Education and Training in Developmental Disabilities - Division on ...
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Special C<strong>on</strong>ference Issue<br />
Best Practices for Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
Focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
cognitive disabilities/mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related disabilities<br />
Volume 44 Number 3 September 2009
September 2009 <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 289–432
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Journal of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Editors<br />
Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Agran<br />
Reuben Altman<br />
Phillip J. Belfiore<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> Borthwick-Duffy<br />
Michael P. Brady<br />
Fredda Brown<br />
Mary Lynne Calhoun<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> F. Cramer<br />
Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Dunn<br />
Lise Fox<br />
David L. Gast<br />
Herbert Goldste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Robert Henders<strong>on</strong><br />
Carolyn Hughes<br />
Larry K. Irv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
James V. Kahn<br />
H. Earle Knowlt<strong>on</strong><br />
Barry W. Lavay<br />
Rena Lewis<br />
Kathleen J. Marshall<br />
Editorial Assistant: Hannah H. Ha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
John McD<strong>on</strong>nell<br />
Gale M. Morris<strong>on</strong><br />
Gabriel A. Nardi<br />
John Nietupski<br />
James R. Patt<strong>on</strong><br />
Edward A. Polloway<br />
Thomas G. Roberts<br />
Robert S. Rueda<br />
Diane L. Ryndak<br />
Edward J. Sabornie<br />
Laurence R. Sargent<br />
Gary M. Sasso<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Scott Sparks<br />
Fred Spo<strong>on</strong>er<br />
Robert Stodden<br />
Keith Storey<br />
David L. Westl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
John J. Wheeler<br />
Mark Wolery<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> is sent to all members of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> of The Council<br />
for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> members must first be members of The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> membership dues<br />
are $25.00 for regular members <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> $13.00 for full time students. Membership is <strong>on</strong> a yearly basis. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>quiries c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g membership,<br />
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Manuscripts should be typed, double spaced, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sent (five copies) to the Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Program, Box<br />
872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Each manuscript should have a cover sheet that gives the names, affiliati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
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Edit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g policies are based <strong>on</strong> the Publicati<strong>on</strong> Manual, the American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2001 revisi<strong>on</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> is abstracted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dexed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Psychological Abstracts, PsycINFO, e-psyche, Abstracts<br />
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Social Sciences Citati<strong>on</strong> Index, Adolescent Mental Health Abstracts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrati<strong>on</strong> Abstracts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Research Abstracts,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Language Behavior Abstracts. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, it is annotated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dexed by the ERIC Clear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ghouse <strong>on</strong> H<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Gifted Children for publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the m<strong>on</strong>thly pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex Current Index to Journals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the quarterly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dex, Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Child<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Resources.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> Vol. 44, No. 3, September 2009, Copyright 2009 by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children<br />
Board of Directors<br />
Officers<br />
Past President Polly Parrish<br />
President J. David Smith<br />
President-Elect Emily Bouck<br />
Vice President Teresa Taber-Doughty<br />
Secretary T<strong>on</strong>i Merfeld<br />
Treasurer Gardner Umbarger<br />
Members<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>da Laz<br />
Nikki Murdick<br />
Robert S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ies<strong>on</strong><br />
Angie St<strong>on</strong>e-MacD<strong>on</strong>ald (Student Governor)<br />
Dianne Zager<br />
Debora Wichmanowski<br />
Executive Director<br />
Tom E. C. Smith<br />
Publicati<strong>on</strong>s Chair<br />
Jack Hourcade<br />
Communicati<strong>on</strong>s Chair<br />
Darlene Perner<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference Coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ator<br />
C<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dy Perras<br />
The purposes of this organizati<strong>on</strong> shall be to advance the educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities, competency of educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this field, public underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of developmental disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong> needed to help accomplish these goals. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> shall encourage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote professi<strong>on</strong>al growth, research, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> utilizati<strong>on</strong> of research f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES (ISSN 1547-0350) (USPS 0168-5000) is published quarterly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
March, June, September, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> December, by The Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1110 North<br />
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year; Canada, PUAS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other countries $44.00; Instituti<strong>on</strong>s—U.S. $175.00 per year; Canada, PUAS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all other countries<br />
$179.50; s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle copy price is $25.00. U.S. Periodicals postage is paid at Arl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia 22204 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong>al mail<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g offices.<br />
POSTMASTERS: Send address changes to EDUCATION AND TRAINING IN DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES, 1110 North Glebe<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Editorial Policy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> focuses <strong>on</strong> the educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
welfare of pers<strong>on</strong>s with developmental disabilities. ETDD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vites research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
expository manuscripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical review of the literature. Major emphasis is <strong>on</strong><br />
identificati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment, educati<strong>on</strong>al programm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, characteristics, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al pers<strong>on</strong>nel, habilitati<strong>on</strong>, preventi<strong>on</strong>, community underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provisi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legislati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each manuscript is evaluated an<strong>on</strong>ymously by three reviewers. Criteria for acceptance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: relevance, reader <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest, quality, applicability,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the field, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> smoothness of expressi<strong>on</strong>. The review<br />
process requires two to four m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
Viewpo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts expressed are those of the authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> do not necessarily c<strong>on</strong>form to<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>s of the editors or of the officers of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Submissi<strong>on</strong> of Manuscripts<br />
1. Manuscript submissi<strong>on</strong> is a representati<strong>on</strong> that the manuscript is the author’s<br />
own work, has not been published, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not currently under c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
publicati<strong>on</strong> elsewhere.<br />
2. Manuscripts must be prepared accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the recommendati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Publicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Manual of the American Psychological Associati<strong>on</strong> (Fifth Editi<strong>on</strong>, 2001).<br />
Laser or high density dot pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are acceptable.<br />
3. Each manuscript must have a cover sheet giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the names <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> affiliati<strong>on</strong>s of all<br />
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4. Graphs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> figures should be orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>als or sharp, high quality photographic<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts suitable, if necessary, for a 50% reducti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> size.<br />
5. Five copies of the manuscript al<strong>on</strong>g with a transmittal letter should be sent to the<br />
Editor: Stanley H. Zucker, Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Program, Box 872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a<br />
State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-2011.<br />
6. Up<strong>on</strong> receipt, each manuscript will be screened by the editor. Appropriate<br />
manuscripts will then be sent to c<strong>on</strong>sult<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g editors. Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal authors will receive<br />
notificati<strong>on</strong> of receipt of manuscript.<br />
7. The Editor reserves the right to make m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or editorial changes which do not<br />
materially affect the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the text.<br />
8. Manuscripts are the property of ETDD for a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum period of six m<strong>on</strong>ths. All<br />
articles accepted for publicati<strong>on</strong> are copyrighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the name of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>.
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
VOLUME 44 NUMBER 3 SEPTEMBER 2009<br />
Best Practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cognitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>/Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>, Autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Related<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 291<br />
STANLEY H. ZUCKER, CINDY PERRAS, DARLENE E. PERNER, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> J. DAVID SMITH<br />
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability: Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers 295<br />
A. BROOKE BLANKS <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> J. DAVID SMITH<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 304<br />
TINA TAYLOR DYCHES, MARY ANNE PRATER, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> MELISSA LEININGER<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s for Children with Autism: A Meta-analysis 318<br />
PEISHI WANG <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ANNE SPILLANE<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A Collaborative Model for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autism 343<br />
MICHAEL B. RUEF, NICOLETTE NEFDT, DANIEL OPENDEN, SHARON ELMENSDORP,<br />
KATHLEEN C. HARRIS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SUZANNE ROBINSON<br />
Research-Based Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Early Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills to Students with<br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 356<br />
JILL H. ALLOR, PATRICIA G. MATHES, TAMMI CHAMPLIN, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> JENNIFER P. CHEATHAM<br />
Pentop Computers as Tools for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiplicati<strong>on</strong> to Students with Mild<br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 367<br />
EMILY C. BOUCK, LAURA BASSETTE, TERESA TABER-DOUGHTY, SARA M. FLANAGAN, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
KATHRYN SZWED<br />
Effectiveness of Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program (PTCP) for<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-Care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domestic Skills to Individuals with Autism 381<br />
ATILLA CAVKAYTAR <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ELENA POLLARD<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics <strong>on</strong> Class Engagement Behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Achievement of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives by Students with Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Their Typical Peers 396<br />
EUNJUNG LEE <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SOHYUN LEE<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of Students with Significant Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Visual Impairments dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Shared Stories 409<br />
PAMELA J. MIMS, DIANE M. BROWDER, JOSHUA N. BAKER, ANGEL LEE, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
FRED SPOONER<br />
Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Effectiveness of Family Assessment Portfolios 421<br />
HEDDA MEADAN, JAMES R. THOMPSON, MAYUMI HAGIWARA, JULIE HEROLD,<br />
SARAH HOEKSTRA, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SAMANTHA MANSER<br />
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> 290<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s literary property rights <strong>on</strong> copyrighted articles. Up to 100<br />
copies of the articles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this journal may be reproduced for n<strong>on</strong>profit distributi<strong>on</strong> without permissi<strong>on</strong> from the<br />
publisher. All other forms of reproducti<strong>on</strong> require permissi<strong>on</strong> from the publisher.
Manuscripts Accepted for Future Publicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
December 2009<br />
It all depends <strong>on</strong> where you st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>: Differences between employee’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supervisor’s evaluati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
work performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support needs. Kyle Bennett, Michael Fra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Michael P. Brady, Howard<br />
Rosenberg, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tricia Sur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ak, Center for Autism & Related <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Florida Atlantic University,<br />
777 Glades Rd., Boca Rat<strong>on</strong>, FL 33431.<br />
Parental stress <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism: Are there useful cop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies. G. Richard Mancil, Brian A. Boyd,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pena Bedesem, Western Kentucky University, Kelly Autism Program, 1906 College Heights<br />
Blvd. #71030, Bowl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Green, KY 42101-1030.<br />
Impacts of family support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> early childhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> research. Anna Friend, Jean Ann<br />
Summers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ann P. Turnbull, Beach Center <strong>on</strong> Disability, University of Kansas, 1200 Sunnyside<br />
Avenue, 3111 Haworth Hall, Lawrence, KS66045.<br />
Review of teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the applied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> research for children with autism<br />
spectrum disorders. Russell Lang, Wendy Machalicek, Mark O’Reilly, Jeff Sigafoos, M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y Rispoli,<br />
Karrie Shogren, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> April Regester, 3901 Burn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Oak, Side B, Aust<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, TX 78704.<br />
Comparis<strong>on</strong> of self, other, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subjective video models for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with developmental disabilities. T<strong>on</strong>i Van Laarhoven, Leslie M. Zurita, Jesse W. Johns<strong>on</strong>, Katie M.<br />
Grider, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Krist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> L. Grider, Department of Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g & Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Northern Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois University,<br />
Dekalb, IL 60115-2854.<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g organizati<strong>on</strong>al skills to children with high functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asperger’s syndrome.<br />
Kimberly Powers Dorm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y, Deanna Luscre, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> David L. Gast, 3250 Brown Thrasher Place,<br />
Cumm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, GA 30041.<br />
Fourth grade outcomes of children with a preschool history of developmental disability. Christ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
E. F. Delgado, Department of Psychology, Child <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, P.O. Box 249229, Coral Gables, FL<br />
33124-0751.<br />
Academic achievement profiles of children with high functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome:<br />
A review of the literature. Peggy J. Schaefer Whitby <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> G. Richm<strong>on</strong>d Mancil, University of Central<br />
Florida, 1407 Cather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Street, Orl<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o, FL 32801.<br />
Acquisiti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> of cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed tasks taught with computer based video <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
children with autism. Kev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ayres, Amy Maguire, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Desiree McClim<strong>on</strong>, University of Georgia,<br />
College of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Department of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 537 Aderhold Hall, Athens, GA 30602-<br />
7153.<br />
Functi<strong>on</strong>al curriculum models for sec<strong>on</strong>dary students with mild mental impairment. Emily C.<br />
Bouck, 5146 BRNG Hall, Purdue University, 100 N. University Street, West Lafayette, IN 47907.<br />
Autism spectrum disorders <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships. Julia Beyer, 104 L<strong>on</strong>ghill Lane, Chatham, NJ<br />
07928.<br />
Field test of a method to assess work task preferences. Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ie Cobigo, Diane Mor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yves<br />
Lachapelle, 141 Hillcrest, app. 1, M<strong>on</strong>treal, QC H8R 1J3 CANADA.<br />
Address is supplied for author <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> boldface type.
Best Practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cognitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>/Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Related <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Stanley H. Zucker<br />
Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
Darlene E. Perner<br />
Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania<br />
On October 8-10 2008, the Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> (DDD) sp<strong>on</strong>sored its “Practiti<strong>on</strong>er-<br />
Focused” Eleventh Internati<strong>on</strong>al C<strong>on</strong>ference:<br />
Best Practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cognitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>/Mental<br />
Retardati<strong>on</strong>, Autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Related <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>ference was held at the Sherat<strong>on</strong> San<br />
Diego Hotel & Mar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a. The DDD Board of Directors<br />
decided to devote this issue of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ference papers. The c<strong>on</strong>ference brought<br />
together educators from school <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> college<br />
classrooms from all over the world. The c<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded pre-c<strong>on</strong>ference tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stitutes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong> assistive technology,<br />
autism/autism spectrum disorder, cognitive<br />
disability-evidence based practices, mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>, transiti<strong>on</strong>, multiple disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als. The c<strong>on</strong>ference<br />
provided many parents, teacher educators, researchers,<br />
teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other practiti<strong>on</strong>ers an<br />
opportunity to gather to learn the most current<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> related to provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, autism,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other developmental disabilities.<br />
This special issue can enable those who attended<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>ference to see exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed papers,<br />
prepared by presenters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also give<br />
those who were unable to attend an opportunity<br />
to benefit from the thoughtful work d<strong>on</strong>e<br />
by c<strong>on</strong>ference participants.<br />
Presenters were asked to submit papers<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Stanley H. Zucker, Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Department, College of Teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Leadership, Box 872011, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University,<br />
Tempe, AZ 85287-2011. Email: etdd@asu.edu<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 291–294<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
C<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dy Perras<br />
Peel District School Board, Ontario, Canada<br />
J. David Smith<br />
University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Greensboro<br />
based <strong>on</strong> their c<strong>on</strong>ference presentati<strong>on</strong>s. Papers<br />
submitted were reviewed by the Guest<br />
Editors who selected the papers for publicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
We th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the selecti<strong>on</strong> of papers represents<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assortment of topics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
formats rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from discussi<strong>on</strong> papers to databased<br />
research to descripti<strong>on</strong>s of classroom<br />
techniques. The papers selected do not necessarily<br />
represent all the topics covered at the<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ference but they do give a good idea of the<br />
variety <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quality of the presentati<strong>on</strong>s. We<br />
would like to thank those authors who submitted<br />
papers for their efforts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this<br />
Special C<strong>on</strong>ference Issue possible.<br />
The first article was based <strong>on</strong> the presentati<strong>on</strong><br />
entitled “Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Disability: Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers” by A. Brooke Blanks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> J.<br />
David Smith. It exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the fact that educators<br />
are often reluctant to discuss religious<br />
beliefs when work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with students with developmental<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their families. It asks, however, whether this<br />
limits our ability to fully underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the experience<br />
of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with disability. It discusses religious<br />
beliefs, traditi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices that<br />
are important to teacher educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as<br />
part of the zeitgeist of work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. This article exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es images<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
of the religi<strong>on</strong>s practiced most widely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
United States: Judaism, Christianity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islam.<br />
In the sec<strong>on</strong>d article, the authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated<br />
how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with developmental disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s books are portrayed to<br />
young readers. In “Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,” T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a<br />
Taylor Dyches, Mary Anne Prater, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Melissa<br />
Best Practices / 291
Le<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 41 children’s books that<br />
qualified for the 2006 or 2008 Dolly Gray Children’s<br />
Literature Award sp<strong>on</strong>sored by the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> (DDD) of<br />
the Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children (CEC)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Special Needs Project. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the books<br />
reviewed were analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> categorized<br />
across four themes: “characterizati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with developmental disabilities, relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
between the character with developmental<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others, changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
characters without developmental disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special topics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of developmental<br />
disabilities.” The themes are described <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
analyzed precisely based <strong>on</strong> how the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
are portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the books. Individual<br />
books are cited provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g examples of the<br />
themes identified. The portrayal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with developmental disabilities is discussed<br />
from a variety of c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compared to<br />
two earlier studies. Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s are also<br />
made to future authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to educators.<br />
“Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for Children with Autism: A Meta-analysis”,<br />
authored by Peishi Wang <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Anne Spillane,<br />
provides a synthesis of research studies published<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last ten years <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease social skills for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adolescents<br />
with ASD. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the article exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
the outcomes of these studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluates<br />
whether a given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> meets the<br />
criteria for evidence-based practice. Of the 38<br />
studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review, 36 were s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
subject research studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 were group experimental<br />
studies; results varied widely both<br />
between <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> types, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with the different<br />
studies with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> type.<br />
While social stories, peer-mediated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video-model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s all met the criteria for evidence-based,<br />
a closer look at the percentage<br />
of n<strong>on</strong>-overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts reveals that<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly video-model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g meets criteria for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence-based<br />
as well as dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high<br />
effectiveness as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategy. The<br />
article c<strong>on</strong>cludes with a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the implicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for practice, which is of particular<br />
importance for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers who utilize videomodel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to teach social skills to students with<br />
ASD.<br />
With the large number of students with autism<br />
enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the educati<strong>on</strong>al system, the<br />
need for empirically supported treatment<br />
292 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
(EST) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers with tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ESTs, is<br />
becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g critical. In their article, “Learn by<br />
Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A Collaborative Model for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autism”, Michael<br />
B. Ruef, Nicolette Nefdt, Daniel<br />
Openden, Shar<strong>on</strong> Elmensdorp, Kathleen C.<br />
Harris, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Suzanne Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> describe a collaborative<br />
model between two universities<br />
aimed at (1) provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ESTs for children<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (2) provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g empirically<br />
supported treatments to local families<br />
with children with autism. Pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
treatment (PRT) was the treatment selected<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program:<br />
PRT is a comprehensive service delivery<br />
model that uses both a developmental approach<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied behavior analysis (ABA)<br />
procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aims to provide opportunities<br />
for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the child’s<br />
natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment. The article provides an<br />
overview <strong>on</strong> the three comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the<br />
model: (1) the community-based service delivery<br />
system, (2) the Masters/special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
credential program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (3) tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT.<br />
Issues relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to student, family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> university<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> are discussed al<strong>on</strong>g with possible<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> future directi<strong>on</strong>s. The authors<br />
c<strong>on</strong>clude the article with a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
the benefits of the model, particularly with<br />
respect to produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g highly qualified teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the implicati<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
autism tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs.<br />
In their article entitled “Research-Based<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Early Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills<br />
to Students with Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,” Jill<br />
Allor, Patricia Mathes, Tammi Champl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Jennifer Cheatham discuss the orchestrated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of key skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies that are<br />
explicitly l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These strategies<br />
are organized accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the major comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>: oral language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness,<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>ics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> word recogniti<strong>on</strong>, fluency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong>. The article describes key<br />
techniques used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective methods<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
to read.<br />
The next article by Emily Bouck, Laura Bassette,<br />
Teresa Taber-Doughty, Sara Flanagan,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kathryn Szwed. It exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the effectiveness<br />
of pentop computers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multi-
plicati<strong>on</strong> facts to middle school students with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. A multiple probe design<br />
was used to assess the progress of students<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that students us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a pentop program improved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the percentage of correct math facts<br />
completed. Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
future research are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded.<br />
The natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structors to teach self-care<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to children with autism are<br />
their parents. In their article, “Effectiveness of<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program<br />
(PTCP) for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-Care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domestic<br />
Skills to Individuals with Autism,” Atilla<br />
Cavkaytar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Elena Pollard present the results<br />
from a study they c<strong>on</strong>ducted to evaluate<br />
the effectiveness of the Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program (PTCP). The researchers<br />
developed, implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluated<br />
the PTCP to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e its effectiveness<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three parents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
their child’s habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist, to successfully<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct their children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of specific self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic<br />
skills. The parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapists were tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the “Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-Care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domestic<br />
Skills Manual” prior to the home-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The authors describe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss<br />
the results of their study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of each<br />
mother’s success <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
domestic skills to their child with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
its relati<strong>on</strong> to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement of the habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapist.<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics can be an effective assessment<br />
tool <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> direct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students’ learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
In their article, “Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics<br />
<strong>on</strong> Class Engagement Behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Achievement of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives by Students<br />
with Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Their Typical<br />
Peers,” EunJung Lee <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> SoHyun Lee<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigated the use <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <strong>on</strong> students’ class engagement<br />
behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their achievement of<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives. Their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three classrooms dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Korean language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. The participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
class c<strong>on</strong>sisted of <strong>on</strong>e female teacher, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e<br />
male student with mild cognitive disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his general educati<strong>on</strong> classroom peers. All<br />
participants were tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <strong>on</strong> the rubrics that<br />
targeted st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard-based less<strong>on</strong> objectives (i.e.,<br />
the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> modified <strong>on</strong>es) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <strong>on</strong>task<br />
rubric applicati<strong>on</strong> form designed for the<br />
students with mild cognitive disabilities. Class<br />
engagement behaviors were measured us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
partial–<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the achievement<br />
of less<strong>on</strong> objectives was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
through self-assessment. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigators<br />
provide a thorough discussi<strong>on</strong> of the positive<br />
results that were found related to class engagement<br />
behaviors of the students with cognitive<br />
disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives<br />
for all student participants.<br />
Literacy is <strong>on</strong>e of the most important educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
goals yet educators of students with<br />
severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or multiple disabilities are often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
search of strategies to develop literacy skills. A<br />
review of the research <strong>on</strong> literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that students with significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual impairments are<br />
underrepresented. In their article, “Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of Students with Significant<br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Visual Impairments<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Shared Stories”, Pamela J.<br />
Mims, Diane M. Browder, Joshua N. Baker,<br />
Angel Lee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fred Spo<strong>on</strong>er explore readaloud,<br />
or shared stories, as a potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Shared stories have been shown to<br />
help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literacy skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students<br />
with significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities.<br />
In this study, the least-to-most prompt system<br />
was used to promote listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
a critical literacy development skill, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
shared stories for two students with significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual<br />
impairments. Outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that both<br />
students improved <strong>on</strong> the correct number of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses to comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e of the students dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
an ability to generalize resp<strong>on</strong>ses across people<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as well as ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> results.<br />
The article c<strong>on</strong>cludes with suggesti<strong>on</strong>s from<br />
the authors <strong>on</strong> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a discussi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> directi<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
future research.<br />
Parents, who wanted to improve collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
with their children’s school, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> (e.g., through scrapbooks<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student profiles) about their children<br />
with disabilities, helped to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate the<br />
development of the Family Assessment Portfolio<br />
(FAP). In the article, “Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Acceptability<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Effectiveness of Family Assessment<br />
Portfolios,‘ Hedda Meadan, James R. Thomps<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Mayumi Hagiwara, Julie Herold, Sarah<br />
Hoekstra, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Samantha Manser first describe<br />
Best Practices / 293
the FAP, which was developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhanced<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude multimedia materials (e.g., movies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> webpage), then report the purpose of<br />
their study which focuses <strong>on</strong> evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of the FAPs.<br />
The participants of this study were parents,<br />
FAP facilitators, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pre-service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-service<br />
teachers. These three groups provided feedback<br />
about the goals, procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes<br />
of the FAP through questi<strong>on</strong>naires<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews after hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some experience<br />
with or exposure to the FAPs. Results<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussi<strong>on</strong> of this study center <strong>on</strong> support-<br />
294 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the social validity of the FAP as a means to<br />
communicate mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about<br />
a child. The authors provide the percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for the FAPs as offered by<br />
each group of participants.<br />
The c<strong>on</strong>ference provided researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
educators with the opportunity to explore<br />
current research, topical issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> best<br />
practices relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, autism,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other development disabilities. We<br />
hope readers of this Best Practices Special<br />
C<strong>on</strong>ference Issue f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> valuable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> timely.
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability: Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
A. Brooke Blanks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> J. David Smith<br />
University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Greensboro<br />
Abstract: Religious beliefs permeate many aspects of culture. Often, however, educators are reluctant to discuss<br />
religious beliefs when work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with children with developmental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families.<br />
Ignor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the salience of religious teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of disabilities as they relate to both<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, however, limits the opportunity to fully underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the experience of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
disability. Discussi<strong>on</strong> of religious beliefs, traditi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to teacher educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be part of the zeitgeist of work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families. This article exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es images of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three major world religi<strong>on</strong>s widely practiced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United States; Judaism,<br />
Christianity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islam.<br />
Spirituality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religi<strong>on</strong> are important to milli<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals across all cultures. Until<br />
recently, however, the spirituality of people<br />
with disabilities has been largely ignored by<br />
both communities of faith <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> secular social<br />
service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al systems. (Avery-Wall,<br />
2006; Rogers-Dulan, 1998; Stolberg, 2008) Neglect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the importance of religious belief <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lives of many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families, may imply a<br />
view of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>nate humanity that is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>complete<br />
or less complex than other people<br />
(Sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>, 1997). Spiritual beliefs may greatly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence percepti<strong>on</strong>s of people with disabilities,<br />
of themselves, others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the world (Dellassoudas,<br />
2000). Multicultural educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
programs designed to build cultural competence<br />
must necessarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
religious practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spiritual beliefs (Richards,<br />
Browne, & Forde, 2007). There is a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
body of literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g professi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
around tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of religi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> people with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
families as part of a system of care (Benjam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
2005; Forster, McColl, & Fardella, 2007;<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Brooke Blanks, University of North<br />
Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Greensboro, Department of Specialized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Services, P. O. Box 26170, Greensboro,<br />
NC 27462-6170.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 295–303<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Hurst, 2007; Selway & Ashman, 1998). Unfortunately,<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> has thus far largely<br />
neglected c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g religi<strong>on</strong> as part of an<br />
evolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g commitment to multicultural practice,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural competence am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher educati<strong>on</strong> programs.<br />
Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Modern World<br />
Only recently has science advanced to the<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t where humans have a reas<strong>on</strong>ably broad<br />
ability to mediate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> manage the impact of<br />
the natural world <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways that are predictable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stable. People <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the so-called developed<br />
world tend to believe that they have a fairly<br />
high degree of c<strong>on</strong>trol over their health, lives,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>y. We now know that vitam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> A<br />
deficiency can cause bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that diet<br />
can prevent it. We know that the cognitive<br />
impact of phenylket<strong>on</strong>uria can be avoided<br />
through dietary manipulati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>trol.<br />
Technologies now allow 50 year old women to<br />
give birth to healthy babies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people without<br />
legs can be competitive runners (Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2008). Prior to the time when the degree<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>trol that we can now exert over the<br />
natural <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical world was possible, people<br />
largely understood the world <strong>on</strong>ly as c<strong>on</strong>trolled<br />
by unseen, supernatural forces. Religi<strong>on</strong><br />
served to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many of the mysteries<br />
of the natural world. The power to expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
unknown is also the power to c<strong>on</strong>trol behav-<br />
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability / 295
ior. Religious teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g often def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es what people<br />
should believe to be true about the world<br />
around them, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it prescribes how people<br />
should act <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with these beliefs<br />
(Goldberg, 2006). Religious beliefs have been<br />
the foundati<strong>on</strong>s of civilizati<strong>on</strong>s. Public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
private behaviors were usually governed by the<br />
codes of c<strong>on</strong>duct described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious law. It<br />
is relatively impossible to parse religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
civil leadership <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ancient (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not so ancient)<br />
cultures. Even today despite public discourse<br />
around the need to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a secular,<br />
civil society <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this country <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the world, it is naïve to underestimate the<br />
extent to which religious thought <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> a wide variety of issues, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
disability. To deny or ignore religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences<br />
<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>ceptualizati<strong>on</strong>s of disability is to<br />
overlook a profound aspect of the human experience<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> our underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of what it<br />
means to have <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> live with a disability. As<br />
special educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> researchers we are just<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to explore the relati<strong>on</strong>ships between<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence of religi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> cultural<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>al underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of disability.<br />
Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America<br />
Americans often po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the separati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
church <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> state m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by the First<br />
Amendment as proof that we live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a secular<br />
society. However, momentary c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g examples <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that religious<br />
thought clearly pervades our th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. An obvious<br />
example is the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued legal debate<br />
over the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligent design (Slack,<br />
2007). Religious beliefs have always pervaded<br />
attitudes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policies <strong>on</strong> a variety of c<strong>on</strong>troversial<br />
issues. The deliverance narratives of<br />
the Hebrew <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christian traditi<strong>on</strong>s certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced the debates around Civil Rights<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> desegregati<strong>on</strong> (C<strong>on</strong>e, 1975; K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, 1968).<br />
Another example is the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culture that is evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
school vacati<strong>on</strong> calendars. Without fail, extended<br />
periods of vacati<strong>on</strong> co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cide with major<br />
Christian holidays. For an example from<br />
public policy, objecti<strong>on</strong>s to gay marriage are<br />
fundamentally religious objecti<strong>on</strong>s. Religi<strong>on</strong><br />
matters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> modern America <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> yet we rarely<br />
explore how it relates to beliefs about students<br />
with disabilities. Underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what religi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
say about disability can deepen the ability to<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to improve the services provided<br />
to students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families.<br />
Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability<br />
With these issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideas <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, we can<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to explore images of disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
major world religi<strong>on</strong>s. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tent here is simply<br />
to argue that multicultural teacher preparati<strong>on</strong><br />
for special educators is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>complete unless<br />
it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes an exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of religi<strong>on</strong>. It is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the best <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests of our students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
families that we tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expect special educators<br />
to reflect <strong>on</strong> the ways religious ideas<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence practice. We make no claims that<br />
our research <strong>on</strong> religious images of disability<br />
is comprehensive. Choices about what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exclude <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
were made largely <strong>on</strong> the basis of the big<br />
ideas available <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a survey of the literature.<br />
What we have tried to do is gather sufficient<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to open the c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>. With<br />
this goal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, this article <strong>on</strong>ly provides an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> to important scholarly work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disability studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious studies. Our<br />
hope is that this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>spire our<br />
colleagues <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> to further explore<br />
the scholarly work represented here <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to reflect <strong>on</strong> issues around religi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this discussi<strong>on</strong> is limited to the<br />
three Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s: Judaism, Christianity,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islam. The simple criteria for this<br />
project were (a) religi<strong>on</strong>s with which the authors<br />
have sufficient familiarity to comprehend<br />
the scholarly work available, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (b)<br />
religi<strong>on</strong>s that are prevalent enough <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
United States that most teachers will have at<br />
least heard of them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have an elemental<br />
sense of their belief systems.<br />
Abrahamic Traditi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
296 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Judaism, Christianity, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islam fall under the<br />
umbrella of the Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s because<br />
all three recognize the historical figure Abraham<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his descendants as central <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the culture of the faith. There is<br />
significant overlap <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sacred texts of each<br />
faith <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their treatment of people with<br />
disabilities. Similarly, each faith is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> seem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly c<strong>on</strong>tradictory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the images of
disability that are c<strong>on</strong>veyed through sacred<br />
text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. When viewed as literary<br />
works <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> policy documents it is evident that<br />
they have evolved <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changed over time as a<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> of social need <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural change. It<br />
is easy to see that c<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
are the result of changes to documents that<br />
prescribed behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>ed as civil<br />
law for many centuries. However, the l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sequences of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistencies are<br />
ambivalence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>fusi<strong>on</strong> am<strong>on</strong>g teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
about the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> of disabilities as<br />
well as the ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which people with disabilities<br />
should be treated. On <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> there are<br />
historical narratives c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disability to<br />
evil. However, people with disabilities are also<br />
held up as objects of pity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong> as<br />
opportunities for the faithful to dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
their own goodness through acts of charity<br />
(Rose 1997). Recently, however, religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spiritual communities have begun<br />
to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental disabilities have<br />
spiritual lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious needs that are fully<br />
their own, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quite similar to the needs of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals without disabilities (Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, Epste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Rice, & Lowe, 2003; Sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>, 1997;<br />
Y<strong>on</strong>g, 2007).<br />
Judaism<br />
The Hebrew bible’s central character, Yahweh,<br />
a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle deity, is resp<strong>on</strong>sible for c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this is a major shift from<br />
previous polytheistic traditi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ancient Mesopotamia<br />
(Hentrich, 2007; Walls, 2007). In<br />
the Yahweh stories, disabilities are generally<br />
negative degradati<strong>on</strong>s of the perfect body God<br />
bestowed up<strong>on</strong> Adam <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the creati<strong>on</strong> story. As<br />
such, disabilities are perceived as div<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e punishments.<br />
People with disabilities are c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
impure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they carry the danger of<br />
br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g polluti<strong>on</strong> to their surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other people (Hentrich). The emphases <strong>on</strong><br />
perfecti<strong>on</strong> surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ritual acts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sacrifices as offer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to God<br />
as prescribed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hebrew scripture c<strong>on</strong>flate the<br />
ideas of polluti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disability (Melcher,<br />
2007). Jewish law describes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> detail the need<br />
for perfecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the sacrificial object<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the preparer of the sacrifice (Miles,<br />
2002a). Although there are legal prohibiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about who can perform certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds of ritu-<br />
alistic tasks, such as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sistence that the<br />
priest who exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es an animal before sacrifice<br />
have clear visi<strong>on</strong>, there is no scriptural<br />
precedent for exclud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a man with bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness<br />
from memoriz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sacred<br />
texts (Miles, 2002b; Wertlieb, 1988). The<br />
David stories, however, communicate more<br />
negative images of disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the roles for<br />
people with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society. David is understood<br />
to st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for an idealized man <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
ancient Israelite culture (Hentrich). As David<br />
moves to depose Saul <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to establish the<br />
dynastic house of David, Saul’s s<strong>on</strong> Ishboshet<br />
is killed, yet his other s<strong>on</strong>, Meribaal, is spared.<br />
Apparently, Meribaal is no threat to David<br />
because Meribaal has a physical disability that<br />
legally excludes him from assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
thr<strong>on</strong>e (Hentrich; Schipper, 2006). Although<br />
the historical record is unclear as to the exact<br />
nature of Meribaal’s disability, he is described<br />
as “lame” or “crippled”. (Hentrich). The legal<br />
basis of Meribaal’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability to rule is unclear.<br />
It is possible that either purity laws associated<br />
with religious practice or civil laws about physical<br />
disabilities were resp<strong>on</strong>sible for his disqualificati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
What is important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story is<br />
the fact that David did not kill Meribaal because<br />
he was perceived as no threat because of<br />
his disability. The Meribaal story communicates<br />
a status of reduced manhood <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> otherness<br />
result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from physical disabilities.<br />
The exclusi<strong>on</strong> of pers<strong>on</strong>s with disabilities<br />
from the temple also appears to orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the David stories. As David moves to c<strong>on</strong>quer<br />
Jerusalem, the defend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g army surrounds the<br />
city with soldiers who have disabilities-either<br />
c<strong>on</strong>genital or result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>juries or illness.<br />
The tactical reas<strong>on</strong>s for this acti<strong>on</strong> are unclear<br />
but some scholars suggest that cultural taboos<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ancient Jerusalem would have caused David<br />
to hesitate to engage with such a force for fear<br />
of polluti<strong>on</strong> (Heller, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hentrich, 2007). A<br />
more positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong> offered by Brunet<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hentrich) is that the city was surround<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
itself with a “moral wall” which David<br />
would not dare to attack <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fear of div<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
vengeance that would c<strong>on</strong>vey disabilities up<strong>on</strong><br />
David’s soldiers. David, however, c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
undeterred <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after assum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g power <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Jerusalem banned people with disabilities<br />
from the temple (Hentrich). It is unclear<br />
whether David was exact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g revenge <strong>on</strong> those<br />
who opposed him or if he was c<strong>on</strong>cerned<br />
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability / 297
about issues of purity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> polluti<strong>on</strong> (Hentrich).<br />
In practical terms, the David narratives<br />
of exclusi<strong>on</strong> have c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence religious<br />
practice. However, as Judaism evolved<br />
over time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed geographically, the<br />
emphasis <strong>on</strong> physical perfecti<strong>on</strong> became sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
to an emphasis <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectualism<br />
(Abrams, 1998). The shift mediated negative<br />
attitudes toward people with disability. Jewish<br />
philosophers came to believe that physical<br />
perfecti<strong>on</strong> (as they def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed it) was not required<br />
to have a relati<strong>on</strong>ship with God<br />
(Abrams). C<strong>on</strong>sequently, people with certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disabilities, particularly bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness, were gradually<br />
brought back <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the temple <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> began<br />
to assume important roles. Modern Jewish<br />
scholars <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theologians c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to revisit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret sacred texts as they work to<br />
become more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> welcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Jews<br />
with diverse physical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cognitive abilities<br />
(Arts<strong>on</strong>, 2006). The Jewish community is reexam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ideas about what c<strong>on</strong>stitutes wholeness<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> what ways of be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g are c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
defects. Arts<strong>on</strong> raises important questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about who am<strong>on</strong>g us is truly free of human<br />
shortcom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Arbitrary decisi<strong>on</strong>s about what<br />
is <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is not acceptable to God it is argued,<br />
distract Jews from a primary resp<strong>on</strong>sibility to<br />
“glorify the Torah <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to testify to God’s sovereignty<br />
as we might” (Arts<strong>on</strong>). In the modern<br />
era, the words “as we might” recognize the<br />
diversity of human experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> promote<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> of all Jews, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental disabilities.<br />
Christianity<br />
As the sec<strong>on</strong>d of the Abrahamic religi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Christianity builds from the history of the Hebrew<br />
bible as the Old Testament <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> becomes<br />
a separate traditi<strong>on</strong> with the birth of Jesus.<br />
The New Testament c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s stories of what<br />
happened dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after his birth. It is important<br />
to recognize that ancient Christianity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>herited the historical perspectives of its Jewish<br />
roots <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> built up<strong>on</strong> these themes to serve<br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political ends (Miles, 2001). Disability<br />
serves a markedly different literary functi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the New Testament than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Hebrew<br />
bible. Rather than simply functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as<br />
punishment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a visible rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>der of God’s<br />
wrath, people with disabilities become the me-<br />
298 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
dia through which God communicates messages<br />
of mercy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> power.<br />
A story <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the book of John has Jesus clarify<br />
the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of disability. Jesus expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s that<br />
people are not born with disabilities because<br />
of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead they are born with disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to provide opportunities for God<br />
to dem<strong>on</strong>strate his power (Miles, 2002b). This<br />
is a very different message then the <strong>on</strong>e c<strong>on</strong>veyed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Exodus which teaches that children<br />
may bear the weight of their parents’ s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
which are manifested as disabilities (Miles,<br />
2001).<br />
The Jesus stories are narratives of social reform<br />
(Wills, 2006) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not exclusively focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the lives of people with disabilities.<br />
Hebrew rules around issues of impurity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> polluti<strong>on</strong> (orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> God’s m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ates<br />
about the priesthood to Aar<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his descendants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> furthered through the David narratives)<br />
exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alize people with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple aspects of social life<br />
(Bishop, 1995). Stories of Jesus heal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public are also stories of<br />
cross<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social boundaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g community<br />
(Senior, 1995).<br />
Christian narratives have often served as the<br />
basis of civil law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social norms <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Western<br />
culture s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce Roman occupiers began to c<strong>on</strong>vert<br />
around 200 A.D. The New Testament has<br />
been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted <strong>on</strong> a regular<br />
basis for centuries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the treatment of<br />
people with disabilities has varied with these<br />
changes. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce 400 A.D. various Christian<br />
theologians have offered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities as evidence that immorality<br />
is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>heritable (Miles, 2001). Fifteen centuries<br />
later similar arguments were used to<br />
support the eugenics movement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United<br />
States <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> elsewhere, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Nazi Germany.<br />
Sixteenth century reformer, Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Luther made remarks about drown<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children<br />
with disabilities based <strong>on</strong> his belief that<br />
these were not actually human children but<br />
rather <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>carnati<strong>on</strong>s of the devil (Miles). Not<br />
all theological <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Christianity are so negative. Indeed many people<br />
with disabilities were treated far more<br />
k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dly by social service <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s run by the<br />
church than they would have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> state<br />
operated pris<strong>on</strong>s or asylums. The overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
message of the Jesus narratives, however,<br />
serves to set people with disabilities apart from
the rest of society until acted up<strong>on</strong> by God.<br />
Implicit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the message is the idea that those<br />
who are not healed or do not live well with a<br />
disability are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some way removed from God<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore from the community.<br />
Islam<br />
Of the Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s, Islam is the most<br />
recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many ways the most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive of<br />
people with disabilities. The word Islam<br />
means “submissi<strong>on</strong> to the will of Allah”. Muslims<br />
believe that we are each born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the body<br />
that Allah <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tends us to have. Allah is perfect<br />
as is his work. Therefore, to dish<strong>on</strong>or or exclude<br />
people with disabilities from civil society<br />
or religious life is to disrespect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disregard<br />
the will of Allah (Miles, 2002b). Health is<br />
benevolence from Allah, however, disease <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
disability are not expressi<strong>on</strong>s of div<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e punishment<br />
or wrath. Rather, disability tests <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process allows opportunities<br />
for at<strong>on</strong>ement (Rispler-Chaim, 2007). <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
are c<strong>on</strong>sidered normal aspects of the human<br />
experience by the Qu’ran <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islamic<br />
law as evidenced by the prescripti<strong>on</strong>s for how<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to what extent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities<br />
can <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
secular life (Miles, 2001; Rispler-Chaim). The<br />
Hebrew Bible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christian Old Testament<br />
describe the ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extents to which participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social life should be<br />
limited or restricted for people with disabilities.<br />
Islamic law <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Qu’ran call explicitly<br />
for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> of people with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social life through emphatic denials of ideas<br />
about c<strong>on</strong>tagi<strong>on</strong> or polluti<strong>on</strong> associated with<br />
disability (Rispler-Chaim). Participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious<br />
life <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities are required of all<br />
Muslims, with or without disabilities. Accommodati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are offered to people with disabilities<br />
to make their participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious<br />
life possible to the greatest extent. They are<br />
also excused without c<strong>on</strong>sequence from religious<br />
requirements that are simply bey<strong>on</strong>d an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual’s ability. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual is clearly<br />
not def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed socially or religiously by his disability<br />
(Miles). In marked c<strong>on</strong>trast to its Abrahamic<br />
predecessors, Islam treats people with<br />
disabilities as fully participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g members of<br />
the social <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spiritual community (Miles).<br />
Perhaps more so than the other two Abrahamic<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>s, the Qu’ran <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
also functi<strong>on</strong> as the basis for modern civil law<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islamic societies. As far back as the seventh<br />
century Muslim courts were debat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g whether<br />
or not men with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities should<br />
be allowed to own property. Arguments<br />
around the issue would be c<strong>on</strong>sidered progressive<br />
today. A man who may not manage<br />
property because of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability<br />
should still be allowed to try to do so. On the<br />
other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is it the resp<strong>on</strong>sibility of the community<br />
to prevent potential harm from com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to this man by protect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him from the<br />
risk of los<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g property as a result of his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ability<br />
to manage it? The debate tends to give<br />
more weight to the idea that to deny a man<br />
the right to own property is a greater harm<br />
than would come to him were he to lose his<br />
property (Miles). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, part of h<strong>on</strong>or<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the will of Allah, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the Qu’ran,<br />
is the idea that people <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a community are<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for each other because each pers<strong>on</strong><br />
is created by Allah <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> should be h<strong>on</strong>ored<br />
as such. A practical c<strong>on</strong>sequence of this teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
is an enhanced sense of community resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
for provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g people with disabilities<br />
with what they are unable to provide for<br />
themselves (Miles). C<strong>on</strong>tradicti<strong>on</strong>s exist however,<br />
between Qu’ranic teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that Allah is<br />
perfect <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore people are created as<br />
Allah <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tends them to be, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that<br />
“for each illness, Allah has provided a remedy”<br />
(Miles). In practical terms, modern Muslims<br />
may f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d themselves c<strong>on</strong>fused as to the appropriateness<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that can alter a<br />
state of disability. Such acts might be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted<br />
as an act of rebelli<strong>on</strong> or an avoidance<br />
of a trial Allah has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended for the pers<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Overall, the Qu’ran <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Islamic law are<br />
most remarkable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the relative little they say<br />
about people with disabilities compared to the<br />
other Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s. As previously discussed,<br />
images of disability are used repeatedly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Hebrew <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christian Bibles as<br />
representati<strong>on</strong>s of God’s wrath, punishment<br />
for s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, metaphors for turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g away from<br />
God, or to provide opportunities for dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of div<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e benevolence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> greatness<br />
through miraculous heal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These narratives<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>spicuously absent from Islamic writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
(Miles, 2001; Rispler-Chaim, 2007). Bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
efforts to clearly articulate ideas of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> civil protecti<strong>on</strong>, relatively little else is said<br />
about people with disabilities. A possible rea-<br />
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability / 299
s<strong>on</strong> for this absence is an effort to normalize<br />
disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k of abilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disabilities<br />
as <strong>on</strong>e aspect of human c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the range of possible characteristics bestowed<br />
by Allah. As such, people with disabilities are<br />
full members of the community who may have<br />
specific needs that must be met <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to<br />
fulfill Allah’s will but whose needs do not<br />
marg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>alize them or limit their access to the<br />
full experience of liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> community with<br />
other Muslims (Miles).<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al Religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spiritual Experiences<br />
As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as the history of religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the images of disability presented there<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> are,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>e of it matters if disc<strong>on</strong>nected from the<br />
lived experiences of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. As has been exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed,<br />
there is a l<strong>on</strong>g traditi<strong>on</strong> of ambiguity about<br />
the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a culture based<br />
<strong>on</strong> religious history. On <strong>on</strong>e h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rarely have<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities been allowed to<br />
articulate their own needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> faith experiences<br />
as fully functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g members of spiritual<br />
communities. Recently, however, religious<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s have begun to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
disabilities have spiritual lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious<br />
needs that are fully their own <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> quite<br />
similar to the needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals without<br />
disabilities (Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s et al., 2003; Sw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<strong>on</strong>, 1997;<br />
Y<strong>on</strong>g, 2007).<br />
Religious beliefs, spirituality, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> faith traditi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
provide structure that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
disabilities (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others) use to create mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their lives. The religious experiences of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the religious<br />
experiences of their families or other caregivers<br />
are often overlooked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the multicultural<br />
pedagogy of special educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the practices<br />
of otherwise culturally competent special<br />
educators. There is a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g body of literature,<br />
however, that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that religi<strong>on</strong> is<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>ally relevant <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their daily lives.<br />
Spirituality <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Individuals with Disability<br />
Children with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without disabilities th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<br />
quite a lot about God, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> whatever form dictated<br />
by the ic<strong>on</strong>ography of their culture (Tor-<br />
300 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
stens<strong>on</strong>-Ed, 2006). The diversity of religious<br />
beliefs am<strong>on</strong>g children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms should<br />
automatically dictate the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> of religi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a multicultural pedagogy. As seen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
explorati<strong>on</strong> of the Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s, however,<br />
religious teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs about disability add a<br />
layer of complexity to children’s religious<br />
th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Webb-Mitchell (2008) writes about<br />
his experiences work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with children with<br />
emoti<strong>on</strong>al disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>al sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. He found that<br />
spirituality was the comm<strong>on</strong> ground <strong>on</strong> which<br />
he could meet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> talk with these children.<br />
Although the framework is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Christian<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>, the belief system or the doctr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e is<br />
not the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of the stories he shares. Rather,<br />
children who had great difficulty underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the external reality of the world around<br />
them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of themselves<br />
because of emoti<strong>on</strong>al or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities,<br />
expressed deep <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prol<strong>on</strong>ged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
both the practical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> metaphysical aspects of<br />
their religious experiences. The examples<br />
Webb-Mitchell (2008) provides describe products<br />
of childhood religious imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
are not noticeably different from the religious<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests of other children.<br />
Nearly 50 years ago Margaret Mead shared<br />
her observati<strong>on</strong>s of the power religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
has to promote wholeness am<strong>on</strong>g<br />
people with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental<br />
disabilities (Smith & Johns<strong>on</strong>, 1997). She described<br />
the implicit recogniti<strong>on</strong> of a pers<strong>on</strong>’s<br />
humanity when she is fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ritual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> doctr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of a spiritual community.<br />
Israeli parents of children with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental disabilities describe the<br />
normative functi<strong>on</strong> of the bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bat mitzvah<br />
rituals (Vogel & Reiter, 2004). Temples,<br />
churches, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mosques across the country are<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practices to become<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the important<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s that people with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental disabilities make to spiritual<br />
communities (Harris, 2006; Vogel, Polloway,<br />
& Smith, 2006).<br />
Families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> caregivers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
developmental disabilities often report that<br />
their faith <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forms their attitudes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
around issues c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
other family members who have disabilities.<br />
Some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret their experiences of car<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
a child with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual or developmental dis-
abilities as an opportunity for spiritual growth.<br />
Other families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret the experience as a<br />
test of faith (Marshall, Olsen, M<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>leco, Dyches,<br />
Allred, & Sansom, 2003). Parents may<br />
also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret children’s disabilities as punishment<br />
for their own misdeeds (Glover & Blankenship,<br />
2007) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore they feel significant<br />
shame or guilt. Religious beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>form<br />
parents’ attitudes about what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
can or should be implemented for their children.<br />
Similarly, families who are adhere to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istic religious beliefs may not want<br />
services they believe will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with whatever<br />
plan or reas<strong>on</strong> God had by creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their<br />
child’s disability (Cho, S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger, & Brenner,<br />
2000). Internalized blame <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> shame about<br />
disabilities can c<strong>on</strong>tribute to a parent’s lack of<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong> processes. Special educators<br />
must be sufficiently aware of these<br />
issues to be able to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with families when design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> plans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services for children.<br />
Parents who believe that God will heal their<br />
child through prayer may not be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
elaborate or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that<br />
schools are eager to try. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
however, schools should also be aware that<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious rituals like Bar <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Bat Mitzvahs can be very important to families.<br />
Part of culturally resp<strong>on</strong>sive teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is to provide<br />
services that allow children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased access<br />
to activities that are developmentally, age,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally appropriate (Rogers-Dulan,<br />
1998). Special educators need to be aware of<br />
religious activities, traditi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cultural<br />
milest<strong>on</strong>es that may be important to students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families so that they can work together<br />
to support children’s full participati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these cornerst<strong>on</strong>es of childhood experiences<br />
(Vogel & Reiter, 2004). Reach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
the school walls <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g expertise to<br />
religious organizati<strong>on</strong>s as they work to become<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accessible to people<br />
with developmental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families is important (Summers<br />
& J<strong>on</strong>es, 2007). Special educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our<br />
global community have an obligati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>quire<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the spiritual needs of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with developmental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to plan <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases access to the normal functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of daily life to which all people are entitled.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Given the extent to which religious <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> political<br />
thought are historically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tertw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, it is<br />
reas<strong>on</strong>able to questi<strong>on</strong> the extent to which<br />
various <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpretati<strong>on</strong>s of scripture have been<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changed over time. We cannot<br />
ignore the fact that religious th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forms<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s of disability. As special educators<br />
we must also underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that the efficacy of<br />
our work may depend <strong>on</strong> the ability to work<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families who are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced<br />
by religious or spiritual c<strong>on</strong>cepti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
disability that may or may not agree with our<br />
own. The brief <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>complete survey of Abrahamic<br />
texts presented here should make clear<br />
the extent to which religious teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs are<br />
ambivalent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> often c<strong>on</strong>tradictory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
messages they present about both the nature<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses to disability. Religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
spirituality are mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful experiences for<br />
people with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people without developmental<br />
disabilities (Matthewes-Green, 2005). Furthermore,<br />
people with disabilities can enrich<br />
the spiritual life of a religious community (Vogel<br />
et al., 2006). Special educators have a resp<strong>on</strong>sibility<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>quire about <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sider the<br />
ways <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which faith traditi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the<br />
beliefs, feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with developmental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
so that we can work with them to promote<br />
access to the full experiences of life with the<br />
greatest aut<strong>on</strong>omy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
possible (Dellassoudas, 2000).<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
Future research should <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude an explorati<strong>on</strong><br />
of religi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> disability that is wider <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
deeper than the current <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troductory survey<br />
presented here. Other belief systems may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<br />
disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways that are substantially<br />
different than the Abrahamic traditi<strong>on</strong>s. For<br />
example, disability is has an important role <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the central tenets of Buddhism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be<br />
seen as a desirable quality when <strong>on</strong>e is seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to distance <strong>on</strong>eself from society (Miles,<br />
2002a). How do ideas like these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence<br />
students with disabilities, families, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers?<br />
There is far more to explore <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Hebrew<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Christian bibles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Qu’ran<br />
both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the images of disability presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the act of religious literary criticism itself.<br />
Multiculturalism, Religi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disability / 301
Qualitative research should explore what<br />
teachers th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about religi<strong>on</strong>, disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tersecti<strong>on</strong> of the two <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their practice.<br />
Students, parents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educators need<br />
opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which to reflect <strong>on</strong> their beliefs<br />
about their spiritual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> religious beliefs<br />
about developmental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how, when, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
why these beliefs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence needs, service delivery<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al practices.<br />
References<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ancient texts from the Tanach through the Bavli.<br />
Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, D.C. Gallaudet University Press.<br />
Arts<strong>on</strong>, B. S. (2006). ‘Im ani kan, hakol kan’ If I am<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “Wholeness”. In J. Z.Abrams & W. C. Gaventa<br />
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experience of disability (pp. 5–8). New York: Haworth<br />
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Avery-Wall, V. (2006, August 21). Are You Religi<strong>on</strong>-<br />
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Bishop, M. E. (1995). Foreword. In M. Bishop (Ed.),<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethics (pp. v-x). Kansas City, MO: Sheed &<br />
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Cho, S., S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger, G., & Brenner, M. (2000). Adaptati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accommodati<strong>on</strong> to young children with<br />
disabilities: A comparis<strong>on</strong> of Korean <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Korean<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 20, 236–249.<br />
Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, B., Epste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, A., Reiss, T., & Lowe, V. (2001).<br />
Includ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
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33(5), 52.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>e, J. (1975). God of the oppressed. New York: Seabury<br />
Press.<br />
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© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Taylor Dyches, Mary Anne Prater, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Melissa Le<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger<br />
Brigham Young University<br />
Abstract: Because characters with developmental disabilities (DD) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s books are often the first images<br />
many children encounter, their accurate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multidimensi<strong>on</strong>al portrayal is critical. Therefore, the depicti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
characters with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 41 children’s books were analyzed. These books were eligible for the biennial Dolly Gray<br />
Children’s Literature Award, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were published between 2004 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007. Data were analyzed for four ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
themes, namely characterizati<strong>on</strong>, relati<strong>on</strong>ships, changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special topics. Trends across this <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
two previous studies (Dyches, Prater, & Cramer, 2001; Dyches & Prater, 2005) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g number of<br />
books published annually, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g numbers of characters with DD who are culturally diverse, more positive<br />
portrayals, characters who are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more caregiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g roles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
enjoy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities. Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s for future authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al service<br />
providers are provided.<br />
Many children’s books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude characters with<br />
disabilities. Each of the 13 disabilities recognized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Individuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Improvement Act of 2004 can be found<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ficti<strong>on</strong>al works written for children. However,<br />
many of these books are written to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct<br />
the reader about the disability rather<br />
than to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a character with a disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
an engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, well-written story (Prater & Dyches,<br />
2008).<br />
Even though tens of thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of juvenile<br />
books are published annually, not all of them<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>sidered of high quality. Quality juvenile<br />
literature is judged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of characterizati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, plot, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> theme. Characters<br />
should be real to children. They should be<br />
credible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistent. Even though they<br />
may change <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grow, the character should<br />
not be a totally different pers<strong>on</strong> as a result of<br />
what occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story. A dynamic character<br />
is well developed, has a variety of traits mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
him or her believable, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changes throughout<br />
the story (e.g., from shy to poised, selfless<br />
to selfish) (Lukens, 2007). A static character<br />
does not change as a result of the story’s plot.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Taylor Dyches, Brigham<br />
Young University, 340-F McKay Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Provo, UT<br />
84602. Email: T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a_dyches@byu.edu<br />
304 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
In terms of other elements impact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quality<br />
literature, the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as the geographic<br />
locati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> time period, as well as<br />
the cultural aspects of the envir<strong>on</strong>ment. The<br />
plot refers to the events that take place dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the story <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the theme is the abstract ideas<br />
embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story, such as strengthen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
friendships, recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prejudice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent (Sawyer, 2009).<br />
High quality literature also has an engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
narrative style. “The style is reflected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
choice of words, the figures of speech, the<br />
rhythmic pattern of the language, the structure<br />
of sentences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of rhetorical<br />
devices” (Sawyer, 2009, p. 87). Included <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
style is the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of view or the perspective<br />
from which the story is told. Children’s books<br />
are usually told from the perspective of a<br />
child. In additi<strong>on</strong>, high quality illustrati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of artistic modes (e.g.,<br />
pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, cray<strong>on</strong>, chalk), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> with the<br />
text, as well as attenti<strong>on</strong> to detail, texture, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
color (Sawyer). Quality illustrati<strong>on</strong>s clarify<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> amplify the text, “extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it bey<strong>on</strong>d the<br />
words or the reader’s imag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>” (Lukens,<br />
2007, p. 44).<br />
Given that all literature expresses values,<br />
books must be judged <strong>on</strong> the values they express<br />
(Mills, 2002). Books with characters with<br />
disabilities often endorse demean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attitudes
TABLE 1<br />
Dolly Gray Children’s Literature Award W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ners<br />
Title Author (Illustrator) Disability<br />
toward <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities, equate low<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>telligence with poor moral character,<br />
present positive attitudes but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a preachy way,<br />
or compensate for the character’s disability by<br />
giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them more of someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g else (e.g.,<br />
heart, soul, compassi<strong>on</strong>) (Mills). Books portray<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characters with disabilities should be<br />
judged, not <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> the attributes of high<br />
quality literature, but <strong>on</strong> the values it promotes<br />
as expressed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the portrayal of the<br />
character with disabilities.<br />
Several authors have created guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>st which to evaluate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> select such<br />
books (e.g., Blaska, 2003; Dyches & Prater,<br />
2000; Heim, 1994). Characters with disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>temporary sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs should be both<br />
positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> realistic. For example, the character<br />
with disabilities should be shown to be<br />
act<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up<strong>on</strong> high expectati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> choices, as<br />
well as mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positive c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s. The<br />
strengths, not just limitati<strong>on</strong>s of the character<br />
should be portrayed; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they should be<br />
shown engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
with others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g afforded the same citizenship<br />
rights as others (Dyches & Prater,<br />
2005). Portrayals should also be realistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
terms of physical, behavioral, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language<br />
attributes. This is not unlike the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard for<br />
all quality books—their portrayals should be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered “credible, c<strong>on</strong>sistent, multidimensi<strong>on</strong>al—characters<br />
who c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to grow <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
develop” (Dyches & Prater, 2005, p. 202).<br />
Books that meet both the high st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for<br />
juvenile literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards for the<br />
Year<br />
Awarded Type<br />
The Curious Incident of the<br />
Dog <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Night-Time<br />
Mark Hadd<strong>on</strong> Asperger Syndrome 2004 Chapter<br />
Ian’s Walk Laurie Lears<br />
(Karen Ritz)<br />
Autism 2000 Picture<br />
Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Up with Roo Sharlee Glenn<br />
(Dan Andreas<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Intellectual Disability 2006 Picture<br />
Me <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rupert Goody Barbara O’C<strong>on</strong>nor Intellectual Disability 2002 Chapter<br />
My Brother Sammy Becky Edwards<br />
(David Armitage)<br />
Autism 2002 Picture<br />
A Small White Scar K. A. Nuzum Down Syndrome 2008 Chapter<br />
So B. It Sarah Weeks Intellectual Disability 2006 Chapter<br />
Tru C<strong>on</strong>fessi<strong>on</strong>s Janet Tashjian Intellectual Disability 2000 Chapter<br />
portrayal of disabilities are rare. To recognize<br />
books that do meet these criteria, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> of the Council<br />
for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children established the Dolly<br />
Gray Children’s Literature Award <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2000. This<br />
award is granted to authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrators of<br />
high quality literature who portray characters<br />
with developmental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
appropriate ways. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the establishment of the<br />
award, three picture books <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five chapter<br />
books have received the award (see Table 1).<br />
Three previous studies have analyzed the<br />
portrayal of developmental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s<br />
literature. First, Prater (1999) reviewed<br />
68 children’s ficti<strong>on</strong> books that portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> published<br />
between 1965 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1996. The books were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study if they appeared <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least<br />
2 of the 27 sources. Prater found that few<br />
stories were told from the perspective of the<br />
character with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (MR), most<br />
characters with MR did not develop, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most<br />
served as a catalyst for another character to<br />
change. Most of the characters with MR were<br />
portrayed as victims, with other characters be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the perpetrator or protector. They were<br />
also portrayed as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dependent <strong>on</strong> family<br />
members, particularly sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Many books<br />
portrayed a character without a disability ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
greater appreciati<strong>on</strong>, affecti<strong>on</strong>, or underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the character with MR. Only a few<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded school<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when they did, the<br />
characters were attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g segregated schools.<br />
Almost all characters lived at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 305
employment was discussed, it centered <strong>on</strong><br />
sheltered workshops.<br />
In the sec<strong>on</strong>d study, Dyches, Prater, &<br />
Cramer (2001) analyzed the characterizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12 picture<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter books published <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1998. Efforts were made to locate all books<br />
published dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those years. They c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
that more characters with mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
or autism were portrayed as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g educated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g choices<br />
for themselves than Prater (1999) had discovered.<br />
Most of the portrayals were male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
all of the illustrati<strong>on</strong>s depicted characters<br />
as European-American. Proporti<strong>on</strong>ately, more<br />
books were picture books than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Prater<br />
study. In terms of relati<strong>on</strong>ships, results were<br />
similar to the previous study. Many characters<br />
were protected from victimizati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> others. Characters with MR or autism<br />
were beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, however, to emerge as protectors,<br />
teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> caregivers.<br />
Dyches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prater (2005) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third study<br />
exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 34 picture <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> chapter books portray<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
developmental disabilities published<br />
between 1999 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2003. They reported similar<br />
results from the Dyches et al. (2001) study. A<br />
str<strong>on</strong>g majority of portrayals of characters<br />
with developmental disabilities (DD) were realistic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive. However, males with DD<br />
were overrepresented. When compared to the<br />
previous study, more books (a) depicted autism<br />
spectrum disorders, (b) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded characters<br />
from diverse cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) portrayed<br />
characters with DD grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> realistic ways. In additi<strong>on</strong>, there were fewer<br />
characterizati<strong>on</strong>s of Down syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong> primary relati<strong>on</strong>ship for the<br />
character with DD shifted from sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to<br />
peers. Also, the characters with DD were receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
more appropriate educati<strong>on</strong>al services,<br />
but their recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities were not<br />
aligned with best practices.<br />
In their c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, Dyches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prater<br />
(2005) called for authors to add depth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
multidimensi<strong>on</strong>ality to characters with DD.<br />
“These characters should be shown mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
deliberate choices that significantly impact<br />
their lives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lives of others; serv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more<br />
as protectors, teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> caregivers of others;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary recreati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
activities.” (p. 215). The purpose of this study<br />
was to analyze the general characterizati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> juvenile literature published<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004–2007 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compare<br />
these results with two previous studies.<br />
Method<br />
We exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 41 juvenile books us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a qualitative,<br />
descriptive design, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compared<br />
these characterizati<strong>on</strong>s with those described<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two earlier studies (Dyches & Prater, 2005;<br />
Dyches et al., 2001). The design, method, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
purpose are simply descriptive (see S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>elowski,<br />
2000).<br />
Book Selecti<strong>on</strong><br />
306 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
To be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study, the books were<br />
required to meet four criteria. They must have<br />
(a) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g human<br />
character with a developmental disability;<br />
(b) been recognized as a picture or chapter<br />
book written for children or young adults, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
story format, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g biographies written<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> story format; (c) been published <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
English between 2004 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) been<br />
published by a commercial publisher rather<br />
than through vanity press.<br />
The first step was to identify children’s<br />
books that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude characters with disabilities.<br />
The authors c<strong>on</strong>sulted with children’s literature<br />
librarians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used search terms such as<br />
developmental disability, mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disability, Down syndrome, multiple disability,<br />
autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Asperger Syndrome to locate<br />
books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relevant issues of Children’s Books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t (R.R. Bowker’s Database Publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Group, 2007) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from various pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> electr<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
book lists.<br />
Next, each book was reviewed to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
if the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g character had a<br />
developmental disability. For this study, developmental<br />
disability was def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as a c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong><br />
which occurs before a pers<strong>on</strong> is 22 years of age<br />
that limits him/her <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least three of seven<br />
major life activities (e.g., receptive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressive<br />
language, self-care, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ec<strong>on</strong>omic selfsufficiency),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s such as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities, autism, Asperger Syndrome,<br />
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum<br />
disorder, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple disabilities. More<br />
than 70 children’s books were found which<br />
did not qualify for the study, because they<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded n<strong>on</strong>-human characters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals
who did not clearly have a developmental disability<br />
or who were m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or characters, books<br />
that were not written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> story format, or were<br />
self-published. All books analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
study qualified to be c<strong>on</strong>sidered for either the<br />
2006 or 2008 Dolly Gray Children’s Literature<br />
Award.<br />
Data Analysis<br />
Characterizati<strong>on</strong>s were submitted to c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
analysis accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to qualitative methods described<br />
by Denz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>coln (1994). Ten<br />
reviewers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g special educati<strong>on</strong> teachers,<br />
parents of children with developmental<br />
disabilities, adults with developmental disabilities,<br />
children’s literature librarians, special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> professors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s literature<br />
illustrators, provided written evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
based up<strong>on</strong> guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es adapted from Dyches<br />
et al. (2001). These guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded evaluati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of the portrayal of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
developmental disabilities, social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
exemplary practices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
(if applicable), al<strong>on</strong>g with literary <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> artistic<br />
elements (see Table 2 for a brief synopsis of<br />
the disability-related guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es).<br />
The researchers then compared data from<br />
the reviewers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compiled a quantitative<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> descriptive summary of each item <strong>on</strong> the<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument. When disagreement<br />
existed, two of the authors reviewed secti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
from the books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> came to c<strong>on</strong>sensus.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the authors c<strong>on</strong>ducted a<br />
separate analysis which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded evaluati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the characterizati<strong>on</strong>, pers<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ships,<br />
changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters with developmental disabilities,<br />
changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>disabled characters,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special topics.<br />
One author performed an audit trail, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the method described by S<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>elowski<br />
(1986) to establish trustworth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ess of<br />
the analysis method <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the results. The audit<br />
trail c<strong>on</strong>firmed the themes that had been<br />
identified, as agreement was shown between<br />
the authors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the auditor regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these<br />
themes.<br />
Results<br />
Of the 41 books eligible for review, 13 were<br />
picture books <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 28 were chapter books, with<br />
42 characters with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
TABLE 2<br />
Sample Guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es From the Dolly Gray<br />
Children’s Literature Award Rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Scale for<br />
Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Children’s Books<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al Portrayal<br />
Portrays characteristics of DD accurately.<br />
Describes the character(s) with DD as realistic.<br />
Character(s) with DD are fully developed.<br />
Does not portray <strong>on</strong>ly disabilities of the<br />
character(s), but portrays abilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
strengths of the character(s).<br />
Emphasizes similarities, rather than differences,<br />
between characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without DD.<br />
Uses n<strong>on</strong>discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>atory language that avoids<br />
stereotypic portrayals.<br />
Social Interacti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Depicts character(s) with DD engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
socially <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>ally reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships.<br />
Depicts acceptance of the character(s) with DD.<br />
Promotes empathy, not pity for the character(s)<br />
with DD.<br />
Portrays positive social c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>(s) with DD.<br />
Promotes respect for the character(s) with DD.<br />
Exemplary Practices<br />
Depicts character(s) with DD hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g full<br />
citizenship opportunities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or activities.<br />
Depicts character(s) with DD receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services<br />
appropriate for their age, skill level, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests.<br />
Depicts valued occupati<strong>on</strong>s for character(s) with<br />
DD (if appropriate).<br />
Promotes self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Relati<strong>on</strong>ships (if applicable)<br />
Sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g(s) of the character(s) with DD<br />
experience a wide range of emoti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g(s) of the character(s) with DD have<br />
opportunities for growth that are not typical for<br />
sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of children without DD.<br />
The sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g relati<strong>on</strong>ship is reciprocal.<br />
The sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g(s) are not given unusually<br />
burdensome household <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family duties.<br />
The sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g(s) appear aware of the nature of the<br />
disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its effects <strong>on</strong> the character with<br />
DD.<br />
roles. Three books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded more than <strong>on</strong>e<br />
character with DD, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two of them several<br />
characters were not analyzed because they<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>sidered m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or (Accidents of Nature<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Lana Morris). In <strong>on</strong>e picture<br />
book, We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Circle, the characters<br />
with DD were analyzed as a group rather than<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 307
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually, due to the brief <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> n<strong>on</strong>-specific<br />
nature of their characterizati<strong>on</strong>. A few books<br />
also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded characters with other disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g selective mutism, stutter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> orthopedic impairments. A list of the<br />
books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the title, author, illustrator (if<br />
applicable), year published, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest levels is displayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 3.<br />
Themes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Field of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Portrayals of the 42 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with developmental<br />
disabilities were analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> categorized<br />
across four themes: (a) characterizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with DD, (b) relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
am<strong>on</strong>g characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without DD,<br />
(c) changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters without DD, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(d) special topics related to the field of DD.<br />
Each theme will be discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> detail, with<br />
representative examples from the various<br />
books.<br />
Characterizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Characterizati<strong>on</strong>s of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with DD<br />
were analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of (a) level (ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or<br />
support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), (b) pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics,<br />
(c) realistic depicti<strong>on</strong>, (d) positive portrayal,<br />
(e) character development, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (f) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of<br />
view from which the story was told. Brief summaries<br />
of these characteristics are provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Tables 4 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5.<br />
Level (ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g). Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters<br />
are critical to the plot, often as protag<strong>on</strong>ists or<br />
antag<strong>on</strong>ists, while support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters are<br />
typically important to the growth of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
characters. M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or characters enrich the plot,<br />
but their presence is not essential to the development<br />
or resoluti<strong>on</strong> of the climax of the<br />
story. The level of characterizati<strong>on</strong> was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
as ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 20 characters with DD<br />
(48%), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 22 characters (52%).<br />
One book, The Very Orderly Existence of Merilee<br />
Marvelous, portrayed more than <strong>on</strong>e ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or<br />
support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g character with DD.<br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics. Ages of characters<br />
with developmental disabilities ranged from<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fant to adult. One character was an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fant, 3<br />
were pre-schoolers, 24 were elementary age<br />
children, 10 were teenagers, 2 were adults, the<br />
age of <strong>on</strong>e character was not evident (Autistic<br />
Planet), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters with<br />
308 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Circle appeared to be of<br />
various ages.<br />
Of the 42 characters with developmental<br />
disabilities, 22 (52%) were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
autism spectrum disorders, almost half of<br />
whom (n 9, 41%) had Asperger Syndrome.<br />
The rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 20 characters with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
those with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities (n <br />
8, 19%), Down syndrome (n 6, 14%), unspecified<br />
developmental disabilities (n 3,<br />
7%), fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (n 2,<br />
5%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple disabilities (Cerebral Palsy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities; n 1, 2%).<br />
A majority of the characters with DD were<br />
males (n 25, 60%). Of those exhibit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
symptoms of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Down syndrome, fetal alcohol spectrum<br />
disorder, multiple disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unspecified<br />
developmental disabilities), 10 were male <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
9 were female. One book, We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Circle,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded several boys <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> girls with various<br />
unspecified disabilities. Of the 22 characters<br />
with autism spectrum disorders, 14 were male<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 were female.<br />
Several books depicted characters with developmental<br />
disabilities or characters without<br />
disabilities either <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrati<strong>on</strong>s or text as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from ethnically diverse cultures. However,<br />
the determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of some ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
characters’ diversity was subjective if the<br />
text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or illustrati<strong>on</strong>s were ambiguous. In<br />
this analysis, n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e (21%) depicti<strong>on</strong>s of characters<br />
with developmental disabilities appeared<br />
to be culturally diverse, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Hispanic<br />
(Crist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Keeps a Promise; The Duchess to the Rescue;<br />
Holy Smoke); African American (Accidents<br />
of Nature; Jazz Off-Key); Asian (Ann Drew Jacks<strong>on</strong>;<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> Whole Wyom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> undeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
(Autistic Planet). The rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 32<br />
characters did not give any <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicati<strong>on</strong> of represent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ethnically diverse populati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the characters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Circle were c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
as a group to be ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly Caucasian.<br />
Realistic depicti<strong>on</strong>. Most of the portrayals of<br />
the characters with DD were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be<br />
realistic (n 31, 74%) because their disabilities<br />
were similar to descripti<strong>on</strong>s found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al literature. Portrayals that were<br />
partially realistic showed the character exhibit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
many of the symptoms of the disability,<br />
but also exhibited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistencies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
speech or acti<strong>on</strong>s, or the author provided lit-
TABLE 3<br />
Juvenile Literature with Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>/Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Characters with DD Analyzed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this Study<br />
tle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> by which the portrayal could<br />
be judged. For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Brothers, Boyfriends<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds, Larry, a 14-year old<br />
Title, Author (Illustrator), Year, Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/Interest Levels<br />
Autism Spectrum Disorders<br />
Adam Canfield, Watch Your Back!, Michael W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>erip, 2007, Middle<br />
Adam’s Alternative Sports Day, Jude Welt<strong>on</strong>, 2005, Middle<br />
Al Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Shirts, Gennifer Choldenko, 2004, Middle<br />
Ann Drew Jacks<strong>on</strong>, Joan Clark (Nathan Clark), 2007, Upper Elem.<br />
Apart, R.P. MacIntyre & Wendy MacIntyre, 2007, High School<br />
Autistic Planet, Jennifer Elder (Marc Thomas), 2007, Lower Elem.<br />
Baj <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Word Launcher, Pamela Victor, 2006, Upper Elem.<br />
The Duchess to the Rescue, Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ra Eden, 2006, Upper Elem.<br />
The Flight of a Dove, Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ra Day, 2004, Lower Elem.<br />
Holy Smoke, Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ra Eden, 2004, Upper Elem.<br />
It’s Time, Judith Mammay (Todd Fargo), 2007, Lower Elem.<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> Whole Wyom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Joan Clark, 2005, Middle<br />
Jay Grows an Alien, Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Anne Lev<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, 2007, Upper Elem.<br />
Kickoff, D<strong>on</strong>na K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, 2007, Upper Elem.<br />
Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g after Louis, Lesley Ely (Polly Dunbar), 2004, Lower Elem.<br />
My Best Friend Will, Jamie Lowell & Tara Tuchel, 2005, Upper Elem.<br />
Play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by the Rules, Dena Luchs<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger (Julie Ols<strong>on</strong>), 2007, Lower Elem.<br />
Rules, Cynthia Lord, 2006, Middle<br />
Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Dreams, Herb Heiman, 2007, Middle<br />
Sariah McDuff Will Walk With You, Lee Ann Setzer (Bob B<strong>on</strong>ham), 2005, Upper Elem.<br />
Sundays with Matthew, Matthew Lancelle & Jeanette Lesada, 2006, Lower Elem.<br />
To Be Me, Rebecca Etl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger (Mark Tomassi), 2005, Upper Elem.<br />
Down syndrome<br />
The Best Worst Brother, Stephanie Stuve-Bodeen (Charlotte Fremaux), 2005, Lower Elem.<br />
Jazz Off-Key, D<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>i Daley Mackall, 2007, Upper Elem.<br />
Me, Hailey, Sheri Plucker, (Todd Fargo), 2005, Lower Elem.<br />
A Small White Scar, K. A. Nuzum, 2006, Middle<br />
Sophie’s Encore, Nancy Rue, 2006, Upper Elem.<br />
The Year of My Miraculous Reappearance, Cather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Ryan Hyde, 2007, High School<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
Accidents of Nature, Harriet McBryde Johns<strong>on</strong>, 2006, High School<br />
Brothers, Boyfriends <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds, April Lurie, 2007, High School<br />
The Decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Lana Morris, Laura & Tom McNeal, 2007, High School<br />
Hunger Mo<strong>on</strong>, Sarah Lamste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2004, High School<br />
Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Up with Roo, Sharlee Glenn (Dan Andreasen), 2004, Upper Elem.<br />
The Silver Cup, C<strong>on</strong>stance Leeds, 2007, High School<br />
So B. It, Sarah Weeks, 2004, Middle<br />
This Side of the Sky, Marie-Franc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Hébert; translated by Susan Ouriou, 2006, High School<br />
Multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Cruise C<strong>on</strong>trol, Terry Trueman, 2004, Middle<br />
Unspecified or Various <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Crist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Keeps a Promise, Virg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ia L. Kroll (Enrique O. Sanchez), 2006, Lower Elem.<br />
The Mo<strong>on</strong> Children, Beverley Brenna, 2007, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder, Upper Elem.<br />
The Very Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous, Suzanne Crowley, 2007, Asperger Syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fetal<br />
Alcohol Syndrome, Middle<br />
We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Circle, Peggy Perry Anders<strong>on</strong>, 2004, Lower Elem.<br />
boy with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability, had previously<br />
been educated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a special school, but<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce he entered his neighborhood general<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 309
TABLE 4<br />
Characterizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Picture Books<br />
Book Character(s)<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> school, he dem<strong>on</strong>strated an extraord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
ability to play the drums <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was<br />
so<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a rock b<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Positive portrayal. Portrayals of characters<br />
with DD were characterized as positive if they<br />
were judged to meet most or all of the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
values that guide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
services provided to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities:<br />
(a) realistic emphasis <strong>on</strong> strengths rather<br />
than weaknesses, (b) high expectati<strong>on</strong>s, (c)<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positive c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s bey<strong>on</strong>d promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other characters, (d) becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, (e) be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g given full<br />
citizenship <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Pers<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Characteristics Level Depicti<strong>on</strong> Portrayal<br />
Character<br />
Development Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of View<br />
Autistic Planet Unnamed Female Autism Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Mixed Static Unnamed<br />
female with<br />
Autism<br />
The Best Worst Isaac 3-year old male Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Older sister,<br />
Brother<br />
Down syndrome<br />
Emma<br />
Crist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Keeps<br />
a Promise<br />
Victor Elementary age male<br />
Unspecified<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Disability<br />
Betsy 3-4 year old female<br />
Autism<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Narrator<br />
The Flight of a<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Partially Mixed Slightly Dynamic Narrator<br />
Dove<br />
Realistic<br />
It’s Time Tommy Sec<strong>on</strong>d grade male<br />
Autism<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Negative Static Narrator<br />
Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Up Aunt Roo Adult female Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Narrator<br />
with Roo (Ruth) Intellectual<br />
Disability<br />
Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g after Louis Elementary age male Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Girl <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Louis<br />
Autism<br />
Louis’s<br />
class<br />
Me, Hailey Hailey K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dergarten female<br />
Down syndrome<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Static Narrator<br />
My Best Will Elementary age male Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Mixed Static 5<br />
Friend Will<br />
Autism<br />
th grade girl,<br />
Jamie<br />
Play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by the Josh Elementary age male Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Neutral Mixed Static Sister, Jody<br />
Rules<br />
Autism<br />
Sundays with Matthew 11-year old male Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Static Art therapist,<br />
Matthew<br />
Autism<br />
Jeanette<br />
To Be Me David 10-year old male<br />
Asperger<br />
Syndrome<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic David<br />
We Go <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a Several Various<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Injured race<br />
Circle children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
horse<br />
310 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
(f) exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships (Turnbull,<br />
Turnbull, & Wehmeyer, 2007). Of the 42<br />
characters portrayed, 17 (40.5%) were judged<br />
to be positive. Characterizati<strong>on</strong>s were described<br />
as be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mixed if some of the attributes<br />
of positive characterizati<strong>on</strong>s were present<br />
(n 17, 40.5%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative if these characterizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were rarely shown (n 8, 19%).<br />
Most of the books menti<strong>on</strong>ed or alluded to<br />
the strengths of the characters with DD; however,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly a few authors used these strengths<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the plot of the story. One<br />
example of the portrayal of strengths is Verity<br />
Buscador, a teenage girl with Asperger Syn-
TABLE 5<br />
Characterizati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Chapter Books<br />
Character<br />
Development Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of View<br />
Book Character(s) Pers<strong>on</strong>al Characteristics Level Depicti<strong>on</strong> Portrayal<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Camper, Jean<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Static Narrator<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Dynamic Younger brother,<br />
Moose<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Mixed Static Classmate, Hillary<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Partially Realistic Negative Static Older sister, Jess<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sween<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Partially Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator<br />
Accidents of Nature Margie Teenage female<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
Adam Canfield, Theodore Middle school male<br />
Watch Your<br />
(Shadow) Unspecified <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Back!<br />
Disability<br />
Adam’s Alternative Adam 9-year old male<br />
Sports Day<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Al Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Natalie 15-year old female<br />
Shirts<br />
Autism<br />
Ann Drew Jacks<strong>on</strong> Jacks<strong>on</strong> Fifth grade male<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Apart Timmy 10-year old male<br />
Autism<br />
Baj <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Word Baj Elementary age male<br />
Launcher<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Brothers, Boyfriends, Larry 14-year old male<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds<br />
Cruise C<strong>on</strong>trol Shawn 14-year old male<br />
Multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Tilly 16-year old female<br />
Lana Morris<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
The Duchess to the Verity 12-year old female<br />
Rescue<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Holy Smoke Verity 12-year old female<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Hunger Mo<strong>on</strong> Eddy Elementary-age male<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> Whole Jacks<strong>on</strong> Fifth grade male<br />
Wyom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Partially Realistic Mixed Dynamic Neighbor, April<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Negative Static Older brother,<br />
Paul<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Static Narrator<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic Officer, B<strong>on</strong>es<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic Officer, B<strong>on</strong>es<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,<br />
Ruthie<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Static Friend, Tyler<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 311
TABLE 5<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Character<br />
Development Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of View<br />
Book Character(s) Pers<strong>on</strong>al Characteristics Level Depicti<strong>on</strong> Portrayal<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Slightly Dynamic Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Partially Realistic Negative Static Narrator<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,<br />
Cather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Positive Dynamic Just<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Narrator<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Sariah<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Negative Static Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Dynamic Tw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> brother,<br />
Will<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Positive Static Daughter, Heidi<br />
Jay Grows an Alien Jay Elementary-age male<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Jazz Off-Key Kendra 13-year old female<br />
Down Syndrome<br />
Kickoff Shirelle 5-year old female<br />
ADD, possibly autism<br />
The Mo<strong>on</strong> Children Billy 11-year old male<br />
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum<br />
Disorder<br />
Rules David 8-year old male<br />
Autism<br />
Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
Just<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15-year old male<br />
Dreams<br />
Autism<br />
Sariah McDuff Will Chrissy Elementary-age female<br />
Walk With You<br />
Autism<br />
The Silver Cup Thomas 6-year old male<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
A Small White Scar Denny 15-year old male<br />
Down syndrome<br />
So B. It Sofia Adult female<br />
Intellectual Disability<br />
Sophie’s Encore Hope Infant female<br />
Down syndrome<br />
This Side of the Sky Angélique 8-year old female Intellectual<br />
Disability<br />
The Very Ordered Merilee 13-year old female<br />
Existence of<br />
Asperger Syndrome<br />
Merilee<br />
Biswick 8-year old male<br />
Marvelous<br />
Fetal Alcohol<br />
The Year of My Bill 3-year old male<br />
Miraculous<br />
Down syndrome<br />
Reappearance<br />
312 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Partially Realistic Mixed Static Narrator<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Partially Realistic Mixed Static Older sister,<br />
M<strong>on</strong>a<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Partially Realistic Positive Dynamic<br />
Merilee<br />
Merilee<br />
Static<br />
Positive<br />
Partially Realistic<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Realistic Mixed Slightly Dynamic Older sister,<br />
Cynnie
drome <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Duchess to the Rescue, who used<br />
her computer skills to help identify who<br />
pa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted graffiti <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> town.<br />
When expectati<strong>on</strong>s were set high for the<br />
characters, those portrayed positively were<br />
able to meet them. For example, Natalie, a<br />
15-year old girl <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Al Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Shirts, is<br />
expected to learn to speak better <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<br />
appropriately with other children so she will<br />
be allowed to attend a special school, which<br />
was a privilege rather than a right <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1930s.<br />
Many of the characters made positive c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to their families, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some even<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributed to their schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities.<br />
Although most of these c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>al, such as provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g circumstances<br />
whereby others can learn patience,<br />
tolerance, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compassi<strong>on</strong>, some c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ally made by the character<br />
with DD. For example, Aunt Ruth (Roo) a<br />
woman with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Up with Roo, taught her niece how to read.<br />
Also, Verity, a 12-year old girl with Asperger<br />
Syndrome, makes critical c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong>s toward<br />
solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Duchess to the Rescue<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Holy Smoke.<br />
Although most characters with DD made<br />
some attempts toward becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more selfdeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed,<br />
most of their choices did not<br />
make much of an impact <strong>on</strong> the story or <strong>on</strong><br />
the characters’ development. For example,<br />
characters with DD often chose to engage <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their favorite activities, such as watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g TV or<br />
videos. On the other h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, many characters<br />
were given opportunities to make important,<br />
life-alter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g choices. One notable example of<br />
this positive characteristic was found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> A<br />
Small White Scar, when Denny made the bold<br />
decisi<strong>on</strong> to follow his brother off the ranch,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue <strong>on</strong> horseback <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the wilderness.<br />
Many characters with DD were depicted as<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g age-appropriate citizenship rights <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their families, schools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities. For<br />
example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adam Canfield, Watch Your Back,<br />
Shadow, a middle school boy with an unspecified<br />
developmental disability, becomes part<br />
of the journalism staff al<strong>on</strong>gside peers without<br />
disabilities. Further, the characters with Asperger<br />
Syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> high functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g autism<br />
were most frequently shown to have similar<br />
rights as those similar to their age, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded with n<strong>on</strong>disabled peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> envir<strong>on</strong>ments, recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Autistic Planet, It’s Time,<br />
Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g After Louis, My Best Friend Will, To Be<br />
Me, Adam’s Alternative Sports Day, Ann Drew<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong>, Baj <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Word Launcher, The Duchess<br />
to the Rescue, Holy Smoke, Jacks<strong>on</strong> Whole Wyom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
Jay Grows an Alien, Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Dreams, The Very<br />
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous).<br />
Character development. Character development<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a story helps readers relate to <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
learn from the characters’ experiences. Characters<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s literature are developed<br />
through their acti<strong>on</strong>s, relati<strong>on</strong>ships with others,<br />
their sense of themselves, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the roles<br />
they play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the plot (Temple, Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ez,<br />
Yokota, & Naylor, 2002). Dynamic characters<br />
are important because they develop or grow<br />
through the story, while static characters show<br />
no growth. In many stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters<br />
with disabilities, growth occurs primarily<br />
for characters without disabilities. However,<br />
characters with DD should not be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a story <strong>on</strong>ly to evoke growth <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> others, but they<br />
should learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grow, even if their development<br />
is slow or difficult to detect (e.g., Betsy,<br />
a 3-year old girl with autism try<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to talk <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
The Flight of a Dove, Victor w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a Special<br />
Olympics race <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Crist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a Keeps a Promise). Of<br />
the 42 characters with DD portrayed, 24<br />
(57%) were identified as dynamic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were classified as static. Some of<br />
the changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> character with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude:<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> socialize better<br />
(e.g., Al Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Shirts; Baj <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Word<br />
Launcher; It’s Time; Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g After Louis; Play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
by the Rules; The Very Ordered Existence of Merilee<br />
Marvelous), us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pers<strong>on</strong>al strengths to solve<br />
problems (e.g., The Duchess to the Rescue; Holy<br />
Smoke), successfully ventur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out bey<strong>on</strong>d familiar<br />
territory (e.g., A Small White Scar), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new talents or skills (e.g. Brothers,<br />
Boyfriends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds; The Mo<strong>on</strong><br />
Children; Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Dreams).<br />
Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of view. Most of the stories were told<br />
from the po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of view of a family member,<br />
usually a sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or a peer. In <strong>on</strong>e unique<br />
book, the family member was the daughter of<br />
a woman with DD (So B. It). However, some of<br />
the stories (n 4; 10%) were told from the<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t of view of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with DD (Autistic<br />
Planet; To Be Me; Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Dreams; The<br />
Very Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous). Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> Dreams was uniquely told from the<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 313
perspective of both Jas<strong>on</strong>, a 15-year old boy<br />
with autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a narrator. The rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
stories were told by a narrator.<br />
Relati<strong>on</strong>ships am<strong>on</strong>g Characters With <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Without <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships each party c<strong>on</strong>tributes,<br />
learns, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> grows from their associati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
However, often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> books c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters<br />
with DD, relati<strong>on</strong>ships are <strong>on</strong>e-sided, with<br />
the character with a disability be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the recipient<br />
of care, be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g watched after, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
presence of their disability is the primary<br />
change agent for another’s growth. In this<br />
study, some levels of social reciprocity were<br />
found between several characters (n 19,<br />
45%). For example, David, a 10-year old boy<br />
with Asperger Syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> To Be Me, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates<br />
that he is friends with the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his class,<br />
“even those who wear glasses.” In The Very<br />
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous, Merilee, a<br />
13-year old girl with Asperger Syndrome, befriends<br />
a newcomer to town, Biswick, an 8-year<br />
old boy with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.<br />
The books were evaluated to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the<br />
nature of the relati<strong>on</strong>ships found between<br />
characters with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others. The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
were exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed: (a) primary relati<strong>on</strong>ship, (b)<br />
victim, perpetrator, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or protector, (c) dependent<br />
or caregiver, (d) pupil or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor.<br />
Of the 42 characters depicted, most had primary<br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships with their families (n 20,<br />
48%), followed by friends (n 18, 43%, with<br />
72% of those friends not hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paid pers<strong>on</strong>nel or volunteers (n 5,<br />
12%). Eighteen characters with DD (43%)<br />
were depicted as victims, usually of teas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
name call<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ridicule, but occasi<strong>on</strong>ally of<br />
abuse or neglect (e.g., Hunger Mo<strong>on</strong>; The Very<br />
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous; The Year of<br />
My Miraculous Reappearance). While most were<br />
shown be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dependent up<strong>on</strong> others, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> five<br />
cases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with DD were caregivers<br />
(12%; i.e., Accidents of Nature, The Duchess to the<br />
Rescue, Holy Smoke, Jay Grows an Alien, The Very<br />
Ordered Existence of Merilee Marvelous). In two of<br />
these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, care is given to people without<br />
disabilities (The Duchess to the Rescue; Holy<br />
Smoke). F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, 10 characters assumed the role<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal teacher, usually by teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others<br />
about someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g related to their disability<br />
(e.g., Autistic Planet; Me, Hailey; To Be Me). In<br />
<strong>on</strong>e book, an aunt with DD teaches her niece<br />
how to read (Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Up with Roo).<br />
Changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Characters without <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
In many books, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters<br />
without disabilities learned to accept or underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with DD (n 19,<br />
46%), yet most just ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed their feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> attitudes (n 22, 54%), which were generally<br />
positive. One book depicted an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> negative feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs by a significant n<strong>on</strong>disabled<br />
character toward the character with DD<br />
(set <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1060s, Thomas, a 6-year old boy<br />
with an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disability is ab<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the woods by his mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Silver Cup).<br />
Special Topics<br />
314 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
The books were also exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for treatment<br />
of special topics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of developmental<br />
disability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: (a) school<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
(b) recreati<strong>on</strong>, (c) residence, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d)<br />
family characteristics.<br />
School<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>. Elements of school<br />
life for school-aged characters with DD were<br />
evident <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 24 books. The types of school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
varied al<strong>on</strong>g a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uum of placements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g no school<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g., The Silver Cup—<br />
set <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1060s, A Small White Scar—set <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
1950s, This Side of the Sky—era undeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed),<br />
board<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g school (e.g., Al Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Shirts<br />
—set <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 1930s), special schools (e.g., The<br />
Flight of a Dove; Jazz Off Key; Sariah McDuff Will<br />
Walk With You); special classrooms with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> schools (e.g., Adam Canfield,<br />
Watch Your Back; Brothers, Boyfriends, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other<br />
Crim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds; Cruise C<strong>on</strong>trol; Runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
Dreams), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms<br />
with various levels of support (e.g., It’s Time;<br />
Jacks<strong>on</strong> Whole Wyom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; Jay Grows an Alien; Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
After Louis; Me, Hailey; To Be Me). The most<br />
frequently depicted educati<strong>on</strong>al placement<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (n 13, 54%).<br />
Recreati<strong>on</strong>. Individuals with DD engaged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities, usually as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal<br />
events (e.g., play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> computers, mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
art, play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g chess, listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to music, play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with blocks, watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g TV). Very few formal<br />
activities were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stories, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
when they were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded, they were organized<br />
for groups of people with disabilities (e.g.,
Special Olympics). Most of the recreati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
activities menti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved peers or sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
(e.g., Autistic Planet, Keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Up with Roo, Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
After Louis, My Best Friend Will, To Be Me, Al<br />
Cap<strong>on</strong>e Does My Shirts, This Side of the Sky)<br />
rather than solitary activities.<br />
Residence. In the books where residence<br />
was depicted, all ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters<br />
with DD lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their family home, except<br />
for characters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The Decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Lana Morris<br />
(Tilly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or characters with DD live<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a foster home) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Apart (Timmy, a 10-year<br />
old boy with autism is sent to live <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a group<br />
home).<br />
Family characteristics. Various types of families<br />
were depicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the books, but primarily<br />
the characters with DD lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
families (e.g., mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> father at home).<br />
However, some lived with s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle parents (e.g.,<br />
divorced or widowed), or foster parents. Sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
were portrayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many of the families,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were often the primary caregivers of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with DD. The book, So B. It, isan<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong>al illustrati<strong>on</strong> of a family situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In this book the character with a developmental<br />
disability, Sofia, is cared for by her daughter<br />
who does not have a disability.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Children’s books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study were evaluated<br />
to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e how characters with developmental<br />
disabilities are portrayed to young<br />
readers. Specifically, four topics were evaluated:<br />
(a) characterizati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
with DD, (b) relati<strong>on</strong>ships between the character<br />
with DD <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others, (c) changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters<br />
without DD, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) special topics related<br />
to DD. Results of this analysis will be<br />
discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> compared to two previous studies<br />
of children’s books that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude characters<br />
with DD (Dyches & Prater, 2005; Dyches et al.,<br />
2001).<br />
This study analyzed 41 books that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters with developmental<br />
disabilities published between 2004<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007. Annually, this rate of publicati<strong>on</strong> is<br />
10.25 books per year, which is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
from 2005 (8.5 per year) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 (6 per<br />
year). The criteria for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this current<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> excluded several books which were<br />
self-published or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded n<strong>on</strong>-human characters<br />
with developmental disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no<br />
such exclusi<strong>on</strong>s existed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous studies.<br />
Therefore, we can c<strong>on</strong>clude that more<br />
commercially-published books with human<br />
characters with developmental disabilities are<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g published than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the recent past.<br />
Books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study depicted characters with<br />
several types of developmental disabilities,<br />
with the proporti<strong>on</strong> of characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 75% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2001 to 47% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 48% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> characters with autism spectrum disorders<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 25% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 to 53% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2005, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 52% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. This representati<strong>on</strong><br />
is disproporti<strong>on</strong>ate to reported enrollment<br />
of school-aged children with these<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the U.S., where students with<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> represent 9.6% of the special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> populati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism represents<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly 2.3% (U.S. Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2007). However, the recent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
children’s ficti<strong>on</strong> that features characters with<br />
autism spectrum disorders may be reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the recent media attenti<strong>on</strong> to the significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with this diagnosis with<br />
a rate of 6 per 10,000 for autism, Asperger<br />
Syndrome, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Pervasive <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> Disorder—Not<br />
Otherwise Specified comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
(Dyches, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press). Also, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study<br />
almost half (n 9, 41%) of the characters<br />
with autism spectrum disorders were portrayed<br />
specifically as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Asperger Syndrome.<br />
Of the 20 characters identified with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities or unspecified developmental<br />
disabilities, <strong>on</strong>ly 6 (30%) had Down<br />
syndrome, down from 53% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 64%<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001. The books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
characters with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Multiple <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, which were previously<br />
not represented.<br />
More male characters than females with DD<br />
were depicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the books reviewed; however,<br />
the trend is decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (from 86% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 to<br />
87% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 61% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study). A decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
trend was found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> males with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities from 86% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 to 78% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly 58% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study. The<br />
current percentage is lower than actual proporti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of those with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the U.S. populati<strong>on</strong> (1.5 male to 1 female)<br />
(American Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2000).<br />
Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate a decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trend of males<br />
with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). All<br />
characters with ASD <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 were male, de-<br />
Juvenile Literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Portrayal of DD / 315
creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to 84% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 64% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current<br />
study. This most recent proporti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
males to females is low, based up<strong>on</strong> the estimated<br />
populati<strong>on</strong> ratio for autism be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 4–5<br />
boys to 1 girl (75–80%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at least 5 times<br />
higher (80%) for Asperger Syndrome (American<br />
Psychiatric Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2000).<br />
There was an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease of characters with DD<br />
from diverse cultures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this set of books compared<br />
to the previous studies, from no characters<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001 to 14% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 21% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
present study. This representati<strong>on</strong> gives readers<br />
more realistic percepti<strong>on</strong>s of how developmental<br />
disabilities may affect people from all<br />
races, cultures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ethnicities. Current U.S.<br />
Census (2004) estimates the populati<strong>on</strong> to be<br />
81% White al<strong>on</strong>e (not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
another race), 12.7% Black, 12.6% from Hispanic<br />
orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3.8% Asian. In the n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
books that feature culturally diverse ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> or<br />
support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters with DD, Hispanics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Blacks are underrepresented—each with 7%<br />
of the 42 characters. C<strong>on</strong>versely, Asians are<br />
slightly overrepresented with 5% of the characters.<br />
However, these data should be treated<br />
with cauti<strong>on</strong> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases the authors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> illustrators did not dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate race<br />
or culture of their characters with DD.<br />
Several dimensi<strong>on</strong>s of the characterizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with DD varied across the three<br />
studies. Generally, there was an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
trend of positive portrayals, from 71% of the<br />
depicti<strong>on</strong>s judged to be positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2001, to<br />
72% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 81% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current study.<br />
These portrayals were more positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part<br />
because over time the characters were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly<br />
more self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoyed more<br />
reciprocal relati<strong>on</strong>ships with a wider range of<br />
people. While characters <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study<br />
had primary relati<strong>on</strong>ships with fewer friends<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the 2005 study, two-thirds of these<br />
friendships were with n<strong>on</strong>disabled peers.<br />
The characters with DD who were victimized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased from the 2005 study (from 39%<br />
to 43%), but this rate was far below that of the<br />
2001 study (83%). Most of the victimizati<strong>on</strong><br />
occurred by teas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or name call<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
new derogatory term was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> The<br />
Decod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of Lana Morris, Snicks (an acr<strong>on</strong>ym<br />
for “Special Needs Kids” or “SNKs”).<br />
More characters with DD were depicted as<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g important roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society, either as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal teachers (24% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current study,<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease from the previous studies), or as<br />
caregivers (12% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the current study, also an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease). Their teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g often went bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about their disability, to teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to others.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, characters with DD were portrayed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary recreati<strong>on</strong>al activities<br />
over the past three studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities<br />
such as mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g art, play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g chess, listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to music, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with friends. The<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al envir<strong>on</strong>ments for the last study<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 46% of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for the current study it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to 54%. This<br />
level of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> is higher than reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al school data (U.S. Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2007), where 43.9% of the students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 51.8% of the students with<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities spent greater than 60%<br />
of their time outside of the general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classroom. The high level of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> portrayed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the books may be expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the<br />
eight students with Asperger Syndrome be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
educated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary envir<strong>on</strong>ments, while<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly five other characters with DD were educated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
316 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
More commercially-published children’s ficti<strong>on</strong><br />
that features <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with developmental<br />
disabilities is available than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the past.<br />
The depicti<strong>on</strong>s of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals represent<br />
a trend of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cultural diversity. Also,<br />
the proporti<strong>on</strong> of books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g characters<br />
with ASD is overrepresented based up<strong>on</strong> nati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
school-based data, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comparis<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
underrepresentati<strong>on</strong> of characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities.<br />
Previously, male characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities were overrepresented, but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
current study, they were underrepresented.<br />
Similarly, males with ASD are underrepresented<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the present study.<br />
The characters with DD have been depicted<br />
more multidimensi<strong>on</strong>ally across the past decade.<br />
An <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g trend for these depicti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to represent more positive portrayals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more self-determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed, engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more caregiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g roles,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong>ary recreati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
activities is positive. This upward trend meets<br />
each of the charges given to authors of children’s<br />
books <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2005 by Dyches <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Prater to
“add depth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multidimensi<strong>on</strong>ality to the<br />
characters that they portray” (p. 515). Future<br />
authors are encouraged to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a more<br />
representative sample of characters with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities, more realistic depicti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
characters with developmental disabilities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more characters who make important decisi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for their lives which show their selfdeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al services providers are encouraged<br />
to seek out quality literature that c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
images of children with disabilities who<br />
are seen as “people whom readers would like<br />
to know or be friends with” (Smith-D’Arezzo,<br />
2003, p. 76). These books should express the<br />
values they <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tend to teach, thereby shap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the “evolv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g moral character of its readers”<br />
(Mills, 2002, p. 531). The current study provides<br />
an analysis of 41 books, based up<strong>on</strong> values<br />
often depicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the professi<strong>on</strong>al literature,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the results can serve as a guide for<br />
select<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g books that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
developmental disabilities.<br />
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© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s for Children with<br />
Autism: A Meta-analysis<br />
Peishi Wang<br />
Queens College, City University of New York<br />
Anne Spillane<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al University<br />
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to provide a synthesis of research studies published <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last ten years<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease social skills for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adolescents with ASD, exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the outcomes of these<br />
studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate whether a given <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> meets the criteria for evidence-based practice. Thirty-eight<br />
studies were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review, of which 36 were s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 group experimental<br />
studies. Results varied widely both between <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> types, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with the different studies with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> type. While Social Stories, Peer-Mediated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Video-Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all met the criteria for evidencebased,<br />
a closer look at percentage of n<strong>on</strong>overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts (PND) shows that <strong>on</strong>ly Video-Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g meets<br />
criteria for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence-based as well as dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high effectiveness as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategy.<br />
Interact<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <strong>on</strong>e’s peers can have a significant<br />
positive impact <strong>on</strong> the lives of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with disabilities, allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them to build <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
participate more fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their communities.<br />
Numerous <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to teach social skills<br />
have been developed over the years (Carter &<br />
Hughes, 2005, Vaughn, et al., 2003, White,<br />
Ke<strong>on</strong>ig, & Scahill, 2007). However, many of<br />
these methods do not meet the requirements<br />
for evidence-based practice. New regulati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reauthorizati<strong>on</strong> of IDEA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 require<br />
that evidence-based practices be used to<br />
ensure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with disabilities receive the<br />
highest quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Autism is a developmental disorder whose<br />
prevalence rate has been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g dramatically<br />
over the past decade. One <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 150 children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> America today have an autism spectrum<br />
disorder (Centers for Disease C<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong>, 2007). The Autism Society of<br />
America (ASA) estimates that 1.5 milli<strong>on</strong><br />
Americans <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families are now affected.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Peishi Wang, Graduate Programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Community Programs, Powdermaker Hall 032J,<br />
Queens College, City University of New York, 65-30<br />
Kissena Blvd, Flush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, NY 11367. Email: peishi.<br />
wang@qc.cuny.edu<br />
318 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
In fact, autism is grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at a startl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate of<br />
10-17 percent per year, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has become a<br />
nati<strong>on</strong>al health crisis, cost<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the U.S. at least<br />
$35 billi<strong>on</strong> annually (Autism Society of America,<br />
2007).<br />
Deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social skills are <strong>on</strong>e of the core<br />
features of autism spectrum disorders (ASD),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are a major source of impairment regardless<br />
of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual or language ability of<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s with ASD (Carter, Davis, Kl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, & Volkmar,<br />
2005). Individuals hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g better social<br />
skills are more likely to be accepted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, live more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Scheuermann &<br />
Webber, 2002). However, treat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the social<br />
deficits of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with ASD rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s a<br />
challenge (Weiss & Harris, 2001).<br />
There have been many <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s used<br />
to teach social skills to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with ASD.<br />
These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude social stories (e.g. Delano &<br />
Snell, 2006), peer-mediated strategies, (e.g.<br />
Laushey & Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2000), video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(e.g. Paters<strong>on</strong> & Arco, 2007), cognitive behavioral<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g. Bock, 2007), pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g. J<strong>on</strong>es & Freely, 2007),<br />
Theory of M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (e.g. Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Bernard-Opitz,<br />
2000), am<strong>on</strong>g others. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, a number<br />
of meta-analyses have looked at social skills<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with ASD (Bell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i &<br />
Akullian, 2007; Carter & Hughes, 2005; Cook,
Gresham, Kern, Barreras, Thornt<strong>on</strong>, & Crews,<br />
2008; Hwang & Hughes, 2000; Vaughn et al.,<br />
2003; White et al., 2007). N<strong>on</strong>e of this research<br />
has discussed whether the studies met<br />
criteria for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence-based practice.<br />
Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Evidence-Based Practices<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al policies, such as No Child Left<br />
Beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (NCLB) require that teachers use<br />
evidence-based practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their classrooms.<br />
Also, new regulati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the reauthorizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of IDEA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2004 require that evidence-based<br />
practices be used to ensure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
disabilities receive the highest quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
However, there has never been a clear<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> of what evidence-based practice is.<br />
Therefore, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> January 2003, the Council for<br />
Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children (CEC) <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> for Research<br />
established a task force to address the<br />
issue of evidence-based practices. A special<br />
issue of Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children (2005) was dedicated<br />
to establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria for evidencebased<br />
practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
First, let’s clarify what a practice is. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to Horner, Carr, Halle, McGee, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Wolery<br />
(2005), a “practice refers to a curriculum,<br />
behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, systems change, or<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al approach designed for use by<br />
families, educators, or students with the express<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong> that implementati<strong>on</strong> will result<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> measurable, educati<strong>on</strong>al, social, behavioral,<br />
or physical benefit.” (p. 175)<br />
In the 2005 special issue of Excepti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Children, Odom et al. set the c<strong>on</strong>text for the<br />
development of research quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for evidence of effective practices<br />
provided by different methodologies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
special educati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g group experimental<br />
or quasi-experimental research, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
subject research, correlati<strong>on</strong>al research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
qualitative research. For the purpose of this<br />
article, we will focus <strong>on</strong> two types of research<br />
methodologies: group experimental or quasiexperimental<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research.<br />
These two methodologies are largely used to<br />
identify cause-effect relati<strong>on</strong>ships between <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> target behaviors, therefore,<br />
they are more appropriate for identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
evidence-based practices.<br />
Specifically, for group experimental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
quasi-experimental research articles <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> reports,<br />
Gersten et al. (2005) presented the fol-<br />
low<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quality <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators: (1) participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
given study are sufficiently discussed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
disability c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are c<strong>on</strong>firmed; (2) r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om<br />
assignment to study c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s are attempted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omizati<strong>on</strong> is not feasible,<br />
other alternatives are used to ensure<br />
participants are comparable across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
(3) sufficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> is provided<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> procedures<br />
implemented to ensure they are comparable<br />
across c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s; (4) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
are implemented with fidelity, (5) multiple<br />
outcome measures are used to capture the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>’s effect, (6) data analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
effect size calculati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferential<br />
statistics (p. 152).<br />
Furthermore, the panel suggested that a<br />
practice is c<strong>on</strong>sidered evidence-based “when<br />
there are at least four acceptable quality studies<br />
or two high quality studies that support the<br />
practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the weighted effect size is significantly<br />
greater than zero.” (Gersten et. al.,<br />
2005, p. 162)<br />
When evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g research studies us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject methodology, Horner et al.<br />
(2005) stated that “s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-subject research<br />
documents a practice as evidence based when<br />
(a) the practice is operati<strong>on</strong>ally def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed,<br />
(b) the c<strong>on</strong>text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which the practice is to be<br />
used is def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed; (c) the practice is implemented<br />
with fidelity; (d) results from s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
subject research document the practice to be<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>ally related to change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> dependent<br />
measures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) the experimental effects<br />
are replicated across a sufficient number of<br />
studies, researchers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants to allow<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs” (p. 175-176).<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, documentati<strong>on</strong> of an evidencebased<br />
practice typically requires multiple s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
subject studies. “A practice may be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
evidence-based when (a) m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of<br />
five s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject studies that meet m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imally<br />
acceptable methodological criteria <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> document<br />
experimental c<strong>on</strong>trol have been published<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer-reviewed journals, (b) the studies<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>ducted by at least three different<br />
researchers across at least three different geographical<br />
locati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) the five or more<br />
studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a total of at least 20 participants”<br />
(Horner et al., 2005, p.176).<br />
Although there have been a few review articles<br />
published <strong>on</strong> this topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent years<br />
(e.g. Mats<strong>on</strong>, Mats<strong>on</strong>, & Rivet, 2007; McC<strong>on</strong>-<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 319
nell, 2002; Rogers, 2000; Weiss & Harris,<br />
2001), they tend to be more descriptive of the<br />
various <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lack quantitative<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>s of treatment effectiveness, that is,<br />
the researchers relied <strong>on</strong> the c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
drawn by the studies’ authors. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
these qualitative reviews do not compare treatment<br />
effectiveness across different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies. Furthermore, they fail to address<br />
the critical issue of evidence-based<br />
practices. The purpose of this study was to<br />
provide a synthesis of research studies published<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the last ten years <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease social skills for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adolescents<br />
with ASD, exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the outcomes of<br />
these studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate whether a given<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> meets the criteria for evidencebased<br />
practice.<br />
Method<br />
A comprehensive review of the literature was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures.<br />
First, an electr<strong>on</strong>ic search was c<strong>on</strong>ducted for<br />
studies published between 1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2008<br />
August us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Resources Informati<strong>on</strong><br />
Center (ERIC) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PsycINFO databases.<br />
Searches were carried out us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g descriptors: autism,<br />
autism spectrum disorder, ASD, social skills, social<br />
behavior, social development, c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al skills,<br />
play skills, social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s, request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, social resp<strong>on</strong>ses,<br />
social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s, social relati<strong>on</strong>ships,<br />
jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t attenti<strong>on</strong>, eye c<strong>on</strong>tact, video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, peermediated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s, videotape model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, pivotal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, theory of m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d, cognitive behavioral<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidental teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, social stories,<br />
perspective tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> naturalistic teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
a manual search was c<strong>on</strong>ducted with the<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peer-reviewed journals: Research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Practice for Pers<strong>on</strong>s with Severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Journal<br />
of Applied Behavior Analysis, Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
American Journal <strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Focus <strong>on</strong> Autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Other <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>. In all, 104 studies were located <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial search of journal articles.<br />
Studies were selected for review based <strong>on</strong><br />
the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria. First, participants must<br />
have been identified as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ASD between the<br />
age of birth <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 21. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, study participants<br />
were students receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g special educati<strong>on</strong> services<br />
either at home or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Stud-<br />
320 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
ies c<strong>on</strong>ducted exclusively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, employment sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
that were not clearly described were excluded<br />
from this synthesis. Third, the study must have<br />
used outcome measures that targeted social<br />
skills. Studies that measured functi<strong>on</strong>al skills<br />
such as daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills, reducti<strong>on</strong> of problem<br />
behaviors, or n<strong>on</strong>-social communicati<strong>on</strong> skills<br />
were not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded. Fourth, the study must have<br />
assessed the effectiveness of social skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Studies that used pharmacological<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were excluded from this analysis.<br />
Fifth, the review comprised an empirical,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was published<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a peer-reviewed journal between 1997<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2008. Dissertati<strong>on</strong> studies were not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this synthesis. Sixth, the study must meet the<br />
criteria for evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the Council for<br />
Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> for Research<br />
(2005). For the purpose of this review, <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
those studies that utilized group experimental<br />
or quasi-experimental <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research<br />
were evaluated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyzed. For group<br />
designs, presentati<strong>on</strong> of effect sizes al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferential statistics is recommended. However,<br />
some studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this meta-analysis<br />
did not report the effect size of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al study, they were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
when such calculati<strong>on</strong> could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferred based<br />
<strong>on</strong> available statistics reported. Effect sizes are<br />
expressed positively when change occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the predicted directi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negatively when<br />
changes were opposite to those predicted. An<br />
effect size of .20 is small, .50 moderate, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> .80<br />
large. The usually accepted m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ically<br />
acceptable effect size for educati<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
is 0.33 (McCartney & Rosenthal, 2000).<br />
If a study uses s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research design,<br />
the study must dem<strong>on</strong>strate experimental<br />
c<strong>on</strong>trol through the use of multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
reversal or alternat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g treatment designs<br />
as outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by the Council for Excepti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> for Research (2005). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
the study must present data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> graphical<br />
displays that depicted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual data<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts as these graphical displays were critical<br />
for the calculati<strong>on</strong> of PND (percentage of<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts), the metric analysis<br />
employed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this meta-analysis. Scruggs,<br />
Mastropieri, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Castro (1987) suggested that<br />
“PND is the <strong>on</strong>ly major evaluative criteri<strong>on</strong><br />
that can c<strong>on</strong>sistently be applied <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the largest
number of cases of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject studies”<br />
(p. 27). PND is usually computed by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the number of treatment data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts that exceeds<br />
the highest basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an<br />
expected directi<strong>on</strong> by the total number of<br />
data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the treatment phase. A PND<br />
between 91 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100 is c<strong>on</strong>sidered a highly<br />
effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, between 71 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 90<br />
moderately effective, between 51 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 70<br />
mildly effective, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> between 0 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 50, n<strong>on</strong>effective<br />
(Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1998).<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> criteria, we identified<br />
38 studies for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review, of<br />
which 36 were s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research studies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 group experimental studies.<br />
Classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
For the 36 s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research studies,<br />
we used a cod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system established by Mastropieri<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Scruggs (1985-1986) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made<br />
modificati<strong>on</strong>s based <strong>on</strong> the criteria outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by Horner et al. (2005). Each study was analyzed<br />
across the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g categories: (1) participant<br />
characteristics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number<br />
of participants, diagnosis, sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, age <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al levels; (2) descripti<strong>on</strong> of target behaviors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills; (3) descripti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
(4) research design; (5) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> results<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
follow-up, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> effects as measured<br />
by PND; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (6) c<strong>on</strong>firmati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
whether the study measured treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social validity.<br />
Interrater Agreement<br />
To establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater reliability for the cod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the PND analysis, the first<br />
author coded all the s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
calculated the PND while the sec<strong>on</strong>d author<br />
r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly selected 30% (12) of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject<br />
studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently coded <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> calculated<br />
the PND for those studies. Interrater agreement<br />
was obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the total number<br />
of agreements by the total number of<br />
agreements plus disagreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
by 100. The mean <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrater agreement<br />
between the two authors was 97% (range 78%-<br />
100%).<br />
Results<br />
A summary of the participants, target behaviors,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> research de-<br />
sign was c<strong>on</strong>structed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table<br />
1. Table 2 provides descriptive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> results, study effect size or PND,<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance, follow-up <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong> results,<br />
treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social validity<br />
measures.<br />
Overall F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject designs were used to evaluate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 36 studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> group<br />
designs were used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 studies. Five categories<br />
of different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s emerged from these<br />
38 studies, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Social Stories (n 6),<br />
Peer Mediated (n 9), Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n <br />
11), Cognitive Behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (n 3), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Others (n 9).<br />
A total of 147 participants were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded.<br />
Thirty-<strong>on</strong>e studies used a variati<strong>on</strong> of a multiple<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e or probe design, five studies used<br />
a reversal design, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two studies used pretest<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> posttest with a c<strong>on</strong>trol group design.<br />
Treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 14 studies,<br />
of which 11 reported agreement percentage,<br />
rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 77% to 100%. Social validity<br />
was measured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16 studies.<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Of the 147 participants with ASD, am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
studies that reported <strong>on</strong> gender, 73 participants<br />
were boys, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 were girls. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
seven studies reported participati<strong>on</strong> of a total<br />
of 68 typical peers. Participants with ASD<br />
ranged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> age from 2 to 17 years old. The vast<br />
majority of participants were between the ages<br />
of 6-12 (82 participants), with thirty participants<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g five years or younger, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three<br />
participants be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over 12 years of age. Not all<br />
studies reported ages of participants.<br />
The studies primarily took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs at public schools. Some studies<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across more than <strong>on</strong>e sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Ten studies reported be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
public school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs not otherwise<br />
specified, 9 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> specialized class sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs at a<br />
public school. Six studies reported lunch, hallway,<br />
or other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, three<br />
studies took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> classroom<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. Four studies took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
home or community sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, three studies<br />
took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> private segregated sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>e study took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a private <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 321
TABLE 1<br />
Evidence-based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s: Method <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Research Design<br />
Study Participants/Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
Social Story was read twice a day Multiple-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participants<br />
Social Stories (n 6)<br />
Sportsmanship<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
Jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
3 boys with Asperger Syndrome<br />
(Ages 9, 10, 11 yrs)<br />
2 boys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated private schools<br />
1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> private school for children with<br />
LD<br />
All three boys have average or above-<br />
Sansosti & Powell-Smith<br />
(2006)<br />
Social Story was read <strong>on</strong>ce a day Multiple-probe-across<br />
participants<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> of appropriate<br />
social engagement<br />
behavior<br />
Frequency of 4 social skills:<br />
Seek<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comments,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requests,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
4 target behaviors:<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent resp<strong>on</strong>ses,<br />
secur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comments,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requests<br />
Prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needed for choice<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; appropriate play<br />
(with peers & materials)<br />
Appropriate social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
average IQ<br />
Delano & Snell (2006) 3 boys with autism (Ages 6, 6, & 9)<br />
Integrated sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
6 typical peers (3 boys & 3 girls)<br />
served as tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> play<br />
partners<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design<br />
across two or three<br />
behaviors<br />
Social stories, pictorial written<br />
text cues, video feedback<br />
5 boys with autism (Ages 6-12 yrs)<br />
3 boys were fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated, 2 were<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated for 30% of the day<br />
10 typical peers<br />
Thiemann & Goldste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(2001)<br />
Social stories* ABCD multiple-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
design across two subjects<br />
Barry & Burlew (2004) 1 7-yr-old girl & 1 8-yr-old boy with<br />
severe autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
322 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participants<br />
Social Stories written to address<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses for<br />
appropriate social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for target students dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g free<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
3 boys 8-13 with ASD free time<br />
activities across the school day<br />
Scatt<strong>on</strong>e, T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gstrom, &<br />
Wilczynski (2006)<br />
time activities<br />
Social Story Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
behaviors & multiple<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across participants<br />
Decrease excessive directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
compliments to sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
2 boys, 9&12yrsoldwith PDD-NOS<br />
both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Average IQ<br />
Dodd, Hupp, Jewell, &<br />
Krohn (2008)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Study Participants/Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
ABAB<br />
2 boys, 5 yrs<br />
1 with severe Autism; 1 with mild<br />
PDD-NOS<br />
Inclusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Two boys with autism; moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
profound MR<br />
Laushey & Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(2000)<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design<br />
across peer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
across 2 participants<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participant<br />
Peer Mediated (n 9)<br />
Ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g & resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Buddy System-Multiple peers as<br />
Gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
tutors<br />
Wait<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for turn<br />
Eye c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s; Multiple peer use of pivotal<br />
Initiates c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>; resp<strong>on</strong>se tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Initiates play<br />
Frequency of eye c<strong>on</strong>tact; Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teractive tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
frequency of jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
strategies (peer-mediated):<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>; frequency of c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gent imitati<strong>on</strong>; naturally<br />
motor imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
occurr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement;<br />
expectant look; &<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>mental arrangement<br />
Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> Peer-Assisted Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Strategies; comm<strong>on</strong> stimuli<br />
activities; peer tutor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Peer directed comment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; Two children with autism were<br />
language diversity &<br />
paired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> received the plan-<br />
complexity<br />
play-report treatment<br />
simultaneously<br />
Pierce & Schreibman<br />
(1997)<br />
3 preschool boys with autism (32-43<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths)<br />
play area <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
program classroom<br />
Hwang & Hughes<br />
(2000)<br />
ABA withdrawal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across peers<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
three dyads<br />
One five-year old boy with ASD &<br />
DD; high functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; Study took<br />
place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the special ed classroom<br />
5 boys & 1 girl with mild/moderate<br />
autism (ages 6-8) study took place<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a secti<strong>on</strong>ed off area of a large<br />
hallway <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a public school with<br />
high % of children with autism<br />
3 primary grade students with autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 typical peers study took<br />
place dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scheduled play <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
academic times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Petursdottir, McComas,<br />
McMaster, & Horner<br />
(2007)<br />
L<strong>on</strong>cola & Craig-<br />
Unkefer (2005)<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e probe<br />
design across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs,<br />
nested with multiple<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across students<br />
with autism<br />
Augmentative communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, peer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peer networks<br />
(cooperative group activities<br />
with augmentative<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> system)<br />
Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> between<br />
target students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
peers, use of augmentative<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> systems<br />
Collateral behaviors:<br />
expressive verbalizati<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>appropriate<br />
behaviors, n<strong>on</strong>-target peers<br />
use of communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
system, peer acceptance<br />
Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell,<br />
Kamps, & Kravits<br />
(1997)<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 323<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Study Participants/Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
ABAB, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> BABA: work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with 1 or 2 peers<br />
Peer tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to adapt class<br />
activities, provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
implement behavior plans,<br />
provide frequent feedback,<br />
promote communicati<strong>on</strong> for<br />
the participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with<br />
disabilities<br />
Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(acknowledgement of<br />
another student us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g verbal<br />
or n<strong>on</strong>verbal behaviors),<br />
coded for who they<br />
occurred with, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
quality of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>;<br />
C<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistency<br />
with general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
curriculum<br />
Synchr<strong>on</strong>ous reciprocal<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s, child affect<br />
3 students (2 with autism) ages 12, 13,<br />
&17<br />
6 general educati<strong>on</strong> students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> classes<br />
with target students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a middle <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
high school English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> science<br />
class.<br />
Carter, Cush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Clark,<br />
& Kennedy (2005)<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participants<br />
C<strong>on</strong>textually supported play<br />
dates: activities selected to be<br />
mutually re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for both<br />
child with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typically<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peer, cooperative<br />
arrangements set up by adults<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities (participati<strong>on</strong><br />
of both critical to the activity)<br />
Triads were developed—with two<br />
peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e target child with<br />
autism dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recess;<br />
naturalistic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
2 primary grade children with autism<br />
14 typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peers play<br />
dates occurr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> natural sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Koegel, Werner,<br />
Vismara, & Koegel<br />
(2005)<br />
C<strong>on</strong>current multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
across participants<br />
Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g attenti<strong>on</strong>, # of turn<br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exchanges, # of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s to play<br />
2 boys, 8 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 9 yrs old with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
Harper, Sym<strong>on</strong>, & Frea<br />
(2008)<br />
324 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across play<br />
behavior with a withdrawal<br />
phase<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by male adult);<br />
social praise<br />
Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n 11)<br />
Appropriate verbal play<br />
behavior & motor play<br />
behavior; repetitive verbal<br />
play <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> motor play<br />
behavior<br />
Experimenter I: Social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>; reciprocal play;<br />
imitative resp<strong>on</strong>se; object<br />
engagement; other<br />
behaviors<br />
Paters<strong>on</strong> & Arco (2007) 2 boys with autism (Ages 6&7yrs)<br />
high functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g play room <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
school’s special educati<strong>on</strong> center<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subject<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by a 10-yr old<br />
boy with LD & average social<br />
skills); Verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vivo; Behavior<br />
rehearsal<br />
Experiment I: 3 boys with autism<br />
(Ages 6.5; 6.5; & 7) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>aturalistic<br />
room of a special school<br />
Nikopoulos & Keenan<br />
(2007)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Study Participants/Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by a peer) Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subjects<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by a peer of Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
the same age <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sex);<br />
subjects with a return to<br />
In-vivo model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
behaviors (garden<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g &<br />
cook<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks) across two<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (with adults<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong>ly)<br />
Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>; reciprocal<br />
play behavior<br />
Affective resp<strong>on</strong>ses: show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sympathy; show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
appreciati<strong>on</strong>; show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
disapproval<br />
Different types of pretend<br />
play acti<strong>on</strong>s performed<br />
Nikopoulos & Keenan 3 boys with autism (btwn 7-9 yr)<br />
(2004)<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g unspecified<br />
Gena, Couloura, & 3 preschool boys with autism (Ages<br />
Kymissis (2005) 5, 4, 3 yr)<br />
Mild to moderate mental retardati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
Home sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for each participant<br />
H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e & Wolery (2006) 2 girls with autism (Ages 30, 43<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
participants<br />
Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous requests Video self model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subjects<br />
Comply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with teacher Embedded video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by Multiple probe across<br />
directi<strong>on</strong>s; greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g others; typical peers) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> computer participants<br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials<br />
based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>*<br />
4 boys with autism (Ages 5.5; 4.5; 4;<br />
5 yrs) unspecified school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
2 boys <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 girls with autism (Ages<br />
5, 5, 6, & 6)<br />
All participants were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
general ed classroom for part of<br />
the day<br />
5 boys <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1 girl with autism (Ages<br />
8, 7, 10, 11, & 7) after-school<br />
behavior therapy program therapy<br />
room<br />
Wert & Neisworth<br />
(2003)<br />
Simps<strong>on</strong>, Lang<strong>on</strong>e, &<br />
Ayres (2004)<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subjects; multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
with child across two<br />
model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> across two tasks<br />
In vivo <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (by<br />
familiar adults)<br />
Subject 1: Expressive label<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of emoti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Subject 2: Independent play<br />
Subject 3: Sp<strong>on</strong>taneous<br />
greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs; oral<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Subject 4: C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
speech; cooperative play<br />
Subject 5: Social play<br />
Charlop-Christy, Le, &<br />
Freeman (2000)<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subjects<br />
Compliment-giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behaviors Experiment I:<br />
1) Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
2) VM re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
3) re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
Experiment I: 2 boys with Asperger’s<br />
Syndrome (both 5 yrs)<br />
Study took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated<br />
preschool classroom dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g free<br />
play time<br />
Apple, Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, &<br />
Schwartz (2005)<br />
Experiment II:<br />
Self-management<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 325<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Study Participants/Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participants<br />
Social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s Videotaped self-model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
3-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute video show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
participants engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> typical<br />
positive social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Perspective tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of 5 first-order<br />
perspective tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tasks<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (n 1)<br />
Buggy (2005) 2 students with autism dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g lunch,<br />
recess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> free time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive school<br />
Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> child across tasks<br />
3 boys with autism, ages of 6, 6 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
9 yrs low functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Charlop-Christy &<br />
Daneshvar (2003)<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es & Feely (2007) 3 preschool age children with autism Jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Attenti<strong>on</strong>: resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT, discrete trial format* Multiple probe design across<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
two jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t attenti<strong>on</strong> skills<br />
Theory of M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (n 1)<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Bernard-Opitz 3 high-functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children with C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al skills, shared Initiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, Turn- Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
(2000)<br />
autism, 5-7 years old, primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest, c<strong>on</strong>textually appropriate tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
participants<br />
caregivers, <strong>on</strong>e peer who<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, false beliefs (ToM) listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong> topic, chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, participants’ homes<br />
topic appropriately<br />
Cognitive Behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (n 3)<br />
Lopata, Thomeer, 21 boys with AD 6-13 years old Social Skills, Adaptability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 weeks of the treatment Pre <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> posttest design. 2<br />
Volker, & Nida (2006) 6-week summer treatment program Atypicality from the BASC, program 6 hrs/day, 5 days/ groups: Social Skills<br />
to enhance social behaviors parent rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scales (PRS) week. 4 70-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>ly (SS) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scales (TRS) cycles daily<br />
Social Skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
One group had a behavioral Behavioral Treatment<br />
management po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t system with (SSBT)<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se cost<br />
Baumr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger (2002) 15 high-functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children with Social cogniti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>al Adapted social skills curriculum Pre-post test design: Problem<br />
autism<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, overt social taught 3 hours/week over a solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g measure, Emoti<strong>on</strong><br />
functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
7 m<strong>on</strong>th period*<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ventory, Observati<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
Social Interacti<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Social Skills Rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (SSRS-T)<br />
Bock (2007) 4 boys 9-10 years old elementary Participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperative learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Social-behavioral learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
school where students attended: activities, play organized sport strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
social studies cooperative group games, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visit with peers (SODA)*<br />
activities, no<strong>on</strong> recess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lunch dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g lunch<br />
326 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 1<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Study Participants/ Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Target Behavior Interventi<strong>on</strong>s Research Design<br />
Textual cues were embedded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
the child’s activity schedules; participants<br />
script fad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Keys to Play Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e probe<br />
Others (n 7)<br />
Scripted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>;<br />
elaborati<strong>on</strong>s, unscripted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
Play <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>; engagement<br />
time; play repertoire<br />
Incidental teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
participants<br />
Two social phrases: “all right”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “you know what?”<br />
Krantz & McClannahan 3 boys with autism (ages 4-5) small<br />
(1998)<br />
classroom at the participants’<br />
school<br />
Nels<strong>on</strong>, McD<strong>on</strong>nell, 4 preschool children with autism<br />
Johnst<strong>on</strong>, Crompt<strong>on</strong>, (ages 3-4)<br />
Nels<strong>on</strong> (2007)<br />
McGee & Daly (2007) 3 preschool boys with autism<br />
university based preschool, with<br />
majority of typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
children<br />
Charlop-Christy, 3 boys with autism 3-12 years old<br />
Carpenter, Le, Sessi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> empty<br />
LeBlanc, & Kellet tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rooms, the child’s<br />
(2002)<br />
classroom, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the child’s home<br />
Speech: sp<strong>on</strong>taneous speech PECS tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
participants<br />
Social communicative:<br />
cooperative play, jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
attenti<strong>on</strong>, request<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong><br />
Verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal Tactile prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g device for ABAB<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses to peer<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Behavior management skills Social skills tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Reversal design with two<br />
for typical peers<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scrips, social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g names <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g plus re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s, imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for help<br />
C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al speech C<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al Scripts, cue cards Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across<br />
subjects with embedded<br />
multiple probes with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
each child across<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Shabani et al. (2002) 3 k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dergarten boys with autism,<br />
typically develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peers at school<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> home<br />
4 children with autism, ages 5-7 years<br />
old, 12 typical k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dergarten <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
first grade children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same<br />
elementary school special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom<br />
G<strong>on</strong>zalez-Lopez &<br />
Kamps (1997)<br />
3 boys with autism, ages 8, 8, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 11<br />
verbal, literate<br />
Charlop-Christy & Kelso<br />
(2003)<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 327<br />
* Interventi<strong>on</strong>s were implemented by classroom teachers, paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als or parents.
TABLE 2<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s: Results, Effects, Treatment Integrity<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Social Stories (n 6)<br />
Follow-up data were collected two Two participants data were reported,<br />
weeks after the treatment 88% & 92%<br />
FPND50%<br />
3<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance results not reported<br />
rd Yes<br />
child’s family failed to provide<br />
needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fo<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> was gradually faded Mean93% (78%-100%) Yes<br />
(2 phases)<br />
2 participants dem<strong>on</strong>strated ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their general ed classroom<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
MPND81.57%<br />
2 boys generalized to untra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed Not reported Yes.<br />
social behaviors; 1 generalized<br />
7 gen ed teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 SLP<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> classroom<br />
graduate students who are<br />
MPND37.97%<br />
bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d to the study rated<br />
participants’ performance<br />
pre-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> post-treatment via<br />
2-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> video vignettes.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> effects were Not reported Not reported<br />
reported via anecdotal<br />
evidence—the girl transiti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
to a general ed classroom due<br />
to the significant ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her<br />
social skills<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e 100% for 2 students, 86% for 1 IRP-15 scores all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
student<br />
acceptable range<br />
Increased target behavior (2/3)<br />
PND59.57%<br />
Sansosti & Powell-Smith<br />
(2006)<br />
Delano & Snell (2006) Improved performance <strong>on</strong> all<br />
target behaviors across all<br />
three participants (3/3)<br />
PND90%<br />
3/4 target behaviors were<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by 3 boys; 2/4 target<br />
behaviors were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed by<br />
2 boys<br />
PND47%<br />
Thiemann & Goldste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(2001)<br />
Barry & Burlew (2004) Both participants made ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent choices<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> play appropriately dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
free play time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the selfc<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
328 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
PND100%<br />
Increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s for 2/3<br />
participants<br />
PND46.7%<br />
Increased target behaviors for<br />
both boys<br />
PND60% (zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Scatt<strong>on</strong>e, T<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gstrom, &<br />
Wilczynski (2006)<br />
Yes<br />
Participant 1100%;<br />
Participant 2 97.1%<br />
Reported for <strong>on</strong>ly 1 subject<br />
MPND100%<br />
Dodd, Hupp, Jewell, &<br />
Krohn (2008)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Peer Mediated (n 9)<br />
Only 1 participant reported Yes Focus group was used to<br />
follow up data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general ed<br />
validate the DV & IV<br />
classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
the ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
FPND100% (1 child <strong>on</strong>ly)<br />
Both participants generalized Not reported Not reported<br />
their ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
with novel people as well<br />
MPND66.67%<br />
FPND71.05%<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> of eye c<strong>on</strong>tact <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Yes Yes<br />
motor imitati<strong>on</strong> were found<br />
across new sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> different<br />
partner; jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t attenti<strong>on</strong> rarely<br />
generalized<br />
Not reported 81% (range 56%-92%) for the Yes<br />
K-PALS; 91% (range 86-96%)<br />
for comm<strong>on</strong> stimuli activities<br />
Significant improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
social skills for both<br />
children<br />
PND100%<br />
Laushey & Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(2000)<br />
Both participants made<br />
significant ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
social skills<br />
PND71.01%<br />
Pierce & Schreibman<br />
(1997)<br />
3/3 participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
target behavior;<br />
PND72.22%<br />
Hwang & Hughes<br />
(2000)<br />
No effects of peer tutor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g play-related<br />
comm<strong>on</strong> stimuli to the<br />
peer-tutor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activity<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g free play.<br />
PND36.17%<br />
All dependent variables<br />
improved across all subjects<br />
PND56.72%<br />
Petursdottir, McComas,<br />
McMaster, & Horner<br />
(2007)<br />
Not reported 98% (80%-100%) Not reported<br />
L<strong>on</strong>cola & Craig-<br />
Unkefer (2005)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 329
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Not reported<br />
Increased durati<strong>on</strong> of peer<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s across<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased use of<br />
augmentative<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> system,<br />
some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
verbalizati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peer acceptance<br />
Frequency of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
PND48%<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
PND 95%<br />
Higher level of social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>tact with the<br />
general curriculum<br />
when supported<br />
by 2 peers<br />
PND35.09%<br />
Significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
unprompted synchr<strong>on</strong>ous<br />
reciprocal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
PND100%<br />
Both participants improved<br />
their social peer<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g recess<br />
PND75% (zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell,<br />
Kamps & Kravits<br />
(1997)<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Not reported<br />
Carter, Cush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Clark,<br />
& Kennedy (2005)<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Frequency of reciprocal<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong>s—more<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vitati<strong>on</strong>s extended by<br />
Koegel, Werner,<br />
Vismara, & Koegel<br />
(2005)<br />
330 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
peers after treatment<br />
Yes but through anecdotal<br />
reports<br />
Yes<br />
Data were reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a table,<br />
rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 78%-100%<br />
Yes<br />
GPND100%<br />
Harper, Sym<strong>on</strong>, & Frea<br />
(2008)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n 11)<br />
1 boy generalized motor play Not reported Not reported<br />
with three related toys; follow<br />
up data were recorded 1 week<br />
after treatment was withdrawn<br />
for both boys<br />
FPND100%<br />
Paters<strong>on</strong> & Arco (2007) Both participants<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased their<br />
appropriate verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
motor play behavior<br />
across toys; their<br />
repetitive verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
motor play behavior<br />
decreased;<br />
Not reported The social validati<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
treatment outcomes was<br />
assessed by ten mothers of<br />
school-aged children.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> to a novel peer<br />
was measured for all three<br />
participants; Follow up data<br />
were taken at 1- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2-m<strong>on</strong>ths.<br />
FPND100%<br />
Follow-up tests c<strong>on</strong>ducted at 1<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 m<strong>on</strong>ths after the study<br />
FPND100%<br />
PND100%<br />
Experiment I: mixed<br />
results across subjects<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behaviors<br />
PND90.57%<br />
Nikopoulos & Keenan<br />
(2007)<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Follow-up at 1- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3-m<strong>on</strong>ths<br />
GPND100%<br />
FPND100%<br />
M95% (83.3% to 100%) Yes<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> across materials<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were<br />
measured<br />
MPND100%<br />
Nikopoulos & Keenan All participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
(2004)<br />
the durati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
reciprocal play; social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> improvement<br />
results were mixed<br />
PND72.41%<br />
Gena, Couloura, & All 3 participants<br />
Kymissis (2005)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased their affective<br />
categories<br />
In vivo model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
PND88%<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
PND79%<br />
H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e & Wolery (2006) Both participants showed<br />
improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both<br />
pretend play behaviors<br />
PND70.45%<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 331<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Yes<br />
MPND100%<br />
Wert & Neisworth<br />
(2003)<br />
Not reported Not reported Not reported<br />
All 4 participants showed<br />
significant improvement<br />
PND97%<br />
All 4 participants showed<br />
significant improvement<br />
PND97.30%<br />
Overall, video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
led to quicker<br />
acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of skills than<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vivo model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
In vivo model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
PND72.88%<br />
Video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
PND76.92%<br />
Simps<strong>on</strong>, Lang<strong>on</strong>e, &<br />
Ayres (2004)<br />
Not reported<br />
Yes. For the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> vivo c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s were videotaped<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> rated at 99%.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> probes across<br />
different stimuli, pers<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were c<strong>on</strong>ducted dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also 3 to 5 days<br />
after criteri<strong>on</strong> performance was<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> treatment.<br />
In vivo<br />
GPND58.82%<br />
Charlop-Christy, Le, &<br />
Freeman (2000)<br />
M90% (84%-97%) Parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers reports<br />
Video GPND84.62%<br />
Experiment I<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong><br />
FPND20%<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
FPND100%<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
both participants were<br />
able to acquire the skills<br />
of compliment-giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
Experiment II:<br />
Self-management<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased subjects’<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their own<br />
compliment-giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
behavior<br />
Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>d to others<br />
PND100%<br />
Initiate<br />
PND0%<br />
Apple, Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, &<br />
Schwartz (2005)<br />
332 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Results ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
MPND100%<br />
FPND100%<br />
VM Re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong><br />
PND100%<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
PND100%<br />
Re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong><br />
PND100%<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
PND100%<br />
(Zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Experiment #2<br />
Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
PND100%<br />
Initiate<br />
PND0%<br />
Self Management<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong><br />
PND100%<br />
Resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
PND100%<br />
Buggy (2005) Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> frequency of social<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s (0 to 4.4; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> .17 to<br />
4.25 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s/day)<br />
PND90.91%<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Wider range of generalizati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were reported<br />
GPND40.35%<br />
MPND46.67%<br />
(Zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for <strong>on</strong>e participant)<br />
Various ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s made by all<br />
participants<br />
PND52.21%<br />
(Zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Charlop-Christy &<br />
Daneshvar (2003)<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 333<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Not reported<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (n 1)<br />
Performance c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Video-taped record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs: 86-97%<br />
6-30 ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> presentati<strong>on</strong><br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong> probes 80-100% prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
GPND100%<br />
77-96% c<strong>on</strong>sequences<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es & Feely, (2007) All 3 children achieved mastery<br />
(90% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, across 2<br />
c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> days)<br />
PND66.11%<br />
Not reported Increased eye c<strong>on</strong>tact,<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g topic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g turns accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
social validity assessment<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
Theory of M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (n 1)<br />
1 child <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased shared <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<br />
time, percentage of<br />
c<strong>on</strong>textually appropriate<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses with typically<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g peer<br />
GPND100%<br />
Increased time spent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shared<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Increased percentage of<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses appropriate to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text of c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
Score of 0 for all students <strong>on</strong><br />
first or sec<strong>on</strong>d order False<br />
Belief tasks.<br />
PND80.77%<br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Bernard-Opitz<br />
(2000)<br />
Cognitive Behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (n 3)<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Not reported<br />
Significant ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects were<br />
found from parent rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for<br />
general improvement for<br />
social skills, adaptability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
atypicality. Staff rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs had<br />
significant improvements for<br />
social skill, but n<strong>on</strong>significant<br />
rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for adaptability, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
significant rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
opposite directi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
atypicality<br />
Effect size social skills: .24<br />
Effect size adaptability: .59<br />
Effect size atypicality: .39<br />
Lopata, Thomeer,<br />
Volker, & Nida<br />
(2006)<br />
334 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Not reported<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probes 1/m<strong>on</strong>th<br />
for 5 m<strong>on</strong>ths <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated high<br />
performance levels ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
after <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
MPND100%<br />
Baumr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger (2002) Post treatment results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
significantly greater ability to<br />
suggest relevant soluti<strong>on</strong>s, higher<br />
number of social soluti<strong>on</strong>s, few<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-social soluti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Significant improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
knowledge of emoti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Significant ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effects for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positively<br />
to peers<br />
Significantly higher post-treatment<br />
scores <strong>on</strong> cooperati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
asserti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> SSRS-T<br />
Effect size positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s: 1.24<br />
Effect size cooperati<strong>on</strong>: .47<br />
Effect size asserti<strong>on</strong>: .69<br />
Bock (2007) Increase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cooperative learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities,<br />
play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g organized sport games at<br />
recess, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with peers at<br />
lunch for all students<br />
PND100%<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Others (n 7)<br />
Ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to new<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s/activities<br />
GPND100%<br />
Verbal elaborati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unscripted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased;<br />
PND83.52%<br />
(Zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Krantz & McClannahan<br />
(1998)<br />
(c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued)<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 335
TABLE 2<br />
C<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance/Follow up/<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> Treatment Integrity Social Validity Measures<br />
Study Results<br />
Not reported Yes<br />
Solicited op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s from local<br />
area preschool teachers<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>naires<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s videotaped,<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itored occurrences of<br />
procedural errors<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong>s are generalized with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the classroom<br />
MPND100%<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> probes occurred<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g free-play activities at least<br />
2 hrs after teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
GPND44.44%<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Results ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g post<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g follow-up<br />
MLU FPND100%<br />
Cooperative Play, Jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Attenti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Eye C<strong>on</strong>tact & Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
Initiati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Requests<br />
FPND96.67%<br />
Partial ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of behavior Not reported Not reported<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt-fad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
MPND100%<br />
N<strong>on</strong>e Not reported Not reported<br />
Nels<strong>on</strong>, McD<strong>on</strong>nell, Increased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong> & engagement<br />
Johnst<strong>on</strong>, Crompt<strong>on</strong>, durati<strong>on</strong>; improved sophisticati<strong>on</strong><br />
Nels<strong>on</strong> (2007) PND48.57%<br />
McGee & Daly (2007) Children were able to acquire target<br />
social phrases, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transfer use of<br />
those phrases to situati<strong>on</strong>s where<br />
there were no prompts or<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement for their use<br />
PND36.78%<br />
(Zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e)<br />
Charlop-Christy, Increases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sp<strong>on</strong>taneous speech<br />
Carpenter, Le, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> imitati<strong>on</strong><br />
LeBlanc, & Kellet Increases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s, requests,<br />
(2002)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
MLU PND27.78%<br />
Cooperative Play, Jo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Attenti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Eye C<strong>on</strong>tact & Comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
Frequency of Initiati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Requests<br />
PND76.32%<br />
Shabani et al. (2002) Increases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> verbal <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
PND89.13%<br />
G<strong>on</strong>zalez-Lopez & Increased frequency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> durati<strong>on</strong><br />
Kamps (1997) of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s for all students<br />
Frequency of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
PND 59%<br />
Durati<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
PND67%<br />
Charlop-Christy & All participants made ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
Kelso (2003) PND89.47%<br />
336 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Not reported Not reported<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> probes were taken<br />
with different c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
partners, sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> topics<br />
GPND72%
Target Behaviors<br />
A number of social behaviors were targeted<br />
across the studies; many studies targeted more<br />
than <strong>on</strong>e behavior. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or appropriate social behavior was targeted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 28 studies, 17 studies targeted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s or social behavior (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
greet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> requests), 5 studies targeted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g play. Eight studies targeted appropriate<br />
play skills (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g turn-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), two<br />
studies targeted eye c<strong>on</strong>tact, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two studies<br />
targeted perspective-tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Research Designs<br />
The vast majority of studies (31) utilized a<br />
multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design. Twenty-four studies<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across participants, six studies<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across behaviors, three studies<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, three studies<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two studies were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across tasks.<br />
Some of the studies were c<strong>on</strong>ducted across<br />
multiple categories with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study.<br />
Of the other seven studies, five utilized the<br />
ABAB or reversal design, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two studies utilized<br />
the group experimental design. Both of<br />
the experimental studies followed a pre-posttest<br />
format with a c<strong>on</strong>trol group.<br />
Outcome Measures across Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Social Stories. Six studies used Social Stories<br />
to teach social skills. The PND scores ranged<br />
from 46.7% to 100% with a mean of 67.21%,<br />
which represents questi<strong>on</strong>able effectiveness as<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Scruggs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Mastropieri<br />
(1998). Although Social Stories met<br />
the criteria for evidence-based practice accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to Horner et al. (2005), the effectiveness<br />
of Social Stories as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social skills is questi<strong>on</strong>able due to<br />
the low PND scores.<br />
Peer Mediated. A total of n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
review used peer mediated strategies. The<br />
PND scores ranged from 35.09% to 100% with<br />
a mean of 60.69%, which represents low to<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>able effectiveness. Twenty-four participants<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these studies. The<br />
studies were c<strong>on</strong>ducted by 25 researchers<br />
across n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e geographic areas. However, the<br />
effectiveness of peer mediated strategies to<br />
improve social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to be questi<strong>on</strong>able due to the low<br />
PND scores.<br />
Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. There were eleven studies<br />
used video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to teach social skills. The<br />
PND scores ranged from 50% to 100% with a<br />
mean of 84.25%, which represents effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Video Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g met the criteria<br />
for evidence-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its PND<br />
scores shows that it is an effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social skills to children with<br />
autism.<br />
Cognitive Behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Three studies<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this category to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the effects of cognitive behavior tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
social skills, two of which were group experimental<br />
designs. We used available data reported<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al studies to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
effect size due to the absence of such results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al studies. The effect size for Lopata<br />
et al (2006) ranged from .59-.24 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
moderate to mild effects, while the effect size<br />
for Baumr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger (2002) ranged from 1.24-.47<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high to moderate effects. The third<br />
study used a multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
design. The PND for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was calculated<br />
at 100%, which is very promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. However,<br />
more studies are needed to c<strong>on</strong>firm the<br />
efficacy of cognitive behavioral tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Others. In this category, most of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were represented by <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e study,<br />
i.e. pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>se tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n 1), Theory<br />
of M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (ToM, n 1), scripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cue cards<br />
(n 2), Keys to Play (n 1), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cidental<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n 1), PECS tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (n 1),<br />
tactile prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g device (n 1) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social<br />
skills tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with scripts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement<br />
(n 1). Even though some of the studies<br />
reported fairly promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PND scores, (e.g.<br />
ToM PND 80.77%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>), more studies are needed with<br />
more participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by different researchers<br />
to further evaluate their effectiveness as<br />
evidence-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
Effects<br />
Twelve out of 36 studies reported the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
effects of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The PND<br />
scores ranged from 38% to 100%, with a mean<br />
of 78.5%. N<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e studies reported the generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
effects of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The PND<br />
Evidence-Based Social Skills Interventi<strong>on</strong>s / 337
scores ranged from 40% to 100% with a mean<br />
of 80.95%. In additi<strong>on</strong>, n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e studies reported<br />
the follow-up data of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
PND scores ranged from 60% to 100%, with a<br />
mean of 92.15%. However, these averages<br />
were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed across five categories of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it impossible to c<strong>on</strong>clude<br />
whether the impact of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
was effectively ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalized<br />
due to limited number of studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
category report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g such results.<br />
Treatment Integrity<br />
Fourteen studies assessed the extent to which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s were implemented as<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended; eleven studies actually reported<br />
numerical data <strong>on</strong> treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity. Researchers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 studies discussed that treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was m<strong>on</strong>itored but provided no numerical<br />
data. In studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was reported, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were implemented<br />
with a high degree of fidelity. Because<br />
most studies did not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude assessment<br />
of treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity, we f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it difficult to<br />
draw def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ite c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s that the changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the target behaviors are the results of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Also because most studies reviewed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this article were implemented by<br />
researchers, additi<strong>on</strong>al research is needed to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s can be implemented<br />
with high fidelity by teachers, parents,<br />
or others. Otherwise, the generality of<br />
these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the real school<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s to be unclear.<br />
Social Validity<br />
Measures of social validity were reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 16<br />
studies. Most studies provided evidence for<br />
the social importance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> outcomes.<br />
Assessment of social validity was obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
either through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews or questi<strong>on</strong>naires.<br />
It is important that parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
classroom teachers believe that the selected<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies are effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate.<br />
If the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> lacks social validity,<br />
parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers are less likely to<br />
exert the necessary effort to implement the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, thus dim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
fidelity.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Results varied widely both between <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
types, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> type.<br />
While Social Stories, Peer-Mediated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Video-Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s all met the criteria<br />
for evidence-based practices accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
Horner et al. (2005), a closer look at PND<br />
scores shows that <strong>on</strong>ly Video-Model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g meets<br />
criteria for be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence-based as well as<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g high effectiveness as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategy. The PND scores of two of the<br />
six Social Stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> studies (Barry &<br />
Burlew, 2004; Delano & Snell, 2006), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three of the n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Peer-Mediated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
studies (Garris<strong>on</strong>-Harrell, Kamps, & Kravits,<br />
1997; Koegel, Werner, Vismara, & Koegel,<br />
2005; Laushey & Hefl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2000), dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
high effectiveness. Look<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more closely at<br />
those highly effective studies could provide<br />
clues to implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ways<br />
that will be effective. Cognitive behavioral<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> that shows<br />
great promise; more research is needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this area to dem<strong>on</strong>strate both its status as an<br />
evidence-based practice, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its overall effectiveness.<br />
Zero Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e Effects<br />
Seven out of the 36 s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject studies reported<br />
zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, by which is meant all<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data are equal to zero. Such data are<br />
problematic due to the fact that a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>or effect<br />
could result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively high levels of n<strong>on</strong>overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
data. In the case of zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es,<br />
it is often difficult to believe that “the subject<br />
was exhibit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g no task-relevant behavior at all.<br />
It often seems that the observati<strong>on</strong>al measure<br />
was not sensitive to relevant levels of behavior<br />
that were be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed” (Scruggs, et al.,<br />
1987, p. 30). Therefore, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al data<br />
analysis, we need to be more cognizant<br />
whether a specific treatment was effective <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the presence of “zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e” data. In<br />
such case, c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the effectiveness<br />
of a particular treatment should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted<br />
with cauti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for Practice<br />
338 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
This review described a variety of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that have been developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluated
to promote social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism<br />
spectrum disorders. The results of the present<br />
study are c<strong>on</strong>sistent with those of previous<br />
meta-analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
are m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imally effective for children<br />
with ASD (Bell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i et al. 2007; Vaughn et al.,<br />
2003). The excepti<strong>on</strong> to this is video model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g;<br />
that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was shown to meet the<br />
criteria for evidence based practice, as well as<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g highly effective. Practiti<strong>on</strong>ers implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
video-model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a method for<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social skills can do so with greater<br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence of its effectiveness. While social<br />
stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> peer-mediated strategies can be<br />
said to be evidence-based practices, practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
should m<strong>on</strong>itor these strategies closely<br />
when implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them as they may have<br />
limited effectiveness. Other strategies should<br />
be implemented carefully, with the underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that they have not met criteria as<br />
evidence-based practices, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> require c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for effectiveness.<br />
Most of studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted by researchers with a few excepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
that were implemented by classroom<br />
teachers, paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als or parents. However,<br />
social skills tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general is carried<br />
out by teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
If the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s implemented by<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>al researchers yield mixed results, it<br />
would be a real challenge for classroom teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents with limited resources <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
time to achieve the same or better outcomes.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
This synthesis <strong>on</strong>ly evaluated social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for children with ASD published between<br />
1997 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> August 2008. Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g studies<br />
over a l<strong>on</strong>ger period of time may have<br />
resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
criteria for evidence-based practice, or more<br />
studies dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a higher level of effectiveness.<br />
However, the criteria for evidencebased<br />
practices were <strong>on</strong>ly recently established;<br />
studies d<strong>on</strong>e before 1997 would have been<br />
even more less likely to meet those criteria.<br />
We also <strong>on</strong>ly looked at studies that were primarily<br />
implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school-based sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs;<br />
the effectiveness of these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> social<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> community sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs or for adults<br />
with ASD cannot be determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from this<br />
meta-analysis.<br />
Suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for Future Research<br />
Although our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial search of the literature<br />
found 104 studies that targeted social skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the end <strong>on</strong>ly 38 of those met criteria to be<br />
evaluated as evidence-based practice, as well as<br />
allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the calculati<strong>on</strong> of treatment effects.<br />
Future research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area should be<br />
planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> such a way that<br />
meets the criteria for evidence-based practice,<br />
as well as reports treatment effects.<br />
Most of the studies targeted students between<br />
the ages of 5-12; many of the rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
studies targeted preschool children. Only<br />
three studies were implemented with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
over 12 years of age. Studies target<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
these older children would be beneficial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g if particular <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
more effective with this age group.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong> of skills is an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegral comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
of social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s. Future<br />
studies are needed to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
of skills across multiple sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<br />
multiple pers<strong>on</strong>s. Researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers<br />
should create an explicit plan for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> when develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a social skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject designs were used to evaluate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 36 out of the 38 studies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this review. Multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e designs<br />
were utilized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> almost all of the studies<br />
to establish the experimental c<strong>on</strong>trol. Although<br />
such designs are well-suited to dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
analyses, certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> limitati<strong>on</strong>s do apply—it<br />
does not allow for comparis<strong>on</strong> of different<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s. Future research is needed to<br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> is most effective<br />
for which students. Compound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this limitati<strong>on</strong><br />
is the presence of near or at zero basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
performance by the participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many studies.<br />
Because most social skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s are<br />
likely to boost social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> above the<br />
floor levels, comparative analysis can assist researchers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
achieves this objective most effectively.<br />
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Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: A Collaborative Model for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Autism<br />
Michael B. Ruef<br />
California Polytechnic State University,<br />
San Luis Obispo<br />
Daniel Openden<br />
Southwest Autism Research & Resource<br />
Center & Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University<br />
Kathleen C. Harris<br />
California Polytechnic State University,<br />
San Luis Obispo<br />
Nicolette Nefdt<br />
Support & Treatment for Autism & Related<br />
Disorders, Inc.<br />
Shar<strong>on</strong> Elmensdorp<br />
University of California, Santa Barbara<br />
Suzanne Rob<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong><br />
California State University, Fullert<strong>on</strong><br />
Abstract: With the large number of students with autism enter<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the educati<strong>on</strong>al system, the need for empirically<br />
supported treatment (EST) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> teachers with tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ESTs<br />
is necessary now more than ever. This paper describes a collaborative model between 2 universities aimed at<br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> community-based practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an EST, pivotal<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se treatment (PRT). Three comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the model are described: (1) the community-based service delivery<br />
system, (2) the Masters/special educati<strong>on</strong> credential program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (3) tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, issues<br />
around student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family participati<strong>on</strong> are discussed al<strong>on</strong>g with possible soluti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> future directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, model benefits are described with regard to graduate students, children with autism, families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
community.<br />
The prevalence of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth diagnosed<br />
with an autism spectrum disorder<br />
(ASD) has <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased at an alarm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rate. Recent<br />
statistics from the Centers for Disease<br />
C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Preventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that as many<br />
as <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> every 150 children today may be<br />
affected. The number of cases of autism now<br />
surpasses that of all types of cancer, diabetes,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> AIDS comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. 560,000 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the US birth–21 years of age are liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
ASD. Of the children born <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the US <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007,<br />
more than 26,000 will eventually be diagnosed<br />
with ASD (Centers for Disease C<strong>on</strong>trol <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Preventi<strong>on</strong>, 2007).<br />
Due to this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease, al<strong>on</strong>g with an unfortunate<br />
l<strong>on</strong>gst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traditi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legacy of accept<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>d<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to Michael B. Ruef, California Polytechnic<br />
State University, College of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
Build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 2, Room 106, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 343–355<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies that lack efficacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
proven utility (Gresham, Beebe, Frankenberger,<br />
& MacMillan, 1999; Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2005),<br />
there is a need for widespread access to empirically<br />
supported treatments (EST’s) for<br />
these children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. Even with<br />
the body of research support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavioral<br />
analytic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> procedures as effective<br />
EST’s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism (DeMyer,<br />
H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gtgen, & Jacks<strong>on</strong>, 1981; Nati<strong>on</strong>al Research<br />
Council, 2001), effective dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
these EST’s has not grown al<strong>on</strong>g with the<br />
disorder, creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a large need for families<br />
often drawn to a myriad of highly promoted,<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-efficacious treatments (Croen, Grether,<br />
Hoogstratge, & Selv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2002; Koegel, Koegel,<br />
Harrower, & Carter, 1999; Sperry, Whaley,<br />
Shaw, & Brame, 1999; Stahmer & Gist, 2001;<br />
Sym<strong>on</strong>, 2001). Although the gap between research<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong> has been<br />
well-documented (Brown, Odom, & C<strong>on</strong>roy,<br />
2001; Iovann<strong>on</strong>e, Dunlap, Huber, & K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>caid,<br />
2003; K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Sears, 2001; Lerman, Vorndran,<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 343
Addis<strong>on</strong>, & Kuhn, 2004; Simps<strong>on</strong>, McKee,<br />
Teeter, & Bevtien, 2007; Snell, 2003; Stahmer,<br />
Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, & Pal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>kas, 2005), bridg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the research-practice<br />
gap <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
is even more difficult due to a number<br />
of challenges present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers.<br />
Problems with Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Certificati<strong>on</strong><br />
One problem cited by the Study of Pers<strong>on</strong>nel<br />
Needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> [SPENSE] (2002)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others (Scheuermann, Webber, Boutot, &<br />
Goodw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2003; U.S. Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
2002) is the chr<strong>on</strong>ic shortage of special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers (Bergert & Burnett, 2001;<br />
Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsley, 2004; Boyer & Gillespie, 2000; Gersten,<br />
Keat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Yovanoff, & Harniss, 2001; Sach,<br />
1999). This shortage has prompted states to<br />
hire uncertified or partially certified teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has also prompted a movement to alternative<br />
certificati<strong>on</strong> programs. The goal of<br />
such alternative programs is to shorten the<br />
length of time required to earn a teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
certificate. Although students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative<br />
programs perform adequately <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of pass<br />
rates <strong>on</strong> certificati<strong>on</strong> exams (U. S. Department<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2002), research c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
by Darl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Hamm<strong>on</strong>d (2002) suggests<br />
that these students are less able when evaluated<br />
<strong>on</strong> measures of student performance.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d problem stems from the nature of<br />
the teacher certificati<strong>on</strong> programs themselves.<br />
While certificati<strong>on</strong> requirements vary from<br />
state to state, the shortage of special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers nati<strong>on</strong>wide has produced a trend favor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
n<strong>on</strong>categorical or multicategorical certificati<strong>on</strong><br />
where disability-specific tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
licensure is not provided (Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>zer & Horvath,<br />
2001; Nati<strong>on</strong>al Informati<strong>on</strong> Center for Children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Youth With <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> [NICHY],<br />
1997; Scheuermann et al., 2003). Those c<strong>on</strong>cerned<br />
with these traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher preparati<strong>on</strong> approaches<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> the ability of such programs<br />
to provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the range of<br />
specialized skills needed by special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers whose students enter classrooms with<br />
widely diverse backgrounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with widely<br />
diverse needs (Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er, Porch, & Farris, 2004;<br />
McLeskey, Tyler, & Flipp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2004). In particular,<br />
traditi<strong>on</strong>al categorical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> alternative “fast<br />
track” programs may be of limited usefulness<br />
for special educators who serve specific populati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with significant need, such as students<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or behavioral challenges<br />
(Henders<strong>on</strong> & Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005) unless such programs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude autism-specific tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied behavior analysis.<br />
Autism Specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
344 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
A major c<strong>on</strong>cern related to the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> teachers is the lack of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
specific to the educati<strong>on</strong> of children with<br />
autism. Given the complexity, comprehensiveness,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> spectrum of autism symptoms, coupled<br />
with the fact that <strong>on</strong>ly a small percentage<br />
of the vast array of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s for children<br />
with autism are supported by rigorous research<br />
(Simps<strong>on</strong>, 2005), there is also a need to<br />
ensure that teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g learn about<br />
those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that are empirically validated<br />
(Lerman et al., 2004).<br />
In an effort to create a model that would<br />
attempt to address these c<strong>on</strong>cerns, two universities<br />
collaborated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adapted an exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-categorical special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mild to moderate disabilities<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an EST for children<br />
with autism. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce <strong>on</strong>e of the universities was<br />
well-known for the development of the EST,<br />
Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Treatment (PRT), this was<br />
the method chosen to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
PRT is documented as <strong>on</strong>e of <strong>on</strong>ly four of<br />
33 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s/treatments to receive the<br />
highest rank<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, a “scientifically based practice,”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a study c<strong>on</strong>ducted by Simps<strong>on</strong> (2005).<br />
PRT is a comprehensive service delivery<br />
model that uses both a developmental approach<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied behavior analysis (ABA)<br />
procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aims to provide opportunities<br />
for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the child’s<br />
natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment. Pivotal areas are those<br />
that, when targeted, lead to large collateral<br />
changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other-often untargeted-areas of<br />
functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Pivotal resp<strong>on</strong>ses,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce acquired, result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> widespread<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalized improvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
with autism (Koegel, Openden, Fredeen, &<br />
Koegel, 2006, p. 4). PRT is also characterized<br />
by the coord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement of relevant<br />
stakeholders (e.g., parents, sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, teachers,<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sultants, peers) so that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>
implemented is c<strong>on</strong>sistent across people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments thus provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the child with<br />
the most comprehensive of treatments with<br />
the primary goal of movement toward a typical<br />
developmental trajectory (Koegel et al.).<br />
This article describes the collaborative effort<br />
to: 1) tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> EST’s for children with autism,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2) provide empirically supported treatments<br />
to local families with children with autism.<br />
Also described are issues that arose dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
program implementati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the benefits<br />
the program yielded for teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students, children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their families.<br />
The Collaborative Model<br />
The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g secti<strong>on</strong> will describe: a) the nature<br />
of the two universities participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
collaborative model, b) the three tiered service<br />
delivery system used by the “research university”<br />
to provide PRT to families, c) the Integrated<br />
M.A./Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Credential<br />
Program of the “teacher prep university” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
d) the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusi<strong>on</strong> of teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the three tiered service delivery<br />
model.<br />
Universities<br />
The program was delivered by two collaborat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
western <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>s of higher educati<strong>on</strong><br />
located 100 miles apart. One university is a<br />
master’s-grant<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g university with a primary<br />
missi<strong>on</strong> of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers. This university<br />
will be referred to hereafter as the “teacher<br />
prep university.” Although, cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical services<br />
are available to families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the “teacher prep<br />
university” county, this university had not<br />
been active <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the provisi<strong>on</strong> of PRT or any<br />
other EST for families with children with autism<br />
prior to the start of the program.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d university is a research <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong><br />
with an established autism research center,<br />
cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ic, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a doctoral tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> with a specializati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. This research center <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ic is particularly well known for its work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
PRT. Cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical services are provided by this research<br />
center both to local families as well as<br />
to families located <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other states <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> coun-<br />
tries. This university will hereafter be referred<br />
to as the “research university.”<br />
Community-based Model <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> of<br />
Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate Students<br />
The three tiered service delivery model used<br />
to deliver cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for children<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for their families by<br />
the “research university” was adapted to fit the<br />
collaborative, two university project.<br />
Tier One<br />
In Tier One, undergraduates or B.A. level<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>s receive cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provide direct support to children with autism.<br />
Tier One cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians receive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial didactic<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then videotape themselves as<br />
they work with children each week <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their tapes to supervisi<strong>on</strong>/tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
held each week with their Tier Two supervisor<br />
(see descripti<strong>on</strong> of Tier Two below). Tier One<br />
cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians are paid employees whose salaries<br />
are generated by State m<strong>on</strong>ies used to support<br />
services for children with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
families.<br />
Tier Two<br />
In Tier Two, M.A. level cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians with both<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT provide parent/family<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as well as view <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide<br />
feedback <strong>on</strong> videotaped footage provided by<br />
Tier One cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians. Tier Two cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians also<br />
provide direct support to children with autism<br />
as needed. As they have more tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Tier Two cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians<br />
are paid employees at a higher rate of<br />
pay than Tier One cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians.<br />
Tier Three<br />
In Tier Three, a Ph.D. Level or doctoral c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ician views videotaped footage of all<br />
children <strong>on</strong> a weekly basis, provides feedback<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supervisi<strong>on</strong> to Tier Two cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
visits families/children <strong>on</strong> an as-needed basis.<br />
As the Tier Three cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ician is the pers<strong>on</strong> primarily<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sible for the cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical program<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> has advanced tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, s/he is a paid at a<br />
higher rate of pay than Tier Two cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians.<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 345
TABLE 1<br />
Theoretical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Practical Comp<strong>on</strong>ents of Program: Autism Emphasis<br />
Theory Practice<br />
Fall Fall<br />
Objectives<br />
1. Learn basics of qualitative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
quantitative research methods<br />
2. Learn to access the research literature<br />
End product<br />
Literature review related to student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<br />
W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter<br />
Objectives<br />
1. Learn to evaluate published research<br />
2. Beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to learn how to formulate a<br />
research study<br />
End product<br />
Inquiry Project Begun<br />
Integrated M.A./Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Credential<br />
Program<br />
Approximately 15–20 graduate students are<br />
carefully selected each year from a competitive<br />
pool of applicants to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>eyear,<br />
full-time professi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program.<br />
Successful completi<strong>on</strong> of the program results<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both an M. A. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> with<br />
autism as the special educati<strong>on</strong> emphasis area<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a n<strong>on</strong>-categorical prelim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
credential for mild to moderate disabilities.<br />
To be admitted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to this program, all applicants<br />
must have: (a) experience with children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> youth both with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without disabilities,<br />
(b) successfully completed pre-requisites <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
coursework <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tests (e.g. basic skills,<br />
subject matter competence exams, health <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gerpr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t screen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
the potential to become educati<strong>on</strong>al leaders.<br />
Admitted teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate stu-<br />
1. Students matched to families<br />
2. Students meet families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to visit families<br />
weekly<br />
3. Students receive a manual describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
procedures of Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se Treatment<br />
4. Students observe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> by tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians<br />
1. Students learn to assess child/family needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> goals<br />
2. Students are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to PRT procedures<br />
3. Students beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PRT procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
receive weekly videotape supervisi<strong>on</strong><br />
Spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Objectives<br />
Spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Students complete research project: 1. Students learn to evaluate their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
● A research questi<strong>on</strong><br />
● Dependent & Independent Variables<br />
● Procedure<br />
● Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e & Interventi<strong>on</strong> data<br />
End product<br />
Present research projects to families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> local<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al community<br />
2. Students c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to provide empirically<br />
supported treatment for children with autism<br />
346 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
dents represent a range of age-ranges <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
experiences.<br />
The program is cohort based <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> courses<br />
are strategically clustered across the year <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a way that maximizes the opportunity for<br />
student learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The program c<strong>on</strong>sists of<br />
12 courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related fieldwork experiences.<br />
The courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fieldwork are spread<br />
equally across the academic year. The first<br />
cluster of courses (fall quarter) emphasizes<br />
family systems theory, collaborati<strong>on</strong>, assessment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> of culturally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistically<br />
diverse students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong><br />
to research methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong> of basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data. The sec<strong>on</strong>d cluster<br />
of courses (w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter quarter) emphasizes<br />
positive behavioral support (PBS), the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiati<strong>on</strong><br />
of a PRT <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, current educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods for students<br />
with mild to moderate disabilities.<br />
The last cluster of courses (spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quarter)
c<strong>on</strong>cludes the program with an emphasis <strong>on</strong><br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al assessment, student teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analysis of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> data taken while<br />
implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PRT. Major themes embedded<br />
across the cohort-based program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude:<br />
a) collaborati<strong>on</strong>, b) family support,<br />
c) positive behavioral support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) autism/PRT.<br />
Inclusi<strong>on</strong> of Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate<br />
Students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Service Delivery Model<br />
As part of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated M. A. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>/<br />
prelim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary special educati<strong>on</strong> credential program<br />
(<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mild-moderate disabilities), teacherc<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students at the “teacher<br />
prep university” are required to take a three<br />
course, year-l<strong>on</strong>g, research sequence. As a<br />
functi<strong>on</strong> of this sequence, “teacher prep university”<br />
graduate students receive didactic<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT, are subsequently matched<br />
with families, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their year-l<strong>on</strong>g “learn<br />
by do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g” practicum <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the provisi<strong>on</strong> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PRT. A doctoral student from<br />
the “research university” near<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g degree completi<strong>on</strong><br />
serves as “teacher prep university” adjunct<br />
faculty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assists <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the research sequence that focus <strong>on</strong><br />
empirically supported treatment methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g families of children with autism.<br />
The descripti<strong>on</strong> that follows focuses <strong>on</strong> the<br />
porti<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated M.A. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>/prelim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Credential<br />
program that addresses tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism<br />
(See Table 1).<br />
First 10 Week Period<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this first 10 week period (fall quarter),<br />
the program plan comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es both academic/<br />
theoretical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism. In<br />
their academic/theoretical work, students:<br />
a) learn the basics of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research,<br />
b) learn the basics of PRT, c) learn to access<br />
literature <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) learn<br />
how to write literature reviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluate<br />
research literature<br />
Simultaneously, teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical experience. They are<br />
organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pairs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> each pair is assigned<br />
to <strong>on</strong>e family. In their cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical positi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students: a) become<br />
members of exist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g family support<br />
teams organized by the “research university”,<br />
b) observe tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians support<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PRT, c) establish a schedule of<br />
weekly visits, d) support families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
ways that preclude expertise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
e) collect videotaped basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data of themselves<br />
as they provide generic support to the<br />
children with autism.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d 10 Week Period<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d ten week phase (w<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter quarter)<br />
also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volves a comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> of academic/<br />
theoretical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical work. Academically,<br />
students: a) c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue their learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
how to evaluate published research, b)<br />
are given didactic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT procedures,<br />
c) learn how to formulate a research<br />
questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) plan a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject research<br />
study. Cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ically, students: a) learn to<br />
assess child/family needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
goals, b) beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to implement PRT<br />
procedures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c) receive weekly videotape<br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> their performance. Videotape<br />
supervisi<strong>on</strong> occurs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of<br />
their university course where each pair of<br />
students br<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs videotape footage filmed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the family c<strong>on</strong>text the previous week. Based<br />
<strong>on</strong> “research university” adjunct faculty<br />
feedback provided to each student pair, student<br />
pairs then adjust <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improve their<br />
ability to employ PRT dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
week. Students communicate with families<br />
<strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>-go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basis. The student-provided<br />
PRT support, thus, provides families with no<br />
cost, “value added” extra hours of PRT that<br />
overlaps with the support provided by<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians already be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provided by<br />
the “research university” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the communitybased<br />
service delivery model.<br />
Third 10 Week Period<br />
In the third 10 week phase (spr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quarter),<br />
teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> weekly. As<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d 10 week period, graduate students:<br />
a) present videotape footage <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other<br />
data with analysis to faculty members, b) adjust<br />
their cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical methods based <strong>on</strong> faculty<br />
feedback, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> data analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c) communicate<br />
with families <strong>on</strong> an <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basis. An<br />
expectati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this period is that the students<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 347
ecome more active participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> videotape<br />
analysis. In additi<strong>on</strong>, teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students c<strong>on</strong>clude their tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
both written summaries <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Microsoft<br />
PowerPo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t presentati<strong>on</strong>s of their data analysis<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Adjustments<br />
As the collaborative model evolved, program<br />
staff made adjustments to better meet the<br />
needs of the teacher c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism.<br />
This secti<strong>on</strong> will describe the issues that<br />
arose <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the adjustments recommended for<br />
improved program success.<br />
Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate Students<br />
The issues that arose for the graduate students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> faculty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: a) the overall stress encountered<br />
as part of the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program, b)<br />
logistical difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students with families (time<br />
available, geography, age, sex, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> characteristics<br />
of child etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c) pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics/“goodness<br />
of fit”.<br />
Stress<br />
Participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e year <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
program lead<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to both an M. A. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Special<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a prelim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g credential is a time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensive<br />
experience. Given both the “fast track” nature<br />
of the 10 week quarter system, programmatic<br />
requirements to assume leadership roles <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class as well as participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> year-l<strong>on</strong>g, “learn<br />
by do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g” fieldwork placements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both<br />
schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with families, students were challenged<br />
to exercise time management as well as<br />
to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the level of energy needed to<br />
fulfill all requirements. This resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> reported<br />
stress for most teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the cohort nature<br />
of the program (with each course offered <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
<strong>on</strong>e time per year <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>sequent necessity<br />
to wait a calendar year to complete or<br />
retake any course not taken or completed)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the high level of performance expected<br />
(overall 3.0 GPA), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensified the stress for<br />
some students who had either underestimated<br />
348 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
the dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of the program or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>curred<br />
health problems over the course of the year.<br />
Stress soluti<strong>on</strong>s. Efforts to ameliorate this<br />
stress c<strong>on</strong>sisted of a collaborative effort to<br />
build the course of study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide student<br />
advisement. Courses were collaboratively<br />
planned by faculty so that they could be offered<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a logical sequence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so that students<br />
could see the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terc<strong>on</strong>nectedness of the<br />
subject matter. Collaborative plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g also<br />
enabled faculty to view learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g outcomes<br />
across a series of courses vs. course by course,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> space major assessments across the term.<br />
For example, <strong>on</strong>e faculty plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong> resulted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a decisi<strong>on</strong> to overlap the read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
from <strong>on</strong>e text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two courses be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>currently<br />
taught—family support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
As the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program is truly a “program”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not just a series of courses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as expectati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance<br />
are high, the nature <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expectati<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program al<strong>on</strong>g with faculty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities was presented to students<br />
both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as a cohort, at multiple<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts. These po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs for potentially <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested<br />
c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idates, pre-program counsel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for admitted<br />
students, orientati<strong>on</strong> sem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ar immediately<br />
prior to the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the program,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as per faculty or student<br />
request, planned class periods to elicit feedback,<br />
formative assessments (See Table 2 for<br />
The Scholar Pretest) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>termittent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social opportunities.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, faculty communicated regularly<br />
with both participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mentor teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
families of children with autism to gather <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
student performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stress level which<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased predictably as each quarter progressed.<br />
Through the aforementi<strong>on</strong>ed efforts to<br />
frequently meet with students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to create<br />
a “cohesive” program, students’ stress level<br />
may have been lowered. Despite these efforts,<br />
however, it was evident that some of<br />
the students still experienced difficulty. Students,<br />
used to tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
told what to do, were less familiar with<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to make c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g courses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to participate actively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their own learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. While the stress level
TABLE 2<br />
Scholar Pretest<br />
Directi<strong>on</strong>s: Rate yourself <strong>on</strong> each of the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g items from 1 (low) to 5 (high).<br />
seemed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> some cases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensified, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students to participate actively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their own learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, faculty hoped to stimulate<br />
life-l<strong>on</strong>g learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Logistical Difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Teacher-<br />
C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate Students with Families<br />
Match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students<br />
with families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved several factors: a) time,<br />
b) geography, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c) “goodness of fit” between<br />
the pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics of teacher-<br />
Item Low High<br />
1 2 3 4 5<br />
1. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> manag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positive envir<strong>on</strong>ments for all students. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
2. Knowledge of c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong>s between prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discipl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
curriculum, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> management. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
3. Knowledge of general <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> disability, disability policy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> laws relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to special educati<strong>on</strong>. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
4. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to meet the needs of students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
5. Knowledge about the structure of language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
language. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
6. Knowledge of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assessment practices for English Language<br />
Learners (ELL). 1 2 3 4 5<br />
7. Knowledge of cultural diversity, cultural awareness, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> culturally resp<strong>on</strong>sive<br />
school<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
8. Knowledge of c<strong>on</strong>temporary issues fac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g American <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
9. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> diagnos<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> remediat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
10. Knowledge of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
11. Knowledge of ethical <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> legal practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong>. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
12. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Family Systems Framework. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
13. Knowledge of the essential comp<strong>on</strong>ents of an Individualized Transiti<strong>on</strong> Plan. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
14. Knowledge of norm referenced, criteri<strong>on</strong> referenced, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curriculum based<br />
assessment. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
15. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student assessment data. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
16. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al programs based <strong>on</strong> student assessment data. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
17. Knowledge of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al strategies for students with mild/moderate disabilities. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
18. Knowledge of organizati<strong>on</strong> of classroom envir<strong>on</strong>ments for students with mild/<br />
moderate disabilities. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
19. Knowledge of school collaborati<strong>on</strong> activities. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
20. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g school-based collaborati<strong>on</strong> activities. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
21. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective communicati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpers<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> problem solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
22. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> search<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g professi<strong>on</strong>al literature. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
23. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Pivotal Resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> (PRT). 1 2 3 4 5<br />
24. Skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpret<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g acti<strong>on</strong> based research. 1 2 3 4 5<br />
c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the families<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their children with autism.<br />
Time. The time available for teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with<br />
autism to work with <strong>on</strong>e another was limited.<br />
Graduate students had class beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at 4:10<br />
p.m. four days/week. Children with autism<br />
often had multiple appo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tments after school<br />
(2:00 p.m. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> later) several days/week with<br />
speech therapists, occupati<strong>on</strong>al therapists, or<br />
other therapists.<br />
Geography. In additi<strong>on</strong>, even though graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism all<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 349
lived <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same county, the county encompassed<br />
3600 square miles with driv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g distances<br />
between families rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g up to 60<br />
miles. Given the time c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts for both<br />
teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children<br />
with autism, geography was an important<br />
variable when establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “matches.”<br />
“Goodness of fit” between teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, it was challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to anticipate the “goodness of fit” with<br />
regard to pers<strong>on</strong>al characteristics dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process. Over the course of the program,<br />
some teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students<br />
seemed more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or more<br />
able to functi<strong>on</strong> as cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>icians <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract with<br />
children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families than<br />
others. Although <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially no data were taken<br />
<strong>on</strong> this phenomen<strong>on</strong>, many teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students described feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “nervous”<br />
or “anxious” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial stages of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generic support<br />
for children with autism. For their part, some<br />
participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g families also reported some c<strong>on</strong>cern<br />
over the students’ ability to provide support<br />
for their child <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home. Over the<br />
course of the year, as they became more<br />
knowledgeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the areas of family systems<br />
theory, PBS, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PRT, the students’ sense of<br />
nervousness dissipated <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families reported<br />
more c<strong>on</strong>fidence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students’ abilities. In<br />
many cases the teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families developed friendships<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tact years after they<br />
completed their program. In a few cases, discomfort<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <strong>on</strong> the part of the student<br />
or family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement<br />
by faculty members (see below).<br />
Logistical Soluti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Teacher-<br />
C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate Students with Families<br />
Logistical difficulties were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially addressed<br />
<strong>on</strong> a case by case basis. There were, however,<br />
enough comm<strong>on</strong>alities to eventually result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
programmatic changes important to c<strong>on</strong>sider<br />
when implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a program of this nature.<br />
These are detailed below.<br />
Time. With regard to the students’ limited<br />
time, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases where children with autism had<br />
no free period of time between the hours of 2<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3:30 p.m. dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the week, teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students provided support <strong>on</strong><br />
Saturdays. In other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances, faculty members<br />
350 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
“pushed back” the start time for particular<br />
courses from 4:10 to 4:30 or 4:45 to accommodate<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family schedules. After the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d year of the program, faculty moved the<br />
start time for university coursework back <strong>on</strong>e<br />
hour from 4:10 p.m. to 5:10.<br />
Geography. In terms of the geographic distance<br />
that separated teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students from families with children who<br />
had autism, faculty began by plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
who lived or worked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communities farthest<br />
from the university with families who also lived<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> those same, more geographically distant<br />
communities. Then, <strong>on</strong>ce the logistically difficult<br />
matches were made, faculty placed the<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>der of the teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students who lived closest to campus.<br />
“Goodness of fit” between teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families. With all families<br />
parental preferences (e.g., preference for a<br />
particular sex or level of experience) were<br />
taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account when matches were made.<br />
In an effort to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease “goodness of fit”<br />
between family/child <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students, faculty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased their c<strong>on</strong>tact<br />
with families to more closely m<strong>on</strong>itor<br />
family-graduate student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s. This <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
regular c<strong>on</strong>tact made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong>, via<br />
teleph<strong>on</strong>e or via e-mail. In additi<strong>on</strong>, after the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d year of the program, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong>e graduate student with <strong>on</strong>e family, two<br />
graduate students were paired <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then each<br />
pair was assigned to a family. This soluti<strong>on</strong><br />
simplified match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> facilitated “goodness<br />
of fit.” Match<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pairs of teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students with a family helped lessen<br />
student anxiety.<br />
Even after these adaptati<strong>on</strong>s, however,<br />
problems persisted. For example, <strong>on</strong>e family<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the program’s three-year history asked<br />
that a teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate student not<br />
return to their home to provide services. Although<br />
these <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stances of poor matches are<br />
very <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frequent, they create substantial difficulty<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unneeded stress for families. In an<br />
effort to identify students who may need extra<br />
support <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to functi<strong>on</strong> successfully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical support to children with autism<br />
faculty plan to implement an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategy. Faculty will create early opportunities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to observe teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate students work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with small<br />
groups of children, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> where, possible, chil-
dren with autism. If, through these observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subsequent c<strong>on</strong>versati<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students, faculty<br />
members determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e that “h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s-<strong>on</strong>” work<br />
with families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children may not be appropriate<br />
for particular teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students, those graduate student will be<br />
given the opportunity to support families of<br />
children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other important ways<br />
such as organiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>duct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
support groups.<br />
Children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Families<br />
Time availability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family satisfacti<strong>on</strong> arose<br />
as areas that needed to be addressed for the<br />
families with children with autism.<br />
Time. Time availability was also a c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
factor for families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children.<br />
Lack of available time was addressed <strong>on</strong> a<br />
case-by-case basis but, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases where family<br />
schedules were too full, participati<strong>on</strong> was not<br />
possible.<br />
Family satisfacti<strong>on</strong>. The sec<strong>on</strong>d issue that<br />
arose <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved family satisfacti<strong>on</strong>. That is, families<br />
differed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their level of satisfacti<strong>on</strong>. Dissatisfacti<strong>on</strong><br />
with the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program, although<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>frequent, sometimes resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
family exit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the program. As the “research<br />
university” was <strong>on</strong>e of many providers of service,<br />
families were able to switch from <strong>on</strong>e<br />
provider to another. Reas<strong>on</strong>s for switch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
another service provider <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded lack of satisfactory<br />
progress toward designated goals, desire<br />
for more hours of support than could be<br />
provided, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> differences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> philosophy regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. In <strong>on</strong>e case,<br />
for example, the family was unable to participate<br />
at home as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> agents. As parents<br />
are viewed as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegral part of their<br />
child’s program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> as primary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
agents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the PRT model (Koegel et al., 2006),<br />
this served as a cause for the parents to change<br />
service providers.<br />
In an effort to address the family satisfacti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
faculty members will beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ister<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
The Family Partnership <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Quality of<br />
Life Survey (Beach Center <strong>on</strong> Disability, University<br />
of Kansas, 2003) to participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g families.<br />
This survey will be adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered each year<br />
at the <strong>on</strong>set of the program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> as the<br />
academic year comes to a close. The purpose<br />
of the Family Quality of Life Scale will be to<br />
measure if, as a result of the autism support<br />
services provided, a family’s quality of life had<br />
improved. Families are asked questi<strong>on</strong>s about<br />
a) the services they receive or need, b) how<br />
families feel about the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> pers<strong>on</strong> who works<br />
with them <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their child. c) th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that make<br />
life together as a family good, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about the families <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general. Based <strong>on</strong><br />
the results of the Family Quality of Life Scale,<br />
faculty members will review both what services<br />
are provided, who is provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<br />
they are provided. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make adjustments as<br />
necessary <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to better meet family<br />
needs. For example, if a family marked “receives<br />
behavioral support but not enough”,<br />
the number of hours of behavioral support<br />
could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased.<br />
Unresolved Issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Recommendati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Unresolved issues fall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to two categories: a)<br />
university issues <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> b) state agency disability<br />
fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g issues.<br />
University issues. University issues were<br />
largely the result of the small nature of the<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> program at the “teacher<br />
prep university”. Small programs by def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong><br />
mean that more resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities fall <strong>on</strong> fewer<br />
people. In the case of this program, with <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
two tenure track faculty members, the program’s<br />
very existence was completely dependent<br />
<strong>on</strong> the extra time the two faculty members<br />
were will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to devote. In additi<strong>on</strong>, s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce<br />
the adjunct faculty member provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g supervisi<strong>on</strong><br />
for the children’s programs was based<br />
at the “research university” (located 100 plus<br />
miles away from the participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g families), it<br />
was difficult to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ideal levels of supervisi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tact with the families.<br />
University recommendati<strong>on</strong>. A third tenure<br />
track faculty member at the “teacher prep<br />
university” with expertise <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism would<br />
help ensure the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stituti<strong>on</strong>alizati<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
program.<br />
State agency issues. As the state agency authorized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paid providers, such as the autism<br />
center at the “research university,” to<br />
provide services to families with children who<br />
have disabilities, their participati<strong>on</strong> was essential<br />
for the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program’s existence. Challenges<br />
presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with this agency<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded: 1) their schedule of meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
2) their vendor reimbursement rate.<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 351
The local office of the state agency’s requirement<br />
for face-to-face quarterly meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
for every child exacerbated the issue of limited<br />
time. The practice of hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g face-to-face<br />
quarterly meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, vs. teleph<strong>on</strong>e or web cam<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ferenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed locally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was<br />
not a procedure that was practiced statewide.<br />
While time c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for local service providers,<br />
this practice worked an undue hardship<br />
<strong>on</strong> “research university” staff as they<br />
spent four or more hours <strong>on</strong> the road <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order<br />
to attend each of these meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
Service providers that are authorized by the<br />
local branch of the state developmental services<br />
agency are reimbursed for services they<br />
deliver to children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families at relatively<br />
low pay rates. In an effort to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fiscal<br />
viability, service providers seek to provide service<br />
to large numbers of families us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tiered<br />
service delivery systems. In tiered systems, direct<br />
service provisi<strong>on</strong> is provided by less well<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed staff members who work for a modest<br />
hourly rate. These direct service staff, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> turn,<br />
are supervised by higher paid staff pers<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with more experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The supervisory<br />
staff pers<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract directly with<br />
families <strong>on</strong> a less frequent basis.<br />
Given the reimbursement-for-service rate<br />
provided by the developmental services<br />
agency as well as the sometimes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequate<br />
number of hours of funded support families<br />
were allowed, all local vendored service providers<br />
are challenged to provide the quality<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tensity of services necessary to achieve<br />
agreed up<strong>on</strong> goals. In additi<strong>on</strong>, as menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
above the “research university” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their supervisory<br />
staff were located 100 or more miles<br />
away from the participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g families, the<br />
amount of compensati<strong>on</strong> the “research university”<br />
as authorized service provider received,<br />
was barely enough to cover out-ofpocket<br />
costs.<br />
State agency recommendati<strong>on</strong>s. 1) Grant a<br />
<strong>on</strong>e-time fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease to service providers<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the average rate provided to service<br />
providers statewide. 2) Grant a <strong>on</strong>e-time research<br />
grant to evaluate the results of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the provisi<strong>on</strong> of services to children with autism<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. 3) Grant yearly costof-liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases to all service providers. 4)<br />
Allow for ph<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> video c<strong>on</strong>ferenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for<br />
quarterly meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> require face-to-face<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <strong>on</strong>ce a year <strong>on</strong>ly. 5) Initiate an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
review process for families who believe<br />
the authorized number of vendored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
hours is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>adequate to meet the<br />
targeted needs of their children. 6) Lobby for<br />
the passage of a law m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>at<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>surance<br />
companies to cover the costs of autism services.<br />
Model Benefits<br />
This secti<strong>on</strong> will describe those possible benefits<br />
for the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stakeholder groups:<br />
a) teacher educati<strong>on</strong> graduate students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
b) children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families c)<br />
community.<br />
Teacher-C<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate Graduate Students<br />
352 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students benefit<br />
from this tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many ways.<br />
First, they receive cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s-<strong>on</strong> practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two empirically supported<br />
strategies, PBS & PRT, methodologies<br />
that will not <strong>on</strong>ly equip them with necessary<br />
skills needed to work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their future classrooms<br />
but will also allow them to provide state<br />
of the art services to the children they will be<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, they learned how to assess,<br />
to critique <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to present the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
plans they developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implemented<br />
over the year. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this process of analysis<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critique students also learned how to collect<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> analyze data, a skill that will improve<br />
their ability to provide effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor the progress of their students.<br />
Thirdly, they learned to review the literature<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate effective EST’s from pass<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
fads. This important ability will serve them<br />
well when faced with a variety of choices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s for specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> strategies<br />
that may or may not be empirically based.<br />
Fourthly, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> times of limited state funds for<br />
schools, teacher use of EST’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> classrooms is<br />
fiscally defensible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can help positi<strong>on</strong><br />
schools for both external fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> recogniti<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Lastly, teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate students<br />
learned to support, communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
collaborate with the families they supported.<br />
For the majority of teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> programs,<br />
“learn by do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g” experience is limited to the
classroom. This program not <strong>on</strong>ly gave students<br />
an opportunity to support children with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the teacher perspective, but also to experience<br />
disability at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
family perspective. Both the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (child’s<br />
home) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students’ positi<strong>on</strong> as a “learner” created possibilities<br />
for: 1) parent-graduate student relati<strong>on</strong>ships<br />
to develop, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2) graduate students<br />
to recognize parents as a source of knowledge<br />
<strong>on</strong> their child. These experiences may help<br />
facilitate future partnerships that are truly collaborative;<br />
partnerships where both parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>als view each others’ knowledge<br />
as important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or equal as they work<br />
together to meet the unique needs of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
children. Characteristic of teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate<br />
graduate student feedback, <strong>on</strong>e commented,<br />
“I learned the necessity of effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> motivat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers to build a new skill<br />
that is extremely difficult for a child. I also<br />
learned the importance of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the whole<br />
family <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s. It also became<br />
clear to me that autism looks very different<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> every child . . . I realized that autism has<br />
very serious impacts <strong>on</strong> high-functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g children<br />
as well”.<br />
Children with Autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their Families<br />
The first major benefit for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families<br />
with autism was the extra support they<br />
received from teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate<br />
students. The teacher-c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idate graduate student<br />
support was provided at no charge to the<br />
state agency or to parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to the amount of support they received via the<br />
state agency vendored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> program<br />
provided by the “research university.” Support<br />
was also provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of respite services,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> advocacy.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, as no service providers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the community<br />
had previously provided PRT as a<br />
choice to families, the entry of the “research<br />
university” as a service provider allowed families<br />
<strong>on</strong>e more EST from which to choose.<br />
The third major benefit for children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
families result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the experience was the<br />
opportunity to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> receive research-based<br />
didactic tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The students,<br />
under the guidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supervisi<strong>on</strong> of two<br />
Ph.D. level faculty members, provided cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ical<br />
support to parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children with autism<br />
that was analyzed, critiqued <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved <strong>on</strong><br />
a weekly basis.<br />
Community<br />
Community benefits, although not as well def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed,<br />
were clearly present. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the program<br />
was publicized by the “teacher-prep university”<br />
it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased autism awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
“teacher-prep university” community. In additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to services provided by graduate students,<br />
“teacher-prep university” sp<strong>on</strong>sored tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lectures which allowed parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
public at large to access nati<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>ally<br />
known figures <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field, an opportunity<br />
they may not have had without this<br />
program.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
Although data document<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the positive<br />
change both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> graduate students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
children with autism they supported are still<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g analyzed, the purpose of this article was<br />
to describe a) the model, b) the difficulties<br />
that arose as it was implemented, c) adjustments<br />
that were made <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>se to the difficulties,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> d) the positive effects such a<br />
program can produce for various stakeholder<br />
groups. While this tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program was not<br />
able to address all of the issues challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher preparati<strong>on</strong> programs<br />
(as described by Scheuermann (2003),<br />
it was successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many respects. First, the<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program serves as an example of how<br />
a small, n<strong>on</strong>-categorical special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher educati<strong>on</strong> program, by creatively <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
M.A. <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> credential<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g requirements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> by collaborat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with a neighbor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g university,<br />
provides teacher c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>idates with a<br />
level of competence <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> autism treatment procedures<br />
previously absent. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, the program<br />
provides an example of how a university<br />
can deliver an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated M.A./special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
credential program with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>e year<br />
timel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated by the state. Third the<br />
program provides empirically based support<br />
for children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families.<br />
Fourth, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perhaps most importantly, the<br />
program produces highly qualified teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
autism; teachers, who over the course of their<br />
Learn by Do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g / 353
careers, will support thous<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of children<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families.<br />
Although the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program is a “work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
progress” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> will c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be ref<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g years, it is the authors’ hope that<br />
readers will be prompted by this article to<br />
discover other ways to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude autism tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their teacher tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs.<br />
References<br />
Beach Center <strong>on</strong> Disability. (2003). Partnership <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Quality of Life Survey. Lawrence, KS: Author.<br />
Bergert, S., & Burnette, J. (2001). Educat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g excepti<strong>on</strong>al<br />
children: Statistical approach. ERIC<br />
Clear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ghouse <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Gifted <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
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© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Research-Based Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Early Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills<br />
to Students with Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Jill H. Allor, Patricia G. Mathes, Tammi Champl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jennifer P. Cheatham<br />
Southern Methodist University<br />
Abstract: Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities (ID) to read is extremely challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Fortunately, the<br />
outlook for students with ID is improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g because we now know much more about how to teach read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
students who struggle, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with ID. The central theme of this article is that read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
students with ID must be a carefully orchestrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of key skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies that are explicitly l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked<br />
to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Organized accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the major comp<strong>on</strong>ents of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (a) oral language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, (b) ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness, (c) ph<strong>on</strong>ics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> word recogniti<strong>on</strong>, (d) fluency, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) comprehensi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
this article describes key techniques used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> research exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effective methods for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
with ID to read. We provide specific examples from our research study describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how these skills are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taught<br />
to students with ID.<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
(ID) to read is extremely challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. These<br />
students face severe deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> memory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
language that make it very difficult for them to<br />
learn to read. Further, behavior issues may<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfere with their learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Although there<br />
are many examples of students with ID who<br />
successfully learn to read, most students with<br />
ID learn very few, if any, basic read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. In<br />
fact, <strong>on</strong>ly 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 students with ID achieve even<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal literacy skills (Katims, 2001). Fortunately,<br />
the outlook for students with ID is<br />
improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g because we now know much more<br />
about how to teach read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to students who<br />
struggle, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with ID (Allor,<br />
Mathes, J<strong>on</strong>es, & Roberts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press; Browder,<br />
Ahlgrim-Delzell, Courtade, Gibbs, & Flowers,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press; Mathes & Dent<strong>on</strong>, 2002; O’C<strong>on</strong>nor,<br />
The work presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this article was supported<br />
by Grant No. H324K040011-05 from the Institute of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Sciences. This article does not necessarily<br />
reflect the positi<strong>on</strong>s or policies of this fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
agency <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no official endorsement should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferred.<br />
We thank the teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students who<br />
participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this research. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this article should be addressed to Jill H.<br />
Allor, Department of Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Annette<br />
Caldwell Simm<strong>on</strong>s School of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Human Development, Southern Methodist University,<br />
P.O. Box 750381, Dallas, TX 75275-0381. Email:<br />
jallor@smu.edu<br />
356 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Bocian, Beebe-Frankenberger, L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>klater, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
press; Torgesen, 2002). The encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
news is that we are currently gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g evidence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the same general techniques<br />
proven to work with struggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g readers<br />
who have average to high IQs are also effective<br />
for students with ID (Allor et al., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press;<br />
Browder et al., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press).<br />
Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g research has advanced tremendously<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> recent decades as we have learned<br />
how good readers read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to assist struggl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
readers so that they can become good<br />
readers. Theoretical models of the read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
process reflect that good readers employ multiple<br />
language systems as they fully process<br />
text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>ology, orthography, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of language (Adams, 1990).<br />
Good readers simultaneously process the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternal<br />
structure (i.e., complete spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs) of<br />
words as they effortlessly read with expressi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deeply comprehend the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of text<br />
(Adams, 1990; Ehri, 2005). Research <strong>on</strong> effective<br />
methods for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students who struggle<br />
to read is extensive. Effective early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude multiple comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
that are explicitly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g oral<br />
language, ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness, ph<strong>on</strong>ics,<br />
word recogniti<strong>on</strong>, fluency, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
(see Nati<strong>on</strong>al Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Panel, 2000;<br />
Rayner, Foorman, Perfetti, Pesetsky, & Seidenberg,<br />
2001; Snow, Burns, & Griff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1998).
Typically students with low IQs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
those with ID, have been excluded from research<br />
<strong>on</strong> effective early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(O’C<strong>on</strong>nor et al., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press); however, recent<br />
studies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these students are dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that the same general techniques are<br />
effective for both types of students (see Allor,<br />
Mathes, J<strong>on</strong>es, & Roberts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press; Browder et<br />
al., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press). For some time, we have known<br />
that students with ID are capable of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
isolated skills, such as sight word recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> basic ph<strong>on</strong>ics (see Browder, Wakeman,<br />
Spo<strong>on</strong>er, Ahlgrim-Delzell, & Algozz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, 2006;<br />
Browder & X<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 1998; C<strong>on</strong>ners, Rosenquist,<br />
Sligh, Atwell, & Kiser, 2006). What is new is<br />
that we are now measur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the impact of comprehensive<br />
programs that address multiple<br />
skills simultaneously <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude explicit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
to teach students to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
apply those skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text. An important<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from our research is that students with<br />
ID who received comprehensive read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<strong>on</strong> average, outperform their peers<br />
<strong>on</strong> measures of ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness, word<br />
recogniti<strong>on</strong>, oral language, vocabulary, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
basic comprehensi<strong>on</strong>. In other words, when<br />
taught explicitly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> carefully, most students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study are able to read at least simple<br />
c<strong>on</strong>nected text with mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their ability to successfully apply ph<strong>on</strong>emic<br />
awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ph<strong>on</strong>ics skills (Allor, Mathes,<br />
J<strong>on</strong>es, & Roberts).<br />
One factor c<strong>on</strong>tribut<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the low numbers<br />
of students with ID who learn to read is that<br />
typically teachers of students with ID have<br />
been provided very little tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about how to<br />
teach read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. College courses focused <strong>on</strong><br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with ID most often <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
very limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about how to teach<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or no <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> at all (Katims,<br />
2000). In this article, we take some prelim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ary<br />
steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> remedy<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this problem by describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
effective techniques for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of students with<br />
ID who are <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the primary grades. The central<br />
theme of this article is that read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
for students with ID must be a carefully orchestrated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of key skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies<br />
that are explicitly l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This<br />
article is organized accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the major<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(a) oral language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, (b) ph<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
awareness, (c) ph<strong>on</strong>ics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> word rec-<br />
ogniti<strong>on</strong>, (d) fluency, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (e) comprehensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
These are the 5 comp<strong>on</strong>ents identified<br />
by the Nati<strong>on</strong>al Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Panel with the additi<strong>on</strong><br />
of oral language, which is particularly<br />
important for students with ID who typically<br />
experience severe deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> oral language<br />
(Nati<strong>on</strong>al Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Panel, 2000). We provide<br />
specific examples from our research study describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
how these skills are be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taught to<br />
students with ID, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how we explicitly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate skills to <strong>on</strong>e another <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k skills<br />
to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. We provide a brief discussi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
how these multiple str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s overlap <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs, such<br />
as the <strong>on</strong>e used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our research, Early Interventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Allor, Mathes, & J<strong>on</strong>es, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
press; Mathes & Torgesen, 2005; Mathes,<br />
2005). We chose this curriculum because Levels<br />
1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2 already had a proven track record<br />
of efficacy with other populati<strong>on</strong>s (Mathes, et<br />
al., 2005; T<strong>on</strong>g, Irby, Lara-Alecio, & Mathes,<br />
2008; Vaughn, Cir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>o, et al., 2006; Vaughn,<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>an-Thomps<strong>on</strong>, et al., 2006; Vaughn, L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>an-<br />
Thomps<strong>on</strong>, Mathes, Duradola, & Cardenas-<br />
Hagan, 2007).<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Comprehensive<br />
Early Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Programs<br />
Effective early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> is comprehensive,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiple str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s that are<br />
carefully <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> explicitly taught so that students<br />
will apply multiple skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies as they<br />
fluently read with comprehensi<strong>on</strong> (see Coyne,<br />
Zipoli, & Ruby, 2006; Carn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, Silbert,<br />
Kame’enui, & Tarver, 2004; O’C<strong>on</strong>nor, 2007).<br />
Before describ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each of these str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually, we emphasize<br />
the importance of c<strong>on</strong>spicuously teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply skills by teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students how skills relate to <strong>on</strong>e another<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> specifically how to use those skills as they<br />
read c<strong>on</strong>nected text. Any <strong>on</strong>e less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.<br />
As skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases, that skill is<br />
applied to other str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. To illustrate, here<br />
are two brief examples. In the first example,<br />
students comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dence as<br />
they sound out words. First, students practice<br />
a basic ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness skill, blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
spoken ph<strong>on</strong>emes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to words. When the<br />
teacher says <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual sounds, /s/ /a/ /t/,<br />
Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Techniques / 357
the students blend those sounds to form the<br />
word, sat. Then students practice the sounds<br />
of pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted letters, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sounds represented<br />
by s, a, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> t. In early less<strong>on</strong>s, students<br />
practice both of these skills daily. Once students<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> to develop these skills, blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual ph<strong>on</strong>emes orally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
sounds of a few letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dences,<br />
then the teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrates these skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to a<br />
new activity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which they sound out pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
words, such as sat. The teacher uses language<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new activity that is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the<br />
language <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the two separate activities, clear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities. Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to<br />
transfer skills from <strong>on</strong>e activity to another is<br />
extremely important for students with low<br />
IQs, who typically do not sp<strong>on</strong>taneously apply<br />
learned skills to new activities. A sec<strong>on</strong>d example<br />
of skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> is c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual words to the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
of sentences. As students ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
recogniz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sight words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decodable words,<br />
they practice read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these words from word<br />
cards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use the cards to build logical, mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
sentences. Although these examples<br />
may seem simple, design<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> that<br />
follows a sequence with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> across str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
while foster<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong> of skills<br />
is challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, particularly when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
with ID who often experience extreme<br />
difficulty reta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them.<br />
In each of the secti<strong>on</strong>s below, we discuss develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then provide<br />
brief examples of how these skills are c<strong>on</strong>nected<br />
to other str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s.<br />
Three Students<br />
As we describe the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques, we<br />
will refer to three specific students who participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our research study, Jacob, Carl,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel. Jacob, a student with Williams’<br />
Syndrome <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an IQ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moderate range of<br />
ID (44), began the project when he was 8<br />
years old. Carl, whose IQ is also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the moderate<br />
range of ID (55), began the project<br />
when he was 9 years old. Rachel, whose IQ is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mild range of ID (63), began the<br />
project when she was 6 years old. All three<br />
students have participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the research<br />
project for approximately three years. We<br />
chose to highlight these three students because<br />
they reflect a range of performance<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study. It is important to menti<strong>on</strong><br />
that it is difficult to identify truly representative<br />
cases as students with ID are highly variable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> must be c<strong>on</strong>sidered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually.<br />
However, all three of these students faced significant<br />
challenges <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to read due to<br />
memory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> language deficits, but all three<br />
have made important progress. Although<br />
each student is friendly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generally eager to<br />
please, when they began the project they all<br />
experienced significant difficulty stay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
task <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required c<strong>on</strong>sistent re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement to<br />
participate fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> less<strong>on</strong>s. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study<br />
each of these students was taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small<br />
group of 2 to 3 students; however, by the end<br />
of the study Jacob <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel were both be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually. Jacob is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually<br />
because the students with whom he<br />
was orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally grouped made much faster<br />
progress than he did. Rachel is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g taught<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually because of schedul<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>flicts.<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Oral Language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Vocabulary<br />
Oral language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary underlie all<br />
other str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of our spoken language should be<br />
explicitly c<strong>on</strong>nected to all read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ph<strong>on</strong>ics;<br />
however, dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the early stages of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
development when students are able to read<br />
very little, if any, text, it is critically important<br />
to focus <strong>on</strong> the development of oral language<br />
through books read aloud to them. In our<br />
research, we selected narrative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expository<br />
books to read to the students. We targeted<br />
specific vocabulary words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provided students<br />
with structured opportunities to talk<br />
about the books read to them.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Read Alouds to Foster Vocabulary<br />
Development<br />
358 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
In teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g vocabulary, we employed <strong>on</strong>e or<br />
more of several techniques, depend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
which technique best fit the vocabulary word.<br />
When appropriate, we used kid-friendly def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
such as Protect means to keep from be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
hurt. We also used pictures, videos, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gestures<br />
to dem<strong>on</strong>strate the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of words.<br />
Words were practiced with a simple game of<br />
thumbs up or down dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which students
applied the vocabulary word to a given situati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For example, Jacob successfully participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this activity as he learned the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the words disturb <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> delight. Jacob<br />
correctly resp<strong>on</strong>ded as his teacher asked him,<br />
“Give me a thumbs up if what I say might<br />
disturb some<strong>on</strong>e who is sleep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.” She then<br />
listed specific situati<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong>e at a time as Jas<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded with a thumbs up or down: turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> a bright light, play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g loud music, whisper<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
etc. As stories were read, students listened<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussed the target words. Teachers<br />
encouraged students to use these words appropriately<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> complete, spoken sentences.<br />
Teachers provided scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g target<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extended<br />
student language by model<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sentences that<br />
built <strong>on</strong> student sentences or phrases.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Read Alouds to Foster Oral Language<br />
Development<br />
Most often books were read aloud to students<br />
<strong>on</strong> three separate occasi<strong>on</strong>s. Prior to a story<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read for the first time, teachers guided<br />
the students to predict story events <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> describe<br />
what was happen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pictures.<br />
The first story read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was followed by brief<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong>. The sec<strong>on</strong>d time a story was read<br />
the teacher stopped occasi<strong>on</strong>ally <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> encouraged<br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> of events <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story. After the third read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a<br />
story, the teacher guided discussi<strong>on</strong> through<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s designed to assess student comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide opportunities to develop<br />
oral language. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all discussi<strong>on</strong>, teachers<br />
supported student language by restat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, extend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student language,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g targeted vocabulary words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences.<br />
The primary goal was to improve expressive<br />
language skills, specifically focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sentence length <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g targeted<br />
vocabulary words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text. For example,<br />
if a student po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted to the cat <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the girl<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a book say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, “Cat, girl,” the teacher would<br />
say, “The cat lived with the little girl.” Then<br />
the teacher would encourage the student to<br />
repeat the new sentence. Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rachel all participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these activities.<br />
Integrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Skills<br />
One technique we used to relate oral language<br />
to pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t was through an activity we<br />
called Po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Read. Simple sentences related<br />
to the storybook read aloud were pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> large text with picture support. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this<br />
activity the teacher would first read the sentence<br />
to the students, po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to each word as<br />
it was read. Then the students repeated the<br />
sentence as they po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted. In this manner, students<br />
were build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g oral language, relat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
oral language to pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g exposed to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts of pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t such as text be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read from<br />
left to right. Initially, Carl was unable to repeat<br />
sentences with more than two words, but as he<br />
practiced, he was able to “po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read” the<br />
sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the curriculum, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those<br />
with four to seven words. Jacob <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel<br />
experienced more success with this activity.<br />
The purpose of the activity was not to identify<br />
specific pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted words, but to recognize that<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t is mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> related to spoken language.<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ph<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
Awareness<br />
Focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Key Skills<br />
In teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness to the students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our research study, we employed several<br />
techniques. First, we chose to focus specifically<br />
<strong>on</strong> blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>eme level. For younger students, teachers<br />
should work with larger units of spoken<br />
language (syllables with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> words or words<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sentences), but currently research has<br />
not proven that these levels of ph<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
awareness must be mastered prior to develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness (i.e. ph<strong>on</strong>ological<br />
awareness at the ph<strong>on</strong>eme level). Therefore,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our research with students with ID who<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the primary grades we chose to focus<br />
most of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al time <strong>on</strong> the two most<br />
important ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness (PA) skills to<br />
develop, blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Although<br />
we used a variety of activities to keep student<br />
engagement high while they practiced blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, our rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher<br />
language were c<strong>on</strong>sistent. When blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the<br />
teacher said the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual ph<strong>on</strong>emes <strong>on</strong>e<br />
sound at a time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the child blended those<br />
sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the correct word. The script <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> used the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ology:<br />
Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Techniques / 359
Teacher: Now we are go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to play Say the<br />
Word. Remember, Maxwell (puppet) can say<br />
words <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a funny way. Whenever he says<br />
a word, it is stretched. You have to tell me<br />
what word he said the fast way. Listen.<br />
/mmmaaat/. What word? (cue students)<br />
Students: mat<br />
When segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the teacher said the whole<br />
word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the child segmented the word, say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each ph<strong>on</strong>eme <strong>on</strong>e at a time. The script<br />
for segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was as follows:<br />
Teacher: Now we are go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to play Stretch the<br />
Word. Remember, I will say a word, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> you<br />
will tell me the sounds you hear <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the word.<br />
Sit. (pause) Stretch sit.<br />
Students: /sss/ /iii/ /t/<br />
Focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> these two critical skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacher language c<strong>on</strong>sistent was<br />
successful with the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study, although<br />
they required extensive practice.<br />
Stretch <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> C<strong>on</strong>nect<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d technique we found to be successful<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>emic awareness was stretch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>nect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ph<strong>on</strong>emes dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the activities.<br />
We found our students much more<br />
readily blended words when we stretched c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
sounds (such as /fff/ /mmm/ /sss/)<br />
for 1–2 sec<strong>on</strong>ds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>nected c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
sounds to the sound follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
sound. For example, it was easier for students<br />
to blend /s/ /a/ /t/ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to sat when the teacher<br />
stretched the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> did not<br />
stop between sounds (i.e. /sssaaat/). It was<br />
important not to pause after c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
sounds. We also used stretch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sounds as a<br />
method for provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. For example,<br />
if a student was unable to say the first<br />
sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sun, the teacher asked aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, “What<br />
is the first sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> /sssun/?” stretch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
/sss/ for emphasis. A word of cauti<strong>on</strong> worth<br />
not<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is that it is important to carefully pr<strong>on</strong>ounce<br />
sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong> just as they are<br />
pr<strong>on</strong>ounced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> words. Speech therapists,<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g coaches, or other read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g specialists<br />
are excellent resources for assistance. For example,<br />
students will f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it difficult to blend<br />
/suh/ /a/ /tuh/ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to sat. In other words, it is<br />
important not to distort sounds by add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
/uh/ to the end of the c<strong>on</strong>s<strong>on</strong>ant as many<br />
people do without realiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it.<br />
Careful Sequenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
A third technique was carefully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
difficulty of the blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
tasks. Initially, students blended <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segmented<br />
words at the <strong>on</strong>set-rime level. At this<br />
level, students segmented by identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
first sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a spoken word (teacher: What’s<br />
the first sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> sun? student: /sss/). When<br />
blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the teacher provides the <strong>on</strong>set <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
rime before the child says the word (teacher:<br />
/sss/ /un/, What word? student: sun). Gradually,<br />
students blended <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segmented <strong>on</strong>e<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>eme at a time (Say the Word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Stretch<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Blend, as above). A carefully designed curriculum<br />
should also gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>ological difficulty of the words be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
blended <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segmented. For example, words<br />
with c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial positi<strong>on</strong><br />
(e.g., sat, man) are easier to blend <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<br />
than words beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with stop sounds<br />
(e.g., tag, bat).<br />
Mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ph<strong>on</strong>emic Awareness Activities<br />
Mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
360 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
PA was l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to oral language by l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the words practiced dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
activities. We did this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> several ways. Early <strong>on</strong>,<br />
we used a set of picture cards that were carefully<br />
developed to represent words that gradually<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ph<strong>on</strong>ological difficulty, but<br />
were also clearly recognizable from the picture.<br />
For example, the teacher asked, “Which<br />
word beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s with /sssun/?” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded by po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the picture of the<br />
sun. For some students we supplemented the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> with poster scenes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiced<br />
blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words related to the<br />
scene. As needed, teachers referred to the<br />
scene to support the mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the words<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practiced (i.e., after blend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g run, the<br />
teacher would po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the boy runn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
say a sentence, such as “The boy likes to run <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the park.”). As students progressed, words<br />
were practiced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the PA activities prior to<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>nected text.
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel Develop Ph<strong>on</strong>emic<br />
Awareness<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel each resp<strong>on</strong>ded well<br />
to PA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, though their progress was<br />
very slow. Jacob began the study with some PA<br />
skills, scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approximately 25 segments per<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute <strong>on</strong> the ph<strong>on</strong>eme segmentati<strong>on</strong> fluency<br />
(PSF) measure of Dynamic Indicators of<br />
Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS; Good &<br />
Kam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ski, 2002), while Carl <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel began<br />
the study scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 0 <strong>on</strong> this measure. Even<br />
though Jacob began the study with some PA,<br />
he struggled to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease his skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area<br />
because of severe deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> short-term memory.<br />
However, with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 5 m<strong>on</strong>ths he<br />
reached the benchmark <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> approximately<br />
10 m<strong>on</strong>ths, his scores never dipped<br />
below benchmark aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g he had<br />
clearly mastered the skill. Carl <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ded more slowly to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> PA,<br />
requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g extensive practice <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at<br />
the earliest levels of PA. With Carl <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel,<br />
we used picture support <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> extensive practice<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the <strong>on</strong>set-rime level of<br />
PA. Carl began to show progress after approximately<br />
5 m<strong>on</strong>ths of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> now performs<br />
very near the benchmark of 35. Rachel<br />
began to show progress <strong>on</strong> PSF after approximately<br />
<strong>on</strong>e year of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
reached mastery a few m<strong>on</strong>ths later.<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ph<strong>on</strong>ics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Word<br />
Recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
Focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> Key Skills<br />
Like PA <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, ph<strong>on</strong>ics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> word recogniti<strong>on</strong><br />
activities focused <strong>on</strong> several key skills<br />
that were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrated over time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gradually<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty. The first skill was basic<br />
letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dence which began<br />
with students identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the most comm<strong>on</strong><br />
sound of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual letters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gradually students<br />
learned the sounds for various letter<br />
patterns. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, students were taught to read<br />
words sound by sound. These words were<br />
made up of the letters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> patterns that had<br />
been taught, with students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which each letter represented its<br />
most comm<strong>on</strong> sound (ex. ran, last, milk, sun,<br />
etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty as<br />
students learned l<strong>on</strong>g vowel patterns (ex. like,<br />
ra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, light) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> variant vowel patterns (ex.<br />
sound, claw, clown). F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, students learned<br />
high frequency words by sight if the words<br />
were irregularly spelled (ex. was, have) or if<br />
the sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the word had not been taught<br />
yet (ex. the word <strong>on</strong> is taught before the sound<br />
for short o is taught).<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Letter-Sound Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
Although teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
is fairly straightforward, we do wish to<br />
highlight a few teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques that are<br />
important. As with most early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
we used mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful mnem<strong>on</strong>ic<br />
clues when <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g new letter sounds to<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the abstract sound to someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>crete<br />
(ex. nose associated with n). We also provided<br />
extensive, cumulative review through a quick<br />
activity dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g which students simply pr<strong>on</strong>ounced<br />
the sound for the letter <strong>on</strong> the chart<br />
when the teacher touched under the letter.<br />
To facilitate memory <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the transfer of lettersound<br />
corresp<strong>on</strong>dence to the sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out<br />
strategy, teachers held a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger under the letter<br />
for two sec<strong>on</strong>ds when the letter was a c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
sound (ex. /mmm/) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tapped under<br />
the letter if it was a stop sound (ex. /t/).<br />
In this way, students became accustomed to<br />
stretch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sounds when they saw letters that<br />
represented c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more easily<br />
stretched those sounds dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
out activities. Our curriculum also sequenced<br />
letter-sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> carefully, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the most comm<strong>on</strong> sounds early, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
easier sounds prior to more difficult<br />
sounds, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> separat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>fus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g letters <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
sounds.<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel Develop Letter-Sound<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
At the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the study, Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rachel knew very few, if any, letter sounds. We<br />
measured their progress <strong>on</strong> this skill us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
DIBELS N<strong>on</strong>sense Word Fluency (NWF) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
all three c<strong>on</strong>sistently scored 0 <strong>on</strong> this measure<br />
early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study. Jacob’s scores began to<br />
improve somewhat after <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e m<strong>on</strong>th of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, but he did not reach the benchmark<br />
of 50 letter sounds per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute until he<br />
had participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for approximately<br />
two <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a half years. Carl strug-<br />
Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Techniques / 361
gled with letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dence because<br />
of severe speech problems prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
him from articulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sounds correctly. Carl’s<br />
speech therapist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher used gestures to<br />
help Carl remember sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> pr<strong>on</strong>ounce<br />
them correctly. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> about 5 m<strong>on</strong>ths of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
Carl’s NWF score began to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he is currently very near mastery <strong>on</strong> this<br />
measure. Rachel’s NWF scores began to improve<br />
somewhat after a few m<strong>on</strong>ths of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, but she did not reach the benchmark<br />
of 50 until she had participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for almost two years.<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Students to Read Words Sound by<br />
Sound<br />
In our curriculum, students are taught the<br />
strategy of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words sound by sound (i.e.,<br />
sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out). As described earlier, this strategy<br />
requires students to apply their knowledge<br />
of letter sounds <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> PA. As letter sounds are<br />
taught, students quickly apply letter sound<br />
knowledge to words made up of those letters.<br />
The sequence is also carefully organized to<br />
gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> difficulty. Initially, the<br />
teacher leads the pac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out, requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students to slowly say each sound before<br />
say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the entire word. As student skill<br />
with sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases, the amount of<br />
time the teacher allows for sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out decreases.<br />
Eventually the students no l<strong>on</strong>ger say<br />
the sounds aloud, but are taught to say the<br />
sounds <strong>on</strong>ly when they do not know the word<br />
immediately. Later <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the curriculum, students<br />
learn to become flexible decoders. In<br />
other words, they are taught that many words<br />
do not sound out quite right, but that sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
out usually produces a pr<strong>on</strong>unciati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
is close enough to figure out the word.<br />
Integrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Ph<strong>on</strong>emic Awareness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Word<br />
Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Skills<br />
A technique we used to assist students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> transferr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
PA skills to pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t was Stretch <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spell.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ology used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g PA<br />
activities, students stretched each word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
wrote the correct spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the word. After<br />
participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for approximately<br />
<strong>on</strong>e year, Jacob was stretch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words such as sack, star, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help. As<br />
Jacob wrote each word, he repeated the<br />
sounds <strong>on</strong>e at a time, writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the letters that<br />
represented each sound. This technique<br />
l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked PA (i.e., segment<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g), letter-sound corresp<strong>on</strong>dence,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out words.<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel Develop Sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Out<br />
Skills<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel have all made<br />
progress with sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out, but to vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
degrees. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
out was a challenge for both Jacob <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Carl,<br />
as they struggled with severe deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> shortterm<br />
memory. While sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out a word,<br />
they would frequently forget the first sound,<br />
so mat became at <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ran became an. Currently,<br />
Jacob is able to read many words without<br />
sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them out first, though Carl c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ues<br />
to struggle <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area. Rachel has<br />
made excellent progress with this strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
is now learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to decode words more flexibly,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multisyllabic words.<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g High Frequency Sight Words<br />
362 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
The last skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the word recogniti<strong>on</strong> str<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was high frequency sight words. These words<br />
were presented as tricky words that should be<br />
recognized quickly. Once students recognized<br />
letters, a few sight words were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced, but<br />
the pace of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of sight words<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased as ph<strong>on</strong>ics skills developed. Jacob<br />
struggled to keep up with the other students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his group. His teacher provided him with<br />
extra time to practice these words so he could<br />
rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al group. Carl <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Rachel also needed extensive practice with<br />
these words, but progressed at least as quickly<br />
as the other students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
group. Teachers assisted students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this skill dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g text read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. They provided<br />
scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students that a word<br />
was a “tricky word” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them to read it<br />
fast, supply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the word when needed.<br />
Mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Word Recogniti<strong>on</strong> Activities Mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
One technique we used to l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
word recogniti<strong>on</strong> activities was build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sentences<br />
with word cards. Although not specifically<br />
found <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, our teachers<br />
adapted sentences from the decodable text,<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the words <strong>on</strong> sentence strips <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cut-
t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them apart. Jacob resp<strong>on</strong>ded particularly<br />
well to this activity as he would frequently be<br />
able to read words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> lists or from cards, but<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to struggle with those same words<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>nected text. By build<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his own sentences,<br />
he practiced read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
c<strong>on</strong>text. His teacher provided scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this activity, but this scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was<br />
gradually decreased as his ability to make<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful sentences improved. In <strong>on</strong>e less<strong>on</strong>,<br />
his teacher gave him four words (Zip, a,<br />
rabbit, is) to use to build a sentence, ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
him to read them all <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> build a sentence that<br />
made sense. His teacher prompted him to<br />
read all four words aloud before mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
sentence. He first made <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read, “A rabbit is<br />
Zip,” but immediately recognized that this did<br />
not make sense. The teacher provided further<br />
scaffold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him, “How could you<br />
make it make sense?” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “If you want to tell<br />
about Zip, what should come first?” Then he<br />
made <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read, “Is a Zip rabbit?” He immediately<br />
realized it did not make sense. His<br />
teacher asked aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, “What should come first<br />
if you want to tell about Zip?” “Where is first<br />
positi<strong>on</strong>?” He then moved Zip to the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the sentence <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> made “Zip is a rabbit.”<br />
He then made the next sentence without<br />
assistance, “A truck is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mud.”<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Fluency<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Word Level Fluency<br />
Several techniques were used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study<br />
to improve fluency. First, the word level activities<br />
just described <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded techniques to<br />
gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease student fluency with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
words. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these activities, teachers<br />
prompted students to gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the<br />
speed with which they were able to recognize<br />
whole words. For example, students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed<br />
to read the words “the fast way” when<br />
they did not need to sound out the word. This<br />
specific prompt was very important as many of<br />
the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our study c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to read<br />
words sound by sound even when they were<br />
able to identify the word without sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
out. Many of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> our research<br />
project, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel<br />
needed to be taught when to use the sound<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
out technique <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> when it was no l<strong>on</strong>ger necessary<br />
(i.e., when you knew the word).<br />
Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Passage Fluency<br />
Other techniques used to build fluency were<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g decodable text, unis<strong>on</strong> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g decodable storybooks until fluency<br />
goals were reached. Early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the curriculum,<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>nected, decodable text was a part<br />
of every less<strong>on</strong>, with the text gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> complexity as students learned new<br />
skills. Over time, the text became <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly<br />
more engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Teachers<br />
modeled good pac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guided students to<br />
gradually <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease their pace dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teacherled<br />
unis<strong>on</strong> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Students also read decodable<br />
storybooks two to three times until predeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
fluency criteria were met. Across<br />
time, the criteria required <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly faster<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, even as the text difficulty became<br />
more complex. Both Jacob <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Carl struggled<br />
to meet these goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required extensive<br />
practice with stories. Rachel c<strong>on</strong>sistently met<br />
fluency goals dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g less<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel Develop Fluency<br />
All three students have made important<br />
progress toward becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fluent readers,<br />
though their rates of growth are quite different.<br />
Carl has made the least amount of<br />
progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this area. After participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for approximately <strong>on</strong>e year, he<br />
began to show slight improvement <strong>on</strong> DIBELS<br />
oral read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fluency (ORF) passages <strong>on</strong> end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
first-grade level. However, he is currently<br />
far from the end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g first-grade level benchmark<br />
of 40, as his recent scores are approximately<br />
10 words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute. Jacob has made<br />
more progress, though he showed no improvement<br />
<strong>on</strong> first-grade ORF passages until<br />
he had participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
about two years. Currently he is read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approximately<br />
36 words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute, which is<br />
near the first-grade end of the year benchmark<br />
of 40 words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute.<br />
Rachel has made excellent progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fluency.<br />
Although she did not show any improvement<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ORF until after two years of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce then her rate of improvement<br />
has been remarkable. Currently, she is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 th<br />
grade <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toward grade-level goals.<br />
She met end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g first-grade level goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> just<br />
over two years of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. After three<br />
years of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, she met end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sec<strong>on</strong>d-<br />
Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Techniques / 363
grade level goals with scores higher than 90<br />
words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute. Recently, she scored 142<br />
words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute <strong>on</strong> an end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g third-grade<br />
level passage, well above the third-grade<br />
benchmark of 110 words per m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute. Currently,<br />
she is be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tested <strong>on</strong> fourth-grade<br />
level passages, with recent scores of 86 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 93.<br />
Techniques for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
Early Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> Development<br />
As so<strong>on</strong> as students read c<strong>on</strong>nected text, simple<br />
strategies are taught to facilitate comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
of sentences <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then passages; however,<br />
until basic word recogniti<strong>on</strong> skills are<br />
mastered, comprehensi<strong>on</strong> is primarily taught<br />
through storybooks read aloud. We have already<br />
discussed how we use these storybooks<br />
to develop oral language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocabulary, but<br />
we also use these read alouds to build background<br />
knowledge essential for comprehensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The storybooks were selected accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to themes (e.g., animal homes, sea animals,<br />
gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>g with others, etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
both narrative <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expository text. Comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
strategies taught early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the curriculum<br />
are applied through the books read orally<br />
to the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the decodable texts read<br />
by the students. Early strategies <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude basic<br />
story grammar, sequenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of<br />
simple graphic organizers.<br />
Later Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> Development<br />
As word recogniti<strong>on</strong> skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases, the focus<br />
of comprehensi<strong>on</strong> is <strong>on</strong> text students read<br />
themselves. Like the read alouds used early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the curriculum, text <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the later porti<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
curriculum is grouped by themes to build<br />
background knowledge. Novels <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expository<br />
text provide students with general knowledge<br />
related to c<strong>on</strong>tent areas, such as social<br />
studies. Through these themes students build<br />
knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply comprehensi<strong>on</strong> strategies.<br />
Strategies taught early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the curriculum<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> new strategies are added. These<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> check<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g predicti<strong>on</strong>s, sequenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferences, story grammar<br />
for narrative text, c<strong>on</strong>tent webb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
text, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g summaries. In <strong>on</strong>e<br />
less<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, students review what<br />
they have learned about mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a previous<br />
less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then read text about animals<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fer where different animals live. For example,<br />
the text about mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> goats <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes<br />
clues that help students figure out<br />
that mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> goats live <strong>on</strong> the rocky slopes<br />
of mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (i.e., mounta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> goats use their<br />
hooves to climb rocks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> steep slopes).<br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel Develop Comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel are able to read text<br />
with comprehensi<strong>on</strong> at levels at least commensurate<br />
with their oral language ability. They<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistently dem<strong>on</strong>strate their underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expository text, answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literal<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
details from text. As would be expected, their<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> is better when text is more<br />
c<strong>on</strong>crete <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> familiar, rather than abstract<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> unfamiliar. It is also not surpris<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that<br />
these students struggle with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferential comprehensi<strong>on</strong>;<br />
however, their ability to apply basic<br />
strategies is gradually improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In spite<br />
of their significant challenges with oral language,<br />
all three students are read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with basic<br />
levels of comprehensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong><br />
364 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
The purpose of this article is to provide teachers<br />
of students with ID specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about practical, research-based techniques for<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their students to read. As Jacob, Carl,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel illustrate, students with ID who<br />
face significant challenges can make important<br />
progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> early read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills. The curriculum<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> techniques that are effective for<br />
students with much higher IQs are also effective<br />
for students like Jacob, Carl, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Rachel,<br />
but they must be implemented with high<br />
degrees of fidelity by skilled teachers. Curriculum<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> techniques should provide for<br />
explicit, systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> that is comprehensive<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes extensive cumulative review.<br />
Further, students should be explicitly<br />
taught how to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply strategies<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>nected text. Unfortunately,<br />
most teachers of students with<br />
ID receive very little tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about effective<br />
techniques for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. This article<br />
is <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e step toward provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these teachers<br />
with specific guidance. Obviously, teachers
cannot provide this type of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> without<br />
adequate support. We encourage teachers<br />
to seek out additi<strong>on</strong>al resources (Coyne et al.,<br />
2006; Carn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e et al., 2004; Kame’enui, Carn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
Dix<strong>on</strong>, Simm<strong>on</strong>s, & Coyne, 2002), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
those that focus <strong>on</strong> oral language <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
vocabulary (e.g., Arnold & Whitehurst, 1994;<br />
Coyne, Simm<strong>on</strong>s, Kame’enui, & Stoolmiller,<br />
2004), word recogniti<strong>on</strong> (e.g., O’C<strong>on</strong>nor,<br />
2007) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong> (e.g., Kl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gner,<br />
Vaughn, & Boardman, 2007). In additi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
effective curricular materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
teachers need access to educators with expertise<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior who can assist<br />
them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> tailor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to meet the<br />
needs of their students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the positive behavioral support necessary for<br />
students to participate fully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> less<strong>on</strong>s. We also<br />
wish to emphasize the importance of persistence<br />
<strong>on</strong> the part of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers.<br />
The journeys of Jacob, Carl, Rachel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
teachers have been <strong>on</strong>es of patience, dedicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> perseverance. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, we urge teachers<br />
to make all aspects of their read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
as mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful as possible. Letter sounds<br />
should be taught for the purpose of apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
those sounds to words that mean someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
students. If students with ID are to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
what they read, it is imperative that read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> be l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ked to mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that is relevant<br />
to them.<br />
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366 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Snow, C. E., Burns, M. S., & Griff<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, P. (Eds.).<br />
(1998). Prevent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> young children.<br />
Wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gt<strong>on</strong>, DC: Nati<strong>on</strong>al Academy Press.<br />
T<strong>on</strong>g, F., Irby, B., Lara-Alecio, R., & Mathes, P.<br />
(2008). English <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Spanish acquisiti<strong>on</strong> by sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
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Learners at risk for read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problems.<br />
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S. D. (2006). Effectiveness of Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
for first-grade English language learners at<br />
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Vaughn, S., L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>an-Thomps<strong>on</strong>, Mathes, P. G., Duradola,<br />
S., & Cárdenas-Hagan, E. (2007). Firstgrade<br />
English language learners at-risk for read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
problems: Effectiveness of an English<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Elementary School Journal, 107, 153–<br />
180.
Pentop Computers as Tools for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Multiplicati<strong>on</strong> to<br />
Students with Mild Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Emily C. Bouck, Laura Bassette, Teresa Taber-Doughty, Sara M. Flanagan,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Kathryn Szwed<br />
Purdue University<br />
Abstract: The effectiveness of a pentop computer when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts to three middle school<br />
students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities was exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. A multiple probe design was used to assess the<br />
students learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two digit multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts over a 2-3 week <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> period. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, students used a FLY Pentop Computer (LeapFrog © ) to practice multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, students were assessed <strong>on</strong> their ability to solve multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems without the tool.<br />
The results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that all three students improved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the percentage of correct math facts completed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
support the use of the pentop computer when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong> to students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities. Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for future research are discussed.<br />
Mathematics educati<strong>on</strong> is a high priority <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the United States (Ellis & Berry, 2005). The<br />
majority of students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third through<br />
eighth grades are now annually evaluated <strong>on</strong><br />
their mathematical abilities under the requirements<br />
of No Child Left Beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d (NCLB, 2002).<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, these students are expected to<br />
reach proficiency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> by the 2013–<br />
2014 school year (Yell & Drasgow, 2005). Research<br />
suggests that students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the United<br />
States perform worse than their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
counterparts (Beat<strong>on</strong>, Mullis, Mart<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Kelly, &<br />
Smith, 1996); as such, mathematics is c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
an important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critical c<strong>on</strong>tent doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluati<strong>on</strong> for students<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> without disabilities. Yet,<br />
researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers document that many<br />
students with disabilities struggle with mathematics<br />
(Grise, 1980). These struggles can <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
skills rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from computati<strong>on</strong>al fluency<br />
to know<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e’s basic facts as well as<br />
problem solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Cawley, Parmar, Fley,<br />
Salm<strong>on</strong>, & Roy, 2001; Jitendra, DiPipi, & Per-<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should be<br />
sent to Emily C. Bouck, Purdue University, Dept. of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al Studies, 100 N University Street, West<br />
Lafayette, IN 47907-2098. Email: bouck@purdue.<br />
edu<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 367–380<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
r<strong>on</strong>-J<strong>on</strong>es, 2002; M<strong>on</strong>tague, 1992; Parmar,<br />
Cawley, & Miller, 1994; Woodward & M<strong>on</strong>tague,<br />
2002).<br />
While students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities,<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> emoti<strong>on</strong>al/<br />
behavior disorders are aggregated grouped together<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> studies, these students may actually<br />
experience very different needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mathematics<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> (Parmar et al., 1994). Previous<br />
research suggests that students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities may not benefit from the<br />
same mathematics curriculum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
as students with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> furthermore,<br />
students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
might actually struggle to a greater extent<br />
than students with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
doma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> (Parmar et al.; Van Luit & Naglieri,<br />
1999). Parmar et al. <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities are qualitatively <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
quantitatively different <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of mathematics.<br />
They suggested that the scores for students<br />
with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities did not<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease across years or <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased slightly.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated difficulty with underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the mathematics c<strong>on</strong>cepts be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g presented.<br />
Unfortunately, little research exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
mathematics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities, particularly at the sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
FLY Pen Math / 367
level (Butler, Miller, Lee, & Pierce, 2001). In<br />
their review of the literature <strong>on</strong> mathematics<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities, Butler<br />
et al. found <strong>on</strong>ly three studies that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>dary students: two focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> middle<br />
school students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved students with mild<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary through<br />
high school. One study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved basic computati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the other two focused<br />
<strong>on</strong> technology. In the computati<strong>on</strong> study,<br />
Mor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Miller (1998) taught three middle<br />
school students with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>crete-representati<strong>on</strong>al-abstract<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g method, al<strong>on</strong>g<br />
with mnem<strong>on</strong>ic devices that were added dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the abstract phase. The results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that all students learned their basic multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> improved from pretest to<br />
posttest.<br />
Other recent research suggests that students<br />
with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities benefit<br />
from develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g fluency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mathematical<br />
skills, such as multiplicati<strong>on</strong> (Cooke, Guzaukas,<br />
Pressley, & Kerr, 1993). Fluency can be<br />
def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as “the effortless, automatic ability to<br />
perform mathematical operati<strong>on</strong>s” (Houch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
Shippen, & Flores, 2006, p. 324). In other<br />
words, mathematical fluency refers to the<br />
speed, accuracy, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of errors that<br />
students have when complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mathematical<br />
problems. In additi<strong>on</strong>, fluency with basic facts<br />
or basic operati<strong>on</strong>s assists students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> problem<br />
solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, such as when solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g word or story<br />
problems (Houch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s et al.). Several strategies<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the mathematical<br />
fluency of students with developmental disabilities,<br />
such as mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities,<br />
were exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed: teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g via the c<strong>on</strong>creterepresentati<strong>on</strong>-abstract<br />
method (Mor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> &<br />
Miller, 1998); us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g timed trials, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
c<strong>on</strong>stant time delay (Matt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly & Bott, 1990;<br />
Miller, Hall, & Heward, 1995); use of a supplemental<br />
program (Jolivette, Houch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs,<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>go, Bart<strong>on</strong>-Arwood, & Shippen, 2006); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
peer tutor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Harper, Mallette, Maheady,<br />
Bentley, & Moore, 1995). In additi<strong>on</strong> to these<br />
strategies, another way suggested to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
the mathematical fluency of students with<br />
mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities was through the<br />
use of technology (Macc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i & Gagn<strong>on</strong>, 2005)<br />
Technology, Math, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Students with Intellectual<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Despite the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased emphasis of technology<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of students with<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased opportunities for<br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of mathematics, little<br />
research exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed technology, mathematics,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities.<br />
Although Mastropieri, Scruggs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Shian<br />
(1997) called for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased attenti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
area a decade ago, the focus <strong>on</strong> technology,<br />
mathematics, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities never materialized. With<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
research that does exist, Masteropieri et al.<br />
used a computer-assisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> (CAI)<br />
program to teach problem solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to four upper<br />
elementary students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities. They c<strong>on</strong>cluded that these students<br />
improved their scores from pretest to<br />
posttest as well as reported enjoyment us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the computer program.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, Hort<strong>on</strong>, Lovitt, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> White<br />
(1992) exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the use of calculators as<br />
compared to traditi<strong>on</strong>al paper-<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>-pencil<br />
method for solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g subtracti<strong>on</strong> with middle<br />
school students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities.<br />
They c<strong>on</strong>cluded that students improved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their performance <strong>on</strong> the subtracti<strong>on</strong> problems<br />
after they used calculators. The use of<br />
calculators was attributed to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased accuracy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students. Jaspers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Van Lieshout<br />
(1994) also found benefits from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to mathematics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for<br />
students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
across the span of elementary to high school.<br />
They found that allow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students to touch<br />
key words <strong>on</strong> a computer screen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a story<br />
problem was beneficial to students when they<br />
took paper-pencil tests.<br />
Smart Toys<br />
368 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Prior research <strong>on</strong> technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mathematics<br />
for students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
is limited to more traditi<strong>on</strong>al forms of<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al technology (i.e., calculators,<br />
CAI), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this field failed to take advantage of<br />
explor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more advanced technological ways<br />
to educate these students. One type of new<br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes smart toys. Smart toys are<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative form of technology which has<br />
recently <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> popularity (Bouck,
Okolo, & Courtad, 2007). Smart toys are described<br />
as toys that are programmed to resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
to a child though microprocessors that<br />
recognize <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transmit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put from the child<br />
(Roderman, 2002). An early example of a<br />
smart toy is the Furby, which is a toy that spoke<br />
English (Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, 2004). Other examples of<br />
smart toys further <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>corporated computer<br />
technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude: LEGO M<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dstorms<br />
which are programmable bricks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Logo<br />
Turtles a robotic creature which could be programmed<br />
to perform comm<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s (Papert,<br />
1993). More recent smart toys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude I-Dog a<br />
robotic dog which reacts to music; Share-A-<br />
Story from Care Bears where the bears read<br />
“children stories” aloud to the children (Gibs<strong>on</strong>,<br />
2005); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FLY Pentop Computer<br />
from LeapFrog © (Pogue, 2005).<br />
The FLY Pen is a pentop computer that<br />
provides auditory output <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompts users to<br />
complete a variety of tasks. The FLY Pen<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes a variety of software opti<strong>on</strong>s that can<br />
be used with the pen (Pogue, 2005). The different<br />
software opti<strong>on</strong>s allow the pen to be<br />
used as a calculator, a calendar, a piano keyboard,<br />
a journal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assistance tool, a Spanish<br />
dicti<strong>on</strong>ary, as well as provide assistance with<br />
mathematics, social studies, science, spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Although this software is marketed<br />
for students to use with academic areas,<br />
little research explored its potential for assist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students. Furthermore, despite its potential,<br />
no research could be found that exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
the impact of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this tool as a form of<br />
assistive technology for students with disabilities.<br />
Research Project<br />
Previous research illustrated that sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities experience<br />
a variety of difficulties at school <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
regards to learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their mathematics curriculum<br />
(Parmar et al., 1994; Van Luit & Naglieri,<br />
1999). Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, there is a lack of<br />
research which focuses <strong>on</strong> ways to improve<br />
mathematics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for students with<br />
mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities (Butler et al.,<br />
2001). The use of a pentop computer (i.e., the<br />
FLY pen) as a form of assistive technology may<br />
provide assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a uniquely beneficial way<br />
for students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
who struggle with mathematics by improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the student’s fluency. Previous research that<br />
focuses <strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g assistive technology to improve<br />
math skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that these students<br />
can benefit from similar types of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
(Mastropieri et al., 1997; Hort<strong>on</strong> et al., 1992).<br />
Yet, no studies could be found that analyzed<br />
the effects of the FLY Pen technology as an<br />
effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al strategy for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mathematics to students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities. The purpose of the present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
was to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e if students with mild<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities who use the FLY Pen<br />
could improve their multiplicati<strong>on</strong> skills. It<br />
was hypothesized that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> with the<br />
FLY Pen would improve the students’ abilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to solve multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Three middle school students, Diane, Joe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sam, participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. Each was selected<br />
to participate based <strong>on</strong> a) a mild cognitive<br />
level of functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (IQ 55-70), b) similar<br />
chr<strong>on</strong>ological age, c) similar mathematics<br />
skill level, d) will<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gness to participate, e) absence<br />
of sensory disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> f) no previous<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or experiences <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY<br />
Pen. All students were educated primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the same special educati<strong>on</strong> pull-out classroom,<br />
although all participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> “specials”<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (i.e., art,<br />
music, physical educati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> keyboard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g).<br />
Table 1 provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the three<br />
participants.<br />
Diane was a 12 year-old Hispanic female<br />
who was shy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sought to<br />
please her teachers. At home, Diane primarily<br />
spoke Spanish. She was a diligent student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
always tried to complete her work <strong>on</strong> time.<br />
She tended to be quiet <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> would <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<br />
with her closest friends. All of Diane’s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent areas were taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> she was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
for less than 40% of the day, where she<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> specials. At the start of the<br />
study, Diane was perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at a fourth-grade<br />
mathematics level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> her assignments primarily<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <strong>on</strong>e- <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two-digit additi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subtracti<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
Joe was a 12 year-old Hispanic male who<br />
FLY Pen Math / 369
TABLE 1<br />
Student Demographic Informati<strong>on</strong><br />
Student Age/Grade Ethnicity<br />
enjoyed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with his peers whenever<br />
possible <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was well liked by his classmates<br />
due to his good sense of humor. At times,<br />
however his sense of humor could become a<br />
distracti<strong>on</strong>, as he would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terrupt himself <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
others from complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g work by talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to his<br />
classmates. Joe primarily spoke English at<br />
home. Like Diane, he was primarily served <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed resource sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for more<br />
than 60% of the day <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was <strong>on</strong>ly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
specials. He was also perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at a fourthgrade<br />
math level at the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the study<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his math work prior to the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
arithmetic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subtracti<strong>on</strong> problems.<br />
Sam was a 12 year-old Hispanic male who<br />
enjoyed play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sports, particularly soccer. At<br />
home, Sam spoke both Spanish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> English.<br />
Sam was outgo<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was well received by his<br />
peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers. He was typically a hard<br />
worker <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> enjoyed answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class; however, at times he would allow himself<br />
to be distracted from his work. Sam participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> academic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classroom dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than 60% of the day<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g language arts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> specials. He participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same special educati<strong>on</strong> math<br />
class as Diane <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Joe. He was also perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
at a fourth-grade math level with a focus <strong>on</strong><br />
additi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> subtracti<strong>on</strong> problems prior to<br />
the start of the study.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
WISC-R<br />
IQ<br />
All participants attended a self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
mathematics class dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same class period<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were provided mathematics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
by their primary special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher. The students were taught their math<br />
less<strong>on</strong>s us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Sax<strong>on</strong> mathematics curriculum<br />
(grades 4/5) (Sax<strong>on</strong> Math, 2008). The<br />
ISTEP<br />
overall<br />
math<br />
Time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> General<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded six other students who were not<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study, of which four participated<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same mathematics less<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
the target students. The other two students<br />
were taught separately with a paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al.<br />
In the students’ classroom, the desks<br />
were arranged <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rows with Sam <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Joe<br />
seated next to each other <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the back row <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Diane seated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of Joe. The students who<br />
were taught by the paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>al worked at<br />
a separate table which was secti<strong>on</strong>ed off from<br />
the rest of the classroom.<br />
The assessments for each of the phases<br />
(basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance) as<br />
well as the FLY Pen tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a separate room (the school<br />
counselor’s room), which was across the hall<br />
from the self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed classroom so the other<br />
students were not distracted. In the separate<br />
room, the students worked at a round table.<br />
The students were either seated next to each<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g times when the phases overlapped, or<br />
were assessed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually. Typically, <strong>on</strong>ly the<br />
researcher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the room<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the assessments, however dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<br />
of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s the school counselor was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
room work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at his desk which was placed<br />
beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the table where the students worked.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, the participants<br />
used the FLY Pen (with ear ph<strong>on</strong>es)<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their regular math <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> as well<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the separate classroom.<br />
Independent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dependent Variable<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
Disability<br />
Diane 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 63 417/646 Less than 40% N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
Joe 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 62 422/464 Less than 40% Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
Sam 12, 6 th grade Hispanic 62 427/464 Less than 40% N<strong>on</strong>e<br />
370 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
The use of the FLY Pen as a mathematical<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al strategy was the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
variable for the study. After dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mastery <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to correctly use the FLY Pen,<br />
students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to use the pentop
computer for all multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems that<br />
they worked <strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their mathematics<br />
class. Students used the FLY Pen to complete<br />
assigned multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems given<br />
<strong>on</strong> a worksheet designed by the teacher or<br />
assigned problems from their textbook.<br />
The percentage of multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems<br />
solved correctly dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each assessment sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
was the dependent variable. Prior to the<br />
start of the study, all three of the students<br />
received <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> from their special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher <strong>on</strong> how to solve multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, at the start of the<br />
study (<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> throughout the completi<strong>on</strong>) the<br />
students’ underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of basic multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts was assessed through daily timed<br />
tests. A set of 57 r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems<br />
was created for the assessments. Of the<br />
57 problems, 31 were basic multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts (s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digit numbers multiplied by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
digit number, i.e., 3 4) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 26 were<br />
mixed problems (double digit numbers multiplied<br />
by a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digit number, i.e., 34 5).<br />
The problem set was developed based <strong>on</strong> the<br />
Sax<strong>on</strong> mathematics curriculum used by the<br />
students’ teacher. The set was generated<br />
through stratified r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om sampl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to ensure<br />
that the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a<br />
wide range of numbers from 1-99. The researcher<br />
created the set by arbitrarily select<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
n<strong>on</strong>-sequential multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems that<br />
used an assorted selecti<strong>on</strong> of digit comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Specifically, diverse problems such as<br />
8 8, 2 7, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 5 were chosen for the<br />
set <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sequential problems such as 8 8,<br />
8 7, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 8 6 were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenti<strong>on</strong>ally omitted<br />
from the set. A variety of the basic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mixed<br />
problems total<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ten or fewer questi<strong>on</strong>s per<br />
assessment were r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly drawn from the set<br />
of problems dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each phase of the study.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase, four basic facts<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three mixed problems were<br />
used. Initially, three, two digit times two digit<br />
problems (i.e. 42 63) were assessed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase, however the students were<br />
not assigned problems like this to work <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class with the FLY Pen therefore these data<br />
were not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al data analysis.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
phases, the probes c<strong>on</strong>sisted of five basic facts<br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five mixed problems.<br />
Materials<br />
FLY pentop computer. The FLY Pen, a<br />
pentop computer developed by LeapFrog © ,<br />
was used dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase. This<br />
pentop computer is a device slightly larger<br />
than a pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> uses special paper called<br />
FLY Paper. The FLY Pen writes as a pen,<br />
can assist students with calculati<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes<br />
various games that support the pen’s<br />
use. In additi<strong>on</strong>, educati<strong>on</strong>al software can be<br />
purchased for this device, such as software for<br />
spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong>, algebra,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. When the software cartridge is<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>serted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the top of the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
used with the special FLY Paper, students<br />
have access to assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities,<br />
solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong> problems,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> organiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e’s writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. The FLY Pen<br />
comes with a Launch Pad which provides <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for the pentop computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> activities<br />
that can be d<strong>on</strong>e with the FLY Pen.<br />
Multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong> software. This<br />
study used the FLY Pen multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
divisi<strong>on</strong> mathematics software. The multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong> software <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a software<br />
cartridge, the FLY C<strong>on</strong>trol Panel tablet,<br />
FLY Paper used to complete the math problems,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a manual with example problems<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> directi<strong>on</strong>s. The FLY C<strong>on</strong>trol Panel tablet<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed 40 pages of the FLY grid paper<br />
for students to write multiplicati<strong>on</strong> or divisi<strong>on</strong><br />
problems follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a format specified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
manual. This software required students to<br />
use specific steps while solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
or divisi<strong>on</strong> problems. To ensure that<br />
steps were followed correctly, the FLY Pen<br />
provided auditory prompts about which functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
needed to be completed before mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to subsequent steps. When each student<br />
started the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase of the study,<br />
s/he was assigned a box with the study materials<br />
that were stored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a nearby cab<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>et for<br />
easy access dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each math class.<br />
Experimental Design<br />
A multiple probe across students design was<br />
used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effectiveness of a FLY<br />
Pen <strong>on</strong> the acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of multiplicati<strong>on</strong> skills.<br />
The multiple probe design was chosen s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce it<br />
provided a means to decrease the collecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
data across the multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es while at the<br />
FLY Pen Math / 371
same time ensur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that no significant<br />
changes occurred before the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the multiple<br />
probe design allowed the researchers to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
if a functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship existed between<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> (practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
with the FLY Pen) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students<br />
improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their multiplicati<strong>on</strong> skills as measured<br />
by the assessments (Kennedy, 2007). A<br />
multiple basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e design is frequently used<br />
when academic learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved (Alberto<br />
& Troutman, 2006); as such, this design was<br />
selected because it best c<strong>on</strong>trolled for possible<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or carry-over effects as a result of<br />
student exposure to the FLY Pen.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
Event record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the<br />
number of multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems solved<br />
correctly dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each of the phases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
study. This method was selected because it<br />
provides simplicity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> accuracy with discrete<br />
event data collecti<strong>on</strong> (Kennedy, 2007). Each<br />
assessment c<strong>on</strong>ducted provided a record of<br />
the student’s work when solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the assigned<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems, which was used to<br />
analyze the effects of the FLY Pen.<br />
Procedure<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Prior to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, students<br />
were assessed <strong>on</strong> multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts learned<br />
through traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al methods,<br />
two or three times per week for a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of<br />
two weeks. These assessments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of four basic math problems<br />
(s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-digits multiplied by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-digit problems)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three mixed math problems (double-digit<br />
numbers multiplied by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-digit<br />
numbers) for a total of seven problems per<br />
assessment. The percentage correct out of<br />
seven was calculated for each basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Students c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase<br />
based <strong>on</strong> the order they were selected to beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. The order of the students<br />
was based <strong>on</strong> the teacher’s suggesti<strong>on</strong>. Diane<br />
began the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> first while Joe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sam<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase with the traditi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Joe began us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY<br />
Pen sec<strong>on</strong>d; Sam c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
phase us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was the last student to beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
372 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
The students <strong>on</strong>ly began the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phase <strong>on</strong>ce basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e stability was established.<br />
Pre-tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e period,<br />
students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to the FLY Pen.<br />
Initially, students used the Launch Pad, an<br />
orientati<strong>on</strong> booklet to the FLY Pen software.<br />
Launch Pad activities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded select<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen, resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
prompts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> play<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g various games. Students<br />
also operated the FLY Pen while complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> activities us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen<br />
math paper. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this time, students were<br />
taught how to properly use the FLY Pen to<br />
solve multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems. Tasks <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student how to hold the pentop<br />
computer to ensure the software recognized<br />
the numbers they wrote, teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the students<br />
how to write the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems <strong>on</strong><br />
the FLY Pen paper, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student<br />
how to use the butt<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the FLY Pen<br />
math tablet so they could enter <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> solve the<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems (as well as use the<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t butt<strong>on</strong> as needed). The pre-tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
phase also served as an opportunity for the<br />
students to ask questi<strong>on</strong>s about how to use the<br />
pentop computer. The pre-tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered complete when each student was<br />
able to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually complete three practice<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong>. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase took<br />
place over a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of three weeks. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
this phase, students participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mathematics<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen, software,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worksheet materials for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their targeted<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each mathematics<br />
less<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their regular classroom, students<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structed to get their assigned<br />
FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then use the pentop computer<br />
to solve the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems assigned<br />
for that day. Typical assignments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
teacher made worksheets or problems assigned<br />
from the students’ textbook. These assignments<br />
provided an opportunity for the<br />
students to write <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> solve multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the large grid FLY Pen paper.<br />
When us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen for their multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems, students were first<br />
prompted to tap “start” so that the pen would<br />
recognize that the student was writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a problem.<br />
Next, the student pressed “Start Problem”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FLY C<strong>on</strong>trol Panel tablet. As the<br />
student wrote the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problem, the
software immediately repeated the numbers<br />
aloud. This allowed the student to hear what<br />
the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terpreted from their writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Students were then able to re-write the number<br />
if the FLY Pen misidentified a number<br />
or they were able to move <strong>on</strong> to the next step.<br />
After the pentop comptuer correctly recognized<br />
each number <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> operati<strong>on</strong> (i.e., multiplicati<strong>on</strong>),<br />
students were prompted to c<strong>on</strong>firm<br />
that the problem was correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> press<br />
the “Enter” butt<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the tablet. The student<br />
was then prompted to select “Yes” or “No” if<br />
the entire problem was read correctly. Additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
assistance was provided <strong>on</strong>ly after the<br />
problem was read correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the student<br />
selected “Yes.”<br />
As the students worked to solve the problems,<br />
they were required to complete the multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the correct order, as specified<br />
by the FLY Pen, which allowed the<br />
software to recognize what the student had<br />
written. For example, when the problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> of two numbers, the<br />
student was first required to write the numbers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their answer from right-to-left plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the correct digit <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <strong>on</strong>es place prior to<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number to be carried or before<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a number <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tens or hundreds<br />
place (i.e., When solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 12 9, first the<br />
student must multiply the 9 digit by the 2 digit<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write the number eight or write the carried<br />
<strong>on</strong>e before proceed<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to write the zero<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tens place or the <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the hundreds<br />
place [12 9 108]). As the student c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
to solve the problem, the FLY Pen provided<br />
re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement (i.e., beeps) for correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, prompts for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct <strong>on</strong>es such as<br />
“switch your digits” or “remember to carry”<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> page numbers for example problems<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Launch Pad. Once the student<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ished writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what they believed was the<br />
soluti<strong>on</strong>, the student tapped “F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
pentop computer resp<strong>on</strong>ded by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
whether the soluti<strong>on</strong> was correct or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct.<br />
If the soluti<strong>on</strong> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct, a specific h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
about where the error was made was provided.<br />
For example, when solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 13 4 if the student<br />
put a 53 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of a 52, a h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t may have<br />
prompted the student to multiply 3 4 aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, students<br />
were required to use the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> associated<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong> software for<br />
all multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems. The materials<br />
used by the students dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded the pen, multiplicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divisi<strong>on</strong><br />
software cartridge, earph<strong>on</strong>es, FLY Pen<br />
Math paper, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pen storage c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>er.<br />
When each student started the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phase of the study, s/he was assigned a box<br />
with the study materials that were stored <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
nearby cab<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>et for easy access dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each<br />
math class.<br />
Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-class practice with the<br />
pentop computer, students were then assessed<br />
<strong>on</strong> the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts acquired dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> three or four per week. These assessments<br />
required the students to solve similar<br />
types of problems to what they had previously<br />
practiced; however, they were not<br />
allowed to use their FLY Pen dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
assessment sessi<strong>on</strong>s. The assessment sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om selecti<strong>on</strong> of five basic multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems (s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digits multiplied<br />
by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digits problems) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five mixed multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems (double digit numbers<br />
multiplied by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digit numbers) for a total<br />
of ten problems per assessment. The percentage<br />
correct out of ten was calculated for each<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imum of a<br />
<strong>on</strong>e week break from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, students<br />
completed a ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which their ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance of the multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. These assessments were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same format as the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> assessments. Specifically,<br />
they <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>om selecti<strong>on</strong> of five basic<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems (s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digits multiplied<br />
by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digits problems) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> five<br />
mixed multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems (double digit<br />
numbers multiplied by s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle digit numbers)<br />
for a total of ten problems per assessment.<br />
The percentage correct out of ten was calculated<br />
for each ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Social Validity<br />
Twice dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong>—first follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the pre-tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> after the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase—students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
teacher were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the social<br />
validity of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FLY Pens for acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> skills (see Table 2 for a list of<br />
the student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher pre <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> post social<br />
validity questi<strong>on</strong>s). Students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers<br />
were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviewed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were asked<br />
FLY Pen Math / 373
TABLE 2<br />
Pre <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Post Social Validity Questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Student Interview Questi<strong>on</strong>s (pre <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1. What do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about the FLY Pen?<br />
2. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k you will like us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen to do your math or spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?<br />
3. What do you like most about it?<br />
4. What do you like least about it?<br />
5. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k it is important to learn spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or math skills? Why?<br />
6. How do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the FLY Pen will help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or math?<br />
Student Interview Questi<strong>on</strong>s (post <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1. Did you like us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen?<br />
2. Did the FLY Pen help you to learn writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills?<br />
a. If it did, how do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k it helped?<br />
b. If it did not, why do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k it did not?<br />
3. What did you like most about the FLY Pen?<br />
4. What was the worst th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g about the FLY Pen?<br />
5. Would you want your teacher to let you keep us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen to do your writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?<br />
6. Would you like to use a FLY Pen for other school work like science or math?<br />
7. Would you like to use the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other classes?<br />
8. Did it help you learn?<br />
Teacher Interview Questi<strong>on</strong>s (pre <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1. What do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about the FLY Pen?<br />
2. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the FLY Pen will assist students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills?<br />
3. What traits or characteristics of the FLY Pen do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k are useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process?<br />
4. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k that us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> its software will allow you as the teacher to be more<br />
efficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g?<br />
5. What are your c<strong>on</strong>cerns about us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen with students for writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities?<br />
6. What benefits do you foresee <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>?<br />
7. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k the FLY Pen is someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g you would use often with students?<br />
Teacher Interview Questi<strong>on</strong>s (post <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
1. Did you like the FLY Pen?<br />
2. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k it was helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills?<br />
3. Do you th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k it was better, worse, or equivalent to traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>? Why?<br />
4. What did you like most <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> least about the FLY Pen?<br />
5. What did you like most <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> least about the FLY Pen software?<br />
6. Would you use the FLY Pen aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>?<br />
7. Would you c<strong>on</strong>sider us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen to teach or re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>force other academic skills if software were<br />
available?<br />
about their likes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dislikes of the FLY Pen<br />
when learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong>. All students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that they liked the FLY Pen after<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pre-tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally,<br />
all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that they liked that the<br />
pen gave audible h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts about ways to solve<br />
math problems. After us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
they enjoyed us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> felt it helped<br />
them learn their multiplicati<strong>on</strong>; however,<br />
there were some aspects of the tool that the<br />
students did not like. Specifically, Diane did<br />
not like us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pentop computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of<br />
the rest of the class because she believed it<br />
374 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
made her st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> out <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> she was more comfortable<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the separate room. Joe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sam disliked that the FLY Pen required<br />
them to rewrite the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems<br />
<strong>on</strong> the FLY Pen paper. Typically, the<br />
teacher h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed out worksheets with the problems<br />
already written <strong>on</strong> them so the students<br />
just had to solve the problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not write<br />
them out. Both Joe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sam felt that hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
rewrite every problem slowed them down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their work.<br />
When asked about her op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s of the<br />
FLY Pen, the teacher also expressed likes<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dislikes about us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al
tool. Prior to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, she believed<br />
that the pen would help the students learn<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong> because it provided audible<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback to the students which she<br />
felt would help engage the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be<br />
more fun. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, she believed<br />
that us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pen was helpful, particularly<br />
for Diane. She also stated that it did slow<br />
the students down <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their work.<br />
Overall, the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher felt that<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pens was beneficial for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
multiplicati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Reliability<br />
Interobserver agreement data were collected<br />
by a tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed sec<strong>on</strong>d observer. For Diane <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sam, reliability data were collected for 40% of<br />
the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s, 43% of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 50% of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
For Joe, reliability data were collected<br />
for 43% of the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e sessi<strong>on</strong>s, 43% of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> sessi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 50% of the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Interobserver agreement was<br />
calculated by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number of agreements<br />
by the number of agreements plus disagreements<br />
of the number of problems solved<br />
correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this number by<br />
100. Agreement was 100% for all three students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each of the phases of the study. When<br />
given the assessments, the students were asked<br />
to write each problem <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer legibly.<br />
These <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s helped ensure clarity <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
students’ writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g; thus, the sec<strong>on</strong>d observer<br />
did not f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d any errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the calculati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the primary observer.<br />
Treatment Integrity<br />
A checklist was developed to assess treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase. The<br />
checklist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded three steps to ensure that<br />
the teacher was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>struct<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the students to use<br />
the FLY Pen to practice solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their mathematics class.<br />
Treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity data were collected dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
44% of the observati<strong>on</strong>s for Diane, 53% of<br />
the observati<strong>on</strong>s for Joe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 66% of the observati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for Sam. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each observati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity data were collected,<br />
the researcher assessed whether the<br />
teacher implemented each step as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated.<br />
For Diane, treatment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was 100% for<br />
all of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s observed, for Joe, treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was 96%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for Sam the treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was 100%. For Joe, the treatment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrity was lower because the teacher forgot<br />
to prompt Joe get his FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he had to<br />
be rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ded by the researcher to get his pen.<br />
The teacher corrected this oversight dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
subsequent sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Results<br />
Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that students dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the percentage of multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems solved correctly from basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Each<br />
student showed relevant ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> correct performance<br />
between basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Figure 1 illustrates the percent of multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems solved correctly while us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
FLY Pen dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each of the study c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Diane<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Diane’s basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, the mean percent of<br />
problems solved correctly was 11.4%. A visual<br />
analysis of data dem<strong>on</strong>strate that there was a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderable <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the number of problems<br />
solved correctly dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> with<br />
a mean performance score of 62.9%. The percentage<br />
of n<strong>on</strong>-overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data between the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase was<br />
100% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was effective<br />
for Diane. Similarly, the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
mean (75%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased from both the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> means. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the percentage<br />
of n<strong>on</strong>-overlapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data between the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase was<br />
100% show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the results of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
were able to be ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed over time.<br />
Joe<br />
Joe’s mean percent of problems solved correctly<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e was 30.6%. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
he achieved a mean of 50.0%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease over basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e levels. His<br />
mean performance score dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> decreased slightly to 45%.<br />
Visual analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated some variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Joe’s performance; however, he did dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
a rapid <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the number of problems<br />
solved correctly when the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
FLY Pen Math / 375
Figure 1. Percent of multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems solved correctly for Diane, Joe, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sam when us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLYPen<br />
as a mathematical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tool.<br />
376 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009
was first <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced. Specifically, when compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the last two sessi<strong>on</strong>s of at the end of the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first two sessi<strong>on</strong>s at the<br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, there<br />
was an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease from 14.3% of the problems<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g solved correctly to 50% of the problems<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g solved correctly (an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease of 35.7%)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an immediate change of level for<br />
Joe.<br />
Sam<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Sam’s basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, the mean percent of<br />
problems solved correctly was 48.6%. The<br />
mean dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase was<br />
74.3%, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the overall<br />
problems solved correctly. The mean for<br />
Sam’s ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase was 70.0%, suggest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a slight decrease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the problems Sam<br />
solved correctly <strong>on</strong>ce the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> ended.<br />
Visual analysis <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that Sam dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
a high variability of performance dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase; however, less variability<br />
was observed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the median for the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
phase was 28.6% of the problems solved correctly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the median for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phase is 100% of the problems solved correctly<br />
signify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the level dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase. There was also a rapid<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease observed between the last sessi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e where the assessment score was<br />
14.3% solved correctly <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first sessi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase where the assessment<br />
score was 50.0% (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease of 35.7%), which<br />
reveals an immediate change of level.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
The purpose of this study was to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the<br />
effectiveness of the FLY Pen when used as a<br />
mathematical <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tool for students<br />
with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. The results<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students’ assessment<br />
scores <strong>on</strong> multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phase; however, the extent of these<br />
results was variable am<strong>on</strong>g the students. The<br />
results suggest that all three participants experienced<br />
an immediate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the percentage<br />
of problems solved correctly when they<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially began us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen. These<br />
results support previous research that found<br />
technology may be beneficial when used to<br />
teach math skills to students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities (Hort<strong>on</strong> et al., 1992; Jaspers<br />
& Van Lieshout, 1994; Masteropieri et al.,<br />
1997).<br />
Dihoff, Brosvic, Epste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cook (2005)<br />
exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the improvement of mathematics<br />
abilities of students with mild disabilities. They<br />
found that students who received immediate<br />
feedback from an educator or from an Immediate<br />
Feedback Assessment Technique (IF<br />
AT) <strong>on</strong> mathematical assessments dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
reducti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> errors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a greater retenti<strong>on</strong><br />
of the material. The FLY Pen similarly<br />
provides students with immediate<br />
feedback through its beeps (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a correct<br />
number or answer was written) or<br />
prompts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct answer (i.e.,<br />
the pen say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “not there yet, there’s more to<br />
do”). Dihoff et al. called for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>strument<br />
that can be used by students with disabilities<br />
that can not <strong>on</strong>ly assess correct answers but<br />
also provide feedback <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> correct misunderst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
of material. The audible output provided<br />
by the FLY Pen does this through the<br />
feedback given when a student answers a questi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correctly. The prompts assist students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> identify<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g where errors are made <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> allow<br />
them to c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
problems until a correct answer is obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. A<br />
teacher who is work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually with a student<br />
typically would provide this type of <strong>on</strong>e<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e<br />
feedback. S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the pentop computer<br />
can provide this feedback <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead, this may<br />
help to decrease the amount of time teachers<br />
spend work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e-<strong>on</strong>-<strong>on</strong>e with students.<br />
While the FLY Pen does provide immediate<br />
feedback, there was variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the students’<br />
assessment scores <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses to the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Diane, who expressed a dislike<br />
for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the technology <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of her classmates,<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated the most significant<br />
changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her assessment scores dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phases. When<br />
Diane expressed discomfort <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pentop<br />
computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of her classmates, she<br />
was accommodated by be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g allowed to use<br />
the FLY Pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a separate room across the<br />
hall. Diane expressed an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> motivati<strong>on</strong><br />
for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her multiplicati<strong>on</strong> facts after<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen. Although allowed to use<br />
a multiplicati<strong>on</strong> table (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
FLY Pen) for her work, Diane tended to<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly use the FLY Pen. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-<br />
FLY Pen Math / 377
venti<strong>on</strong> phase, the teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that Diane<br />
received 100% <strong>on</strong> her daily timed tests.<br />
Diane tended to want to please her teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this motivati<strong>on</strong> to dem<strong>on</strong>strate c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uous<br />
improvements <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> her classroom assessments<br />
may have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluenced her ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
results. Diane had the l<strong>on</strong>gest break between<br />
the end of her <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase; however, of the three students,<br />
she received the highest average percent<br />
correct dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase.<br />
Joe’s variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his assessments has a variety<br />
of possible explanati<strong>on</strong>s. Joe expressed<br />
dislike <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to rewrite the multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
problems <strong>on</strong> the FLY Pen paper <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced<br />
difficulty with his basic multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts. In additi<strong>on</strong> to us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FLY Pen, Joe<br />
also relied <strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his multiplicati<strong>on</strong> tables<br />
when complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his mathematics worksheets<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class. Joe was encouraged to <strong>on</strong>ly use the<br />
pentop computer <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> not the multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
table; however, Joe was not always able to fully<br />
comprehend the auditory prompts provided<br />
by the FLY Pen result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> him becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
frustrated with the tool. He would repeatedly<br />
tap the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t butt<strong>on</strong> to try to get different h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts<br />
from the pen <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then ultimately ask if he<br />
could use his table. Joe also had a sec<strong>on</strong>dary<br />
diagnosis of a communicati<strong>on</strong> disorder <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this may have impacted his ability to accurately<br />
comprehend certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompts provided<br />
by the pentop computer. Joe’s reliance <strong>on</strong><br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> table <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dislike of<br />
rewrit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the problems possibly c<strong>on</strong>tributed to<br />
the variability of Joe’s assessment scores. The<br />
decreases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scores observed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Joe’s<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate a lack of retenti<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his ability to solve the multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
facts. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the assessment dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance phase where Joe scored 20%,<br />
although r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly drawn, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a majority<br />
of higher digit problems (problems with 7s,<br />
8s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 9s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> them). These are the type of<br />
problems with which Joe tended to struggle<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he would typically rely <strong>on</strong> his multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
table to solve. The multiplicati<strong>on</strong> tables<br />
were not allowed to be used by students dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the assessments c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this was<br />
possibly a factor <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Joe’s low score.<br />
Of the participants, Sam seemed to enjoy<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pen the most. However, like Joe, he<br />
expressed a dislike <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to rewrite every<br />
problem <strong>on</strong> the FLY Pen paper. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase, there was less variability <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Sam’s scores <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> this may be a reflecti<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Sam’s enjoyment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pentop computer.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> assessments,<br />
Sam <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that he was hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
difficult time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even said, “I wish I had my<br />
FLY Pen, this is hard.” One notable f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was that Sam <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated he felt that sometimes<br />
the FLY Pen did not help him learn multiplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
because, <strong>on</strong> occasi<strong>on</strong>, it would just<br />
give him the answer. This made him not have<br />
to th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k about solv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the problem because<br />
the pen would just say the answer without<br />
requir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student to attempt to solve the<br />
problem. This would occur at times if a student<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued to use the h<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t butt<strong>on</strong> before<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g what they believed to be the answer<br />
down.<br />
The results of this study have important<br />
implicati<strong>on</strong>s for the use of smart toys <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased requirements<br />
for schools to dem<strong>on</strong>strate mathematical<br />
proficiency for all students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
those with disabilities, will c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue to be an<br />
important topic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
(NCLB, 2002). One way to assist teachers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> schools with this m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate may be through<br />
the use of assistive technology such as smart<br />
toys. This study found that there were ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
made by all of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study; however,<br />
these variable results may warrant<br />
teacher discreti<strong>on</strong> when c<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
pentop computer as an assistive technology<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, particularly if they have limited<br />
funds to spend <strong>on</strong> classroom supplies. Many<br />
smart toys can be rather expensive; the cost of<br />
the FLY Pen itself tends to be around $80<br />
per pentop computer with an additi<strong>on</strong>al cost<br />
of $15–30 per software.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Future Directi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
378 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
One of the limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study is that <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
three of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom served<br />
as participants. If all of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
class were able to participate, the students who<br />
participated may have reported different percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of the FLY Pen. Specifically, Diane<br />
may not have felt like she stood out as much if<br />
all of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the class had been us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the tool. Also, if all of the students were required<br />
to use the FLY Pen, Joe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sam may<br />
not have felt like they were be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g slowed down
ecause all of the students would be required<br />
to rewrite the multiplicati<strong>on</strong> problems <strong>on</strong> the<br />
FLY Pen paper. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the teacher<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that <strong>on</strong>e dislike she had with us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the technology was that she always had to<br />
rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the students to use their pentop computer.<br />
If all of the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the class were<br />
able to use a FLY Pen then it was easier for<br />
the teacher to rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d all of the students at<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stead of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual students. For this<br />
study, <strong>on</strong>ly three students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the classroom<br />
were selected as participants due to these students<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the same disability classificati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a similar math level; however, future studies<br />
may seek to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effects of us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the FLY Pens <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a classroom where all of the<br />
students have access to us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pens. Another<br />
limitati<strong>on</strong> was the student’s access to<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong> tables dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
phase. Future studies may want to<br />
exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effect of the FLY Pens for<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multiplicati<strong>on</strong> with students who do<br />
not use multiplicati<strong>on</strong> tables as part of the<br />
class.<br />
Future replicati<strong>on</strong> studies should be c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
to better assess the effects of the FLY<br />
Pen as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tool <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the area of<br />
mathematics for students with mild <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities as well as for students with<br />
other types of disabilities. Only <strong>on</strong>e student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the current study had a sec<strong>on</strong>dary disability<br />
(communicati<strong>on</strong> disorder), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it would be of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effectiveness of FLY<br />
Pens between groups of students with different<br />
types of disabilities. Furthermore, Leap-<br />
Frog developed a variety of software that can<br />
also be used as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tools with the<br />
FLY Pens. Future studies may want to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
how the FLY Pen can provide assistance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> other academic areas or mathematical c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
areas for students with disabilities (i.e.,<br />
spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, algebra, Spanish). In additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to future studies that focus <strong>on</strong> students<br />
with disabilities, it would be of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
how this type of technology might be<br />
useful for students without disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs.<br />
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Beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d: A guide for professi<strong>on</strong>als. Upper Saddle<br />
River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Effectiveness of Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program<br />
(PTCP) for Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Self-Care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domestic Skills to<br />
Individuals with Autism<br />
Atilla Cavkaytar<br />
Anadolu University<br />
Elena Pollard<br />
Guthrie Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stream Services, AZ<br />
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to develop <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effectiveness of a Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist<br />
Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism with vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>al needs, age, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severity of disability. Three <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism, <strong>on</strong>e habilitati<strong>on</strong> provider, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three parents participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. A multiple probe design with probe c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s across skills was used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
order to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effectiveness of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variables <strong>on</strong> the dependent variable. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variable<br />
of the study was Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program (PTCP) for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> is completed when the parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapists determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e that they are<br />
proficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the tasks expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> home visits, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g how to complete various<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g forms for target skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to apply teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods. Result show that the PTCP was effective<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to children with autism.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to The Revised Fourth Editi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
Diagnostic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Statistical Manual, (DSM-IV-<br />
TR), autism is characterized as hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: Qualitative<br />
impairments <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> social <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repetitive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stereotyped<br />
patterns of behavior (American Psychiatric<br />
Associati<strong>on</strong>, 2000). In additi<strong>on</strong>, people<br />
with autism often acquire self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills, but require additi<strong>on</strong>al supports<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the form of supervisi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to ensure <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent performance<br />
(Hibbert, Kost<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>as, & Luiselli, 2002). Many<br />
The first author completed this study when he<br />
was a visit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Professor at Ariz<strong>on</strong>a State University,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> of Curriculum & Instructi<strong>on</strong>. Thanks to all<br />
who assisted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Dr. Samuel DiGangi <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> faculty. Special thanks to the<br />
Guthrie Recreati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapy Center,<br />
a private center for children with developmental<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ler, AZ. We would also like to<br />
extend a warm thank you to the families, children,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapists who participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should be addressed<br />
to Atilla Cavkaytar, Anadolu University, Faculty<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Eskisehir, 26470, TURKEY.<br />
Email: acavkayt@anadolu.edu.tr<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 381–395<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism have deficits <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
ability to functi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> need<br />
multiple forms of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> to master daily<br />
liv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills (Carothers & Taylor, 2004). An<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual who has essential self-care skills<br />
such as dress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, eat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> toilet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered as <strong>on</strong>e who has taken important<br />
steps toward ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent life. As<br />
a ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> aspect of American Associati<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong><br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(AAIDD-formerly AAMR—American Associati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong>) def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>, help<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with a developmental disability<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> practical skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care skills<br />
are important for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> society (AAMR,<br />
2002).<br />
Matthews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Huds<strong>on</strong> (2001) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted out<br />
that the parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods by which<br />
parents are taught parent<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g strategies should<br />
follow sound <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples based <strong>on</strong><br />
established theories of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. There is a<br />
great deal of evidence that applied behavioral<br />
analysis (ABA) is a highly effective form of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for children with autism (Dillenburger,<br />
Keenan, Gallagher, & McElh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ney,<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 381
2004; Feldman & Werner, 2002). Cooper,<br />
Her<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Heward, (2007) stated that “ABA is<br />
the science <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which tactics derived from the<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples of behavior are applied systematically<br />
to improve socially significant behavior<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experimentati<strong>on</strong> is used to identify the<br />
variables for behavior change.” (p. 20). This<br />
method utilizes behavioral pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples such as<br />
positive re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement to teach <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with special needs skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a planned, systematic<br />
manner, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> offers repeated opportunities<br />
across the day, sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, people, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials<br />
to practice their new skills.<br />
As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> many parts of the world, the United<br />
States provides educati<strong>on</strong>al supports for people<br />
with developmental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two<br />
forms: educati<strong>on</strong>al assistance with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private schools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> center<br />
based therapy services. <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>al assistance<br />
with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> private schools is funded<br />
through the Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sists of special educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
regular educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms with special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
support that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes but is not limited<br />
to: speech, occupati<strong>on</strong>al, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physical<br />
therapies; counsel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>; Individualized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Plan (IDEA, 2004). These<br />
supports are offered from the time a student<br />
enters preschool until they have graduated<br />
high school if the team f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ds the need to be<br />
<strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> can be provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a public<br />
school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> private sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that<br />
specialize <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their specific disability. Home<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> center-based therapy services are funded<br />
through the Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Security<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide <strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e treatment that<br />
may <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude: speech, occupati<strong>on</strong>al, physical,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> music therapy; behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s;<br />
respite care; attendant care; habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapies (Ariz<strong>on</strong>a Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Security, 1996). These services are provided<br />
from the time a child is diagnosed with a<br />
developmental disability until such time as<br />
the services are not necessary or they show<br />
enough progressi<strong>on</strong> that they no l<strong>on</strong>ger meet<br />
the criteria for the diagnosis.<br />
The use of paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> public<br />
schools has become <strong>on</strong>e of the primary mechanisms<br />
by which students with disabilities are<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g supported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> classes<br />
(Giangreco, Edelman, Broer, & Doyle, 2001;<br />
Giangreco, Smith, & P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ckney, 2006). Paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
can be used to support the edu-<br />
382 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
cati<strong>on</strong> of student with, or without, disabilities.<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to Giangreco, et al. paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
need orientati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support. Just as educators<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs rely <strong>on</strong> the assistance<br />
of these paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als to work <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e with the child with a disability, so do<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs that provide home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> center-based<br />
behavioral therapies. Some states have a specific<br />
system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> place that provides state <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
federally funded therapy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> other forms of<br />
assistance to children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adults with developmental<br />
disabilities. Many of these services provide<br />
assistance by tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed pers<strong>on</strong>nel that work<br />
<strong>on</strong>e <strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the client’s home, or at therapy<br />
centers that cater to each pers<strong>on</strong>’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
needs. These pers<strong>on</strong>nel, called “habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapists” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state of Ariz<strong>on</strong>a, carry out<br />
behavioral <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that a team of professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
have designated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order for the<br />
client to meet their specific goals. As def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by the Ariz<strong>on</strong>a Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic Security<br />
habilitati<strong>on</strong> services: “provide a variety<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s such as applied behavior analysis,<br />
social skill tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, sensory <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tegrati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are designed to maximize the<br />
functi<strong>on</strong><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the pers<strong>on</strong> with developmental<br />
disabilities” (Ariz<strong>on</strong>a Department of Ec<strong>on</strong>omic<br />
Security, 1996).<br />
Due to the amount of services that are<br />
needed to care for a pers<strong>on</strong> with developmental<br />
disabilities, often states can <strong>on</strong>ly provide<br />
low hourly wages for pers<strong>on</strong>nel work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong>e<br />
<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong>e. This does not afford highly educated<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als to carry out the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual’s service<br />
plan <strong>on</strong> a daily basis. Therefore it is crucial<br />
to tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> highly motivated pers<strong>on</strong>nel that<br />
work under the supervisi<strong>on</strong> of the team of<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to carry out the behavioral<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> plan. Although the welltra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
pers<strong>on</strong>nel are a very important additi<strong>on</strong><br />
to the educati<strong>on</strong> of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with<br />
autism, parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families are the most vital<br />
part of the team. Sym<strong>on</strong> (2001) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted out a<br />
large body of research which shows the importance<br />
of parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> of children with autism. Brookman-<br />
Frazee, Vismara, Drahota, Stahmer, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Openden (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press) also highlight multiple<br />
parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g models <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the efficacy of<br />
deliver<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> through the primary<br />
caregiver. Parent educati<strong>on</strong> is found to be<br />
effective <strong>on</strong> reduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g problem behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
also teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g various skills to these children. It
is well known that when parents learn the<br />
pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples of ABA regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
they implement the system successfully (Batu,<br />
2008; Cavkaytar, 2007; Weiss & Rutgers, 2006).<br />
Although there are some research studies<br />
show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the effectiveness of parent implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
ABA, there is still a need to see the<br />
effects of parent-therapist collaborati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
partnership (Hanna & Rodger, 2002). Some<br />
of the research showed that home-based parent<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs, based <strong>on</strong> ABA were<br />
effective for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent life skills.<br />
For example, Batu exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the effectiveness<br />
of caregiver delivered home-based <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed home skills. Results of<br />
the study showed that the care givers were<br />
successful at provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to their<br />
children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the children acquired, ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalized the target behaviors.<br />
When the literature was reviewed some studies<br />
show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g effectiveness of parent-therapist collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
or parent-teacher partnership were<br />
found. For example Hanna <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Roger suggest<br />
that parent-therapist partnership helped to acquire<br />
better therapy outcomes for the children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their families. The authors also c<strong>on</strong>cluded<br />
that the partnership had assisted<br />
children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families to reach mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful,<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their daily lives. Also Ruble<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Dalrymple (2002) menti<strong>on</strong>ed that children<br />
with autism would benefit more if they<br />
attend more to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al c<strong>on</strong>text.<br />
Therefore it is said that hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents participate<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the educati<strong>on</strong>al process <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> deliver<br />
therapeutic methods <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home envir<strong>on</strong>ment<br />
is crucial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the lives of children with<br />
autism.<br />
The present study was designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance<br />
with past research f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the importance of parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapy<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>. It is the hypothesis of<br />
this study that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism would<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalize mastered skills, if parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g techniques<br />
based <strong>on</strong> ABA work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
with <strong>on</strong>e another, rather than therapists<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills al<strong>on</strong>e. In order to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the hypothesis, Cavkaytar’s (1999) parent<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program about teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
domestic skills (PTP-TSEDOS) was chosen.<br />
The program was shown to be effective with<br />
mothers <strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic<br />
skills to their children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Turkey (Cavkaytar,<br />
1999, 2007). Parents with various educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
backgrounds took part <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the program. In<br />
both studies, the mothers who completed the<br />
program have managed to teach the targeted<br />
self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to their children<br />
at home. At the end of the program, children<br />
acquired the skills that were taught by their<br />
mothers. The program was replicated for<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills by<br />
teacher aides. Teacher aides who were work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a private rehabilitati<strong>on</strong> center participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. At the end of the program<br />
the implementati<strong>on</strong>s of the teacher aides were<br />
found to be effective as well (Sabanova &<br />
Cavkaytar, 2007). Also, the program was applied<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to teach toilet skills to children<br />
with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was<br />
found to be effective for mothers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
these skills to their children (Ozcan & Cavkaytar,<br />
2009). At the end of the study, the program<br />
was seen as effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mothers who<br />
participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study managed to teach<br />
toilet skills to their children. Therefore; this<br />
study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tends to exp<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evidence-based practices<br />
<strong>on</strong> specifically teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practical adaptive<br />
skills (e.g., self care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills).<br />
The purpose of the current study was to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the effectiveness of a Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program (PTCP) for<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals<br />
with autism. The researchers were also<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested to see if the program was most effective<br />
when taught by a parent al<strong>on</strong>e, a therapist<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e, or a parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapist team.<br />
The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g research questi<strong>on</strong>s were addressed<br />
for each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual child participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigate the effectiveness of the PTCP:<br />
(1) Was child Aa able to perform targeted<br />
skills that were “sweep under the table”, “tooth<br />
brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g remote c<strong>on</strong>trol” taught<br />
by her mother A who was work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a therapist<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> center? (2) Was child Bb able to perform<br />
targeted skills that were “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s”, “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”<br />
taught by both mother B <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> his therapist<br />
BT? (3) Was child Cc able to perform<br />
targeted skills that were “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”, “put<br />
toys away”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the ph<strong>on</strong>e” taught<br />
by his mother? (4) What were the mothers’<br />
op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s about PTCP?<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 383
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded three children with autism,<br />
their mothers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist<br />
that worked with children with autism.<br />
All participant children were receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g state<br />
funded therapy services through the <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ariz<strong>on</strong>a. In<br />
order to receive these services they must have<br />
a documented diagnosis of autism given by a<br />
child psychologist or developmental pediatrician.<br />
No records of their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual IQ scores<br />
were available. Children were attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
G.R.E.A.T. Kids center (Guthrie Recreati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapy), a private center for<br />
children with developmental disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Ch<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ler, Ariz<strong>on</strong>a. The first mother A was 33<br />
years old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> atta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed an associate degree.<br />
She was married <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had two children, <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
which was diagnosed with autism. She was a<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mother who was a former habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapist that was promoted to a supervisory<br />
role. She c<strong>on</strong>ducted the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> both at<br />
the center <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at home with her daughter <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
parallel sessi<strong>on</strong>s. Mother A was placed as “parent<br />
as therapist” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. Her daughter<br />
Aa was five years old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could follow two-step<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
write at that time.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d mother B was 41 years old <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
has a Master’s degree. She was married <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
had three children, two with developmental<br />
disabilities, <strong>on</strong>e of which was diagnosed with<br />
autism. Her four year old s<strong>on</strong> Bb was mostly<br />
n<strong>on</strong>verbal with a few s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle words, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had<br />
difficulty <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g more than <strong>on</strong>e-step directi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
His therapist BT was a high school<br />
graduate. The therapist BT worked with him<br />
for three-hour sessi<strong>on</strong>s per week for several<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> with Bb would be<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the mother B <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the therapist<br />
BT at the same time both at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at the<br />
center. The third mother C was work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, married,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had two children, <strong>on</strong>e of which was<br />
diagnosed with autism. Her seven year old s<strong>on</strong><br />
Cc was able to follow all s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-step <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> some<br />
two-step directi<strong>on</strong>s, had limited verbal language,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could recognize letters, numbers<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> read s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle words. This mother worked<br />
al<strong>on</strong>e. She did not have a therapist work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the study with her. The participati<strong>on</strong> criteria<br />
for parents were as follows <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study:<br />
(a) they should read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write; (b) they<br />
should voluntarily attend tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
be capable of carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures<br />
at home. The follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria was also<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sidered for children to be participants:<br />
(a) they should be between ages of 3 to 7,<br />
(b) diagnosed with autism, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) could follow<br />
simple <strong>on</strong>e-step directi<strong>on</strong>s such as “come,<br />
go, sit down, st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> up, open, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> close.” The<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g criteria for the habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists<br />
were taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to account for be the participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study: (a) to have at least two<br />
m<strong>on</strong>ths of experience <strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills to<br />
people with developmental disabilities, (b) to<br />
have completed 10 hours of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g given by<br />
the State of Ariz<strong>on</strong>a’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, that outl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es how to effectively<br />
teach skills to people with developmental disabilities<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods of Applied Behavioral<br />
Analysis, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) to voluntarily attend tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be capable of carry<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g out tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
procedures at the therapy centers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
provide tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their home.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Materials<br />
Three different sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
study: Meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room for parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapist<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs at the center, therapy<br />
room for therapist work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> children’s<br />
home for home supervisi<strong>on</strong>. The parent<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g room at the center. The other sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was the children’s own home. All the house<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were as designed by the parents. No<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al accommodati<strong>on</strong> was planned. All<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the home visits were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the natural envir<strong>on</strong>ment of children’s<br />
daily lives. There were no selected specific<br />
materials such as toys, daily furniture or<br />
items <strong>on</strong> data collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g periods.<br />
All materials were natural materials used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
daily rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es.<br />
Design<br />
384 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
As <strong>on</strong>e of the methods of s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle subject designs,<br />
a multiple probe research design across<br />
behaviors was used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d out the<br />
effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variables <strong>on</strong> the dependent<br />
variables. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent variable of<br />
the study was Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collabora-
ti<strong>on</strong> Program (PTCP) for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self care<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism.<br />
The dependent variable was performance<br />
level of children with autism <strong>on</strong> self care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
domestic skills taught by their mothers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
therapist.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
In the study, accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the multiple probe<br />
design across behaviors, the children’s basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
phase, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase, probe phase <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
follow up phase data c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g performance<br />
level of acquisiti<strong>on</strong> of children <strong>on</strong> the target<br />
skills were collected. Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, probes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
follow up phase data were collected by the<br />
researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with the research<br />
model. The s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle opportunity method was<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collecti<strong>on</strong> procedures. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to that method, firstly the materials to be used<br />
were prepared <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was organized.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>dly, the record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedures were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated<br />
by giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the child or adult discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ative<br />
stimuli. The skill steps carried out correctly<br />
were marked as correct (). When the<br />
child had no resp<strong>on</strong>se with<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 10 skill steps,<br />
applicati<strong>on</strong> would be stopped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rest of<br />
the items would be marked as wr<strong>on</strong>g ().<br />
When the child had a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se for<br />
<strong>on</strong>e item <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct resp<strong>on</strong>se for the<br />
next item, the correct <strong>on</strong>es were marked as<br />
(), the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct or skipped <strong>on</strong>es were<br />
marked as (). The tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase data for<br />
each skill were collected by the participant<br />
parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapist us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Data Record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Form for <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> Procedure (DRFTP)<br />
provided by the program. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program, how to fill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the forms was<br />
expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> detail. Social validity data were<br />
collected from mothers by “PTCP Exit<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naire.” The questi<strong>on</strong>naire <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded<br />
n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e questi<strong>on</strong>s about satisfacti<strong>on</strong> of the mothers<br />
regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the study. The questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
was sent to the mothers by e-mail when the<br />
study was completed, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mothers were<br />
asked to send the answers of the questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
through e-mail as well.<br />
Independent Variable<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> Program<br />
(PTCP) for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills.<br />
The purpose of the PTCP was to enable par-<br />
ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapists of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with autism<br />
to teach self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to their<br />
children/student. PTCP has been adapted<br />
from the parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to children<br />
with mental retardati<strong>on</strong> developed by Cavkaytar<br />
(1999, 2007).<br />
PTCP c<strong>on</strong>sisted of group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
(<strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e) teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities with parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
of these procedures, the “Teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Self-Care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Domestic Skills Manual”<br />
(TSCDSM), which was replicated by Cavkaytar<br />
(1999) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> accordance with the program objectives,<br />
was used. The purpose of the TSCDSM<br />
was to make the parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists<br />
knowledgeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skillful about the<br />
program’s objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tent. TSCDSM<br />
had three parts: <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong>, prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g before<br />
skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. An<br />
appendices secti<strong>on</strong> was also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
manual. The manual c<strong>on</strong>sisted of lists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
forms for parents to prepare dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the study.<br />
As part of the program, group <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapists were planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>ducted. First,<br />
as group tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of the program, group<br />
meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were c<strong>on</strong>ducted. The purpose was to<br />
give tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to parents about the topics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
TSCDSM. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual (<strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e)<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g part of the program, home visits with<br />
parents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> center visits with habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapists were planned <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>ducted with<br />
parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists. The purpose<br />
of the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g aspect<br />
of the program, was three-fold; (1) to<br />
enable the parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists<br />
transform the knowledge they ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to practice, (2) to see the<br />
parents, habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the child<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e practice under the supervisi<strong>on</strong><br />
of an expert <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, (3) to give tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the<br />
parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists while apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the program.<br />
Procedure<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong> started with the first group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Three group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, each of which<br />
lasted 1.5 hours, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a home visit to the parents’<br />
home of each parent lasted 1.5 hours<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted. Also visits to the center of<br />
therapist BT last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 1.5 hours were c<strong>on</strong>-<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 385
ducted. Group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were held <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
room <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school of participant students.<br />
Each group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> each home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> center<br />
visit lasted until the mothers were competent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the objectives identified. In<br />
the first parent meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, extensive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
was provided to participants regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(a) how the program works, (b) how to use<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong> secti<strong>on</strong> of the TSCDSM, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
(c) how to identify the child’s performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rewards as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
part of the manual. Sec<strong>on</strong>d, participants were<br />
asked to identify the skills, which their children/student<br />
were or were not able to perform.<br />
They were also asked to put the skills<br />
they identified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order of priority <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
identify rewards they would like to use <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
home activities. In the sec<strong>on</strong>d meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, the<br />
follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities took place. First, extra activities<br />
given to the mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed.<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, some explanati<strong>on</strong> was made about<br />
plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al activities as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sec<strong>on</strong>d part of the manual. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, the<br />
first skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the list prepared by the participants<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g home/center activities was chosen<br />
as the sample skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> DRFTP was prepared.<br />
All mothers chose cutt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g nails as the<br />
sample skill. In the third meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, some explanati<strong>on</strong><br />
was provided about important po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts<br />
that the participants should be careful before<br />
start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skill tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
activities as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third part of the<br />
manual. In additi<strong>on</strong> some cues c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the skill tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g were provided to participants.<br />
Participants were tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <strong>on</strong> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
visual aids for each skill by way of photo books.<br />
For each skill a photo of some<strong>on</strong>e perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each step was taken, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a typed label with<br />
step number was adhered to the specific step.<br />
The photos were placed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the book from<br />
fr<strong>on</strong>t to back, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the order that each step was<br />
performed. The books were to be used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as another form of prompt when a<br />
child was stuck <strong>on</strong> a particular skill step. Participants<br />
also used the photo book to discuss<br />
the skill with the child outside of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, by turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pages <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> label<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
steps together.<br />
After complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g three group meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs,<br />
<strong>on</strong>e visit to each mother’s home was made by<br />
the researchers. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the home/center visit,<br />
the participants, under the supervisi<strong>on</strong> of the<br />
researcher, carried out the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al activity<br />
of the sample skill. At the end of the visit,<br />
three <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent skills, which each participant<br />
would like to work with her own child/<br />
student, were identified together with the participati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
All these steps were carried out by<br />
the participants themselves under the supervisi<strong>on</strong><br />
of the researcher. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the visit,<br />
participants c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> of the sample<br />
skill they started with the researcher dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
home visit until there was c<strong>on</strong>sistency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the data after three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s. At<br />
the same time, they prepared DRFTP for each<br />
of the three skills identified. When there was<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistency <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the data, participants called the<br />
researchers. The researcher visited each parent<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to get follow up data of the<br />
sample skill <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the probe <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data<br />
of the other skills. In the first part of the visit,<br />
the researchers carefully exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the<br />
DRFTP prepared by the participants for three<br />
skills. Then, they obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the probe data<br />
<strong>on</strong>ce for these three skills.<br />
Reliability<br />
In order to provide reliability across observers,<br />
habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapists of participant children<br />
at the private center were chosen as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
observers. They were first tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for<br />
“record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedure”. Follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this, reliability<br />
across observers was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for<br />
each skill us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the “agreement/agreement <br />
disagreement 100” formula (Tawney & Gast,<br />
1984) for at least 20% of the data. Reliability<br />
was 100% for the first participant child, 75%<br />
for the sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the third participant child.<br />
Across all skills for all participant children,<br />
overall <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-rater reliability was found as 94%.<br />
Social Validati<strong>on</strong><br />
386 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Social validity data were gathered via a n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
items questi<strong>on</strong>naire from participant mothers.<br />
Seven of the items were Likert type scale; two<br />
of the questi<strong>on</strong>s were open ended. The questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
had five rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g scales: str<strong>on</strong>gly disagree,<br />
disagree, neutral, agree, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> str<strong>on</strong>gly<br />
agree. The questi<strong>on</strong>s were as follow: (a) Prior<br />
to beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this study, I felt comfortable with<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self care skills to my child with autism,<br />
(b) Prior to this study, I understood the<br />
basic pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples of Applied Behavioral Analysis
(re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers, prompt levels, break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to steps, etc.) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to implement them<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my child with autism, (c) I felt<br />
that the photo books I made were helpful<br />
when teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills to my child, (d) I felt<br />
that the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs given prior to the study<br />
were easy to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, even for some<strong>on</strong>e<br />
who has little experience with teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills<br />
to children with autism, (e) I would recommend<br />
the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to other parents of children<br />
with autism, (f) Up<strong>on</strong> completi<strong>on</strong> of this<br />
study, I feel comfortable with teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self<br />
care skills to my child, (g) Up<strong>on</strong> completi<strong>on</strong><br />
of this study, I underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basic pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ciples<br />
of Applied Behavioral Analysis (re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcers,<br />
prompt levels, break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to steps, etc.)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how to implement them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g my<br />
child with autism. The open ended questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were: (h) What I liked most about this<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, (i) What I liked least<br />
about this tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program. The questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
was e-mailed to the parents. The data<br />
from the questi<strong>on</strong>naires were analyzed by the<br />
first author by gather<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g similar answers from<br />
the participants.<br />
Results<br />
Results for “Aa”<br />
Data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from the study were analyzed<br />
graphically. Figure 1 illustrates mother A’s<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities with her child Aa about<br />
“sweep under table”, then “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lastly “us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g remote c<strong>on</strong>trol” at home <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
also at the center.<br />
Aa was able to perform very few of the skill<br />
steps at basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for all skills, as illustrated by<br />
the first data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts <strong>on</strong> each graph. Probe data<br />
obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from all skills seems to be c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
with the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data. A noticeable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sometimes<br />
fluctuat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process can be seen for each<br />
of the three skills throughout the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
process. All skills were performed above 80%<br />
at completi<strong>on</strong>. Moreover, follow up data were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistent with those of teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to these results, the PTCP provided to<br />
the mother A <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> additi<strong>on</strong> to her tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as a<br />
therapist was c<strong>on</strong>sidered as effective.<br />
Results for “Bb”<br />
Figure 2 illustrates skills taught to Bb, by his<br />
therapist BT at center <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also mother at<br />
home. The skills are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the order they<br />
were taught, beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s”,<br />
then “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> lastly “tooth<br />
brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.”<br />
Participant Bb was unable to perform any of<br />
the skill steps at basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for the skills “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s”, “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “tooth<br />
brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”, as illustrated by the first data po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t<br />
<strong>on</strong> each graph. Probe data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from all<br />
skills seems to be c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
data. Child Bb’s noticeable process can be<br />
seen for first <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skills throughout the<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process. First <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skills were<br />
performed above 94-100% respectively. His<br />
mother stated that she did not take much data<br />
<strong>on</strong> the third skill however did work <strong>on</strong> the<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods with him. She menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
that she was able to take data for two trials to<br />
show his progress, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he was at 80% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence.<br />
This data is c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
probe data taken. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to these results,<br />
parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provided to mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with her therapist BT can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
effective for “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
“putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>”. The skill of “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”<br />
was taught successfully us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
methods, although the data to support this<br />
claim is limited. Figure 3 illustrates habilitati<strong>on</strong><br />
therapist BT’s data for same skills as<br />
“wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s”, then “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
lastly “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.”<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist BT’s<br />
data, child Bb was unable to perform any of<br />
the skill steps at basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for the skills “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s”, “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shoes <strong>on</strong>” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “tooth<br />
brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”. Probe data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from all skills<br />
seems to be c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data.<br />
An acceptable process can be seen for first<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skills throughout the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process.<br />
First <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skills were performed<br />
above 80%. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the third skill child Bb<br />
experienced a change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist<br />
BT three times, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> data collecti<strong>on</strong> did not rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistent.<br />
There was a small amount of data<br />
taken <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s with the<br />
therapist BT. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to these results, parent<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provided to mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with the therapist BT can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
as effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> “wash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
shoes <strong>on</strong>”. Child Bb also completed third skill,<br />
“tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g” as shown <strong>on</strong> Figure 3.<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 387
Figure 1. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Aa dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow up sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Results Regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Targeted Child “Cc”<br />
Figure 4 illustrates skills taught to Participant<br />
Cc, by his mother C at home. The skills are<br />
shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the order they were taught, beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with “tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”, “put toys away”,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, “talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> the ph<strong>on</strong>e”.<br />
Child Cc was unable to perform any of the<br />
skill steps at basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Probe data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
from all skills seem to be c<strong>on</strong>sistent with the<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data. First skill was performed above<br />
75%, although the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al probe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated it was<br />
388 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
mastered above 80%. Mother C misplaced the<br />
last data sheet show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence. Sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
skills were performed above 80%. It was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
by his mother that the third skill, “Talk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> the ph<strong>on</strong>e” was not appropriate for<br />
him at this time. Child Cc has noted auditory<br />
sensitivities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adverse reacti<strong>on</strong>s to the voice<br />
com<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through the ph<strong>on</strong>e. He refused the<br />
skill after multiple trials <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no data was taken. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to these<br />
results, parent tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g provided to mother can
Figure 2. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Bb dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow up sessi<strong>on</strong>s accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the mother B’s data.<br />
be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> “Tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g”<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>, “Putt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toys away”, but not effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g target behaviors for this child.<br />
Social Validity of the PTCP<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the social validity data, all parents<br />
agreed that they were comfortable with<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 389
Figure 3. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Bb dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow up sessi<strong>on</strong>s accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to the therapist BT’s data.<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the method of ABA with their children after<br />
the study was completed. They agreed that<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> home visits were easy<br />
to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Photo book was helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sessi<strong>on</strong>s with the children. All parents<br />
390 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
agreed that they would recommend this tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
to other parents of children with autism.<br />
What they liked most about this tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g program<br />
was that it was easy to apply with their<br />
child. First mother A said “it was easy for<br />
my child to comprehend due to the visual
Figure 4. Percentage of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses for Cc dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> follow up sessi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
aids <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> repetitiveness”. Sec<strong>on</strong>d mother B<br />
said “what I like most about the program was<br />
the picture books show<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skill steps.” The<br />
third mother C menti<strong>on</strong>ed that “learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
break skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to parts, teach us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g correct<br />
prompt levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pictures of the<br />
steps” were the parts she liked most about<br />
the program. Participants stated the parts<br />
they liked least about this program were data<br />
collecti<strong>on</strong>, time l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> busy family’s schedule.<br />
The first mother A said “I have no timel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
given for how l<strong>on</strong>g to teach the skill”. She<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 391
had difficulty tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g videotape of her child,<br />
which was needed due to his refusal to complete<br />
the skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of the raters. The<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d mother B said “I felt like it was often<br />
difficult to teach skills due to my family’s busy<br />
schedule <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> felt that it would be easier hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
a habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist to help her with<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong>. I was teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills twice<br />
per day for some skills”. The third mother C<br />
said “It was difficult tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the data. I felt that<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved was<br />
helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feels c<strong>on</strong>fident teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g future<br />
workers how to teach skills to her child.”<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, data obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed from the study<br />
showed that the children were unable to perform<br />
the skill steps at the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for most of<br />
these skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> probe data were c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
with basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data. First of all, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g started<br />
a quick progress for most of the skills, fluctuat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
progress for some other skills throughout<br />
the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process was observed. At the<br />
end of the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g process, all children were<br />
able to reach the criteria for all three skills,<br />
except Bb’s tooth brush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skill. Follow up<br />
data were collected at the end of the each<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g stage. But most of the children<br />
couldn’t reach the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence level. Follow<br />
up data were observed to be c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
with teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase. Mothers said they were<br />
happy to apply skill teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to their children.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
The purpose of this study was to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
the effectiveness of a PTCP for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self<br />
care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals with<br />
autism. Results revealed that PTCP was effective<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual with autism. Results were that the<br />
mother who was previously a therapist, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mother-therapist dyad that completed PTCP<br />
were effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic<br />
skills to their children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student with<br />
autism by the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities provided by<br />
the program. These results were parallel with<br />
the results of the previous research <strong>on</strong> the<br />
program focused <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. For example,<br />
Cavkaytar (1999, 2007) applied the program<br />
to mothers who have children with mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>. After the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase, mothers<br />
taught self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills to their<br />
children at their home. All mothers com-<br />
392 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
pleted the program were work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e with<br />
their children.<br />
In another study, Sabanova <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cavkaytar<br />
(2007), worked with teacher aides who are<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a private special educati<strong>on</strong> center<br />
for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills at<br />
school. Results of the study showed that the<br />
program was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-care<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skill. Ozcan <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Cavkaytar<br />
(2009) replicated the program <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
toilet skills to children with autism <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>. The program was aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> found to<br />
be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g toilet skills.<br />
The first mother A was previously tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed as<br />
a therapist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had received additi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ABA prior to the study, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worked with<br />
her child at home. She felt very comfortable<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills to her child <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> felt comfortable<br />
tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g data <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fad<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g prompt levels.<br />
She did feel overwhelmed at times <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> stated<br />
that it was very difficult to teach the skills<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistently by herself without the help of her<br />
habilitati<strong>on</strong> therapist. Like most work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mothers, her work, home, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> family resp<strong>on</strong>sibilities<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sumed such a large porti<strong>on</strong> of her<br />
time that she felt the support of an additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
therapist would have been very helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that the skills would have progressed at a<br />
faster rate.<br />
The sec<strong>on</strong>d mother B worked at home; her<br />
therapist worked at the center <strong>on</strong> the same<br />
skills simultaneously. The mother’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapist’s<br />
data <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that they taught the targeted<br />
skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with <strong>on</strong>e another.<br />
This mother had two children at home with a<br />
disability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> discussed how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>valuable it was<br />
to have additi<strong>on</strong>al help <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
her child’s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. She also felt<br />
that hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills taught across multiple<br />
envir<strong>on</strong>ments was part of the success of his<br />
master<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g so quickly. Although ideally children<br />
would benefit most from receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their natural envir<strong>on</strong>ments by their<br />
primary caregiver, it is not always an easy feat<br />
to achieve. Therefore hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
to the best of their ability to implement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at home, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong> with collaborat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with other professi<strong>on</strong>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
child’s envir<strong>on</strong>ment would provide c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>uity<br />
of care. This also allows parents’ access to a<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed professi<strong>on</strong>al that can offer suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptati<strong>on</strong>s to skill teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g when a child
is not progress<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or refus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to complete skill<br />
steps.<br />
The third mother C participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
PTCP, but she could not complete the third<br />
skill teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g after the first <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d skill.<br />
The result may be related to the absence of<br />
support from her therapist <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> school. She<br />
discussed her satisfacti<strong>on</strong> with the program<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the new empowerment that she felt after<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g able to successfully teach her child<br />
skills. She stated how different her s<strong>on</strong> with<br />
autism was from his typical sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods were also quite different for<br />
each. She expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed that if no <strong>on</strong>e spent the<br />
time teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents how to use methods<br />
such as ABA, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visually supported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
then they would c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ue re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
wr<strong>on</strong>g behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> become just as frustrated<br />
as the child. So many parents feel so helpless<br />
when they have a child with autism, because<br />
their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong>s are often unsuccessful. This<br />
mother stated that giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g her the power <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>fidence to teach her child even basic skills<br />
made her feel successful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> more comfortable<br />
teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g him. Special educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
paraprofessi<strong>on</strong>als or therapists with whom<br />
they work need to establish <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
collaborative relati<strong>on</strong>ship to better serve the<br />
children assigned to them (Hauge & Babkie,<br />
2006). Werts, Harris, Tillery, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Roark<br />
(2004) have reported that most parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
their sample reported paraeducators work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with their children were do<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a good job.<br />
The result of their study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates that paraeducators<br />
are perceived by parents as professi<strong>on</strong>als,<br />
highly valued service providers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
they should be treated as such. Communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong> are required of paraeducators;<br />
therefore, tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> these areas is<br />
vital. Eyberg <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Matarazzo (1980), po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ted<br />
that parents can act as their own therapist by<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mother child <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong> if they<br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual parent-child <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teracti<strong>on</strong><br />
tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g programs. The first mother who was<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at the educati<strong>on</strong> center as a therapist<br />
completed teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for three skills dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
total of 85 sessi<strong>on</strong>s al<strong>on</strong>e with her child. The<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d mother completed teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for three<br />
skills dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a total of 55 sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
with her child’s therapist. The third<br />
mother did not complete the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g period<br />
for all three of the skills. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to these<br />
results, the first mother effectively completed<br />
the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g period for all skills. The sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
mother who worked with her therapist completed<br />
the skills more efficiently than first<br />
mother work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e. These results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate<br />
that the mother who tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied the<br />
PTCP program with her child’s therapist, can<br />
teach her child self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills<br />
most effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efficiently. In additi<strong>on</strong> the<br />
mother who also had previous tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
completed the PTCP program taught her<br />
child the skills over a l<strong>on</strong>ger durati<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
may po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t to the need for children to learn<br />
skills across several c<strong>on</strong>texts <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> order to generalize<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> master the skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently.<br />
The child work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with his mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therapist<br />
received tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the therapy<br />
center <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> at home.<br />
Limitati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Results of the current study should be c<strong>on</strong>sidered<br />
with the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g limitati<strong>on</strong>s. Data <strong>on</strong><br />
the teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g phase of the study was gathered<br />
by participants who are mother or therapist.<br />
Although the researchers were present to take<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> all probe data, it was not feasible<br />
to be present <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the homes or at the center<br />
each time a participant took data <strong>on</strong> the skills.<br />
Therefore the study had some limitati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about the correct implementati<strong>on</strong> reliability.<br />
We cannot be certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> that data was taken correctly<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>sistently, although at each visit<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong> methods were reviewed with<br />
the participants. The researchers also did not<br />
anticipate that child Cc would not perform<br />
any of the skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t of any<strong>on</strong>e but his<br />
mother. His mother was gracious enough to<br />
take video of him perform<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> probe data was taken from the<br />
videos. Parent who was work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g al<strong>on</strong>e also<br />
compla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed about not hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g enough time to<br />
work <strong>on</strong> skills c<strong>on</strong>sistently. This illustrates further<br />
the importance of a supportive collaborati<strong>on</strong><br />
between parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the child with autism so that they<br />
are c<strong>on</strong>stantly receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> these<br />
much needed skills. Social validity data<br />
showed that mothers found it easy to learn<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> apply the PTCP to their children with<br />
autism at home.<br />
Some suggesti<strong>on</strong>s to be presented can be as<br />
follows: First of all, this program can easily<br />
apply to children with autism for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Therapist Collaborati<strong>on</strong> / 393
self-care <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> domestic skills by parent as a<br />
therapist or parent-therapist collaborati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Future research is needed to verify the results<br />
of this study, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g replicati<strong>on</strong> for children<br />
with other developmental disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their family members such as peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
gr<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>parents. A larger sample size with vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
levels of severity would provide more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sight<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the coexist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g variables that may<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the speed at efficiency of how the<br />
skills are taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mastered. Follow up data<br />
after mastery at vary<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals would also<br />
give us <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about the c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>u<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependence<br />
<strong>on</strong> the skills taught.<br />
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<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 396–408<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics <strong>on</strong> Class Engagement<br />
Behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Achievement of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives<br />
by Students with Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Their<br />
Typical Peers<br />
EunJung Lee<br />
Seoul Sogang Elementary School, Korea<br />
SoHyun Lee<br />
Ewha Womans University<br />
Abstract: Align<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual needs of students with disabilities has been emphasized as a<br />
prerequisite for the students’ access to, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the general curriculum. As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
assessment tools, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics are believed to have potential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectively l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>k<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Individualized <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Program (IEP) goals of students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-directed<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of all students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-depth applicati<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class. This study exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the effects of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <strong>on</strong> class engagement behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives by students with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their same-age peers. The results dem<strong>on</strong>strated that class engagement behaviors of<br />
the students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> drastically improved. The achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives by all the<br />
participants evaluated through rubrics was statistically significant. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for practiti<strong>on</strong>ers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for future<br />
researchers were also discussed.<br />
Inclusive educati<strong>on</strong> already has been a solid<br />
opti<strong>on</strong> for the educati<strong>on</strong> of students with special<br />
needs. Similar with the statistics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
U.S. that almost half of all students with disabilities<br />
ages 6 through 21 served under the<br />
Individuals with <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Act<br />
(IDEA) are educated for most of their school<br />
day <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the regular classroom (U.S. Department<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2007), the counterpart <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Korea c<strong>on</strong>stitutes up to 63% <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2007 (Korea<br />
Nati<strong>on</strong>al Institute of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2007).<br />
With the current registrati<strong>on</strong> of the No Child<br />
Left Beh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d Act of 2001 (NCLB), the populati<strong>on</strong><br />
has been challenged to make mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
progress through access to general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
bey<strong>on</strong>d simply engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> it (Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ert &<br />
Thurlow, 2001; Wehmeyer, Latt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, Lapp-<br />
R<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cker, & Agran, 2003). The m<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ate of hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive as-<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article should<br />
be addressed to EunJung Lee, Flat B5, Forster<br />
Court, 7 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3<br />
0FY, UK. Email: eunjung723@hotmail.com<br />
396 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
sessment for the evidence of academic<br />
achievement has become a challenge with respect<br />
to address<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the general curriculum while keep<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the c<strong>on</strong>tent<br />
of the curriculum <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tact.<br />
For students with disabilities to be successful<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive assessment, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized educati<strong>on</strong><br />
program (IEP) goals of the students<br />
should be reas<strong>on</strong>ably aligned with st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards<br />
of the general curriculum, followed by c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
progress m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g through formative<br />
assessments that are carefully developed with<br />
c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> of goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> daily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
(Fisher & Frey, 2001; Kl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger & Vaughn,<br />
1999). For example, performance of students<br />
with disabilities could be accurately evaluated<br />
with the validity of the assessment ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly when the same adaptati<strong>on</strong> methods were<br />
available dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the assessment as were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
(e.g., Edgem<strong>on</strong>, Jabl<strong>on</strong>ski, & Lloyd,<br />
2006; Ysseldyke et al., 2001). However, there is<br />
a strict c<strong>on</strong>trast when it comes to reference of<br />
assessment as typical academic assessment for<br />
students with disabilities is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual-refer-
enced based <strong>on</strong> IEP goals, whereas regular<br />
students are evaluated by criteri<strong>on</strong>-referenced<br />
methods based <strong>on</strong> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of the general<br />
curriculum (Nolet & McLaughl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2000). If<br />
the performance criteri<strong>on</strong> for students to target<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class is specified based <strong>on</strong> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards,<br />
it would make the process to set an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual but st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based goals for students<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for them to effectively<br />
participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive assessment<br />
clearer. Instructi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics seem to have potential<br />
to effectively align IEP goals with st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards<br />
as a criteri<strong>on</strong>-specific assessment as well<br />
as to be closely related to <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
practices (Glatthorn, Braqaw, Dawk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
& Parker, 1998).<br />
With more highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> rubrics, which are evaluati<strong>on</strong> tools<br />
with st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based criteri<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scales of<br />
various performance levels, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics<br />
can be utilized as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al tool or<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the process of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed feedback <strong>on</strong><br />
the progress of students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-depth evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al work (Andrade, 2005). Instructi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics are suggested as an alternative<br />
way for progress m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of IEP goals<br />
of students with disabilities (Etscheidt, 2006);<br />
they feature dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct twofold elements as follows:<br />
First, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics enable student-centered<br />
assessment represented by its<br />
self-assessment feature through better awareness<br />
of what are expected from <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
For example, many research utiliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics have reported the positive effects<br />
<strong>on</strong> students’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased resp<strong>on</strong>sibility for<br />
their own learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cooperative relati<strong>on</strong>ship<br />
between teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students (Shepard,<br />
2000; Skill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs & Ferrell, 2000), enhanced empowerment<br />
<strong>on</strong> evaluati<strong>on</strong> (Han & Lee, 2004;<br />
James, Abbot, & Greenwood, 2001), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> active<br />
self-/colleague-assessment <strong>on</strong> both learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
process <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes (Andrade & Boulay,<br />
2003; Barry & Moore IV, 2004; Saddler & Andrade,<br />
2004). As a support strategy for selfdirected<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics are<br />
comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with graphic organizers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> process-compositi<strong>on</strong><br />
model (James et al.), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> are<br />
utilized al<strong>on</strong>g with self-directed organizati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g competency<br />
tests (Barry & Moore IV). It requires attenti<strong>on</strong><br />
that exact awareness of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
performance criteri<strong>on</strong>, al<strong>on</strong>gside with self-assessment,<br />
is essential to lead to self-regulati<strong>on</strong><br />
of students while engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities<br />
(Andrade & Boulay).<br />
Sec<strong>on</strong>d, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics can be flexibly<br />
applied to a wide range of students with diverse<br />
needs (Smith, Brewer, Heffner, & Algozz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
2003; Whittaker et al., 2001). It might<br />
be because it is easier to establish an objective<br />
performance criteri<strong>on</strong>, which enables every<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved to target if the goals of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
to be accomplished through certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
tasks are explicit with the possible differentiati<strong>on</strong><br />
or accommodati<strong>on</strong>s for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual students<br />
with disabilities. Actually, not <strong>on</strong>ly typical<br />
students but students with disabilities<br />
could effectively learn various subjects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rubrics (eg. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<strong>on</strong> &<br />
Ormsbee, 1998; Loeffler, 2005; Schirmer &<br />
Bailey, 2000), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their applicability has been<br />
extended from young children (Byan & Hyan,<br />
2005) to college students (P<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>diprolu, Lignugaris/Kraft,<br />
Rule, Peters<strong>on</strong>, & Slocun, 2005).<br />
For example, Loeffler implemented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics for spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> for students<br />
with learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> found that<br />
they were useful as a tool to enhance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives through self-assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
discussi<strong>on</strong> about their <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g progress. A<br />
group of students with hear<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g impairments<br />
also improved their writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a rubric<br />
(Schirmer, Bailey, & Fitzgerald, 1999).<br />
Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to James <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> colleagues (2001),<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics can be applied as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategy for students with disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms with the use of<br />
guidance towards develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g needed accommodati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual students, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> make<br />
the IEP process <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators of the<br />
student’s progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general curriculum<br />
run more efficiently (Stanford & Siders,<br />
2001).<br />
In South Korea, as many as 80% of the<br />
students with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs,<br />
who are ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> general curriculum-irrelevant-IEP<br />
goals, are excluded from<br />
both formal <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formal assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
regular classroom (Kim, Kw<strong>on</strong>, Kim, & Park,<br />
2003). Moreover, the results of performance<br />
tests based <strong>on</strong> IEPs typically d<strong>on</strong>e by special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers either <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a resource room<br />
or <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed class are rarely reported<br />
to the pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cipal or adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> charge<br />
(Sh<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2005); thus there is no accountability<br />
check of the related pers<strong>on</strong>nel for the stu-<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics / 397
dents’ adequate academic progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. With more than 50% of general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers who currently have students<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their class never hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
seen IEPs developed for the students (Kim<br />
et al.), even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the case where IEPs are st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-related,<br />
it cannot be guaranteed that<br />
the students could proceed towards a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
academic achievement through access<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the general curriculum <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g proper<br />
support. Meanwhile, the research <strong>on</strong> assessment<br />
for students with disabilities focuses <strong>on</strong> either<br />
diagnosis-related issues (e.g., Han & Park, 2004)<br />
or tests for students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special schools (e.g., Kim<br />
& Kim, 2004), leav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g few empirical studies for<br />
those students to successfully participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive assessments.<br />
In practice, regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the assessment for<br />
regular elementary school students, apart<br />
from the guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the state-level<br />
curriculum, a specific criteri<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> targeted<br />
‘c<strong>on</strong>cepts’ or ‘generalizati<strong>on</strong>’ of each subject<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard is much needed across c<strong>on</strong>tents (M.<br />
Lee, 2004). Therefore, it might benefit all<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved if <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics with<br />
a specific criteri<strong>on</strong> are carefully developed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the light of universal design for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(UDL; Rose & Meyer, 2006) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> applied for<br />
daily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classrooms with<br />
diverse learners. Based <strong>on</strong> such needs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
field, this study exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics <strong>on</strong> class engagement behaviors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives<br />
by students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their typical peers.<br />
Method<br />
Participants<br />
Three students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> grades five <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> six participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study.<br />
The range of IQ score of the participants was<br />
from 57 to 59 <strong>on</strong> the Korean-Wechsler Intelligence<br />
Scales for Children-III (Kwak, Park, & Kim,<br />
2001). All participants were reportedly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need of improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basic class engagement behaviors<br />
to make progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general curriculum.<br />
Student 1 was a twelve-year-old male student<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the sixth grade with a full scale IQ of 57.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> the curriculum-based measurement,<br />
he could read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write short sentences with<br />
three to four simple words, but dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of complicated<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paragraphs. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pre-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
observati<strong>on</strong>, he barely showed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class, spend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g most of the time scribbl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
or fold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the paper, with no textbook or<br />
material prepared <strong>on</strong> the desk.<br />
Student 2 was an eleven-year-old male student<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fifth grade with a full scale IQ of<br />
59. Though produc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some errors, he could<br />
read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write sentences with four to five<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various formats based <strong>on</strong> the curriculum-based<br />
measurement, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
relative strengths <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the pre-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e observati<strong>on</strong>, he prepared<br />
the textbook <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> looked at the teacher<br />
or other students from time to time; however,<br />
when asked to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the activity, he<br />
became extremely shy lower<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his head <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
not even mov<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ger.<br />
Student 3 was an eleven-year-old male student<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fifth grade with a full scale IQ of<br />
58. Based <strong>on</strong> the curriculum-based measurement,<br />
he could read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> write short sentences<br />
with three to four simple words, but dem<strong>on</strong>strated<br />
difficulties <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of complicated<br />
words <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> paragraphs. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
pre-basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e observati<strong>on</strong>, he scarcely showed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class, lay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g down his head <strong>on</strong> the<br />
desk most of the time, with no textbook or<br />
material prepared.<br />
The typical peers of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
which these three participants with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> were study<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> three teachers<br />
of the classes also participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study.<br />
Class 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> which Student 1 was enrolled had 30<br />
students without disabilities, 29 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Class 2 of<br />
Student 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 29 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Class 3 of Student 3. All<br />
of the teachers were female <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field ranged from 6 to 18<br />
years.<br />
Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
398 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Both tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> took place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the regular classroom of each group of participants.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, the sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for extra tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
given to the students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> was a resource room where they<br />
were educated partly dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the day.
TABLE 1<br />
Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong> of Target Behaviors by Four Subcategories<br />
Instrument<br />
Categories Def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong><br />
Listen to a lecture Look at a teacher who is speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with attenti<strong>on</strong> or behaviors that are related with the<br />
<strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g lecture (e.g., answer a teacher’s questi<strong>on</strong>, look at other students who are<br />
answer<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a teacher’s questi<strong>on</strong>, or ask a questi<strong>on</strong>)<br />
Take down notes Write down what a teacher wrote <strong>on</strong> the board or delivered to students verbally<br />
Work with peers Work <strong>on</strong> a task or an activity together with <strong>on</strong>e or more peers (Peers provide physical,<br />
verbal, or material support)<br />
Work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently Work <strong>on</strong> a task or an activity which is related (same or similar) with the <strong>on</strong>go<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class<br />
(e.g., read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, speak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, manipulat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, or present<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g)<br />
Instructi<strong>on</strong>al rubric. Based <strong>on</strong> related studies<br />
(Hall & Salm<strong>on</strong>, 2003; Whittaker et al.,<br />
2001), the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubric for this study<br />
was developed to target <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual but st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives for students with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives <strong>on</strong> the Korean language for<br />
typical students. Specific comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the<br />
two-page-l<strong>on</strong>g rubric were: 1) st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives for typical students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-related<br />
but <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividually accommodated<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives based <strong>on</strong> IEP goals for students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>; 2) levels<br />
of performance criteri<strong>on</strong> (four levels for typical<br />
students; three for students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>); 3) examples of performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators for each level that represent the<br />
characteristics to which the assessment task<br />
should perta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4) secti<strong>on</strong> for self-assessment.<br />
Individual less<strong>on</strong> objectives for students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> specified the levels<br />
of c<strong>on</strong>tent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> process st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards of Korean<br />
language for a specific grade, which were<br />
related to the students’ IEP goals, led by analyz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the fundamental functi<strong>on</strong>s of target<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ard (Hoover & Patt<strong>on</strong>, 2004; Wehmeyer,<br />
Lance, & Bash<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ski, 2002).<br />
Students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> received<br />
an ‘<strong>on</strong>-task-rubric-applicati<strong>on</strong>-form’ <strong>on</strong><br />
a daily basis al<strong>on</strong>g with the rubric. The form<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed specific task-related objectives<br />
based <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual less<strong>on</strong> objectives <strong>on</strong> the<br />
rubric, questi<strong>on</strong>s for self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> class<br />
engagement behaviors, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a secti<strong>on</strong> for selfevaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teacher-check. A set of rubrics,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <strong>on</strong>-task-rubric-applicati<strong>on</strong> form,<br />
were provided to all students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
class so that typical students could be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed<br />
about <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual less<strong>on</strong> objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al support for the students with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Initially developed rubrics went through a<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tent validity check by <strong>on</strong>e general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>e special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher, each hold<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a master’s degree,<br />
based <strong>on</strong> ‘guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for review<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g quality of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics’ (Stigg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, 2005), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 12<br />
rubrics, four for each class, were f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally implemented<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong> Procedures<br />
Dependent variables. Two dependent variables<br />
were measured <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. First dependent<br />
variable was class engagement behaviors<br />
of students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Class engagement behaviors c<strong>on</strong>sisted of four<br />
subcategories (listen to lecture, take down<br />
notes, work with peers, work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently)<br />
under the operati<strong>on</strong>al def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>iti<strong>on</strong>s, which are<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1. Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-partial<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terval<br />
record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g method, the target behaviors<br />
were observed for 25 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class<br />
after five to six m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. passed from the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of the class. The occurrence of the behaviors<br />
was calculated by divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the number<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals that the behaviors occurred with<br />
the total number of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tervals <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
it by 100. The sec<strong>on</strong>d dependent variable<br />
was performance level of class objectives<br />
of all participants. Until the students with mild<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> reached the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> criteri<strong>on</strong>, which was more than<br />
80% of occurrence of the target behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
three c<strong>on</strong>secutive sessi<strong>on</strong>s, four <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics / 399
ubrics were applied to each class. All participants<br />
assessed their own performance level <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the less<strong>on</strong> objectives us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rubrics (1–4<br />
po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts for typical students; 1–3 po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts for students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>) before<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> of each rubric was<br />
implemented. The data were analyzed with<br />
SPSS for W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dows 12.0 program us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g pairedsamples<br />
t-test.<br />
Interobserver agreement. Before the actual<br />
agreement check, the sec<strong>on</strong>d observer who has<br />
a master’s degree <strong>on</strong> special educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
first author practiced to reach an agreement of<br />
over 90% <strong>on</strong> the observati<strong>on</strong> of the target behaviors<br />
by watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the videotaped data. The<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terobserver agreement counted for 25% of<br />
data r<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>omly chosen across the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 94.3% to 95.2%.<br />
Social validity data. Teachers of the three<br />
classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> six typical students, two from each<br />
class, were asked for the social validity data.<br />
Us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a questi<strong>on</strong>naire with a five-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Likert<br />
scale, the mean scores of the answers of teachers<br />
are as follows: significance of the target<br />
behaviors (5), participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
(4.3), outcomes from the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
(4.6), st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>out of disability (1.6), usability of<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> (4.3), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> efforts needed for<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> (3.6). The typical students<br />
who participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a 10- to 15-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. l<strong>on</strong>g semiorganized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview perceived a positive<br />
change <strong>on</strong> both students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> themselves, such as exact<br />
awareness of class objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their performance<br />
level <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
class of students with mild retardati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Treatment fidelity. For 25% of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s, treatment fidelity of participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> typical students was assessed<br />
<strong>on</strong> six items organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to three secti<strong>on</strong>s: 1)<br />
rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the class of the objective written <strong>on</strong><br />
a rubric or a rubric-applicati<strong>on</strong>-form; 2) giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
prompts for participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class to the student<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3)<br />
m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self-assessment of performance us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the rubric. The mean scores ranged from<br />
5.2 to 5.75 out of 6 po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts.<br />
Experimental Design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Procedure<br />
Class engagement behaviors of students with mild<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. In order to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the<br />
effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <strong>on</strong> class engage-<br />
400 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
ment behaviors of students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>, a s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle-subject multiple probe<br />
across participants design was employed (Tawney<br />
& Gast, 1984).<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, the class engagement<br />
behaviors of the participants were<br />
observed for 25 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Korean language<br />
class, while the students were given no special<br />
support or prompts for participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
teachers led the class <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the usual way. The<br />
probes were adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istered after the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
was stable for at least three sessi<strong>on</strong>s before<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was implemented.<br />
Interventi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> for teachers. The teachers of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
classes received two <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
each last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approximately 40 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the first sessi<strong>on</strong>, the purpose of the study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
important elements of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, such<br />
as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics, IEP goals, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> curricular<br />
accommodati<strong>on</strong>s for students with disabilities,<br />
were expla<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>, they were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed about the process<br />
of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubric with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives for students with disabilities<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with general less<strong>on</strong> objectives<br />
for typical learners (though the researchers<br />
developed the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics used for<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>). The practices they need to<br />
perform dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rubrics<br />
were then taught as follows: 1) rem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
both general less<strong>on</strong> objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
<strong>on</strong>es for students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
2) provide the students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> prompts to participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class, if<br />
needed; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3) ask all the students to evaluate<br />
their performance us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rubric.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> for all students. The typical students<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> tree students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> received four<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s together, each last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
approximately 20 to 40 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> for 40 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. before the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
began, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> started with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troducti<strong>on</strong><br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the need<br />
for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual less<strong>on</strong> objectives for the students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>. Based <strong>on</strong><br />
the suggesti<strong>on</strong>s of related studies (Hall &<br />
Salm<strong>on</strong>, 2003; Whittaker et al., 2001), the participants<br />
had exercises <strong>on</strong> evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their<br />
own performance or current status accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g
to the criteria <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rubric by compar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
them with examples of each level of performance.<br />
At the designated secti<strong>on</strong> <strong>on</strong> the rubric,<br />
they were asked to write down the result<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the specific performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator to focus<br />
<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the next class. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, the<br />
peers who sat next to or were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same<br />
group with the student who has mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> were taught to check the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives from the <strong>on</strong>-task-rubricapplicati<strong>on</strong><br />
form together with the student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
need; they then m<strong>on</strong>itored whether the student<br />
did the self-evaluati<strong>on</strong> of performance<br />
<strong>on</strong> the rubric.<br />
After f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a unit us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each rubric, the<br />
students received another <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
for approximately 15 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. each. They<br />
shared a couple of good examples am<strong>on</strong>g the<br />
student rubrics that specified th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to improve<br />
<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> detail based <strong>on</strong> the self-evaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
of performance, which were mutually picked<br />
by the researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the teacher of the class;<br />
they also discussed how the students with mild<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> had performed so far.<br />
Extra tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong>. In additi<strong>on</strong> to the tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for all<br />
student participants, students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> received six extra <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
last<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g approximately 20–30 m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>. each.<br />
Based <strong>on</strong> K<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g-Sears <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Carpenter (1997), the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of three stages: 1) underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
target behaviors; 2) underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a<br />
self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/assessment tool; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3) practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mastery of the usage. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the first sessi<strong>on</strong>, the students were taught to<br />
differentiate target behaviors from n<strong>on</strong>-target<br />
behaviors by watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video clips of the students<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class or us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g work samples.<br />
Target behaviors were examples of excellent<br />
performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicators <strong>on</strong> the rubric that represented<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives as well as basic class<br />
engagement behaviors, which will enable the<br />
students to achieve the less<strong>on</strong> objectives.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the sec<strong>on</strong>d sessi<strong>on</strong>, the students<br />
were taught how to use the rubric <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
<strong>on</strong>-task-rubric-applicati<strong>on</strong> form for self-assessment<br />
of performance. The first author modeled<br />
the steps of self-assessment as follows: 1)<br />
check the less<strong>on</strong> objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>-task objective;<br />
2) participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed by the<br />
objective; 3) check the less<strong>on</strong> objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong>-task objective aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>; 4) m<strong>on</strong>itor their own<br />
performance accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the questi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong><br />
the applicati<strong>on</strong> form; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5) evaluate performance<br />
with the level <strong>on</strong> the rubric <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> choose<br />
a performance <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator to improve <strong>on</strong> for the<br />
next class. The students then practiced those<br />
steps with the researcher’s guidance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback.<br />
The third <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al sessi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent practice of the self-assessment<br />
steps taught <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the previous sessi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> of mastery of their usage. Based <strong>on</strong><br />
the evaluati<strong>on</strong> results, the students received<br />
corrective feedback <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiced specific<br />
steps repeatedly. Three additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s c<strong>on</strong>sist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the differentiati<strong>on</strong><br />
of new target behaviors <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the practice of<br />
self-assessment steps us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rubric were provided<br />
<strong>on</strong>e by <strong>on</strong>e just before a new rubric was<br />
applied.<br />
Additi<strong>on</strong>al support for students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Korean language<br />
class, the students with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> received additi<strong>on</strong>al support such<br />
as the <strong>on</strong>-task-rubric-applicati<strong>on</strong> form where a<br />
task-related objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> behavior m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s were specified al<strong>on</strong>gside with<br />
needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al accommodati<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., a<br />
material with easier level of difficulty). The<br />
class teacher then checked the applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
form right after the class <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> gave feedback to<br />
the student based <strong>on</strong> the result. The students<br />
received guidance from the researcher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the teacher <strong>on</strong> the process of pick<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator to improve <strong>on</strong> for the next<br />
class. With the chosen <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicator c<strong>on</strong>sidered,<br />
the task-related objective <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al accommodati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for the next class were decided<br />
accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly.<br />
Generalizati<strong>on</strong>. For generalizati<strong>on</strong> of target<br />
behaviors, data <strong>on</strong> those behaviors were collected<br />
three times dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g social studies class<br />
under the same c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> as the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
right after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
data <strong>on</strong> target behaviors were collected<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Korean language class under the same<br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> as the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, a m<strong>on</strong>th after the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong> was term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated.<br />
Performance Level of Class Objectives of All<br />
Participants<br />
In order to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics <strong>on</strong> the achievement of class ob-<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics / 401
Figure 1. Percentage of occurrence of class engagement behaviors.<br />
jectives by all participants, a pre-/post-test design<br />
<strong>on</strong> the performance level of less<strong>on</strong><br />
objectives through self-assessment by the participants<br />
was employed. Before <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after each<br />
rubric was applied to Korean language class,<br />
the students assessed their own performance<br />
level of less<strong>on</strong> objectives us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the rubric, result<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> four pre-/post-test scores. Students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> reviewed the assessment<br />
result with the researcher <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
teacher before they put their f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al scores <strong>on</strong><br />
the rubric.<br />
Results<br />
402 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Class Engagement Behaviors of Students with<br />
Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> of implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Korean<br />
language class was effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class<br />
engagement behaviors of all participants with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> (See Figure 1). As<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 2, the overall occurrence<br />
of the three subcategories of target be-
Figure 2. Percentage of occurrence of class engagement behaviors by subcategories (W/I: work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently,<br />
W/P: work with peers, T/N: take down notes, L/L: listen to a lecture).<br />
haviors, except ‘take down notes’ category,<br />
substantially improved, especially ‘work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’<br />
category, which dramatically <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>-<br />
creased across all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s. The occurrence<br />
of class engagement behaviors of Student 1<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased to an average of 71.6% (range<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics / 403
TABLE 2<br />
Changes of Performance Level of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives<br />
Results M SD<br />
Class Before After Before After<br />
Class 1 (N 31) 1.60 2.95 0.29 0.45 18.214*<br />
Class 2 (N 30) 1.48 3.25 0.28 0.35 23.515*<br />
Class 3 (N 30) 1.78 3.47 0.22 0.31 33.561*<br />
* p .001<br />
49.0% to 92.0%) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> phase<br />
from an average of 5.3% (range 4.0% to<br />
6.0%) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e. Am<strong>on</strong>g the subcategories<br />
of behaviors, ‘work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’ category<br />
took the highest stage with an average of<br />
37.1% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> from 0% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, followed by ‘work with peers’ category<br />
(1.0% to 17.9%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘listen to a lecture’<br />
category (4.3% to 18.9%). Start<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with the<br />
70% of sudden hype dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the first sessi<strong>on</strong> of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, Student 2 dem<strong>on</strong>strated an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
<strong>on</strong> the target behaviors from an average<br />
of 25.8% (range 19.0-31.0) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
to an average of 81.9% (range 66% to<br />
96%) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. ‘Work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’<br />
category led the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease with an average<br />
of 41.8% (range 19% to 70%) from 13.6%<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, followed by an average of<br />
29.2% of ‘listen to a lecture’ category from<br />
10%. Student 3 improved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the target behaviors<br />
by an average of 77.9% (range 57% to<br />
90%) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> from a low average<br />
of 9.2% (range 5% to 15%) dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e.<br />
‘Work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’ category had the most<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease with an average of 30.9% leap<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
from 1.3% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, followed by ‘work<br />
with peers’ category with an average of 27.6%.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g generalizati<strong>on</strong>, though the overall<br />
occurrence of the behaviors relatively decreased<br />
from last sessi<strong>on</strong> of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>, all students averaged around 70%<br />
(range 69.3% to 77.7%). This is attributed to<br />
‘listen to a lecture’ category (range 27% to<br />
40%) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’ category<br />
(range 26% to 36.7%).<br />
On the ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probes four weeks after<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated, all students<br />
ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the improved class engagement<br />
behaviors with an average above 75%<br />
(range 75.3% to 78%), c<strong>on</strong>tributed primarily<br />
by ‘work <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently’ category (range 20%<br />
to 49.7). Interest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly, Student 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Student<br />
2 dem<strong>on</strong>strated a high occurrence rate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
‘work with peers’ category with an average of<br />
20.3% <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 24%, respectively, across all c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Performance Level of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives of All<br />
Participants<br />
As <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 2, the mean score of all<br />
three classes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased from 1.6(SD 0.29)<br />
for Class 1, 1.48(SD 0.28) for Class 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
1.78(SD 0.22) for Class 3 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the pre-tests to<br />
2.95(SD 0.45), 3.25(SD 0.35), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
3.47(SD 0.31), respectively, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the post-tests,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the differences were statistically significant<br />
(p .001). With the c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
the performance level of less<strong>on</strong> objectives for<br />
all participants significantly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
of apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics to<br />
the Korean language class was effective <strong>on</strong> the<br />
achievement of targeted less<strong>on</strong> objectives by<br />
the participants.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
404 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
This study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tended to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the effects of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <strong>on</strong> class engagement behaviors<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Korean language class by students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their typical<br />
peers. The results dem<strong>on</strong>strated that class engagement<br />
behaviors of all participants with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> drastically improved,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the improved behaviors were generalized<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed after the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was term<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated.<br />
The difference <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance levels<br />
<strong>on</strong> less<strong>on</strong> objectives for Korean language<br />
class for all participants before <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> after the<br />
t
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was shown to be statistically significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all three classes.<br />
Impact <strong>on</strong> Class Engagement Behaviors of<br />
Students with Mild Mental Retardati<strong>on</strong><br />
The improvement <strong>on</strong> class engagement behaviors<br />
of the participants with mild mental<br />
retardati<strong>on</strong> can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered as a mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful<br />
progress because ‘engagement’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a regular<br />
class has been emphasized as a prerequisite<br />
for students to achieve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual academic<br />
goals through access to the general curriculum<br />
(Cush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, Clark, Carter, & Kennedy,<br />
2005; Wehmeyer et al., 2003). The result <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicates<br />
that the rubrics functi<strong>on</strong>ed as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
guide <strong>on</strong> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for the students as<br />
suggested by previous studies (e.g. Andrade &<br />
Boulay, 2003; Lee & Lee, 2006; Loeffler,<br />
2005). Specifically, by utiliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics, the participants could be better aware<br />
of less<strong>on</strong> objectives they were target<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
could systematically manage self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
of their own performance dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class. Although<br />
it dem<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, as the first step for students<br />
with disabilities, to successfully learn <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (Prater, 2003), the participants<br />
were either explicitly <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed about<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual less<strong>on</strong> objectives they were expected<br />
to target or provided accommodated<br />
tasks or materials <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e with the objectives.<br />
The positive result of implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics, especially <strong>on</strong> ‘<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
work’ category, is not <strong>on</strong>ly supported by the<br />
related research that suggest the effectiveness<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics as a strategy for selfdirected<br />
learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Andrade & Boulay; Hall &<br />
Salm<strong>on</strong>, 2003; James et al., 2001), but also<br />
underscores the significance of exact awareness<br />
of less<strong>on</strong> objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong> of performance for students with<br />
disabilities to learn successfully <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
class (Copel<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> & Huges, 2002; Grossi &<br />
Heward, 1998).<br />
Furthermore, more specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> goal-oriented<br />
support provided by typical peers to the<br />
participants with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> under<br />
the awareness of the participants’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
less<strong>on</strong> objectives might c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the<br />
positive result. All three participants improved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> ‘work with peers’ category at least more<br />
than 10% dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
behavior was ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed with a<br />
higher occurrence rate than the <strong>on</strong>e dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for Student 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Student 2.<br />
As related studies reported that cooperati<strong>on</strong><br />
am<strong>on</strong>g students was enhanced through specific<br />
colleague evaluati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formed feedback<br />
<strong>on</strong> performance us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rubrics (Schirmer<br />
et al., 1999; Smith et al., 2003), hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual<br />
objectives <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> performance m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s for the participants with mild<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong> specified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
assessment tool might lead to efficient <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
c<strong>on</strong>sistent peer support for the participants<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g class rather than sp<strong>on</strong>taneous or unsystematic<br />
<strong>on</strong>es. For <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>stance, as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
progressed, it was observed that the peers<br />
of Student 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Student 3 actively recognized<br />
the two students’ participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> class activities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> voluntarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a cooperative<br />
task. It can be analyzed that the peers’<br />
overall expectati<strong>on</strong> for the participants with<br />
mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> went higher as they<br />
noticed the improvement <strong>on</strong> class engagement<br />
behaviors of the participants work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
tasks for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual but st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ards-based less<strong>on</strong><br />
objectives (Cha, 2002; McD<strong>on</strong>nell, McLaughl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
& Morris<strong>on</strong>, 1997). Exposure to specific<br />
ways to support the participants with mild<br />
mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, such as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al adaptati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g questi<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
might also c<strong>on</strong>tribute to the natural empowerment<br />
of peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of cooperative work<br />
with students with disabilities.<br />
Impact <strong>on</strong> the Achievement of Less<strong>on</strong> Objectives by<br />
All Participants<br />
The positive result <strong>on</strong> the achievement of less<strong>on</strong><br />
objectives by all participants, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, by implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics extends the<br />
f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of previous studies that reported the<br />
effects of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics <strong>on</strong> performance<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> various subjects (Andrade & Boulay,<br />
2003; Barry & Moore IV, 2004; Goodrich,<br />
1996; James et al., 2001; Loeffler, 2005;<br />
Shirmer et al., 1999). Moreover, it highlights<br />
its implicati<strong>on</strong> as an ultimate outcome for students<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs bey<strong>on</strong>d<br />
just ‘engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general curriculum<br />
(Clayt<strong>on</strong>, Burdge, Denham, Kle<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ert, &<br />
Kearns, 2006; Cush<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g et al., 2005). The positive<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence <strong>on</strong> achievement for all participants,<br />
not <strong>on</strong>ly for the participants with mild<br />
Effects of Instructi<strong>on</strong>al Rubrics / 405
mental retardati<strong>on</strong>, also po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts out that carefully<br />
designed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> executed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s for<br />
students with disabilities can be beneficial for<br />
all the students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved (S. Lee, 2004; Mc-<br />
D<strong>on</strong>nell et al., 1997; O’C<strong>on</strong>nor & Jenk<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s,<br />
1996).<br />
Specifically, exact awareness of less<strong>on</strong> objectives<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> regular self-evaluati<strong>on</strong> through the<br />
rubric might make a positive impact <strong>on</strong> the<br />
achievement of less<strong>on</strong> objectives by all participants.<br />
This result dem<strong>on</strong>strates that appropriate<br />
progress m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by students based <strong>on</strong><br />
their awareness of learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g goals is closely<br />
related with enhanc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g academic achievement<br />
(Deno, 2003; Fuchs & Fuchs, 1986), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
extends the suggesti<strong>on</strong> that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubrics,<br />
especially with self-evaluati<strong>on</strong> of performance,<br />
can functi<strong>on</strong> as a stepp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g st<strong>on</strong>e that<br />
assists students to self-regulate over learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
activities (Andrade & Boulay, 2003; Saddler &<br />
Andrade, 2004; Shepard, 2000). In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual support for students with disabilities<br />
to successfully participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive<br />
assessment was specified <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. For example,<br />
the participants received extra tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for self-m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g/evaluati<strong>on</strong> to utilize <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics before the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
additi<strong>on</strong> to the regular tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g for all participants.<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
accommodati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectives, materials/activities,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system were provided<br />
al<strong>on</strong>g with an aid for performance m<strong>on</strong>itor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback <strong>on</strong> the result us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an applicati<strong>on</strong><br />
form. C<strong>on</strong>sider<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the need for ‘special<br />
support’ for students with disabilities to<br />
achieve mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the general<br />
curriculum even <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> cases when a universal<br />
design of lean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g is employed (McGuire,<br />
Scott, & Shaw, 2006; Wehmeyer et al., 2003),<br />
these additi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support employed<br />
for the participants can be suggested as<br />
necessary elements to c<strong>on</strong>sider <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> utiliz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive assessment<br />
for diverse learners.<br />
There are some limitati<strong>on</strong>s to be noted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the study. First, the participants were students<br />
with mild mental retardati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their typical<br />
peers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> elementary grades. Thus, the results<br />
of the study might not be generalized to other<br />
students with different disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their<br />
peers or those from different age groups. Sec<strong>on</strong>d,<br />
this study employed the participants’ selfevaluati<strong>on</strong><br />
<strong>on</strong> their own performance level<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it may not exclude the possibility that the<br />
result of self-evaluati<strong>on</strong> might not be the same<br />
as the real performance level of the participants.<br />
Despite the limitati<strong>on</strong>s, this study presents<br />
several implicati<strong>on</strong>s for future research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
practice. It suggests the utility of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubrics not <strong>on</strong>ly as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive class-wide assessment<br />
tool, but also as an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
strategy that systematically assists students with<br />
disabilities to make mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful progress <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the general curriculum. Specific c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
to address <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual needs of students<br />
with disabilities dem<strong>on</strong>strated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study will<br />
guide practiti<strong>on</strong>ers to design <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implement<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive assessment for diverse learners to<br />
successfully participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> with appropriate<br />
support. In the future, research is needed to<br />
implement an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al rubric <strong>on</strong> students<br />
with various disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> from different age<br />
groups. Additi<strong>on</strong>ally, employ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a c<strong>on</strong>trol<br />
group for comparis<strong>on</strong> would make an elaborate<br />
analysis of the effects of an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
rubric <strong>on</strong> the achievement of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> objectives<br />
possible.<br />
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Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of Students with Significant<br />
Intellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Visual Impairments<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Shared Stories<br />
Pamela J. Mims, Diane M. Browder, Joshua N. Baker, Angel Lee,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Fred Spo<strong>on</strong>er<br />
University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Charlotte<br />
Abstract: Shared stories have been shown to help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literacy skills <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> students with significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. One important literacy skill is the development of listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong>. In this study,<br />
least-to-most prompt system was used to promote listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared stories for two students<br />
with significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual impairments. The procedure was evaluated via a multiple<br />
probe design across materials (i.e., books). Outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicate that both students improved <strong>on</strong> the correct number<br />
of comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s answered dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g all three books. In additi<strong>on</strong>, Student 1 was able to generalize<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses across people <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs as well as ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> results. Future research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> implicati<strong>on</strong>s for practical<br />
team implementati<strong>on</strong> of the least-to-most prompt system to teach listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong> are discussed.<br />
Literacy is <strong>on</strong>e of the most important educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
goals for all students because of the<br />
opportunities it provides to ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> strategies for<br />
further learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> access to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about the world. For students with significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> complex disabilities, strategies for promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
literacy are difficult to identify. For<br />
example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a comprehensive review of read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
for students with significant disabilities,<br />
Browder, Wakeman, Spo<strong>on</strong>er, Ahlgrim-Delzell,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Algozz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e (2006) found most studies<br />
focused <strong>on</strong> students with moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sight word read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. When<br />
students have visual impairments, as well as<br />
severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities, f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a model<br />
for literacy can be especially challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Support for this research was provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part by<br />
Grant No. H324K040004 of the U.S. Department of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Institute of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> Sciences, awarded<br />
to the University of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Charlotte.<br />
The op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s expressed do not necessarily reflect<br />
the positi<strong>on</strong> or policy of the Department of <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> no official endorsement should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferred.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article<br />
should be addressed to Pamela Mims, Department<br />
of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Child Development, University<br />
of North Carol<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>a at Charlotte, 9201 University<br />
City Blvd, Charlotte, NC 28223-0001. Email:<br />
pjbednar@uncc.edu<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 409–420<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
This challenge may be the reas<strong>on</strong> that 92%<br />
of teachers of students with visual impairments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiple disabilities surveyed by<br />
Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>o (2008) were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> literacy for this populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Fewer than half viewed read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as appropriate<br />
for all students <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> most relied <strong>on</strong> variables<br />
such as cognitive ability, communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al visi<strong>on</strong> to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
whether or not to teach literacy. While these<br />
variables have sometimes been used to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e<br />
eligibility for literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, an alternative<br />
perspective would be to give all students<br />
the opportunity for literacy learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
even if all do not become fully literate. What is<br />
needed is a strategy for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this literacy<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Unfortunately, the research<br />
<strong>on</strong> how to teach literacy tends to focus <strong>on</strong><br />
students who <strong>on</strong>ly have <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
or visual impairments, not both (Browder et<br />
al., 2006; Corn & Koenig, 2002; Park 2004; van<br />
Kleeck, 2006).<br />
Ericks<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Hatt<strong>on</strong> (2007) propose a c<strong>on</strong>ceptual<br />
framework specifically for students<br />
with visual impairments who are work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong><br />
emerg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g literacy skills. Their framework focuses<br />
<strong>on</strong> three areas for learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g: (a) oral<br />
language (i.e., narrative knowledge, vocabulary,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge of the world), (b) metal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic<br />
skills (i.e., ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> / 409
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> syntactic awareness), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) literacy<br />
knowledge (i.e., c<strong>on</strong>ceptual knowledge, functi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
of pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t, percepti<strong>on</strong>s of self as learner,<br />
emergent read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>text, procedural<br />
knowledge, ph<strong>on</strong>etic spell<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, alphabetic<br />
knowledge, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> letter-sound knowledge). By<br />
focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> all three areas, students with visual<br />
impairments ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills for beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Similarly, Browder, Gibbs, et al. (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
press) proposed a c<strong>on</strong>ceptual model of literacy<br />
that emphasizes beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g skills<br />
for young students. This model also promotes<br />
the use of shared literature for all ages with<br />
the use of read alouds or other means to<br />
access text for students who are not <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
readers.<br />
Read alouds, also called “shared stories”,<br />
are often used with young children to promote<br />
early literacy (Coyne, Simm<strong>on</strong>s,<br />
Kame’enui, & Stoolmiller, 2004; van Kleeck,<br />
2006). Shared story experiences can foster literacy<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts such as: (a) pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t awareness;<br />
(b) ph<strong>on</strong>ological awareness; (c) alphabet<br />
knowledge; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) metal<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>guistic awareness<br />
(Justice & Kaderavek, 2002). For example,<br />
Coyne et al. found benefits for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared<br />
stories <strong>on</strong> literacy skills of students at risk for<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g failure. Shared stories have also been<br />
shown to be effective <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> promot<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy development<br />
for students with disabilities, (Al Otaiba, 2004;<br />
Crowe, Norris, & Hoffman, 2004; Justice &<br />
Kaderavek, 2002, 2003; Justice, Kaderavek,<br />
Bowles, & Grimm, 2005; Justice & Pullen,<br />
2003) visual impairments, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness<br />
(Corn & Koenig, 2002; Park 2004; van Kleeck,<br />
2006).<br />
In a study specific to students with severe<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities, Skotko, Koppenhaver,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Ericks<strong>on</strong> (2004) used shared story activities<br />
with four girls diagnosed with Rett Syndrome<br />
at the pre-symbolic communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
level (i.e., primarily used objects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> vocalizati<strong>on</strong>s).<br />
The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> c<strong>on</strong>sisted of the use<br />
of augmentative communicati<strong>on</strong> devices <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
opportunities to communicate (e.g., ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
predicti<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s). One important aspect<br />
of this study is that the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist did not<br />
wait for the participants to acquire “prerequisite”<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong> skills, but assumed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
promoted underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> expressi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text of the less<strong>on</strong>s. For example, the<br />
students ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of AAC symbols by<br />
410 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the c<strong>on</strong>text of the story, rather<br />
than <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> isolati<strong>on</strong>. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that an<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> engagement<br />
with literacy materials was shown with all four<br />
participants.<br />
To extend the research of Skotko et al.<br />
(2004), to students with visual impairments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities it may be<br />
necessary to make two changes—add<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g systematic prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. First,<br />
experts have recommended us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g real objects<br />
to add c<strong>on</strong>crete <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> that will allow the<br />
learner to relate to the text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract more<br />
with the story (Ericks<strong>on</strong> & Hatt<strong>on</strong>, 2007; Park,<br />
2004). Sec<strong>on</strong>d, students with severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities may need systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g repeated opportunities to resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
with prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> feedback to use<br />
the objects <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful ways. Systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
is a method for teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g discrete<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed skills to students with significant<br />
disabilities that has a str<strong>on</strong>g research base<br />
(Westl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g & Fox, 2004). For example, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
literature review by Browder et al. (2006), systematic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> was the most used evidence-based<br />
practice to teach vocabulary sight<br />
words (88 studies), vocabulary pictures (17<br />
studies), comprehensi<strong>on</strong> (16 studies), <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fluency<br />
(12 studies).<br />
A specific form of systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
that may be especially useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
explorati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> use of objects to build mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> stories is the least-to-most prompt system,<br />
also known as the system of least prompts<br />
(SLP). The system of least prompts is used<br />
after the target stimulus is presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
student is provided with a chance to resp<strong>on</strong>d<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently; if an error or no resp<strong>on</strong>se occurs,<br />
the least <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>trusive prompt is delivered as<br />
well as another opportunity to resp<strong>on</strong>d. This is<br />
c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until the student resp<strong>on</strong>ds correctly<br />
or the most <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>trusive prompt <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
prompt hierarchy is delivered (Doyle, Wolery,<br />
Ault, & Gast, 1988). In a literature review of<br />
SLP, researchers found that 11 % of the studies<br />
used this strategy with students that had<br />
visual impairments (Doyle et al.). The SLP has<br />
often been used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> with a task<br />
analysis. A task analysis is the process of break<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
down a cha<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed behavior <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to smaller<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g each small comp<strong>on</strong>ent<br />
<strong>on</strong>e at a time (Coll<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s, 2007).<br />
Browder, Trela, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Jimenez (2007) ap-
plied systematic prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of a<br />
task analysis to teach shared stories to students<br />
with moderate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities.<br />
In this study, they exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the effects<br />
of tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers to engage students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
shared story us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a book adapted from middle<br />
school literature. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g activities.<br />
Although, this study implemented systematic<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, adaptati<strong>on</strong>s would need<br />
to be made for students with visual impairments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both the adaptati<strong>on</strong> of the book <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mode for student resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g., salient objects,<br />
touch resp<strong>on</strong>se).<br />
Browder, Mims, Spo<strong>on</strong>er, Ahlgrim-Delzell,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Lee (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press) also applied systematic<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of a task analysis to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
students with significant multiple disabilities.<br />
In this study, they exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the effects of<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualiz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a task analysis to help <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
student engagement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a shared story. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
books were adapted with salient objects<br />
as all participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students required the use<br />
of salient objects. Results <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the shared story with all three participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students. Once aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, this study dem<strong>on</strong>strates<br />
the importance of systematic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, but<br />
adaptati<strong>on</strong>s would still need to be made for<br />
students with visual impairments.<br />
Although studies like those by Skotko et al.<br />
(2004) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Browder, Mims, et al. (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press)<br />
offer guidance for plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared stories,<br />
there currently are no studies dem<strong>on</strong>strat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their applicability to students with visual impairments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities.<br />
An extensi<strong>on</strong> to this populati<strong>on</strong> is especially<br />
important because students who have<br />
both visual impairments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual<br />
disabilities present multiple challenges to<br />
literacy learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Due to the complex comb<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> earlier views about<br />
“eligibility” for literacy, they may have had<br />
little to no prior literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Because<br />
of this, they may not underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the most<br />
basic c<strong>on</strong>venti<strong>on</strong>s of a read aloud like <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>teract<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with a book <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about text. These students may also need<br />
to build language c<strong>on</strong>cepts c<strong>on</strong>currently with<br />
literacy exposure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> knowledge. For example,<br />
students may not underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> even literal<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cepts presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the book like “tree” or<br />
“box.” F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, students may need many repetiti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
with a book to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> be able to produce comprehensi<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
The purpose of this study was to evaluate a<br />
strategy for engag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students with visual impairments<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> through the use of a<br />
shared story. Specifically, the study evaluated<br />
whether a least-to-most prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system<br />
would <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the number of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ses dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a storybased<br />
less<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Method<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Participants for this study <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded two students<br />
with significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
who were visually impaired. Participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
were required to meet the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
criteria: (a) classified by the school system as<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a “severe or profound” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
(IQ <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adaptive behaviors 55), (b)<br />
developmental levels below 1 year as measured<br />
by an adapted behavior scale, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c)<br />
receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services for visual impairments.<br />
Teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a large urban school system <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
Southeast were asked to identify students who<br />
met these eligibility criteria. Student eligibility<br />
was then verified by review<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
provided from the student’s psychological<br />
evaluati<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Three students were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially identified who<br />
met the criteria to participate. Only two students<br />
completed the study as the third had<br />
compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g self stimulatory behavior that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terfered<br />
with mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the literacy resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Although<br />
this student began to show some <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the stories, the compet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g behavior<br />
was not adequately reduced <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the timeframe<br />
of the study to be able to prompt the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses.<br />
Demographic <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> for the two participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
students is shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 1. The<br />
two students attended two different public<br />
schools <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> received their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> self<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed special educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms for<br />
students with severe disabilities. For Student 1,<br />
most assessments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s were c<strong>on</strong>ducted<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a separate tutorial room for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividualized<br />
literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>; although, general-<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> / 411
TABLE 1<br />
Student Demographic<br />
Student Age Gender<br />
Student 1 6 Male <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly Delayed;<br />
Multih<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped;<br />
Cortical Visual<br />
Impairment; Cerebral<br />
Palsy; Br<strong>on</strong>chopulm<strong>on</strong>ary<br />
Dysplasia<br />
Student 2 9 Female <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g>ly Delayed;<br />
Multih<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>icapped;<br />
Severe visual<br />
impairment/severe<br />
nearsightedness <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
eye; Cerebral Palsy;<br />
Microcephaly; Seizures<br />
izati<strong>on</strong> data were collected <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> classroom <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the cafeteria. For<br />
Student 2, all assessments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the student’s elementary<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> classroom. The first author,<br />
a doctoral student <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
former licensed special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher<br />
with seven years of experience with students<br />
with multiple disabilities, served as the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, all data collecti<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g procedural fidelity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-rater<br />
reliability, were c<strong>on</strong>ducted by the other members<br />
of the research team.<br />
Materials<br />
Three popular elementary picture books were<br />
used for the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Each book was<br />
adapted to c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 specific c<strong>on</strong>crete objects<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the book. These objects were<br />
tactile representati<strong>on</strong>s of nouns embedded<br />
throughout the story (e.g., “flower”). Each object<br />
was attached to the page <strong>on</strong> which the<br />
noun would be read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could be removed<br />
(attached with Velcro). The same objects detached<br />
from the page, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> distractor objects,<br />
were used for students to express comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses. Five objects appeared two<br />
times <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each book. Objects were selected <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
adapted for the maximum sensory dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ctiveness<br />
possible (e.g., soft cloth, textured surface,<br />
dist<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ct smell like an orange). The books were<br />
Diagnoses Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to<br />
School Records Aids <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Services Communicati<strong>on</strong> And Literacy<br />
Wheel chair; s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
switch; OT, PT,<br />
Speech, Visi<strong>on</strong><br />
Services<br />
Wheelchair; s<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gle<br />
switch; OT, PT,<br />
Speech, Visi<strong>on</strong><br />
Impairment<br />
Services<br />
also adapted to abbreviate text <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> add a repeated<br />
story l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e to promote underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Table 2 gives examples of the adaptati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
used for each book <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a list of the objects<br />
used as noun referents.<br />
Data Collecti<strong>on</strong> Procedures<br />
412 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Inc<strong>on</strong>sistent communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
attempts; <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se to objects;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read alouds<br />
Laughs or screams to<br />
communicate mood;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent resp<strong>on</strong>se to<br />
object or pictures;<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>sistent resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g read alouds<br />
Dependent variable. The dependent variable<br />
was the number of correct <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent<br />
selecti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e of two objects to answer comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s asked throughout the<br />
read aloud of the story. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist<br />
recorded the student’s resp<strong>on</strong>se to each of 10<br />
preplanned comprehensi<strong>on</strong> trials dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
read aloud (each object occurred twice). Although<br />
for purposes of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist<br />
recorded the level of prompt the<br />
student required (e.g., verbal, model, physical),<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly resp<strong>on</strong>ses scored as unprompted<br />
correct () were graphed.<br />
Inter-rater reliability. Inter-rater reliability<br />
was measured by us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an item-by-item formula.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d observer viewed videotapes of<br />
the sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently scored each of<br />
the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong> trials. If item-by-item<br />
agreement was not 90% (9/10 trials), the two<br />
observers met to discuss the resp<strong>on</strong>ses to be<br />
observed prior to the cod<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the next video.<br />
Inter-rater reliability was calculated by tak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the number of agreements <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> divid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g it by
TABLE 2<br />
Book Adaptati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Book Dirty Bertie<br />
By David Roberts<br />
Adaptati<strong>on</strong>s Book was shortened (pages<br />
removed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es were cut<br />
from text), pages were<br />
lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated, 5 objects were<br />
velcroed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the text,<br />
added appropriate text to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
appearance of the 5 objects.<br />
the number of agreements plus disagreements<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g by 100.<br />
Procedural fidelity. Another member of the<br />
research team scored procedural fidelity dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
all checks of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-rater reliability. Data<br />
was collected <strong>on</strong> the number of steps the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
followed while implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
story-based less<strong>on</strong>. The steps <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the story aloud until the text that was associated<br />
with the predeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s were reached. At this po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
would request for the student to “read<br />
with me” while plac<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s<br />
<strong>on</strong> the correlat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g object. After read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the<br />
targeted l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of text, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor would then<br />
ask the comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> progress<br />
through the least-to-most prompt system as<br />
necessary. The team member checked to see if<br />
each segment was present () or not present<br />
(). The number of present items was divided<br />
by the total number of items <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> multiplied by<br />
100 to obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a procedural reliability score. In<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>, procedural fidelity was collected <strong>on</strong><br />
the implementati<strong>on</strong> of the least-to-most<br />
prompt system <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a check of the<br />
delivery of the appropriate prompt hierarchy<br />
as well as the predeterm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed wait time of 5<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>ds between prompt levels.<br />
Social validity. Social validity was collected<br />
to measure procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes by hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each student’s special educati<strong>on</strong> teacher<br />
take a survey. This was designed to recognize<br />
Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Terrible,<br />
Horrible, No Good, Very<br />
Bad Day<br />
By Judith Viorst<br />
Book was shortened (pages<br />
removed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es were cut<br />
from text), pages were<br />
lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated, 5 objects were<br />
velcroed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the text,<br />
added appropriate text to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
appearance of the 5 objects.<br />
Repeated story l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e No Bertie, that’s dirty Bertie! Terrible, horrible, no good,<br />
very bad day.<br />
Objects used to Stuffed dog, piece of c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y, Gum, c<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>y bar, cereal box,<br />
promote listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g rubber worms, an orange, shoe laces, pillow.<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong>. flowers.<br />
the teachers perspective of the effect of the<br />
least-to-most prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g system <strong>on</strong> the number<br />
of correct comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s answered<br />
throughout the story-based less<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Research Design<br />
I Missed You Everyday<br />
By Simms Tabak<br />
Book was shortened (pages<br />
removed <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es were cut<br />
from text), pages were<br />
lam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated, 5 objects were<br />
velcroed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the text,<br />
added appropriate text to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a sec<strong>on</strong>d<br />
appearance of the 5 objects.<br />
I missed you every day.<br />
Ribb<strong>on</strong>, wrapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g paper,<br />
envelope, pen, box.<br />
A multiple probe across materials (i.e., books)<br />
design with c<strong>on</strong>current replicati<strong>on</strong>s for two<br />
students was used to exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the number of<br />
correct comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s answered<br />
(Tawney & Gast, 1984). Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data were<br />
collected <strong>on</strong> the two students to identify their<br />
current level of resp<strong>on</strong>ses to the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g story-based less<strong>on</strong>s with<br />
three different books. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist read the book aloud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provided<br />
objects to answer the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s, but did not prompt resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Once a stable or decreas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e was seen,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated with the first book.<br />
Once the students dem<strong>on</strong>strated a change <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
trend <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>/or level <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their graphed data with<br />
the first book the sec<strong>on</strong>d book was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced.<br />
This c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued until both students<br />
had been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduced to all three books with<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance probes were<br />
c<strong>on</strong>ducted <strong>on</strong> Student 1 approximately 2<br />
weeks after a functi<strong>on</strong>al relati<strong>on</strong>ship was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed,<br />
but could not be obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed for Student<br />
2 due to the end of the school year.<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> / 413
TABLE 3<br />
Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> Questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>s Dirty Bertie<br />
Procedure<br />
Basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e phase. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
(first author) progressed through<br />
each story, provided objects affixed to the<br />
book pages, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> asked the preplanned comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s, as shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 3,<br />
giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the student the object <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a distractor<br />
to resp<strong>on</strong>d. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor did not prompt or<br />
provide feedback dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e c<strong>on</strong>diti<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
At the appropriate place <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
asked the comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
placed the objects by the student’s h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong><br />
the table, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> waited 5 s for a resp<strong>on</strong>se. Be-<br />
Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Terrible,<br />
Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day I Missed You Everyday<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 1 What did Bertie pick up off What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er go to sleep with What did she wrap herself with?<br />
the ground <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eat? that got stuck <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his hair?<br />
Answer: Sucker Answer: Gum Answer: Wrapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 2 What did Bertie put up his What didn’t Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a toy What did she tie herself with?<br />
nose <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then try to eat? <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>?<br />
Answer: Orange Answer: Cereal Box Answer: Ribb<strong>on</strong><br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 3 What did Bertie go hunt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g What didn’t Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er get <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his What did she jump <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>side?<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the garden for?<br />
lunch box?<br />
Answer: Worms Answer: Chocolate Bar Answer: A Box<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 4 Who would Bertie lick <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the What didn’t Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er get with his What did she use to write your<br />
face?<br />
shoes?<br />
address with?<br />
Answer: The dog Answer: Blue Shoelaces Answer: A Pen<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 5 What did Bertie try <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> eat What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er’s Brother take What was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the mailbag she<br />
after watch<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g his cat? from him?<br />
jumped <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to?<br />
Answer: Flowers Answer: Pillow Answer: Envelopes<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 6 What did Bertie learn not to What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er eat that didn’t What can you f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d her wrapped<br />
eat because he got all<br />
wet?<br />
get stuck <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his hair?<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>?<br />
Answer: Flowers Answer: Gum Answer: A Box<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 7 What did Bertie learn no to What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d a toy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>? After pay<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the postman, what<br />
play with when his sister<br />
dumped them <strong>on</strong> his<br />
head?<br />
will be <strong>on</strong> their way?<br />
Answer: Worms Answer: Cereal Box Answer: The Envelopes<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 8 What did Bertie learn not to What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er get <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his What does she need to be<br />
eat off the ground? lunch box?<br />
unwrapped from?<br />
Answer: Suckers Answer: Chocolate Bar Answer: Wrapp<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Paper<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 9 After gett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g hair <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his What did Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d with his What should you not forget to<br />
mouth, who did Bertie<br />
learn not to lick?<br />
shoes at the shoe store?<br />
untie?<br />
Answer: The dog Answer: The Blue Shoe Str<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs Answer: The Ribb<strong>on</strong><br />
Questi<strong>on</strong> 10 What does Bertie still put What did Nick give to Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er? What did she use to write the<br />
up his nose <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then eat?<br />
thank you letter?<br />
Answer: Oranges Answer: Pillow Answer: A Pen<br />
414 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
cause of physical challenges, both students<br />
selected resp<strong>on</strong>ses by slid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their arm across<br />
the table to touch <strong>on</strong>e object. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
waited until all movement stopped to be sure<br />
that the student had made the selecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
was not scann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the objects. At the end of 5 s,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor scored the resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>t<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ued<br />
read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the story up to the next comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> so <strong>on</strong> until all 10 questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were asked. This was repeated for all<br />
three books across days until a stable or decelerat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
trend <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e data was observed.
Interventi<strong>on</strong>. Like basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
sessi<strong>on</strong> began with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the book aloud <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s after each page. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor would ask the student to “read with<br />
me” when read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a page with an embedded<br />
object. To help the student “read with me,”<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor would place the students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
<strong>on</strong> the object that was attached to the page<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then read the text that c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the<br />
noun the object depicted (e.g., “Alex<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>er<br />
woke up with gum stuck <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> his hair.” The book<br />
page had a pack of gum attached.). The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
then placed the same object as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
book (e.g., pack of gum) beside a distractor<br />
object (e.g., <strong>on</strong>e from another book) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> fr<strong>on</strong>t<br />
of the student’s h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s <strong>on</strong> the table. After ask<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>, the teacher<br />
waited for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent resp<strong>on</strong>se or that is,<br />
for the student to slide an arm across the table<br />
to select <strong>on</strong>e of the objects. If no resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
occurred, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor began to use the<br />
least-to-most prompt system. If the student<br />
made no resp<strong>on</strong>se after 5 s, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor gave<br />
the first level prompt. For the first level<br />
prompt, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor said “F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the <strong>on</strong>e that<br />
is like this” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placed students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> page<br />
with tactile object). Aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
waited 5 s for a resp<strong>on</strong>se. If a correct resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
occurred after the first level prompt, the student<br />
was praised. If the student <strong>on</strong>ce aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
made no resp<strong>on</strong>se after 5 sec<strong>on</strong>ds, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
used a sec<strong>on</strong>d level prompt. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor<br />
said, “F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the <strong>on</strong>e that is like this” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placed<br />
students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> page with tactile object,<br />
then placed students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the correct object,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then removed the student’s h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
while say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g “You f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d it.” The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor then<br />
waited another 5 sec<strong>on</strong>ds for a resp<strong>on</strong>se, a<br />
correct resp<strong>on</strong>se resulted <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> praise. If no resp<strong>on</strong>se,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor used a third level, fully<br />
physical prompt. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor said, “F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
the <strong>on</strong>e that is like this” <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> placed students<br />
h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> page with tactile object <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> then<br />
placed students h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> the correct object<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> said “This is the ‘gum’ (or whatever the<br />
object was)!” If at any time dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the prompt<br />
hierarchy the student went for an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>se, the attempt was blocked <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
student was physically redirected to the correct<br />
answer.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> generalizati<strong>on</strong>. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
probes were collected <strong>on</strong> Student 1 <strong>on</strong><br />
all three books, approximately two weeks after<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> ended. Generalizati<strong>on</strong> data<br />
were collected with Student 1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> two additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs to dem<strong>on</strong>strate generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (i.e., the student’s classroom<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the empty cafeteria). In additi<strong>on</strong>, a peer<br />
from the student’s school who was n<strong>on</strong>disabled<br />
was recruited to c<strong>on</strong>duct the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
with Book 3 to dem<strong>on</strong>strate generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
across people.<br />
Results<br />
Agreement. Procedural fidelity for delivery<br />
of all steps of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was 100%<br />
across all three books for both Student 1<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 2. Inter-rater agreement for scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g student<br />
1 resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was 98% for Book 1,<br />
100% for Book 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 93% for Book 3. For<br />
student 1, both procedural fidelity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-rater<br />
agreement data were collected for<br />
29% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Book 1, 47% of the<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Book 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 29% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for Book 3. Inter-rater agreement for scor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
student 2 resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g was 100% for Book<br />
1, 100% for Book 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 100% for Book. For<br />
student 2, both procedural fidelity <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-rater<br />
agreement data were collected for<br />
36% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Book 1, 27% of the<br />
sessi<strong>on</strong>s for Book 2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 40% of the sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for Book 3.<br />
Student 1 data. Student 1 performance<br />
data are displayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 1. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
Student 1 correctly answered a mean of<br />
less than <strong>on</strong>e questi<strong>on</strong> (.75) of the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Book 1, with a<br />
range from 0 to 3 questi<strong>on</strong>s. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased (M 5, range<br />
from 1–9). Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for book 2, Student<br />
1 also correctly answered a mean of less<br />
than <strong>on</strong>e (.6) of the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
asked, with a range from 1 to 3 questi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, the resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
(M 6.5, range from 3–8). For Book<br />
3 dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, Student 1 correctly answered<br />
a mean of 1.3 of the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s asked, with a range from 0 to 2<br />
steps. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, the resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
(M 5.6, range from 1 to 9).<br />
Student 2 data. Student 2 performance<br />
data are displayed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Figure 2. Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e,<br />
Student 2 correctly answered a mean of<br />
1.75 questi<strong>on</strong>s of the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong> ques-<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> / 415
Figure 1. Number of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses across three books for participant 1.<br />
ti<strong>on</strong>s asked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Book 1, with a range from 0 to<br />
4 questi<strong>on</strong>s. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, the resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased (M5.14, range from 2–7). Dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e for book 2, Student 2 correctly answered<br />
a mean of 2 of the 10 comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
416 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s asked, with a range from 1 to 4<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, the resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased (M 6.5, range from 4–9). For<br />
Book 3 dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g basel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e, Student 2 correctly<br />
answered a mean of 2.8 of the 10 comprehen-
Figure 2. Number of correct resp<strong>on</strong>ses across three books for participant 2.<br />
si<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s asked, with a range from 1 to 6<br />
steps. After <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, the resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased<br />
(M 6.25, range from 4 to 8).<br />
Social validity. Both classroom teachers<br />
participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a follow-up survey that measured<br />
both the procedures <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the outcomes.<br />
Both teachers reported str<strong>on</strong>gly<br />
agree<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the comprehensi<strong>on</strong> items se-<br />
lected were appropriate, important, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
cost effective. In additi<strong>on</strong>, the teachers<br />
str<strong>on</strong>gly agreed that the system of least<br />
prompts, the prompt hierarchy used, as well<br />
as the wait time between prompts were appropriate<br />
for this student. The teachers reported<br />
that they str<strong>on</strong>gly agreed to use this<br />
prompt procedure aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future for<br />
Increas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Comprehensi<strong>on</strong> / 417
additi<strong>on</strong>al skills as well as <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> future comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
skills with additi<strong>on</strong>al students. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally,<br />
the teachers reported str<strong>on</strong>gly agree<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
that the students overall comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased as a result of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
that overall the student had <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> literacy activities<br />
as well as other academic <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> functi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
activities.<br />
Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Generalizati<strong>on</strong>. Student 1<br />
was able to ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all skills by ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> of all three books. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance<br />
data were collected about two weeks to<br />
a m<strong>on</strong>th after the end of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> for each<br />
book. Ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance data were not collected<br />
for student 2. Student 1 generalized the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs (i.e., separate<br />
literacy room, classroom). Student 1 was<br />
not able to generalize the skill to a third sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
(i.e., cafeteria), as he became extremely<br />
distracted by this envir<strong>on</strong>ment. In additi<strong>on</strong> to<br />
generalizati<strong>on</strong> across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, student 1 was<br />
able to correctly answer 7 out of 10 questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
asked dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g story 3 (i.e., I Missed You Every<br />
Day by Simms Tabak) read by a peer. Generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
data across sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> people as<br />
well as ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tenance were not collected for<br />
Student 2 due to time c<strong>on</strong>stra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ts with the<br />
school year end<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Student 1 was able to show <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
across all three books. In additi<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was replicated with another<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ma<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed across time. Student 2<br />
was also able to show <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creases <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
across all three books. These outcomes<br />
add to the literature that shared stories promote<br />
comprehensi<strong>on</strong> skills for young children<br />
(Bus, van Ijzendoorn, & Pelligr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i, 1995;<br />
Coyne et al., 2004; Justice & Kaderavek, 2003;<br />
Senechal, Thomas, & M<strong>on</strong>ker, 1995; Vacca et<br />
al., 2006), <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g those with visual impairments<br />
(Ericks<strong>on</strong> & Hatt<strong>on</strong>, 2007). Shared stories<br />
also have been used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a few studies with<br />
students with severe <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities<br />
(Browder et al., 2007; Browder, Mims, et al.,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press; Skotko et al., 2004). The unique<br />
c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> of the current study was to dem<strong>on</strong>strate<br />
how us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects that were noun<br />
referents could be used to promote comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared stories. By<br />
418 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
attach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the object to the page, the student<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that the page of the<br />
book itself c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. The<br />
student then used the same object as a means<br />
to communicate underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of a comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
The focus <strong>on</strong> listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong> also<br />
makes an important c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
research <strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared stories with students<br />
with <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. For example,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Browder et al. (2007) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Browder,<br />
Mims, et al. (<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> press) comprehensi<strong>on</strong> was<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e comp<strong>on</strong>ent of a series of resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
to engage with the text. In these prior studies,<br />
the dependent variable was a task analysis of<br />
participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a read aloud (e.g., turn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
pages, repeat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a story l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e). In c<strong>on</strong>trast, the<br />
current study focused <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> thus provided a str<strong>on</strong>ger<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong> that students were ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the read aloud. The <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded more opportunities (10) to<br />
make comprehensi<strong>on</strong> resp<strong>on</strong>ses. In fact, the<br />
student answered a comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong><br />
after the read<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of each page.<br />
Besides us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g objects as referents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
multiple opportunities to make comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses, a third feature of the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was the use of least-to-most<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. Although prior studies used<br />
prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (e.g., Browder et al., 2007), the<br />
current <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was uniquely designed<br />
for students with visual impairments <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from the object <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the story.<br />
Each level of the prompt hierarchy helped the<br />
student return to the page to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d the object<br />
of reference similar to the way a sighted student<br />
might review the text <strong>on</strong> the page to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<br />
the answer. By the end of the first book, the<br />
students were beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to grasp how to locate<br />
the answer. For example, Student 1 was<br />
much more likely <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiate a resp<strong>on</strong>se <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
sec<strong>on</strong>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> third books because of the familiarity<br />
of the structured rout<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e of objects embedded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the book <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same object be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the resp<strong>on</strong>se opti<strong>on</strong>s for the comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Another c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong> is the c<strong>on</strong>text for<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. Student 1 resp<strong>on</strong>ded well to a<br />
peer read aloud after becom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g familiar with<br />
the third book. What is unknown is whether<br />
the student would have acquired the resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
with peer tutor<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. What was deter-
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed is that this student needed a quiet<br />
room to focus <strong>on</strong> the book <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
In the quiet room, the student was able<br />
to build the auditory discrim<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong> needed to<br />
hear the text read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> select the correct object.<br />
Once the student became familiar with<br />
the book, he was able to generalize the resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
to his classroom c<strong>on</strong>text. In c<strong>on</strong>trast,<br />
it is unknown whether this generalizati<strong>on</strong><br />
would have occurred for a new book. For Student<br />
2 all <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> occurred <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the student’s<br />
self-c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed classroom, but all sessi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
were c<strong>on</strong>ducted dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a time that the<br />
other students had “quiet time.” In plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
replicati<strong>on</strong>s of this research, c<strong>on</strong>siderati<strong>on</strong><br />
should be given to whether students have the<br />
level of quiet needed to focus <strong>on</strong> the read<br />
aloud of the text dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itial <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
how to fade this back <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to typical classroom<br />
c<strong>on</strong>texts.<br />
Although results of this study were encourag<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
some limitati<strong>on</strong>s should be noted. First,<br />
the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> was c<strong>on</strong>ducted by a member<br />
of the research team rather than the classroom<br />
teacher due to some of the logistics of<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>text (e.g., time to implement three 1:1<br />
read alouds). Future research should c<strong>on</strong>sider<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the special or general educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher serve the role of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>ist<br />
which might be feasible with small group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d limitati<strong>on</strong> is that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
was provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a <strong>on</strong>e-to-<strong>on</strong>e format.<br />
Whether <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a general educati<strong>on</strong> or self c<strong>on</strong>ta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed<br />
class, students often receive literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
group format. In c<strong>on</strong>trast, students with both<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual impairments may need<br />
some 1:1 <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong> dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g early acquisiti<strong>on</strong><br />
of skills for listen<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong>. A questi<strong>on</strong><br />
for future research is whether the students<br />
would be able to acquire these resp<strong>on</strong>ses<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a small group format if the c<strong>on</strong>text<br />
were quiet. For example, the student might<br />
participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a mixed ability group <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> class. Prior research (Kliewer &<br />
L<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>is, 1999; Ryndak, Morris<strong>on</strong>, & Sommerste<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>,<br />
1999) suggests that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g students<br />
who are n<strong>on</strong>disabled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> small group literacy<br />
experiences can be beneficial. In a mixed ability<br />
group, the students would use resp<strong>on</strong>se<br />
opti<strong>on</strong>s appropriate for them (e.g., objects to<br />
represent the answers, say<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g answers aloud,<br />
writ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g resp<strong>on</strong>ses, etc.).<br />
In apply<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> to practice, the<br />
first step would be to identify literature appropriate<br />
to the student’s age, grade, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terests.<br />
C<strong>on</strong>sultati<strong>on</strong> with a media specialist, general<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers or same age peers may<br />
help identify books that have the appeal<br />
needed for early literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. As<br />
needed, these books can be modified as described<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table 2, or the team may be able to<br />
use computer software with digitalized text for<br />
ease of access. Next, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
the comprehensi<strong>on</strong> questi<strong>on</strong>s to ask dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the shared story. In the beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>n<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, these may<br />
be simple recall questi<strong>on</strong>s. Future applicati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
should target higher level comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s (e.g., sequenc<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, cause <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effect).<br />
Third, the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es the prompt<br />
hierarchy <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> wait time to use dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Each level of prompt should return the<br />
student to the page of the book to locate the<br />
correct answer. In additi<strong>on</strong>, an error correcti<strong>on</strong><br />
procedure <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> re<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>forcement procedures<br />
should be determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed before <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong><br />
beg<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>s. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependent correct<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses should be the targeted outcome,<br />
but it may be helpful to m<strong>on</strong>itor progress <strong>on</strong><br />
the prompt needed dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. This<br />
will allow the teacher to m<strong>on</strong>itor that students<br />
are us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g less prompt<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g over time.<br />
In c<strong>on</strong>clusi<strong>on</strong>, this study adds to the grow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
research <strong>on</strong> us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g shared stories to promote<br />
literacy skills for students with significant<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities. Students with<br />
significant <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>tellectual disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> visual<br />
impairments are underrepresented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the research<br />
<strong>on</strong> literacy <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>. This is <strong>on</strong>e of<br />
the first dem<strong>on</strong>strati<strong>on</strong>s of the use of shared<br />
stories <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> comprehensi<strong>on</strong> with this populati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
While more research is needed to build<br />
an evidence base for the use of shared stories<br />
with this populati<strong>on</strong>, this may be viewed as a<br />
promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practice for <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g comprehensi<strong>on</strong><br />
for students with limited communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the literature of their age group.<br />
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Publish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
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with severe disabilities (3 rd ed.). Upper Saddle River,<br />
NJ: Pears<strong>on</strong>
Evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the Acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Effectiveness of Family<br />
Assessment Portfolios<br />
Hedda Meadan, James R. Thomps<strong>on</strong>, Mayumi Hagiwara, Julie Herold,<br />
Sarah Hoekstra, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Samantha Manser<br />
Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois State University<br />
Abstract: The Family Assessment Portfolio (FAP) is a new tool that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cludes scrapbooks, web-based profiles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
movies that families create to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce their children to educators. FAP was developed to promote good<br />
home/school communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong>. Although FAPs appear to be a promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g practice for the field<br />
of special educati<strong>on</strong>, there is limited <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about its social validity; the social importance of FAPs’ goals,<br />
procedures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes. To evaluate the acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of the FAPs, data were collected,<br />
through <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>naires, from three groups of stakeholders: parents, FAP facilitators, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
educators. Participants reported that the goals of the FAPs are important for both families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators. The<br />
procedures for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptable, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al product was<br />
evaluated as very useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful. Participants also shared their perceived challenges related to the FAPs<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for improvement. Implicati<strong>on</strong>s for future research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice are discussed.<br />
In the field of special educati<strong>on</strong> there is widespread<br />
c<strong>on</strong>sensus regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the merits of a<br />
family-centered approach to provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g services<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> supports. Decades of research have<br />
documented positive outcomes from family<br />
participati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a child’s school<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> federal<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> legislati<strong>on</strong> str<strong>on</strong>gly encourages<br />
parental <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
plann<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (Turnbull, Turnbull, Erw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, &<br />
Soodak, 2006). However, barriers to effective<br />
family/school partnerships persist (Lake &<br />
Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsly, 2000).<br />
A new tool, the Family Assessment Portfolio<br />
(FAP), was developed to promote successful<br />
home/school collaborati<strong>on</strong>. FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
scrapbooks, web-based profiles, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> movies<br />
that families create to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>troduce their children<br />
to educators. “Although FAPs are not a<br />
panacea for all of the challenges associated<br />
with home/school communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
FAPs can be used to (a) empower<br />
The research reported here was supported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> part<br />
by fund<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from The Autism Program of Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois Council <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>.<br />
Corresp<strong>on</strong>dence c<strong>on</strong>cern<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g this article<br />
should be addressed to Hedda Meadan, Department<br />
of Special <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g>, Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois State University,<br />
MC 5910, Normal, IL 61790-5910.<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>, 2009, 44(3), 421–430<br />
© <str<strong>on</strong>g>Divisi<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
families by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the assessment<br />
process; (b) enhance opportunities for families<br />
to communicate the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> they<br />
most want schools to know; (c) familiarize<br />
future educators with students (e.g., likes, dislikes,<br />
strengths, needs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
skills); <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (d) <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>crease the likelihood that<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
will truly address a child’s most important<br />
needs” (Thomps<strong>on</strong>, Meadan, Fansler, Alber,<br />
& Balogh, 2007, p. 19).<br />
The idea for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ally<br />
came from parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> central Ill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ois who<br />
wanted to encourage local schools to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
their children <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms.<br />
They began creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g materials (e.g.,<br />
scrapbooks, student profiles) that provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about their children to future<br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrators prior to the start<br />
of the school year. Although some of the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> scrapbooks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> student profiles<br />
paralleled what <strong>on</strong>e would expect to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
typical assessment reports (e.g., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about words known <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how the child communicates,<br />
functi<strong>on</strong>al descripti<strong>on</strong>s of motor<br />
abilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> challenges, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> descripti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
specialized equipment used), such <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
was presented <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an accessible, pers<strong>on</strong>al,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “user friendly” format. Parents, teachers,<br />
Family Assessment Portfolios / 421
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>istrators reported that these materials<br />
promoted greater underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of children<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creased the<br />
school’s commitment to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude the children<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> general educati<strong>on</strong> classrooms. With the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volvement<br />
of faculty <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> students from local<br />
universities, FAPs were further developed to<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude a DVD/movie <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a webpage. Guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
for what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how<br />
to create multimedia materials were published<br />
(Thomps<strong>on</strong> et al., 2007). S<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ce the portfolios<br />
were mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an important c<strong>on</strong>tributi<strong>on</strong> to the<br />
assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> decisi<strong>on</strong> mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g efforts of<br />
IFSP/IEP teams, the term Family Assessment<br />
Portfolio (FAP) was co<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed.<br />
Although FAPs appear to be a promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
practice for the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>, to<br />
date, <strong>on</strong>ly a few FAPs have been developed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> used, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <strong>on</strong>ly anecdotal reports support<br />
their effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptability by parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> teachers. Systematically evaluat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs is<br />
needed. Such an evaluati<strong>on</strong> will not <strong>on</strong>ly provide<br />
more objective evidence regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their<br />
usefulness, but also could help improve their<br />
effectiveness <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>tribute to wider dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Traditi<strong>on</strong>ally, researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practiti<strong>on</strong>ers<br />
have evaluated practices <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of outcomes.<br />
They were primarily <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terested <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> assess<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
whether the practice produced significant effects.<br />
However, these evaluati<strong>on</strong>s did not necessarily<br />
afford <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>sights about the social importance<br />
of the practices. Wolf (1978) argued that<br />
society needs to validate the practices used<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> he referred to it as “judgment of social<br />
validity” (p. 207). Wolf suggested three levels<br />
of social validity: (a) the social significance of<br />
the goals, the importance of the goals for<br />
society; (b) the social appropriateness of the<br />
procedure, the acceptability of the practice by<br />
the c<strong>on</strong>sumers; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) the social importance<br />
of the effects <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> satisfacti<strong>on</strong> with the results<br />
of the practice.<br />
The purpose of this study was to evaluate<br />
the acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of the FAPs.<br />
The research questi<strong>on</strong>s that guided the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestigati<strong>on</strong><br />
addressed the three levels of social<br />
validity of the FAPs: (a) are FAPs important<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>;<br />
(b) is the process of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAPs acceptable<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> appropriate; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) are the effects<br />
of the FAPs important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful.<br />
Assessment of social validity is important be-<br />
cause if practices are judged to be acceptable,<br />
they are more likely to be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated. Practices<br />
that show good outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> have positive<br />
social validity measures are more likely be dissem<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> adopted by others (W<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ett,<br />
Moore, & Anders<strong>on</strong>, 1991).<br />
Method<br />
Participants <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Data Collecti<strong>on</strong><br />
422 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
To evaluate the acceptability <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness<br />
of the FAPs, data were collected from three<br />
groups of stakeholders: (a) parents who participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> created FAPs for<br />
their children; (b) FAP facilitators, the practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als (teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> social workers)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> university students who provided<br />
technical assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support to parents as<br />
they were develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAPs; <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) preservice<br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced educators who<br />
served as a proxy for educators who receive<br />
FAPs from parents. C<strong>on</strong>sents for participati<strong>on</strong><br />
were obta<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed prior to data collecti<strong>on</strong> from all<br />
participants.<br />
Parents. N<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e families who created FAPs<br />
for their children participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study. In<br />
total, there were 10 parents (9 mothers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 1<br />
father) that provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to the researchers.<br />
Overall, data from parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> related to eleven FAPs that were<br />
developed, as two of the families had two children<br />
with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore developed<br />
two FAPs (<strong>on</strong>e for each child). Data were collected<br />
from the mother of each child, with the<br />
excepti<strong>on</strong> of <strong>on</strong>e case where both mother <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
father provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. All of the families<br />
spoke English as the primary language at<br />
home. However, for <strong>on</strong>e family the parent’s<br />
native language was H<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>di. Additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about the parents participat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this<br />
study <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> their children is provided <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table<br />
1.<br />
Parents were asked to complete a questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a face to face or a<br />
ph<strong>on</strong>e <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview with the first author. The<br />
items <strong>on</strong> the questi<strong>on</strong>naire are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Table<br />
2, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded 26 statements. Parents identified<br />
their level of agreement with each statement<br />
<strong>on</strong> a Likert scale from 1 (disagree) to 5<br />
(agree). Twenty statements were worded positively<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 6 statements were worded negatively.<br />
It is important to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude both positively
TABLE 1<br />
Characteristics of children <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> families<br />
Variable n<br />
Gender of children<br />
Male 8<br />
Female 3<br />
Age of children at time FAP was completed<br />
35 m<strong>on</strong>ths or less 3<br />
36 to 47 m<strong>on</strong>ths 1<br />
48 to 59 m<strong>on</strong>ths 2<br />
60 to 70 m<strong>on</strong>ths 5<br />
Disability Characteristics of children (parent<br />
report)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> delay 4<br />
Autism Spectrum Disorder 7<br />
Down syndrome 3<br />
Low visi<strong>on</strong>/Bl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dness 1<br />
Physical disability: arm/h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> limitati<strong>on</strong>s 1<br />
Physical disability: mobility limitati<strong>on</strong>s 1<br />
Epilepsy 3<br />
Ethnicity of family<br />
Euro-American 7<br />
African-American 1<br />
Other 1<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> negatively worded items <strong>on</strong> a questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
to c<strong>on</strong>trol for resp<strong>on</strong>se sets <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>dents.<br />
If every item <strong>on</strong> a questi<strong>on</strong>naire is<br />
worded either positively or negatively, there is<br />
a greater chance that resp<strong>on</strong>dents will not<br />
thoughtfully read <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> answer each item<br />
(Yamaguchi, 1997).<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews lasted between 30–40<br />
m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>utes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were c<strong>on</strong>ducted at a c<strong>on</strong>venient<br />
time for the parents. The parents were asked<br />
about their percepti<strong>on</strong>s related to the importance/acceptability<br />
of FAP goals, procedures,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes. All <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews were recorded<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transcribed. Eight of the 10 families that<br />
participated had parents who completed both<br />
the questi<strong>on</strong>naire <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview. There was<br />
<strong>on</strong>e family where the parent <strong>on</strong>ly completed<br />
the questi<strong>on</strong>naire <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> another family where<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview was completed.<br />
FAP facilitators. FAP facilitators were four<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als (teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> case managers)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four university students (<strong>on</strong>e graduate<br />
student <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 undergraduate students), who<br />
worked with the parents to develop FAPs. The<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als worked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> either early childhood<br />
special educati<strong>on</strong> (3-5) or early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
(0-2) programs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were certified special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers or licensed social workers.<br />
Their professi<strong>on</strong>al work experience ranged<br />
from 3 years to 12 years. The undergraduate<br />
university students were prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to be special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teachers while the graduate student<br />
had already completed a special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teacher preparati<strong>on</strong> program <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was<br />
pursu<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a master’s degree <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
All of the facilitators were female <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
received tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from a university professor<br />
(the sec<strong>on</strong>d author) <strong>on</strong> how to support parents<br />
to create FAPs. The facilitators provided<br />
“h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s-<strong>on</strong>” assistance to help the parents create<br />
the three comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the FAP (i.e.,<br />
scrapbook, movie, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> web page). Although<br />
some parents were more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved than others<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the technical aspects of creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the materials,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> all the cases the facilitators provided<br />
significant technical assistance to the parents.<br />
FAP facilitators participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study by<br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e an<strong>on</strong>ymous questi<strong>on</strong>naire.<br />
Similar to the parents, the FAP facilitators<br />
were asked about their percepti<strong>on</strong>s related<br />
to FAPs (i.e., goals, procedures, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
outcomes). Questi<strong>on</strong>naire items required Likert<br />
scale resp<strong>on</strong>ses to five statements as well as<br />
short answer resp<strong>on</strong>ses to 11 open-ended<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>s.<br />
Pre-service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced teachers. Because<br />
it was not feasible to recruit educators who<br />
had actually received FAPs from parents, 43<br />
pre-service teachers (38 females <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 5 males)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 23 experienced teachers were recruited to<br />
participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the study. The pre-service teachers<br />
were students attend<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a large university<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the midwestern regi<strong>on</strong> of the United States.<br />
Twenty-eight of them were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> teacher preparati<strong>on</strong> program<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 15 were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an early childhood<br />
teacher preparati<strong>on</strong> program. These pre-service<br />
teachers were predom<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ately “traditi<strong>on</strong>al”<br />
college age students, with <strong>on</strong>ly 4% older than<br />
25 years of age. Eighty five percent of the<br />
pre-service teachers identified themselves as<br />
European-American, 8% as African-American,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the rest as Other.<br />
The pre-service teachers were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
two undergraduate educati<strong>on</strong> courses focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g methods for children with<br />
disabilities. The sec<strong>on</strong>d author, who was not<br />
the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor, provided a 5-m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ute<br />
overview of FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the purpose of the study,<br />
Family Assessment Portfolios / 423
TABLE 2<br />
Mean rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <strong>on</strong> 5-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Likert scale (1 low, 5 high) reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the extent of agreement with positively<br />
worded items<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> assured potential participants that it was<br />
their choice <strong>on</strong> whether or not to participate<br />
(all chose to participate). A movie from a FAP<br />
was shown to each class secti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the same<br />
child’s web page was presented through an<br />
LCD projector (i.e., <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> from the web<br />
page was highlighted <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> hyperl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ks were<br />
dem<strong>on</strong>strated). Scrapbooks from multiple<br />
children were distributed am<strong>on</strong>g the participants<br />
for their review. After the movie was<br />
Item Parents<br />
Pre-service<br />
Teachers<br />
Practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Teachers<br />
The FAP is an important tool for families of children with<br />
disabilities.<br />
5.00 4.33 4.61<br />
The FAP is needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>. 4.88 4.60 4.65<br />
The FAP empowers family members by <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
assessment process of their child.<br />
4.75 4.50 4.83<br />
The FAP helps families to communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> they<br />
want schools to know about their child.<br />
5.00 4.91 4.78<br />
The FAP helps a child’s future teachers to underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
child better.<br />
5.00 4.93 4.95<br />
The FAP enhances positive home-school communicati<strong>on</strong>. 4.38 4.86 4.87<br />
The process of creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP is time c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
requires a lot of effort.<br />
2.75 3.53 3.91<br />
It is important that parents participate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs<br />
with school or agency professi<strong>on</strong>als.<br />
4.00 4.42 4.83<br />
To develop a good FAP, parents need assistance from<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e who has good technology skills<br />
4.25 3.77 3.91<br />
To develop a good FAP, parents need assistance from<br />
some<strong>on</strong>e who underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s the types of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> that<br />
should be <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAPs.<br />
4.25 4.28 4.43<br />
The scrapbook is an important part of the FAP. 4.88 4.61 4.30<br />
The movie (DVD) is an important part of the FAP. 5.00 4.42 4.22<br />
The Webpage is an important part of the FAP. 3.62 3.72 3.78<br />
I am satisfied with the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al product of the FAP. 5.00 4.84 4.39<br />
The FAP enhanced the teacher’s underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of the<br />
family’s values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al priorities.<br />
4.13 4.58 4.57<br />
The FAP is an effective tool that will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the services<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> a child will receive.<br />
4.75 4.51 4.00<br />
The FAP should be used by other families of children with<br />
disabilities.<br />
5.00 4.77 4.52<br />
Parents can develop a good FAP with m<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>imal support form<br />
professi<strong>on</strong>als.*<br />
2.50<br />
I am satisfied with the outcomes (reacti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> resp<strong>on</strong>ses) of<br />
teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> others who have seen my child’s FAP.*<br />
4.75<br />
I was satisfied with the process of how the FAP was<br />
developed <strong>on</strong> my child.*<br />
4.63<br />
* item <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> parent questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
424 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
shown, the web page dem<strong>on</strong>strated, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> participants<br />
had sufficient time to look over 3 to<br />
4 scrapbooks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> ask questi<strong>on</strong>s about FAPs,<br />
each participant was asked to complete an<br />
an<strong>on</strong>ymous questi<strong>on</strong>naire that <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded a demographic<br />
secti<strong>on</strong> as well as 21 statements<br />
about FAPs. The pre-service teachers identified<br />
their level of agreement with each statement<br />
<strong>on</strong> a Likert scale (1-disagree to 5-agree).<br />
Data were collected from 23 experienced
educators. These educators were enrolled <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
master’s level course focus<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <strong>on</strong> teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
methods for children with Autism Spectrum<br />
Disorder. All had teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g or related service<br />
experience <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> K-12 schools with the years of<br />
experience rang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from 1 to 31 (M 6.36<br />
years). There were 19 females <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 4 males <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
this group with 82% report<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g an ethnic background<br />
of European American. Fourteen<br />
were currently employed as special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
teachers, 2 were early childhood teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
the rema<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g 4 worked <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> different educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
roles (e.g., SLP, school psychologist).<br />
Once aga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, the sec<strong>on</strong>d author collected data<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> was not the course <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structor. The same<br />
data collecti<strong>on</strong> procedures were used with the<br />
experienced teachers as had been used with<br />
the pre-service teachers. The <strong>on</strong>ly difference<br />
was that the movie <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> web page that the<br />
experienced teachers viewed was <strong>on</strong> a child<br />
who was five years old (i.e., a different child<br />
than the pre-service teachers viewed). Similar<br />
to the pre-service teachers, the practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
teachers reviewed several scrapbooks <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> had<br />
the opportunity to ask questi<strong>on</strong>s before an<strong>on</strong>ymously<br />
complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g Likert scale rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs of extent<br />
of agreement with the 21 statements related<br />
to the social validity of FAPs.<br />
Data Analysis<br />
Interviews. Parents’ <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews were audio<br />
taped <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> transcribed. Two faculty members<br />
(first <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> sec<strong>on</strong>d authors) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> two undergraduate<br />
students <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently analyzed the<br />
transcripts of the eight <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews. The four<br />
researchers met to discuss their analyses, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
came to c<strong>on</strong>sensus regard<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g themes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> each<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview. After discuss<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> summariz<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
each <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual transcript, the researchers<br />
came to c<strong>on</strong>sensus <strong>on</strong> a summary of themes<br />
across the participants. These f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs were<br />
organized <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to three categories: (a) percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
related to the importance of the goals of<br />
the FAPs, (b) percepti<strong>on</strong>s related to the acceptability<br />
of the procedures used to develop<br />
the FAPs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> (c) percepti<strong>on</strong>s related to the<br />
outcomes <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effectiveness of the FAPs.<br />
Questi<strong>on</strong>naires. Data from questi<strong>on</strong>naires<br />
were entered <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to the Statistical Package for<br />
the Social Sciences (SPSS 16.0 for Mac, 2007)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> descriptive statistics were generated for<br />
each variable.<br />
Results<br />
Results from the data collecti<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> data analysis<br />
are presented accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the three<br />
groups of stakeholders (i.e., parents, FAP facilitators,<br />
pre-service teachers, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced<br />
educators) that participated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
study.<br />
Parents’ Percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Parent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews. The parents who participated<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews<br />
that the FAP was an important tool for<br />
families of children with disabilities (i.e., social<br />
validity of the goals). Parents menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
that FAPs provided essential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about their child (“what you see <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FAP is<br />
what you get with my daughter”) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> believed<br />
FAPs could help educators to get to know<br />
their child <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> guide them <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
Parents believed the FAPs were useful especially<br />
when the child transiti<strong>on</strong>s from <strong>on</strong>e educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to another (e.g., early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
to school based services, <strong>on</strong>e grade to<br />
the next) or from work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with <strong>on</strong>e teacher/<br />
therapist to a different <strong>on</strong>e.<br />
The parents felt that the FAPs were an important<br />
tool for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> collaborati<strong>on</strong> with school pers<strong>on</strong>nel, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>creas<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
parents’ feel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g of empowerment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about their child<br />
that could guide teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong><br />
plans. Bey<strong>on</strong>d the use of FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> an educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, parents noted that FAPs were<br />
useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> establish<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g communicati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
other professi<strong>on</strong>als who provide services (e.g.,<br />
therapists <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> physicians), family members,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> friends.<br />
When asked about the social validity of the<br />
procedures used to develop FAPs, parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs required an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment<br />
of time, but they felt that this time was<br />
well spent <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> worthwhile because FAPs provided<br />
them a means to make their voice<br />
heard. It empowered them to communicate<br />
comprehensive <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about their child<br />
that may have been difficult to accurately articulate<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g traditi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
opportunities such as IEP c<strong>on</strong>ferences.<br />
Parents also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the process of creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the FAPs was enjoyable.<br />
Parents felt that support from professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
Family Assessment Portfolios / 425
was very important to complet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP.<br />
The parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated the FAPs would be difficult<br />
(if not impossible) to create without<br />
technical assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> support. Although<br />
parents were not overwhelmed by the technology,<br />
<strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong>e parent reported that she had<br />
created an edited movie prior to the project.<br />
Therefore, parents were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> agreement that<br />
hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g some<strong>on</strong>e who knew how to work with<br />
the technology was critically important to creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
quality multimedia products.<br />
Parents enjoyed the pers<strong>on</strong>al freedom to<br />
make decisi<strong>on</strong>s about the c<strong>on</strong>tent of the FAP.<br />
Overall, they were satisfied <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> positive about<br />
the procedures used to develop FAPs. However,<br />
they did provide some c<strong>on</strong>structive suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for changes <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the procedures. Suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents more specific<br />
guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> what<br />
type of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude when record<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
video. Also, written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> specific<br />
technical aspects of the process (e.g., how<br />
to record the voice <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>put for the DVD) would<br />
have been helpful. In additi<strong>on</strong>, parents menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
the need for support when updat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FAP <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future, as the<br />
child grows <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> changes. With young children,<br />
certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FAP becomes<br />
outdated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a relatively short period of time.<br />
When asked about the social validity of the<br />
outcome, parents were very positive <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> satisfied<br />
with the three comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the FAP<br />
(i.e., scrapbook, DVD, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> webpage). The<br />
book was portable <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cluded essential <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
the movie was novel <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> showed<br />
children as they were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their natural envir<strong>on</strong>ments,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the webpage was someth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that<br />
could be updated most easily <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore<br />
has the potential to provide the most current<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>. Accord<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the parents, FAPs<br />
provide different types of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> than<br />
the st<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>ardized assessments typically used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
special educati<strong>on</strong>. When FAPs are used <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> c<strong>on</strong>juncti<strong>on</strong><br />
with traditi<strong>on</strong>al assessment <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
a more holistic view of the child is presented.<br />
Parents reported us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP with<br />
IEP teams <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs with new therapists or<br />
care providers (e.g., respite workers). Parents<br />
reported that reacti<strong>on</strong>s from people who<br />
viewed FAPs have been overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g positive.<br />
In additi<strong>on</strong>, after shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs parents<br />
felt empowered <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> respected by educators<br />
because the FAP revealed how knowledgeable<br />
426 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
they were about their child <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> how <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested<br />
they were <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their child’s educati<strong>on</strong>. Parents<br />
also menti<strong>on</strong>ed that they have shared the<br />
FAPs with many others outside the educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
system to communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
about their child, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clud<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g sibl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs, extended<br />
family members, babysitters, respite workers,<br />
friends, other families who have children with<br />
similar disabilities, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> members of their religious<br />
communities.<br />
A few parents had c<strong>on</strong>cerns related to the<br />
use of the FAPs. One parent menti<strong>on</strong>ed that<br />
there was not enough time to view the DVD<br />
dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAPs were<br />
better shared before a meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g as opposed to<br />
at a meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g. In additi<strong>on</strong>, a few parents menti<strong>on</strong>ed<br />
that they are not sure if/how the teachers<br />
utilized the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> from the FAP to<br />
guide their teach<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g (“if the teachers d<strong>on</strong>’t<br />
use it, there is no po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t for us to do it.” “They<br />
might use it, but I d<strong>on</strong>’t know about it”).<br />
Parents suggested hav<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a follow-up meet<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
with teachers/therapists to answer any questi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
they have about their child <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
to f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d out how the teachers/therapist use the<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Parent questi<strong>on</strong>naires. F<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from parent<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>naires (Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3) corroborate<br />
the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews. All parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the questi<strong>on</strong>naires that they<br />
agree that the FAP is an important tool for<br />
families of children with disabilities <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> that<br />
the FAP is needed <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
Parents also agreed that the FAPs enhance<br />
positive home-school communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> help communicate <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about<br />
their child. When asked about the procedures<br />
used to develop the FAP, all parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated<br />
that they were satisfied with the process of<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAPs, but two parents felt that<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP was time c<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
required a lot of effort. Seven of the parents<br />
felt that to develop a good FAP, parents<br />
needed access to technical assistance.<br />
Similar to the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terview data, all parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the questi<strong>on</strong>naires that they were<br />
satisfied with the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al product of the FAP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
felt that the FAP is an effective tool that will<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence the services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong> a child<br />
will receive. The <strong>on</strong>ly outlier to this f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> regard to the follow<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g negatively<br />
worded item: “It is unlikely that the FAP will<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence special educati<strong>on</strong> services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ter-
TABLE 3<br />
Mean rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <strong>on</strong> 5-po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t Likert scale (1 low, 5 high) reflect<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the extent of agreement with negatively<br />
worded items<br />
venti<strong>on</strong>s that address a child’s most important<br />
needs.” Parents overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gly agreed with<br />
this statement, even though this f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>tradicts<br />
data from several other items that are<br />
c<strong>on</strong>cerned with the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence a FAP might<br />
have <strong>on</strong> educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> services to the child.<br />
In summary, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terviews <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> questi<strong>on</strong>naires,<br />
parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated that the goals of<br />
the FAP are important for their family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> for<br />
the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>. The procedures<br />
for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAP were c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be<br />
appropriate <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> acceptable, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al<br />
product (i.e., the three comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the<br />
FAP) was determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed very useful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> mean<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gful.<br />
Parents had suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the procedures used for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
for us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs with future educators.<br />
FAP Facilitator Percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
Item Parents<br />
The FAP does not help teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>als to<br />
know more about the child’s family.<br />
The FAP is not a needed tool for the field of special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
It is unlikely that the FAP will <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluence special<br />
educati<strong>on</strong> services <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>s that address a<br />
child’s most important needs.<br />
The FAP does not help teachers <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> professi<strong>on</strong>als to<br />
know more about the child’s likes, dislikes, strengths,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs.<br />
The FAP did not c<strong>on</strong>tribute to communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
relati<strong>on</strong>ships between the family <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the school.*<br />
The FAP was not worth the time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> trouble it took our<br />
family to create it.*<br />
* item <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> parent questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
Four professi<strong>on</strong>als (i.e., teachers/case managers)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> four university students who created<br />
FAPs with parents shared their percepti<strong>on</strong>s of<br />
the FAP through an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ternet-based questi<strong>on</strong>naire.<br />
All eight resp<strong>on</strong>dents felt that creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the FAP was an important <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> beneficial part<br />
of a professi<strong>on</strong>al’s work. The resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed that the FAP is an important tool<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> could help future teachers to learn about<br />
Pre-service<br />
Teachers<br />
Practic<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Teachers<br />
1.00 1.23 1.39<br />
1.00 1.81 1.87<br />
4.38 1.88 1.87<br />
1.00 1.05 1.35<br />
1.50<br />
1.00<br />
a new student, enhance positive communicati<strong>on</strong><br />
between school <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> home, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> also help<br />
parents share important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> with<br />
educators, therapists, family members, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
friends.<br />
When asked about the procedures used to<br />
develop FAPs, the resp<strong>on</strong>ders menti<strong>on</strong>ed that<br />
the development of all comp<strong>on</strong>ents, especially<br />
the DVD movie required c<strong>on</strong>siderable time<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort. Much of the time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort that<br />
was <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially required was spent <strong>on</strong> learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
how to create the materials (e.g., prepare<br />
scrapbooks for publicati<strong>on</strong> by an <strong>on</strong>l<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e publisher,<br />
edit the movies us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>sumer level<br />
movie mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g software, create web pages).<br />
Neither the university students nor the professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
came to the project with advanced<br />
knowledge <strong>on</strong> how to create multimedia materials.<br />
Because of the learn<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g curve <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the products, the resp<strong>on</strong>dents reported<br />
the creati<strong>on</strong> of the first FAP took much<br />
more time than subsequent FAPs. As <strong>on</strong>e resp<strong>on</strong>dent<br />
said, “mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g movies was timec<strong>on</strong>sum<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> required a lot of effort <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
multimedia skills. The first time is always challeng<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g,<br />
but by the sec<strong>on</strong>d time I got used to<br />
it.”<br />
The FAP facilitators provided a few suggesti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the process of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
Family Assessment Portfolios / 427
FAPs. They suggested develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g clearer<br />
guidel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es for the parents related to what <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong><br />
to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clude. In additi<strong>on</strong>, they suggested<br />
that giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents specific timel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>es<br />
for completi<strong>on</strong> of certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> secti<strong>on</strong>s was needed,<br />
as the “open timel<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e” encouraged procrast<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
One resp<strong>on</strong>dent menti<strong>on</strong>ed that the<br />
parents’ role was limited to provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
captur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g video footage, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
reacti<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> critiques of drafts of different<br />
FAP comp<strong>on</strong>ents, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> it would be<br />
better if parents were more <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the<br />
technical aspects of prepar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs.<br />
All of the professi<strong>on</strong>als <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> university students<br />
who completed the facilitators’ questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
reported that they ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed new<br />
knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills about creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g multimedia<br />
products. They also stated that they could<br />
not have created the FAPs if they were <strong>on</strong>ly<br />
provided equipment <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> written <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s<br />
at the start of the project. The assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guidance provided by a university faculty<br />
member (sec<strong>on</strong>d author) <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a university<br />
technology director were helpful <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> essential<br />
for develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs. When asked if they will<br />
be able to create new FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future without<br />
any additi<strong>on</strong>al technical assistance, all but<br />
<strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> said yes.<br />
The FAP facilitators were very satisfied with<br />
the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al product of the FAP. Although a few<br />
menti<strong>on</strong>ed that the web-page is the least utilized<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ent <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FAP, they felt that all<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents were important. When asked<br />
about ideas for chang<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>al product,<br />
the resp<strong>on</strong>dents reported the need to be able<br />
to update the <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the FAP. One<br />
pers<strong>on</strong> suggested giv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g parents work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g copies<br />
(Word <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> iMovie files) of all the products<br />
so they could update them when needed.<br />
In summary, the FAP facilitators felt that<br />
FAPs were essential for families <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators.<br />
They reported that the process def<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itely required<br />
an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vestment of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort (especially<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itially). They also <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dicated acquir<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
useful knowledge <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> skills while<br />
develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the FAPs, both <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of technology<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a child.<br />
They felt that the experience of develop<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g at<br />
least <strong>on</strong>e FAP with technical assistance <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
guidance prepared them to <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dependently develop<br />
new FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future.<br />
428 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
Pre-Service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> Experienced Teachers’ Percepti<strong>on</strong>s<br />
To ga<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a perspective <strong>on</strong> how “receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g teachers”<br />
might view FAPs, 43 pre-service teachers<br />
were surveyed al<strong>on</strong>g with 23 experienced educators.<br />
Although it would have been ideal to<br />
collect data from educators who actually received<br />
FAPs from parents, there is no reas<strong>on</strong><br />
to believe that the pre-service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced<br />
educators who provided completed<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>naires for this project are significantly<br />
different than educators who are currently<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> K-12 schools.<br />
It is important to menti<strong>on</strong> that the preservice<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced educators completed<br />
the same questi<strong>on</strong>naire as parents, except for<br />
5 items that were <strong>on</strong>ly <strong>on</strong> the parent survey.<br />
However, several items were worded slightly<br />
different <strong>on</strong> the two surveys to assure that<br />
parents were provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g their impressi<strong>on</strong>s as<br />
“FAP senders” who had actually experienced<br />
shar<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a FAP <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators were provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
their impressi<strong>on</strong>s as “FAP receivers” who were<br />
be<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g asked to envisi<strong>on</strong> receiv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g a FAP <strong>on</strong> a<br />
new student. For example, <strong>on</strong> the parent questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
an item read “The FAP enhances<br />
positive home-school communicati<strong>on</strong>”. The<br />
parallel item <strong>on</strong> the educator questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
read, “The FAP could enhance home-school<br />
communicati<strong>on</strong>”. In another example, a negatively<br />
worded item <strong>on</strong> the parent questi<strong>on</strong>naire<br />
read, “The FAP does not help educators<br />
to know more about the child’s likes, dislikes,<br />
strengths, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs” whereas the item <strong>on</strong><br />
educator questi<strong>on</strong>naire was “The FAP did not<br />
help me to know more about the child’s likes,<br />
dislikes, strengths, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> needs”. The f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs<br />
from the pre-service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced educator<br />
questi<strong>on</strong>naires are shown <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
3. However, for ease of comparis<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to<br />
c<strong>on</strong>serve pr<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t space, <strong>on</strong>ly the word<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from<br />
the parent questi<strong>on</strong>naire was shown.<br />
Data <strong>on</strong> Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3 reveal that educators<br />
had the same positive impressi<strong>on</strong>s toward<br />
FAPs as parents. After review<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the three<br />
comp<strong>on</strong>ents of the FAP, the majority of the<br />
educators agreed that the FAP is an important<br />
tool for families that could enhance positive<br />
home-school communicati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> is needed<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the field of special educati<strong>on</strong>. Although the<br />
number of parents resp<strong>on</strong>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g to the survey<br />
was small, it is <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g that educators were<br />
just as likely as the parents to believe that FAPs
could help a teacher better underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a child<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> were slightly more likely than parents to<br />
believe that FAPs could help teachers better<br />
underst<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> a family’s values, beliefs, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educati<strong>on</strong>al<br />
priorities. Although the sample size<br />
of the parent group does not enable us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ferential statistics to compare mean scores<br />
between educators <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> parents, a cursory exam<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ati<strong>on</strong><br />
of the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> Tables 2 <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> 3<br />
show that parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators were quite<br />
similar <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> their Likert scale rat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs. In summary,<br />
the two groups of educators felt that<br />
FAPs were a viable tool.<br />
There were secti<strong>on</strong>s <strong>on</strong> the survey that allowed<br />
educators to ask questi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provide<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al comments. It is noteworthy that<br />
many educators felt that FAPs could be beneficial<br />
for families with whom they currently<br />
work or may someday work, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> they requested<br />
additi<strong>on</strong>al <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about FAPs so<br />
they could c<strong>on</strong>sider us<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future.<br />
Although the resp<strong>on</strong>ses from the participants<br />
were very positive overall, a few had c<strong>on</strong>structive<br />
suggesti<strong>on</strong>s for improv<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the development<br />
of <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the use of FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future. For<br />
example, <strong>on</strong>e resp<strong>on</strong>dent felt that relatively<br />
too much <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> was provided <strong>on</strong> current<br />
skill level (i.e., th<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs the child could do)<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> relatively too little <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> was provided<br />
<strong>on</strong> educati<strong>on</strong>al priorities of the family.<br />
Also, educators were a bit wary of the time<br />
commitment required to create the materials.<br />
Discussi<strong>on</strong><br />
Data from this evaluati<strong>on</strong> study supported the<br />
social validity of FAPs. The goals, procedures<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> outcomes of FAPs were reported by different<br />
stakeholders (i.e., parents, facilitators,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators) to be socially important. FAPs<br />
can be c<strong>on</strong>sidered to be a promis<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>novative<br />
“best practice” <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the fields of special educati<strong>on</strong><br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> developmental disabilities that<br />
early <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>terventi<strong>on</strong>, early childhood special educati<strong>on</strong>,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>clusive educati<strong>on</strong> programs<br />
should be encouraged to try to implement.<br />
There are two limitati<strong>on</strong>s to this research<br />
study that are important to acknowledge.<br />
First, <strong>on</strong>ly a limited number of FAPs have<br />
been created <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> therefore the populati<strong>on</strong> of<br />
parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAP facilitators was small. It will<br />
be important to document the experiences<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> impressi<strong>on</strong>s of additi<strong>on</strong>al family members<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAP facilitators to determ<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>e the robustness<br />
of f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this study.<br />
A sec<strong>on</strong>d potential limitati<strong>on</strong> is the possibility<br />
that because the project orig<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ated <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
university sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with relatively<br />
novel multimedia software <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials,<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> provided parents as well as FAP facilitators<br />
some special opportunities, the parents<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> FAP facilitators may have been predisposed<br />
to evaluate the project positively. The<br />
university researchers <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vested a c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
amount of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort with those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the project, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> despite requests for h<strong>on</strong>est<br />
op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s, people may have had reservati<strong>on</strong>s<br />
about provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g other than positive<br />
appraisals. Although provid<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g socially desirable<br />
resp<strong>on</strong>ses could be an alternative explanati<strong>on</strong><br />
for the f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from the FAP facilitators<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the parents, it is less likely that the<br />
pre-service <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> experienced educators would<br />
have been <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>cl<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>ed to provide anyth<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g less<br />
than their frank op<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>i<strong>on</strong>s. However, it is not<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>c<strong>on</strong>ceivable that even some of these resp<strong>on</strong>dents<br />
would be predisposed to be supportive<br />
of a project that faculty members from their<br />
university had <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>itiated. To offset these potential<br />
c<strong>on</strong>found<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>fluences, <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividuals who<br />
have no c<strong>on</strong>necti<strong>on</strong> to those <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>volved <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
the materials should c<strong>on</strong>duct future<br />
studies.<br />
There are important implicati<strong>on</strong>s for both<br />
research <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> practice from this study. Further<br />
research <strong>on</strong> the potential benefits as well as<br />
implementati<strong>on</strong> challenges is needed. One<br />
important f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g from this study is how capable<br />
the FAP facilitators became with the<br />
technological applicati<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a relatively short<br />
time. Although they reported <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>vest<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g c<strong>on</strong>siderable<br />
time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> effort <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>to mak<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g the materials,<br />
when asked if they will be able to create<br />
new FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> the future without any additi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
technical assistance all but <strong>on</strong>e pers<strong>on</strong> said<br />
yes. Based <strong>on</strong> the experiences of this project,<br />
it appears that educators can acquire competencies<br />
needed to develop high quality multimedia<br />
products if provided access to equipment<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> “h<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g>s-<strong>on</strong>” tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g.<br />
One FAP facilitator’s comment was especially<br />
important <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of the feasibility of<br />
implement<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs <strong>on</strong> a large-scale basis. Although<br />
this resp<strong>on</strong>dent was pleased that she<br />
had learned useful new technology skills, felt<br />
that “it was w<strong>on</strong>derful how the staff <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> fam-<br />
Family Assessment Portfolios / 429
ilies worked together”, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> commented that<br />
“the end result was fabulous,” she also believed<br />
that it “would be very difficult for teachers<br />
to complete [FAPs] with numerous children.”<br />
All of the FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> this project were<br />
created <strong>on</strong> an <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>dividual basis with professi<strong>on</strong>als<br />
work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g directly with families. Future implementati<strong>on</strong><br />
should explore creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g FAPs <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
a group sett<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g, with facilitators work<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g with<br />
several parents at the same time <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a systematic<br />
manner. Perhaps parents could be recruited<br />
to attend 3 to 4 workshop sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
computer lab over the course of a semester,<br />
with specific <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>structi<strong>on</strong>s to come to each sessi<strong>on</strong><br />
with certa<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> materials (e.g., photos, video<br />
footage) already gathered. FAP comp<strong>on</strong>ents<br />
could be created dur<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g these sessi<strong>on</strong>s <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> a<br />
sequential manner, with the goal of creat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
numerous FAPs with families without overwhelm<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
facilitators <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> terms of time <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
effort.<br />
The f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from this study clearly reveal<br />
that parents <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> educators perceived FAPs to<br />
be very useful for the purpose of communicat<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about a child. As Berry <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g><br />
Hardman (1998) po<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>t out, “the parents’ role<br />
is to provide <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> about their s<strong>on</strong> or<br />
daughter, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> the first role of the professi<strong>on</strong>al<br />
is to solicit this <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> to listen carefully<br />
<str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> empathetically when it is presented”<br />
(p. 125). Based <strong>on</strong> f<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>d<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gs from this study, it<br />
430 / <str<strong>on</strong>g>Educati<strong>on</strong></str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Tra<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g><str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>g</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Developmental</str<strong>on</strong>g> <str<strong>on</strong>g>Disabilities</str<strong>on</strong>g>-September 2009<br />
is evident that FAPs can assist with this important<br />
first step of <str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>formati<strong>on</strong> exchange.<br />
References<br />
Berry, J. O., & Hardman, M. L. (1998). Lifespan<br />
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Lake, J. F., & Bill<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>gsly, B. S. (2000). An analysis of<br />
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Thomps<strong>on</strong>, J. R., Meadan, H., Fansler, K. W., Alber,<br />
S., & Balogh, P. (2007). Family assessment portfolios:<br />
A new way to jumpstart family/school collaborati<strong>on</strong>.<br />
TEACHING Excepti<strong>on</strong>al Children, 39(6),<br />
19–25.<br />
Turnbull, A., Turnbull, R., Erw<str<strong>on</strong>g>in</str<strong>on</strong>g>, E. J., & Soodak,<br />
L. C. (2006). Families, professi<strong>on</strong>als, <str<strong>on</strong>g>and</str<strong>on</strong>g> excepti<strong>on</strong>ality<br />
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