International Conference "Niccolò Paganini ... - Violin Intonation

International Conference "Niccolò Paganini Diabolus in Musica" 2009
SDC Spezia in Festival paganiniano & Centro Studi Opera Omnia Luigi Boccherini
November 8, 2009
Philippe Borer
The chromatic scale in the compositions of Viotti and Paganini:
A turning-point in violin playing and writing for strings 1 .
Generally, Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755-1824) did not write complete chromatic scales. His
restrained version was still made up of two chromatic fourths run together:
Ex. 1: G. B. Viotti, Violin Concerto No. 22 (1793?), bars 206-207
This traditional formula, which can easily be traced back to Corelli's time is recurrent throughout the
work of the Vercellese master. It is often limited to the span of one octave and may therefore be played
on two adjacent strings, without requiring a change of position. This formula already appears in the early
Concertos and Sonatas and can be found unchanged in Concerto 29 and the Duetto per un violino solo
dedicated to Cherubini:
Ex. 2: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 29 ((1815), 3rd mvt
Ex. 3: G. B. Viotti, Duetto a un violino solo (1821) (to Cherubini)
Such examples are representative of many more in Viotti's compositions. The formula, which I refer to as
the “Viotti scale”, occasionally extends two octaves and exceptionally, three:
Ex. 4: G. B. Viotti, Sonate pour violon et violoncelle, 1er Livre, n.2 (1782)
1 I could have subtitled this paper “Viotti, Paganini, and the D.I.M.”, or perhaps, “The master scale
and its Master”
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November 8, 2009
Ex. 5: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 2 (1783)
The ascending form (anabasis) is by far the most frequent even if one can find a few examples of the
descending form (e.g. Concertos 1 and 19):
Ex. 6: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 19 (1794), Presto ma non troppo, bars 142-144
Viotti's classical style was usually marked by restraint even if an atmosphere of Romanticism pervades
the opening tuttis of some of the later concertos. In this respect, it would be interesting to gauge the
opposing influences of his teacher Pugnani (1731-1798) and the composer Cherubini (1760-1842) 2 . Be as
it may, Viotti's recurrent and predictable use of ready-made formulas such as the incomplete chromatic
scale denotes a rather conservative stance. However, to most every rule there is an exception. To my
knowledge, there are only two isolated cases of an infringement on Viotti's self-imposed rule (this by the
way, strikes a blow to the statement in the Abstract). These isolated examples can be found in the first
movement of Concerto 17, just before the cadenza, and in the Andante of Concerto 21. In both cases the
orchestral accompaniment is suspended during the chromatic passage:
Ex. 7: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 17 (1789), 1st mvt, bars 288-291
Ex. 8: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 21 (1793), 2nd mvt, bars 24-27
These two works belong to a chaotic period. Concerto 17 4 was composed in Paris at the outbreak of the
Revolution (July 1789) and Concerto 21, with its lyrical Andante, was premiered in London (7 February
1793) just two weeks after the execution of King Louis XVI (1754-†21.01.1793). Viotti had fled the
Reign of Terror in July of 1792, just in time to find refuge in England. Interestingly enough, the breach
2 I would risk speculating on Cherubini's intervention, from about 1789, in the orchestration and in the harmonic
realization of the opening tuttis of Viotti's concertos. Between the two friends there existed a mutual esteem and a
genuine sharing of interest since Cherubini was acting as Viotti's publisher.
3 One could consider that transgression is not entirely achieved or at least weakened by the
reinstatement of the tonic.
4 Both Paganini and Wieniawski had included this Concerto in their concert repertories.
3
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of compositional rules coincided with these events. In his later compositions, including Concertos 22 to
29, Viotti returned to the old formula.
In contrast with Viotti, Niccolò Paganini (1782-1840) frequently used the complete succession of twelve
pitches and did not hesitate to cover the entire register of the violin:
November 8, 2009
Ex. 9: N. Paganini, Scala di Paganini, Breslau 1829
Paganini noted this scale on an album leaf. The document, entitled Scala di Paganini, and dated Breslau
1829, resembles a composer's manifesto. Since Paganini wanted to associate his name with this scale, it is
clear that it was of special significance for him. Several other documents exist which bear witness to
Paganini's preoccupation with the chromatic scale. Here, for example, is a chromatic scale for piano that
he wrote in Clara Wieck's album:
Ex. 10: N. Paganini, Scala per Clara (1829)
In the same vein are the Gamme chromatique et contraire (Paris 1837), and the astonishing Largo con
forte espressione, e sempre crescendo, dedicated to Jean-Pierre Dantan (Paris 1837):
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November 8, 2009
Ex. 11: N. Paganini, Autograph scale (Prince Wielhorski's Album, 1837)
Ex. 12: N. Paganini, Autograph scale (J.-P. Dantan's Album, 1837)
In the Caprices and in the Concertos, Paganini used the descending form (catabasis) much more :
Ex. 13: N. Paganini, Concerto No. 4 [M.S. 60]
Ex. 14: N. Paganini, Caprice 17 [M.S. 25], bar 7
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The descending scales "with one and the same finger" call to mind the coloraturas of virtuoso singers.
Paganini transferred this vocal technique to the violin, inspired notably by the great soprano Angelica
Catalani (1780-1849): 5
November 8, 2009
Ex. 15: N. Paganini, Concerto No.1 [M.S. 21]
Ex. 16: N. Paganini, Caprice 21, as notated and fingered by Carl Guhr (transcribed by ear)
The term glissando associated with such passages can be misleading. It is rather a superarticulated legato.
Camillo Sivori called it a glissando à crans ('notch glissando'). 7 The clear enunciation of each separate
note involves a left-hand staccato. Later on,Wieniawski carefully notated a similar passage as follows:
Ex. 17: H. Wieniawski, Concerto No. 2, bars 207-208
(If one uses a finger glissando, then the articulation is made by the bow (ricochet bowing)
Paganini used the ascending form of his scale in expressive contexts such as interrogatio or ascensio.
These can be considered as written illustrations of suonare parlante (‘playing that speaks’):
Ex. 18: N. Paganini, Concerto No.1 [M.S. 21]
5 “Fa delle mezze voci per in su e per in giù, e tutto quello che fa con gran forza lo può fare con gran
dolcezza, e pianissimo; ed ecco dove scaturisce tutto il magico effetto” (Letter to Germi of 18 June
1823) [PE 63]
6 The treble clef in mirror image indicates the scordatura
7 See Herwegh (>Sivori), p.7 [like a cogwheel movement]
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November 8, 2009
Ex. 19: N. Paganini, Gran Sonata per chitarra e violino [M.S.3]
Ex. 20: N. Paganini, Cantabile per violino e pianoforte [M.S. 109]
I will now move on to a brief analysis of Paganini's scale, starting with the notation and continuing with
the implicit intervallic structure. - Contrary to common use that derives from equal temperament,
Paganini adopted the same notation when ascending and descending. The result is a collection of twelve
notes which he replicates in four successive octaves. 8 The harmonic relations may be depicted in the
following manner:
Close harmonic relations are represented by short distances and distant harmonic relations by longer
distances. This harmonic network was devised by Leonhard Euler in 1774. He called it Speculum
Musicum. The fifths are arranged horizontally and the thirds, vertically. The numbers indicate the rank of each
note in the order of their harmonic generation (power of 3 for the fifths and power of 5 for the thirds). The slashes ( and )
indicate the subtraction or the addition of one syntonic comma 80/81.
Paganini's key signature (F#, C#, G#) indicates that the major mode gives its basic structure to the scale:
8L'ambito di quattro ottave è quello tradizionalmente concesso al violino, come codificato nel 1650
dal Padre Kircher. Cfr. ATHANASIUS KIRCHER, Musurgia Universalis sive Ars Magna Consoni et
Dissoni, Roma, Corbelletti, 1650, RHildesheim, Olms,1970, tomo I, p. 486 [«Chelys minor nobile
Instrumentum, & ad harmonicarum diminutionum varietatem aptissimum. 4. ut plurimum chordis
constat, quibus tamen ad 4 octavas usquè ascendunt»].
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As can be inferred from the prelude and postlude in Caprice 5, Paganini's scale may be used both in
major and minor. Therefore, it contains the notes of the two modes:
On the Speculum Musicum, the two remaining notes ( and ) are diagonally opposite. Brought back
into the same octave a-a', they form the interval of an augmented third 512/675:
Regrettably, the current terminology does not reflect the true nature of things. The so-called "flattened
second degree" is indeed the generator of the entire scale as it appears on the Speculum Musicum. In this
light, the sounding of this degree (notably the Neapolitan chord) may be seen as a backward glance, as an
inflection back to the origin. This explain its melancholy undertones: 9
November 8, 2009
Ex. 21: F. Schubert, An Mignon Ex. 22: N. Paganini, Caprice 4, bars 14-16
Let us now examine the relative distances between semitones and the ratios of string lengths:
The ratios between notes are not constant. There are actually four different numerical ratios: 15:16,
128:135, 24:25, 25:27. This means that the "semitones" are of four different sizes. We are indeed a long
9 (strongly reminiscent of Schubert) Etim. dolore del ritorno (gr. nóstos+algia). Secondo la
tradizione della musica pathetica tramandata da Kircher, era il numerus harmonicus ad influenzare
l'ascoltatore sotto un punto di vista psichico e fisiologico.
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way from the uniformity of the tempered scale. Paganini's scale is also known as the harmonic chromatic
scale or the syntonic chromatic scale. It is basically a composer's master scale containing all the essential
tone relations. This particular arranging of tones fits within the concept of melody as ‘harmony in
succession’ defined by Tartini and Vallotti. Such a notion, almost completely ignored today, was still
relevant to Paganini and to those violinists who had trained in the grand tradition of Corelli and Tartini
(Geminiani,Galeazzi,...). Here I would like to insist on a point which is generally omitted or even banned
from theory books: the inclusion of the final chromatic element, the tritone 32/45 or ), leads to the
making of a new interval, the augmented third (and its complement, the diminished sixth). Striking
examples can be found in Mozart, Paganini, Schubert, Chopin, and Delius 10 - in spite of the theoretician's
reluctance:
Ex. 23: Paganini, Caprice 14, bar 16 Ex. 24: Paganini, Caprice 7, bars 33-34
Traditionally, the chromatic scale had only been used in fragments, because its constitutive element, the
semitone, creates a strong expressive tension. This tension was synonymous with a lament when
descending, and with making an effort when ascending. In principle, the filling out of the chromatic
octave was prohibited. The tritone, or Diabolus in Musica in medieval terminology, was central to the
problem. Since it divides the octave into equal halves, the tritone was seen as the intruder that destroyed
the natural balance of the scale. Within a tonal context, it represented the antipodes of the tonic, a kind
of point of no return in the cycle of fifths. In fact the problem can be traced back to Greek music theory
and its philosophy of proportions (derived from the Tetraktys ) 11 . Here is the formula that defined the
fixed tones of ancient Greek music:
This can be expressed in integers as 6:8:9:12 and represents what Aristotle called the "Framework of
Harmony". These numbers work in reciprocal ways (i.e. string length or frequency) and therefore apply
to both rising and falling pitch sequences. For instance, in the octave on C, F and G reverse their role as
arithmetic and harmonic means:
10 Mozart (Symphony 40), Paganini (Caprice 7) Schubert (Impromptu G flat, Op. 90), Chopin
(Étude Op. 6, N. 10) Delius (violin concerto)
11 cf. Plato's Epinomis and Aristotle's "Framework of Harmony"
November 8, 2009
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The ties with ancient tradition can also be felt in the terminology still in use well into the eighteenth
century in Italy. For example, the letters designating notes (C, D, E, etc.) were followed by specific
syllables as shown below:
The syllables after the letters indicated the relation with the tones forming the “Framework of Harmony”.
In other words, each note was measured from the fundamental (UT), the harmonic mean (F), and the
arithmetic mean (G). Such terminology was still taught by Carlo Gervasoni in his La Scuola della
Musica, published in 1800. One can find traces of it in Paganini's correspondence and in the Elenco de
pezzi di musica da stamparsi (e.g."Terzo Concerto in Elamì”).
My research began with a presupposition: Viotti, as most composers since the time of Corelli, did not
write complete chromatic scales for the violin. Originally, the scope of my study was limited to
identifying the advent of the complete, twelve-pitch chromatic scale for the violin. I found the earliest in
Mozart's work, notably in the Andante of the "Prague" Symphony 12 of 1787 and the Divertimento for
Violin, Viola & Cello in E flat of 1788. 13 :
November 8, 2009
Ex. 25: Mozart, Symphony No.38 in D major ("Prague") [K. 504]
Ex. 26: Mozart, Divertimento in E flat [K. 563], Adagio
This was no surprise, in view of Mozart's liking for chromatic scales and extended chromatic runs in
piano compositions. Nevertheless, in earlier works for strings, such as the violin concertos and the
Sinfonia Concertante, Mozart still applied the old rule and used the traditional, 'tritone-free' formula.
12Mozart's Symphony 38 in D major ("Prague"), K. 504. Premiered in Prague on January 19, 1787.
13 The chromatic scales in Haydn's Seven Last Words are not complete. To be considered as
complete, the scale must contain the twelve notes enounced in their natural succession.
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During the detailed review of Viotti's work, I found confirmation that the restriction concerned the string
instruments and in particular, the violin. In the piano version of Viotti's Concerto 19 14 , there are several
complete chromatic scales that do not appear in the violin version:
November 8, 2009
Ex. 27: G. B. Viotti, Concerto No. 19, (piano version) (1792-94) [G. 92]
Writing just any consecutive notes for the piano has no impact on intonation. This is certainly not the
case with vocal compositions. The precise rendering of a chromatic scale is a challenge for every singer.
Paganini's fascination for Angelica Catalani' was mentioned previously. Here is an example of how she
sang the complete chromatic scale. This may well have been an unwritten tradition among virtuoso
singers long before:
Ex. 28: ‘Al Dolce Canto’ (Air with variations), tr. from Rode's original variations for Violin
The comparison with the original version shows that Rode used the old formula instead:
Ex. 29: Pierre Rode, Air varié, Op.10 (Var. IV)
14In the edition Naderman one can read "Ce concerto a été composé pour le piano-forte et non pour
le violon". The dedicatee was probably Hélène de Montgéroult.
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Paganini does not appear to have ever performed the Beethoven Concerto in public. However he was
familiar with it and played it at least once for a selected group of persons. 15 . Beethoven's chromatic scales
in the first movement 16 surely caught all Paganini's attention:
November 8, 2009
Ex. 30: Beethoven, Violin Concerto, Op.61 (1806), 1st mvt., bars 473-475
In the matter of advanced chromaticism the true predecessors of Mozart, Beethoven, Paganini, Spohr and
Liszt are, surprisingly perhaps, the virtuosi and madrigalists of the later 16th century such as Gesualdo or
Luca Marenzio (1553-1599). For Marenzio in particular, the chromaticism was not just a form of
experimentation but the expression of passion and pain as in the emblematic beginning of Solo e
pensoso, a madrigal based on Petrarch:
Ex. 31: Luca Marenzio, Solo e pensoso (1599) bars 1-12 (Curva passionis)
It is logical to assume that Paganini, himself an admirer of Petrarch and lover of vocal music knew this
work. Another source may have been the music of the Genoese organist and virtuoso violinist
Michelangelo Rossi (>Frescobaldi) (1601-1656). In Rossi, nicknamed ‘the Michel Angelo of the violin’,
we find Paganini's kindred spirit. Unfortunately, there are no extant violin compositions by Rossi. Here is
the extraordinary conclusion of his Toccata 7:
15Cox, J. E., Musical Recollections of the Last Half Century, 2 vols. (London: Tinsley, 1872) (vol.
I, p. 199)
16See also: Romance 1 in G major, Op 40 (1798); Romance 2 in F major, Op. 50 (1802)
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November 8, 2009
Ex. 32: Michelangelo Rossi, Toccata No. 7 (c. 1640)
As with all original thinkers, Paganini demonstrated the capacity to acquire, absorb, and assimilate
knowledge, and to use this knowledge as a trigger, a necessary stepping stone to discovery. Repectful of
earlier achievements, he was relentless in his eagerness to go beyond. Paganini's exploration and use of
the chromatic scale can be seen as a glance back and as an innovation, similar to his inspiration from
Locatelli and the development of instrumental techniques. Significantly, all the musical illustrations
contained in Liszt's letter, written just after a concert that Paganini had given at the Paris Opera, were
chromatic formulas that the great pianist adopted and incorporated in his works. My conclusion agrees
with Jeffrey Perry, who has observed that (quote) “Paganini the serious composer and student of new
developments in music proves to have been more than a performing curiosity, indeed, he must be
regarded as one of the essential masters of early Romanticism”. (unquote)
-Thanks for your attention-
As the time is limited I can only skim over the material I have gathered.
After an outline of the xxxxx I shall propose to examine some musical examples with
-1:2, a ratio of one to two
Corelli (1653-1713)
Tartini (1692-1770)
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Paganini's instrumental and musical background. It has often been claimed that Paganini was self-taught. However, evidence
of his all-important early training in violin and composition makes him the true heir of the old Italian masters, representing
at the same time a vital milestone for subsequent development of instrumental and compositional techniques. Paganini can
thus be seen as representing a link between the classico-romantic and modern attitudes to instrumental writing reaching well
into the twentieth century.
In Chapter IV, some aspects of Paganini's compositional and performing styles are examined. A striking interpretative
concept (the "suonare parlante") is discussed.
“The Paganini of the Caprices, although already known for flamboyance and extravagant virtuosity, is a serious composer and
a student of contemporary developments in music ”(Perry)
As with all original thinkers, Paganini offers evidence of a capacity not only to acquire, absorb, and assimilate knowledge, but
also to use that knowledge as a point of departure, a necessary stepping stone to discovery. Whilst repectful of earlier
achievements, he was relentless in his consideration of what might be possible. Jeffrey Perry observed that “by
introducing a dichotomy between lyrical melody and a new, unstable element that draws its energy from
new understanding of register, phrase structure, motivic content (and one could add timbre and
articulation in the case of Paganini), composers of the early nineteenth century expanded the expressive
range of Western art music and fundamentally changed its expressive essence. The Paganini Caprices
present one of the earliest and most compelling examples of this transformation, proving the Genoese
master to have been more than a performing curiosity, indeed, he must be regarded as one of the essential
masters of early Romanticism”
These formulas deserve to be carefully studied particularly in terms of intonation.
November 8, 2009
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The eleven-pitch scale with its two disjointed chromatic fourth is a closed system whereas the twelve-
pitch scale with the tritone as both its divisor and pivot becomes a open system.
November 8, 2009
Fig. 1 “For artists of the early nineteenth century, Romanticism is the aesthetic of distance”
This twelve-tone two-dimensional array, or map, is but a sample of the greater constellation of tones. It
can be extended indefinitely in each of the four directions.
.
“The Paganini of the Caprices, although already known for flamboyance and extravagant virtuosity, is a serious composer and
a student of contemporary developments in music ”(Perry)
the chromatic scale's "missing tone".
The exception which proves the rule.
Joseph Haydn: his three violin concertos were written before 1770
Mozart: he wrote his five violin concertos in 1775
-polarità di spiriti classici e di presagi romantici
polarity of classical spirit and romantic presages/premonitions//foreshadow//399.2
-Louis XVI (1754-† 21.01.1793) -Marie-Antoinette (1755-† 16.10.1793)
-One should bear in mind that by the time Mozart had already written his five violin concertos, young
Viotti was still playing in the second violin section in the orchestra of the Teatro Regio of Turin and had
not yet officially received a contract. He therefore had every opportunity to familiarize ihmself with the
works of the Austrian musician before starting to write his own concerti (Viotti's first violin concerto is
dated 17..)
-It was in 1789, in the middle of the Revolution that Viotti wrote his seventeenth Concerto. It took some
time before the work was premiered by Rode in 1792 at the concerts of Rue Feydeau. As Dellaborra
observes (p.74) Concerto 17 shares a affinity with Mozart, whose intensely expressive d minor piano
concerto of 1785 was a premonition of profound changes and turmoil. While Mozart's influence could
already be felt in Viotti's early compositions it was on a rather superficial level of formulation and
thematic quotation. As regards Concerto 17, particularly the first movement, deeper affinities can be
discerned, in particular the denser harmonic texture and the remarkable chromatic episode in the solo
violin part, which, to my knowledge has no counterpart in Viotti's entire production. [In addition to
Mozart's influence, I would risk speculating on Cherubini's intervention in the orchestration and in the
harmonic realization of the opening tutti. It is not surprising that both Paganini and Wieniawski had
included the first movement of this concerto in their repertoire (Wieniawski even wrote a cadenza to it).
The importance of chromatic passages, particularly bars 288-289, did not escape Wieniawski's attention,
as we can infer from Leopold Lichtenberg's careful editing of the passage:
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As the time is limited I can only skim over the material I have gathered.
After an outline of the xxxxx I shall propose to examine some musical examples with short
comments.
SLIDES
Viotti's impact on the upcoming generation of violinists and composers proved to be considerable.
However Viotti's stature as a violinist and composer has perhaps been appreciated on the grounds of his
overarching influence in his roles as a musician, concert manager, opera administrator, and freemason.
The official view of Viotti as//the «father of modern violin playing» 17 should be re-examined not only
with reference to Moser's dismissal but also in the light of musicológical study. Viotti exerted a lasting
musical influence through his pupil Pierre Rode who perpetuated his compositional style. Rode indeed
modelled his violin concertos after those of Viotti, faithfully following the instructions laid down by his
teacher, including elements such as the eleven-pitch chromatic scale which I shall refer to as the “Viotti
scale”.
With the establishment of such distant relations of tone.
This paper aims to shed light on the transition from the traditional formula used by Viotti to the
systemátic utilisation of twelve-pitch 'chromatic' scales and extended chromatic runs in violin music.
The source material includes several violin methods which appeared between 1750 and 1850, some of
the theoretical writings of Giuseppe Tartini, as well as more informal dócuments such as letters and
reviews. Special émphasis is placed on relevant passages from the compositions/works of Giornovichi,
Mozart, Kreutzer, Beethoven, Rode, Bohrer, and Spohr. ...
"Le Tutti du 18e fut applaudi comme une des belles symphonies de Haydn" (Baillot)
'Paganini's scale' fails to conform with the current New Grove definition: «In melodic and harmonic analysis the term
'chromatic' id generally applied to notes marked with accidentals foreign to the scale of the key in which the passage is
written» 18
(While Viotti preferred the ascending form of his scale, Paganini had a strong inclination for the descending one)
.
17 Perhaps a Baillot's edict/decree?
18 See The Empirical Music Review
November 8, 2009
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