Issue 4 May 2010 - LTA Academy
Issue 4 May 2010 - LTA Academy
Issue 4 May 2010 - LTA Academy
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<strong>Issue</strong> 4 <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong>
JOURNEYS<br />
Publisher<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong><br />
Land Transport Authority<br />
1 Hampshire Road<br />
Singapore 219428<br />
Editorial Team<br />
Naleeza Ebrahim<br />
Alison Tan<br />
George Sun<br />
Mageret Ely<br />
Foo Jong Ai<br />
All feedback, suggestions and contribution of papers for future issues are welcome.<br />
Please address all correspondence to:<br />
JOURNEYS<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong><br />
Land Transport Authority<br />
1 Hampshire Road<br />
Singapore 219428<br />
Fax: 65 6396 1890<br />
Email: JOURNEYS@lta.gov.sg<br />
JOURNEYS is also available online at www.<strong>LTA</strong>academy.gov.sg<br />
© <strong>2010</strong> <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong>, Land Transport Authority, Singapore<br />
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form or by<br />
any means without the prior written permission of the <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong>, Land Transport Authority, Singapore.<br />
The opinions and views expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect<br />
the views of the <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong> or the Land Transport Authority, Singapore.<br />
ISSN: 1793-494X
Contents<br />
07. Proactive National Transport Strategy<br />
for Low Carbon and Green Growth<br />
in Korea<br />
HWANG Kee Yeon<br />
PARK Jin Young<br />
16. Urban Leaders Find Transportation<br />
Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
Michael REPLOGLE<br />
Michael KODRANSKY<br />
26. Practices and Policies of Green Urban<br />
Transport in China<br />
JIANG Yulin<br />
LI Zhenyu<br />
36. GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
Rosina HOWE<br />
42. Urban Transportation Planning for a<br />
Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
Michael QUAH<br />
Dickson YEO<br />
52. Household Interview Survey<br />
from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of<br />
Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
CHOI Chik Cheong<br />
Raymond TOH
Naleeza Ebrahim<br />
When we open our minds, the<br />
possibilities are great. As<br />
any philosopher would say,<br />
everything begins with a thought. Today, the<br />
world is thinking in eco-friendly terms, and<br />
‘green’ initiatives will follow suit. In this fourth<br />
issue of JOURNEYS, we are transported<br />
around the world – in the greenest possible<br />
way, our armchairs – to learn of green<br />
transport development. At the heart of these<br />
measures are people-centric values because<br />
transportation systems are there to serve<br />
people, not the other way around.<br />
Hwang Kee Yeon and Park Jin Young from<br />
the Korea Transport Institute not only share<br />
Korea’s efforts to green the country’s<br />
transportation system, but also propose<br />
pushing the envelope to execute ideas,<br />
such as, bicycle highways, and photovoltaic<br />
transport infrastructure.<br />
Michael Replogle and Michael Kodransky,<br />
of the Institute for Transportation and<br />
Development Policy (USA), give a stimulating<br />
Editor’s Note<br />
overview of how urban transport policy<br />
makers around the world, from Colombia<br />
to China, India to Ecuador, USA to UK, are<br />
putting people-centric schemes forward.<br />
The moniker for Ahmedabad, India’s, Bus<br />
Rapid Transit system, ‘Janmarg’ or ‘people’s<br />
way’, says it in a nutshell.<br />
China, the fastest growing economy<br />
in the world, which could become the<br />
biggest greenhouse gas emitter, aims to be<br />
equally fast in getting its urban transport<br />
standards to eco-friendly levels. Jiang Yulin<br />
and Li Zhenyu, at the China <strong>Academy</strong> of<br />
Transportation Sciences, describe the slew<br />
of successful measures that China has<br />
been effecting.<br />
Making changes in the virtual world<br />
can have real impact. Singapore’s Land<br />
Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>) has developed a<br />
Geographic Information System (GIS), using<br />
digital maps to vastly improve land transport<br />
planning and public safety. This eco-friendly<br />
solution allows urban and transport plans<br />
and scenarios to be more extensively and<br />
rigorously tested on computers before they<br />
are finally executed, thus, saving precious<br />
physical resources.<br />
Michael Quah and Dickson Yeo from the<br />
National University of Singapore’s Energy<br />
Studies Institute give insights regarding<br />
current research and Singapore’s test<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 5
6<br />
bedding of vehicle electrification, touted as<br />
the green solution by its proponents.<br />
In the final article, the findings of Singapore’s<br />
regular Household Interview Surveys (HITS)<br />
on travel behaviour patterns underscore the<br />
people-centric philosophy that must prevail<br />
in any kind of transport development. To<br />
ensure that the system serves the people, we<br />
must first understand what the people need.<br />
I thank the authors for contributing to an<br />
absorbing issue. Before you turn the pages<br />
and lose yourself in the fascinating global<br />
arena they have so ably assembled with<br />
their wealth of knowledge, I’d like to thank<br />
the outgoing editor of JOURNEYS, Alison<br />
Tan, who has nurtured it from its launch to<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
become a key resource for the <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong><br />
to share policies, thinking and solutions with<br />
transport professionals around the world.<br />
We wish her the very best as she undertakes<br />
other roles and responsibilities within the<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong>.
Proactive National Transport Strategy for<br />
Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
HWANG Kee Yeon and PARK Jin Young<br />
Abstract<br />
According to the IPCC, global warming is mostly attributable to greenhouse gas (GHG)<br />
emissions from fossil fuel combustion. The transportation sector accounts for about 20%<br />
of greenhouse gas emissions and is the second largest emitter in Korea, trailing only<br />
the industrial sector. Within the transportation sector, road transportation dominates<br />
with an emission share of over 80%. Therefore, reducing transportation’s impact on<br />
the environment should require transforming the current automobile-based transport<br />
system into a more energy efficient, low carbon and eco-friendly one.<br />
Greening of the current transportation system requires a long term vision and<br />
multifaceted approaches. Land use and urban design should reflect energy and<br />
environmental considerations. Technologies should also be promoted and economic<br />
incentive schemes should be provided not only for the technological developments<br />
but also for behavioural changes in transportation. Transforming our transportation<br />
system into an environmentally friendly one would provide many opportunities for<br />
green growth and also indispensable infrastructure for sustainable economic growth<br />
and prosperity.<br />
Introduction<br />
Green growth is defined as attaining<br />
economic growth while minimising the<br />
burden on the ecosystem. The concept of<br />
green growth is relatively recent but it has<br />
already received much attention. Traditional<br />
policies for sustainable transport include<br />
technological developments, economic<br />
incentives, environmental standards, and<br />
regulations. However, the implicit assumption<br />
is that there are trade-offs between attaining<br />
environmental sustainability and achieving<br />
higher economic growth. Green growth seeks<br />
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
Green growth seeks the possibility of<br />
decoupling the inverse linkage<br />
between economic growth and<br />
environmental preservation.<br />
the possibility of decoupling the inverse linkage<br />
between economic growth and environmental<br />
preservation. President Lee Myung Bak<br />
proposed a national development strategy of<br />
‘Low Carbon and Green Growth’ in August<br />
2008, and as a result, sectoral strategies<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 7
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
have been pursued in order to develop green<br />
industries as an ‘engine for growth’ for the<br />
future. As for the institutional framework for<br />
promoting green growth, the National Green<br />
Growth Committee was created in February<br />
2009 and the Green Growth Law is being<br />
deliberated in the National Assembly.<br />
Major developed countries have also<br />
established ambitious national low carbon<br />
green growth strategies. Germany is aiming<br />
at reducing carbon emission by 40% in 2020<br />
compared with 1990 emissions. The U.K.’s<br />
plan is also ambitious: 60% reduction by 2050.<br />
Japan also announced their ‘Thirty Thirty Plan’,<br />
which means 30% GHG reduction by 2030.<br />
Through cutting year 2000’s GHG emissions<br />
by 4.2% in 2006, Japan has already reduced 11<br />
million tons of transport-related GHG. In their<br />
2008 White Paper, the Japanese government<br />
revealed their policy directive involving vehicle<br />
technology and alternative fuel developments,<br />
traffic flow improvement and means to induce<br />
behavioural change in transport users. These<br />
efforts are reflected in Japan’s ultra-efficient<br />
urban transport system and the dominance<br />
of Japanese car manufacturers in the<br />
world markets.<br />
Low carbon green growth is the most urgent<br />
and proactive policy direction for Korea to<br />
maintain its global competitive edge and to<br />
ensure sustainable economic growth. More<br />
specifically, low carbon green growth requires<br />
diminishing GHG emissions and environmental<br />
burdens in the course of economic growth and<br />
simultaneously developing and utilising green<br />
industries for further economic developments.<br />
8<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
New industries are expected to be developed<br />
and subsequently, new markets will also be<br />
created in many energy and environment related<br />
fields as stricter environmental and energy<br />
related regulations are introduced. Korea’s<br />
economy is still centred on manufacturing<br />
and IT, so Korea can leverage its competitive<br />
advantage in these fields to develop GHGreducing<br />
technologies. More attention and<br />
investment should be directed to developing<br />
low carbon green industries in order to drive<br />
momentum for a sustainable future.<br />
Transport in Korea in the Energy-<br />
Climate Era<br />
Mobility has tremendously increased during<br />
the last century. One of the most salient<br />
characteristics of the previous century is<br />
rapid motorisation and expansion of related<br />
infrastructure and industries. Increased vehicle<br />
use has enabled us to enjoy fast and convenient<br />
travel as well as rapid economic development<br />
and economic prosperity. Transport policy in<br />
many countries has centred on the car rather<br />
than on the person. And our lifestyle has been<br />
more and more dependent on automobiles for<br />
our socio-economic activities.<br />
Transport policy in many countries<br />
has centred on the car rather than<br />
on the person. And our lifestyle has<br />
been more and more dependent on<br />
automobiles for our socio-economic<br />
activities.<br />
However, increased automobile use can<br />
cause serious negative repercussions, such<br />
as, air pollution, noise pollution, congestion,
and even climate change, resulting from<br />
combustion of fossil fuels. The sustainability of<br />
an automobile-based transport system is now<br />
being seriously questioned, especially due<br />
to major global issues such as the possibility<br />
of climate change. The Intergovernmental<br />
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), which is<br />
a UN subsidiary, predicts that the average<br />
temperature will increase by 1.8 to 4 degrees<br />
Celsius over the next 100 years and the sea<br />
level will also rise by 58 centimetres. Rising<br />
sea levels could threaten to inundate lowlying<br />
areas and islands, threaten dense coastal<br />
populations, erode shorelines, damage<br />
property, and destroy ecosystems. The rising<br />
temperature could also cause dangerous<br />
consequences, such as, stronger storms and<br />
more heat related illnesses and deaths. Korea<br />
has experienced a 0.6 degree Celsius increase<br />
in average temperature in just the last decade<br />
and also a 10% increase in precipitation<br />
compared with 30 years ago. This suggests<br />
that Korea is not immune to global climate<br />
change impacts.<br />
According to the IPCC, global warming is<br />
mostly attributable to greenhouse gas (GHG)<br />
Table 1: GHG emissions in the transport sector in Korea<br />
Road<br />
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
emissions from fossil fuel combustion (OECD/<br />
ITF 2008). The transport sector accounts for<br />
about 20% of greenhouse gas emissions<br />
and is the second largest emitter in Korea,<br />
trailing only the industrial sector. Within the<br />
transport sector, road transport dominates<br />
with an emission share of over 80% (Table 1).<br />
Thus, reducing transport’s impact on the<br />
environment should require transforming the<br />
current automobile-based transport system<br />
into a more energy efficient, low carbon and<br />
eco-friendly one.<br />
Figure 1: Energy consumption in transport sector<br />
by mode in Korea (2006)<br />
Air<br />
Maritime<br />
Rail<br />
Road<br />
79%<br />
Sustainable development in transport has<br />
also been a major concern for Korea. Both<br />
vehicle ownership and transport demand have<br />
increased tremendously during the past two<br />
Modes GHG (Million CO 2 eq) Share (%)<br />
Private 61.07 57.67<br />
Commercial 24.64 23.27<br />
Road Subtotal 85.71 80.94<br />
Rail<br />
Regional 1.43 1.35<br />
Urban (Subway) 0.52 0.49<br />
Rail Subtotal 1.95 1.84<br />
Water 11.61 10.97<br />
Aviation 6.62 6.25<br />
Transport Total 105.89 100.00<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 9<br />
8%<br />
12%<br />
1%
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
Table 2: International comparison of energy consumption in transport sector<br />
decades and as a result, energy consumption<br />
(Figure 1) has increased very rapidly, and<br />
vehicles have become the major source of urban<br />
air and noise pollution in many Korean cities.<br />
The growth shows no sign of subsiding, and<br />
both passenger and freight transport demands<br />
are forecasted to increase 1.5 and 2.1 times<br />
by 2019, respectively. Already, many Korean<br />
cities suffer from chronic traffic congestion,<br />
costing an estimated U.S. $24 billion dollars<br />
per annum in Korea, which is about 3% of the<br />
national GDP.<br />
In terms of per capita energy consumption in<br />
the transport sector, Korea is already on par<br />
with many European countries and Japan<br />
(Table 2). But while rail is regarded in these<br />
countries as the most environmentally friendly<br />
mode due to its high energy efficiency and<br />
the high possibility of fuel substitution in the<br />
sector, its potential has not been fully exploited<br />
in Korea yet.<br />
10<br />
Country Aviation Road Rail Total Per Capita Energy Consumption<br />
Unit M TOE* M TOE M TOE M TOE TOE/Person<br />
Canada 5.7 42.3 1.7 55.6 1.72<br />
U.S. 82.0 527.9 11.6 639.2 2.16<br />
Japan 10.8 77.5 1.8 94.1 0.74<br />
Korea 3.5 26.3 0.5 34.2 0.71<br />
Australia 4.4 23.6 0.7 29.3 1.44<br />
France 7.1 43.3 1.0 51.9 0.85<br />
Germany 8.0 54.2 1.9 64.5 0.78<br />
Italy 3.8 39.9 0.5 44.9 0.77<br />
Spain 5.2 31.2 1.0 39.1 0.90<br />
U.K. 12.7 40.2 0.9 54.8 0.91<br />
Source : OECD Environmental Data Compendium 2006/2007<br />
*M TOE: Million Ton of Oil Equivalent<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Proactive National Transport<br />
Policy for Low Carbon and<br />
Green Growth<br />
Environmental sustainability has been one of<br />
the main concerns among transport planners<br />
as well as policy makers. However, transport<br />
is the most difficult area for environmental<br />
sustainability due to ever-increasing demand<br />
and its extremely heavy reliance on nonrenewable<br />
fossil fuels. A new paradigm of<br />
low carbon and green growth strategies<br />
are required. These include low carbon<br />
infrastructure, new land use framework,<br />
development of green logistics and<br />
technologies, modal shift to low carbon and<br />
non-motorised transport, and improvements<br />
in energy efficiency.<br />
Undersea high speed rail and<br />
waterway logistics infrastructure<br />
for the environment<br />
Since Korea is a very densely populated,<br />
urbanised country, mass transit and
ailways have very high potential for<br />
environmental sustainability.<br />
Currently, eight subway lines amounting to<br />
492 km are in operation in Seoul and five<br />
other major cities in Korea. Nine subway lines<br />
totalling 226.5 km are under construction in<br />
six cities with populations of one million or<br />
more. Additional subway lines totalling 159 km<br />
are planned through 2019. The total subway<br />
network will be expanded from 492 km to<br />
651 km by 2019, and especially in Seoul, the<br />
subway modal share is projected to increase<br />
from the current 35% to over 50%.<br />
For interurban railways, 1,418 km of new<br />
railway lines are planned to be added by<br />
2020 to the existing stock of 3,374 km. Rail<br />
electrification will also be increased from 47%<br />
to 78%.<br />
Compact development based on rail or mass<br />
transit would induce people to use more<br />
energy efficient means of transport (Figure 2).<br />
Figure 2: Plan for Eurasian railways<br />
The proposed undersea high speed railway<br />
linking Jeju Island and Honam Province (Figure 3)<br />
can provide a secure alternative to land<br />
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
transport for travellers and can also help create<br />
an ultra metropolitan economic bloc in the<br />
southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula. It<br />
can also provide green growth opportunities,<br />
as well as, an economic stimulus in the current<br />
economically depressed times.<br />
Figure 3: Concept of Honam-Jeju Undersea Railway<br />
Waterborne transport offers another possibility<br />
for low carbon green transport in Korea, where<br />
coastal areas are developed for industries and<br />
logistics. Inland ports need to be developed to<br />
fully exploit this potential. The Kyung-In Canal<br />
(Figure 4) connecting Seoul and Incheon, and<br />
the four major river regeneration projects,<br />
would revitalise economically depressed<br />
hinterland areas and would also provide<br />
employment opportunities.<br />
Figure 4: Rendering of Kyung-In Canal<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 11
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
A waterway connecting Seoul and North<br />
Korea’s Wonsan (Korea Peace Waterway,<br />
Figure 5) is proposed in order to secure<br />
water resources and also to ease the tension<br />
between the South and the North. It will<br />
be approximately 200 km long and will<br />
contribute to the promotion of tourism along<br />
the waterway.<br />
Figure 5: Proposed route of Korea Peace Waterway<br />
Green transport cities<br />
A new land use framework is required in order<br />
to reduce travel demand and to fully utilise the<br />
public transport’s potential. Development of<br />
high density cities around the KTX high speed<br />
rail stations would serve as energy efficient<br />
regional hub cities. It would also facilitate<br />
balanced regional growth and help reduce<br />
regional auto travel. High density development<br />
around public transit should be promoted in<br />
order to encourage public transit patronage.<br />
Pedestrian travel should also be encouraged<br />
by constructing more pedestrian friendly<br />
facilities. For example, Daegu city transformed<br />
its busiest downtown street into a transit mall,<br />
allowing access to urban buses only during<br />
the day. The Ministry of Land, Transport and<br />
Maritime also plans and develops pedestrian<br />
priority zones to improve walking conditions<br />
(Figure 6).<br />
12<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Figure 6: Pedestrian priority area in Seoul downtown<br />
Green technology development<br />
in transport<br />
Non-motorised forms of transport lead to zero<br />
carbon emissions. Bicycles are extensively used<br />
in many European and Asian cities but their<br />
modal share in Korean cities is minimal due to<br />
limited infrastructure and low public reception.<br />
Bicycles should be promoted for short<br />
distance commuting by providing adequate<br />
infrastructure and increased safety. Figure 7 is a<br />
conceptual illustration of a Bicycle expressway,<br />
which is dedicated to bicycles, quite similar to<br />
light rail transit infrastructure.<br />
Figure 7: Illustrations of bicycle expressway
The concept of transport power plant is an<br />
electricity generating initiative by installing<br />
photovoltaic facilities along transport<br />
infrastructure, such as, highways, railways<br />
and waterways. The electricity generated in<br />
such transport power plants can be used for<br />
the transport facility itself or it could be used<br />
ultimately for charging future electric vehicles.<br />
Green car development<br />
Current dependence on heavy fossil fuel for<br />
transport should be reduced by diversifying<br />
energy sources. Neighbourhood Electric<br />
Vehicles (NEV) offer a promising alternative<br />
to conventional vehicles for short distance<br />
trips in urban areas. Wireless electricity<br />
technology could facilitate the introduction<br />
of electric vehicles by solving their current<br />
battery limitations. Fuel cell technology could<br />
be a long term option in future alternative<br />
fuel vehicle developments. Legal support and<br />
economic incentives should be provided for the<br />
development of these types of green vehicles.<br />
Wireless power supply technology is another<br />
promising technological option that could<br />
ultimately eliminate the challenging requirement<br />
for powerful and efficient batteries for electric<br />
vehicles. Vehicles travelling in downtown areas<br />
or highways can be charged or supplied with<br />
electricity continuously (Figure 8).<br />
Wireless electricity technology could<br />
facilitate the introduction of electric<br />
vehicles by solving their current<br />
battery limitations.<br />
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
Figure 8: Concept of wireless power supply city<br />
Travel demand management<br />
Another important pillar in policies for<br />
environmental sustainability is travel demand<br />
management (TDM). Measures to increase<br />
transport supply are often expensive or<br />
difficult to implement, and gains from these<br />
and other improvements are offset by further<br />
increases in travel demand. Lower-cost TDM<br />
strategies are intended to reduce demand,<br />
particularly single-occupant vehicle demand,<br />
and optimise system performance, reduce peak<br />
period congestion, save energy, and improve<br />
the environment. Various policy measures<br />
have been employed in order to discourage<br />
passenger car use in Korea. The Sustainable<br />
Transport & Logistics Act, in force from this<br />
year, allows local government to restrain total<br />
traffic volume in certain areas and adjust travel<br />
fares to promote public transportation.<br />
Another good example of TDM is congestion<br />
pricing. An experimental congestion pricing<br />
scheme was introduced in two major tunnels<br />
which connect the downtown area and<br />
the southern part of Seoul in November<br />
1996. The charge was set at 2,000 won per<br />
crossing and it was applied during the peak<br />
hours in weekdays to private passenger cars.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 13
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
The charge has reduced 12,000 vehicles per<br />
day at Seoul downtown, which is 13.3 %<br />
of total downtown traffic volume. More<br />
elaborate congestion pricing schemes should<br />
be developed, based on emission produced by<br />
each vehicle type and travel speed, in order<br />
to reduce congestion-related externalities and<br />
environmental burdens.<br />
Parking policy<br />
Previously, the core of Korea’s parking policy<br />
was to provide adequate parking for every<br />
building and facility. This thinking is about to<br />
be reversed and decreased parking spaces in<br />
the CBD is being considered so as to reduce<br />
the influx of private passenger cars into Korea’s<br />
cities. On the other hand, park-and-ride<br />
facilities have been continuously constructed.<br />
Parking-related charges should be employed<br />
in order to better reflect the cost of providing<br />
and maintaining parking spaces, as well as<br />
the externalities caused by the use of private<br />
passenger cars.<br />
Modal shift in freight transport<br />
and green logistics<br />
The freight transport sector accounts for<br />
31% of the total transport CO emissions and<br />
2<br />
it is also regarded as the most inefficient of<br />
Korea’s transport sectors. In particular, less<br />
efficient private freight vehicles dominate the<br />
sector. The government is now establishing<br />
a plan to reduce freight’s dependency on<br />
the road sector and to increase the capacity<br />
of the freight rail, a more energy efficient<br />
and environmentally friendly way to move<br />
the nation’s goods. This sector can also be<br />
made more efficient through policies such as<br />
14<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
green logistics certification, which provides<br />
incentives to logistics firms to reduce energy<br />
consumption and GHG emissions.<br />
Parking-related charges should be<br />
employed in order to better reflect<br />
the cost of providing and maintaining<br />
parking spaces, as well as the<br />
externalities caused by the use of<br />
private passenger cars.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Greening of the current transport system<br />
requires a long term vision and multifaceted<br />
approaches. Land use and urban design<br />
should reflect energy and environmental<br />
considerations. Technologies should also<br />
be promoted and economic incentive<br />
schemes should be provided not only for<br />
the technological developments but also for<br />
behavioural changes in transport demand<br />
and usage.<br />
Transforming our transport system into a low<br />
carbon and environmentally friendly one would<br />
provide many opportunities for green growth<br />
and also indispensable infrastructure for<br />
sustainable economic growth and prosperity.<br />
A legal framework is required in order to<br />
facilitate the transition to green transport<br />
systems. Investments on transport infrastructure<br />
should be guided by a revised assessment<br />
methodology which takes the environmental<br />
benefits and cost into full consideration.
References<br />
OECD. 2008. Environmental Data Compendium<br />
2006/2007<br />
Proactive National Transport Strategy for Low Carbon and Green Growth in Korea<br />
OECD/ITF. 2008. Greenhouse Gas Reduction Strategies<br />
in the Transport Sector: Preliminary Report (2008)<br />
Hwang Kee Yeon is the President of The Korea Transport Institute. Dr.<br />
Hwang received his Ph.D. in urban and regional planning at the University<br />
of Southern California, USA. He has been a Professor of Urban Planning and<br />
Design Department in Hongik University from 2005 to 2008 and a member<br />
of the Presidential Committee on Green Growth, Korea. He was head of the<br />
research team for Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project, and as a member<br />
of Seoul Development Institute, has conducted many important projects for<br />
Seoul’s transport system, such as, the introduction of congestion charging in<br />
Seoul.He can be reached at keith@koti.re.kr<br />
Park Jin Young is a research fellow at the Centre for Transport and Climate<br />
Change in the Korea Transport Institute. Dr Park was one of the active members<br />
of the Seoul Bus Reform Project from 2003 to 2005. His main research area<br />
is Sustainable Urban Transport Systems. Currently he conducts research<br />
related to Sustainable Transport & Logistics Plan for Korea, He graduated<br />
from the Engineering Faculty of Seoul National University, and completed his<br />
PhD in Transport Engineering at the Department of Civil and Environmental<br />
Engineering, Imperial College London, UK.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 15
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to<br />
Global Green Growth<br />
Michael REPLOGLE and Michael KODRANSKY<br />
Abstract<br />
A key driver of environmentally friendly transportation is visionary urban leadership<br />
that advances better ways to manage traffic and street space. Innovative leaders often<br />
get their inspiration by seeing what other cities are doing to advance best practices.<br />
Global challenges of rapid urbanisation, environmental degradation, and demands for<br />
economic vitality and livable communities are common themes driving global green<br />
growth initiatives. These are also key to reducing greenhouse gases. This paper provides<br />
an overview of the accomplishments, obstacles, experiences gained and directions taken<br />
by selected cities that have sought cost-effective transportation solutions and achieved<br />
measurable results, improving the environment and quality of urban life and economies.<br />
Introduction<br />
Today, most of the world’s cities suffer from<br />
sharply rising traffic congestion, healthimpairing<br />
air pollution, sprawling development,<br />
an inefficient transportation network, and<br />
energy insecurity. Without changes in policies<br />
and investments, transport related CO2 emissions are projected to increase worldwide<br />
by 57% between 2005 and 2030, with 80% of<br />
that growth to occur in developing countries,<br />
where population and incomes are growing<br />
most rapidly.<br />
But that projection does not take into account<br />
the potential transformation in many cities’<br />
transportation systems as new information,<br />
communications, and smart management and<br />
operations strategies come into wider use. By<br />
2030, people living in developing regions will<br />
16<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
comprise 80% of the world’s urban population<br />
and the share of people living in cities will rise,<br />
from 50% today to over 70% (Department<br />
of Economic and Social Affairs 2006). The first<br />
half of the 21st century will become known as<br />
the time of global urbanisation. Yet, only by<br />
smart urbanisation will humanity find a way to<br />
manage global climate change and a host of<br />
other problems. What are the transportation<br />
pathways that will deliver green global growth?<br />
Many find hope that those pathways are being<br />
created by innovative leaders in developing<br />
cities in Latin America, Asia and Africa, joined<br />
by others in Europe and North America.<br />
From Seoul to Ahmedabad, Capetown to<br />
Bogotá, from Paris to New York, mayors<br />
have demonstrated cutting-edge ways to<br />
reshape urban mobility and enhance livability,
combining new intelligent transportation<br />
systems with bricks-and-paving stone streetspace<br />
reallocation, and smart urban design.<br />
From Seoul to Ahmedabad, Capetown<br />
to Bogotá, from Paris to New York,<br />
mayors have demonstrated cuttingedge<br />
ways to reshape urban mobility<br />
and enhance livability,...<br />
Harnessing private sector involvement towards<br />
public-private partnerships and creative<br />
infrastructure management can be a key to<br />
success. Projects that advance global discourse<br />
often involve integrated transport and land use<br />
planning, such as the implementation of a well<br />
designed Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) system (Table 1)<br />
with good pedestrian and bicycle linkages<br />
(Table 2), and the demolition of an elevated<br />
highway to create a new public space. Let’s<br />
look at some of the cities from around the<br />
world that have used transportation reforms to<br />
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, bring new<br />
mobility options to the neediest communities,<br />
stimulate economic development and improve<br />
overall quality of life.<br />
Projects that advance global discourse<br />
often involve integrated transport<br />
and land use planning,...<br />
BRT Systems Moving Cities Ahead<br />
Bogotá, Colombia<br />
Former Bogotá <strong>May</strong>or, Enrique Peñalosa,<br />
oversaw the conception and opening of an<br />
extensive, cost-efficient, high quality and high<br />
capacity public transit system between 1998 –<br />
2001, even as expensive metro proposals in<br />
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
other cities continued to languish for years<br />
without any progress. TransMilenio (Figure 1),<br />
as the BRT system in Bogotá is known, used<br />
lessons learned from Curitiba, Brazil, which<br />
debuted the first ever BRT system in the<br />
1970s, unveiling an even more ambitious<br />
system that quickly became a gold standard<br />
in BRT development. Bogota’s system consists<br />
of 9 lines that use exclusive busways with<br />
over 1,000 branded buses carrying 1.6 million<br />
passengers a day. Elevated stations, level<br />
passenger boarding and wide vehicle doors<br />
optimise getting on and off the buses. The<br />
capital construction costs for the system<br />
amount to $5.5 million per kilometre.<br />
Figure 1: TransMilenio buses in Bogotá are<br />
highway based and also enter the downtown area<br />
Before the introduction of TransMilenio,<br />
thousands of independent mini-bus drivers<br />
provided the only public transit system in the<br />
city. These drivers formed operating companies<br />
and participated in a competitive tendering<br />
process to run TransMilenio. The Bogotá<br />
system pays private operators to drive special<br />
red TransMilenio buses based on a set number<br />
of kilometres driven, so if a bus needs to be<br />
rerouted to another corridor, its income is not<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 17
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
affected. With performance-based contracts,<br />
operators are penalised if they fail to provide<br />
other expected services, such as, keeping the<br />
vehicles clean and being on-time (Wright and<br />
Hook 2007).<br />
Approximately 400 feeder buses bring<br />
passengers from outskirt locations onto<br />
the system. Pedestrian and bicycle paths<br />
leading from low-income and impoverished<br />
neighbourhoods are integrated into the system<br />
design. TransMilenio is so successful that it is<br />
often overcrowded during non-peak hours – a<br />
major complaint by passengers.<br />
After the implementation of the widereaching<br />
system, a referendum was passed<br />
by overwhelmingly popular vote to hold a<br />
Car-Free Day every year, forbidding private<br />
vehicles from being driven in the city during<br />
one workday. Roads normally used for cars<br />
become boulevards for walking and cycling<br />
while TransMilenio continues to operate<br />
smoothly. This measure exists in conjunction<br />
with Ciclovía – Bogota’s world renowned<br />
Car-Free Sundays event.<br />
TransMilenio is so successful that it<br />
is often overcrowded during nonpeak<br />
hours – a major complaint by<br />
passengers.<br />
Guangzhou, China<br />
The world’s highest frequency and capacity<br />
BRT system opened in February <strong>2010</strong> in<br />
Guangzhou, China. The 22.5 km system is<br />
the first BRT to directly connect to a metro<br />
system and the first BRT system in China to<br />
18<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
include bicycle parking in its station design. It<br />
has the world’s highest number of passenger<br />
boardings at BRT stations and the world’s<br />
longest stations in the world. Already carrying<br />
750,000 passengers a day, it is expected to<br />
soon carry even more. Infrastructure costs to<br />
build the GBRT were 30 million yuan renminbi<br />
(US$ 4.4 million) per kilometre.<br />
More than 40 bus routes use Guangzhou’s<br />
“open” BRT system, which is designed to<br />
enable many more one-seat rides, as many<br />
routes originate or end in neighbourhoods<br />
beyond the BRT corridor itself. Real time<br />
passenger information systems and operational<br />
control systems boost convenience, help keep<br />
buses on time, and support performance<br />
contracting. The BRT was faster to implement<br />
than a new metro line would have been, with<br />
the conceptual plan, engineering design and<br />
construction each taking one year to complete.<br />
Building the Guangzhou BRT took five years<br />
from start to finish, including times when the<br />
project was placed on hold.<br />
The BRT was faster to implement than<br />
a new metro line would have been,<br />
with the conceptual plan, engineering<br />
design and construction each taking<br />
one year to complete.<br />
Ahmedabad, India<br />
India’s first world-class BRT system opened<br />
in 2009 in Ahmedabad, a city of 6 million<br />
residents. The system is called Janmarg, or<br />
the “people’s way”, reflecting a strategic<br />
transportation focus on moving people rather<br />
than vehicles. It is a “closed system”, with buses
Table 1: Some notable cities advancing BRT<br />
Location Notable Features<br />
Cali, Colombia<br />
Curitiba, Brazil<br />
Guadalajara, Mexico<br />
Guangzhou, China<br />
Guatemala City, Guatemala<br />
Hangzhou, China<br />
Istanbul, Turkey<br />
Jakarta, Indonesia<br />
Johannesburg, South Africa<br />
Mexico City, Mexico<br />
Pereira, Colombia<br />
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
Cali’s MIO system launch is part of a national government<br />
initiative to build BRT systems in cities with more than 600,000<br />
inhabitants. MIO already meets 46% of the city’s public<br />
transport demand.<br />
The first BRT system in the world, inaugurated in the 1970s and<br />
used by over 75% of the population.<br />
The initial Macrobus line runs 16 km. When complete, it will take<br />
55,000 private vehicles off the road.<br />
The highest capacity BRT system in Asia, this 23 km system that<br />
opened in <strong>2010</strong> carries over 750,000 passengers daily.<br />
This first Central American BRT opened in 2007. The initial 11 km<br />
include dedicated median busways with on-level boarding<br />
stations. The system cut travel time by 20%.<br />
The second city in China after Beijing to unveil a BRT system,<br />
which includes bus prioritisation with facilities for cyclists<br />
and pedestrians.<br />
Metrobus BRT carries 450,000 passengers a day over 43 km of<br />
segregated busway, so travel speeds reach 40 km per hour –<br />
reducing travel time by 75%.<br />
TransJakarta uses mostly CNG buses in 10 corridors, carrying over<br />
300,000 daily riders.<br />
After violent protests from taxi drivers, the first true BRT system<br />
in Africa, Rea Vaya ("We Are Moving"), opened and is carrying<br />
18,000 daily passengers.<br />
The Metrobus system carries 320,000 passengers a day. Accidents<br />
dropped by 30%, and the corridor saw a 5% modal shift from<br />
private vehicles to public transport.<br />
The first city to emulate the success of TransMilenio in Colombia,<br />
it carries 155,000 passengers per day.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 19
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
using dedicated lanes instead of mixing with<br />
traffic, spanning over 88 km and connecting<br />
the downtown commercial district of Kalupur<br />
with outlying neighbourhoods. Most of the<br />
network passes through low and middle<br />
income neighbourhoods. Janmarg is meant to<br />
improve the quality of commuting in the city<br />
through dedicated bus lanes, bicycle tracks,<br />
pedestrian facilities and parking management.<br />
Some of the infrastructure highlights of the<br />
system include segregated lanes, high floor<br />
buses, level passenger boarding, external<br />
ticketing and real-time bus arrival information.<br />
Completion of the network is expected in<br />
2011; half of the system is now in operation.<br />
Ridership is now about 32,000 passengers<br />
daily, with that number expected to grow<br />
greatly. Eventually, the city envisions an<br />
integrated fare scheme between normal bus<br />
service, Janmarg and parking. The capital cost<br />
of Janmarg was US$1.8 million per kilometre.<br />
Figure 2: Bicycle riders enjoy the first ever Summer<br />
Streets in NYC<br />
Improving Walking and<br />
Cycling Infrastructure<br />
New York City, USA<br />
More than 50 acres of road space in New York<br />
City (NYC) have been reclaimed from traffic<br />
lanes and car parking spaces to meet the goals<br />
20<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
of PlaNYC 2030, a comprehensive long-term<br />
sustainability vision announced on Earth Day<br />
in 2007 by <strong>May</strong>or Michael Bloomberg. A<br />
large component of the plan, after decades<br />
of car-oriented policies, is to create a more<br />
balanced transportation network in the<br />
city by the year 2030. NYC Department of<br />
Transportation Commissioner, Janette Sadik-<br />
Khan, succeeded in overseeing the creation<br />
of new public plazas and the installation of<br />
over 322 km of new bicycle lanes – 8 km of<br />
which are protected, installation of more than<br />
6,000 bicycle racks, more than two dozen<br />
bicycle parking shelters and a 45% increase<br />
in bicycle commuting (NYC Department of<br />
Transportation 2009).<br />
The city adopted a strategy that<br />
was championed by Copenhagen,<br />
Denmark – taking small nibbles of<br />
street space away from cars until<br />
reaching a groundswell of noticeable<br />
changes.<br />
The most iconic transformation occurred in<br />
Times Square with the pedestrianisation of<br />
Broadway after a century of accommodating<br />
car traffic. The city adopted a strategy that<br />
was championed by Copenhagen, Denmark –<br />
taking small nibbles of street space away from<br />
cars until reaching a groundswell of noticeable<br />
changes. Much of the street reclamations<br />
have been done initially using fast and costeffective<br />
coloured paint on asphalt, followed<br />
later by permanent reconstruction. As part of<br />
improving the street experience, over 98,000<br />
trees were planted and a Car-Free Sundays<br />
programme was launched, called Summer
Streets (Figure 2), inspired by Bogotá’s Ciclovía.<br />
The city also launched a Select Bus Service that<br />
incorporates partial elements of BRT, such as,<br />
advanced fare collection, dedicated lanes and<br />
signal prioritisation.<br />
Figure 3: Vélib stations are accessible everywhere<br />
within the city of Paris<br />
Paris, France<br />
The Paris Vélib, combines the French words for<br />
bicycle (vélo) and freedom (liberté), and has<br />
revolutionised bicycle sharing and showcases a<br />
new kind of individualised mass transit system.<br />
The design is already being mimicked in cities<br />
like Hangzhou, China. Vélib solves the problems<br />
of bicycle storage, maintenance and parking.<br />
<strong>May</strong>or Bertrand Delanoë and Deputy <strong>May</strong>or<br />
Denis Baupin saw an opportunity to offer<br />
advertising space to the company JCDecaux<br />
in exchange for management of the system.<br />
Approximately 4,000 car parking spaces were<br />
replaced with 1,451 Vélib stations that hold<br />
20,600 public bicycles for hire (Figure 3).<br />
Registered users pay a small fee to rent a<br />
bicycle and can return it to any station around<br />
the city, provided there is docking space.<br />
JCDecaux shuttles bicycles between stations<br />
to maintain a balance in the system and<br />
assures there are enough available bicycles<br />
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
at every station. If a station is full, users are<br />
directed to the next available docking space. A<br />
survey of users found that 15% of Vélib trips<br />
had shifted from car travel. Vélib users can<br />
hire a bicycle at any time of the day or night,<br />
which is a good complement to the metro that<br />
closes around midnight. Approximately 30%<br />
of bicycle traffic consists of Vélib users (Le<br />
Mairie de Paris 2007). To support an increase<br />
in cycling, Paris built nearly 400 km of new<br />
bicycle lanes and also increased general bicycle<br />
parking facilities.<br />
A cornerstone of the mobility plan under<br />
Deputy <strong>May</strong>or Denis Baupin, Vélib is one of<br />
many Paris transportation innovations aimed<br />
at revitalising community life in public spaces.<br />
In addition to improving conditions for cyclists,<br />
Paris has prioritised pedestrians by renovating<br />
public squares and plazas, widening sidewalks,<br />
adding new landscaping and installing raised<br />
crosswalks. Slow speed 30-km zones have<br />
been introduced to increase pedestrian safety.<br />
Paris has prioritised pedestrians by<br />
renovating public squares and plazas,<br />
widening sidewalks, adding new<br />
landscaping and installing raised<br />
crosswalks.<br />
A national directive passed in 2008 mandates<br />
that these zones include contra-flow bicycle<br />
lanes, which will further increase cycling in<br />
the coming years. The city also closes down a<br />
major stretch of highway along the Seine River<br />
for one month in the summer to create 3 km<br />
of beach areas known as Paris Plages. Lastly,<br />
a new system called Mobilien, which uses<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 21
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
elements of BRT, opened along three corridors<br />
in 2007. All these improvements led to a<br />
decrease in private vehicle traffic by 20% and<br />
a 9% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.<br />
Table 2: Other notable cities promoting walking<br />
and cycling.<br />
Managing the Demand of Vehicles<br />
Driving into the City<br />
London, UK<br />
In 2003, London adopted a groundbreaking<br />
congestion pricing plan in an effort to tackle<br />
traffic gridlock, improve air quality and<br />
generate funds for the city’s transport system.<br />
Drivers entering the congestion zone (Figure 4)<br />
during peak hours are required to pay a hefty<br />
fee. Enforcement is through automated license<br />
recognition, with multiple payment channels.<br />
The congestion pricing initiative was so<br />
successful in improving mobility conditions<br />
that neighbourhoods near the border<br />
requested that the zone be extended. In<br />
2007, the congestion zone was doubled and<br />
the price was increased. About 70,000 fewer<br />
vehicles enter the congestion zone on a daily<br />
basis. Congestion dropped by 21% that year<br />
and carbon dioxide emissions decreased by<br />
16%. More than £123 million (US$194 million)<br />
is generated annually from the congestion<br />
zone pricing and reinvested in public transport<br />
22<br />
Cape Town,<br />
South Africa<br />
Dakar,<br />
Senegal<br />
Santiago,<br />
Chile<br />
Continued government<br />
support for Car-Free days<br />
Organised West Africa’s first<br />
ever Car-Free day<br />
Implemented new bicycle<br />
lanes and Car-Free Sundays<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
improvements. Bus travel times significantly<br />
improved after implementation of the<br />
congestion zone and bus ridership increased<br />
by 45%. Older, dirtier trucks pay a special<br />
steep daily charge to enter the city.<br />
Figure 4: The congestion zone is indicated with<br />
signage and street stencils in central London<br />
Cities such as Shanghai and Shenzhen in<br />
China are looking to introduce a London-style<br />
congestion scheme in their commercial centres<br />
to address traffic problems. Most London<br />
boroughs also charge a steep curbside parking<br />
fee to dissuade driving. Some boroughs, such<br />
as Camden and Richmond upon Thames, have<br />
even introduced CO -based residential parking<br />
2<br />
permits with the most polluting vehicles<br />
paying a higher price. A percentage of the<br />
parking revenues from every borough helps<br />
to fund the Freedom Pass programme, which<br />
enables disabled and elderly residents to use<br />
public transit free of charge (London Councils).<br />
Beijing, China<br />
As the 2008 Olympics approached, Beijing<br />
faced crippling traffic jams, severely<br />
compromised air quality and soaring collision<br />
rates due to the rapid growth in private vehicle<br />
use. City officials undertook an ambitious
task, working on a variety of fronts, to make<br />
transportation better and cleaner in time<br />
for the Olympic Games. Beijing instituted<br />
vehicle restrictions on weekdays based on<br />
odd/even license plate numbers. The success<br />
of the measure led to an extension of the<br />
programme, which is enforced through<br />
automated license plate recognition systems.<br />
A percentage of the parking revenues<br />
from every borough helps to fund<br />
the Freedom Pass programme, which<br />
enables disabled and elderly residents<br />
to use public transit free of charge.<br />
Drivers must leave their automobiles at home<br />
one day each week, leading to 800,000<br />
vehicles staying off the streets every day. The<br />
city also expanded the metro and existing BRT<br />
systems in 2008 with new lines and additional<br />
hours of operation. Beijing increased the<br />
regular bus fleet, while decreasing the fleet<br />
of government vehicles by 30%. Additionally,<br />
one-third of the police fleet is now patrolling<br />
using bicycles and electric bicycles. Measures<br />
to restrict automobile use have been<br />
complemented with investments in public<br />
transit infrastructure and policies to promote<br />
alternative modes.<br />
Integrated Transport and Public<br />
Space Planning<br />
Seoul, South Korea<br />
Under the leadership of <strong>May</strong>or Lee Myung<br />
Bak, a 6.4 km elevated highway that once<br />
covered the Cheonggyecheon River in the<br />
center of Seoul was replaced in 2005 with<br />
a riverfront park, high quality walkways<br />
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
and public squares (Figure 5). Removing the<br />
road has cut traffic congestion in the area<br />
and the popularity of the measure led to 84<br />
additional elevated roadways being shortlisted<br />
for demolition. The city government<br />
also retrofitted over 58 km along the former<br />
highway corridor with exclusive median bus<br />
lanes, and added more than 100 additional bus<br />
lanes as part of a broader initiative to improve<br />
all aspects of Seoul’s transportation system. In<br />
2007, Lee Myung Bak was elected President<br />
of South Korea largely due to his leadership<br />
in transforming the Cheonggyecheon area<br />
into a national public resource. President Lee<br />
had prioritised environmental stewardship<br />
as <strong>May</strong>or and improved the quality of life<br />
in Seoul.<br />
Figure 5: The highway that covered the<br />
Cheonggyecheon River was replaced with a<br />
riverfront park<br />
Guayaquil, Ecuador<br />
Improvements to deteriorating public spaces<br />
and other public works projects formed an<br />
important part of <strong>May</strong>or Jaime Nebot’s plan<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 23
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
to revitalise the city of Guayaquil. His vision<br />
included enhancing pedestrian facilities that<br />
link to the city’s waterfront and hilly Santa<br />
Ana district. He also oversaw the opening of<br />
Metrovía in 2006, the city’s BRT system that<br />
stretches 45 km and serves nearly 500,000<br />
daily passengers. The private bus services<br />
in Guayaquil were included in the Metrovia<br />
operating consortium while over 500 of the<br />
fleet’s oldest and highest-polluting buses<br />
were removed from the road. In the same<br />
year, the city also launched its first Car-Free<br />
Sunday, closing streets to traffic and allowing<br />
thousands of residents to enjoy safe walking<br />
and cycling opportunities.<br />
References<br />
Le Mairie de Paris. 2007. Paris Transport and Travel<br />
Report. Paris Transport Monitoring Center<br />
London Councils, Freedom Pass. http://www.<br />
londoncouncils.gov.uk /freedompass/default.htm<br />
(accessed February 13, <strong>2010</strong>)<br />
NYC Department of Transportation. 2009. DOT<br />
Completes Unprecedented Three-Year, 200-Mile<br />
Installation of Bike Lanes, Making City Streets Safer for<br />
All Users. http://www.nyc.gov/html/dot/downloads/pdf/<br />
pr09_030.pdf<br />
24<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Conclusion<br />
Any city can profoundly impact on sustainability<br />
and livability by employing some of the costeffective<br />
transportation best practices being<br />
advanced world wide and learning from the<br />
experience of neighbours. BRT, non-motorised<br />
transport, travel demand management,<br />
and integrated transportation and land use<br />
planning, implemented with intelligent traffic<br />
and transport management systems, can<br />
change the way residents experience a city in<br />
a positive way. The solutions also tackle larger<br />
issues: reducing emissions, saving commuters<br />
time, improving access to economic<br />
opportunities and decreasing air pollution.<br />
Population Division of the Department of Economic and<br />
Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat. 2006.<br />
World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision and<br />
World Urbanization Prospects. http://esa.un.org/unup<br />
(accessed February 13, <strong>2010</strong>)<br />
Wright, Lloyd, and Walter Hook. 2007. Bus Rapid<br />
Transit Planning Guide. Institute for Transportation and<br />
Development Policy
Urban Leaders Find Transportation Paths to Global Green Growth<br />
Michael Replogle is the Global Policy Director and Founder of the Institute for<br />
Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), USA. He has over 30 years of<br />
experience in transportation engineering and policy. He is a strategic advisor<br />
on transportation for the Environmental Defense Fund, where he served<br />
as Transportation Director from 1992 to 2009. He has been an advisor or<br />
consultant to the World Bank, Federal Highway Administration, and the United<br />
States Environmental Protection Agency. He has been an advisor to various<br />
government agencies, including Mexico City, Jakarta, Beijing, New York City,<br />
Washington, DC, and Singapore’s Land Transport Authority. He is currently consulting to the United<br />
Nations Environment Programme and Asian Development Bank regarding strategies to evaluate and<br />
mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from transportation.<br />
Michael Kodransky is an urban planner at the Institute for Transportation and<br />
Development Policy (ITDP), where he conducts and coordinates research on best<br />
practices in parking management, BRT and other ITDP global programme areas.<br />
He has also done research examining the impact of neighbourhood design<br />
on walking, road closures on traffic congestion and curbside management on<br />
street activity. The focus of Michael’s transportation related inquires always<br />
return to issues of equity and community health.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 25
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban<br />
Transport in China<br />
JIANG Yulin and LI Zhenyu<br />
Abstract<br />
China faces serious challenges as a result of rapid urbanisation and motorisation.<br />
Congestion and environmental impact have become major concerns. In this crucial<br />
setting, this paper looks at the practices of green urban transport in China and offers a<br />
possible interpretation of the green development of urban transport. Finally, it proposes<br />
the approach and some policy recommendations to steer urban transport towards<br />
green development.<br />
Introduction<br />
Over the past three decades, while urban<br />
transport has made great contributions for<br />
fast urban socio-economic development, it<br />
also poses challenges such as congestion, air<br />
pollution, energy security, as well as safety.<br />
Green transport is a category of<br />
sustainable transport which uses<br />
human power, animal power, public<br />
transportation, smart design, and<br />
renewable energy.<br />
According to evaluations, the cost of congestion<br />
is 250 billion RMB, equivalent to 2% of China’s<br />
GDP in 2003 (Qiu 2007). Worldwide, transport<br />
systems account for between 20% and 25%<br />
of carbon dioxide emission (World Energy<br />
Council 2007). Greenhouse gas emissions<br />
from transport have been increasing at a<br />
faster rate than any other energy consumption<br />
sector (IPCC 2007), but until now, less climate<br />
26<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
change mitigation gains have been made in<br />
the transport sector. In China, the statistics<br />
from the Ministry of Environment Protection<br />
show that at city level, in 2005, the national<br />
average proportion of vehicular emission in<br />
urban air pollution is more than 70%; the<br />
motorised vehicle has become the biggest<br />
emission source in Chinese cities. Therefore, it<br />
is urgent to implement green development of<br />
urban transport in China.<br />
Green transport is a category of sustainable<br />
transport which uses human power, animal<br />
power, public transportation, smart design,<br />
and renewable energy (Ecoseed 2008). Chris<br />
Bradshaw, who started the first pedestrian<br />
advocacy group in America, defined a Green<br />
Transport Hierarchy, in which he ranked<br />
the modes of passenger transport based on<br />
how environmentally friendly each mode is<br />
(Bradshaw 2009). In this hierarchy, walking<br />
was ranked the greenest, followed by cycling,
public transport, car sharing, and finally private<br />
car. This classification of green transport is also<br />
suitable for China.<br />
Practices of Green Urban Transport<br />
in China<br />
Compared with European cities, public<br />
transport lags far behind in China. With<br />
the economic development and increasing<br />
affluence, car ownership will continue to<br />
experience unprecedented growth, putting<br />
incredible pressures on the urban transport<br />
systems. Therefore, to achieve green<br />
development, comprehensive urban transport<br />
measures have been implemented in China.<br />
Transit Oriented Development (TOD)<br />
is the creation of compact, walkable<br />
communities centred around mass<br />
transit systems, making it possible<br />
to live a higher quality life without<br />
complete dependence on a car for<br />
mobility and survival.<br />
Urban planning<br />
The pattern of travel demand is affected by the<br />
way we use land. For a long time, Chinese cities<br />
have followed ring type (Figure 1), single centre<br />
development patterns, which are unfavourable<br />
to public transport development. Transit<br />
Oriented Development (TOD) is the creation<br />
of compact, walkable communities centred<br />
around mass transit systems (Wikipedia 2007),<br />
making it possible to live a higher quality life<br />
without complete dependence on a car for<br />
mobility and survival. Lately, TOD has been<br />
gradually accepted in the urban transport<br />
planning for cities such as Beijing, Shanghai,<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
Shenzhen, Guangzhou, etc. It has shown<br />
obvious effects on green development of<br />
urban transport.<br />
Figure 1: Chengdu: 2nd Ring Road Project<br />
Smooth Traffic Project<br />
Since 2000, the Smooth Traffic Project has<br />
been initiated among the 36 Central cities<br />
in China. Ten years later, other cities joined<br />
the project. Both the transport infrastructure<br />
and capacity have been greatly improved,<br />
the service quality has also been improved<br />
obviously, which laid a good foundation for<br />
the green development of urban transport<br />
today. To maintain the developments, the<br />
management concept should be updated,<br />
and the management efficiency should be<br />
improved continuously.<br />
Public transport<br />
priority development<br />
Under the central directive on Public Transport<br />
Priority Development, in combination with<br />
local actual circumstances, many cities issued<br />
local policies to promote public transport<br />
priority development. Thus, the capacity of<br />
public transport is increased obviously. For<br />
example, in 2006, Beijing issued Opinions<br />
on the Development of Public Transport<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 27
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
Figure 2: BRT in Beijing<br />
Figure 3: LRT in Beijing<br />
Priority. The public transport system has been<br />
developed, with urban rail system as the<br />
backbone, bus as the body, other transport<br />
modes as the supplement. The public transport<br />
modal share increased from 28% in 2002 to<br />
37% in 2008; citizens enjoy quick, convenient<br />
and substantial public transport services. In<br />
addition, municipal governments of Shanghai,<br />
Shenzhen, Guangzhou, etc., have formulated<br />
administrative provisions for giving priority<br />
to public transport and made great progress,<br />
such as with urban rail and bus rapid transit<br />
(BRT) systems (Figure 2 and Figure 3).<br />
Action plan for green<br />
urban transport<br />
Some city authorities have made action plans<br />
for green urban transport. After the Green<br />
Olympics, Beijing began to implement the<br />
28<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Action Plan for Green, People-oriented and<br />
High-tech Urban Transport (2009 – 2015).<br />
By 2015, the public transport modal share<br />
will be improved to 50% in the central<br />
area. The rail system will be up to 561 km.<br />
Beijing will pilot some electric vehicle<br />
demonstrations, and more than 5,000 new<br />
energy vehicles will be put into operation.<br />
Furthermore, to form a new green system,<br />
Beijing will develop cycling. Some measures<br />
will be taken, such as, planning nonmotorised<br />
transport (NMT) zones, free<br />
bicycle rental and convenient transfers to<br />
public transport by cycling, etc.<br />
Shanghai has launched a Green-Commuting<br />
Project and created the Green Transport<br />
Strategy to ensure smooth traffic flow and<br />
a greener environment during the <strong>2010</strong><br />
World Expo. The Strategy encourages both<br />
residents and visitors to choose greener<br />
modes of transport. They have also made a<br />
green commuting plan for some enterprise<br />
employees and developed a WebGIS-based<br />
transport carbon calculator for them.<br />
In addition, to impove urban public transport,<br />
more than one hundred cities join the Public<br />
Transport Week & Car-Free Days Action in<br />
September annually; the concept of Green<br />
Commuting has gradually penetrated into the<br />
lives of Chinese citizens.<br />
Non Motorised Transport (NMT)<br />
NMT includes cycling and walking and is the<br />
greenest transport mode. Bicycles not only<br />
could be a viable alternative to car journeys for<br />
many short trips, but also serve as collection
and distribution means for the public<br />
transport system.<br />
• Bicycle travel<br />
NMT is the most important component<br />
of urban transport in most Chinese cities.<br />
According to statistics, the bicycle modal<br />
share accounts for 36% to 50% of total<br />
travel volume in different cities, and<br />
walking modal share is about one-third, on<br />
average, far above that of public transport<br />
(Jiang and Jiang 2008). However, with<br />
rapid urbanisation and motorisation, both<br />
cycling and walking are becoming more<br />
difficult because of vehicle oriented road<br />
network planning. More driveways are<br />
broadened, while walkways are encroached<br />
by roadside parking or street vendors,<br />
which greatly dampen the enthusiasm of<br />
both cyclists and pedestrians. In Beijing,<br />
the bicycle modal share was up to 62.7%<br />
in 1986, but reduced sharply to 38.5% in<br />
2000, 30.3% in 2005, and 20% in 2008.<br />
Figure 4: Free bicycle rental in Beijing<br />
To ease the shrinking modal share,<br />
bicycle rental has entered the agenda<br />
of city government. Governments of<br />
Hangzhou, Beijing, Wuhan, etc., have<br />
initiated policies, including financial<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
investment, for bicycle travel by setting<br />
up free-of-charge bicycle rental nonlocal<br />
access systems, which create a new<br />
channel for improving cycling. Bicycle travel<br />
will even be included in the Beijing Overall<br />
Transport Plan in <strong>2010</strong>. Two free bicycle<br />
rental demonstrations are being piloted<br />
in Beijing (Figure 4). A few cities are also<br />
developing connections between bicycle<br />
networks and public transport.<br />
With rapid urbanisation and<br />
motorisation, both cycling and<br />
walking are becoming more<br />
difficult because of vehicle<br />
oriented road network planning.<br />
• Walking<br />
Walking shows its advantages for meeting<br />
the increasing travel demand from trade,<br />
shopping and leisure activities. Recently,<br />
pedestrianised streets were constructed<br />
all over China, fully embodying the people<br />
oriented concept. For example, in the<br />
Overall Planning of Shenzhen (2007 –<br />
2020), publicised at the end of 2008, in<br />
addition to implementing “Public Transport<br />
Priority”, NMT was also advocated, with<br />
“Walking Priority” written in the plan.<br />
This is a correction of transport planning<br />
concepts in Shenzhen and is a notable<br />
progress in China.<br />
Transport Demand<br />
Management (TDM)<br />
TDM can restrict motor vehicle use through<br />
effective guidance of transport demand, and<br />
is an important way for developed countries<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 29
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
to realise green transportation. In recent<br />
years, China has tried some measures and<br />
accumulated certain experience in TDM.<br />
• License plate quota auction system<br />
The car license plate quota auction system<br />
is to restrict vehicle ownership growth. The<br />
main measures are to suppress the desire<br />
to purchase a vehicle by levying high tax.<br />
30<br />
Shanghai is the only city in China that<br />
carries out this system which effectively<br />
suppresses car ownership growth. In<br />
2007, average daily increment of motor<br />
vehicles in Shanghai was 380, about<br />
one-third of Beijing’s 1,050 daily average.<br />
At a news conference in January 2008,<br />
Wu Yi, the Deputy Director General of<br />
Shanghai Municipal Transport Bureau<br />
said, “in the past 13 years after the policy<br />
implementation, about 1.5 million motor<br />
vehicles have been reduced in Shanghai.”<br />
So we can say that the system implemented<br />
in Shanghai achieves notable effect on the<br />
green development of urban transport.<br />
Small charging differences among<br />
different parking places cannot<br />
relieve urban parking problems<br />
notably. Shenzhen’s case shows<br />
that synchronous implementation<br />
of relevant supporting policies is<br />
required to achieve better effect.<br />
• Parking charges<br />
Differentiated parking charges could shift<br />
some commuters from private vehicles to<br />
public transport. Existing parking charge<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
is cheap in the cities, and without certain<br />
area and time difference. A few cities,<br />
such as, Beijing and Shanghai, began<br />
to introduce charges according to area<br />
and time. But small charging differences<br />
among different parking places cannot<br />
relieve urban parking problems notably.<br />
Shenzhen has shown that synchronous<br />
implementation of relevant supporting<br />
policies is required to achieve better effect,<br />
for example, increased road parking prices,<br />
setting time limits for parking on the street,<br />
heavy penalties for exceeding the time<br />
limit, etc.<br />
• Travel restriction measures for cars<br />
After the 2008 Olympic Games, to relieve<br />
traffic jam and improve air quality, Beijing<br />
began to implement No Driving, One Day Per<br />
Week, and reduced about 800,000 motor<br />
vehicles per day in the whole city. The<br />
policy is that vehicles with certain licence<br />
plate tail numbers will not be driven on<br />
certain days. Thus, 30% of government<br />
vehicles stay off the roads. Statistics show<br />
that although the number of motor vehicles<br />
in February 2009 still increased greatly<br />
compared with November 2007, the traffic<br />
jam index decreased from ‘moderate’ to<br />
‘slight’; the duration of jams in work days<br />
also decreased from 7 hours 45 minutes<br />
to 2 hours 30 minutes. ‘Restriction’ has<br />
notably improved traffic status and air<br />
quality in Beijing.<br />
Based on its good effects, Beijing decided<br />
to continue the measure with a little<br />
change, after a half year trial.
Beijing began to implement No<br />
Driving, One Day Per Week, and<br />
reduced about 800,000 motor vehicles<br />
per day in the whole city.<br />
• Other economic instruments<br />
Since 2008, in order to expand domestic<br />
demand and promote reasonable<br />
consumption of automotives, China<br />
implemented some economic instruments,<br />
while concurrently introducing measures to<br />
reduce transport emissions.<br />
i Consumption tax adjustments<br />
From 1st September 2008, the Ministry<br />
of Finance adjusted vehicle consumption<br />
tax. The tax rate of large passenger cars,<br />
3.0 litres to 4.0 litres, was increased from<br />
15% to 25%, while tax for cars above<br />
4.0 litres was raised from 20% to 40%.<br />
On the other hand, the consumption<br />
tax rate of small passenger cars, those<br />
below 1.0 litre, was reduced from 3%<br />
to 1%. This seems to have achieved<br />
its primary effect. In 2008, passenger<br />
cars 1.6 litres and below accounted<br />
for 61.5% of annual vehicle sales, and<br />
sales increased up to 18%, far higher<br />
than the increment for the overall<br />
vehicle market.<br />
ii The Adjustment and Vitalisation Plan<br />
for Auto Industry<br />
This plan released by the State Council<br />
specified that, from January 20 to<br />
December 31 2009, the vehicle purchase<br />
tax for passenger cars 1.6 litres and<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
below would be reduced from 10% to<br />
5%, to encourage the consumption of<br />
smaller vehicles.<br />
iii Fuel tax<br />
The State Council implemented a fuel<br />
tax from 2009. Gasoline consumption<br />
tax increased RMB 0.8 per litre, diesel<br />
consumption tax increased RMB 0.7 per<br />
litre, and the unit tax amount of other<br />
fuels increased correspondingly. The<br />
fuel tax embodies the principle of more<br />
payment for more use, less payment<br />
for less use, thus promoting social<br />
equity and enhancing the competitive<br />
power of small vehicles. It changes<br />
the consumption pattern in the<br />
domestic automotive market, promotes<br />
automotive enterprises to improve car<br />
technology, and drives the healthy<br />
development of industrial chains in the<br />
vehicle industry.<br />
Alternative Fuel Vehicle<br />
(AFV) Action<br />
Diversifying fuel supply for vehicles is necessary<br />
to save fossile fuels. So more cities in China are<br />
encouraged to choose AFV, including hybrid<br />
vehicles and electric vehicles.<br />
• Clean Vehicle Action<br />
Since 1999, the Clean Vehicle Programme<br />
has been initiated in 12 large cities in<br />
China. There were 153,000 LPG or CNG<br />
vehicles and 486 gas stations available in<br />
the 12 cities in 2002, and 250,000 LPG or<br />
CNG vehicles and 712 gas stations available<br />
in 19 cities by 2004 (Wang 2005). After ten<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 31
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
32<br />
years of development, the quality of AFV<br />
has improved and now more AFV are used<br />
in over 100 cities, which also promotes the<br />
development of other relevant industries.<br />
• Electric Vehicle Action<br />
Since the Ninth Five-Year Plan (1996 – 2000),<br />
China has focused on the development of<br />
electric vehicles with fruitful results. The<br />
Safety Requirements for Hybrid Electric<br />
Vehicles states standards which began<br />
to be implemented from 2005, and is a<br />
turning point for electric vehicles, from<br />
research to industrialisation. In March<br />
2009, the State Council publicised the<br />
Adjustment and Vitalisation Plan for the<br />
Auto Industry, putting forward the goal<br />
that the sales volume of new energy<br />
vehicles from 2009 to 2011 should<br />
account for about 5% of the total<br />
sales volume of passenger cars. It also<br />
mentioned that China will allocate RMB<br />
10 billion to support the development<br />
of new energy vehicles, etc., (Jiang and<br />
Jiang 2008).<br />
In 2008, the Ministry of Science and<br />
Technology and the Ministry of Finance<br />
jointly initiated the electric vehicle<br />
demonstration project, Ten-Cities, Thousand<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Units. 13 cities, including Beijing, Wuhan<br />
and Shanghai, were preliminarily selected<br />
for using electric vehicles in public<br />
transport, taxis, etc. (Figure 5). It is planned<br />
to popularise 60,000 new energy vehicles<br />
all over China by 2012, of which hybrid<br />
vehicles account for above 95%. The<br />
project’s launch ceremony in Wuhan in<br />
January 2009 marked a fresh era of new<br />
energy vehicle industrialisation in China.<br />
The higher cost of new energy vehicles<br />
will be subsidised by the Central and<br />
local governments.<br />
Figure 5: Electric Bus in Beijing<br />
Table 1: Emission standard implementation in China, Beijing, Shanghai and EU<br />
EU<br />
Euro<br />
1<br />
Vehicular emission control<br />
In order to improve air quality, stricter emission<br />
standards for vehicles have been implemented.<br />
In 2007, China implemented GUO 3 emission<br />
standard for light vehicles, which is equivalent<br />
to Euro 3. GUO 4 emission standard will be<br />
Year 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10<br />
China GUO 1 GUO 2 GUO 3<br />
Beijing GUO 1 GUO 2 GUO 3 GUO 4<br />
Shanghai GUO 1 GUO 2 GUO 3 GUO 4<br />
Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5<br />
GUO<br />
4
Figure 6: Approach to achieving green<br />
urban transport<br />
Urban<br />
Planning<br />
Compact<br />
High Density<br />
Mixed<br />
Land use<br />
Green Urban<br />
Transport<br />
NMT<br />
Bicycle<br />
Rental<br />
Bicycle<br />
special lane<br />
Electric<br />
bicycle<br />
Public<br />
Transport<br />
Economic<br />
Awareness<br />
Technology<br />
implemented in <strong>2010</strong>, which is equivalent<br />
to Euro 4. Some cities, such as, Beijing and<br />
Shanghai, have begun to implement GUO 4<br />
(Table 1). The emission standard gap between<br />
China and European countries is becoming<br />
smaller. At the same time, the fuel quality is<br />
improved and the sulfur content in vehicular<br />
fuels is reduced. In Beijing, the environment<br />
tax for vehicles will be levied according to the<br />
different emission levels, which will promote<br />
the development of clean urban transport<br />
as well.<br />
The higher cost of new energy<br />
vehicles will be subsidised by the<br />
Central and local governments.<br />
TDM<br />
Information<br />
New Energy<br />
Emission<br />
Approach to Achieving Green<br />
Urban Transport<br />
With a large population and limited fossil fuel<br />
resources, China has to build a green transport<br />
system comprising “Urban public transport &<br />
NMT” (Figure 6). The figure shows the main<br />
factors and their interrelation that influence<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
green urban transport. Firstly, through urban<br />
planning, some travel by motorised modes<br />
can be reduced effectively. Secondly, some<br />
private car commuters must shift to more<br />
environmental friendly modes such as public<br />
transport and NMT. Thirdly, the energy<br />
efficiency of transport modes and vehicle<br />
technology should be continually improved.<br />
Policy recommendations<br />
Based on the approach, Chinese transport<br />
authorities should move away from the idea<br />
of “Vehicle-orientation” in urban transport<br />
planning, focus mainly on public transport<br />
improvement, manage urban road space<br />
better and guide the reasonable use of private<br />
cars, as the key elements in the green urban<br />
transport strategy. Policies that encourage<br />
people to take public transport or NMT can<br />
bring these benefits too, while enhancing<br />
the local environment and supporting<br />
healthier lifestyles.<br />
Firstly, China should optimise the urban<br />
transport layout by integrating urban and<br />
transport planning based on TOD, develop<br />
“compact” communities and cities in multifunctional<br />
areas, so as to reduce redundant<br />
transport trips from the source. Specifically,<br />
for new developments, we should construct<br />
compact, intensive small towns along Mass<br />
Transit stations of rail or BRT systems.<br />
Secondly, to improve urban public transport,<br />
the Legislation for Urban Public Transport<br />
should be unveiled as soon as possible. The<br />
transport authority should set up a special<br />
fund for urban public transport, regulate public<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 33
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
fares and subsidy compensation mechanisms,<br />
strengthen planning integration, guarantee<br />
land use for public transport facilities and<br />
launch the action plan to improve the quality<br />
of public transport services.<br />
Thirdly, more TDM should be used in most big<br />
cities, to balance travel demand and supply<br />
well, especially in traffic congested cities.<br />
For urban taxis, a good information platform<br />
should be developed to improve the loading<br />
rate and reduce empty running. On the other<br />
hand, governments should take the lead to<br />
encourage the use of energy efficient and low<br />
emission vehicles, and raise the awareness of<br />
the public to choose green transport modes.<br />
Fourthly, city governments should encourage<br />
bicycle rental, develop scientific bicycle-renting<br />
businesses, make plans for urban bicycling<br />
lanes, extend the special lanes for bicycles and<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
The paper is funded by Volvo Research and Educational<br />
Foundations (VREF). The authors thank Ms. Liu Leilei<br />
for her contributions to this paper, and Professor Chen<br />
34<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
footpaths and set up high-speed pedestrian<br />
systems in downtowns to provide convenience<br />
for travellers.<br />
Last but not least, to improve overall<br />
transport efficiency, better coordination and<br />
integration of different transport services will<br />
improve the attractiveness and convenience<br />
of public transport. For example, we are<br />
keen to promote the use of smart ticketing<br />
which allows passengers to move seamlessly<br />
between different modes.<br />
By 2030, with the concept of people<br />
orientation, China will have a more advanced<br />
public transport system that gives a network<br />
of paths connecting people safely, and mainly<br />
by public transport and NMT, with the places<br />
they want to reach. And it will undeniably<br />
be a highly efficient and low carbon urban<br />
transport system.<br />
Suoxiang for providing invaluable comments on an earlier<br />
version of this paper.
References<br />
Bradshaw, Chris. 2009. Green Transportation Hierarchy:<br />
A Guide for Personal and Public Decision-making.<br />
Available via http://www.sierraclub.org/sprawl/articles/<br />
trips.asp<br />
EcoSeed. 2008. Green Transportation. Available via<br />
http://www.ecoseed.org/en/general-reference/greenreference/green-transportation.<br />
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. 2007.<br />
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report: Mitigation of Climate<br />
Change, Chapter 5, Transport and its Infrastructure. The<br />
full report can be viewed online at http://www.ipcc.ch/<br />
Jiang, Yulin, and Kejun Jiang. 2008. Policy for energy<br />
saving of urban transport in China. China: China<br />
Communications Press<br />
Practices and Policies of Green Urban Transport in China<br />
Qiu, Baoxing. 2007. Fulfilling bus transportation priority<br />
strategies, expediting the construction of socialist<br />
harmony. Urban Vehicles (in Chinese only), No.1 2007,<br />
pp27 – 33<br />
Transit-oriented development. From Wikipedia, the<br />
free encyclopedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitoriented_development,<br />
2007,10<br />
Wang, Bingang. 2005. The achievement and prospect<br />
of Alternative Fuel Vehicles in China (in Chinese only).<br />
Automotive Engineering, Vol. 27 No. 6 2005, pp643 – 647.<br />
World Energy Council. 2007. Transport Technologies<br />
and Policy Scenarios. World Energy Council. http://www.<br />
worldenergy.org/publications/809.asp. (accessed <strong>May</strong><br />
26, 2009)<br />
Jiang Yulin is a Professor and Director of CUSTReC and Deputy Chief Engineer<br />
of China <strong>Academy</strong> of Transportation Sciences (CATS), Ministry Of Transport<br />
(MOT), P. R. China. She has led CUSTReC to international prominence by building<br />
strong partnerships with Chinese government agencies and international<br />
organisations, integrating interdisciplinary research and public outreach<br />
programmes. Her research interest spans the areas of transport, environment<br />
protection and energy policy. Over the years, she has carried out extensive<br />
field and analytic studies by working locally, nationally and internationally on a<br />
number of projects. She held positions on four National <strong>Academy</strong> Committees related to sustainable<br />
transport and environment. Professor Jiang is a member of the standing committee on Sustainability<br />
and Transportation of the TRB, USA. She has published ten books and more than sixty papers in recent<br />
years. She can be reached at jiangyulin@vip.sina.com<br />
Li Zhenyu is an Assistant Professor in CUSTReC, China <strong>Academy</strong> of<br />
Transportation Sciences (CATS), Ministry Of Transport (MOT), P.R.China. His<br />
research interests cover transport strategy and policies on energy saving and<br />
emission reduction, green transport, low carbon transport and climate change.<br />
Mr. Li has published 10 papers and 1 book in recent years. He can be reached at<br />
lizhenyu_sxcz@163.com<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 35
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
Rosina HOWE<br />
Abstract<br />
The Land Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>) has brought Geographic Information System (GIS),<br />
a means to visualise and analyse intelligent information through digital maps, a step<br />
closer to the pulse of businesses and the community. Through the innovative use of GIS,<br />
maps have come alive in strategic land transport planning, in ensuring public safety, in<br />
becoming more pro-enterprise and in strategic information dissemination.<br />
Introduction<br />
The Land Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>) has brought<br />
Geographic Information System (GIS), a means<br />
to visualise and analyse intelligent information<br />
through digital maps, a step closer to the pulse<br />
of businesses and the community. Building<br />
on its extensive and comprehensive digital<br />
Figure 1: Land Transport GIS Hub<br />
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JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
knowledge of land transport infrastructure<br />
information, <strong>LTA</strong> has conceptualised and<br />
developed a Land Transport GIS Hub (Figure 1)<br />
for the enterprise, capable of meshing<br />
engineering drawings and geotechnical<br />
readings together with traffic management<br />
schemes and public transport planning, to<br />
aid improvements in construction safety,
oad safety, as well as, provide new services<br />
for commuters and motorists. Through the<br />
innovative use of GIS, maps have come alive<br />
and given new meaning to location-based<br />
services which cater to engineers, construction<br />
professionals, planning regulators and the<br />
man-in-the-street.<br />
Geography In Action<br />
Strategic land transport planning<br />
Singapore faces increasing population and<br />
travel demand, changing demographics and<br />
expectations, all against a backdrop of limited<br />
land space. This brings great challenges to <strong>LTA</strong><br />
in integrating land use and transport planning<br />
to guarantee quality of life for everyone and<br />
create sustainable communities.<br />
Decision-makers are able to visualise<br />
things as they really are, or will be,<br />
resulting in improved efficiency<br />
and accuracy when developing<br />
transport proposals for road and rail<br />
improvements and expansions.<br />
The Concept and Master Plans are 40-year<br />
and 15-year horizon plans, respectively, on<br />
land use and transport planning. <strong>LTA</strong> uses GIS<br />
technology to lay down medium to long-term<br />
transport plans, including the road and rapid<br />
transit networks, on these strategic plans.<br />
Multiple environmental criteria are “layered”<br />
on top of one another to identify areas that<br />
require facelifts, and to predict travel demand<br />
on our roads and rail network. Decisionmakers<br />
are able to visualise things as they really<br />
are, or will be, resulting in improved efficiency<br />
and accuracy when developing transport<br />
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
proposals for road and rail improvements and<br />
expansions.<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> uses GIS extensively for strategic studies,<br />
transportation modelling and network travel<br />
demand projection. <strong>LTA</strong>’s geometry and<br />
business data are meticulously tagged and<br />
consolidated in enterprise databases, allowing<br />
the quick creation of GIS maps that integrate a<br />
medley of different parameters specific to each<br />
analysis. This facilitates the study of changes<br />
from current and future planning quantum for<br />
scenario comparison.<br />
Figure 2: RTS Catchment Areas<br />
GIS is also applied in studying the behaviour<br />
and characteristics of consumers living in<br />
various bus and rail catchment areas. It allows<br />
us to analyse the sensitivity of the consumers<br />
to different parameters. Each bus stop and<br />
Rapid Transit Station (RTS) along the corridor<br />
is mapped using GIS technology. By modifying<br />
the radius of the catchment area (Figure 2), GIS<br />
can easily show us patterns, relationships and<br />
trends that help us understand the attributes<br />
and underlying factors within the catchment<br />
areas, so that we can choose the best<br />
modal option for the population living in the<br />
catchment area. It helps us plan for changes<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 37
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
in the transportation network design for the<br />
future. This will in turn yield considerable<br />
commuter satisfaction.<br />
<strong>LTA</strong>’s transport planners exploit the<br />
complementary strengths of transportation<br />
models and GIS systems to develop a<br />
comprehensive bus route network, fulfilling<br />
our role as the central bus planner. The<br />
graphical maps enable us to better understand<br />
the viability of various routes. By integrating<br />
data and layering with maps, we can easily see<br />
the demographics of the area being served<br />
by the bus network. It also helps us to better<br />
connect train and bus services, allowing train<br />
passengers to easily transfer to bus services<br />
and vice versa.<br />
With GIS, we can display ridership counts<br />
for different services and compare service<br />
ridership volumes. This comparative analysis<br />
can be used to check the coverage of the<br />
existing bus stop or RTS station. By combining<br />
historical ticketing data with a change of bus<br />
route, the model is able to highlight changes<br />
in ridership patterns and hence determine the<br />
feasibility of the proposed revised route.<br />
Public safety and road planning<br />
In the area of road safety, <strong>LTA</strong> leverages on<br />
GIS technology to significantly reduce the<br />
number of traffic accidents, fatal or otherwise,<br />
at accident-prone areas in Singapore to protect<br />
38<br />
GIS makes the visualisation of<br />
collision incidence distributions and<br />
patterns more intuitive than statistics,<br />
charts and tabular data.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
motorists and pedestrians. GIS makes the<br />
visualisation of collision incidence distributions<br />
and patterns more intuitive than statistics, charts<br />
and tabular data. Through collaboration with<br />
Singapore Traffic Police, traffic accident locations<br />
and collision patterns can be easily visualised<br />
and analysed geographically in a process<br />
known as “Black Spot Analysis” (Figure 3).<br />
Trouble spots can be pin-pointed for our road<br />
safety engineers to implement mitigating<br />
traffic improvement schemes. This has yielded<br />
significant reduction in accidents over a twoyear<br />
period in treated areas; specifically, 66% at<br />
traffic junctions and 90% at expressways. <strong>LTA</strong>’s<br />
approach to road safety improvement garnered<br />
the Prince Michael International Safety Award<br />
2007 for outstanding achievements in its<br />
collaborative efforts to promote road safety<br />
through innovations in engineering and active<br />
public education.<br />
Figure 3: Black Spot Analysis<br />
By harnessing GIS technology, our road<br />
safety engineers are able to validate the<br />
effectiveness of the implemented treatments<br />
over a two-year period and further refine<br />
improvements for proactive maintenance<br />
of road carriageways across Singapore.<br />
Through predictive forecasts of road
surface deterioration, road carriageways are<br />
maintained at an optimum level of roughness<br />
and skid resistance to prevent possible skidding<br />
during wet weather.<br />
At construction sites, GIS is used to enhance<br />
the safety of construction workers and the<br />
community in the environs. Specialised<br />
sensing instruments are enabled with GIS<br />
technology to monitor construction activities<br />
that may affect the integrity of structures and<br />
buildings in the vicinity. The United Kingdombased<br />
Royal Society for the Prevention of<br />
Accidents (RoSPA) has named <strong>LTA</strong> in its annual<br />
honour roll of organisations committed to<br />
occupational safety and health in 2008 for<br />
achieving a high level of safety performance<br />
underpinned by good management systems.<br />
Being pro-enterprise<br />
Business communities and industry partners<br />
also enjoy greater convenience and a more<br />
seamless experience when transacting with<br />
<strong>LTA</strong>. Leading an online inter-agency system<br />
that leverages on GIS to coordinate road<br />
construction works, <strong>LTA</strong> has reduced the<br />
processing time for approval of road works<br />
applications from 2 – 3 months to within 2<br />
weeks. The duration for approval of plans<br />
for civil and structural works is also reduced<br />
by 50%. Surveyors, real estate developers,<br />
lawyers, architects, and engineers can also<br />
obtain online road line plans instantaneously,<br />
whereas previously they had to wait up to<br />
10 days.<br />
Strategic information dissemination<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> shares data from our GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> initiative<br />
with various agencies in the government<br />
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
sector. Our data is used by the government<br />
agencies in areas such as strategic planning,<br />
operations management, research studies,<br />
homeland security, crime prevention and<br />
risk management. <strong>LTA</strong> also supports the<br />
development of the National Spatial Data<br />
Infrastructure (SDI). This is the national strategy<br />
for information sharing.<br />
Strategic partnerships are formed with the<br />
likes of Google, Nokia and local start-ups,<br />
such as, Quantum Inventions, a company that<br />
processes <strong>LTA</strong>’s raw traffic data to provide<br />
real-time traffic information, dynamic routing<br />
and navigation solutions, to further exploit<br />
its enterprise geospatial data to benefit end<br />
users. These collaborations have brought<br />
about an array of innovative services that<br />
Figure 4: Interactive traffic and public transport<br />
maps on <strong>LTA</strong> portals<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 39
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
directly benefit the public and transform the<br />
way Singaporeans use the land transport<br />
systems, as well as helped to fuel the growth<br />
of new commercially-viable services. Through<br />
these partnerships, <strong>LTA</strong> has sought to extend<br />
its reach through new media channels, such<br />
as, the mobile Internet to disseminate GIS@<br />
<strong>LTA</strong>’s data.<br />
By placing GIS-enabled transport<br />
information right at the fingertips<br />
of commuters and motorists, we<br />
empower them to effectively plan<br />
their journeys and reduce overall<br />
travel time and travel anxiety.<br />
Citizens can also freely access <strong>LTA</strong>’s GIS data<br />
at the One.Motoring (www.onemotoring.<br />
com.sg) and PublicTransport@SG (www.<br />
publictransport.sg) Portals. Motorists can be<br />
informed of road accidents and travel speeds<br />
of the routes they are planning to take, before<br />
they embark on their journeys. They may even<br />
query regarding the availability of car parking<br />
spaces at their destinations, so that they can<br />
make alternative arrangements to avoid long<br />
waits. Commuters can locate the nearest busstops<br />
using mobile telephones equipped with<br />
location based services (LBS), and even find<br />
out when their next bus will arrive. By placing<br />
GIS-enabled transport information right at<br />
the fingertips of commuters and motorists,<br />
we empower them to effectively plan their<br />
journeys and reduce overall travel time and<br />
travel anxiety.<br />
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JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
International Recognition<br />
ESRI Special Achievement in<br />
GIS 2008<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> received the Special Achievement in GIS<br />
(SAG) Award at the 28th Annual Environmental<br />
Systems Research Institute (ESRI) International<br />
User Conference 2008 in San Diego, California,<br />
from among 100,000 user organisations<br />
worldwide, for demonstrating vision and<br />
leadership in using GIS technology to better<br />
serve the world.<br />
CIO Asia Awards 2009<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> has won the annual CIO Asia Award<br />
three times in seven years, for its adoption<br />
of GIS technologies for decision-making<br />
and information dissemination within the<br />
organisation and across other government<br />
agencies. The Award recognises the top five<br />
Asian organisations that have made use of<br />
information and communications technology<br />
to obtain the greatest returns for their key<br />
operations and businesses.<br />
The next generation of GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> will<br />
support more LBS to benefit endusers,<br />
while planners will have access<br />
to a myriad of geospatial data at<br />
their fingertips to make effective and<br />
timely business decisions.<br />
IDC Enterprise Innovation<br />
Awards 2009<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> was among the top 10 institutions for its<br />
innovative approach in using emerging GIS<br />
technologies and IT processes to rejuvenate,<br />
sustain and empower business growth. The<br />
IDC Enterprise Innovation Award 2009 was
presented at IDC’s Asia Pacific CIO Summit on<br />
14 July 2009.<br />
Moving Forward<br />
With the Land Transport Masterplan setting<br />
the stage to double today’s 138 km Rapid<br />
Transit System (RTS) network to 278 km<br />
in the future, and expand road networks<br />
to serve new developments and support<br />
economic growth, GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> will play a pivotal<br />
role in supporting land transport planning and<br />
development efforts.<br />
GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> – Bringing Maps to Life<br />
<strong>LTA</strong>’s GIS framework needs to remain agile<br />
and nimble, yet be robust enough to respond<br />
to the fast changing business needs. The next<br />
generation of GIS@<strong>LTA</strong> will support more<br />
LBS to benefit end-users, while planners will<br />
have access to a myriad of geospatial data at<br />
their fingertips to make effective and timely<br />
business decisions.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
I would like to thank Lem Kiah Chen and Jonah Ong from<br />
the Application Services 1 Division, and Chan Bee Ling<br />
from the Development & Building Control Division for<br />
their efforts in gathering the information for this paper.<br />
Rosina Howe is the Group Director of the Innovation and InfoComm Technology<br />
Group in the Land Transport Authority, Singapore. She is also the Chief Innovation<br />
Officer at <strong>LTA</strong> where she plays a significant role in charting strategic directions<br />
through value innovation and technology breakthroughs to meet <strong>LTA</strong>’s vision of<br />
providing a people-centred land transport system. Mrs Howe spearheads the<br />
Innovation Steering Committee in formulating and implementing <strong>LTA</strong>’s Vision<br />
and Strategy for Innovation. She also chairs the Land Transport Innovation<br />
Fund Committee which catalyses <strong>LTA</strong>’s collaborative efforts with its local and<br />
overseas partners in land transport research and development to realise the Singapore Urban Transport<br />
Solution initiative.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 41
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
Urban Transportation Planning for a<br />
Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
Michael QUAH and Dickson YEO<br />
Abstract<br />
Singapore’s Economic Strategies Committee in early <strong>2010</strong> issued a series of<br />
recommendations towards making Singapore a “vibrant and distinctive global city...<br />
open and diverse, the best place to grow and reach out to a rising Asia, and a home<br />
that provides an outstanding quality of life for our people.” This paper explores the<br />
role of urban transportation planning as one of many factors that could contribute to<br />
this vision.<br />
Singapore’s well-articulated plans to test-bed electric vehicles dovetail well with its<br />
vision for a “smart energy economy” – an example to Asia. We will focus primarily on<br />
the pros and cons of vehicle electrification; issues more complex than is often simplified<br />
by purveyors of new technologies.<br />
Introduction<br />
Singapore, with its Rapid Transit Systems<br />
(RTS), buses, taxis, its control of private<br />
vehicle ownership and usage through the<br />
Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) scheme, vehicle<br />
tax schemes and the annual quota for growth<br />
of the private vehicle fleet, is to be lauded<br />
for striking an appropriate balance between<br />
economic efficiency, satisfying demand<br />
for better transportation and managing<br />
traffic congestion.<br />
In fact, the ERP systems in place in Singapore,<br />
the signboards of the parking guidance system,<br />
the speed-trap cameras, the proliferation of<br />
GPSs, in totality, all provide the foundation for<br />
an Intelligent Transport System (ITS), which<br />
could in the future:<br />
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JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
• Reduce accidents, by enabling vehicle-tovehicle<br />
(V2V) communications<br />
• Allow for individual vehicles to communicate<br />
seamlessly with traffic signals, i.e., vehicleto-infrastructure<br />
(V2I) communications,<br />
enabling smoother traffic flows [these<br />
may be based on Dedicated Short Range<br />
Communications (DSRC) technologies]<br />
• Provide real-time relevant traffic and<br />
weather data to all vehicles (also V2I), and<br />
• Enable data capture for traffic management,<br />
over time, to assess and improve upon<br />
multi-modal transportation performance.<br />
Beyond the safety aspects, such systems provide<br />
environmental benefits in reducing tail-pipe<br />
emissions from idling vehicles and thus improve<br />
overall energy efficiency and fuel savings.
Exploring vehicle electrification<br />
The Energy Studies Institute (ESI), Singapore is<br />
committed to researching all forms of energy<br />
usage in the regional landscape. The recent<br />
interest in electric vehicles (EVs) (Figure 1)<br />
has been analysed by Wong Yuk Sam. He<br />
has offered a series of observations on the<br />
EV phenomenon and how it would impact<br />
our energy environment. Here are some<br />
conclusions from his studies (Wong 2009).<br />
Figure 1: Electric Vehicle on sale (Mitsubishi iMiEV)<br />
Energy consumption and CO 2 emission<br />
reductions are achieved by (1) reducing energy<br />
demand and (2) improving system efficiency.<br />
Among land vehicles in Singapore, Hybrid<br />
Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric<br />
Vehicles (PHEVs) and EVs are viable to replace<br />
gasoline Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles<br />
(ICEVs) to reduce total energy consumption<br />
and CO emissions from land vehicles. While<br />
2<br />
electricity harnessed from solar and wind in<br />
Singapore would theoretically be zero-carbon,<br />
it would not be sufficient to feed PHEVs and<br />
HEVs, given the small land area in Singapore.<br />
However, given that most of Singapore’s<br />
electricity is generated from Natural Gas<br />
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
(NG) in Combined Cycle Gas Turbine (CCGT)<br />
power plants, switching some fraction of<br />
the automotive fuel diet from petrol and<br />
diesel to electricity (hence natural gas) would<br />
effectively reduce carbon emissions, as<br />
natural gas is a cleaner burning fuel. More<br />
importantly, it moves the various fugitive<br />
point source emissions to those at the power<br />
plants, allowing for easier carbon capture by<br />
CO smoke stack scrubbers, thus effectively<br />
2<br />
reducing the amount of emissions.<br />
In 2008, the total energy consumption from<br />
gasoline cars is 327 million gge (gallon gasoline<br />
equivalent) and the CO emissions total 3.24<br />
2<br />
million US tonnes. HEVs can reduce the energy<br />
consumption by up to 39% and reduce the<br />
CO emission by up to 39%. PHEVs can reduce<br />
2<br />
the energy consumption by up to 46% and<br />
reduce the CO emission by up to 54%.<br />
2<br />
The graphic (Figure 2) taken from Wong’s<br />
(2009) study represents our continuing studies<br />
at ESI to further analyse all types of energy<br />
sources for propulsion systems, including the<br />
future role of nuclear electricity in providing<br />
zero-carbon electricity for power generation<br />
Figure 2: The energy supply chain for vehicle<br />
electrification<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 43
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
and for the EVs (Figure 3) of the future. In a<br />
separate study by Michael Quah (2009), biomass<br />
sources for the production of bio-diesel<br />
and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are further<br />
considered (Quah 2009). The key lessons from<br />
that study are the following:<br />
Figure 3: Renault Fluence Z.E. Concept, an<br />
electric vehicle<br />
• in the quest for energy security, energy<br />
diversity is key, and in the future, all<br />
possible sources of energy must be taken<br />
into consideration<br />
• for urban populations, there may be no<br />
need to move to fuel cell vehicles (as in<br />
the case of large countries, such as the<br />
US) because such power sources are more<br />
suited to long-range driving to minimise<br />
time between fuelling up<br />
• for urban populations with short-distance<br />
driving patterns as in Singapore, EVs (from<br />
PHEVs to HEVs to full EVs) may be the<br />
best options for private vehicles, although<br />
further improvements in energy storage<br />
systems, such as batteries and capacitors,<br />
and charging stations need to explored.<br />
Hence, the many test-bedding programmes<br />
being currently conducted in Singapore<br />
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JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
will help contribute to our holistic “systems<br />
of systems” approaches to meeting the<br />
challenges of the future. For example, the<br />
Experimental Power Grid Centre (previously<br />
known as SINERGY Centre) at A*STAR,<br />
focusing on intelligent grids, micro-grids<br />
and Distributed Energy Resources (DER),<br />
will provide plug-and-play capabilities and<br />
core research competencies in analysis and<br />
modelling, interconnection technologies, and<br />
advanced system control and management.<br />
These disciplines are critical to supporting<br />
the EV programmes as well as the vehicle-togrid<br />
(V2G) and V2I interactions of the future.<br />
Similarly, the Energy Market Authority (EMA)<br />
Pulau Ubin project on micro-grids will assist<br />
in understanding system interactions vital for<br />
a future “smart energy system” in Singapore.<br />
And so will the Energy Research Institute at<br />
NTU (ERI@N), with its work on energy storage,<br />
modelling, advanced metreing, and command<br />
and control systems.<br />
In the quest for energy security,<br />
energy diversity is key, and in the<br />
future, all possible sources of energy<br />
must be taken into consideration.<br />
What is impressive is that the variety of<br />
science and technology programmes (both<br />
fundamental and applied, as in test-bedding<br />
programmes) taken as a whole provides<br />
Singapore the tools to further advance<br />
urban transportation innovations and<br />
implementations; but, as in all “systems of<br />
systems” approaches, we must consider the<br />
pros and cons of policy implementation.
Vehicle Electrification:<br />
Potential pitfalls versus<br />
technology advantages<br />
With the underlying assumption that Singapore<br />
is beginning to test-bed the use of EVs, as<br />
being jointly driven by the EMA and the Land<br />
Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>), we will examine<br />
the pros and cons of the transformation in<br />
the vehicle powertrain. We assert that this<br />
transition would be no simple task given the<br />
complex interactions among:<br />
• consumer preference and choice<br />
• public transportation policy<br />
• corporate and industrial pressures for<br />
governmental subsidies for new technologies<br />
(as is evident in the West) and<br />
• advocacy from renewable energy sector<br />
private investors interested in public<br />
funding.<br />
Singapore could become the<br />
region’s first successful example of<br />
a truly distributed energy network<br />
with a flourishing private power<br />
generation market.<br />
The potential rewards are understandably<br />
satisfying:<br />
• a partial divorce between road<br />
transportation and dependence on the<br />
“liquid” fossil fuel diets (and hence the<br />
oil markets)<br />
• a decrease in Singapore’s net emissions<br />
(because of Singapore’s primarily natural<br />
gas sources for power generation) and<br />
• new technologies and new business sectors<br />
for economic growth.<br />
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
With increasing electrification and the ITS<br />
innovations described earlier, centralised<br />
control of traffic flow and more efficient urban<br />
policies can all stem from success in electrifying<br />
the vehicle fleet. Equally importantly,<br />
mass increase in EVs provides a tantalising<br />
test-bed for a series of innovative energy<br />
generation and storage options: Singapore<br />
could become the region’s first successful<br />
example of a truly distributed energy network<br />
with a flourishing private power generation<br />
market which accommodates both legacy<br />
power plants and private individuals. Such a<br />
“systems of systems” integration could not<br />
be achieved without government establishing<br />
a framework for market interactions. But a<br />
whole-of-government approach is essential<br />
for leadership in establishing new industrial<br />
policies, balancing sophisticated technology<br />
investments without the government picking<br />
the winners in a complex network of vendors.<br />
Behavioural economics will have to come into<br />
play, where consumers may begin to consider<br />
that all types of EVs are safe, user-friendly and<br />
superior to the internal combustion engine<br />
(ICE): a formidable challenge for public -private<br />
sector collaboration.<br />
Behavioural Economics:<br />
Do people really prefer electrons<br />
over petrol or diesel?<br />
The lessons learned from the adoption of<br />
electric two-wheelers (E2W) in China and<br />
Taiwan might be crucial. A number of factors<br />
contributed to the demand in metropolitan<br />
China: the rapid increase in per capita income,<br />
rising concern of the pollution levels from<br />
ICEs, traffic congestion and the official ban<br />
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Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
on fossil-fuelled two-wheelers in metropolitan<br />
zones within China (Wienert 2008). The last<br />
factor is widely understood to be crucial to<br />
the rapid increase in demand for electrical<br />
replacements; consumers are simply turning<br />
to the most viable alternatives. This is a<br />
tough lesson for other countries seeking to<br />
adopt EV fleets: is the law as a stick the best<br />
encouragement for change?<br />
How would Singapore do? The China and<br />
Taiwan approach is likely to be unpalatable to<br />
proponents of market-based solutions who<br />
prefer to see consumers switching to EVs on<br />
their own accord (Wienert 2008). A legal ban on<br />
ICEVs on segments of Singapore roads would<br />
raise many questions (and many possibilities.)<br />
But a multi-government agency with a wholeof-government<br />
approach would have to be<br />
first established to provide options, e.g., rapidly<br />
engineer the electrical-charging infrastructure<br />
necessary to keep the EVs and electric bicycles<br />
on those segments of road. While the EV<br />
test-bedding programme is a good start, the<br />
entire car re-sale market would have to be<br />
actively tweaked by the government in order<br />
for existing car owners to gradually phase out<br />
their current vehicles; an ample adjustment<br />
period to alleviate any economic woes caused<br />
by the new policies is needed. Major cardealers<br />
and parallel importers would have to<br />
be persuaded to market EVs (Figure 4). And<br />
how is this to be achieved? We suggest that a<br />
study of the politics of subsidies and incentives<br />
and economic policy be expedited to ensure<br />
mass consumer confidence in new products,<br />
new systems, new technologies, given that<br />
there remains many rate-limiting steps, such<br />
46<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
as improvements needed in energy storage<br />
systems and systems for better monitoring<br />
and control of power flows within the vehicle<br />
and from grid-to-vehicle (G2V) and from V2G<br />
(Anderson 2009). Singapore could emerge as<br />
an international leader in the implementation<br />
(test-bedding) of EV technology with its<br />
attendant corporate consulting benefits and<br />
R&D leadership. However, the social-economic<br />
costs in doing so must be well-considered.<br />
Figure 4: Electric Vehicle on sale (Nissan Leaf)<br />
In Singapore, the current view is that through a<br />
system of government-sponsored and private<br />
sector-driven corporate incentives, the sticker<br />
price of any EV (HEVs, PHEVs, or EVs) would<br />
decline to levels palatable to the average<br />
motorist. The Chinese experience with E2Ws<br />
indicates that short of an outright ban on<br />
ICEVs, the public was unprepared to accept<br />
EVs as a general rule; one author has termed it<br />
“a policy accident, rather than success” (Yang<br />
<strong>2010</strong>). In Taiwan, motorists were not prepared<br />
to accept EVs even when prices were on par<br />
or below that of conventional cars, motorbikes<br />
and scooters (Yang <strong>2010</strong>). The PHEV combines<br />
the positive attributes of EVs and the ICE,<br />
but in the event where the driver forgets to<br />
charge the vehicle over-night, the efficiency<br />
factor of a PHEV plummets as the battery
on board simply becomes a dead weight<br />
to the conventional engine and consumes<br />
unnecessary fuel (Yang <strong>2010</strong>). Even the most<br />
efficient lithium-ion batteries used in today’s<br />
cutting edge car models like the GM Chevrolet<br />
Volt have much less energy storage capacity<br />
compared to traditional ICE cars. Although<br />
urban transportation patterns seem to indicate<br />
that most people would drive much less than<br />
the total energy requirement for EVs, breaking<br />
established patterns on car-refuelling might<br />
prove to be the Achilles heel for road vehicle<br />
electrification. Consumer behaviour related to<br />
driving habits, re-fuelling and the willingness<br />
of drivers to re-charge their cars regularly,<br />
all have to be examined much more closely<br />
in the Singapore context before policies can<br />
be implemented (Yang <strong>2010</strong>).<br />
The PHEV combines the positive<br />
attributes of EVs and the ICE, but in<br />
the event where the driver forgets<br />
to charge the vehicle over-night, the<br />
efficiency factor of a PHEV plummets<br />
as the battery on board simply<br />
becomes a dead weight.<br />
Perhaps the most difficult component would<br />
be the paying of subsidies for the EV roll out<br />
in Singapore. There is much international<br />
chatter with regards to governments offering<br />
partial financial assistance to car companies,<br />
infrastructure providers, electrical utilities<br />
companies and, ultimately, consumers, to<br />
commercialize EV technology on a mass<br />
scale (Anderson 2009). Once again, in the<br />
Singapore context, this approach runs counter<br />
to current policy on curbing private vehicle<br />
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
usage and establishing an unfettered market<br />
on energy. In addition, there has to be a<br />
sustained political will to withstand the costs<br />
of doing so; an entire bevy of international<br />
consultants, financiers, researchers, policy<br />
makers and scientists will stand to gain a<br />
financial windfall from any local government<br />
largesse. The political endorsement for<br />
such a move has to be sustained for an<br />
indefinite period before we see the results.<br />
Consumer behaviour related to<br />
driving habits, re-fuelling and the<br />
willingness of drivers to re-charge<br />
their cars regularly, all have to be<br />
examined much more closely…<br />
But Singapore is well-recognised for its<br />
commitment to industrial policy and growth<br />
development. EVs are now fashionably touted<br />
in the international arena and in the US, the<br />
lobbyists for vested interests in this arena are<br />
plentiful. We contend that a holistic “systems<br />
of systems” technological and economic<br />
study be conducted to make the public fully<br />
aware of the social and economic cost of<br />
implementing such policies as well as the<br />
potential economic benefits of new industrial<br />
innovation in Singapore.<br />
Carbon pricing, by rewarding Singapore<br />
for the offset of CO emissions from road<br />
2<br />
vehicles, coupled with any additional tax<br />
revenues from road pricing, could help to pay<br />
for the current added costs of EVs (Anderson<br />
2009). As mentioned earlier, there has to be<br />
a large degree of flexibility and strong publicprivate<br />
sector co-operation in order for this<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 47
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
project to come to fruition. Singaporeans<br />
have to actively “buy-in” to the rewards of<br />
EVs and their attendant benefits. One of the<br />
low hanging fruits would be the creation of<br />
the first consumer-oriented market place for<br />
carbon emissions in the world; it is possible<br />
that private equity, whether from Singapore<br />
or other financial centres, can be used to<br />
lubricate the transition process and help<br />
to pay for the government investments in<br />
the transition to EVs. The potential job and<br />
revenue spin-offs from participating in the<br />
carbon markets have been addressed by Tilak<br />
Doshi (2009). But once again, there has to<br />
be a concerted political effort to analyse the<br />
macro-economic impact of implementing a<br />
carbon marketplace/taxation effort. But as<br />
we work the carbon tax or cap-n-trade issues,<br />
consider its impact (negative?) on Singapore’s<br />
petro-chemical and international logistics<br />
sector which generate a majority of the<br />
carbon emissions in operations and bunkering<br />
while contributing tremendously to the islandstate’s<br />
economy.<br />
Changing the industrial<br />
architecture of road vehicle<br />
electrification<br />
The much touted association between EVs<br />
and renewable energy sources, such as, wind<br />
and solar lies in the usage of the electricity<br />
storage capacity of these vehicles when they<br />
are at rest, known as V2G (Anderson 2009).<br />
Essentially, the vehicles absorb the electricity<br />
generated by renewable sources and redistribute<br />
it through the national grid; this<br />
helps to offset the peaks and troughs for<br />
renewable energy generation at all hours of<br />
the day.<br />
48<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
EVs are now fashionably touted in<br />
the international arena... We contend<br />
that a holistic “systems of systems”<br />
technological and economic study be<br />
conducted to make the public fully<br />
aware of the social and economic cost<br />
of implementing such policies.<br />
Figure 5 illustrates the uneven nature of<br />
energy generation of the wind energy sector<br />
in Denmark, which theoretically could be<br />
offset by V2G technology.<br />
The complication lies in the implementation<br />
of this technique in Singapore. The amount<br />
of electricity generated by renewable energy<br />
remains negligible in the domestic Singapore<br />
electricity market, as mentioned earlier; natural<br />
gas powered turbines which are much more<br />
regular in energy generation remain the status<br />
quo. Hence, implementing a V2G solution<br />
would have much more different implications<br />
for the supply and demand structure of the<br />
power grid locally.<br />
Singapore is accustomed to separating the<br />
energy demand for transportation and<br />
electrical power. Combining these two areas<br />
means that an entirely new perspective on<br />
energy has to be formed; we will be witnessing<br />
a rapid increase in demand for electricity at all<br />
hours. The market case for renewable energy<br />
sources remains to be proven in the Singapore<br />
context and further investigation into its<br />
reliability in providing concentrated power<br />
for distributed, private transportation remains<br />
to be seen. <strong>LTA</strong> could collaborate with public
infrastructure providers or with customers with<br />
large roof areas to encourage the re-sale of<br />
excess electricity from vehicle owners, thereby<br />
creating a new market for small scale private<br />
holders in the domestic scene. However,<br />
ensuring that there is sufficient power for<br />
vehicles at all hours of the day would involve<br />
complex software and hardware co-ordination<br />
along with centrally allocated electricity blocs<br />
throughout the island. From a common sense<br />
perspective, motorists might not be able<br />
to use their vehicles at all hours of the day,<br />
given such an arrangement. Hence, consumer<br />
behaviour has to be changed, either through<br />
market persuasion or government regulation.<br />
Figure 5: Wind energy and electricity consumption<br />
in Western Denmark power grid<br />
Excerpted from Paul H. Anderson (2009) p.2484<br />
These are basic hurdles which have to be<br />
examined more thoroughly. A first step to<br />
solving this conundrum would be to electrify<br />
the road vehicle fleet of the 2 major public<br />
transportation providers; the fixed schedules<br />
of the various buses would be a much more<br />
predictable format for initial field tests of V2G.<br />
Financing the public transportation companies<br />
to make the switch from diesel and petroleum<br />
would be another attendant issue.<br />
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
This focus on vehicle electrification serves to<br />
illustrate four major points of our paper:<br />
• such transitions would provide major<br />
economic benefits to Singapore in its<br />
re-engineering to participate in new<br />
technology innovations and hence new<br />
business and economic developments<br />
• however, the socio-economic costs nearterm<br />
and the remaining technological and<br />
system infrastructural challenges must not<br />
be underestimated,<br />
• hence, a holistic “systems of systems”<br />
analysis/study is paramount, because<br />
• in meeting the above challenges, Singapore<br />
could take the lead in vehicle electrification<br />
business developments, while striking the<br />
balance between private vehicles and the<br />
importance of public transit.<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> has shown that meeting urban<br />
transportation challenges today with<br />
a grand vision for tomorrow will<br />
indeed catalyse economic growth, and<br />
technological innovation with minimal<br />
environmental impact.<br />
Conclusion<br />
Given the above programmes in Singapore (the<br />
balance of promoting public transit versus the<br />
“control” of the growth of private vehicles, the<br />
decision to gradually electrify the automobile<br />
to reduce emissions, and the advancement<br />
of “smart energy systems” leading to future<br />
intelligent transportation systems), we contend<br />
that this nation has begun the journey towards<br />
emerging as a leading test-bed for innovative<br />
energy solutions for the transportation<br />
industry. Keeping in mind Singapore’s physical<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 49
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
constraints and the imperative for innovation<br />
and continuous improvement, there emerges<br />
one important conclusion: a holistic “system<br />
of systems” integration across multiple<br />
disciplines (and thus agencies) must be further<br />
strengthened to achieve success. <strong>LTA</strong> has<br />
shown that meeting urban transportation<br />
challenges today with a grand vision for<br />
tomorrow will indeed catalyse economic<br />
growth, and technological innovation with<br />
References<br />
Andersen, Poul H. John A. Matthews, Morten Rask,<br />
2009. “Integrating private transport into renewable<br />
energy policy: The strategy of creating intelligent<br />
recharging grids for electric vehicles” Energy Policy 37<br />
(2009) pp 2483<br />
Doshi, Tilak 2009. “Singapore can be a carbon trading<br />
hub for ships” Straits Times 15 December 2009<br />
Friedman, Thomas L. 2008 “Hot, Flat, and Crowded”,<br />
Farrer, Strauss and Giroux, New York, 2008<br />
Quah Cheng-Guan, Michael, 2009, “Crafting a<br />
Technology Roadmap Towards Energy Security and<br />
Environmental Sustainability in Singapore: Beginning the<br />
Journey”, ESI Project Report, August 2009<br />
50<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
minimal environmental impact. As such, we<br />
are on our way to becoming a “vibrant and<br />
distinctive global city.” Indeed, if our urban<br />
environment could evolve to the standards set<br />
by Changi airport, then Thomas Friedman’s<br />
quotation, when he described his trip from<br />
New York’s JFK airport to Changi as “like we<br />
had just flown from the Flintstones to the<br />
Jetsons,” (Friedman 2008) may also apply to<br />
Singapore’s urban transportation system.<br />
Wienert, Jonathan, Joan Ogden, Dan Sperling, Andrew<br />
Burke, 2008. “The future of electric two-wheelers<br />
and electric vehicles in China” Energy Policy 36 (2008)<br />
pp 2544<br />
Wong Yuk Sum, 2009. “Energy and Carbon Dioxide<br />
Benefits of Hybrid, Plug-in Hybrid and Battery Electric<br />
Vehicles to Singapore” 1st July 2009 ESI Project Report<br />
Yang, Chi-Jen <strong>2010</strong> “Launching strategy for electric<br />
vehicles: Lessons from China and Taiwan” Technological<br />
Forecasting & Social Change (<strong>2010</strong>), doi:10.1016/j.<br />
techfore.<strong>2010</strong>.01.010 P 2,3
Urban Transportation Planning for a Vibrant and Distinctive Singapore<br />
Michael Quah joined the National University of Singapore’s (NUS) Energy<br />
Studies Institute (ESI) as Principal Fellow and Chief Scientist, Energy Systems<br />
and Technology in October, 2009. He is also a Visiting Fellow at the Institute<br />
of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS), and Executive Advisor at NUS Enterprise.<br />
He has worked for the DuPont Company for about 20 years, and also served as<br />
Adjunct Professor, Chemical Engineering, at North Carolina State University,<br />
USA. He was also an independent consultant and served in the US Army<br />
Research, Development, and Engineering Command, Communications and<br />
Electronics Directorate. Dr. Quah holds the following degrees from Yale University: Ph.D. (1980), M.<br />
Phil. (1978), M.Sc. (1975), Chemical Engineering and has a B.A. [magna cum laude] (1974), Chemistry<br />
and Physics, from Harvard University, USA.<br />
Dickson Yeo has a BA in Mass Communications from the Oklahoma City<br />
University and is attending the graduate programme in South East Asian<br />
Studies in National University of Singapore (NUS), Singapore. He has cowritten<br />
and edited a number of energy related works on energy security,<br />
regional politics and administration. These include “A Regional Review of the<br />
Economics of Climate Change in Southeast Asia (RRECCS) – Country Report<br />
for Singapore” in December 2008.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 51
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
Household Interview Surveys from<br />
1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing<br />
Travel Behaviours<br />
CHOI Chik Cheong and Raymond TOH<br />
Abstract<br />
The Land Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>) conducts the Household Interview Travel Survey<br />
(HITS) every four to five years to give transport planners and policy makers insights into<br />
residents’ travelling behaviours. About one percent of all the households in Singapore are<br />
surveyed each time, with household members answering detailed questions about their<br />
trips. A decade of such travel surveys has provided vital insights about the commuting<br />
behaviours of Singapore’s residents and their evolving travelling patterns. The analyses<br />
from 1997 and 2004 HITS (which was subsequently confirmed by the 2008 HITS results)<br />
were helpful in understanding some of the challenges and policy issues that Singapore’s<br />
transport landscape faces going forward. An ambitious Land Transport Masterplan<br />
(LTMP) was consequently unveiled in 2008 to address these challenges.<br />
Introduction<br />
Travel is an integral part of life. People<br />
choose to travel for various reasons – work,<br />
education, recreation, leisure and other<br />
social activities. However, travel behaviour is<br />
strongly influenced by a country’s social and<br />
economic development, and understanding<br />
the way people travel and their reasons for<br />
travelling is vital for transport professionals<br />
to formulate transport strategies and policies.<br />
Thus, the Household Interview Travel Survey<br />
(HITS) is an important information-gathering<br />
tool of the Land Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>) to<br />
acquire feedback on the travel behaviour of<br />
Singapore residents.<br />
HITS is an intensive process of studying the<br />
travel behaviour of every member above the<br />
52<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
age of four in the households surveyed. It is<br />
conducted regularly, once every four to five<br />
years1 , with about one percent of Singapore<br />
households distributed across the island<br />
surveyed each time. 2 Detailed questions about<br />
the characteristics of trips made in a typical<br />
day are asked and these include questions<br />
on transport mode, frequency of trips, travel<br />
purpose and time of travel, along with other<br />
questions pertaining to the respondents’<br />
socio-economic characteristics.<br />
Though the HITS is a time consuming exercise,<br />
it provides essential information for the<br />
transport planners and policy makers in their<br />
ongoing work. The information gathered<br />
from the surveys gives feedback about<br />
residents’ travel needs and the adequacy of
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
the existing infrastructure, and helps transport<br />
professionals understand travel behaviour.<br />
Analysis of the results gives insights as to how<br />
the travel behaviours evolve and allows planners<br />
and policy makers to develop strategies and<br />
policies to meet these challenges.<br />
HITS is an intensive process of<br />
studying the travel behaviour of every<br />
member above the age of four in the<br />
households surveyed.<br />
This paper presents a decade of travel survey<br />
results from the HITS and highlights some<br />
of the changes in Singapore residents’ travel<br />
behaviour that have been observed. We will<br />
conclude with a review of the Land Transport<br />
Masterplan which was unveiled by <strong>LTA</strong> in 2008<br />
and highlight how the earlier survey results<br />
influence the development of the master plan<br />
and how it addresses some of the challenges<br />
arising from the changing travel behaviours.<br />
Singapore Residents’ Travel<br />
Behaviours<br />
Trip generation<br />
With an expanding economy and increasing<br />
population in Singapore, it is not surprising<br />
to see that travel demand had increased<br />
tremendously over the past decade (Figure 1).<br />
In 2008, an average of 9.9 million trips were<br />
generated daily – a growth of 32 percent from<br />
1997, which saw only 7.5 million daily trips.<br />
Between 1997 and 2004, the growth rate was<br />
only 10 percent (1.3% per annum), while 2004<br />
and 2008 saw a growth rate of 20 percent<br />
(4.8% per annum), suggesting accelerated<br />
growth in travel demand.<br />
In the same figure, the growth rates of<br />
different transport modes were given. Private<br />
transport (PV) trips grew steadily; from 2.7<br />
million daily trips in 1997 to 3.4 million in<br />
2004, and 4.3 million in 2008 – an average<br />
growth rate of 25 percent between survey<br />
years. In the same period, public transport<br />
(PT) trips did not as grow much; PT trips grew<br />
marginally between 1997 and 2004, and grew<br />
by 16 percent between 2004 and 2008. The<br />
overall impact of the different growth rates is<br />
that PT mode share has actually declined over<br />
the past decade.<br />
Figure 1: Daily Trips Generated<br />
No. No. of of Daily Trips (‘000)<br />
12,000<br />
10,000<br />
8,000<br />
6,000<br />
4,000<br />
2,000<br />
0<br />
Total<br />
Trips:<br />
7,500<br />
PV<br />
2,700<br />
HITS 1997<br />
Total: +10%<br />
PV: +26%<br />
PT: +1%<br />
PT<br />
4,800<br />
Total<br />
Trips:<br />
8,200<br />
PV<br />
3,400<br />
PT<br />
4,800<br />
Total: +20%<br />
PV: +25%<br />
PT: +16%<br />
Total<br />
Trips:<br />
9,900<br />
PV<br />
4,300<br />
PT<br />
5,600<br />
HITS 2004 HITS 2008<br />
(Note: Numbers are rounded off)<br />
The number of trips grew rapidly over the decade with private<br />
transport trips growing faster than public transport<br />
There are many reasons for the rapid<br />
growth in trips. Key factors affecting trip<br />
generation are the pace of Singapore’s<br />
economic development and the growth in<br />
population. According to Table 1, Singapore’s<br />
population had grown from 3.8 million to<br />
4.8 million between 1997 and 2008, a 26<br />
percent increase. Economic activity also grew<br />
tremendously during the period, as seen from<br />
the second and third columns of Table 1. More<br />
significantly, Singapore’s real GDP per capita<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 53
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
Table 1: Singapore Population, GDP per Capita, Economic Activities and Daily Trips Made<br />
grew by 33 percent between 1997 and 2008,<br />
matching the growth rates in trips, suggesting<br />
that there is a close relationship between<br />
economic development and travel demand.<br />
However, the increase in trips generated<br />
cannot be attributed to economic activities<br />
alone. It is found that in 2008, each person<br />
made an average of 2.18 trips on a typical<br />
day (Table 1), an increase from previous<br />
survey years when the trip rates were 1.98<br />
and 1.97 trips per person in 1997 and 2004,<br />
respectively. Taking into account Singapore’s<br />
unemployment rates during the survey years,<br />
trip rates below 2.0 are to be expected. This<br />
explains why the trip rate dropped slightly in<br />
2004 as unemployment rose. However, as<br />
the employment situation improved in 2008,<br />
54<br />
Year Population<br />
(mil)<br />
GDP per Capita<br />
($’000 at 2000 prices)^<br />
Resident<br />
Unemployment Rate*<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Daily Trips<br />
(mil)<br />
Daily Trips<br />
Per Capita<br />
1997 3.8 36.2 3.5% + 7.5 1.98<br />
2004 4.2 (11%) 44.2 (22%) 4.4% 8.2 1.97<br />
2008 4.8 (14%) 48.3 (9%) 3.2% 9.9 2.18<br />
(Note: Numbers are rounded off; figures in brackets refer to the change from the previous period.)<br />
^ From Singapore Department of Statistics’ website (http://www.singstat.gov.sg/)<br />
* From Ministry of Manpower’s website (www.mom.gov.sg)<br />
+ This is 1998’s unemployment rate as the 1997 figure is not available.<br />
Table 2: Purpose for Travelling (Forward Trips Only)<br />
the trip rate overshot the 2.0 benchmark,<br />
suggesting that individuals were making more<br />
discretionary trips that were driven by social<br />
and leisure activities.<br />
Based on the questions on trip purpose, it is<br />
possible to better understand the reasons for<br />
travelling. As seen from Table 2, most of the<br />
journeys generated are to and from homes<br />
and workplaces and for personal business<br />
and educational purposes – together they<br />
accounted for close to 80 percent of all<br />
the daily trips. This result had not changed<br />
drastically for the decade. However, a trend<br />
observed is that more private vehicle trips<br />
were made in servicing passengers3 (pick up<br />
or drop off) as the proportion of such trips had<br />
increased from 6 – 7 percent (about 500,000<br />
Purpose HITS 1997 HITS 2004 HITS 2008<br />
Go home 43% 45% 45%<br />
Go to workplace 25% 23% 21%<br />
Part of work (Travelling on business) 4% 3% 2%<br />
Go to school 8% 8% 10%<br />
Home/Work/School Sub Total 79% 79% 78%<br />
Personal business 4% 5% 3%<br />
Recreation/Social, Shopping and Eating 10% 10% 10%<br />
Other Reasons Sub Total 14% 15% 14%<br />
Serve Passenger (eg: pick up/drop off) 7% 6% 8%<br />
(Note: Numbers are rounded off.)<br />
The proportion of work/education related trips remained stable while there is a growing trend of more trips servicing passengers
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
daily trips) to 8 percent (775,000 daily trips)<br />
(Table 2).<br />
The growing number of passenger servicing<br />
trips should raise a red flag to transport<br />
planners as they are usually first-and-last<br />
mile trips that could have been completed<br />
on the PT network and thus avoided entirely.<br />
Growing demand for passenger servicing will<br />
put additional pressure on the road network.<br />
Already, Singapore cars are clocking very high<br />
mileage annually4 because car-owners tend<br />
to use their cars even for very short journeys.<br />
If such short journeys could be avoided, the<br />
demand on road space would lessen and there<br />
would be less pressure to expand existing<br />
road infrastructure, especially in the residential<br />
developments and key transport facilities.<br />
As the economy develops, we can expect<br />
more social or leisure (discretionary) trips,<br />
thus, there is a need to alter the current<br />
trend of making these trips by private<br />
transport. Commuters need to be persuaded<br />
to use alternative modes of transport, such<br />
as, PT or cycling or walking, for short trips,<br />
so that there can be better utilisation of PT<br />
resources and less demand on the limited<br />
road space. In land-scare Singapore, such<br />
outcomes are desirable.<br />
Mode share<br />
We have seen earlier that the daily PV trips had<br />
grown much faster than PT trips. This resulted in<br />
the daily PT mode share dropping consistently<br />
for the past decade, from 63 percent in 1997<br />
to 58 percent in 2004, and even lower to 56<br />
percent in the 2008 survey (Figure 2). Though<br />
the rate of decrease has fallen, the trend, if<br />
it continues, is not a sustainable one because<br />
of the corresponding increasing reliance on<br />
private vehicles.<br />
Figure 2: PT Mode Share<br />
Mode Share (%)<br />
70%<br />
65%<br />
60%<br />
55%<br />
67%<br />
AM PT mode share:<br />
-4% (-0.9% p.a.)<br />
63% 63%<br />
58%<br />
AM PT mode share:<br />
-4% (-1.5% p.a.)<br />
59%<br />
56%<br />
AM Peak<br />
Daily<br />
50%<br />
HITS 1997 HITS 2004 HITS 2008<br />
The daily mode share for PT has dropped from 63% in 1997 to 56% in<br />
2008. The same trend is observed for AM peak mode share<br />
One of the reasons for the fall in PT mode<br />
share is the increase in car population per<br />
capita. Figure 3 shows that the car population<br />
had grown significantly by 47 percent between<br />
19985 and 2008, faster than the population<br />
growth rate of 26 percent. As a result, more<br />
people are owning cars now and the ratio for<br />
the number of persons per car has changed<br />
from 10 persons per car in both 1997 and 2004<br />
to 8.8 in 2008. As discussed earlier, Singapore<br />
car owners used their cars rather intensively,<br />
Figure 3: Car Population<br />
Car Population (‘000)<br />
600 Growth in car population:<br />
11%, 1.2%p.a.<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
377 385 395<br />
408 407 408<br />
Steep growth in car<br />
population: 32%, 7%p.a.<br />
0<br />
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008<br />
The car population has been increasing steadily from 1998<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 55<br />
419<br />
441<br />
475<br />
517<br />
553
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
thus, a rapid increase in car population would<br />
dampen the growth in PT trips.<br />
Figure 4: Market Share Within the PT Sector<br />
Cumulative Mode Share (%)<br />
The demand for MRT is growing much faster than buses, resulting in a<br />
higher mode share for MRT<br />
Within the PT sector, the mode share is currently<br />
dominated by buses. However, from Figure 5,<br />
we observe that most of the increase in PT trips<br />
is from the increase in demand for mass rapid<br />
transit (MRT). Figure 4 shows that 0.93 million<br />
daily MRT trips (0.24 trips per capita) were<br />
generated in 1997, growing to 1.3 million (0.31<br />
trips per capita) in 2004, and 1.7 million (0.35<br />
trips per capita) in 2008 – almost doubling in<br />
ten years. The market share of MRT within the<br />
PT industry has risen by 12 percentage points<br />
to stand at 31 percent, with the bulk of the<br />
increase arising due to decanting from bus<br />
ridership, which consequently saw a gradual<br />
drop in market share.<br />
Factors affecting PT demand<br />
To better appreciate the factors affecting<br />
demand for each mode of transport, Figure 5<br />
gives the share breakdown of various transport<br />
modes against income levels.<br />
56<br />
100%<br />
80%<br />
60%<br />
40%<br />
20%<br />
0%<br />
20% 0.24 taxi<br />
0.93 mil trips per<br />
capita<br />
61%<br />
2.91 mil<br />
19%<br />
0.92 mil<br />
0.77 bus<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
0.24 rail<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
18%<br />
0.87 mil<br />
55%<br />
2.65 mil<br />
27%<br />
1.3 mil<br />
0.21 taxi<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
0.63 bus<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
0.31 rail<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
55%<br />
3.09 mil<br />
31%<br />
1.7 mil<br />
HITS 1997 HITS 2004 HITS 2008<br />
MRT/LRT Buses Taxi<br />
14%<br />
0.78 mil<br />
0.16 taxi<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
0.64 bus<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
0.35 rail<br />
trips per<br />
capita<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
Figure 5: PT mode breakdown by income levels<br />
Mode Share (%)<br />
100%<br />
80%<br />
60%<br />
40%<br />
20%<br />
0%<br />
No<br />
Income<br />
$1 –<br />
$1,000<br />
Taxi<br />
Bus<br />
MRT/LRT<br />
$1,001 – $1,500 – $2,000 – $2,500 – $3,000 – $4,000 – $5,000 – $6,000 – $7,000 – $8,000<br />
$1,499 $1,999 $2,499 $2,999 $3,999 $4,999 $5,999 $6,999 $7,999 and<br />
above<br />
Income Level<br />
Mode share for MRT remains stable across all income levels<br />
It shows that MRT mode share remained<br />
constant over the various income levels. At<br />
each income level, the MRT mode share was<br />
above 10 percent and rose to as high as 20<br />
percent for the middle-income group ($2,001 –<br />
$3,999). The mode share for buses was<br />
highest for the low-income group but quickly<br />
tapered off for those with incomes higher<br />
than $2,000. Taxis played an important mode<br />
of travel across all income bands because of<br />
Singapore’s relatively low car ownership levels.<br />
Figure 6: Mode share vs distance from MRT Station<br />
Mode Share (%)<br />
100%<br />
80%<br />
60%<br />
40%<br />
20%<br />
0%<br />
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
the MRT station the lower the mode share. The<br />
PT mode share drops by a rate of 1.6 percent<br />
per 100m distance from the MRT station, and<br />
reaches a low of about 40 percent for people<br />
living 2 km from the station.<br />
The observation bodes well for transport<br />
planners. With the opening of the entire<br />
Circle Line (CCL) in 2011 and Downtown Line<br />
(DTL), Singapore residents will have greater<br />
accessibility to the rapid transit system (RTS) 6<br />
network. The LTMP also indicates a strong<br />
commitment to double the RTS network which<br />
implies that the likelihood of the population<br />
taking the PT will be higher for more people.<br />
Time of travel (Trip distribution)<br />
Time of travel (trip distribution) is of interest<br />
to the transport planners because it provides<br />
vital information for the planning of future<br />
transport infrastructure.The method employed<br />
to analyse the time of travel is based on the<br />
mid-trip time (the average of start and finish<br />
time of the trip). It gives a better indication<br />
of the distribution of travel demand on the<br />
transport network because at the mid-trip<br />
time, the trip makers are more likely to be<br />
actually present on the transport network<br />
than at the time of departure (Chandrasekar<br />
et. al. 1994).<br />
Over the ten years, it is observed that the<br />
peak of the morning peak had shifted earlier<br />
by an hour, and correspondingly the morning<br />
peak period had lengthened (Figure 7). The<br />
change could be due to the twin effects of the<br />
electronic road pricing (ERP) system and the<br />
introduction of flexible work times.<br />
Figure 7: Trip distribution in a typical day<br />
Distribution (%)<br />
9%<br />
8%<br />
7%<br />
6%<br />
5%<br />
4%<br />
3%<br />
2%<br />
1%<br />
0<br />
0.00<br />
1.00<br />
2.00<br />
3.00<br />
4.00<br />
5.00<br />
6.00<br />
7.00<br />
Hour Beginning HITS 1997 HITS 2004 HITS 2008<br />
The trip distribution in a typical day shows that the morning peak<br />
has shifted earlier and spread across a longer period<br />
The ERP was introduced in 1998 to price<br />
congested expressways and arterial roads. 7<br />
Its primary objective is to make road users<br />
more aware of the true cost of driving and<br />
the impact to traffic conditions if they choose<br />
to drive. With road pricing, road users are<br />
more likely to make conscious decisions about<br />
the need to drive, the time to make the trip<br />
and the route to take. One of the behaviour<br />
changes implied by the shift in the peak hour<br />
is that some drivers had begun to leave home<br />
earlier to avoid paying the ERP charges.<br />
Fundamental changes in work<br />
practices, such as, widespread<br />
telecommuting, that could eliminate<br />
work trips will likely reduce the peak<br />
period demand.<br />
Similarly, flexible work arrangement for<br />
employees meant that workers could reach<br />
their office within a stipulated time belt<br />
instead of precisely on the hour8 . This relieves<br />
the pressure on the transport infrastructure<br />
as employees stagger their arrival times at<br />
work. The scheme was introduced by the Civil<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 57<br />
8.00<br />
9.00<br />
10.00<br />
11.00<br />
12.00<br />
13.00<br />
14.00<br />
15.00<br />
16.00<br />
17.00<br />
18.00<br />
19.00<br />
20.00<br />
21.00<br />
22.00<br />
23.00
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
Service in the 1970s, but it only took off in<br />
the late 1990s/early 2000s when there was<br />
greater emphasis on work-life balance. The<br />
impact we observed is a wider morning peak.<br />
It should be noted that even with the shift<br />
in PT trips during the morning peak, traffic<br />
conditions have not improved significantly.<br />
Fundamental changes in work practices, such<br />
as, widespread telecommuting, that could<br />
eliminate work trips will likely reduce the peak<br />
period demand.<br />
Addressing the Evolving<br />
Travel Behaviours<br />
In 2008, the Land Transport Authority came<br />
up with a bold and ambitious transport master<br />
plan that sets out the vision for the land<br />
transport system in 2020. The Land Transport<br />
Masterplan (LTMP) contains many policies and<br />
initiatives and some of them resulted from<br />
a better understanding of travel behaviours<br />
from past HITS. The 2008 HITS which came<br />
out after the review further confirmed some of<br />
the trends and highlighted the pressing need<br />
for timely implementation of the initiatives in<br />
the LTMP. In this section, we briefly review<br />
a few of these initiatives, namely, increasing<br />
the use of ERP to manage travel demand,<br />
reducing the population of cars and making<br />
PT a choice mode.<br />
Managing travel demand<br />
through ERP<br />
From the HITS results, we can see the<br />
effectiveness of the ERP. Firstly, city-bound<br />
traffic (private vehicles going into the restricted<br />
zones) grew only 15 percent compared to<br />
58<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
the island-wide vehicular journeys which<br />
grew 25 percent between 2004 and 2008.<br />
This suggests that traffic demand had been<br />
suppressed for areas that were priced by the<br />
ERP. Secondly, the trip distribution had also<br />
started to widen in the morning peak hours<br />
because of the imposition of the ERP and<br />
other policy changes. Therefore, the ERP has<br />
been effective in managing travel demand and<br />
ensuring better use of limited road resources.<br />
Table 3: Growth Rates of Traffic Volumes<br />
City-bound<br />
Traffic<br />
Island-wide<br />
Traffice<br />
Growth in Traffic Volumes<br />
15% 25%<br />
(Between 2004 and 2008)<br />
City-bound traffic going into the restricted zones grew less than the<br />
island-wide traffic<br />
Though ERP has been useful, the growing<br />
affluence of Singapore residents has led to a<br />
greater propensity to drive, which in turn has<br />
caused a significant increase in traffic volumes.<br />
With more cars on the road, congestion is<br />
now more prevalent, particularly during the<br />
peak periods. In the LTMP, <strong>LTA</strong> is committed<br />
to ensuring that the ERP remains effective in<br />
managing congestion. This includes refining<br />
the method of measuring traffic speeds to<br />
trigger ERP rate changes, changing the pricing<br />
structure and introducing more ERPs around<br />
the island to manage congestion in the<br />
city area.<br />
An important change is the restructuring of the<br />
ERP pricing mechanism. Instead of having many<br />
small adjustments, <strong>LTA</strong> will make larger rate<br />
increments so that the ERP charges can remain<br />
effective in influencing motorists’ behaviour.<br />
Instead of raising the incremental ERP charge
y $0.50, <strong>LTA</strong> will raise the incremental charge<br />
to $1.00. In addition, the starting charge for<br />
a new ERP gantry point will be increased from<br />
$1.00 to $2.00. These changes will improve<br />
the effectiveness of the ERP system, such that<br />
each time the ERP rates are adjusted, motorists<br />
who still choose to drive on priced roads will<br />
enjoy tangible improvements in traffic flows.<br />
Instead of having many small<br />
adjustments, <strong>LTA</strong> will make larger rate<br />
increments so that the ERP charges<br />
can remain effective in influencing<br />
motorists’ behaviour.<br />
Reducing car population<br />
Land in Singapore is scarce and building more<br />
roads is not a sustainable approach to managing<br />
traffic congestion. Therefore, <strong>LTA</strong> has to<br />
manage the growth in the car population. The<br />
Vehicle Quota System (VQS) was introduced<br />
in 1990 to restrict vehicle population growth,<br />
and the vehicle population growth was set at<br />
3 percent per annum. Over the past 15 years,<br />
the rate of total vehicle population growth<br />
has outstripped road development (Figure 8).<br />
Figure 8: Growth of Roads and Vehicle<br />
Population Index<br />
INDEX<br />
150<br />
140<br />
130<br />
120<br />
110<br />
100<br />
Vehicle Population<br />
The growth in vehicle population has outstripped the pace of<br />
road development<br />
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
Road Development<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006<br />
Year<br />
The road growth rate has been only 1 percent<br />
per annum in the last 15 years and will drop to<br />
about half a percent per annum over the next<br />
15 years. Therefore, it is necessary to further<br />
limit the growth of the car population.<br />
HITS revealed the behavioural tendency of car<br />
owners to drive than use the PT even for short,<br />
discretionary trips. This trend has resulted in<br />
the rapid growth of PV trips. Therefore, in<br />
managing travel demand, <strong>LTA</strong> has to further<br />
restrict the growth of private vehicles to<br />
complement the ERP measures, so that the<br />
increasing demand for private trips may be<br />
arrested. In light of this, the vehicle quota<br />
growth has been reduced to 1.5% per annum<br />
from 2009 onwards, subject to further review<br />
in 2011.<br />
Making public transport a<br />
choice mode<br />
The initiatives with regards to private transport<br />
are only effective in suppressing the choice<br />
for PV mode. Overall demand for transport is<br />
still a derived demand, which means that as<br />
population grows and the economy develops,<br />
trip generation will not slow down. Thus, more<br />
needs to be done to avoid a choked transport<br />
system. Hence, the most important strategy is<br />
to make the public transport a choice mode<br />
for most of the population’s commute.<br />
As seen from Figure 5, the MRT is increasingly<br />
becoming a popular mode of transport. It is<br />
fast, efficient and good for long-distance<br />
commute. Even people in the high-income<br />
groups do not mind commuting on the MRT<br />
because of the comfort and speed. Therefore,<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 59
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
expanding the RTS is the right strategy<br />
going forward to attract more people to use<br />
public transport.<br />
In the LTMP, the Government announced that<br />
it will commit over $20 billion to double the<br />
existing 138 km of rail network to 278 km.<br />
This will increase the RTS density from 31 km<br />
per million population today to 51 km per<br />
million population, comparable to cities like<br />
New York and London, and surpasses RTS<br />
densities in Hong Kong and Tokyo today.<br />
Within the city centre, commuters will be able<br />
to access an RTS station within a 400 metre<br />
radius, or a five-minute walk. As seen earlier in<br />
Figure 6, this improvement in the accessibility<br />
to the MRT will have positive impact on the<br />
mode share and create better utilisation of the<br />
PT facilities.<br />
To complement the RTS network, <strong>LTA</strong> will also<br />
spend resources to improve the bus system for<br />
better integration between the PT modes and<br />
ensure the success of Singapore’s ‘hub-and-<br />
60<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> will also spend resources to<br />
improve the bus system for better<br />
integration between the PT modes<br />
and ensure the success of Singapore’s<br />
‘hub-and-spoke’ public transport<br />
network.<br />
Notes<br />
1. There is a longer gap between 1997 and 2004<br />
surveys because the HITS was conducted only after<br />
Northeast Line (NEL) was opened in 2003.<br />
2. The sampling rate is kept constant so to be<br />
comparable across surveys. It is also consistent with<br />
the recommended home interview sampling rate<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong><br />
spoke’ public transport network. Initiatives,<br />
such as, building integrated transport hubs<br />
and creating integrated fare structures, will<br />
enhance seamless bus-rail transfers. In addition,<br />
more bus priority schemes and premium bus<br />
services will greatly enhance the experience<br />
of bus passengers, thus improving the overall<br />
attractiveness of the PT system. In a nutshell,<br />
<strong>LTA</strong> is adopting a holistic approach to make<br />
the PT a choice mode for Singapore residents.<br />
Conclusion<br />
A decade of HITS has provided Singapore<br />
transport professionals with vital feedback<br />
about the travel behaviours of Singapore<br />
residents. The results have helped in making<br />
decisions about the types of transport<br />
infrastructure to be provided and the policies<br />
needed to make Singapore a liveable city.<br />
However, the observations on behaviour<br />
also presented many challenges in building a<br />
sustainable transport system. The solutions to<br />
some of the challenging transport issues have<br />
been provided in the Land Transport Master<br />
Plan. By adopting both pull and push measures,<br />
such as the expansion of the MRT network,<br />
reducing the car population and refining the<br />
ERP system, <strong>LTA</strong> aims to address the falling PT<br />
mode share and create a sustainable transport<br />
system for future generations of Singaporeans.<br />
of 1.5% to 0.5% for a population above 1 million.<br />
For HITS 2008, about 10,500 households were<br />
interviewed.<br />
3. Passenger servicing trips refer to trips made by<br />
motorists in picking-up or dropping-off passengers<br />
who are on their first/last mile. These motorists will
Household Interview Surveys from 1997 to 2008 – A Decade of Changing Travel Behaviours<br />
usually return to their place of origin and are not enroute<br />
to work/home.<br />
4. On average, cars in Singapore clock 20,000 km per<br />
year, comparable to cars in Chicago City. However,<br />
Singapore’s physical land mass is only 25 km long and<br />
48 km wide, so the statistics suggest that Singapore<br />
cars are driven excessively.<br />
5. The data for car population growth starts from 1998<br />
because a new road tax structure was implemented<br />
on 1 September 1998.<br />
6. The Rapid Transit System (RTS) refers to the<br />
Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) and Light Rail Transit<br />
(LRT) systems.<br />
7. ERP was introduced in September 1998 to replace<br />
the manual Area Licensing Scheme (ALS) for the<br />
restricted zones (mainly in the Central Business<br />
District). At the same time, the road pricing scheme<br />
was also expanded to price major expressways when<br />
they are congested. In September 1999, the ERP was<br />
extended to some of the key arterial roads beyond<br />
the restricted zones.<br />
8. The Civil Service Flexi-hour is between 7.30 am and<br />
9.30 am.<br />
Acknowledgement<br />
We would like to acknowledge Lim Wee Liang for his<br />
contribution and assistance for this paper.<br />
References<br />
Chandrasekar, Piotr Olszewski, Wong Yiik Diew,<br />
John Polak, and Peter Jones. 1994. Analysis of Travel<br />
Behaviour in Singapore. Report prepared for Public<br />
Works Department.<br />
Land Transport Authority. 2008. Land Transport<br />
Master Plan.<br />
Choi Chik Cheong is Deputy Director, Content Development and<br />
Documentation with Land Transport Authority, Singapore. He has over<br />
15 years experience in overall integrated land-use and transport planning,<br />
covering road and rail studies on alignment and scheme appraisal, including<br />
economic and financial assessments for highway and public transport<br />
projects. He also conducted studies on evaluation of public transport fare<br />
structures, and traffic and commuter surveys. He has directed studies on bus<br />
planning, road pricing, car-parking standards and multi-criteria evaluation of<br />
transport schemes. He worked with urban planners to integrate LRTs into both old developments and<br />
new towns, and has over ten years experience in building and MRT construction. He has an MSc in<br />
Transport from Imperial College London, UK.<br />
Raymond Toh is currently an Economist in the Land Transport Authority,<br />
Singapore. He graduated from the National University of Singapore, majoring<br />
in Economics, and has previously worked in Singapore’s Ministry of Transport<br />
under strategic and corporate planning where he had a global overview of the<br />
issues facing Singapore’s transportation. He is currently involved in economic<br />
research in areas of commuters’ travel behavior and people’s perception of<br />
public transport. His research interest is in winning people over to make public<br />
transport their choice mode and to give up their cars for a better Singapore.<br />
JOURNEYS <strong>May</strong> <strong>2010</strong> 61
The <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong> was launched in September 2006 by the Singapore Land Transport Authority.<br />
The <strong>Academy</strong> aims to be a global knowledge hub in urban transport. It serves as a one-stop focal<br />
point for government officials and professionals around the world to tap on Singapore’s knowhow<br />
and exchange international best practices in urban transport management and development.<br />
The <strong>LTA</strong> <strong>Academy</strong>’s Advisory Board provides high-level advice on strategic directions and major<br />
initiatives for the <strong>Academy</strong> to establish itself as a leading land transport institution in the world.<br />
The Advisory Board comprises the following international ensemble of distinguished members:<br />
Professor Cham Tao Soon (Chair)<br />
Chancellor and Chairman, SIM University, Singapore<br />
Yam Ah Mee (Vice Chair)<br />
Chief Executive, Land Transport Authority (<strong>LTA</strong>), Singapore<br />
Professor Henry Fan,<br />
Professor, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore<br />
Professor Fwa Tien Fang<br />
Director, Centre for Transportation Research, National University of Singapore, Singapore<br />
Professor Phang Sock Yong<br />
Professor of Economics, Singapore Management University, Singapore<br />
O P Agarwal<br />
Vice President, Institute of Urban Transport, India, and Senior Transport Specialist, World Bank<br />
Professor Lu Hua Pu<br />
Director, Institute of Transportation Engineering, Tsinghua University, China<br />
Professor Tony <strong>May</strong><br />
Research Professor in Transport Engineering, University of Leeds, UK<br />
Michael Replogle<br />
Global Policy Director, President Emeritus and Founder,<br />
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), USA<br />
JOURNEYS is a biannual publication of the <strong>Academy</strong>. It provides a platform for the <strong>Academy</strong><br />
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