:::ltl;,:;i:,Î;,,.,:.:I:.i":::"!:,iutio. 

ro,icy 

v..h:naton, Dc: th€ urb.n tnstiLUre, I975 

or ^'eri.., 

F I. s..3 ''rnvrroEDenc.l , De!.rrius J. 

poll!rioo, 

th€ United Sr are 6,' 

Soci.l Corrc !n,t !ealrh ?olic, in 

InL.rnarionsl Journal of B..ltb 

1911. , D, 213-2A1, 

S.!vice., vol. 6, no. 2, 

lorins&y, A. xittch.tl 

Shav.11, srever 

"The Air P.llrLion .Bd ?rop.rr, v!lue Deb.tG[ 

i5Jiil..' 

r.."""rc' ..d st€ris.ic., vor. r7, l9?5, '. 

Priest, rr. Crrri.; xroblaucn. xrrr 

Draft Analysis for NpiM srroD; right. oi !o.ooorives 

IOcs! Ioc., t978 

R3u5!er, cordo! C, 

"techoicar prog.er. ard Etrvirotructrt.l r!rdeoff. itr l{!tur.l 

f,eEo!r.! 1ndu6tri..r, 

Jou!nal of rconori.E .nd !uEin.!s, ,ol. 27, lg:,4, p. t-t4 

ltlusG 75SCOE 8.u3.er, cordotr C. Eoei!r. iichard 

conLrol 

l::::1""t.t: 

or EnvironbenLar ExLerneriEie!,! 

Ann.rs oi r(onooic 6nd soci6) Meas!!eEenrr vol. 4, oo. 2, 

19J5, t. 27!-292 

Rick., c.R. rilli.e5, R.J.B. 

Lrre.ri or ArooBEheric !ollurion o! Decidtrous toodt.Eit parr 

3:-Eftecrr on ph.ro6yntheric pis!enrs of !erv.6 Que!cus 

re.r.e. ( hattuschkdJ Leibr'' 

Enviion6enc.t potlution, vol.8r 1975, p.97 

lob€r I !on, L€on S. 

rA. 

c|iLical 

.An.lyEi. of pe1!.rr."! ,,i1. 

Autorob rl,e 

Effects 

s.fery 

of 

Beaulrrion{rt 

Journal or E.obo!ic Tssues, iot. tl, oo. !, Sepr.Db.!. 

p. 

t977, 

587-600 

R.berr son, L€on s. 

rrA R€j o i.d e! to pelrzrantl 

Jou:n.l o{ Econori. r.sues, eot. lt, no.3, Seprerb.!, 1977, 

p. 6?9-683 

"A 

si&ul.tion Hod.l !o! rh. ,conori. A.s..sn.nt of 

i 

] 

t 

d : 

! 

: 

rl 

l 

I 

I 

.

? 

to 

!lOitAt?SllFT dl(".ndtiY. Air Porru!io! R.8!l.tionr" 

Jou.n.I of l.8io..l Scierc., rol. 17, no. I' lt7?, P' 

321-1L4 

Af,USSJ?6!VlC Russell, J.Ees A. U€h!.bi.., Albert 

"Environx.ntal vrtia6tct ol cots!!er R€se.tchr' 

Journal of consurer Reseircn, vo! 3, Jun.' 1976, 9. 62-63 

aR0SSLr4sII{ f,us s e1t, Loui 5e D. 

"safety In.ertiee. in tlo!h.n't 

Jo!!nal of {uErb l..outc..' tol. 

corpensatioa lrtut..c!" 

9, !o. 3, 1974, D. 351-375 

BSCIiLAT6RAOA Schlo t !sann, r|l!. 

"A Regional Analy!i. of Air Qurlitl st'ndttdt, corl 

Conversion, aod rh€ stG.n-El.ct!ic coal t!let' 

Jo!!na! of_l.Eion.1 Sci€n.€, vol. 16, so' 3, l9?6' P' 

315'181 

BSCIILATTSEIA SchlotrEano, Al.. Abr.Er, l.etedc. 

"strtIui Erdi3siors taxe. and Co.1 le.ourcl.' 

ieriee of Eco.orlc. .n

lsntrF?9AIAU 

!s|'lrriT9IOOS 

CIC Criric.l !.vi.r! 

1979, p. l-?5 

sri th, iob.!t Stae.!t 

"lh. 

hp.ct of O.h. 

76 

in Envitont.!t.l Cotrttol, f.b!srrr, 

ta.p.c tion. or t|.nut.cturi!A Injc!y 

rhe Joulnat of X$ratr 

r979, p, t45-ttO 

Re.ou(ce., yor. l{, !o. 2, sp!ira, 

asxlrvr6rEco SEith, V. Ke!!y 

Tbe lcoooDic Co!r.queqc., 

u.ED!rdg.r uar !.1liDa.r 

of li! pottorio! 

pubti.!ia8 

corp..r, l9?6 

l5t{ IlV7 TaLAE sr i th, v. (er!e 

!'Besid.nti.l 

iocrtior 

o! rhe Eviderce" 

era EDvi!oa.€a!.1 Aaeniti..r r r.ei.r 

Reaiooar s!udi€6, vol, lt, t9t?, D.4/_6t 

ts?aLMT6PrioA 

EatEttT6PSOA 

tst!LJ77tHtt 

lsltBD76IllPr 

BSTETCT'A!EE 

!6T0tt75ICPF 

!srottT3CEOt 

slana I €r, {i11€i B. 

'Prob.br!irtic 

rr.rho'1. o! A...3,rDt Rr.l in 

An.rysi_. 

Co.a_!c..fi! 

or Nucrear porer -.nd -iiliii 

!rrrr! rrtii".iiJi 

U.6. N!clear teEul!tory CoE6i!sio!, l9t6t p. 446_4r6 

stehbinsE, Jare3 t., J!. 

"P.oer 

studier of Acute ae.lrb Aff.cr. of Ai! pollrtion 

t. 

yrrdaopuroon!yr syEpEoo, in ^dull!, r.r yo!r, 

nee rorr, 

l97l_ 

ny: Environo.nral 

r972n 

r€r.!;ch, vor.'ii,- tii6l p. 

€9-lrr 

SterlE.o, Je.E!. ta. 

-Tbe uiddea Eealrn roll - rhe Co.r of torl ro 

Civil liaht! Ditert, Fstl, tg].7, ,. 12_11 

"tiIling..s5 

ii:;;."" 

to p.y fo! to!e A8!e..b!. vort,, 

Rer.rid!., vor. r7, no. I, Feblu.!r, rerE, p. 

S I €r.!t , s. C. r J!. 

"1.!t.! 

to tb.liditor" 

uh.Errrrt r!d ErgiDeerira, JrD., l9i9 

St era.t, Chi.les T, Jr. 

Arr Pollurion i lIuE.n lteat Eh, lrd pu!tic poIic, 

and co'p€.y, t9t9 

Stone, RoberL F. FenroD, Rob.rt ,. ru...l!.!, Cb!!les 

rbjrrr co.E. projecr Firat R.bor! 

rerh:.gco!! DCr T..ta.l.sy + iconoEi.!r tnc., I9?6 

Sto!t, ca1! e ! 

ITh. Cort Eff.criveo... of Int.!!.tional gehicl. 

/ruroooli Ie Engine..ira, l9?j 

lctulrtioD. 

.i 

.I 

: 

i 

i 

.l 

r$ 

. i 

l 

.: 

'!

a 

ItaYLtTErlti 

BItAL*74VO5A 

alttAl)t4ct!A 

ItIXADT9ClAA 

lttLSt?l9rra 

!tlrLDT8CErO 

lrt!or76PoEE 

BUICEQ*iIltO5 

loscEqcsIAtS 

tttSct*cctltt? 

lDscErcaFro8 

luScf,.ctorr! 

aa 

t.tlor, to!.ld J, 

"Ind!rtri.l Irt.c! i! lar!ht!t.ctn Wh.tco! Colnlt 

_ 

1976, p. 199 -213 

t.tcr. Air..n.t soil F.Ilution' vol. l0' 

rhr I cr. riehlrd los.n, al.rti! 

;iii-i'iri!-.i-s.rr"r-i-iii., iiijcocr rrou th€ L.bo! lt.tket' 

Itptor, rY: U!iY.r.itt oI toch..t.r DG?.!tneDt of i.onooi.!, 

t974 

Tibah 6lt, DGnri. l. 

"A Co!t-ii.l-!e!.fit atr.lt!i. of Totic Sub.t.ncc." 

trshinato!, DC: Joulnal of Etrtirolo€nt.1 sr.t.!.' Ju!.' 19,4 

lill.n.Lt, D€Ni! P. 

"A surv.y ot Enpitic.l !G!€lit studi.s (ut!e! P.rlutioa)" 

U. S- Enri!o.!ert.t Ptot.c!io! aa.o.v, O!!i.. o! 1...d!.h 

!!d D.velolieDt, l97t 

til.on, Ulsh A. Cib., P.tlict A. 

"sLr.reat 

for Lh€ a!!...!Grt of I.u!o!ehavio!rl con.equenc" 

of anvi ronr.trl. r Flclo!!" 

Envi!o.r.Etrl xerlth P.r!pec!iv€6, vol. 26, Octobe!, 1978' 

t, 281-29t 

Tri I lina, Don.ld r. 

n4 

Co.t-Aff..tivenc!r tvrl!.tion of ltiShe.t Arf.ty 

coun!c!r...ur..n 

t!affi. Q!!rt.rlt, vol' l2' Jrtrua!v' r978' ?.4r-65 

lybout, iictrrrd 

"ih. Pti..itrs of E!!i!onr.!trl hrcr!.liri€!" 

rivi.t! lnr;rltriot.1. di s.iclt. lcoEoticlt. E conberci.li' 

voI. 23, 1976, p. lllS-ll2a 

u.S. couo. il o. Enviror!eot.l Qu.litv 

th. Ha(ro.conoqi. rrp.c(! of Federrl Pollulioq cort.or 

!.S. Coun.il on Etrvirotrr€Etal Qulli!v' r975 

1,.s. C6!ncit ol l.viro!!edt.r Quarirv 

!1uo!ocarboor .td th. Enriro!.€trt--n.Pott ot th. F..l.t.I 

t.st to!c. o! hrdv.!te.! xodific.tion o! tbe Sr!'to,Phc!' 

U.8. CouDcil of E!ri.o!rilrt!l Qu.litt' 1975 - 

u,s. ser.t€ cot.itt.e or covertr!e!trl llf.i!. 

!.d.r.l xo!or Yenicl. s.te!t staadr!d xo.l2l-- Ait lr.L' 

u.S. S.nat. coE.itt.e oo corernreot.l Aff.ir.' 1977 

1r.5. Eoure Colritte. otr Agri.ultu!. 

|ri rrit. r.strictioDt o! PoulrtY 

Trrhingto., DC: u.s. Boose coo&ittee ot! Aatic!rru!!' l9tl 

u.s, Itout. cortittG. on rDt.tEt.te lod !or.ian coob'rc' 

o!!iiu- Hirr ttilins! coatlol act ol l97E 

Iarhinator, Dc: u.s. llou.€ co!!itt.e o! t!1.r.!rte !rd 

I 

l 

l 

))

BU5CA*C 

IUt(18 

rrs cd*c!rtA6 

!0scPs*rEAo7 

lu8cP5**E058 

luscPs**t!TE 

!usc?s**!LE4 

!u5cPs**6PS6 

luscas!Eaot5 

luscPs!Ec!a5 

r.!. itr cor!.r.e, I9Z8 

78 

E.l:! 

l::. 

.oslittee oo ?s!ric ro,Kr .nd rr...ro,!.rioo 

proara!, 

It.l:.iLi.y-""a..eqlip&.nr 

ror s.f€ry 

ii!lll. itl;rlf: Y;i; "'""'cob'ittee oo 'cbric eort. .!d 

g.:. 

!"."".' 

rroduct srf.!, co6Eir6ioD 

u,!.,rooauE.!_product s,fer, CoDoi.rion: t979 Annu.l iepor! 

Dc, u.s. corsu..r piodrc! 

iii;*r."", 

sarery c.;.i;;i;;, 

Etrael, Joseph A. 

(.!d E.orooic 

:::::11:""fi. 

rop.cr) ^n.rr.i. of . pro,or€d 

r.trdrrory co!.uoe. pEoduct 

s.r€!, siand!rd r.l--.ci.. 

Te l€vi.ion Re c€ iv€! s " 

sv't.!s EnEi.ee!a.::ti;;;t'" 

or rrrinois' DePlrEoent or 

Siopson, Clenn 

_Econori. As5e.!oenr o!. po!en!ial CpsC tenze.e !€8ulerion., 

L..bi.8roo! DC: U.s. Cons!!et !toduct s.!er, c;;;i;;i;;, 

t97 7 

Clrrr, Ali.on. 

or 

;]l:",:jj::. 

r.tron, $iIli.o u. 

s.feLy psckasi!a 

otr chir.r!.!.. a.pi.ir 

ra.shi!gto!, 

1978 

DC; U.S. Co.rrie! l!oduct 6.fet, CoEoi!Fion, 

Uthol6rered Fur ni r ure Ac r ion Cou!ci1 

by rhe Upholsrered FurniEu.€ Acrioo coutrcil 

the 

!o 

con.ule! p!od!ct s.re!y coEEissiod r"g".ai.e iiii--i..ii 

-R.coDoeDded 

!1.8!.bility S!.!drrtt for Uptrotster-a rurait"re 

Uphol!tered rurni!u.e Ac.ion councit, Dececber, l97B 

U.S. Con.uoe. producL SsIer, Coooi..ion 

/o(entrrt Econotric EffecLr of poser Ho,er sr.nd.rd 

Dc: u.s. consuoer !roducr srret, 

i;;1..","", 

coaoi!.ion, 

q.s. Con!ube! ?rod!cr Srfery Cooor.rron 

uoDsu!er producr Safery co!;i6sion: sui!oi!E poot Slide. __ 

S.fery S r.!d.! d 

Ir!3h irt rotr, DC:0.8. Con.!r.r pr 

vor.4r, 

..r.tr 

no. 

co'oi!!ion, 

12, rsnu..y, ,rrr, oj"il.. 

u.s. Con!uler product S!fety Coooi.riotr, But€ro of Ecorooic 

li"l'i::p3i":h:,:i::"I';:"";li";:Ir...., 

rnror.ation '"a o."r"ii"_ 

rhe !o,r!!i!1 

rn'3' 

rrp!ct 

r - Indu;t!v 

sashinEroh, DC: U.s. Cons,rEer pr 

r"'".''"r i".ii"ri-i."iilili'igri'"ouct 

sar'Lv coEtri!sion, 

tnael, JoseDh g, 

"co3t/!enefiE 

(snd r.onoric IoDac r 

rrod.ro!y conrurer producr i.,.i"^".1i:i"."ij :r":..'i::: 

t 

.i 

{ 

a 

I 

l 

.Jl

+ 

!usctstEc!1,6 

IUSCPSB'DEA' 

l!sc?s!tEAA6 

!uscPs!aEAot 

!I'SCPSBEEIO6 

IUSCPSBEEIOT 

"!.;noric 

IUSCPSBEPEAT 

IUSCPS!f,PIA5 

79 

n. r.vi.io! l.c.ivctt' 

t..6i.arotr, Dc: o.s. Coitu.t lroa..! 8.t.!t ColElr.io!, 

t916 

Slobodov, Arl.r J. 

IDrrft 

xnri!on!.!t.l Ar.e..d€nt ind Fe8.tiv. D.cl!!!ti6n o! 

IDpacr.I P!opored lJ.raina St!t€reot oa a.ro.ol P!oducca 

lropel l ed by cbloro!luorocarbotr." 

L.shinston, DC:0.S. Cotrsurer lrodu.t 6.f.tt CoDli..i.D, 

!!reau of Ecsloric ln.lt3i3! ltTt 

"Final 

Rcport or Ervironoetrtsl lsse.!oenr An.lysic ot ! 

ProDos€d s.f.ty sr.nd.Ed for Hst.hbDoks 

U,5, consu'.r Product Srfery coooi..io!, I976 

Ii.t cher , Jud i ih X- 

"EcoDoiic 

Arary6is of the tropo!€d S.l.!t St.id€rd fo! 

Sqior:!s Pool sIide." 

U.s. consloe! Product Srfett CoEEission, B!!eau of xconooic 

Riddle, T- E. hbt' A. l. 

"Res€.r.h 

l.po!t on Ecoloric hp.cl ot 

saIeEy st.!da!d -- !b!s. rl" 

tlasninA!ont DC: U.S. Co!.urer Product 

l9?6 

tnp.ct ol tbe Sh.tD x.t.l Edge 

na Eh ington, DC:0,S. CeDsuEer Plodlct 

Buresu of tcoaooic A.rl]'sis, 1977 

Cl one!, Jur ia P. 

"Pr€r iEi!!r y Envitodelt.l ^r3..!i!nt of 

TRls (2,3, bibroropropyl) Plo5pt.t. .. . 

!i.a!i.g lppare 1" 

t{.shiiaton, DC: lJ.S. ContuE€r Ptoduct 

lbrer! ol Econooi. Araly6is ' 1977 

U.S. co!!ure! Droduct s.l.tt coooir!ioo, 

Propo..d ltrtchbo6L 

S!Iett 

coE!1s s ion, 

Srf.ty co!!i.! io!, 

! l.n o! th. U.. of 

tld. R!t..d..t for 

sa t€ry Cob&i d s ion, 

!!r..s o f Eco.oric 

Ptelioirary Id.rtiIication ..d Discu!.ioq ot !.jot r.onoDic 

I!rues: BootBltch statda!d !roDosal 

coluEbus, ofi: tl-S. ConslEe! ?!6duct Saf.ty CoDDis5iotr' 

ru.,,D of Ecotori. r!.ltsi5, 1975 

luscPsBEtPo9 arh!, A. t- Li.lilt! | {. E. 

"fo!linE 

P.D.!t ou A..tt.i. of Pubric Pl.tatourd Equip!.nt: 

Ih-Depth ass.sr!.nt ol Ec.ooDic l!p.cr' 

t{€rlo Pa!t, cA: U.s. contu!e! Product S.fety Coodir!ior, 

1979 

tDSCPSD'AOCt lt-s. Co!r!r.r ttodu.t S.f.ty Co$ir.io!, Div. o! Eeon. P!oE. 

ah.l t 5 i. 

an.ly6ir of correrts fror ti€ De..!b.t 20, l97E Public 

H.eiins oh ophol.ler.d rur!iture Flaibrhili!t

80 

!USCPSDEAOCg fl..hitrgron, DC: U.S. c.nrn_-. 

Div. o! Econ. "".". ^"li;::::"rztoducG 

IUSCPSDEAoEt U.S. con.uEer pro.rucr str€ry Co!ri!.io! 

8r!'tv c6r'l..lon, 

3:.:;"-::;:i;"1::: :" i " ;i ;i"ii"'ii"tii"e,"i.oo..r,"r rrp:c,r 

cotrr.cr 

Bane 

Adh..ives 

xish, y 

i.::::::.i.1"::::.;o, 

!,.r..br. 

-i.t".y 

Dc: 

l;i)t"..",, 

0.s. cors!b!! r,iJ.ii 

co6.r..ion. 

aosCPSDltAE7 V.s.-Conruuer p!oduct 

s.r.ty 

Fi n.1 

Co!!t.!ion 

R.port. Ec6. 

;;;;;".;';;:;;,.:;:""1;" ";1i..::::..il::il:.. ^;ili::;t,t:; 

I;;)t*..., 

IUSCPSDAIAoE 

rrr.ge, r.n., 

;:'i:l:i"s:t.ii;i"!!.dr 

Dc: u.s. con!ur.r produ.! 

of , !.q 

s.fety colri.3io!. 

otr tit€s coot.iling tec.l 

qashingron, 

DC: U.s. Cotr.uDer P!oduc 

6ur€au 

! s.t.rt 

or 

coroi!sio! 

!codoric Andry!i3, 1973 

AUSC?SDEUARS U.s. ConsuEer product 

safery CoDbi!.ion 

Eazard ^nrly,ig e.e..t, i".;".i.i--i",..i...a,ith 

objec!s 

srrtl 

Ii;!t"*..., 

Dc: u-s. cobsuoe_ produc! 

5.f.ty cooni!.ioE, 

BlJSCPSDltnltAg R.urherford, 

.BrA 

Ceor8€ e. , J!. 

lt.z.!d Ab;1r3i;: tnjuri.. 

pl A..ociared 

iyg!ound 

,irh 

Eq u rpEent,, 

!ubtic 

colurbu6. OH:0,s. consgo€r prodrit 

safery Corris.ior, r9Z9 

IUSCPSDS!Ao9 Sibpsotr, ct€nn 

.,rconoric 

A33e3sr.bt of rh. propo3.d 

cpsc !etrle.e reSul.tion 

lUsClsE!ElO7 

lUsC?Slll!lO7 

i6ift*."., 

Dc: u.s. con.uler ?!oduct !efc!, coo6ir6ioo, 

!,.y, D.l € R, 

;:::.::;:":::;". 

of th€ lan .f ce!t.i! ltoducr. cont.iain8 

U,S. cob!uDer 

]tn.l,3iI Div., 

proituct 

I977 

Stf.t, cooDi..iosr E.o!. 

stobodost 

''Env 

Arlen J. 

irohr.nr a t As3e!rt'!t 

of ' lrt or ulvelted 

space E€arers" 

Gas-!i!'d 

U.s. ConsuE€r p.odtrc! 

S.fety Co,!i!3ioD, l9r7 

!USCPSqIFtOg poEe.oy, 

D.v irl 

.'Finat 

Repor! - on Ec 

R€snratio;;- 

Attedroent of thc g..ll 

P.rl! 

U.s. cons!oe! ptoducr 

S.fery Co&ission, l9?9 

lUl CPStt I pE t8 pooeror, 

'.lr€liEinsry 

David 

EconoEic tnfo!!arion tet.ri!. to ,!p rJa!e! 

,.:i 

i 

: 

:i

IUSCPSIIIEIE 

auscPsosa!ol 

197 a 

8l 

f,.rt.!, - l.titio! cP't6-15" 

DC: tt.E. Cor.!r.r ttodsct s.t.ty conittion, 

xose., David r. 

'ran 

Ewal!a!io! of tb. Eff.clivcnerg 

te.binatan, DC: O.s. Con.q..i !!oduct 

Offi.€ of stt.t.!ic Pl.Dni.s' 1978 

of Cb ild-i..i !t.!t 

saf€ tt cooui t! ion, 

!t scPsosIoc9 

offic. o! gt d.S. co!.un.r P!oduc! Safety Con!r.5io!, 

!.1.a i c 

Plr!oing 

I!!act of crib s:{etr 

AEsdci!t.d eitb crib' 

LrrshisSlot, Dc: U.s. 

lctiviti.! 

eo!.u!.r 

o! Irjurie. 

Plodu.t Saietv 

.rd Dealhr 

Co!!i3Eion, 

o!!i.e of str.Eesi. P1!nDi!9, l9?9 

tDSCSTCAROCT U,S. Senat€ co&itt.. on Aaricultur. ntttltion .rd Fo!.ttrt 

Food saf€ty .dd Qu.rittr f,.8cl.tio. al ah.ti.!le iD Food tnd 

Aar ic u l. ure 

ria\iogtor, DC: U.s- S.o!t. CooDitt€€ otr A8riculttr!e 

xEttition.!d rore st rv, 1977 

luscsrcalroA? 

lttscs*cr{o5.7 

luscsrcL!oI7 

. !uscSrcLoot4 

l!scs*c1.o016 

llJscslcLoota 

l!scs*c?AQA4 

U.s. S€nrt€ CorEittee on Asticultu!e iuttltion.nd rot..t!t 

food saf€ty and qu.lity: us. of ltrtibiotic. in Ani!.l F.ea 

la6\inston, DC: O.s. S.r.te CoEditt.. 

x!tt i t ion and Fo.€!t!y, 1977 

tr.S- Senat. CoDDitlee on Xu6!o RerourceB 

oc curat ional Di3eas.s 1977 

vrashitrg!on, Dc: lJ.S. se!ate coooittee or BrDan l.toulc"' 

| 91j 

U,S. seD.t. Co..itt.. oD guratr lc.ourc!. 

Itonito!i.s o{ tEd!rtrial To.t.rs ErPo.qil to ca!.ino8.nt !977 

Lashibaton, DC:1,.S. SenaEe CoEEitt.e o! ll{trrn l..ource', 

t9tJ 

U-s- Sena!e Comitt€. o! !.bot and lub1ic tl€la.!e 

Occup,cioa.l S{f.tt,trd ,€,1!h r.t levier 1974 

tlastington, DC: L.s. S.n6re CoD&ittee on rlbo! 'nd Psbli' 

u-S. senate Cor.ittGc on L.bor 

Oversiaht of !h. Adeitri.t!a!io! 

.td lublic l'r€lftte 

ot th. Oc.u!.tioE.1 s,fe" 

rod A.alth lct l9?6 

[a!shiogtoD, 0C: s. s. sen.te coroirr". at l.to! lDd P!!lic 

!.5. S€[at. Cotitt.. ot n.r.! le.olac.. 

o""i"ill't o" ihe îl.i!i.t!.tior ol tbe o.cuP.tioq.l safetv 

.Dd aealth ^ct 1978 

U.S. sen.te corritt.. o.8!crn Reto!r.ei' !978 

U.s. S€f,at€ coEEitt€. on !!blic !o!ts 

Air Qu.litt and A!rodobil€ Ersissiot corrror 

U.s- Sena!e Cobdit.ee otr P!bli. taotts, 1974 

'1 

,.j 

. 

'.j 

l 

l l 

J

DUSDI*BliACII 

82 

!usc8*c!PtE 7 sedrt.-Con!irr€. on Environdert ald lublic 

PollutioD 

Dort. 

taxe., !fflu.dt Cba!r€ 

ror poLluLion 

r, rnd oth.! Alrer.!!iv., 

con!!ol 

lJ.shir8ron, Dc: sen.te colEitree oo !.svir6nr.sr 

llo!ls, 

.nd 

Ma y, 

lublic 

t 97? 

!utcsrcPSoEg 

BUSDAT!5fI 

S9 

s.n.t. CoobiLr€e on roviron!enr rnd public l,.!k! 

or E.vironDebrar r"."""i"", e. uii!iI 

H.3hi!aron, Dc: sen,te coEEirr.e otr z,,t.oni.oi- rnd publt. 

Irorks) Julrr 1979 

LS, Depar!rerr of Asricolru!. 

Fin6l hp€cr st.reieDr: R..idu. r!os!.r, se.D te.r on 

r.er i ses ( STop) 

l,rashinston, DC: U.S. Depr!tEent of AE!ic!lture, 1979 

lJ-S. Depa!rr.rr oa Ag!icultB!e 

.slud, of th. Fpder.l I..r aDd t -- D'6c'ip!ior or tre 

;:.#'; 

poultry 

near .;d 

t.rpecrion pio"trr: 

rouit"y r;i,piiilii-' 

l{6shinaron, DC: U,S. Dep.rtbehr of Aaricutru!e, 1977 

E! ic lsDn, L.E. 

''Ur€fulne.! 

o! At!elnative rir.8!.rive 

,erhodoloaie! in 

&!.!s!.nt 

plbli. 

aDsDA*OOSOTT 

ausDE***lroa8 

Decision &.kiaari 

9!rhingEon, DC: t.s. DepartEent of ED..ar, J!ly, 1976 

aDSDEE 

MtE 

U-S.. Dep.r-!d€nr of H€arLh, Lducarionr ..d gelf.r.. 

;::i;lil:":i :::.::::"- 

or c;'c'r in tr'" i,.s. n"o.i"tui',i*, 

U.s. De!.!t!eDt of nealtt, Educatio{, .Dd rJelfs!e, 

197 A 

DiCatrio, Dr!iel_6. at!t., A!!h!r c. Colverr, Dooitric 

!rveque. Eda.! C, 

Accid€!t cosr Indicaro! llodel to E.cida!e cosr! to tndust!, 

and soLieLy frod. Dork_relarEd rnjuries .Dd De.ths ri 

undersround cost fiinine 

$.shireLon, lC, U-s. l.pe.r"err of tbe Int.!ior lure.u of 

Krnes, vot. I, Se 

p r erbe!, 1976 

!osDt*ASErE5 !.S, Dpp!rcoenL of Lrbor, ASpER, OSIA 

tbe rrlec!s or thc occu'arion!r 

;::;:::'"srr.!, 

rid E.rrEh 

0.S. Depa!tEe!r of L.borr 4SpER, (,sBA, rr75 

AUSDL*ALSAH5 Tillery, rir.!on 

].iI:.""::q 

rertrh provi,ion! 

B.rore 

. u.s. ,Fp.rLoenr 

and aft.! o6EA,, 

of L!bo!, Burer! "r r.r., si.iiiii.", t975 

BUSDT*o5EOO? U.S, D.parrdenr of L.bo., OSXA 

1l."llI":'.oJ 

:._,.1"",.d 

osHA redic.r AeEov.l p!orecrion 

re€d tndusr!ie6 

od L.bo. 

o( t.bo, , oSHA, 1977 

BUS DL*OSE IA6 

U. S. Deprrco€n! of Coomerce 

t'p".. 

,lllil.': 

An61y.j6 of propo3.d Nois. 

rrsnrngLorr 

resurarioo 

Dc: u.s. Dep.!rEenr of co!!e,c., april. t9?6 

. 

I

!uSDLrOStoL4 

lusDL*0sn0t9 

!U5DL*P!EFO5 

D05Dt*CGBEtt6 

r!8Dt.lBArA0 

l!tDt*FBr4lE4 

ttsDt*N{a809 

83 

!;3;.?'i?"iill."'":::::i o:l'rh. 

i"1.";1""" 

iorr',..c ror t.. 2, 

^-G. vol 3. APPerdice. fi 6 I E'onoEet!ic sirulrti 

,.hinAtotr DC: O.S, DePartreDt ol l''bor, osgA' Jt{ultt' 

t914 

u. s. D.P.rtDetrt of Ltbot 

I xoaei or the Ioplicit co!i furc!ionB Rel'v'nt fo! 

i"ti""ti.e tbe cost t; !! EconoEv oI occuPetion'l A'cidert5 

u.s. D€Pattretrt ot L.bor, l9t9 

C\.1idr, J.r.. t, 

;;;;;;;:ti;;; tJi osxe'. Perroo.nc.: rh. !..ront or rh!o" 

.rd rdpiri.al Fr iden.e" 

tlrshrDston, Dc: U.s. D€ P.. Lr.o t 

Cohen I StePb€n !. 

;";;'i"...; Efrective!..t u.thodoroatr 

eiiifii"ii..', Dc: u's. D.Dr!tr.!t o! 

!h"' t t""rch" 

1r'!'Port..ron 

T!ansport.tioE, Jul t, l9?6 

ur!!esor, Jates E- Itall, J.io!e t. s'ehilf iov !' 

A;cidEn! Raie3 an.l Co3ts on U!b.n '\!tcrials and Fr'evavs 

Ders!txent of Transport.tion, Feder't High{t' 

Addi. i s t!a!ioD, J.Dua!Y' 1970 

xentredy. 0a)ph G' Lloyd' ftlEL a Lov!et, rob'rt 

;;r "'i"li"a.r.e" 

ror E"arudtins the Eco!oric tEpact' of 

rDolvin. s,I lroad S,fet' sttndatds" 

;::ii;;F.;; ;i;--".!:';;;.;t;;., ot I'ansPor*Lion' Fe'rerrr 

a.ir.o!a li-i";"t'ation, voI. I' oc!o!€t, l9?4 

si:";:r,::ii::""1'3i!"u..a 

zrr" 

tla6hinstod, 

1979 

DC: lr.S- DePe!tt..t ot T!an!Po!t'tiou' NxlsA' 

alSDrr{EAlE9 u,s. D.D.rtt.rt ol tr..tpottrtion, |.AtsA 

AutoEotiv€ F!.1 Econorv grograo: lhird Annual R'pott to the 

Conare s s -- Janu.!Y r979 

n.=ii"g."", oc, v.s. i"pttt"ot ol transPottationr NIITSA' 

1977 

!l,sDTtlrIAoTo u-s. D.p.rt!.!t of tt.!.Do!a'tion,.xnTs^ - 

i;;ii..ii.;" of th. oEI c ' ! t - E I r ' c t i v ' tr ' ' B svs!er t! 

tl", :.t""Y, Notrh Carolinar 'nd Itah 

llesninEton, Dc: u.s' D"'rto€nr of T!605Port'tion' 

vo!. l, June ' l'70 

Ar I zo!r ' 

N{TSI' 

BuSDI*XEE!S? -U.S, D€partoen; of TrttrlPo!t'tion, IATSA 

E.oEotic Iopact A53essEeDt: A!'!dr'nt to reder'l H6!or 

vehicle saretv stand:rd No' 208 (occxP:nt Cr!th !rot'ctioo) 

,con.ai. lEP.ct ^:'tt""tttt- Aiendte;r ro tr(vssNo' 208 

( oc c uPaDr Cr'sh P r o ! e ' t i o n ) - - r a r ! 11--BenefiEs 

o,s. i.p.t."""c of .lr$6Dortatio!' 

l{ItTsA' l9?7 

-. 

. 

l 

I 

t 

:

ausDT*XlrFAOgu. 

s. D.p.! tr.nt 

- 

of tr.tr.por!.!ior, RTsA 

!rDrr Ar.c..c.ut of rhe Buoper s!!nda!.t 

Dc: u.s. Deparioer! of rrdnspo,r.tio!, 

;;;!..*..", 

nErsa, 

lusDtrtaFIA? 

lttsDt.lttaltS 

auSD?.NEFSS8 

EUSDTtFgIACS 

rus$T*t|ttIoiE 

!u3Dr*Nltt{ftT6 

lusDt*[t{*AA8 

lusDT*xlttoR9 

ausDr*tlxsAo6 

84 

U, s.. Depdrroenf of tr.nsporrrLion, IHTsA 

rrnar ropacr Assess!.nr Dt the AutoEoriv. Fu.l EcoroN 

Standards for Rodet yer! t98l-1964 p.sseqse! C.!. 

u,shinston, Dc: u.s. Dep,rrEeDt ,t r..,!e..i.iion, xllts!, 

t977 

u,s, Depa!rDent of transror!aEion, xltTsa 

Final Iopacr Asses6n€nt of tbe Lishr Truck lDd V.n luct 

E c o I S n y - s r € h d a r d I ror Iodet ye.! 3 t 980 rnd lgEl 

'EshrnSron, Dc: u.s. Dep.rr.e.t oi rrao.pa;i;tiotr, r rsl, 

1978 

u.s. D.parrE.Dt ot lrrn.porr,r!ion, NHTsA 

Facr shppr -- so.iet.l Benefi rs or pas.ive Restr.itrr. 

llashinAton, DC: U.S. Depa!En€nt of T!!nE9o!t.!iorr trllsA, 

1978 

D,S, Dela!tEent of t!.n3po!tation, NErSA 

Iop.ct Assessreuc: Ctitd resr!aina S!rnitsrit (FrvSS Zr3, 

t.shinBton. DC: U.S. Depsr!oenr of tra!spo!r.rio!, nETsA, 

stutrr, Jane C. 

Reiofurt, Do n! 1.1 $. 

IEpsct 0t Recent Chaoge3 io th. giAbre, S.ter'' E.vilonoe!t: 

1r Projecr 0vervier 

IlasninAtotr, DC: U.S. Dep.r!o.n! o! tEr!sportetion, llf,TsA, 

s€P.eober, l97a 

U.S. D€partEent of Transpo!r.ti.n, nl{tSA 

lreliEinary Eval!ario! o! the p!opos€.r ExEen,ion of 

Standards No. ?01, ?03 and ?04 to !ishi r,r"r", r.""", .ij 

ltul t ipurrose Passe!ser vehicles 

I,rashinstotr, Dcr U-S, Dep.r!6en! of tra!3porrrtio!, l{xTst, 

t9?8 

0.s. DeplitEenr of 1!adsporrarion, dllTSA 

Res!1.ro!y tn.lyris: Aeendoe.t to Ft{vSS ltt __ r"","i"" 

U.S. Depir!ti.Dt of tra!.po!t.tionr IHTSA, t9t6 

U.S. D€pa(Loerr of Tr.tr.porrario!, NqtSA 

reporr on eeque3Lr by cenerst oLor! ard Ford ro t.duc. Fuel ---_ 

E.onony srandardr Ior My l98l-95 r"".."g"r e"to"ouii-"t,.rshing!o., 

Dc: u.s. DelarrEenr of r!;nrpo!t.tiorr NntSA, 

l9?9 

Reinlurt, DoDal{t lJ. 

silvs, Claudi.o z. Seil., Ard!.v F. 

r--SL.Lisri.al Anatysis of S€.r Belr Eff.

!u5Dtrtf,!col 

BUSDT+t{BSCO9 U. S. Deprrtaent of T!.nrport.tiotr,lllTSA 

Soci.l Con6€qu.r... ot Ac. id.nt. 

U.s. Depr.tdetr. of t!.!.?ort.tio! ,NBTSA, 1979 

tusDir utco6 

lttstfar*tPL6 

85 

U.8. D.t.rtr.!t o! l!rn.Do!trtion, IUTSA 

1975 soci.!.1 Co.r. of xo!or vehicl. Accid.!1. 

ChicaSo, t!1,: u.s. Dep..!oetrt of 1!rtrspo.tatiod, lf,raAr l9r5 

U.S. Depa!tE.nt of ar.!rpor!.tion, NHTSA 

PreliEiaary Report. Th. Co!i!ibution. ot Autorobile 

IJr3!inAton, DC: ll.g. D!t.rt!..t o! l!.!.po!t.tioc, XBISA, 

1978 

l. ! i on.1 Rere..cn Cou6ci,l 

Analvtic SEudier to! th. V.S. Etrvirom.!!.1 !rot.ctio! 

Agencr-- vo1uo. 7 r|oi!. Abat.n.nt Poli.y Alt.r!!ti!.. !or 

T! ans?o! t€ i ion 

tashinaton, Dc: .tio^.1 Rer€.r.h Cooncil, !.1. 7,l9l1 

Feder.t Reti6ter 

Dridkina rlaEer rnd x.rlth--t.cor!eod.tion. of th. i.tior!l 

Acadery of s.ierce! 

$rshinstotr, Dc: F.rte!.1 t.ai.t.!, vol.42, no. 132, J!lt' 

1977, p. 357 64-79 

9.5. rnr i!onE.nt.l lrot.ctiotr lt.!cy 

l,oikina !.1.! L..d. coocep!s.l I33oc. it Cott-!?n.fit 

U.s, Envi!ori€nttl !!ot.ctioa ABen.y, 1!6E 

!OSEPASEOVPS U.S, Environoenlal ?rot.ction Ageocy, 0ffice of f,.r!.!.h.nd 

lgstPAoc!st6 

rusttaoscR08 

!0sE!AouwAT 

option 9.1u€r, Pr€s€rvation v.1!es .!d t€cr€.tion.l Bcn.fit! 

of IEDroved riar€r Qu.lity: A c6se Studt of Lhe Soutn Plrttc 

Biver l€Ein, Colo.ado 

U.s. rn!iroooent.l lror..tior as.ncy, otfic. of Re.e...b.rd 

D€veloprebt, l9 76 

thorp€, Roddey lioh.3, ltoE. s 

I'Econooic lJelfare IBpa.tr of Urb:! Noi.!!' 

U.S, Environoenl!l Protection Aseocyt 0f!ic. .f lc..rrch.ad 

Developr.nr, 1976 

0.s. En!i!o!Gent.l lrot.ctioD AS.EGt, Ofli.G of B..lth .nd 

Ecolosic.l Effect. 

C!itical R.vi.e of E.tio.ti.g !er.!iti of Ai! lnd vrrer 

?ollution con!rol 

lJashinBfon, Dc: U.s. Edvi!onsenL.l Pro!..tioA ABency, Office 

of Re.lLh.nd Ecolosic!l Eff..r3, vol.5, l97E 

D.S. Environoenl!l Pr.t.crion A!€n.y, Offic. of l.!..rcb.rd 

D. v.l op.en( 

Irzardo!s vr6t..: l ri3k-leD.tit ltr..sorL A!pIied 

C.d!iuo.nd Irbesto. 

lJarbinaron, DC. U.S. lrvi!oon..r.I lror.ctior At.acy, Ollice 

of B.r.rrcb rDd D.y.1oD!.nt, 1977 

tl 

l 

. 

j 

a 

I 

l

86 

BUSE!Aoll{DFl 0.s. Etrvi!oao.!rat plot.ction 

4s.ncr, of!ic. o! ti..lrh .nd 

E.oloaicat !ff€crs 

}{.rno.ls Developdenr fo! AssessiDa Air pollutioE co!lrol 

lea€f irs : rxecutive SuEslry 

A.E. lriangl. pt. fiC: U.s. !!vir6hetrrat plotection â.ac],, 

Offi.. of se.tth .nd Ecoloaicat Eff€cts, 1979 

B05E PAonMDF I !rootshi!e, D!vid S, 

.t .A! a. I Ralph C. 

sch!12e, r,rilli.o D, 

Tb aye! r ka!k 4. 

xethods DevelopDeDt fo! Asse.sitra Ai! !oltutior 

lenefits: vdluoe 2 

U,S. Environnenrat p!oEection 

4geDcy, 1979 

Cort!ol 

B0SEPAOHItDt3 A

uSEPA0lb!?4 

IUSEPAOAET'Q4 Jord€n iog, D.vid !, 

E.!ior!inr l!Lcr Qu!lirv Eerelitt 

s.shinRto;, Dc: u,s. Environrebt.l ProtGctiou AtG!cv' olllc. 

ol Res.rrch and DeveloPoert, 1974 

AUSEPAOIIAS 7 

!v5E?AORltAT 

IOSEPAOROAPT 

DUSi?A0&OXC4 

AUIEPAOI?AE6 

'USEPAOSNNA3 

i0SEPAOfSBtr3 

tDs EPA0tr^llS 

87 

Unge! | S.tuel G. 

Jord!nidg, n.vid r. 

Biblio!.rDhv ot !"r!er Pollutio! 

cor'.lii.. on, t,s. tn"ito"..nt.l 

Conrrol B.tr.fit. .nd Cottr 

Pror.crion ^8.Dct, Offi.. 

of Re.e.r.h.nd Deve toer.ot, 1974 

u.s. Eiviroor.nt.l lroEecrioa Aa.nct, oItiG. ol i....!ch.nd 

ldEr!iiic.tion ttd sDecitic.rior or I!Put. for l.n.lit-co.t 

xod.l itrr of Pes!icide !te 

nes. rrieaete PK, NC: U.s. raviro!!ent!t !rot.ctiotr A8E!.t' 

offic. of i.!.!!cb !nd DevelopoenE, r977 

cr.8or, John J. 

Int!r-0rb!. xort.li!t lnd Ait Qqrlitt: l! lcoronlc lr.It.i' 

of rh. cosis of Poll!tion-Irilu..d I|ort.litt 

ira!hjnr!on. Dc: lr,s. E.vironbeni.l Prot.ction ASeDct, 0ffic. 

.f R.r;,rch and Develor!.!r. 1977 

U.S. Eftvitoro.Dt.l PioE€c!ioh A8en.y, Ofti.. of R..€!r.h lnd 

o'id,"i î' ?orlutio. !nd IorL Per fora.6c. ot cit!ur E.tv€.t 

Ne! York, ll: u.S. lnvirouent.l rtot..tio! lSencv, Offi.. 

of Re.eaEcb .nd D.velopDent, 1977 

J!Lsch, Jobn A. 

St oev€n.!, X. rb.!t E. 

ourpatieni edi..l Coit. Rel.ted to ll! Pollstio! in lh. 

Po!cl.nd, oregotr A!ee 

l,ra6hiagto!! DCr u.S, Environoent!1 PtoEcction ASeoct' 0fIic. 

of Rese..ch t.d D.v.loPeetr, 1974 

Li!, le!-chi.h tu, Eden Siu-hunl 

!hy;icar etrd E.oloric DlraB. runctior. fo! Ai! loIlut.!t. bt 

i"i"liii.. oR: u.s. EDvironoe!!a1 Prot.ccion As..ct' of!ic. 

oI- Res.!!ch .!d DeveIoP!.Dt, 1976 

Jordenirq, D.! id L. 

ae.earch- ne.ds 6nd Prioriti.r. 9.t.t l.l!!tion CD!trol 

Benefit. .bd Co.tr 

sa3hington, Dc: u.s, EnviloqEetrt.l !!ot.c.io! Aa€lct' Otlice 

o f Xes.rr.h ,nd Develop'e!1. l9tl 

tins€r, Saouel C. Erer.oDr ti. Jrlvin 

Jorde!io8, Dav id L. 

St.t.-oi:itt Reviev:t|.t.! 

Cor!.. 

Eo!lutio! Couttol t.n.fit. .nd 

- voL I 

corv.l!is, oR: n.s. Envi!oot.nt.l Prot.ctio! aB.net' ollic. 

.t &.3€drch and Devel.p!.nt' ltTl 

srraetrt, Dorald s. r4ett, Joh! t. l.s..tt' J..t 

. i

DUSE!AOttAX5 techEic.l .od }ii.roeconooic An.ltri. of c.dEi!! .r.t itr 

iuSE!AtPBCA6 

lusEPASAt0?9 

!us{rDttrR!a6 

BUSXnliBNSOR6v8n 

llortr. Andler J. 

tirsod, Ri.ha!d 

The sratu6 of Ri.k-8.!efir Aoelyti! 

s€rhington, DC: 

n.!va!d Un ive!.it 

Ene!gy 

y, t976 

rod Eoei!ort..t.1 !olic, Centet, 

BI'S'DA**CETE 

!U8!DAOPDTA9 

Bt'SFDAO?I!D6 

8& 

l{!shington, Dc. D,S. EnvironDencal ?ro!ection 4A.Ecy Ofti.e 

of Toxic Sub3r.trcer, Juse, t975 

d'AlBe, R!1ph C. Eu!Enrkr, L.rry dr!riaator, Jo.eph 

letefir-Cost An!ty5is tor Be8!l!tins tois.ionr o! 

lluo!oc ar!ons 11 !nd l2 

I,rashinaro!, Dcr U.S. Eovi!onr€nt€1_ !!o!ectio! A8ency, 1975 

U,s. Enriionoeot.l !rotectidn Aseocy Scierce Advi.o!y Bo!!d 

Repo!t of rhe Beilth Effecr, Rere.rch a€vi.r c!ouD 

t.shinBtor, Dc: rI.s. En!ironoerrat prorEctioo Age;ct 6cien.E 

Advi sory aoard , 1979 

C1art, rlir€be!b J, 

v.n fioin. And!er J. 

ni6k-lenefit Ao!1y6i! .!d plbtic rolicy: A BibI!og!.ph, 

CaEb!idae, Ml: Enersy rDd Elvi!olEen!.t po1i.v Cent.!- 

Ear! aEd -Utrive.siry, t9?6 

U,S. Food rnd Drra Adoirirrr.!lor 

Cosbined !.onooic lcpact A66.sloes! ot. seri€s of plopo.als 

ReSar.lila !€niciltin/retra.y.tin.-Contairins pre!ixes 

Lashinaton, DC:0-s. !ood and D!ug AitEiDistr.tiotr, rgZE 

Levis, ?hil. ip F. 

"Resulato!y Analr6i. loi ! !io.l ResDlstiD! ror heituc!io! ot 

t€oporart tolerarces for polychtoriDrted !iDhenyls in Food'! 

tashrnecoa, DC: U.S. Food and Drus AdEitrisciaLi;n. 1977 

DsorkiD, !!y l. Reinsch, Susan p r,roore, St€ven R. 

Diaft reBulato!y Anrly!ir: ?!rietrr LabelisA Req!irereot! tDr 

!resc!iption Drl8s 

lJashiogtoD, Dc: tl.S, too.l 6nd D!us AdoinistrAtio!, r979 

U.S. Food Atrd D-us AdDini6!rarion Otfice of platrniia ald 

In Il at ion Ihpact st.teretr! ot lropo.€d ruleoarirg 

Die thy l6r i 1be s r!o I 

LashinEtor, DC: U.S. !ood And Dlua AdoiniEt!.tioE 

!I.tbins and Erald.tioD, l9t6 

Office o! 

BIISF!AOtM], U.s. ?ood lrd 

tvaluation 

Drug,{dEinistration O!fice o! rt:!!iD8 an6 

Inflarior topac! SrrreEent of p:opored Rut.o!tinE: cerr.ttr 

rluo.oca!b.n. (chtotofluorocarbons) ir rood,Food Addiiives, 

Dr!gs! AniDal iood, dnioal D!!gs, Cosoerics and Hedi.ai 

Devlce t!oducrs, A6 ?ro?ettanr! ir SelIjr!essuri,ed 

Cort.iDe! s: rrohibirios on Use 

narhinSton, Dc: D,s, Food And D!us Adaini!t!.!ion O!fic. of 

PlrtrrinB.nd EvaluaL ion. lt77 

ir 

:

lttstDô?t!x6 

!0s!DAot!ts7 

lustEA0E!clr5 

!usxAstltDr{F5 

!08!rtccltNAE8 

!us!tRccxnHIS 

austltccxPa*9 

89 

tt,B. lood lna Dri! liii!i..r.cioE Olfic. o! ?l.rnins .rd 

lnfl.tio! 

(5-nicro) 

lop.ct 

coDeo und ! 

of P!.po!.d tul.!!kin8: ritrofuri. 

te.hinStoo, DC: 0.s. lood tnd Dru! ldlinirt..!io! Otli.. of 

Pl !rr ina rnd Ev:ru..ior, 1975 

U,s, lood aod Dr!8 Adrini.tr.tior O!lic. ol ll.!Ditra ..d 

Ev.l uac ior 

Iofl.tion lop.cE Sr.!.r.ot of rropo..d R!1.r.Lir8: E.cctuin 

!nd its Salt! in lood., Dru8r, A.i!.1 l.edr, lniEsl Dr!83, 

Co6reticr, .nd.t. Food Addiriv.; !!olri!irioo o! UrG 

B.S. rood Add DruB Ad'ioisc.i!ion of!ice or Pl.n!i!8 .rd 

lvr Luat ioD, I977 

O. S. F.d.r.l lneray Aihi!i.t!.tio! 

3.n.fit-Co.r l,eEhoaolo8t fo! !e.lurt!n8 !n€!gy Coo..!v.tion 

U. S. Fea.rrl EaerBy,ldDirirt.,tioD, l9t5 

U. S. Cene!.1 AccobntinA Olfice 

A€n.fit3 of v.hicle Saf.ty sirndrrd. 

lla3hinaEon, Dc: U.s. G.n.r.l Accountitg Ottic., 1979 

U. s. Ce!€r!1 A.countins otlice 

ieporl ro the Co4iLt.. oo cooE.!c. of thc It. L S.o.r.: 

E!!€ctiven..r, B.nefiEE, ..d co.t. of Ecd.r.l S.f.rt 

Stinda.dd I.r Protecrion ol ?rs..ng.r C.r o..up.ntt 

U.shinstod, Dc: U, s, c€n€.a1 AccountinE olfic.t 1976 

U.S. N!.io.rl a.!e.!ch Council. CoEri,!3ion on I!!u!.1 

Re rout c e. 

Decision MatiDE fo! l..au1.tila chG!ical! in th. EEvlroro.li 

C.neva: U.s. N!tiotr.l t....!ch Cou!.i1, Cooai!.ioD .! 

Naltrral eesouicet, 1975 

U. s. Nation.l R€s€.rcn Co!n.iL 

itraces: Ar 6nviron6entdl As..t.s.nt 

I,r.shinator, Dc: U,s, NaEio!al *.s.r!cb Co!n.il, 1976 

U. s. rcioo.l l..errcb Cou!cil 

xonfruo!io.t.d l.lo!.th.!.. ir lh. trvl!6nn.nt 

$..hitrsron, Dc: 0.S. x.tio!.1 l....rch Cou!cil, 1978 

U. s. Narian!1 i.3€arcb Council 

Polychlo.in.red Biphcnylr 

lr,s. Narisaal R.s€.rc}! Co!hcil, l9t9 

Crad, lrrnk norenlh.l, A.J. t.t' J.A. 

The aotono6il..!.1 rt. r.tul.rion of itr lrprcc od tlr€ 

lr,S. x.Eional g.i.o.. Foq.d:tio!, 1974 

tusxst**cBAa 

tl6t.ro.r. T,E, unitzee3ti. X.R, 

co.!/Ben,fil Ai.lrsi. of Fir. Det.c!o!. 

Collee. P.tk, rD: U,S, !9!!iortl Scien.. tolrdetio., l9?E

usNsrr*c!c8 

90 

D.rdi., R!ehe l SDith, B.F. 

cor!-AeDefir Analy6is of consuEe, ?!odEcr S.fe!y proa!aE. 

I,l.rlinston, Dct u,s. NaEional science roqn.t.tioi, r!ii"".y, 

I978 

Heyroo?t, J.B. Ja.olt, {. D. 

Aessl at ina the AuroDo!iIe 

xashiasron! DC: U.S. Iarion.t Science 

I9J 7 

lu8!tsaAsacB4li!Ehleif€!, 

J. 

Applyins Cost-ae!.Iit 4ralysis 

!oud!t ion, i.re!b.!, 

T, Repplporr, t. 

ro Proj€ct3 $bicb alrc! tuEed 

Sc i€nc€ r round.t ion, !ove!.b, 

IVANBAT6SOR! Ved {.rn, A!d!€r J. 

qilBon, f,icha!d 

rrTh. 

s!3tus of Risk-!enefit Aqat,.i.t' 

n.e lo!k, IY: !ioolhsver N.rionai laborarorr, l9t6 

!vAUPJ780taO vaupel, JaEei lt. 

nonthe 

re;efi!i of treattb and saf€ry !egul!tioo" 

Plblic lnrere.t E.osooic6 FouDdarion, r9i8 

!vIscrTS Ioos 

avlscI.7E!t90 

lvlscr?9 roos 

THADEJT?CASSU3de, 

JaEes C. ll.adt, !arl 

"coDtrolliqa 

O- 

Nonpoinr s-dinenr Sources ri!b C!oDlard 

araeeEenr: A NrtLon:l E.oromic Arses6oen 

aoericar Jou!!.1 of asri.ulrur,t Econooic., vol. 59, no. t, 

F€blua!y, 19 77, P. 25-36 

3$AtrJTSUOSC 

trft€asur€nent 

of sedirent cont!ot IElactE on ts!icDttrre,' 

tr8Lc' Resourcer R.se6r!h, vot. 1.. no. !, Febtu.ry, 1978, p. 

BIiEStTTTAMANItestr.n, 

Ualte! E. 

"loq 

uuch a!e n.tu!e"s Services r,ro!th?' 

Anerrcan A3.ociation fo! rhe Advan.erenr of Scies.e, 1977 

!$nr tMTSMtco 

|lash ing ron, DC: U.S. NaEional 

r 914 

vi tcus i , $. xi? 

"Tbe 

IEpac. of Oc.sDational SafEry and neqtth tegulrtiontt 

!ell Jou!nr1 o! xconoEica.!d xanagereat Scien.e; vor. rO, 

no. lr Sl!ing, L9J9, r. lt7-t40 

9i.cusi, U. Kip 

"l,abo! Na!ket Varuations ot rife aDd !iDb!Erpi!iceI Eyiderce 

dd Policy rDplications', 

?!!1ic Policy, vor,26, ro.3, Suooer, r978, p. 359-386 

vis.uri, F. (ip 

"Tbe 

Iopa.! of Occup!rionar S!Iety rnd teal!h Regul.rion" 

3eI!,Jourral of !coDo'i.r, vol. tO, no. I. Sp,in!, trzr, p. 

!,rhiEtread, Hichael 

''ueasurinB 

rh€ Cost. of Noise n..ui!.nc€ f!oo Ai!cr.tt,. 

Jou!D6I oI 1!anEporE EcohoEics .nd poticr, l9r8 

T

tt!or*9cf,f,F6 

llt LLB T T C0tA 

I|JILSRT9ATDB 

!ttzci?680^? 

BYT'**I'EADAR 

ItECBt? SPtV! 

lz!crl76l.xr9 

EZECi'RTTGCTT 

a zucxs 7 TtPBI 

9l 

To!1d !..lth or!.nlt.tlon 

ll€!1rh lt.2.!d6 froE ics Environr.at.l ?oIl!t.rt. 

r,torld n.rlth or8.oi.rtio!, 1976 

"Contt!.ir!. of th.ort rld Pr..tic! in th. ay.lu.tloD of 

Env!!on..nt.1 Qtrrri!rr' 

Urb.! srudi.s, vor, I{, 197?, ?.355-9 

ti I son, Ricb.!d 

'rAnrltzina rhe D.ilt li.t. ol !ife" 

Technology Revis, 

E.bru!ry, 19t9, p. 4l-46 

Dt2g3, Ronrld ,/l. 

'!The Ef!.ct of Ai! tollsti,o! up.n lto!t.lity: A Co!!1d.!.tior 

ol Di3rribut.d Lrr llod.l." 

Jorrn!l of the A{;ricrr Sr.Ei.!ic.l ArrDci.tl!!, vol, 71, 

no. 363, sett.!b.r , t914, p , 463-47? 

Y!, Ide! Sit-hu!8 

"A€sEh€iic 

D!oas. .nd Ao!se\o1d 

londo!: Journ!l of !nvi!on!€nt.l 

p. 261-8 

titnrsebent, vo t. 7, l9?6, 

2.. kh.us.r, R!c\ ard 

"P!oc.duret 

for 961uitra Live.'! 

Psblic Policy, vol.2l, !o.4, F.l!, t975, E. 4t9-465 

Z..khrur.r, Rich.rd 

Shepard, Donald 

"tiher€ 

No, Fot saving !iver!" 

Durhao, NC: Lar.Dd 

197 6, p.5-45 

Co!t.rpni.!t Psobl!D., vol,40, Autu!!, 

Z.ctrr.u3.r, Rich{rd 

Iicbol., Alb.!i 

!!Coverrr.at Cor.t ro tbe lJo:lpl!..: ^n Arr.6r!ert dl OSAA" 

0.S. Codar..., Setr.!. coDDitre€ o! Gov.!nbe!t ope!!tiori, 

t977 

Zu.t.i, A.trour 

rrl.Sulriiotr! Pbrnto. !.!. fi t.-Icc sttl." 

!u. iner s ll..k, 1977 

: 

l

APPENDIX C: SIIBJECT tftD ( 

AIR 

SAPCA*QSSC42 

BASHFNT9ECST 

8BI]RCVTJETAE 

BCUTJGLT8 t0PC 

BCLARETTSEOE 

8C0ilEJ730DTC 

BCIE JTTCAS I 

BRCUTPTS t0Ct 

BDEN 'E78EOSE 

BEDr'lUSTTEtCA 

9ELL IJTSROSO 

BFERRETSHEOE 

BFTSCBT6CSAA 

BFI SI]A76E tEA 

EFRAUJI5CIlIU 

SFRAUJT5OPOL 

BFRAUJTTCXIU 

BFREEAT4OEAP 

BFREEATTTBTE 

EFREEAT9BOEI 

8GETzfi78capF 

8GREEn798WoT 

BBRIFJT4EEOS. 

BI]ARRDTTCAEH 

8HAlR078D0BF 

IHARRDT8IIHIA 

BHERhS77flC0A 

Bl RV tTlTCBA0 

BJENNAT4BTIP 

O(NEEATSMAT 

8IAVEL77API4T 

BLEADST6EOI]B 

BIEI,IDiT9EAOF 

BIIELSJTERCHP 

BOEcD**iEDC4 

BPEPRDTTCBAA 

BPI-ESDT4EPSC 

BSCHLAT6MOA 

ESCdLATTSETA 

AIR 

92 

BSrY*C78sE0A 

8SI'ALKTTETAP 

BSIl ITVTTRLAE 

B5TEBJ76P5OA 

SSTEVCT94PHH 

BllscEQ**11105 

EUSCEQCSFATS 

EIJSCPSBEDEAT 

EU5C5*CPAQA4 

BUsCS*CPS0t9 

BUsDL'r0sE007 

BLJSEPAOHCRO8 

BUSTPAOHHDFI 

ElrstPAoRtMAT 

BIJSEPAOROAPT 

BUSEeA0Ror,{C4 

BUSEPAORPAE6 

BUSEPAOTTM5 

BUSFDAOP IPFT 

8U5NSF**RTA7 

SVANHAT5SORB 

8llE STr./7 7l]flAN 

BI.JYZGRTEEOAP 

BY!**E78A0Ari 

4!IS 

BJEINATYBTIP 

BROSE!77RTP* 

AUTO EH ISS ION 

CONTROL 

AUTo E tSS tOtS 

BI'IARRDTTCAEI 

AUTo Erl tS s lox s 

CONTROL 

AUTOHOBILE 

BHARRDTSHIIPA 

BUSCS+CPAQA4 

SUSOIdNHAEO9 

BUSDI*NIIFAD9 

EUSDT*NIIFIAT 

BUS!T'!NI'INHT8 

BUSDT*NHMA8 

BUSDT*NHROR9 

BUSDT+NIIS406 

AUTOI]OEILES 

BROBELTTCAOP 

BUSGAO{*E8A6 

!4!!l! 

88ARA|176R0EC 

EBRUCLT5ARBA 

BCRUTPTS t0C I 

BEDIIUSTSTIOA 

BFMUJT5CIIIU 

BTRAUJT5CPO! 

EFRAUJTTCntU 

EKNEEATTEPEH 

B OLLATTHEAII 

BUSCEqCSFATS 

BUSDHENIEOTS

coitsufiEi 

BASnFNT9€CRr 

BBROC}J75EAOT 

BDARORT8CBAO 

8GRA8II78EOLA 

SGREfNT9BVOI 

EHARRDT8HIPA 

B0 t.::r.r7lE0Ps 

BPAUL}17ICANN 

BPELTST2TBAC 

8P€LTST5EOAR 

sPE!Ts75E0CP 

8R08EL77CAoP 

8SAtTB77CBA0 

BUSCPS**AR*9 

EUSCPS*i!€0SB 

B!lscPs**PBr8 

BUSCPS:r:\PtEtt 

8USCP58Ea8A5 

EUSCPSSEDtAT 

8U5CPS3EEl07 

8U5CPSBEVP09 

EUSCPSDHHARS 

BLJSCPSDHHHA9 

BUSCPSHIEAOT 

8U5CPsdrfRO9 

EUSCPSI|tPE l8 

8USCP50S r0Ca 

SUSOT*NHAE09 

BU5oT*ftHEl57 

8USOTlNHF5S8 

BIJSFDAOP IPFT 

8US0A0i*E945 

B!| tsRT9ATDi 

8YU**E78ADAII 

COST-BENEFIT 

BAC(EET3USFB 

BAPCAt0SSCA2 

8A5HFI{79ECRT 

ltAt tETq taq,A 

88tSiR78E5AU 

E8t .ANR785 STU 

aEoLLH778AC0 

Bt0L!|177CBSt 

tB0ND|l58A0flP 

93 

c0sT-SElrEFlr 

tSi,tNl{77HCAB 

iBi0c\,J75€a0T 

B8q00J78TT!A 

BBROI,JRT6SOTI 

BC I CCC75lE0A 

8CrAia775E0E 

8C0HtJ730DTC 

8C0Nl{877CR8A 

8C0NLB78V0Ht 

8C00KP78TV0H 

SCRExJTTCAS I 

BCUIIi.1RT{EUEP 

EDARORT8CBAO 

BDEVGJT5CBAA 

lE!t TDTTCBAA 

8FEi6A7650E I 

BFtSC8T6CSAA 

BFISI]A72EOEP 

BFI SHAT{TOEP 

BFISHAT5RCEP 

BfI SHA75E I EA 

IFRTTAT4OEAP 

8'REEAT9BOE I 

8GRA8H78EOIA 

BGAEE}479BVOT 

BCRUnl75C8Al 

BhAN(S7{0CAR 

BHARROT8DC IA 

BHARRDTSTIHPA 

E I RVI r77C8A0 

8J0XE't78V0Ht 

BKIIEEATT€PEII 

8KNtEA786AAT 

BK0lnsT6PS*r 

BLAYAPT6TDOD 

BLE8ES7qC8A0 

8L tN0875QTCA 

EliAJ0AT5Ellftt 

SnttDl75N8GB 

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cor'."'rrrE !&II!'! BENEX'ITS OF ENVTRONMENTAL, HEALTH, AND ...

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