The human element in airline training - Royal Aeronautical Society

The human
element in
airline training
A specialist paper by the Royal Aeronautical Society and
the Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators London
April 2003

ROYAL AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY
2
Royal Aeronautical Society
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W1J 7BQ, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20 7670 4300. Fax: +44 (0)20
7670 4309. e-mail: raes@raes.org.uk
The Royal Aeronautical Society has 20 Specialist Interest
Group Committees, each of which has been set up to
represent the Society in all aspects of the aerospace world.
These committees vary in size and activity, but all their
members contribute an active knowledge and enthusiasm.
The Groups meet four or five times a year and their main
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In addition to planning these conferences and lectures, the
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This Paper represents the views of the Specialist Group of the Society and of the Guild committee that was involved with
its preparation. It has not been discussed outside the Learned Society Board or the Guild’s Secretariat. As such, it does not
necessarily represent the views of the Society or the Guild as a whole, or any other Specialist Group or Committee.
The human element in airline training
Guild of Air Pilots and Navigators
A Guild of the City of London
Founded in 1929, the Guild is a Livery Company of the City of
London, receiving its Letters Patent in 1956.
With as Patron His Royal Highness The Prince Philip, Duke of
Edinburgh, KG, KT and as Grand Master His Royal Highness
The Prince Andrew, Duke of York, CVO, ADC, the Guild is a
charitable organisation that is unique amongst City Livery
Companies in having active regional committees in Australia,
Hong Kong and New Zealand.
Main objectives
■ To establish and maintain the highest standards of air
safety through the promotion of good airmanship among
air pilots and air navigators.
■ To constitute a body of experienced airmen available for
advice and consultation and to facilitate the exchange of
information.
■ To raise the standard knowledge of airmen.
■ The make awards for meritorious achievement and to
issue Master Air Pilot and Master Air Navigator
Certificates.
■ To assist air pilots and air navigators and their dependents
with their children’s education and those in need through
a Benevolent Fund.
The first concern of the Guild is to sponsor and encourage
action and activities designed to ensure that aircraft wherever
they may be are piloted and navigated by highly competent,
self reliant, dependable and respected people. The Guild has
therefore fostered the sound educational and training of air
pilots and air navigators, from the initial training of the young
pilot to the specialist training of the more mature. It rewards
those who have reached the top of their profession through
long years of experience and accomplishment and those who,
by their outstanding achievement, have added to the lustre of
their calling.
The majority of Guild members are or have been professional
licence holders, both military and civil, but many are also
private pilot licence holders. Guild members operate not only
aircraft in airlines and all the branches of Her Majesty’s armed
forces but also in every area of general aviation and sporting
flying.
The aircraft flown range from supersonic military and civil,
through single and multi-engine fixed-wing and helicopters,
training aircraft, microlights, gliders and balloons, to
experimental aircraft. This is, for many members, the
particular strength and attraction of the Guild, with its diverse
spread of interests together with an entirely non-political
outlook, forbidding any trade union activities.
To join the Guild, please contact the Clerk, Guild of Air
Pilots and Air Navigators, Cobham House, 9 Warwick
Court, Gray’s Inn, London WC1R 5DJ, UK. Tel: +44 (0)20
7404 4032. Fax: +44 (0)20 7404 4035. e-mail:
gapan@gapan.org and Website: http://www.gapan.org

The human element in
airline training
A Paper prepared by
Capt Ralph Kohn, FRAeS
Editorial Team
Capt Ronald Macdonald, FRAeS
Capt David Martin, FRAeS
Capt Richard Hadlow, FRAeS
Peter Moxham, FRAeS
Peter Richards, FRAeS
Reviewed by
The Committee of the Royal Aeronautical Society Flight Operations Group (FOG) and the
Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators of London Education and Training Committee
FLIGHT OPERATIONS GROUP
The Flight Operations Group has a committee membership of 25 persons from the airline operating and training sectors. Its primary
objective is aviation safety and training.
The FOG is a discussion group which focuses on issues which primarily concern civil aviation, although it touches upon aviation
safety in the armed forces, specifically where the safety issues could be applicable to civilian operations. Its membership is highly
respected within the civil aviation operations areas and brings together countless years of experience in this field.
Flight Operations Group Committee memberrs
Capt R Macdonald (Chairman), Capt R. Kohn (Vice chairman), B.M. Collings (Secretary), P.P. Baker, M. Bell, A.E. Bunn,
L. Foat (YMB), L.J. Ghibaut, M.P. Green, Capt P. Griffiths, Capt R.K.J. Hadlow, M.E.J. Hickmott, Capt J.C. Hutchinson,
A. Lamb, Capt S.P.J. Lyttle, Capt D.A.J. Martin, Capt C. McLaughlan, P. Moxham, P.G. Richards, Capt T. Sindall,
Capt P.H.S. Smith, Capt A. Stokes, A.G. Thorning and Capt P. Wilson.
Participating Consultants: Capt G. Fretz, Capt S. Lawrence (US Air) and R.C. Metcalfe (NATS).
GAPAN EDUCATION AND TRAINING COMMITTEE
The education and Training Committee is made up of past and present instructors and examiners from Civil Aviation and the
Armed Forces. Aircrew licensing and training matters are constantly kept under review and close links are maintained with the
Regulatory Authorities to further general training quality and standards.
Education and Training Committee Members
Captain D.A. Martin (Chairman), Grp Capt R.W. Gault (Vice chairman), G.P. Austin, D.M.S. Simpson, Sqdn Ldr A. Banfield, Capt M.
Butterworth, AVM P. Dodworth, Capt C.E. Elton, Capt R. Felix, Lt Col C. Finnigan, Capt G.L. Fretz, Capt T.R. Fulton, Capt I.W.B. Gibbs,
Capt S.J. Green, Capt N.J. Harris, M.E.J. Hickmott, Mrs D. Hockings, Sqdn Ldr R. Jarvis, Capt R. Kohn, Capt D.A. Lewis, Capt D. Lewry,
Capt J. Mason, Capt A.C. MacLauchlan, Capt L. Watson and Sqdn Ldr N. Wilcock.
© Royal Aeronautical Society
April 2003
3

4
The human element in airline training
CONTENTS
The human element in
airline training
CONTENTS
Glossary ............................................................................................................................................................... 5
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................ 6
1.0 Airline flying instruction .............................................................................................................................. 7
1.1 The role of the instructor ............................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 How DO pilots and pilot-instructors feel about one another .................................................................. 8
2.0 Awareness of human feelings in flying training ....................................................................................... 8
2.1 Sources of Information ................................................................................................................................ 8
2.2 Where does one learn of Human Factors and related issues ................................................................... 9
2.3 Airline pilot instruction ............................................................................................................................... 9
3.0 The student and his instructors ..................................................................................................................10
3.1 General .........................................................................................................................................................10
3.2 Students ....................................................................................................................................................... 10
3.3 The instructor .............................................................................................................................................. 10
4.0 The air line training captain ...................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 General Criteria .......................................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Selection (Required attributes in a training pilot) ................................................................................... 11
4.3 Necessary Considerations ........................................................................................................................... 12
5.0 The trainee pilot ......................................................................................................................................... 14
5.1 Obstacles to learning .................................................................................................................................. 14
5.2 Progress ........................................................................................................................................................14
5.3 Summary of training difficulties .................................................................................................................14
5.4 Student types ...............................................................................................................................................15
5.5 Breakdown by recognisable type of student ............................................................................................ 16
6.0 Phases of conversion to a new aircraft type ............................................................................................. 17
6.1 Phase 1 — Ground school ...........................................................................................................................17
6.2 Phase 2 — Systems trainer ..........................................................................................................................17
6.3 Phase 3 — Flight simulation ....................................................................................................................... 18
6.4 Phase 4 — Base training (aircraft handling, take-off and landing practice) .......................................... 18
6.5 Phase 5 — Route (or Line) training ............................................................................................................19
6.6 Return to normal operations ..................................................................................................................... 20
6.7 The next six months .................................................................................................................................... 20
7.0 The failed student ....................................................................................................................................... 20
7.1 Degree of failure .........................................................................................................................................20
7.2 The FAILED situation ................................................................................................................................... 21
7.3 The deteriorating performance ................................................................................................................. 22
8.0 Thought to ponder ..................................................................................................................................... 23
8.1 Nobody is perfect ....................................................................................................................................... 23
.
9.0 Acknowledgement ..................................................................................................................................... 23
Appendix A: Looking at training in Europe under JAA regulations ............................................................ 24
Appendix B: CRM facilitation — Instruction Techniques ............................................................................... 25
Appendix C: JAA/JAR Licensing ....................................................................................................................... 28
Training and examining ............................................................................................................. 29
Instructor and examiner requirements ..................................................................................... 31
Appendix D: Required reading for Instructors and Examiners ..................................................................... 35
Appendix E: Bibliography ................................................................................................................................ 38
Appendix F: Useful addresses .......................................................................................................................... 41
Appendix G: Rationale and acknowledgements ............................................................................................ 43

GLOSSARY
Term Definition
A Aeroplane(s)
Ab Initio Latin for ‘From the beginning’; as in Elementary
Flying Training
AE Authorised Examiner
AIC Aeronautical Information Circular (UK CAA)
AME Aviation Medical Examiner
ATC Air Traffic Control
ATPL Airline Transport Pilot Licence
ATTITB Air Transport and Travel Industry Training Board
BALPA British Air Line Pilots Association
CAA Civil Aviation Authority, UK National Aviation
Regulator
CAP Civil Aviation Publication, UK
CFIT Controlled Flight Into Terrain
CFS Central Flying School; RAF school for Service Flight
Instructors
CPL Commercial Pilot Licence
CRE Class Rating Examiner
CRI Class Rating Instructor
CRM Crew Resources Management
EU European Union
FCL Flight Crew Licensing
FI Flying Instructor
FL Flight Level
FRAeS Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society
FTO Flying Training Organisation
GA General Aviation
GD Guidance Document
GAPAN Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators, London
GASIL General Aviation Safety Information Leaflet (UK CAA)
GID General Information Document (UK CAA)
H Helicopter(s)
HF Human Factors (ergonomics); the study of the
efficiency of people in their working environment
ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization
Inter alia Latin for ‘Among others’
I/R Instrument Rating
IRE Instrument Rating Examiner
IRI Instrument Rating Instructor
JAA Joint Aviation Authorities
JAR Joint Aviation Regulation(s)
JAR/FCL1 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements
(Aeroplane pilots)
JAR/FCL2 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Requirements
(Helicopter pilots)
JAR/FCL3 JAA Flight Crew Licensing Medical Requirements
JAR OPS 1 JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements
(Aeroplanes)
GLOSSARY
Term Definition
JAR OPS 3 JAA Commercial Air Transport Requirements
(Helicopters)
LASORS Licensing, Administration & Standardisation,
Operating Requirements & Safety manual
(UK CAA Publication)
LOFT Line Oriented Flight Training
MCC Multi Crew Co-operation
ME Multi-engine
MPA Multi-Pilot Aeroplane
MRAeS RAeS membership grade; Member of the Royal
Aeronautical Society
NAA National Aviation (Regulatory) Authority
NPPL National Private Pilot Licence
PIC Pilot In Command
PLD Personnel Licensing Department (UK CAA)
PPL Private Pilot Licence
RA Radio Altimeter
RAF Royal Air Force
RAeS Royal Aeronautical Society
Raison d’être Reason for being; French term
RVSM Reduced Vertical Separation Minima
(above FL 290)
SE Single-engine
SET Single engine turbo-propeller aircraft
SFE Synthetic Flight Examiner
SFI Synthetic Flight Instructor
SPA Single Pilot Aeroplanes
TMG Touring Motor Glider
TO/GA Take-off/Go-around; power setting selected via
throttle mounted switches
TRE Type Rating Examiner
TRI Type Rating Instructor
TRTO Type Rating Training Organisation
UK United Kingdom
Vade-mecum Latin for ‘Go with me’; a useful handbook carried
for constant reference (pocket companion)
VAT Velocity at Threshold (1?3 Vs)
VMCG Minimum Control Speed to keep aircraft straight
using rudder while on the runway, after engine
failure during take-off
VR Rotation Speed; speed at which the aircraft is lifted
off the ground and into the air during take-off
Vs Stalling speed for a given weight and
configuration
V1 Speed up to which take-off can be safely
discontinued on a particular runway
V2 Minimum Safety speed after becoming airborne,
for a given aircraft weight
April 2003
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Boeing 747-400, Boeing flight line, Seattle (WA) USA.
6
The human element in airline training
INTRODUCTION
The instructor unit should reflect the caring image of a protective
family group intent on helping the new brood of fledglings that need
to be successfully taught to fly safely …
ABOUT HUMAN BEINGS IN PROFESSIONAL PILOT TRAINING
INTRODUCTION
1. ‘Human factors in airline training’ was published in the January
1985 edition of Aerospace, the Royal Aeronautical Society’s
monthly magazine. Before its re-issue as this Guidance Document
by the same author, it has been consolidated and revised to bring
it up to date with reference to regulatory matters that have since
changed, though the manner that people interrelate between
one another has not.
2. Because of the enormous financial penalties that result from
human factor related accidents in the aviation community, there
is continued need to address positively all issues that may affect
human beings involved with flight operations, to identify causes
of error and ideally eliminate such costly events. This document
which is primarily intended for airline pilot instructors and their
selectors, will hopefully complement work done in other areas;
such as fatigue control, stress awareness and obligatory CRM
training, all of which have already been given attention on the
way to increased responsiveness when addressing human needs
at every staffing level. Airline management must lead from the
top by example, if true progress is to be achieved in human factor
awareness.
3. To that end, it was thought timely to review the inter-action
forces that are ever present between human beings in the world
of teaching, for the guidance of those who are new to airline and
other forms of aviation training, and as a reminder for airline
instructors. Although the words in this paper may sound like
preaching to the converted, one must remember that the
document is essentially aimed at those who are new to the
instruction scene, and others with a need to broaden their interpersonal
relationship perspective in the world of instruction. It is
also intended to focus the mind on instructor selection issues.
4. Of necessity, guidance on how best to deal with problem
students is kept brief and must not be seen as an oversimplification
of the problem. It is only meant as an introduction
on how to deal with the rare difficult student and is presented in
telegraphic style for economy of space and to make relevant
points in the fewest words. Such guidance may need to be
expanded before use in airline manuals for instructors, if the
maximum desirable result is to be achieved.
5. With the advent of Crew Resource Management (CRM) training
and the Multi Crew Co-operation (MCC) course, a certain amount
of ‘human factors’ guidance has been made available. Yet there is
still some way to go in providing instructors and examiners with
all the suitable material that could be of help when dealing with
their charges, in the new JAA environment where there seems to
be a resurgence of the regrettable check-to-chop mentality that
was part of the scene in by-gone days. This negative attitude may
be the result of the way Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) are
presented and interpreted. Some failings of the present system
are identified in this document without offering a solution in
detail, because in-depth answers are considered to be outside its
scope. However, a number of possible avenues to follow are
occasionally suggested but any present system faults noted were
thought best left for others to correct, once mentioned.
6. At all levels in society at large, the grant of ‘authority’ has been
known to create bullies with power to create most unfortunate
situations, therefore such undesirables are best weeded out when
identified. Careful selection should stop such people from entering
and negatively affecting the training system because of their
character. The alternative of trying to change individuals with a
more authoritarian personality into more co-operative,
empathetic and ‘sensitive’ persons, may be a mistake. Just by his
attitude, an instructor (or examiner) has it in his power to
encourage and uplift, or he can depress, dispirit, dishearten,
discourage, demoralise and destroy confidence, indeed careers.
Guard against becoming such a person. Maintain an unobtrusive,
unassuming and well-relaxed attitude when teaching, to reduce
the inevitable stress your students may suffer at varying levels and
remain considerate towards your fellow ‘airman’. Offer
constructive training at all times to achieve the necessary standard
and encourage good performance, while remaining fair but firm
in the role of a teacher that will not tolerate mediocrity.
Ultimately, always teach a disciplined approach to flying, constant
vigilance, situational awareness and encourage communication
within the operating team in a spirit of flight safety consciousness.
7. The relationships between primary flying school/aero-club and
airline training may have certain points in common, as do their
teaching techniques, but the human factors involved are subtly
different and need to be addressed separately. A paper offering
guidance similar to this GD, could therefore be developed to
advantage for those who teach self-sponsored, airline subsidised
or military students to become pilots. Primary selection at that
point-of-entry level includes physical fitness, the necessary
intellectual and co-ordination motor skills, interpersonal
communication qualities and suitability for the intended
appointment upon graduation. (For more on the subject, see So
you want to be a pilot, published in June 2002 by the RAeS in
conjunction with GAPAN).
8. While on the theme of initial selection criteria, it may be useful
to offer a brief thought on the choice of aircrew and the danger
of only looking for a particular type of personality when picking
otherwise suitable individuals to train as pilots. The risk is that by
only looking for those with the highest intellect, or having a
specific peripheral ability, too many ‘management types’ will be
selected. The frustration of those rejected for executive
advancement in later years will result in a dissatisfied majority
work force with few contented ‘bus drivers’ who have no
managerial aspirations but are happy to shuttle from A to B, the
essential heart and soul of an operation.
9. Although the issue is essentially outside the scope of this
document, it must also be pointed out that students may fail
selection at various stages, through not achieving the image
required by the civil or military sponsor concerned, because of a
conscious corporate decision that only wants a particular kind of
person to train as a pilot; hence the discarding of otherwise
competent students because they do not meet this covert and

Boeing 767-400.
generally unstated selection standard. Such attitudes are patently
unfair to an otherwise perfectly adequate potential trainee pilot
and are most certainly short sighted, but they are hard to change.
Candidates who persevere and succeed may one day become the
ward of someone who has read this guidance document. Do not
denigrate or privately pour scorn at their success, but give them
credit for what they have achieved in spite of prejudice and help
them to become as good a pilot as yourself. Motivation,
commitment and determination must be encouraged, though not
at the cost of accepting mediocrity. You may well be the final
arbiter that makes or breaks careers. Needless to say, it is a
responsibility not to be taken lightly.
10. To close this introduction and in acknowledgement of the
numerous women pilots in our profession, please accept that
where for the sake of brevity and to reduce repetition the
pronoun ‘he’ is used in this document, it should be read to mean
‘he or she’.
1.0 AIRLINE FLYING INSTRUCTION
1.1 The role of the instructor
11. Being an airline instructor can be a most satisfying task for
those who enjoy helping others. The best results are achieved in
a friendly, generally relaxed, happy and constructive, pleasantly
warm (figuratively and literally) educational environment. An
encouraging and caring approach is of the essence, while
patience and wisdom beyond the years of a young instructor is
needed from the very start of a teaching career. Instructors, both
individually and collectively, in the group that is involved with the
training of pilots in an airline or elsewhere, must take a personal
interest in the welfare and progress of those who are entrusted
to their care, much like a parent. Trainees inevitably suffer varying
amounts of stress due to the make-or-break situation they
perceive they are in. It is most important to recognise and reduce
this stress if the best is to be obtained from students who may
look up to their instructor(s) with awe in the case of the more
junior pilots, mingled with a certain amount of trepidation and
probably also fear. Whatever the level of experience, you can be
sure that the fear of failure is ever present in the mind of every
student pilot, young or old, and needs to be controlled by the
teacher if the desired result is to be achieved by both the trainee
and his mentor.
AIRLINE FLYING INSTRUCTION
1.1.1 General training aspects, stress and differences in
student progress rates
12. Training should be geared to recognise and then deal with the
variable progress rates of an otherwise fundamentally sound
pilot-to-be. In brief, stay alive to the slow learners and teach them
accordingly (slowly, caringly and with patience?) to achieve the
desired result.
13. The instructor unit should reflect the caring image of a
protective family group intent on helping the new brood of
fledglings that need to be successfully taught to fly safely,
whether in ab initio flying circles or when converting more
experienced pilots to a different aircraft type in an airline. In both
environments the pilot-to-instructor relationship remains broadly
similar while a pilot is under tuition, with varying and constantly
changing interpersonal factor levels slowly developing as time
goes by. As training progresses, the instructor’s image gradually
changes from that of a person from whom something is wanted
to that of an ‘examiner’, who thus becomes (in the trainee’s mind)
a career threat to overcome and hence no longer welcome on the
flight deck.
1.1.2 The 21st century flight deck
14. A particular word of early warning needs to be spoken in this
day and age of ‘glass cockpits’ and automatic flight computers.
One cannot allow a pilot to learn how a system really works by
trial and error in the fullness of time, if the computer software
logic is not clearly understood at the ground school stage or
before flight training. Instructors must therefore be particularly
careful to make sure that their trainees have a thorough
understanding of all the information presented on the flight
instruments and that the selection procedures of all on-board
flight system modes are carefully taught and noticeably
understood. Clearly, it is most important for trainees to be fully
conversant from an early stage with how to correctly set up the
programmes for desired flight profiles, whether in auto-flight
modes or to provide Flight Director guidance when handling the
aircraft manually.
15. From the very start in the present generation of sophisticated
contemporary flight decks, it is vital for a pilot to have an indepth
understanding of what one can or cannot do. In particular,
that pilot input will cause the aircraft to react only to the limits of
criteria programmed into the flight computer and that reaction
might not be as expected. For example, an A320 pilot must be
aware of changes to computer flight control laws that occur near
the ground during an approach to landing, and know about
automated safeguards like the ‘Alpha floor’ function which is a
stall protection feature that sets TO/GA thrust automatically
when the aircraft reaches a very high angle of attack, a shield
available from lift-off to 100 feet RA before touchdown. The
intricacies of ‘glass cockpits’ and allied new auto-flight and
automatic flight envelope protection computers must therefore
be well understood by those who are under tuition, because
there is no time to learn by making mistakes after release to
normal operations, particularly as some mistakes could be fatal. It
is also vital for the student learning to fly a ‘glass cockpit’ to be
fully conversant with how to fly the aircraft when a major
computer fails, forcing reversion to basic stand-by flight
instruments. Training management must ensure that there is no
significant technology gap to bridge within the training unit and
that all instructors are fully competent to convey any new
technology to students.
16. The introduction of glass cockpits and computer-controlled
flight, have produced other problems. One distinctive aspect of
flight operations that has not improved safety quite as expected,
April 2003
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The modern ‘glass cockpit’ of the A340-600.
8
The human element in airline training
HUMAN FEELINGS
relates to the introduction of inadequate ‘need-to-know’ training
and is a matter that needs to be resolved satisfactorily by honest
appraisal of the situation. Another of the many so-called
improvements that have led to more problems than they have
alleviated, is in-flight automation. Computerisation has had a
considerable impact on manual piloting dexterity which suffers
because of the lack of flying practice caused by the extensive use
of ‘automatic flight’ during normal operations on state-of-the-art
aircraft. The consequential deterioration in handling proficiency
needs to be countered by suitably appropriate refresher training
to regain proficiency, during mandatory periodic testing sessions
that flight crew members undergo at regular intervals as required
by current legislation.
1.2 How do pilots and pilot-instructors feel about one another?
17. How do people feel when undergoing instruction? What are
their thoughts and how do they react to the manner information
is being offered them? How well does the instructor teach? How
ably does he handle the group or the individuals within it, to
achieve the desired result? Lastly, how do the trainees and
instructors relate to one another? The currently in-favour phrase
‘human factors’ refers to all of these, whenever people and their
feelings are involved. Then again, human factors can also deal
with the integration of the human being into an aircraft
environment, as well as other flight deck issues. Hopefully,
readers will find some of the answers in this compilation of
thoughts about people that have been gleaned from experience
over the years as a teacher of 'ab initio' student pilots, then later
in the airline pilot and pilot-instructor environments.
18. Sharing your enthusiasm in flying is a good way to bridge the
student-teacher gap. Imitation being the highest form of flattery,
hope that those you teach will be sufficiently motivated by your
attitude to want to be like you or, better still, strive to at least
equal if not better your performance. The feel-good result of
seeing your students developing into able and happy pilots is
most satisfying.
2.0 AWARENESS OF HUMAN FEELINGS IN FLYING TRAINING
2.1 Sources of information
19. A trainee instructor in the UK can find a certain amount of
information about the practicalities of how to become an
instructor. Generally speaking, in the world of ab initio training
within the aero-club and flying school environments, little is
covered other than the basic rudiments of ‘flying instruction
patter’; that is, the standard words to be used when a flight
manoeuvre or procedure is taught. A new instructor will find
some guidance that will prepare him for the problems that he
may, indeed WILL encounter when dealing with students and
other people around him with respect to the basic personal
emotions involved. These ‘human factors’ can be best described as
the ability, some might say the art, of relating to others and
understanding behaviour.
20. The world of airline flying can be an even greater literary
desert with regard to how people feel, inter-react or respond to
one another. Some Regulatory Authorities include an amount of
‘human factors’ material in course notes for would-be instructors.
In addition, the last ten years or so have seen the publication of a
number of books on the subject. However, apart from what is
briefly mentioned in JAA JAR OPS/JAR FCL documents and some
UK CAA publications, only extracts of relevant information are
reflected in the rare airline in-house guidance material prepared
for those about to join a company ‘training section’, for study
prior to the new four-day CAA (JAA/JAR) TRI/TRE standardisation
Core Course at Gatwick that has replaced the longer two weeks
Authorised Examiner (AE) course of old. There is still much to do
to improve the situation.
21. Ideally, guidance notes for instructors and examiners should
be prepared in the form of a very comprehensive vade-mecum
covering all aspects of importance to the holder, with added
words on the human factors aspects of the job. It should be
suitable for use as a comprehensive teaching instrument and
reference source during the in-house preparation of training staff
about to become Simulator Instructors. Later, it can also be used
to refresh memory when appointments follow to Instrument and
Type Rating Examiner on simulators and/or aircraft in the JAR-FCL
progression.
2.1.1 New Instructors
22. In the past, only a few major UK operators prepared their
pilots in depth for the move to the training role even though
some of the newcomers to training had never been exposed to
any formal instructional skills tuition prior to being asked to teach
and test. Candidates sent on the CAA Authorised Examiner course
to be taught the rudiments of testing pilots on behalf of the
Authority, were expected to ‘automagically’ return as fullyfledged
instructors/examiners after their few days with the CAA.
It was also assumed they now knew all about human feelings or
failings, though little if any tuition on the subjects was offered on
that course. In contrast, RAF pilots at Central Flying School have
some human factors awareness developed before they are
allowed to teach or test.
23. Under JAA/JAR Regulations, aircraft operators now have the
added responsibility for dealing with the conversion of their
training-pilots-to-be to the instruction and examining role. New
instructors can either be trained in-house or at an approved
training centre, in consolidation of the present CAA four-day core
'standardisation' course that offers less than the old ten workingdays
course did. In the old AE course, an attempt was made to
discuss the teaching role in addition to addressing examining
techniques. When possible, albeit on an individual basis, the

A student and his instructor.
candidate would also be introduced, to the understanding of
behaviour or why other human beings react as they do in certain
circumstances. What very little time is now available on the ‘core
course’ is devoted to moulding the candidate as a TRI/TRE to
satisfy JAR-FCL guidance. It follows that both ‘How to instruct’
training and any introduction to ‘Human factors’ rate, of
necessity, low in priority because the assessment of flying
performances takes precedence.
2.1.2 Check-to-chop competency tests or recurrent training?
24. Words of caution need to be spoken regarding the tendency
for JAR-FCL proficiency tests to become a recurrent pass or fail
hurdle for professional pilots to jump at regular intervals, because
of the way the Regulations are written and then understood by
some examiners.
25. Operators (and Regulatory Authorities) must remember that it
is important to use periods allocated to recurrent testing also for
refresher training. It should not be considered wrong for the
record to show that a test was successful after repeated practice
if necessary, to achieve once again the required standard. When
the required level of proficiency is reached and competence
regained in dealing with a rarely experienced flight emergency
between refresher training sessions, it should be accepted that
the spirit of the test has been satisfied and a better-prepared pilot
produced by this exposure to repeating the exercise. The checkto-chop
approach, meaning to test a pilot with every intention of
failing him so as to remove him from the scene, should be firmly
discouraged; but it must be recognised that on the rare occasion
when an inability to perform adequately is noted or where a
severe degradation in demonstrated performance has occurred
and cannot be explained, more training may not produce
enhanced competence and withdrawal from the operation might
need to be seriously considered.
26. Constructive instruction is of the essence and the tools are
there to achieve this economically. In lieu of training on an
aircraft with its safety-dictated limitations and comparatively
high running costs, it is fortunate that the present generation of
HUMAN FEELINGS
flight simulators allow errors that could otherwise be fatal to be
made in total safety on the ground, from which lessons are learnt.
In addition, the simulator’s ability for frequent resets permits the
repeat of an exercise with the least amount of wasted time, to
reinforce a message or procedural point. Simulators are also used
in real time to familiarise crews with normal, abnormal and
emergency procedures during Line Oriented Flight Training
(LOFT) sessions and practice circuit work, making them such
versatile and useful training tools. The most important word is
Training within a regular recurrent crew-testing programme, to
legally satisfy Regulations while achieving practically, the
essential best possible and operationally-safe result.
2.2 Where does one learn of human factors and related issues?
27. Like most of the author’s colleagues and contemporaries, his
little knowledge of human beings was gleaned at a person-toperson
level and by day-to-day contact with working associates in
aviation. Much was learned over the years by observing and
talking to other more experienced instructors, both good and
bad. Regretfully, learning also came by making mistakes.
28. During my early days as a flying instructor and examiner, the
correct decisions may have been reached by erring on the hard
side. Was ‘failing’ a pilot on those occasions due to not
recognising his needs or a silent cry for help? Would a wiser or
older instructor, indeed one who had been taught by more
enlightened mentors, have acted differently in the circumstances?
It is clear that a happier teacher and assessor of performance
would have resulted earlier if good tutors in human factors
awareness had been available. Where does one then learn about
Human Factors?
29. The dearth of human factors information and guidance has
prompted much work since 1985, to fill a glaring gap on the
subject. May the thoughts offered herein add to now available
guidance, for both new and mature pilot instructors to consider
as a possible (maybe even probable) reaction of one human being
towards another in aviation, if nowhere else.
2.3 Airline pilot instruction
30. There is a need for simply written material specifically aimed
at bringing into focus human emotions and the reaction of the
human ‘animal’ to situations in general. This should be made
freely available to all, but in particular instructors, who should
receive it at a very early stage in their life as teachers. Others who
have to deal with people, such as managers, staff supervisors and
pilots of course, must not be overlooked since such guidance is
just as important for them.
31. It is rare indeed to find teachers addressing this subject in
open class anywhere, when secondary education ignores it as a
subject to be taught. These days, flying training organisations do
try harder to promote human factors awareness in instructors,
beyond the content of student pilot Multi Crew Co-operation
(MCC) or Crew Resource Management (CRM) courses.
Notwithstanding, instructors, be they civilians or military, usually
need to find out and learn ‘the hard way’ about human feelings
and reactions, provided that they are sensitive enough to clearly
‘see’ what is going on in the mind of those they have to deal with.
Those with better honed levels of self-awareness soon find out
that emotions affect their students’ behaviour or decision-making
and how, then act accordingly to reduce stress and avoid
confrontational situations.
32. In the flying profession, there are some who have progressed
to civil flying straight from school or university on the way to
becoming instructors, while others come from the Armed Forces
April 2003
9

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STUDENT AND INSTRUCTORS
An instructor and his students.
with a vastly different world of discipline and motivation. It is
primarily for the former group that this paper has been written.
Nonetheless, it is also for those who may well be qualified,
mature military pilot instructors but who are now in civil aviation.
May the former quickly become happy instructors, if only because
of a heightened awareness of human emotion in the flying
training environment and may this first bite at human factors at
this person-to-person level encourage them to seek greater
success and understanding when dealing with others; and may
the latter find something useful to note, even if only to refresh a
memory.
33. The thoughts that follow are in no way intended to re-invent
the flight instruction wheel that is an accepted part of the scene.
This attempt at analysing different types of human beings and
their feelings, just illustrates another facet of the product for
those who have not had a chance to see it with a human element
aura at grass roots level. Maybe unrecognised, human factors
have been about from time immemorial but the quest for a better
understanding of the human situation is comparatively new.
3.0 THE STUDENT AND HIS INSTRUCTORS
3.1 General
34. Three aspects require consideration in the student/instructor
relationship. First there is a need to study the type of student an
instructor may have to deal with. Then one needs to address
instructor qualities, with guidance on how he should behave in
the role of the teacher. These two parts have been kept short and
their style almost telegraphic, because contents are intended as
flags to trigger thought. Finally, an attempt is made to bring into
focus the feelings of those undergoing instruction on an aircraft
type conversion course.
35. Before the instructor is offered help in recognising and
responding to the many subtle and not so subtle vibrations that
come across from trainee to trainer, student and instructor
feelings are given a brief look prior to being readdressed later,
when the theme is developed and the feelings of those giving or
undergoing instruction in an airline are explored and studied in
parallel.
The human element in airline training
3.2 Students
36. Throughout training, students display numerous feelings of
anxiety for a number of reasons. Anxiety may severely inhibit
performance and handicap the display of capability, indeed even
ruin both. Some of the fears experienced might include worry
over being graded below standard or the embarrassment at being
unable to adapt to new equipment, with the consequential effect
on career. Sometimes fear of the instructor also inhibits
performance, for various reasons.
37. At times it is difficult to establish whether anxiety is present.
It is almost certainly present in some degree however when the
student is seen to be confused. If training is to be successful, the
whole of the instruction package needs to aim at alleviating
emotional stress, or reducing it to a minimum.
38. The student needs a friendly constructive atmosphere with a
comfortably relaxed environment to work in. He can then devote
himself wholeheartedly to the required task of learning in a
positive frame of mind, inevitably a little tense at the disruption
of his normal well-assimilated operational routine. The
underlying fear of failure to convert to the new type tends to
make him more tense than necessary, because it threatens a
return to ‘normality’, as he sees it.
3.3 The Instructor
39. A flying instructor can observe marked differences of
behaviour throughout the various phases of training student
pilots. These may appear as recognisable behaviour patterns that
call for varying approaches to teaching. Errors observed and
indifferent progress could be due to the student’s attitude. This
may vary according to the type of person that he is. On occasion,
attitude may be further affected by short-term stresses brought
about by day-to-day factors affecting his personal life. These may
encroach upon his ability to complete a task otherwise well
within his reach.
40. The instructor therefore needs to be especially aware of the
background forces of disruption that could affect what should
otherwise be a relaxed transition period. He must try to ease the
task of the student and not contribute to the development of
unnecessary stressful situations.
41. Encouragement is one key attitude, but beware of too much
praise too soon. This may become counterproductive by lulling
the subject into believing that he does not need to work quite as
hard as he otherwise would, with a consequential reduction in
performance. A small amount of stress is useful as a spur towards
better results, but it must be judiciously applied so as not to
overload the learning curve, otherwise the individual ceases to
absorb information and becomes demoralised. So beware of
using stress as a tool to keep students “on their toes” since
excessive stress can promote a sense of failure and overwhelm
students, to the point that they cease learning and become
defensive.
4.0 THE AIRLINE TRAINING CAPTAIN
4.1 General Criteria
42. If the quality of training pilots is to be consistently high, three
things are necessary. Selection of the right people comes first.
Teaching them how to instruct follows, after which ensuring that
they know the operator’s training arrangements and their subject
matter well, completes the picture. The training structure to
become familiar with includes its organisation, the equipment to

Pre-flight checks.
be used, company flight standards and training procedures. New
instructors must also be taught to apply the type-syllabus and
how to administer all the required checks or tests, assess
performance, write clear concise reports, complete paperwork
correctly and last but not least, make sound, impartial and
hopefully objective recommendations.
4.2 Selection — Required attributes in a training pilot
4.2.1 Instructor specification
43. The teaching and learning tasks involved in training are
recognised to be inherently stressful, making it important to
select the right type of person to be an instructor and examiner.
Specific qualities desired of a training pilot are virtually endless.
Very few people are found to reflect a majority of these. Three
main attributes required are integrity, the ability to co-operate
with others in an operational flying training organisation and
moral courage; that is the guts to stand firm in the face of
disapprobation from less principled colleagues regarding the
ethics that should apply when dealing with a situation. Generally
speaking, the ability to instruct and a gregarious nature with an
amiable and essentially friendly disposition are other desirable
qualities. To these one should add a genuine liking of people and
the ability to communicate.
44. Motivation to give, not self-interest, should be sought by
selectors who should look out for those clever enough to disguise
their motives. Such ‘mavericks’ who crave power and authority
can rise through the instructor ranks if allowed, creating malign
influence (indeed mayhem) until forced out, only to show up
elsewhere and repeat the performance. Because technical
attainment is easier to establish when selecting training staff, it
may dominate the selection process that ought to primarily assess
disposition (the person's natural qualities of character) after
which other traits can be considered.
45. The list should include appearance, personal bearing, the
necessary stamina required of training personnel, professional
ability, a practical outlook, perseverance of achievement, tact,
patience and an understanding nature. One very important
quality is the need to control stress rather than create it.
AIRLINE TRAINING CAPTAIN
Sensitivity to situations and fair impartiality are also worth
looking out for. Seniority in an organisation must never be the
primary selection condition.
46. Instructors are often chosen from the ranks of senior
individuals, due to their professional status and expertise rather
than their teaching ability. How one identifies an individual as a
potentially good teacher rather than indifferent instructor
requires human sensitivity on the part of the selectors, and
sometimes the moral courage to identify less senior individuals
for instructor status over more experienced but less sensitive
superiors in the hierarchy.
4.2.2 Individual acceptability
47.The instructor should be versed in technical knowledge and be
able to explain the facts and the principles of his subject(s) and
justify conclusions about them ... the ‘how’ and ‘why’ of technical
theory. He should be operationally competent, that is able to
operate the type efficiently and in addition be capable of
explaining clearly how it is made to function and why each
procedural step taught is needed. He will also be a pilot whose
everyday skill level indicates that he has the added capacity to
perform an instructing task and he must be widely experienced in
practical line operations, locally, nationally and/or internationally,
as required. Furthermore, he will also be acceptable. The sense
given to the notion of acceptability is concerned with the
recognition, belief and even approval that a training pilot can hope
for from the pilot group within which he will have to function.
48. Instructors must remain alive to the importance of 'training
success' for a trainee because it affects his livelihood and personal
status, thus causing understandable anxieties. With so much at
stake it follows that trainees can be expected to be ruthless critics.
They know at once if a training pilot is bluffing or pretending.
Even if he is not, trainees are easily driven to anger by a style that
may seem unduly authoritarian, aggressive, arrogant or
emotional. To conclude, Credibility is another essential for an
instructor who will also show signs of practical general
reasonableness, bearing in mind his diverse responsibilities to the
company, the trainees and the travelling public.
4.2.3 Advocated seven-point selection plan — Summary of
selection criteria, in no particular order
49.
Physical Attributes: Health, physique, stamina, appearance,
bearing and speech.
Attainments: Education; vocational training and development;
operational training and record; operational experience;
technical knowledge; personal operating standards.
General intelligence: Operational awareness and prudence;
operating problem appreciation and analysis; quickness to
appreciate changing operational needs; potential to impart
knowledge and skill.
Special aptitudes: Facility with words, figures or diagrams;
technical or scientific qualifications; teaching or training
qualifications; marked mechanical aptitude; marked manual
dexterity; previous instructional experience.
Interests: Intellectual, Practical and maybe also Sporting, if only to
broaden the choice spectrum.
Disposition: Identification with Company style and standards in
high professional terms, not influenced by any culture tending to
cutting corners for profit. Integrity can still be influenced by
company perspectives and loyalty may be ultimately be put to the
test. It needs to be unassailable.
Candidates to be examples of dress and smartness; self-respect
and self-reliance; dependability; willingness to acquire new
knowledge and skills (specially in training); potential to persevere
and lead; show understanding, patience and tact; analyse
April 2003
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AIRLINE TRAINING CAPTAIN
individual performance problems and inspire confidence as an
operational exemplar.
Circumstances: Appreciation of social effects of appointment
(changes in working relationships); appreciation of and effects of
appointment (changes in work pattern); need for domestic
harmony and approval.
50. With regard to Circumstances, prospective training staff
should be aware of the requirements demanded of the individual
and of the resultant changes in operational life that any
appointment in the training role inevitably brings about. The
ensuing effects on home life must be considered, understood and
be acceptable to spouses who must appreciate the possible time
and emotional demands that a move to the training role would
have on their partner. Pressures on the home front that could
affect the necessary stress-free attitude of a prospective instructor
may preclude any such move, however suitable the candidate.
This is where an eighth point comes into play; namely honesty to
arrive at a correct decision, the first of many yet to come as an
instructor and examiner. Honest self-assessment would have the
last say on whether to accept the appointment or not.
51. Because personality traits are generally established early in life
and are difficult to eradicate, it would be a mistake to recruit as
an instructor a senior pilot with a more authoritarian personality
for whom CRM means “You do what I tell you to do”. This type of
person may well become a successful pilot but, one feels, will
never make the best instructor. Such pilots may learn the
language and play the role in order to obtain advancement and
status, but they can be identified by behaviour, past and present.
It is therefore best not to allow them into the training fold, even
against an unfounded hope of turning them into empathetic and
considerate instructors.
52. Selectors should take into account that there are instructors
who are naturally aware of human factors issues due to their basic
personality structure, some who can learn about them, and others
whose personalities will never allow them to accept human factors
issues as valid instructional techniques. Recognising the character
of individuals in the latter case requires human sensitivity and
moral courage from the part of the selectors. Both qualities are of
paramount necessity when deciding who will and who will not be
selected to become an instructor. It should be noted that pilots
rated as having an ‘exceptional’ handling ability do not always
make good instructors. Such 'exceptional pilots’ may be unable to
understand why others cannot match their own skill levels.
53. As a codicil to the selection procedure and as a practical tool
to its application, competence as an instructor can be looked for
in part during the formal selection process by observing candidate
instructors in their capacity as instructors, both in the didactic
situation and in a cockpit setting.
4.2.4 CRM instructors
54. Specific attributes required of CRM instructors are set out in
Guide to Performance Standards for Instructors of CRM Training in
Commercial Aviation, published in 1998 as a joint product of the
RAeS, the UK CAA and the Aviation Training Association (ATA). It
complements Required Attributes in a Training Pilot outlined
earlier. Details may be found in the Bibliography Appendix.
4.3 Necessary considerations
4.3.1 Practical training
55. In general terms, rules adopted in the world of teaching are
applicable in any environment. Just because aviation may require
that a number of complementary disciplines be considered
together at any time, like navigation and meteorology, or air traffic
control and operating the aeroplane in a safe yet expeditious
The human element in airline training
Boeing 777 flightdeck.
manner, does not make teaching in this environment very special
or, in any way, particularly different. It is, however, a lot more
demanding and the price of failure may be catastrophic. A list of
rules applicable to the airline pilot instructor could read as follows:
4.3.2 DO
56.
■ Know the subject to be taught well.
■ Show your enthusiasm for flying.
■ Remember that ‘telling’ does not always promote learning or
skill. On occasion, demonstrate.
■ Be patient.
■ Be clear in word and thought.
■ Maintain a friendly and pleasant manner.
■ Be neat in appearance, clean and appropriately dressed.
■ Be careful of personal hygiene. Cleanliness of body and
breath is of paramount importance in the close confines of
the flight deck area.
■ Remain relaxed and unhurried.
■ Develop a calm, thoughtful and disciplined, but not sombre
demeanour.
■ Be straightforward and honest.
■ Be constructive when criticising. Beware of direct criticism in
front of others.
■ Take an interest in your students as persons. Get on first
name terms.
■ Be courteous at all times. Strong language can be most
offensive to some people. This could be detrimental to their
learning. Avoid it.
■ Stay ahead of your class. Prepare your lessons and plan the
session.
■ Give 60 minutes of instruction in every hour by careful
preparation.
■ Be a good listener when the occasion demands, such as when
personal matters arise.
■ Practise ‘Active Listening’ during lessons to really understand
what is being said and react accordingly.
■ Always maintain an untarnished image of professionalism.
■ Let your pilot trainees make mistakes. They will learn from
them. It is clear, however, that this must be a selective
decision that will not endanger the aircraft or the crew.
■ Look out for student discomfort, confusion, disinterest,
distraction or boredom, all of which are counterproductive in
lesson assimilation terms. See to it that they ‘resume
reception’, that is return to listening attentively in order to
hear and understand what you are saying.
■ Remain honestly self-critical. Constantly look for ways of
making you a better teacher.

4.3.3 How to handle errors
57. One of the most difficult tasks an instructor has to face is how
to handle a trainee’s errors. It does no good whatever to castigate
him for making a mistake, or even just to tell him that he is
wrong. The whole purpose of the job is to see why he is wrong
and then to explain it to him in such a way that he is not only able
to eliminate the error, but he is pleased to have been told. So
WHEN and HOW does one respond? The now defunct Industrial
Training Research Unit gave guidance as follows, on when to
intervene, not to intervene, or to delay intervention until later.
Most certainly when training on an aircraft in flight (and
sometimes also to foster ‘realism’ when on a simulator?), if the
answer is YES:
A. Is the error potentially dangerous? IMMEDIATE REACTION
B. Is it faulty manipulation IMMEDIATE REACTION
or perception?
Is it faulty recall of a fact IMMEDIATE REACTION
or procedure?
C. Will increasing experience and NO REACTION
practice probably eliminate it?
D. Will the consequences, provided DELAYED REACTION
that they will be SAFE, help the
trainee to learn a principle?
58. Now consider the factors that affect HOW an instructor should
deal with a mistake when it is appropriate to do so. Looking at A,
B, C and D above:
A. Where safety is concerned, an error must be corrected
immediately; so DO INTERVENE IMMEDIATELY to stop the
trainee in his tracks before a disaster actually occurs. Inevitably
the word or action will be sharp and will give the learning
trainee a shock. Split seconds do not allow for gentle soothing
warnings. The short sharp shock can be a powerful modifier of
behaviour. Once danger is avoided, then the message can be
reinforced calmly by questioning. It may seem easier to tell a
trainee what he has done and why it is dangerous but he is
more likely to remember if he has thought it out alone. The
answer to WHY these questions should be asked is twofold.
They should be asked to:
a. See if the trainee knows what he has done wrong. If he
does not, lead him to understand by further questions,
what he has or has not done; and
b. Establish if the trainee understands the implication of what
he did or did not do.
B. When errors in manual skill or memorising a fact of procedure
occur, they should be dealt with IMMEDIATELY, but care must
be taken not to disrupt ‘flow’ as flying is a dynamic exercise.
The phase should be completed and THEN analysed. Within this
constraint, first ask yourself WHY? Then, AS SOON AS POSSIBLE
(or PRACTICABLE), try to establish if the trainee knows:
a. He is at fault.
b. What the fault is.
c. Why it has occurred.
d. How to overcome it.
59. By doing this the risk of trainees becoming too dependent can
be avoided. It also encourages them to take responsibility for
diagnosing their own errors and deciding how they need to
change their behaviour. Sometimes they do not know what
change of behaviour is required or how to achieve it and this is
when the instructor can help and advise.
C. When first attempts fall short of correct standards because of
lack of practice it is best to take NO ACTION, so long as the
trainee knows what is wanted. Too much comment may
overload and be construed as nit picking.
AIRLINE TRAINING CAPTAIN
Flight Safety Boeing.
D. When experience of consequence could help to teach a
principle which is to be understood and provided the situation
remains safe both in the air and in a simulator used as if it
were an aeroplane, DELAY any input and allow the student to
understand how and why to avoid the error by learning from
his mistake. Beware of damaging his self-esteem or confidence
by a wrongly timed or unnecessarily harsh intervention, or in
using ANY talk/action. The subtle balance in how and when to
do any talk(act)ing must be individually sensed.
4.3.4 Errors and their causes
60. To appreciate why errors occur one must learn to diagnose
causes. There are many options and one must avoid jumping to
conclusions. Some possible causes of error in performance are:
■ The trainee HAS NOT BEEN TAUGHT the procedure
■ He was taught the procedure but WAS NOT ATTENDING
■ He was taught the procedure, was attending but
MISUNDERSTOOD it
■ He understood it but has FORGOTTEN
■ He has had INSUFFICIENT PRACTICE in the relevant manual
and perceptual skill
■ He LACKS some specific perceptual or motor ABILITY to do
the job.
61. The latter two reasons may be seen as underlying causes of
error. The following five points are also worth remembering
when analysing problems:
■ Find out all the facts about a problem before making up your
mind
■ Develop a hypothesis or idea as to its possible cause
■ Decide whether the idea is on the right lines
■ Act on this idea
■ Check that efforts made to help the trainee to overcome a
fault are effective
(Also read Human Error by Professor James Reason, see
Bibliography appendix for details)
4.3.5.
DO NOT
62.
■ Do not be impatient if a trainee is slow to grasp a point or
concept.
■ Do not lose your temper... EVER.
■ Do not be sarcastic in public or in private.
■ Do not degrade the student however tempted you may be...
EVER.
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THE TRAINEE PILOT
■ Do not talk DOWN TO, or AT your classes.
■ Do not be rude.
■ Do not smoke if it may distress your students.
■ Do not cram too much instruction in too short a time.
■ Do not ‘check to chop’. More simply, DO NOT just ‘fail’ a pilot
who does not perform faultlessly at a first attempt. Repeat
the exercise and train him to proficiency.
■ Do not show fear or favour. Always be fair.
■ Do not volunteer answers too readily. That defeats the object
of the exercise. Ask questions until the trainee gives the
correct answer.
■ Do not be afraid to admit your own errors in the past, to
illustrate a point to a student.
■ Do not waste time relating your aviation experiences, unless
relevant to a teaching point. Such epics do not enhance your
credibility as an instructor and might be irritating to some.
■ Do not hide any inadequacy behind a word smokescreen.
Admit that you don’t know and find out what the answer is.
No one is omniscient.
■ Do not feel ashamed or reluctant to hand over to another
instructor a trainee who is not progressing with you, as you
would like.
4.3.6 Attitude and image
63. Acceptance rather than ridicule, support rather than reproof.
Give help, and understanding and you will encourage the student
to learn. Show by example through habitual observance of
regulations, standard operating procedures and safety
precautions. Remember that precepts of courtesy will enhance an
instructor’s image of professionalism. Of greater importance, such
habits will make the instructor more effective in that he will
develop the same habits in his students
4.3.7 In conclusion of this part about airline training pilots
64. Not everyone is cut out to be an instructor. Like every other
discipline or trade, it is one that CAN be learned. However,
selection criteria should always be very carefully applied, to make
sure that patently unsuitable types and temperaments are not
brought into the team and given the power to make or break.
That would be unfair to their charges if nothing else.
5.0 THE TRAINEE PILOT
5.1 Obstacles to learning
65. An awareness of adult learning styles is of importance to the
instructor, if he is to get the best out of those in his care. With
that in mind, let us now consider impediments to learning, types
of students, their behaviour and how to deal with certain
teaching situations. Obstacles to learning are numerous and
varied. They may range from lack of interest and distractions, to
complete mental blocks. These may originate from many
different sources, which can range from family problems to being
under certain misconceptions that stem from poor previous
instruction. Among obstacles common to flight instruction are:
a. A student’s feeling of unfair treatment
Any impression that instruction is perfunctory or that his
efforts are not recognised, conscientiously considered and
fairly evaluated will damage a student’s motivation. The urge
to learn will also decline if it is felt that the tutor appears to
make unreasonable demands for progress, so the assignment
of impossible goals discourages, diminishes effort and slows
down learning.
b. Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations
This is a great deterrent to learning. Impatient students fail to
grasp the need for basic training, only looking for the final
The human element in airline training
objective without considering the necessary means to reach it.
Impatience can be corrected by only presenting preliminary
training one step at a time, with clearly set goals for each
stage; and clear de-briefings which explain how an exercise
depends on the previous one in the learning sequence.
c. Worry, or lack of interest
Worried or emotionally upset students do not learn well.
Worry can be caused by concern about progress on the course
or it can be due to other matters that are totally unrelated to
the instruction; for example, personal problems, psychiatric
disturbances, a dislike for the instructor or maybe the wish not
to be on the course at all.
d. Physical discomfort, illness or fatigue
A student not completely at ease and whose attention is
diverted by such discomforts as extremes of temperature, a
bad seat, noise, confusion, poor ventilation or dim lighting will
not learn at a normal rate. Illness could well be the cause of
distraction and inability to concentrate if all other factors are
normal. As for fatigue, its detection in students is important
for effective flight instruction. Once fatigue occurs, take a
break. Be on a constant look out for its tell-tale symptoms …
indications that mental shutters are down … revealed by total
loss of attention, a blank look, sweating, a multiplicity of errors
cropping up, or maybe the best clue of all ...confusion!
e. Apathy fostered by poor instruction
A well-prepared lesson is of the essence. Presentation must be
adjusted to be meaningful to the person(s) receiving
instruction. To be effective, each instructor must teach to the
level of all members of the class, not just the bright. Similarly,
a single student needs treatment tailored to his need. Poor
instruction is not necessarily caused by poor preparation alone.
The presentation of lesson material is not all that matters.
Undue mannerisms, personal untidiness, signs of impatience, a
lack of interest or appearing to be irritated at the students,
could lose their attention and confidence in the instructor.
f. Fear anxiety or timidity
Avoid alarming situations, allay fears if they are perceived,
encourage an anxious pupil, and be sure that he is not afraid
of you, his instructor.
66. Similar emotions affect pilots undergoing command training
or recurrent testing for annual JAR FCL licence renewals and biannual
JAR OPS Proficiency Checks. What follows traces the path
of a pilot during training, when he is converting to a new aircraft
type. It describes the feelings generated in circumstances similar
to those engendered by recurrent tests and the necessary
refresher training discussed elsewhere.
5.2 Progress
67. It is important that instructors should try to find the reasons for
any apparent lack of progress on the part of a trainee. Past records
may indicate that this is uncharacteristic of the pilot concerned,
thus making his apparent difficulty in absorbing new material
even more puzzling. To find reasons that may be hidden by an
inability to communicate by any one of the parties involved may
be difficult. If the student is not to be further upset than he is
already at finding himself in an alien situation, such as being
unable to keep up with the course, very careful handling of direct
questioning is needed, as are any behind-the-scene investigations.
5.3 Summary of learning difficulties and their possible underlying
causes
5.3.1 Difficulties
68.
a. Inability of the student to understand and/or absorb information
b. Inability to retain information that had been apparently
absorbed and understood

A340-600.
c. Mental saturation, that is the inability to cope with
i. More than one thing at a time.
ii. Handling the abnormal or unexpected.
d. Lack of basic practical pilot handling ability (including
problems with judgement and lack of consistency).
e. A combination of the above.
5.3.2 Underlying causes
69.
a. Overload: Too many NEW things to do at once and too many
stimuli to rationalise. Even an incorrectly adjusted seat causing
the body to operate from an unaccustomed relative position
can distract. Concentrate on major items/drills while trying to
eliminate peripheral annoyances or distractions.
b. Competition of habits: While in an overload situation or if
concentration is relaxed, the pilot reverts to old procedures
applicable to an aircraft type previously flown, in opposition
to new procedures taught and required at the time of
reversion.
5.3.3 Main causes underlying failure to progress in pilot
training
70.
a. Inadequate rapport with the instructor.
b. Poor instructional technique.
c. Inadequate basic training/knowledge.
d. Under-confidence, nervousness or anxiety.
e. Overconfidence.
f. Age effect.
g. Medical.
h. Preoccupation with
i. Stress factors or problems other than the pilot’s training.
ii. Obsessions.
i. Lack of mental capacity (for whatever reason, e.g. age, illness,
worry).
j. Is at the upper limit of his intellectual and personal skill ability.
k. May be of sub-standard intelligence (for an airline pilot).
71. The last three causes may be difficult to establish, but need to
be mentioned because they are a real possibility.
72. Potential distractions to learning that an instructor can
introduce, if he is not careful or aware of them, have been
discussed in Sections 3.3 The Instructor and in 4.0 The Airline
Training Captain.
THE TRAINEE PILOT
5.4 Student types
73. In his life as an airline instructor, a pilot may encounter
different sorts of trainee. Most, if not all ‘technical’ flight crew
under training normally reflect a focused desire to learn. This
requires fostering by the teacher who also needs to manage
attentively another prevalent characteristic, the underlying desire
to please. Student types he might meet are now discussed in
broad terms and suggested means of communicating or dealing
with individuals depending on their personality, are also offered
however briefly. The first group of student is discussed in detail at
5.4.1. Though each kind of student should be treated in equally
expanded terms, the types listed thereafter are discussed in lesser
detail, because of space limitations.
74. In the name of brevity, only short outlines of student types
identified by the author are offered, with a suggested method for
dealing with each one. They are meant to trigger thought under
each key word. The characters might seem over-simplified and a
facile approach to dealing with particular types implied, but this
is not so. Suggested methods for treating students of different
types may sound easy, but they can require extreme sensitivity
and tact to deal with effectively. Professional educators will
confirm alternative approaches for use in such cases and, with the
their help, training manual guidance for instructors could well
expand advice given herein to advantage.
5.4.1 Recognisable student types
1. The generally anxious and sensitive
75. This student’s attention may be additionally distracted by
stress that is induced because of having to carry out a number of
NEW tasks at the same time. Should he make an error, he may
become so overwhelmed by it, that confusion sets in and the rest
of the training session may well be wasted. This could happen,
however insignificant the error might have been in the overall
context of the required task. In such a case, the layered cake
principle may be worth applying. Teach one thing at a time.
Establish that it has been well assimilated by the student, then
practice it until it` is demonstrated faultlessly and it is clearly well
understood.
76. Do not confuse the issue by mentioning errors made in other
areas of the flight profile. These will be cleared later, one at a
time but in a similar manner. Subsequent flights could then be
planned to include one or more of the previously understood and
now correctly flown exercises plus one new to the trainee’s
repertoire ... building the cake layer by layer ... but starting at the
bottom every time. This ensures operation within a new but
known area of RELATIVE COMFORT, before new exercises are
introduced and then consolidated in a similar manner.
Assimilation of instruction is thus ensured but with minimum
stress.
77. Summarising the layered cake: A way of giving more than the
normally required practice to ensure that later on, the trainee
DOES NOT GET IT WRONG when alone and away from the
instructional environment. It is suggested that this technique
might not be acceptable other than with the older slower pilot
but do consider its use with younger pilots too.
5.4.2 The person being trained is a precious commodity
78. It may be argued that time is money and that it cannot be
wasted in such extended repetition. Notwithstanding, the
investment an organisation has in a pilot (both as an employee
and as a human being) is very precious. He is not a faceless
number but is a person with feelings and, usually, intense loyalty.
April 2003
15

16
The human element in airline training
THE TRAINEE PILOT
Long loyal service alone is worth investing in, both financially and
in other terms. The reciprocal human investment of both parties
must remain important and must never simply be discounted.
79. Consideration of the layered cake principle as a teaching
method can be of practical value with some slower thinkers, the
late developer or an older pilot who is slowing down. If the end
product is in view, it is worth aiming for if only in the name of wise,
considerate and caring training precepts handed down by
enlightened management. In the event, it may well be that certain
problem areas could be cleared during the line-flying phase of
conversion training. The additional costs connotation would
therefore not apply. In the end however, it is accepted that the
criterion on whether to go on with the person's training or not,
must be the answer to the simple question: Has the student got the
OVERALL CAPACITY to complete the course successfully, or not?
80. It is recognised that termination of training is the only
solution in certain cases. If one looks back however, noting past
demonstrated ability to which is usually added that normal
human trait termed loyalty, it becomes clear that decisions based
on purely monetary grounds need to be tempered with humanity.
The loyalty of a long time servant needs some recognition. Where
additional training on new equipment is clearly pointless, an
acceptable compromise without shame can usually be worked out
in most cases, to the mutual benefit of all parties involved. What
becomes of the pilot concerned who could continue to be
productive on his previous fleet, safely flying an aircraft that he
knows well, becomes a management problem. Though seldom
encountered, this situation occurs and needs to be considered.
5.5 Breakdown by recognisable type of student
81. Some of the types of student discussed may need similar
handling by the instructor. Guidance on how to deal with each
case should be prepared and similar learner types grouped
together so that closely related handling needs can clearly be
seen as belonging to a particular group. A scale of student
handling techniques could be produced to help instructor
dealings with the quiet introvert, the normal personality, the
bouncing extrovert who too may hide a problem, or the
unfriendly and aggressive trainee. Note that the approach
suggested at a different ‘level’ can also be useful.
82. The student types as listed, have been loosely grouped
according to their character image. This list is by no means
exhaustive or comprehensive. A number of additional
recognisable types could probably be identified and included in
any further exercise of trainee type classification.
5.5.1 Group 1
Student Type How to handle
1. The generally anxious & sensitive * See 5.4.1
2. Shy and retiring * Direct questions at him
* Ensure that he is
‘brought out’ and in all
conversations
* Praise occasionally
before others
3. Meek and apologetic * Needs encouragement
* Give situations that
develop confidence
4. Extremely worried, or * Find reasons tactfully and
generally nervous * Develop his confidence
5. Quiet and passive * May be lacking in
confidence
6. Silent and churlish * May have a ‘chip on his
shoulder’ (see type 16)
Aircraft of Oxford Aviation Training.
* Find reasons
7. Preoccupied * Find reason by tactful
questioning
8. The “Yes I understand”, who * May feel insecure, and
unable to admit he did not really * Could need the ‘layered
understand cake principle’ to
demonstrate each point
well
5.5.2 Group 2
Student Type How to handle
9. The jokes artist * Useful to have around as
Or is he the ROGUE one … a safety valve
… who knowingly disguises that * Rein-in so that he does
he is mischievous, troublesome, not take-over using his
unruly and falls short of the entertainer’s mantle,
required standard? instead of allowing the
lesson to continue
* Be aware that he may be
hiding a sense of
insecurity or some
inadequacy under a bluff
exterior. Treat
accordingly
10. The AVERAGE PILOT * HE is one of the
MAJORITY of people
around
* Accept gratefully
* Enjoy training him !
11. Active and self confident * Merely an extension of
‘Mr Average’
* Encourage, but provide
object lessons to deter
overconfidence
5.5.3 Group 3
Student Type How to handle
12. The ‘Questions’ man. (Dissects * Try object lesson to bring
a pump instead of learning how home the need for
to use it) application of relevant
knowledge. (Line
Oriented Flight Training
principles may be useful)

13. He who answers all the questions * Will allow little or no
input from other
students if not slowed
down
* Encourage but provide
object lessons to deter
overconfidence
* Restrain, and make sure
others are given equal
chances to reply
* Treat gently as this may
hide a possible state of
UNDERCONFIDENCE
14. The impatient student (Thinks * Only present the
of what is yet to come instead necessary training one
of listening) step at a time, with
clearly set goals for each
stage
* Explain how every stage
underpins each that
follows
* Accelerate through a
particular stage if it is
clearly understood and
well flown
* If necessary, separate the
slow learner from a
quick partner if the
slower pace appears to
cause impatience on the
one hand, and inevitable
frustration for the slower
colleague on the other
15. Bombastic (Pompous with a * Needs to be educated in
grandiose attitude and an person-to-person
inflated ego?) relationships
* Avoid confrontations
* Must be taught to
control over-confidence
16. Aggressive * May have “chip on his
shoulder”; or in other
words, having a bitter
and defiant manner,
ready to take offence
usually about a
perceived unfairness to
him.May possibly have
an openly un-admitted
weakness in personality
and/or background.
* Find reasons
* Deal as you would the
‘bombastic’.
83. In conclusion, no two students will react in the same manner
in any given situation. It is therefore up to the instructor to get to
know his material and how best to sell it. The audience is captive
and very willing to buy... but the sale is never a foregone
conclusion. The salesman must WORK for it!
6.0 PHASES OF CONVERSION TRAINING TO A NEW AIRCRAFT
TYPE (With apologies for the alliterative treatment used to
help the recall of key points)
6.1 Phase One — Technical instruction
Ground school CONSTRUCTION period
The student * LEARNS the technicalities
of a new aeroplane
PHASES OF CONVERSION
* LAYS the foundation of
new found knowledge
Student behaviour * Is prepared to learn
* Wishes to please
* Wants something from
the instructor
* Will become tense near
technical exam time
The instructor * Will see to it that the
use of any teaching aids
or equipment student
may need is clear,
appropriate and
objectively focused
* Requires patience
* Must reflect a relaxed
attitude to the learning
curve of the trainee
* Should show a quiet
competent approach to
teaching
* May need to explain
technicalities at length
* Must remember to be
friendly ... and SMILE
6.2 Phase Two — (Normally inter-phased with and within the
Ground School syllabus)
Systems trainer CONFIRMATION period
The student: * ESTABLISHES that ground
school information is
correct
* EXPLORES drills
co-incidentally
* EXPERIMENTS with new
procedures
* EYEBALLS new equipment
Student behaviour * Still wishes to please
* Is still prepared to learn
* Still wants something
from the instructor
* Wishes to show that he
IS learning
* May show signs of
impatience with himself
should he make mistakes
during systems trainer
sessions or if he forgets
drills
* Will get tense and
nervous prior to the
FIRST HURDLE (The
technical examination)
The instructor * Needs patience and an
understanding manner
* Will still have a lot of
talking to do
* Must let student make
mistakes without
becoming irritated
* Should try to eliminate
such mistakes from the
student’s repertoire
before the simulator
stage
* Must never talk DOWN
TO or talk AT the student
April 2003
17

18
PHASES OF CONVERSION
The human element in airline training
* Needs to give time and
attention to weak areas
of knowledge or drills
* Should stay friendly,
attentive to the student’s
questions and always
remember the
encouraging smile
6.2.1 First hurdle — The Type Technical Examination
(Prior to the simulator training phase)
6.3 Phase Three — Flight Simulation
Simulator training CONFIRMATION period
extension leading to
COMPETENCY (It is also
an ADJUSTMENT and
ADAPTATION period)
The student * COMPARES with known
procedures
* CONFORMS to new drills
* COMBINES new flight
procedures with new
technical knowledge to
achieve: a. Required
manual dexterity b.
Necessary handling
COMPETENCY
(Amplifying) — Modifies known
handling skills to
achieve the necessary
change of inputs and
responses so as to
obtain the desired effect.
— Adapts responses & after
practice made these
perfect, adopts them
Student behaviour * Still needs something
from the instructor. This
will be the COMPETENCY
accolade
* Accepts what the
instructor says without
arguing
* Will start to compare
with similar drills known
from other aircraft flown
* Will now look for
reasons when
differences are met
* Tries to show that he has
ABILITY
* May be anxious and not
relaxed
* Probably reflects tension
in some form or other
* Is beginning to resent
the need to be
subservient. Yet he
knows that he is still on
the receiving end
* Knows that he therefore
needs to keep on the
right side of his
instructors for a while
longer
* May show traces of
irritation, but will try to
control any outbursts
* In contrast, may be
apologetic in his
approach to handling, or
while he is flying,
however good (or bad) it
may be
The instructor * Must continue to brief
IN FULL prior to every
exercise period
* Initially may need to
refresh the student on
aircraft systems
geography
* Will interfere less and
less with performance of
the student
* Should let the pilot make
mistakes to learn from
* Will remember to:
— keep sessions friendly
and relaxed
— debrief fully after each
period
— encourage discussionremain
calm and
unhurried (even if repeat
exercises take more
time than planned)
— be clear in the spoken
word at all times
* Should maintain an
interest in his students as
persons
* Will never abandon the
pleasant manner
6.3.1 Second hurdle — Base Training and Flying Proficiancy
Tests
Aircraft Handling, take-off and landing practice
(leading to flying licence type rating endorsement)
THIS SECTION MAY BE CARRIED OUT ON A SUITABLY APPROVED
SIMULATOR
6.4 Phase Four — Base Training and Flying Proficiency Tests
6.4.1 Circuit work
84. Be pleased to see the result of your instructional efforts allied
to the teachings of your fellow instructors come together, but
now in the aeroplane during the training sortie. Do not rush it.
Continue to address your student’s physical well being to ensure
that peripheral discomfort does not affect learning or
performance. See to the student’s immediate comfort,
particularly regarding the use of his seat and its controls that may
well differ, however marginally, from those in the simulator. Lead
the trainee to achieve the correct eye and seat position,
preferably with armrests down as a method of limiting arm
movement when an input is needed, to curb over-controlling
particularly on a modern jet aircraft with power assisted controls
and high rates of roll similar to military fighters.
85. Make sure that the required number of UNAIDED circuits and
landings are honestly carried out. Do not accept messy
approaches or poor arrivals, whether on touch-and-go or full stop
landings. Make sure that the trainee remembers to deliberately
‘land the nose-wheel’ without unnecessary de-rotation, for both
airframe protection and passenger ‘comfort’.

86. If more than the minimum number of circuits is required, then
so be it. Think of it as short sighted to release a pilot for route
flying under supervision without having satisfactorily completed
take-offs, approaches and landings to the demanded standard, to
save tyres or flying hours. Then again, when on a ‘zero flight time’
conversion course that is wholly carried out on a suitably
‘Approved’ flight simulator before a first supervised landing onthe-route
during a normal public transport flight, may he make
you feel proud of how well he was taught.
6.5 Phase Five — Route (or Line) flying
Route Training Described
euphemistically as line
flying under supervision.
This phase is a
CONSOLIDATION period
to develop familiarity,
without ...
COMPLACENCY
The student * The Student progresses
towards:
— Lateral transfer of
background skills
achieved previously
— Transposal of routine
operational thinking
into the new
environment
— Application of newly
acquired skills, albeit a
little timidly at first
— Demonstration of
increased ability and
confidence with time
— Achievement of
acceptable level of
proficiency to allow
operation without
supervision
Student behaviour * He is back in the familiar
situation although for
the moment he is in an
environment that may
seem rather strange to
him
* As he slowly gets used to
this new environment his
confidence envelope
slowly broadens
* Wants to achieve the
same COMFORT level in
the new aircraft
operation as he had
achieved when flying on
his previous equipment
* Still needs something
from the instructor:
Clearance to fly as part
of a normal crew
without a supervising
instructor/examiner
observing.
* Shows increased
independence from the
instructor; with the
passage of time, takes
the initiative in
operational decisions
more often
PHASES OF CONVERSION
* Tensions may begin to
build up because of the
underlying feeling that
he still needs to defer to
the instructor’s ideas
* An increasing need for
the return to a ‘normal’
operation is now
experienced. Deep
longing for a rapid
return to the old feeling
of COMFORT is now
getting stronger, albeit
on new route(s) maybe
and on the new aircraft.
* Hides thoughts and
cannot wait to be
allowed to operate
NORMALLY
The instructor * Stands back more and
more
* Increasingly encourages
situational awareness in
the new role
* Intervenes as little as
possible and only if it is
absolutely necessary
* Plays the part of the
second crewman fully
* Must encourage both
captains and co-pilots in
a similar manner
* Should beware of
personality clashes as the
student emerges from
the passive role however
slowly. Be aware of this
* Remembers TACT and
remembers PATIENCE
* Slowly slips into the
background giving
trainee all the rein
possible
* Will not hustle or hurry
procedures even if it
means a late arrival or a
late departure. Speed
comes with practice
* Is never sarcastic.
Sarcasm is not
understood as a form of
humour by some and
can be offensive to
others. It is counter
productive by creating
strained relations and
thus introducing stress
* Rarely if ever does an
instructor need to be
cutting or harsh,
particularly while on
flying operations
* If criticism is to be
levelled, then it must be
done in as
CONSTRUCTIVE a
manner as possible
* Never forgets the
pleasant manner or the
April 2003
19

20
THE FAILED STUDENT
The human element in airline training
essential friendly
approach
* Enjoys seeing the pilot
developing into a good
Standard Operator
6.5.1 The Third and Last Hurdle — The Final Route Check
6.5.2 87. With the trainee’s final route (or line) check behind him,
look forward to the next group of pilots who will be entrusted to
your care as an instructor. Keep maintaining standards during
recurrent training and testing periods, while looking to help
those with problems that need ironing out. Remain sensitive to
the feelings of those who are placed in your care.
6.6 Return to normal unsupervised operations
Student behaviour * Relief
* Antagonism may begin
to develop towards the
instructor(s), now that
nothing more is wanted
from him (them)
Gratitude felt at the
time when all training
has been completed
successfully may be of
short duration.
* Thereafter the instructor
becomes more remote as
a friendly person and
turns into the tester or
checker of airmen. He is
therefore a ‘trapper’ and
is now a symbolic threat
to the continued
operational life of the
pilot fraternity.
* With all the conversion
to a new aircraft type
training hurdles behind
the trainee and only
recurring annual checks
to tackle from then on,
the threat can best be
dealt with by removing
IT or ONESELF from the
scene. The student’s
attitude can now be
expected to COOL.
* Notwithstanding the
above, the instructor is
often remembered long
after training is over. He
is usually thought of not
as an enemy but as a
friend who made
possible continued life as
a pilot.
88. From here on, the students’ behavioural patterns may vary.
Often, the instructor will have become one of those who live on
the other side of the fence in the mind of the persons concerned.
He will have joined the ranks of the supervisory staff and is
therefore no longer “one of the boys”. This should not
discourage the instructor. It goes with the job though it does at
times make recurrent semi-annual or annual refresher training
and testing periods less pleasant than they could be.
89. More often than not this is not a problem and life as an
instructor remains a fulfilling task however tiring it is in reality. Be
it as it may, there really is no glamour attached to being an
instructor and examiner. The responsibilities are heavy and the
reward intangible, other than seeing one’s eaglets turning into
soaring (bald?) eagles. Regardless of the threat to income,
HONESTY and CREDIBILITY must remain paramount or there is no
INTEGRITY. If not, the system disintegrates.
6.7 The next six months
90. This is the beginning of the MATURATION period. Eventually
the fully relaxed operation that had been normal in the old
environment is re-achieved, but now in the new. At last the warm
mantle of COMFORT is there once again with the return of
complete CONFIDENCE.
7.0 THE FAILED STUDENT
7.1 Degree of Failure
TOTAL * The trainee is totally
unable to cope with the
new environment at
whatever the stage. This
is a rare occurrence.
PARTIAL * Where the repeat of an
exercise is needed
because the necessary
standard required by a
test has not been met.
An eventual ‘pass’ is well
in sight.
PASS, but with qualification * May be used as a tool to
slow down otherwise
very bright, quick and
excellent performers who
show a tendency to rush.
* This is a ‘brake’ to make
a point.
MARGINAL PASS * To encourage, ... but
with a verbal
explanation of errors and
method of improvement
that must be made by
the next check
7.1.1 Student behaviour
Passive * Withdraws into silence
and introspection
* Loss of self-confidence
may be reflected
* May refuse to talk about
the situation
* Might show signs of
confusion (stress?)
* Probably considers that
he has “lost face” with
respect to his colleagues
* Wants to get away from
it all and far from the
instructor
* His world has ground to
a stop. He may well not
quite know how to react
to this unfamiliar and
embarrassing situation
for him

Schweitzer C/CB training helicopter.
Active (aggressive?) * Becomes vociferous and
argumentative
* Blames all and sundry
around, except himself
* The “nobody told me”
syndrome emerges (about
what made him fail)
* Threatens: appeal to
higher authority or even
legal action
* Abuses the instructor,
hopefully only verbally
* Berates the course
7.1.2 Instructor reaction
When dealing with the PASSIVE * Encourage gentle
discussion on the
exercise
* Try to make the trainee
tell you what his fail
points were. Ask
questions to assist recall
* Go over the drills at fault
or the incorrect flight
profile, to establish
whether they were
originally correctly
understood. Get trainees
to describe the required
action(s). There and then
compare with published
procedure, thus making
a point
* Sound caring and
understanding
* Speak words of
encouragement on the
way to a next attempt
* Take additional time on
subsequent pre-flight
briefing
When dealing with the ACTIVE * Stand your ground firmly
* Do not get drawn into
an argument
* Restate the facts as you
have noted them at the
time
* Remain equable
THE FAILED STUDENT
7.1.3 Summarising Student behaviour
* Cool the situation as
well as you can
* Try if possible to make
the trainee go over the
flight by recall and help
him to see his errors.
* Never lose your temper,
however unreasonable it
seems that the angry
trainee has become
* However infuriating he
may be, never ever close
any argument with a
“You have failed because
I say so and that is final”
* Do disengage GENTLY
but FIRMLY
91. The above examples of student behaviour are extremes that
are sometimes encountered. The average failed pilot knows
exactly where he went wrong so a normal de-brief in a
constructive manner is all that is needed. Before failing a pilot on
a minor procedural point however, if by asking questions it
becomes clear that the procedure is otherwise known and the
diversion from it was due to a simple momentary lapse (a small
failure of the human being ...) and provided that the rest of the
flight was acceptable, then do by all means award a pass.
7.2 The FAILED situation
92. It is worth discussing the possible background factors and the
overall anatomy of the failed situation under three general
headings:
a. The training programme in general may be at fault whether in
content, in equipment availability or in its failure.
b. The instructor may have failed to communicate effectively in
the time that was available.
c. For some reason, the pilot concerned was unable to attain the
desired result because of an inability to retain some or all of
the information provided, then act upon it as required.
93. In fairness to students, it should be possible for a trainee to
request a change of instructor in cases where he is not making
reasonable progress, maybe due to a personality clash with his
tutor. There should also be a student grievance procedure that
either allows starting the course again when completion of the
syllabus in the allocated time scale is a problem for the trainee, or
which permits the mutually agreed removal of the individual
from the aircraft type conversion programme, if insurmountable
difficulties occur during the training process. A return to the
previous type of aircraft could then be considered.
94. It would however be lamentable if a misguided instructor
ultimately ‘failed’ a student due to personal animosity or (in the
belief that there was a conscious management decision to only
employ a certain kind of individual), because of a feeling that the
trainee was not developing into the particular type of person
wanted as aircrew. Discarding otherwise competent pilots
because they do not meet such a sometimes unstated and
unadmitted selection criterion, would be patently unjust to a
perfectly adequate trainee and would most certainly be difficult
to justify honestly.
7.2.1 The School
95. A self-critical review of the training organisation on a
continuous basis is an essential part of any good system. A post-
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22
THE FAILED STUDENT
course analysis of poor results will often identify probable
reasons. It could be that need-to-know information is buried in a
mass of generally irrelevant detail or that not enough
information has been programmed for inclusion in the lectures.
An honest review of the curriculum and available teaching
facilities may lead to one or more changes in the lesson material,
as part of the continuing search for the perfect conversion course.
It may be apposite to remark at this point, that observations
made at the time of the Regulator’s initial course approval and
any subsequent audit comments should never be ignored. Points
raised by Regulatory Authority auditors must always be addressed
and should only be turned down for good reason, but only after
careful constructive consideration and due discussion with the
inspector(s) concerned.
96. Changes could range from the contents of some (or all) parts
of the syllabus and the methods used in teaching, to the time
allocated for completing the course. The manner used by persons
involved to deal with each other may also need looking into. Are
the instructors themselves free from stresses, even those possibly
generated by their head of section? How well do instructors as a
whole communicate with their students and among themselves?
These typical questions may need to be asked and require
satisfactory answers. Regular audits of training activities would
give an insight into on-going individual teaching methods and of
the way students react to the teaching process, by evaluating
their level of learning through regular progress tests and final
results.
97. During an audit, the ‘open-minded’ auditor should be
immersed in the teaching process so that it can be evaluated
thoroughly. Sitting with students during lessons and attending
briefings and de-briefings for simulator or aircraft training and
skill-test flights (observed from a jump seat), would continue the
filtering process and add to the overall picture gained during the
audit of most, if not all, instructors and examiners during any one
audit. Analysis of comments and suggestions made by the auditor
to the hierarchy would then establish any necessary action for
improved teaching techniques and/or needed changes to lesson
modules.
98. Teachers and examiners could then be brought up-to-date
accordingly, by way of ‘Notes to training staff’ and at
standardisation meetings. Regularly arranged seminars would
also allow amenable training managers and staff to get to know
one another better, while exchanging thoughts aimed at
improving the overall quality of the product and also allowing
views and new proposals to be freely and helpfully discussed by
all.
99. It is essential that inquisitive thinking and equably disposed
training managers who know how to delegate and supervise in
an efficient non-confrontational manner, adopt an approach that
shows a high level of empathy towards those who have new
thoughts to communicate. An open-door policy and a receptive
attitude to new ideas offered for consideration are essential, if
the best is to be obtained from the hands-on experience acquired
by staff in their day-to-day work.
100. What’s more, it is essential that instructors and examiners
communicate effectively with each other in their every day
encounters so that a high level of understanding between them
develops and is also conveyed to their students.
7.2.2 Instruction standards
101. Different instructors may offer contradictory and therefore
confusing information because of poor standardisation. Although
individuals cannot be programmed to speak the same words all
The human element in airline training
the time and should not be turned into automatons of action and
word, the same broad party line is an essential prerequisite for all
instructors to follow. Even if they only differed on minor matters,
confusion could easily be fostered in students’ minds however
inadvertently and unintentionally.
102. It has been known for instructors to say: “Although the
manual sets out this procedure in the way it does ... what I
normally do is ...”. This puts the trainee in a quandary. He wishes
to please, so he flies the procedure exactly as he believes his
teacher prefers it to be flown ... TO PLEASE that instructor. Then
comes the next day. What should that student do when the next
‘teacher’ asks him for a demonstration of what he believes was
taught and expects it flown according to the training manual?
Would the student not feel aggrieved if he were to be failed for
doing exactly as he had been told to do the day before?
103. Use of prepared instructional audio-visual packages helps to
ensure the overall standardisation of content for students, with
the instructor as supervisor, ‘clarifier’ or demonstrator to help
trainees who are not clear about what it is that they have seen or
heard. Standardisation is encouraged and pre-prepared lesson
material is complemented by a regular ‘continuation’ training
programme for instructors, when maybe an instructor is recorded
on video tape as he lectures a class of fellow instructors on a
particular subject. Replay of the video tape and self-critique,
together with general group discussion led by the session leader,
then goes a long way towards instructor awareness of points to
watch out for and improved teaching cum lecturing standards. A
strong sense of team spirit and the sure knowledge that the team
is at work to improve the product, are essential ingredients of
such a programme. There must never be any feeling that a witchhunt
is in progress.
104. As a corollary, it is clear that ‘Examiners’ also need a standard
approach to their discipline, exactly like instructors, if fair evenhandedness
is to prevail when they test for proficiency.
Standardisation programmes similar to those for instructors
therefore need to address the manner of achieving such
impartiality.
7.2.3 The despondent student
105. Total failure for whatever the reason is difficult to justify. It
may be hard to explain, particularly when dealing with an
otherwise experienced pilot who will have demonstrated his
ability in the past. In such a case, one is not dealing with an ab
initio pilot who has yet to satisfy all his masters with his ability to
fly, let alone operate the aircraft and manage its flight deck. It
may be necessary to look searchingly for a reason when faced
with such a situation.
7.3 The deteriorating performance
106. Poor or deteriorating performances from the part of a pilot
may become particularly evident when he is on a new aircraft
type conversion course, or they may occur over a longish period
during periodic recurrent checks. This negative trend should be
questioned. It may be that lack of handling practice on modern
automated flight decks is the root cause of such deterioration in
manual dexterity. Attention must therefore be given to ‘positive
value training’ before and during the mandatory semi annual
handling proficiency test sessions, to halt and reverse such
negative trends in a pilot's ability to handle the aircraft accurately
when flying manually. On the other hand, a sudden failure may
bring to light an ongoing situation that should not have been
allowed but which could have developed because of many
reasons. Two in particular, need to be explored in the quest for a
possible explanation.

7.3.1 Training department responsibility
107. Insufficient positive action on the part of the instructor(s) at
some time, may have permitted continued operation while the
subject was below known acceptable standards. In this context, a
few possibilities come to mind.
a. Little or no criticism of the correct nature and at the right time
may have lulled the trainee into believing that he could
continue to let his operation slip, without fear of being
brought to task by the training team.
b. Outside influences might have been brought to bear on the
instructor and the pilot then cleared to continue on operations
when he was not up to the mark.
c. Misguided loyalty, or the call of friendship, allowing an
otherwise totally unacceptable performance to count as a pass.
108. In all cases the integrity of the training machine and its staff
would be open to question.
7.3.2 Special situations
109. The choice of candidate for training could be at fault. A
number of possible reasons come to mind.
a. The young pilot: Assigning a person who has insufficient
experience or with a low number of flying hours straight from
flying school, might be a reason why he cannot cope at first
with the handling of a large airliner.
b. The older man: A possible scenario is that of an older pilot
moved from, say, a three crew turbo-prop environment to a two
crew state-of-the-art jet operation. The move from an aircraft
he is very familiar with and operates quite acceptably in the
three-crew role on a route network he knows well, could be just
that little bit too much. Though a safe and competent operator
on the aircraft that he knows well, his ‘capacity bucket’, that is
his ability to assimilate information, might be such that
converting to the new environment might prove difficult. A jet
aircraft may be too much to handle if never flown before and
adaptation to a ‘glass cockpit’ two-crew operation not easy
because of more demanding standard operating procedures
and fewer hands to share the required duties. Such a situation
might force discontinuation of training and mean the return to
a previous fleet, if possible. In such circumstances, it might have
been better to avoid fleet transfer from the start, particularly
with a mature pilot of limited ability.
110. The alternative to an aircraft type conversion course in such
a case, would be to find good reason for continued operation on
the pilot’s current aircraft fleet, to avoid wasting time and money
spent on training and, most importantly, preventing hurt feelings
should the older candidate fail to make the grade.
111. An individual approaching retirement, or indeed (at any other
time), might be considered by training staff as being at the edge of
his comfort envelope and a marginal learner, though a competent
pilot in his present operational circle. If necessary, to make the offer
more palatable and with the pilot’s agreement, special
arrangements may be proposed, possibly including an additional
pay factor for not going on the new aircraft type conversion course.
Some form of added responsibility within his/her present fleet
might also be suggested as a reason for not offering a move. For a
variety of personal reasons, such an option could be particularly
attractive to a pilot who is looking for an acceptable alternative to
a move away from his/her present level of operational zone
comfort, with dignity and without humiliation.
112. If a personal family situation is not a reason to stay put, it is
always possible that however desirable the move to a new aircraft
type is, be it in monetary and/or personal ego terms, the pilot
concerned could be secretly feeling (indeed admitting, but not to
others) that the possibility of such a change was a bridge too far
THOUGHT TO PONDER
that it would be best not to cross. Such (but tacit) acceptance of
doubt about his ability to make the grade on a new aircraft might
make him a grateful (though not openly) non-candidate for
transfer. Provided that the reason for not moving carried no loss
of self-esteem or status in the eye of others, a deliberate side-step
could well be the best ‘way ahead’.
113. In such cases, suitable arrangements for leapfrogging
otherwise assignable pilots may need to be made, with no visible
loss of self-respect for the individuals concerned who would
simply carry on quite safely and efficiently in their now continued
environmental situation. Only the biblical wisdom of a King
Solomon can resolve certain human factors situations. Let honest
good judgment and fair play prevail when arriving at the best
solution in such emotionally difficult cases. To thine own self be
true ... always ... and stay guided to do unto others as you would
have others do unto you.
c. The difficult to teach pilot: As instructors, we must adapt,
compromise and be flexible, for we too must possess the desire
to broaden our sphere of professional knowledge and improve
our teaching skills. One becomes better at getting to
understand others in time, but for many imponderable reasons
that are not yet understood, some people just cannot relate to
one another. Not everybody necessarily gets on with everybody
else. Instructors must remember that on occasions a change of
tutor works wonders, if they themselves cannot achieve the
desired result with a certain person. This could be vital for the
success of a student and would be ESSENTIAL for the peace of
mind of his instructor. A change of scene (instructor?) may
sometimes become necessary for the good of all concerned.
114. That being said, one must however accept that, on occasion,
a pilot may need to be withdrawn from flying duties whether on
personal grounds, because of illness or due to professional
reasons, until the matter of his suspension has been resolved in a
satisfactory manner for all concerned.
8.0 THOUGHT TO PONDER
8.1 Nobody is perfect
115. Each one of us is a mixture of good and some perhaps notso-good
qualities. When considering our fellow man we should
remember his good qualities and realise that his faults only prove
that he is, after all, a human being. We should refrain from harsh
judgement just because he happens to be a dirty ... low-down ...
rotten ... no-good ... two-faced son of a bitch
… To conclude, this could be said to be part of what
‘human factors’ are all about.
9.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
116. Those who offered constructive criticism and comments when
the first draft of the original article was circulated in 1984 before
publication in Aerospace, the Royal Aeronautical Society’s monthly
magazine, are thanked. They are too many to mention by name
but the author must thank in particular, Monsieur Pierre Mantel
then of “Aeroformation” at Airbus Industrie in Toulouse, for an
idea that developed into the original paper. Captain P.A.F. Hogge
who was the Flight Training Manager of the British Airways B747
fleet at that time, must also be mentioned for his invaluable
assistance in refining the identification of student types.
Credits for other constructive comments received during the
production of this updated Guidance Document will be found in
the last Appendix.
April 2003
23

Flying training in Spain.
APPENDIX A
24
The human element in airline training
Appendix A
LOOKING AT TRAINING IN EUROPE UNDER JAA REGULATIONS
1.0 Raison d’être of training
While instructors now have to address the theory of teaching and
learning for their instructor rating, many are dismissive of inputs
from the ‘outside’ world of teaching and principles of the related
psychology.
This document for instructors (and examiners) mainly focuses on
training for licence type ratings, as opposed to recurrent airline
training and checking, although reference is made in various
parts to the continued need for training during operators’
proficiency checks, even under the new JAA regulations. The
feelings of those involved in both scenes are essentially the same
although the product is subtly different. On the one hand, a pilot
is taught how to operate a new aeroplane. On the other, the pilot
who was taught how to fly and operate the aircraft, now needs
refresher training to ‘remember’ and recover proficiency to deal
with rarely used emergency and abnormal procedures, during his
routine day-to-day normal operations. When so doing, the focus
of Airline pilot training should address the needs of both the
operator and the pilots. That focus should be on updating, as well
as maintaining, the competences required of the pilot
throughout his/her career. If this is not regularly done during
recurrent training sessions, when and how will it ever be
achieved?
The scope widens to include not only conversion training, but also
pre-command training and the operator’s recurrent training and
checking required by JAR-OPS as compared to JAR FCL rules. JAR-
OPS require the operator’s proficiency check (OPC) to be
undertaken twice as often as a licence type rating renewal for FCL
purposes. It must also be remembered that an airline pilot can
spend five, ten or more than even 20 years on a single type. It is
in this context that recurrent training is as vitally important to
continued safe operation as were the original licence and type
rating courses.
An early plea is made for recurrent testing to be an integral part
of the training process and a call is also made for the concept of
continuous assessment. However, it is the bureaucratic and
inflexible approach to the JAR FCL type rating renewal test that
drives the process in the opposite direction and promotes the
aggressive testing to induce failure approach (or check to chop).
It also encourages some senior management to see the
Proficiency Check (PC) as the regulatory imperative and only
obligation of ‘recurrent training’.
Some airlines complete the PC first, followed by recurrent and
refresher training in a resultant environment more conducive to
training objectives. The level of “Checkitis” which senior (older)
pilots develop is surprising. However on reflection, one can
recognise similar tendencies in the context of one’s own checks in
the past. Such psychological constraints, that certainly do inhibit
training returns of the ‘recurrent training’ variety, should be
avoided.
2.0 JAR OPS requirement
JAR OPS require “specific modular CRM training” and elements of
CRM to be integrated into all appropriate phases of recurrent
training and checking, to be conducted by personnel that is
suitably qualified or “Trained in CRM concepts and the assessment
of CRM skills.” While such CRM is focused on operating, some of
the concepts read across to the instruction function. The concept
of LOFT and its proper conduct requires the application of human
factors principles. Specifically, in accordance with JAR-OPS, the
CRM trainer qualification builds on the theoretical human
performance limitations (HPL) content of the licence and
additionally requires trainers to have received education in the
fields of group management, group dynamics and personal
awareness.”
3.0 Human factors pertinent to training
A lot of pilots only have a limited understanding of human factors
and cockpit or crew resource management. The meanings are not
explicit in the words used as a panacea for failures in human
intercommunication skills. Is there a need for new words to say
what is really intended by human factors, as applied to the
various aspects of the aviation scene? ICAO has produced some
documentation in the form of Digests on the subject of human
factor concepts including some material relevant to training and
evaluation and also on selection processes which may not be
quite relevant to instructor selection, but could be of help in
general terms. Information about these documents may be found
in the appendix on bibliography.
CRM and LOFT concepts were also addressed in one of the early
ICAO digests, with some references to the role of the instructor
during these training exercises that could be useful to new and
not-so-new instructors. As things stand even now, there still seems
to be a certain lack of comprehensive ‘human factors’ material
that addresses the evaluation function and the inter-relationship
between instructor and trainee. It is however recognised that, to
an extent, training in Human Factors matters is now better
served, in that much has been written on the subject by specialists
at large and by Regulatory Authorities such as the CAA in its
Guide to Performance Standards for Instructors of CRM Training
in Commercial Aviation. Reference to Bibliography will illustrate
the scope of information presently available to the compiler of
guidance material for the use of airline instructors who work at
the flight operations ‘coal face’.
4.0 Licensing — Consequence of lack of statement of purpose
Reference was made earlier, to the perceived focus of this
document (The human element in airline training) on licensing
aspects overall as opposed to the recurrent airline training and
checking scene, although training is also addressed albeit not in
the same depth.

Personnel Licensing Department staff of some State Regulatory
Authorities, seem to consider themselves as a group apart that is
working to their own regulatory imperative. JAR-FCL backs-up
this perception. They (the personnel licensing department
people) need to answer the questions “Licensed for what?” …
and … “training for what?”… when dealing with aircrew matters,
while retaining a pragmatic approach to the application of
published rules.
There is also a need for an in-depth description to better justify
the licensing concept. Words like “licensed to fly aeroplanes” (or
whatever), are unclear in the context of explaining their intent in
any detail. JAR-FCL does not identify the purpose and scope of
the licensing system. In parallel, JAR-FCL makes virtually no
reference to safety, with the only exception being the MCC course
where the aim is “to become proficient in multi-crew
co-operation (MCC) in order to operate safely multi-crew multiengine
aeroplanes” (AMC FCL 1.261(d)).
JAR FCL has extended a State’s obligation for the oversight of
licence privileges and ratings into maintenance of competency in
accordance with ICAO Annex 1, (at 1.2.5.1), by assuming directly
the oversight of the competency function, whereas Note 1 therein
indicates an acceptable means of compliance in accordance with
Annex 6. There now is considerable overlap between Annex 1
(1.2.5.1) and Annex 6 (9.4.4), with the pertinent exception that
the State does not assume the Operator’s responsibility.
Essentially, the State has authority over competence but does not
carry responsibility, which could be described as an undesirable
state of affairs.
While there is a high degree of commonality between JAR-FCL
and JAR-OPS, how can the trend not be towards the doctrinaire
application of the letter of the Regulation without any mitigation
of purpose or aim, when every Proficiency Check is treated as a
JAR-FCL test by ‘training captains’, formally designated as
TRIs/TREs.
5.0 Round up
Human factors need to be part of a coherent process. They must
be accounted for in the design of the aircraft, in the operating
procedures, in the operational environment, in training
procedures to achieve operational objectives and in the assurance
of competence to achieve the objectives of safety and accident
prevention.
Long before MCC, the question of crew integration in three-crew
procedures arose and was addressed in ‘The Sixties’. There was an
IATA technical conference dedicated to Human Factors in flight
operations in ‘The Seventies’. Human factors were raised and
supported in ICAO in ‘The Eighties’ when LOFT and CRM were
introduced to address operational problems and needs. JAR OPS
has provided for advanced qualification programmes to allow for
what looked like innovative training measures in ‘The Nineties’,
with varying levels of effectiveness. Progress is still slow as we
enter the next century because “Licensing Human Factors” have
barely crossed the threshold of perception in a time scale of over
quarter of a century, which is far too long to still be in such a
barren wilderness in human factors education terms.
Appendix B
APPENDIX B
CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
UK CAA CAP 737 APPENDIX — FACILITATION SKILLS
Courtesy of UK CAA, this CAP 737 extract is offered as a useful
reference and handy introduction to the subject of 'facilitation'
skills, which are explained in the text.
1.0 Introduction to facilitation skills
The following aims to explain why there is a need for facilitation,
what facilitation is and some of the skills required to use this
training technique, plus some general guidelines.
To be competent in any job a person requires a certain amount of
knowledge, an adequate level of skills, and the right set of
attitudes. This is true for doctors, hotel receptionists, lawyers,
footballers, soldiers, artists and of course flight crew. The role of
a trainer in any discipline is to help people develop their
knowledge, their skills and their attitudes so that they are able to
do their jobs well. In many of the professions the formal training
emphasis is often on developing knowledge and skills, with the
examination of competence almost exclusively concerned with
measuring knowledge and skills against a set of standards.
In aviation it is no different. The vast majority of training
resources and all formal examination have been aimed at
ensuring people have the appropriate knowledge and skills,
rather than the right attitudes. The fact that attitudes are
fundamental to competence has not been officially recognised,
even though incorrect attitudes are suspected to have
contributed to many of the major accidents — the ultimate
consequence of a lack of competence. The reason for this
omission is uncertain, but a reasonable assumption may be
because training and examining ‘attitudes’ have been less precise
and more difficult to carry out successfully.
CRM training has attempted, with variable success, to try and
redress the imbalance. Most experts and practitioners are in
agreement that the variability in the effectiveness of CRM
training is largely linked to the quality of the delivery and not the
content, and that training with a high degree of facilitation has
been more successful.
This can be explained by exploring the two main techniques that
are available to trainers, namely instruction and facilitation.
Instruction can be described as being primarily a telling activity,
where knowledge and skills are developed in trainees through
either direct communication or demonstration, with questioning
primarily used to check understanding or reinforce key messages.
Facilitation on the other hand, can be described as a technique
that helps trainees to discover for themselves what is appropriate
and effective, in the context of their own experience and
circumstances.
Both techniques are useful and have their place. In order to
transfer knowledge and many skills, instruction is the most
efficient technique to employ; it would be laborious and
unnecessary to teach a straightforward and precise subject such as
an electrical system using facilitation. Furthermore, instruction
can be used to train larger numbers of people, and is particularly
useful if only certain answers are acceptable.
On the other hand, trying to change people’s attitudes using
instruction as the technique, normally has limited success. People,
particularly adults, do not like being told how to behave and
April 2003
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26
The human element in airline training
Appendix B
what to think. There are rare occasions when a sharp ‘kick up the
backside’ delivered by the right person at the right time has the
desired effect, but in general, telling people to change their
attitude is not usually effective. This is particularly so if the person
doing the telling does not have the respect of the recipient, or
represents an authority that lacks credibility. Ironically, this is also
consistent with the instruction of positive behaviour, such as
‘keep up the good work’ which has been known to produce an
adverse reaction.
The reason for this is that a person’s behaviour is based on past
experiences, values and beliefs which will be different from those
of others. Therefore, telling people to behave differently carries
the implication that their values and beliefs are wrong, and this is
not convincing. People generally behave in a way that they think
is rational, and often find it easy to justify their behaviour to
themselves and others. However, what they may not be aware of
is the effects of their behaviour on other people or the operation;
and that an alternative behaviour, which does not question their
values but has a more positive effect, may be something they
might wish to consider.
The technique of facilitation allows this process to occur,
although it is not just for the poor performer nor for the
development of attitudes. Facilitation can be equally used to
reinforce effective behaviour because it gives people an
understanding of why they are good which encourages their
continued development. Furthermore it can be used in the
development of skills and even knowledge, because it is an
effective tool for allowing self-analysis and in depth thought,
which is an easier way for people to learn, as there is less recourse
to memory techniques. The skills of self-analysis are not just to get
the most from the training session, but can also be continually
used for self-development on the line.
Table 1. Differences between instruction and facilitation
INSTRUCTING FACILITATING
1. What do the words imply? Telling, showing Making easy,
enabling
2. What is the aim? Transfer Gain insight/selfknowledge
and analysis to
develop skills enable an
attitude change
3. Who knows the subject? Instructor Both
4. Who has the experience Instructor Both
5. What is the relationship? Top down Equal
6. Who sets the agenda Instructor Both
7. Who talks the most? Instructor Student
8. What is the timescale? Finite Infinite
9. Where is the focus? Instructor/task Student/attitudes
/behaviour
10. What is the workload? Medium/high Intense
11. What are trainers Judgemental Non-judgemental
thoughts?
12. How is progress evaluated? Test
Observation/Self-assessment
Dr Guy Smith, NWA
Notes on Table 1
1. Although instructors have used facilitation techniques
naturally for many years; in its purest sense instructing has a
lot to do with telling, demonstrating and checking that the
task is being done in accordance with a standard. Whereas
facilitation means that students are given the opportunity to
discover what they are doing and the effect it has on others
and the task, so that they can make the decision themselves to
alter their behaviour or even reinforce any positive behaviour.
This process should be made as easy as possible.
2. The principle purpose of instructing is to transfer knowledge
and skills efficiently, whereas with facilitation the principle
purpose is to encourage a change in attitude or behaviour by
the student gaining insight or becoming aware of what they
are doing, and being motivated to change. People tend to
only do things that they want to do; so telling people that
they are wrong and need to change is rarely effective. People
generally do not behave in a way that they think is wrong.
They are aware that others might disapprove, but they will
rationalise their behaviour as being appropriate under the
circumstances. Telling them that you think they are wrong
gives them no new information and often motivates them to
continue their current behaviour. The key is for them to
understand why others disapprove and the consequences of
continuing as they are.
3 & 4. When instructing, the trainer knows the subject and has
the experience, otherwise it would be a pointless exercise.
When facilitating both parties know the subject and have
the experience, particularly when discussing behaviour. In
fact, very competent facilitators are quite capable of being
effective without knowing the subject or having any
experience of it. In many respects this can be a useful
pointer to know when to change hats from being an
instructor to a facilitator. If you are certain that only you
have the relevant knowledge, and the student would find
it difficult to work it out for themselves in the time
available, then instructing is probably the most appropriate
technique to employ.
5. The relationship when instructing can be perceived as being
top down in that the instructor knows more than the student,
whereas when facilitating it must be apparently equal. A
common mistake by inexperienced trainers when facilitating
is to create the impression that they are in some way superior,
by implying they know more or have a better attitude.
6. The agenda when facilitating must be set by both parties if
the process of buy-in is to get the right start. Agreeing what
you are going to talk about and how you will go about it is an
important first step. A trainer can greatly assist the learning of
the session by summarising and giving meaning to the
students' discussions. It is still the instructor's responsibility to
ensure that all the training requirements are included in the
facilitative session.
7. One of the best measures of identifying which technique you
are using, whether it is instructing or facilitating, is to note
who is doing most of the talking. When facilitating students
need to be clear in their own minds and be able to self assess
what they are doing and the benefits of changing, it is
difficult to do this while trying to listen to a trainer passing
multiple messages.
8. The time taken to cover a subject when instructing tends to be
finite and consistent; whereas with facilitation the timescale is
indefinite. This does not mean that it takes forever, but that
the process of facilitation must be given sufficient time to
achieve its aim. The CRMI should not be worried about longer
debrief or exercise times, because the student’s concentration
period is much longer when they are actively involved in the
thinking and discussion rather than passively listening. In a
limited time period, such as a debrief, the process may need to
continue afterwards, while students try out new options back
at work. Conversely, if the aim is achieved in a few minutes,
the job is done and there is no point dragging out the
discussion.

9. The focus when instructing is often on the task and the
instructor — how well they are doing, did they get things in
order, are they being clear, is the equipment working, are they
on time. With facilitation the focus must be solely on the
student, their attitudes and behaviour, and whether they are
learning and are comfortable with the process that is being
used. The focus should also be on the student demonstrating
an understanding and willingness to change.
10. Because each student is different and it is difficult to read
people’s minds, the workload while facilitating is intense, and
more so in a group. The facilitator in this respect is having
several conversations simultaneously, both verbally and non
verbally, and having to think on their feet in reaction to what
is being said. With instructing the workload is high in
preparation and initial delivery, but then reduces over time as
the instructor becomes more familiar with the material.
11. Although the trainer’s observations and training objectives
are inevitably judgemental, in order to prompt a student’s self
analysis; the attitude of the trainer when facilitating a debrief
should be non-judgemental. In other words, he or she must be
prepared to accept that the opinion of the student is valid and
not necessarily wrong, even though the trainer’s own
experience dictates otherwise. This attitude is the most
difficult to achieve genuinely, particularly for trainers who
have spent many years instructing and ensuring things are
right.
12. The evaluation of an instructing session is relatively simple
and measured by test, where a judgement is made whether
the standard has been achieved. When facilitating evaluation
is made by observation only and the student’s self-assessment.
2.0 Facilitation skills
The skills required to use facilitation as a technique are as follows:
2.1 Questioning
Asking the right questions at the right time is a fundamental skill
of facilitation and these are the type of questions that can be
used.
Type Purpose Response Example
Open To get a more Unknown but ‘What, when,
accurate and they will say why, where,
fuller more than a who, how…’
response. few words.
Closed To check Can be ‘Yes’, ‘Did you, were
understanding ‘No’ or specific you, had
and to control data. you’…
the discussion.
Probing/building To obtain More in ‘Tell me more,
further depth why was that,
information. response. explain…’
Summarising To confirm Yes ‘Is what you
agreement mean, have
you agreed …’
Avoid:
a. Leading: ‘You did do that didn’t you, wouldn’t you agree
that…’
b. Multiple.
c. Rhetorical: ‘Who cares?’
d. Ambiguous
Appendix B
2.2 Listening
It has often been said that hearing is done with your ears whereas
listening is done with your mind. In this respect the term active
listening means that a person is concentrating carefully on what
is being said, so that they can really understand the other person.
This mnemonic helps to capture some key points:-
L Look interested
I Inquire with questions
S Stay on target
T Test understanding
E Evaluate the message
N Neutralise your thoughts, feelings and opinions
2.3 Body language
Reading body language and managing your own are essential
when facilitating. A trainer should be able to know when a
student is uncomfortable, confused, interested, distracted or
bored. Furthermore it is important that a trainer is able to
manage their own body language so that the messages they are
giving are accurate and consistent.
2.4 Observation of behaviour
The ability to observe and discuss behaviour and attitudes rather
than technical issues is an important skill that trainers need to
develop to become effective at facilitation. Also trainers should
have the ability to observe behaviour objectively against
established standards.
2.5 Role modelling
As attitude is an imprecise part of competency, there is no better
way of demonstrating appropriate behaviour than role
modelling. This is because the student can observe at first hand
what this behaviour is and experience the positive effects on
themselves. Furthermore, in order to maintain credibility as a
trainer in human factors, it is important that you behave to the
highest level of CRM standards.
2.6 Giving and receiving criticism
A trainer should be able to receive criticism well in order to
develop and be approachable. Furthermore, there may be
occasions when it is appropriate and constructive to give students
direct criticism and this must be carefully handled.
3.0 Continuous development
In order to ensure that you are able to continuously improve your
facilitation skills, the recommended method is to seek feedback
from those you are training. This must be done regularly and
genuinely, otherwise you may not be given anything useful - and
a measure of whether you are doing this well is whether you do
in fact get any criticism. If you find that people are not giving you
any criticism then the following may be occurring:-
a. You are perfect.
b. You have developed a reputation as someone who has
difficulty receiving criticism.
c. You are not respected enough to deserve being told.
April 2003
27

APPENDIX C
1.0 JAA/JAR LICENCES, TRAINING AND TESTING
28
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX C
1.1 Overview of pilot training under JAR-FCL rules
The Joint Aviation Authorities (JAR) represent the Civil Aviation
Departments of a group of European States who have
collaborated to set common safety standards called Joint Aviation
Requirements (JAR) in the areas of airworthiness, flight
operations and aircrew licensing. The JAR relating to Flight Crew
Licensing for aeroplanes (JAR-FCL1) and helicopters (JAR FCL2),
have now been formally adopted and implemented in the UK and
all future UK pilots will be issued with JAR-FCL licences by the UK
Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). Advantages of licences issued in
accordance with JAR-FCL is that they enable a holder to work as
a pilot in any JAA State that is also a member of the European
Union (EU) and where the EU freedom of employment legislation
applies, without the need for formal acceptance of the holder’s
licence by the State concerned. However, some European Airlines
impose entry requirements that are additional to the need for an
appropriate JAA flying licence and call for a National Certificate
of Education to a particular local standard and/or fluency in the
language of the State of the prospective employer airline.
1.2 Pilot licences and ratings requirements under
EU JAR-FCL Rules
Under the present European JAR system, there are three types of
‘aeroplane’ or ‘helicopter’ flying licences that can be obtained
after formal tuition at an approved flying training centre. The
licences are the Private Pilot Licence (PPL), the Commercial Pilot
Licence (CPL) and the Airline Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL).
Details of qualifications and training required to obtain a fixed
wing aircraft (Aeroplanes) pilot licence may be found in JAR-FCL1
and in JAR-FCL2 for Helicopters.
Pilots undergo rigorous and extensive training at Regulatory
Authority approved flying schools, leading to the issue of a
Private or Professional JAA licence. Professional pilot licence
training may either be on an ‘Integrated’ full time basis from
learning to fly until licence issue, or ‘Modular’ in concept where
attendance at a school is not continuous but phased. The UK CAA,
as the designated Regulatory Authority, approves UK flying
school courses, authorises instructors and examiners and issues all
JAA licences and the UK NPPL. Full details of courses can be
obtained directly from Flying Training Schools. A full listing of
currently JAA approved training centres (UK based or overseas)
may be obtained from the UK CAA Personnel Licensing
Department (PLD) at Aviation House, Gatwick Airport (South
area) and on the UK CAA FCL Internet website.
1.2.1 Private Pilot Licences
The Private Pilot Licence (Aeroplanes) (PPL (A)) is restricted to
recreational pilots and does not allow the holder to receive
remuneration for piloting other than for instructing or testing on
microlight aircraft or Self-launching Gliders. In addition to the
JAA PPL, the UK CAA has now introduced a National Private Pilot
Licence (NPPL) for recreational pilots who only wish to fly simple
aircraft types within the UK airspace. To exercise the privileges of
a private pilot licence, the holder must at least have a valid JAR-
FCL3 / Class 3 medical certificate and a current Class or Type rating
for the aircraft to be flown.
1.2.2 Professional Pilot Licences
The Commercial Pilot Licence and the Airline Transport Pilot
Licence are for professional pilots who seek remuneration in
commercial aviation. Holders of a CPL may act as pilot in
command of single-pilot aeroplanes (SPA) for commercial air
transport and as co-pilot generally. They may also act as pilot in
command (PIC) or co-pilot in any aeroplane engaged in
operations other than commercial air transport. An Instrument
Rating is necessary if operations under Instrument Flight Rules or
at night are contemplated.
An ATPL, of which the Instrument Rating is an integral part, is
mandatory for public transport airline flying. Provided the
theoretical knowledge elements of the ATPL exams are passed, a
CPL/IR licence that is issued after completion of an ATPL course is
known as a ‘frozen’ ATPL and will allow the holder to fly as copilot
in an airline. When at least 1,500 hours have been flown as
pilot, subject to various stipulations as to how the hours are
achieved, the holder is then issued with an unrestricted ATPL.
1.2.3 Aircraft Ratings
To exercise the privileges of a pilot licence, a valid JAR-FCL3
medical as applicable and a current Class or Type rating for the
aircraft to be flown are required. In general terms, Class ratings
apply to small piston engine or single engine turboprop
aeroplanes or helicopters, while a Type rating applies to most
other aircraft. The few exceptions can be found by reference to
JAR-FCL1, but this general rule, as expanded hereunder, will
suffice for the purpose of this guide. Applicants for a first singlepilot,
multi-engine, Class or Type rating shall have completed at
least 70 hours as pilot in command of aeroplanes.
Pilot licences include Aircraft Ratings that show what aeroplanes
the licence holder is allowed to fly, subject to the necessary
proficiency test(s) validity and flying currency. JAR-FCL1 Ratings
differentiate between Single Pilot Aeroplanes (SPA) that may be
single engine or multi engine aircraft and Multi pilot aeroplanes.
Single pilot aircraft ratings are either Type specific or they
indicate the CLASS of aircraft the holder is permitted to fly. Class
ratings established for single pilot aeroplanes that do not require
a type rating are:
Class (Single pilot) Description Test Examiner
validity
SE (land) Single-engine 24 months FE or CRE
piston (land)
SE (sea) Single-engine 24 months FE or CRE
piston (sea)
TMG Touring 24 months FE or CRE
Motor Glider
ME (land) Multi-engine 12 months CRE/TRE/FSE
piston (land)
ME (sea) Multi-engine 12 months CRE/TRE/FSE
piston (sea)
SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine 24 months CRE/TRE/FSE
turboprop (land)
SET (by manufacturer) Single-engine 24 months CRE/TRE/FSE
turboprop (sea)
■ A full list of aeroplane Class Ratings is contained in JAR-FCL 1,
Sub Part F, AMC FCL 1.215
■ Single pilot aeroplanes and multi pilot aeroplanes that
require Type Ratings are listed in JAR FCL 1, Sub Part F, AMC
FCL 1.220
■ Except for SE piston (land) and TMG Class ratings, all other
classes are mutually exclusive of each other and must be
revalidated individually according to JAR FCL requirements.
For aeroplanes other than those included in JAR-FCL1, Type
Ratings are individually established (by assessment) if the
aeroplane has:

a. A separate Airworthiness type certificate, and/or
b. Different minimum flight crew complements, and/or.
c. Handing characteristics that require additional flying or
simulator training.
1.2.4 Aircraft ratings for aeroplanes not covered by JAR FCL
requirements
Aircraft ratings not covered by the requirements of JAR-FCL1
include Self-launching motor gliders, Microlights, Powered
parachutes, Gyroplanes, Balloons, Airships, Helicopter type
ratings, or Flight Engineer.
The instructor and examiner structure for training and testing
pilots towards the issue and revalidation of these ratings is similar
to the JAR FCL system, if not the same.
1.2.5 Class and Type Rating Training centres
a. A Single engine Class Rating can be obtained at an Aero Club,
a Flying School or at a Flying Training Organisation (FTO) centre.
b. A Multi-engine Class Rating can only be obtained at an
approved Flying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type Rating
Training Organisation (TRTO).
c. An ‘Approved Type Rating’ Rating must be obtained at a
Flying Training Organisation (FTO) or Type Rating Training
Organisation (TRTO), if not at an approved airline in-house
training school.
1.2.6 Instrument Rating (IR) and Instrument Meteorological
Conditions (IMC) Rating
The Instrument Rating is probably the most daunting part of
obtaining a professional licence. The Initial Instrument Rating is
normally conducted by a Regulating Authority Instrument Rating
Examiner (Aeroplane or Helicopters), on the aircraft and in the
airspace of the State issuing the licence (respectively the UK CAA
in UK airspace for British licence holders, unless otherwise
arranged). Thereafter, Instrument Rating revalidations may be
carried out on an aeroplane by an Instrument rating examiner, a
suitably qualified Type rating examiner or a Class rating examiner.
Alternatively, a Synthetic Flight examiner may renew the IR on a
Flight Simulator certificated for the purpose. Note that a multiengine
IR is valid for single-engine aeroplanes but a multi-pilot IR
is not valid for single-pilot operations (and vice versa). In some
cases, the IR may be type-specific.
The Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating for JAR-
FCL Private Pilot licence holders allows them to fly in Class D and
E airspace in circumstances that require compliance with
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) but not on special VFR flights in
Control Zones when the flight visibility is less than 3km, or to take
off and land at any place if the flight visibility below cloud is less
than 1,800 metres. This rating may be revalidated by a suitably
qualified Authorised Examiner.
1.2.7 Class and Type Rating renewals
a. The renewal of a Class or Type rating is by way of a
proficiency test with an Authorised Class or Type Rating
Examiner or a Synthetic Flight Examiner if conducted in a
flight simulator. In the case of a single pilot class rating, the
examiner can be a Flight Examiner. A minimum number of
flying hours need to have been flown between proficiency
tests as part of the renewal procedure.
b. For Touring Motor Gliders (TMG) and Single Engine Pilots
(SEP), any CAA or JAA Authorised Examiner can sign the
revalidation on the basis of experience in the period
preceding the application for renewal.
APPENDIX C
1.2.8 Aircraft Ratings Period of Test Validity and Authorised
Examiners
Although some aircraft Class and Type Ratings are valid for 24
months, all Multi Pilot aeroplanes and a few specified single pilot
aeroplanes, such as the Piper Malibu and some Pilatus C series
turboprops, are subject to individual type ratings that are only
valid for 12 months.
1.3 Class and Type Rating instructors
In the UK, as from 1 January 2000, all training towards the issue
of a Type or Class rating on a National licence (or JAR FCL licence)
must be conducted by a Multi Pilot Aeroplane Type Rating
Instructor TRI (MPA) or a Single Pilot Aeroplane Class Rating
Instructor CRI (SPA), in accordance with JAR FCL1 (or JAR FCL2 as
the case may be).
2.0 JAA JAR FLIGHT INSTRUCTION & EXAMINING
2.1 The JAR-FCL Instructor and Examiner group structure
The JAA structure (for both fixed wing and rotary wing aircraft)
distinguishes between instructors and examiners. Instructors
teach how to fly and qualify for the issue of a licence and Class or
Type ratings, whether for single pilot or multi crew operation on
single-engine or multi-engine aircraft according to the terms of
their rating or authority. Examiners administer skill tests for the
issue and revalidation of flying licences and Class or Type and
other ratings, for Aeroplane or Helicopters. Licence Ratings that
require periodic renewal include the Instrument rating (IR), the
Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) rating, the
Microlight Class rating, the Self-launching motorised Glider
(SLMG), rating, the Night Qualification for PPL holders and other
ratings such as for towing and the Instructor/Examiner ratings or
authorisations described in the paragraphs that follow.
The current JAA JAR-FCL training and examining structure
requires that before becoming an examiner, a pilot must spend
time as an instructor. Prior to attending the required formative
course(s), instructors and examiners-to-be must have the
necessary flying experience and hold a valid pilot licence at least
equal to the licence with a current the rating(s) for the aircraft
which authority is sought to instruct or conduct skill and
proficiency checks.
To avoid duplication, only the Aeroplane (A) instructor and
examiner structure is covered in this appendix. In consequence
and for simplicity, the (A) suffix may be omitted from the
descriptive nomenclature of each rating. For example, Flight
Instructor (FI (A)) is shown as FI and the Class Rating Instructor
(CRI (A)) reads CRI. Helicopters have similar appointments albeit
not discussed.
2.1.1 Instructors
JAR FCL requires that all instructors undergo formal training. A
rating or authority is granted at the end of the instructor course,
after the aspirant is observed ‘in the instructor role’ by the
Regulatory Authority or an examiner approved by the Authority.
The various instructor ratings are:
a. Flight Instructor FI
b. Flight Instructor — Restricted) FI(R)
c. Class Rating Instructor CRI
d. Type Rating Instructor TRE
e. Instrument Rating Instructor IRI
f. Synthetic Flight Instructor SFI (Authorisation)
April 2003
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2.1.2 Examiners
30
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX C
Once a period has been served as an Instructor and the necessary
experience obtained, appointment as Authorised Examiner may
be sought to carry out Pilot Licence Class, Type and other ratings
skill tests or revalidations. In the UK, Instructor pilots must first
attend the CAA Standardisation ‘Core’ course and then pass a
practical test observed by a Regulatory Authority examiner before
being given an Examiner Authority. Examiner Authorities are
valid for not more than three years. Examiner Authority
revalidations are carried out by Regulatory Authority examiners.
Five roles of Authorised Examiner (AE) are recognised:
a. Flight Examiner FE
b. Type Rating Examiner TRE (aircraft) and/or
Synthetic Flight Examiner SFE
c. Class Rating Examiner CRE
d. Instrument Rating Examiner IRE
e. Flight Instructor Examiner FIE
2.1.3 Flight instruction versus Class and Type rating instruction
A first group of instructors and examiners relate to the aero club
and flying school world where single-pilot training is offered for
a first licence with (usually) a single-engine Class Rating. The
Flight Examiners (FE) in this group, conduct the necessary skill
tests for the issue of the licence with its rating(s) and the
subsequent proficiency checks for their revalidation. This first
group includes the Flying Instructor (FI), the Restricted Flying
Instructor (FI(R)), the Flying Examiner for Private Pilot Licence skill
tests (FE (PPL)), the Flight Examiner for an initial Commercial Pilot
Licence and its recurrent skill tests (FE (CPL)), the Class Rating
Instructor (CRI), the Class Rating Examiner (CRE) and the Class
Rating and Instrument Rating Examiner (CRE/IR). Single-pilot
multi-engine training is generally given by a FI or suitably rated
2.1.4 Aeroplane Instructor and Examiner activity spheres
CRI, and/or by instructors in the second group, who also teach
multi crew operations and crew resources management (CRM).
The second group is essentially oriented to multi engine flying.
Instructors and examiners in this group, teach the technicalities of
an aircraft, then train pilots to fly it on a flight simulator or on an
aircraft. Private Pilot Licence holders wanting to operate singlepilot
multi-engine aircraft and professional pilots on multi-engine
single-pilot or multi-crew operations, must train at an ‘approved’
Flying Training Organisation (FTO), a Type Rating Training
Organisation (TRTO) or an Airline (in-house) training section
where Synthetic Flight Instructors (SFI), Synthetic Flight Examiners
(SFE), Type Rating Instructors (TRI) and Type Rating Examiners
(TRE) who are also Instrument Rating Examiners (IRE) provide, as
a group, the necessary training input leading to the Skill Test for
pilots converting to a multi engine type and, thereafter, the
required recurrent revalidation of ratings.
This latter group of instructors and examiners belongs to the
airline environment. They provide conversion and continuation
training and proficiency checks for licence and ratings
revalidations as well as the periodic Operators Proficiency Check
(OPC) for Public Transport Operations. It is not necessary for
instructors-to-be in the ‘second group’ to hold the qualifications
of those in the ‘first group’ or to have any training and testing
experience, but such exposure may be considered a plus factor
when an airline selects suitably experienced pilots to join the
company training unit.
2.1.5 Summary of instructor and examiner group activities
Group 1
FI (R) Restricted Flying Instructor (PPL curriculum)
FI Flying Instructor (PPL and/or CPL curriculum)
FE (PPL) Flying Examiner Private Pilot Licence
Instruction Initial Recurrent IR or IMC REMARKS
Skill test Proficiency Revalidation
LICENCE
PPL & CPL FI (R) FE (PPL) FE (PPL) IRE Aero Club and/or
FI & IRI FE (CPL) FE (CPL) Flying School
CLASS RATINGS
1. SPA — single engine FI (R) FE (PPL) At flying school, or
FI FE (CPL) Aero club
CRI CRE CRE CRE/IR
IRI CRE/IR IRE CRE/IR IRE
FI or CRI CRE or TRE CRE or TRE Specified Types
SPA — multi engine CRI FE FE IRE At TRO or TRTO
SFI SFE SFE CRE/IR or in-house
TRI CRE or TRE CRE TRE/IR (Airline)
TYPE RATINGS
2. MPA — single engine SFI SFE SFE At TRO or TRTO
MPA — multi engine SFI/IRI SFE/IRE SFE/IRE SFE/IRE or in-house
TRI TRE TRE (Airline)
TRI/IRI TRE/IRE TRE/IRE TRE/IRE
TYPE RATINGS & OPERATORS PROFICENCY CHECKS
2a. MPA - Airline SFI SFE SFE Airline in-house
TRI SFE/IRE SFE/IRE SFE/IRE or at TRO/TRTO
TRE TRE (if approved
TRE/IRE TRE/IRE TRE/IRE suitable
arrangements exist)

The FE (PPL): Conducts the first type/class rating
skill test for the issue of a PPL
FE (CPL) Flying Examiner Commercial Pilot Licence
The FE (CPL): Conducts the first type/class rating
skill test for the issue of a CPL
IRI Instrument Rating Instructor
IRE Instrument Rating Examiner (FI or CRE)
CRI (SPA) Class Rating Instructor -Single-pilot, singleengine
or multi engine instructor
CRE (SPA) Class Rating Examiner
FIE Flight Instructor Examiner (teaches those
instructors-to-be, checks them out and
revalidates the FI (A) rating of qualified
instructors).
Group 2 (& 2a)
SFI Synthetic Flight (Simulator) Instructor
SFE Synthetic Flight (Simulator) Examiner
TRI (MPA) or FI Multi engine multi- crew instructor (also for
single pilot multi engine training)
TRE (MPA) Multi engine multi- crew examiner (also for
single pilot multi engine testing)
IRI Instrument Rating Instructor
IRE Instrument Rating Examiner
In the UK, CAA Authorised Examiners are classified as being
qualified for ‘Simulator only’, ‘Aeroplane only’ or ‘Aeroplane and
Simulator’. An aeroplane authorisation is further qualified as
‘permitting’ (or ‘not permitting) asymmetric testing in an aircraft
in flight’.
Note 1: A ‘Skill’ test is a demonstration of knowledge and skill
and includes an oral aeroplane technical examination for
initial single-engine aeroplane class ratings whereas
initial single-pilot multi engine Type ratings are the
subject of a written examination.
Note 2: A ‘Proficiency check’ is a demonstration of continuing
knowledge and skill to revalidate or renew a rating and
includes an oral aeroplane technical examination both
for single engine or multi engine aeroplanes rating
renewals.
3.0 INSTRUCTOR QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS AND
PRIVILEGES
3.1 General
Training towards the issue of a JAR-FCL pilot licence must be
conducted by authorised Flight Instructors. Class Rating
Instructors (CRI (SPA)) or Type Rating Instructors (TRI (MPA)) must
conduct training for the issue of a Class or Type rating on a JAR-
FCL licence (or National licence), to satisfy JAR-FCL. Furthermore,
training for Single Pilot Aircraft (SPA) Class ratings and other
aircraft Type ratings may also be conducted by a suitably
Qualified Flight Instructor (FI (A)).
3.1.1 Minimum Age
An applicant for a Flight Instructor rating shall be at least 18 years
of age. It follows that examiners will also be not less than 18 years
old under JAA/JAR-FCL rules.
3.1.2 Validity
Instructor ratings, like Examiner Authorisations, are valid for
three years.
APPENDIX C
3.1.3 Prerequisites and appointment arrangements
All instructors shall hold at least the licence, rating and
qualifications for which instruction is to be given (unless specified
otherwise) and shall be entitled to act as pilot-in-command of the
aircraft during such training or examining.
Provided that they meet the qualifications and experience
requirements set out in JAR-FCL 1 (or JAR-FCL 2 for helicopters)
for each role undertaken, instructors are not confined to a single
role as Flight Instructors (FI), Type rating instructors (TRI), Class
rating instructors (CRI) or Instrument rating instructors (IRI).
Applicants for further instructor ratings may be credited with the
teaching and learning skills already demonstrated for the
instructor rating held.
Holders of a National Flight Instructor rating obtained prior to
the introduction of the JAR-FCL requirements must demonstrate
their knowledge of JAR-FCL and JAR-OPS as part of the reappointment
procedure.
The Initial experience and course requirements for the various
ratings and authorities, with privileges are:
3.2 Flight Instructor Aeroplanes — FI (A)
3.2.1 Experience and qualification requirements
An applicant for the initial issue of a Flight Instructor rating shall
have at least a CPL (A) or completed at least 200 hours flight time
of which at least 150 hours shall be as pilot-in-command (PIC) if
holding a PPL (A). In addition, the applicant must:
a. Meet the knowledge requirements for a CPL as set out in JAR
FCL1.
b. Have completed at least 30 hours on single engine piston
powered aeroplanes of which at least 5 hours shall have been
completed in the six months preceding the pre entry flight
test.
c. Receive at least 10 hours instrument flight instruction of which
not more than 5 hours may be instrument ground time in a
flight procedures trainer or a flight simulator.
d. Complete at least 20 hours of cross country flights as PIC
including a flight totalling not less than 540km (300nm) in the
course of which a full stop landing at two different
aerodromes shall be made; and
e. Pass a specific pre-entry flight test based upon the appropriate
JAR-FCL 1 proficiency test, with a Flight Instructor qualified as
in JAR-FCL1, within the six months preceding the start of the
course. The flight shall assess the ability of the applicant to
undertake the course.
3.2.2 FI (A) Course
Before being issued with a FI rating, an applicant for that rating
shall have completed an approved course of theoretical
knowledge, instruction and flight training at an approved flying
training organisation.
The course is intended to train the applicant to give instruction on
single-engine aeroplanes up to PPL standard. Flight instruction
shall comprise at least 30 hours of flight training of which 25
hours shall be dual flight instruction. The remaining 5 hours may
be mutual flying, that is, two applicants flying together to
practise flight demonstrations. Of the 25 hours, not more than 5
hours may be conducted in a flight simulator (FNPT II) approved
for the purpose by the Regulatory Authority. The skill test is
additional to the course training time.
Finally, an applicant shall demonstrate to an examiner notified by
April 2003
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32
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX C
the Authority for this purpose, the ability to instruct a student
pilot to the level required for the issue of a PPL, including preflight,
post-flight and theoretical knowledge instruction.
3.2.3 Privileges and provisos
The privileges of the holder of an unrestricted FI (A) rating are to
conduct flight instruction for:
a. The issue of a PPL (A) and class and type ratings for single
engine aeroplanes, provided that for type ratings the FI(A) has
completed not less than 15 hours on the relevant type in the
preceding 12 months.
b. The issue of a CPL (A); provided that the FI(A) has completed
at least 500 hours of flight time as pilot of aeroplanes,
including at least 200 hours of flight instruction.
c. Night flying.
d. The issue of an Instrument Rating, provided that the instructor
has:
i. At least 200 hours of flight time in accordance with
Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), of which up to 50 hours may be
instrument ground time in a flight simulator; and
ii. Completed as a student an approved course comprising at
least 5 hours of flight instruction in an aeroplane, flight
simulator or other approved device and has passed the
appropriate FI(A) Skill Test.
e. The issue of a single pilot multi engine type or class rating
provided that the instructor meets the requirements for CRI
(SPA)
f. The issue of a FI (A) rating provided that the instructor:
i. Has completed 500 hours of instruction in aeroplanes.
ii. Has demonstrated to a FI(A) examiner the ability to instruct
a student FI(A) during an appropriate skill test.
iii. Is authorised by the Regulatory Authority for this purpose.
3.2.4 Limitations
Certain limitations apply until the necessary experience has been
obtained while acting as a Restricted Flight Instructor FI(R) under
the supervision of a fully qualified FI(A), before the restriction
clause is removed from the holder's Instructor rating by the
Regulatory Authority.
After the initial issue of a FI (A), restricted privileges apply until
the completion of at least 100 hours flight instruction plus the
supervision of at least 25 student solo flights. To conduct flight
training for the issue of professional pilots licences, the FI is
required to have completed a minimum of 500 hours flying of
which not less than 200 hours must have been spent carrying-out
flight instruction.
3.2.5 Broadening the scope of the initial Flight Instructor Rating
Further ratings are required in respect of night flying instruction,
IR instruction, single-pilot multi-engine instruction and
instruction for the FI rating itself. Finally there is the Flight
Instructor Examiner (Aeroplanes) who conducts skill tests and
proficiency checks for the issue or revalidation of the FI (A).
He/she is required to have at least 2,000 flying hours in aeroplanes
and not less than 100 hours of flight time instructing potential FIs.
3.2.6 Revalidation and renewal
To revalidate a FI(A), the holder shall fulfil two of the following
three requirements:
a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the
period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours of
flight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry date
of the FI rating. Of the 30 hours, 10 hours shall be instruction
for an Instrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR are
to be revalidated.
b. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the FI
rating, attend a FI refresher seminar approved by the
Regulatory Authority.
c. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the FI
rating, pass the appropriate skill test set out in JAR-FCL1 (or 2),
as a ‘proficiency check’.
If the rating has lapsed for less than 5 years the applicant shall
meet the requirement under (b) and (c) within 12 months
preceding renewal. Refer to CAA FCL if lapse is more than 5 years.
3.3 Class Rating Instructor — Single Pilot Aeroplanes
— CRI (SPA)
To become a CRI (SPA) it is necessary to attend an approved course
conducted by a ‘Flying Instructor Course Approved instructor’ at a
Flying Training organisation (FTO) that holds the necessary
approval to conduct this course.
3.3.1 Experience and qualification requirements
— Single engine aeroplanes
An applicant for the issue of a CRI (SPA) rating for single-engine
aeroplanes shall have:
a. Completed at least 300 hours flight time as a pilot of
aeroplanes.
b. Completed at least 50 hours of flight time on the applicable
type or class of aeroplane within the 12 months preceding the
application.
c. Completed an approved course of at least three hours flight
instruction on the aeroplane or a flight simulator given by an
instructor approved for this purpose; and
d. Passed the appropriate skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and
2 to JAR-FCL 1.330 & 1.345.
Before the privileges of the rating are extended to another type
or class of aeroplane, the holder shall, within the past 12 months,
have completed at least 50 hours flight time on aeroplanes of the
applicable class or type or similar type as agreed by the Authority.
3.3.2 Experience and qualification requirements
— Multi-engine aeroplanes
An applicant for the issue of a CRI (SPA) rating for multi-engine
aeroplanes shall have:
a. Completed at least 500 hours flight time as a pilot of
aeroplanes;
b. Completed at least 50 hours as pilot-in-command on the
applicable type or class of aeroplane within the 12 months
preceding the application.
c. Completed an approved course including at least five hours
flight instruction on the aeroplane or a flight simulator, given
by an instructor approved for this purpose; and
d. Passed a skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and 2 to JAR-FCL
1.330 & 1.345.
3.3.3 Privileges and provisos
The privileges of the holder of a CRI (SPA) rating are to instruct
licence holders for the issue of a type or class rating for singlepilot
aeroplanes. The holder may instruct on single-engine or
multi- engine aeroplanes subject to being appropriately qualified.
3.3.4 Revalidation and renewal
For revalidation of a CRI (SPA) rating the applicant shall within
the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the rating:
a. Conduct at least 10 hours instructional time; or
b. Conduct refresher training to the satisfaction of the Authority; or
c. Receive ‘refresher’ training as a CRI (A).

If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall have within the 12
months preceding the application:
a. Received refresher training as a CRI (A) to the satisfaction of
the Authority; and
b. Passed as a proficiency check the relevant part (i.e. ME or SE)
of the skill test set out in Appendix 1 to JAR-FCL 1.330 & 1.345.
3.4 Type Rating Instructor — Multi Pilot Aeroplanes
— TRI (MPA)
To become a TRI (MPA) it is necessary to attend a relevant course
at an Approved Training Organisation, or a Type Rating Training
Organisation, or to undergo an Operator in-house training
programme.
3.4.1 Experience and qualification requirements
An applicant for the initial issue of a TRI (MPA) rating shall have:
a. Completed at least 1,500 hours flight time as a pilot of multipilot
aeroplanes;
b. Completed within the 12 months preceding the application at
least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings as
pilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplane
type, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which not
more than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator;
and
c. Successfully completed an approved TRI course; and
d. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one part
related to the duties of a TRI on the applicable type of
aeroplane under the supervision and to the satisfaction of a
TRI notified by the Authority for this purpose.
Before the privileges are extended to further MPA types, the
holder shall have:
a. Completed, within the 12 months preceding the application, at
least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings as
pilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplane
type, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which not
more than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator;
b. Satisfactorily completed the relevant technical training
content of an approved TRI course (see AMC FCL 1.365); and
c. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one part
related to the duties of a TRI(MPA) on the applicable type of
aeroplane under the supervision of a TRI notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
3.4.2 Privileges and provisos
To instruct pilot licence holders for the issue of a multi (engine)
type rating, including the instruction required for Multi Crew
Co-operation (MCC).
3.4.3 Revalidation and renewal
For revalidation of a TRI (MPA) rating, the applicant shall within
the last 12 months preceding the expiry date of the rating:
a. Conduct one of the following parts of a complete type
rating/refresher/recurrent training course:
i. One simulator session of at least 3 hours; or
ii. One air exercise of at least 1 hour comprising a minimum of
2 take-offs and 2 landings; or
b. Receive refresher training as a TRI conducting simulated
training, acceptable to the Authority.
3.4.5 Lapsed ratings
If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall have:
a. Completed within the 12 months preceding the application at
least 30 route sectors, to include take-offs and landings as
APPENDIX C
pilot-in-command or co-pilot on the applicable aeroplane
type, or a similar type as agreed by the Authority, of which not
more than 15 sectors may be completed in a flight simulator.
b. Successfully completed the relevant parts of an approved TRI
(MPA) course, agreed by the Authority, taking into account the
recent experience of the applicant; and
c. Conducted on a complete type rating course at least one part
related to the duties of a TRI (MPA) on the applicable type of
aeroplane under the supervision of a TRI notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
3.5 Instrument Rating Instructor (Aeroplane) — (IRI (A))
3.5.1 Experience qualifications and requirement
An applicant for an IRI (A) rating shall have:
a. Completed at least 800 hours flight time under IFR.
b. Successfully completed an approved course comprising
theoretical knowledge instruction and at least ten hours of
flight instruction on an aeroplane, flight simulator or FNPT II;
and
c. Passed a skill test as set out in Appendices 1 and 2 to JAR-FCL
1.330 & 1.345.
3.5.2 Privileges
The privileges of the bolder of an IRI (A) rating are limited to
conduct flight instruction for the issue of an Instrument Rating
IR(A).
3.5.3 Revalidation and renewal
To revalidate a IRI (A), the holder shall fulfil two of the following
three requirements:
a. Complete at least 100 hours of flight instruction during the
period of validity of the rating, including at least 30 hours of
flight instruction in the 12 months preceding the expiry date
of the FI rating, of which 10 hours shall be instruction for an
Instrument Rating, if the privileges to instruct for IR are to be
revalidated.
b. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRI
rating, attend a FI/IRI refresher seminar approved by the
Regulatory Authority.
c. Within the 12 months preceding the expiry date of the IRI
rating, pass the appropriate skill test as a ‘proficiency check’.
If the rating has lapsed, the applicant shall meet the requirement
under (b) and (c) above before the Regulatory Authority can look
to grant a renewal of the rating.
3.6 Synthetic Flight Instructor Aeroplanes (Authorisation)
SFI (A)
3.6.1 Experience qualifications and requirements
An applicant for a SFI (A) authorisation shall hold or have held a
professional pilot licence issued by a JAA Member State or a non
JAR-FCL licence acceptable to the Authority and:
a. Have completed the simulator content of the applicable typerating
course.
b. Have at least 1,500 hours flying experience as pilot on multipilot
aeroplanes.
c. Have completed an approved TRI (A) course (see AMC FCL
1.365).
d. Have conducted on a complete type rating course at least one
part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type of
aeroplane under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
e. Within a period of 12 months, have completed a proficiency
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The human element in airline training
APPENDIX C
check on a flight simulator of the applicable type, as set out in
JAR-FCL 1, and
f. Within a period of 12 months, have completed at least three
route sectors as an observer on the flight deck of the applicable
type.
If the privileges are to be extended to further types of multi-pilot
aeroplanes the holder shall have:
a. Satisfactorily completed the simulator content of the relevant
type rating course; and
b. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one
part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type of
aeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
3.6.2 Privileges
The privileges of the holder of a SFI (A) authorisation are to carry
out synthetic flight instruction on a flight simulator for type
ratings, including the instruction required for multi-crew
co-operation.
3.6.3 Revalidation and renewal
For revalidation of a SFI (A) authorisation — The applicant
shall within the last 12 months of the validity period of the
authorisation:
a. Conduct one of the following parts of a complete type
rating/refresher/recurrent training course :
i. One simulator session of at least 3 hours; or
ii. One exercise of at least 1 hour comprising a minimum of 2
take-offs and 2 landings; or
b. Receive refresher training as a TRI (A) conducting simulated
training acceptable to the Authority.
If the authorisation has lapsed — The applicant shall have:
a. Completed the simulator content of the applicable type-rating
course;
b. Successfully completed an approved TRI (A) course as agreed
by the Authority; and
c. Conducted during a complete type rating course, at least one
part related to the duties of a TRI (A) on the applicable type of
aeroplane, under the supervision of a TRI (A) notified by the
Authority for this purpose.
4.0 EXAMINER QUALIFICATION REQUIREMENTS AND
PRIVILEGES
4.1 General
4.1.1 Period of validity
An examiner’s authorisation is valid for not more than three
years. Examiners are re-authorised by and at the discretion of the
Authority.
4.1.2 Pre-requisites
a. Examiners shall hold a licence and rating at least equal to the
licence or rating for which they are authorised to conduct skill
tests or proficiency checks and, unless specified otherwise, the
privilege to instruct for this licence or rating.
b. Examiners shall be qualified to act as pilot-in-command of the
aircraft during a skill test or proficiency check and shall meet
the applicable experience requirements.
c. Where no qualified examiner is available and, at the discretion
of the Authority, examiners/ inspectors may be authorised
without meeting the relevant instructor/type/class rating
requirements mentioned above.
d. Examiners shall not test applicants to whom flight instruction
has been given by them for that licence or instrument rating,
except with the expressed consent in writing of the Authority.
e. The applicant for an examiner authorisation shall have
conducted at least one skill test in the role of an examiner for
which authorisation is sought, including briefing, conduct of
the skill test, assessment of the applicant to whom the skill test
is given, de-briefing and recording/documentation. This
‘Examiner Authorisation Acceptance Test’ will be supervised by
an inspector of the Authority or by a senior examiner
specifically authorised by the Authority for this purpose.
4.1.3 Multiple roles
Provided that they meet the qualification and experience
requirements set out in the relevant JAR FCL document for each
role undertaken, examiners are not confined to a single role as FE
(A), TRE (A), CRE (A), IRE (A) or FIE (A).
4.1.4 Compliance with JARs
The examiner shall comply with appropriate examiners’
standardisation arrangements made or approved by the
Authority.
4.1.5 Entries in the licence
In licences where revalidation entries may be made by the
examiner, the examiner will:
a. Make the following entries: Rating(s), date of check, valid
until, authorisation number and signature; and
b. Submit the original of the skill-test check-form to the issuing
Authority and hold one copy of the check form on a personal
(to the examiner) file.
4.2 Flight Examiner Aeroplanes (FE (A))
4.2.1 Privileges
The privileges of a FE (A) are to conduct skill tests for the issue of
a pilot’s licence, including associated type/class ratings.
4.2.2 Experience and qualification requirements
Applicants for a Flight Examiner Authority must have the
following experience:
a. For the conduct of PPL (A) skill tests, applicants must have
completed not less than 1,000 hours flight time as a pilot of
aeroplanes, including not less than 250 hours of flight instruction.
b. For the conduct of CPL (A) skill tests, applicants must have
completed not less than 2,000 hours flight time as a pilot of
aeroplanes, including not less than 250 hours of flight
instruction.
4.3 Type Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (TRE (A))
4.3.1 Privileges
The privileges of a TRE (A) are to conduct:
a. Skill tests for the issue of type ratings for multi-pilot
aeroplanes.
b. Proficiency checks for revalidation of multi-pilot type and
instrument ratings.
c. Skill tests for ATPL issue.
To be eligible for appointment as a Type Rating Examiner (A) an
applicant must:
a. Have completed not less than 1,500 hours of flight time as a
pilot of multi-pilot aeroplanes of which at least 500 hours shall
be as pilot-in-command; and
b. Hold or have held a TRI (A) authorisation.

4.4 Class Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (CRE (A))
4.4.1 Privileges
The privileges of a CRE (A) are to conduct:
a. Skill tests for the issue of class and type ratings for single-pilot
aeroplanes.
b. Proficiency checks for revalidation of class and type ratings for
single-pilot aeroplanes and revalidation of instrument ratings;
4.4.2 Experience and qualification requirements
To be eligible for appointment as a Class Rating Examiner
(Aeroplanes), an applicant must:
a. Hold a professional pilot licence; and
b. Have completed not less than 500 hours as a pilot of
aeroplanes.
4.5 Instrument Rating Examiner — Aeroplane (IRE (A))
4.5.1 Privileges
The privileges of an IRE (A) are to conduct skill tests for the initial
issue and proficiency checks for the revalidation of instrument
ratings.
4.5.2 Experience and qualification requirements
To be eligible for appointment as Instrument Rating Examiner
(Aeroplanes), an applicant must
a. Have completed not less than 2,000 hours of flight time as a
pilot of aeroplanes.
b. Have, in that total, not less than 450 hours flight time under
IFR of which 250 hours shall be as a flight instructor.
4.6 Synthetic Flight Examiner — Aeroplane (SFE (A))
4.6.1 Privileges
The privileges of an SFE (A) are to conduct type and instrument
rating proficiency checks for multi-pilot aeroplanes, in a flight
simulator.
4.6.2 Experience and qualification requirements
To be eligible for appointment as Synthetic Flight Examiner
(Aeroplanes), an applicant must:
a. Hold a current ATPL (A)
b. Have completed not less than 1500 hours of flight time as a
pilot of multi-pilot aeroplanes; and
c. Be entitled to exercise the privileges of a Synthetic Flight
Instructor SFI (A); that is to carry out synthetic flight instruction
on a flight simulator for type ratings, including the instruction
for multi-crew co-operations (MCC).
4.6.3 Attention is particularly drawn to 4.6.1 regarding Synthetic
Flight Examiners’ qualification requirements. The fundamental
difference between Synthetic Flight Instructors and Synthetic
Flight Examiners is that Synthetic Flight Instructors may hold or
have held a professional pilot licence as part of the experience
and qualifications requirements for instructors (3.6.1 refers),
whereas a Synthetic Flight Examiner shall hold a valid Airline
Transport Pilot Licence (ATPL).
4.7 Flight Instructor Examiner — Aeroplane (FIE (A)
4.7.1 Privileges
The privileges of an FIE (A) are to conduct skill tests and
proficiency checks for the issue and revalidation of flight
instructor ratings.
APPENDIX C
4.7.2 Experience and qualification requirements
To be eligible for appointment as a Flight Instructor Examiner, an
applicant must:
a. Have completed not less than 2000 hours as a pilot of
aeroplanes; and
b. Have in that total, not less than 100 hours flight-time
instructing applicants for a FI (A) rating.
4.8 Curtailment of privileges
The age limitation for public transport operations as pilot-incommand
also applies to examiners. For all licensing purposes in
UK, pilots beyond the age of 65 may no longer act as examiner to
conduct skill tests or proficiency checks on aeroplanes or
simulators, although they may continue to act as instructors on a
simulator.
APPENDIX D
1.0 REQUIRED READING FOR INSTRUCTORS AND
EXAMINERS (SUMMARY)
1.1 The United Kingdom Air Navigation Order and Regulations
(CAP 393)
ANO Article 21 to 29
ANO Article 34
ANO Article 129 — Definitions
ANO Schedule 8 — Parts B & C
ANO Schedule 10 — Parts B & C
1.2 Rules of the Air Regulations (CAP 393 — Section VI)
1.3 JAR OPS and JAR FCL 1 (and FCL2 as appropriate) in general,
but in particular
JAR OPS JAR OPS JAR FCL 1* JAR FCL 1*
1.125 1.940 1.010 AMC 1.220
1.130 1.945 1.015 1.300
1.210 1.950+IEM 1.175 1.360
1.225 1.965+AMC 1.180 1.365
1.230 1.968 1.185 1.370
1.290 1.970+AMC 1.215 1.405
1.360 1.975 1.220 1.410
1.400 1.980 1.225 1.420
1.405 1.985+IEM 1.235 1.425
1.410 App 1/1.965 1.240 1.440
1.430 1.1040 1.245 AMC 1.425
1.435 1.1045 1.250 IEM 1.425
1.465 1.260
App 1/1.430 1.261
App 2/1.430 1.262
App 1/1.465 App 1/1.240
IEM app 1/1.430 App 3/1.240
*and the equivalent paragraphs in JAR-FCL2, for helicopter
operations
1.4 ICAO PANS OPS Document 8168
Part 3 Chapter 3 Approach segments
Chapter 4 Circling
Part 4 Chapter 1 In-flight Procedures
1.5 UK Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)
Get to know the general layout, its sections and their
content
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The human element in airline training
APPENDIX D
1.6 UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (available on web site
http://www.ais.org.uk)
White 17/98 126/98 41/99 115/99 138/99
65/02
Pink 11/98 36/98 141/98 52/99 98/99 140/99
36/02
Yellow 35/98 71/98 14/99
86/02
But in particular, asymmetric training and practise engine shutdowns
in the air
(AIC 52/1999 — Pink 193) as amended.
1.7 Flight Operations Communications FODCOM 10/99
1.8 The contents of CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or
24 as appropriate to the Examiner Rating sought.
2.0 NEED-TO-KNOW FOR AUTHORISED EXAMINERS
2.1 The Air Navigation Order (ANO)
a. Definition of Terms (Article 129)
b. Schedule 8 (In detail), to include
i. Privileges of Licences.
ii. Initial licence ratings requirements.
iii. Maintaining validity of Ratings according to intended use.
iv. Certificates of Test/Check (C of T/C), Certificate of
Experience (C of E) or of Revalidation. (Establish
applicability for intended use)
v. Ratings Renewal Test Requirements.
vi. Effective dates of tests and validity of C of T/C, C of E or
Revalidation.
vii. The Instrument Rating Renewal; details of test content.
viii. Type Rating Forms 1179/1180 details (with emphasis on
appended Notes).
ix. General Exemptions relating to ANO Articles, such as the
one regarding the validity of tests, to satisfy JAR periodic
test expiry (Now 12 months).
c. Schedule 10 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23 and/or
24 to include
i. Training and Tests for crews engaged in Public Transport
Operations.
ii. General training and tests content requirements.
iii. Effective dates for tests and validity of each Test.
2.2 CAP 360 and CAA Standards Documents 14, 17, 23,and 24.
a. Test requirements in detail, with particular emphasis on the
Operators Proficiency Check (OPC).
b. Engine Failure at Take-off; maximum speed for initiation
during training
i. On an aircraft;
ii. In a simulator; and
iii. VMCG corrections in a cross-wind (Source: CAA Flight Test
Department).
2.3 Combined Schedule 8 and 10 tests (with a training input to
satisfy Schedule 10) need to be discussed, to understand how
PASS/FAIL becomes diffused by the training element.
2.4 National Aeronautical Information Publication (UK/AIP) —
Consult the RAC section for the ‘Legal description’ of letdowns
as the final arbiter of how correct is a let down chart.
2.5 Rules of ATC and State AIP requirements
a. Altimeter settings.
b. Quadrantal heights and RVSM aspects affecting operations
above FL 290.
c. Transition Altitudes.
d. Individual airfields Approach, Circling and Missed Approach
Procedures.
e. NDB let downs; Noise considerations below 2,000 feet on final
approach.
f. IFR / IFR and special VFR
g. Transponder codes normal/emergency
h. Filing of ATC flight plans to include Alternate(s)
i. Danger Areas
j. Radio equipment and Failure procedures
k. General MNPS requirements and NAT procedures
l. Rules of Thumb: 1 in 60 rule, wind drift assessment, estimating
ground speed and time to a station (e.g. VOR with DME) using
indicated Mach Number et al.
2.6 Aerodrome Operating Minima (AOM)
a. Definitions of OCL, OCA, and the calculation of DH/A, MDH/A.
b. Self-calculations of AOMs.
c. Approach Bans.
d. Circling Minima.
e. AOM requirements for operations that are not Public
Transport.
f. Aircraft AOM Category depends upon Vat at maximum
certificated landing weight.
2.7 Simulator Approvals — Terms of Approval
a. All Initial and recurrent Training and Testing and
i. Initial Line checks.
ii. Low Visibility Operations.
b. Who can use the simulator as
i. Trainee;
ii. Instructor and/or examiner.
c. Conditions of use (of simulator).
2.8 Checking of Licences and Validity of Test(s) calculations
2.9 Assessing tests
a. Tolerances — (Accept performance or reject)
b. Application of Tolerances.
c. Legal interpretation of let down is in National AIP; not the let
down chart.
2.10 Specific Test Detail Aspects
a. The Holding pattern (as per ICAO Pans-Ops document 8168)
i. Entrance to the Holding pattern; and
ii. The Holding pattern itself; timing of leg and differences
from ICAO
b. Procedure turns (as per ICAO Pans-Ops document 8168).
c. Differences between similar entries to holding patterns and
procedure turns.
d. Minimum Rates of Climb or of Descent.
e. ILS beam widths vary according to runway length.
f. Glide Path asymmetry; not equal above and below nominal
glide path.
g. Other precision approach aids (MLS, GPS).
h. Let downs are drawn and all times are given for still air
conditions.
i. Care to ensure symmetry in fuel usage remains within limits
during training.
j. DME defined Turning points for a SID
i. Co-located DME serving two ILS runway-ends, to be used
with care.
ii. Use timing to turning point if DME is not available.
2.11 Examiner Technique. Establish proposed technique and
discuss

a. Briefing
b. Recording
c. Assessing
d. De-briefing
2.12 The Regulatory Authority must be satisfied that an
Authorised Examiner AE has the required standard of
knowledge. In addition, an inspector visiting to observe an
AE for appointment or for the renewal of an Authority will
pay particular attention to the following
a. Briefing preparation and general contents.
i. Pre-briefing
Preparation: Conduct of preliminaries;
Charts available.
ii. During briefing
Style Staying relaxed.
Pace Speed of Briefings satisfactory.
Presentation of charts as necessary
Presentation Voice (clear)
Attitude (not aggressive).
Pauses.
Participation Asking candidates questions
NOTE: The HARD MAN attitude is NOT ON
Examiners must be Firm but Fair; also
Examiners must retain a Friendly approach.
b. Recording: The inspector will confirm that a suitable test
progress record form is used and that shorthand is clear.
c. Assessing: The inspector will expect assessing to be as per
guidance in the relevant CAA Standards document.
Note that if a particular test item is not observed during a sortie
for whatever reason, proposals made by the candidate AE on how
to deal with that item must satisfy the intent of the test as per
published criteria. This will be ascertained at a suitable time after
the flight, during a one-to-one interview at the end of the visit.
d. De-brief: Pass or Fail, the Test result should be given at the
immediate start of the de-brief. If the result is a Fail, the
following method could be usefully used
i. One but not more than two FAIL points are to be offered
under each failed section; not necessarily chronologically,
but in the order of importance, seriousness or severity of
the fail point. This avoids further arguments.
ii. The re-test requirement should then be indicated.
iii. After the Test result' is given (as the de-briefing opening
gambit) whether the pilot has Passed or Failed, a
recapitulation of the flight should follow in all cases. In the
case of a fail or partial pass, use the technique in (i) and (ii)
above, giving faults as they occurred, in detail and in
chronological order, with constructive comments to help
the candidate achieve the desired result if a re-test is
necessary. Praise where praise is due !
e. Post check-flight certification
Issue of a ‘test result’ form is not necessary if the pilot concerned
works for an Operator where the training department can raise
the necessary in-house paperwork to indicate any need for a retest.
In this case the system would also ensure that the person
concerned is not used for flight operations until such time as a
successful re-test is completed.
Other cases
i. A formal Notice of Failure must be given to a person who
fails a test, using the appropriate form; or
ii. A Partial Pass certificate will be issued and given to the
candidate for the attention of the re-test examiner; or
iii. A Pass certificate will be issued for the attention of the
CAA Personnel Licensing Department (PLD)
APPENDIX D
f. The Regulatory Authority appointed examiner observing a
pilot for the renewal of an Instructor or Examiner Authority,
will check the Authorised Examiner’s personal Record of Tests
administered by that AE, to establish that it is satisfactory.
g. Authorised Examiners must clearly understand that an
Authority becomes invalid immediately the Instructor and/or
Examiner) ceases to be employed by the particular airline or
operator for whose staff the Authority to train and/or examine
was issued.
2.13 Generalities regarding assessment of piloting performance
and in post-flight debriefings.
a. The Primary concerns are SAFETY and to Maintain Standards.
b. Honesty and credibility are most important, or there is no
integrity.
c. Aim for the ideal, accept that sometimes this is not possible.
d. Compare observed performance with (AEs) personal
‘guesstimate’ and accept error if both are the same.
e. Remember that to be considerate is all-important.
f. Be reasonable regarding the content of a Test, particularly
where the result may preclude the signing of a licence.
g. When noting faults, be aware that what may be individually
acceptable may not be so when considered together (that is,
when faults are ‘totted up’).
h. Faults noted need not be always itemised in the recapitulation,
if a number can be lumped together so that the de-brief does
not become a litany of errors.
i. Assess on the candidate’s instruments and make allowance for
parallax. If unable to see clearly, ask questions e.g. what is your
heading, height etc.
j. The bottom line is:
i. Was it Safe?
ii. Was it Acceptable?
iii. Was the flying balanced when in an asymmetric
configuration?
k. When indicating a fault or a fail point, use words like:
i. You failed because ...
ii. Had you flown thus (or done so and so) ... this would not
have happened ...
iii. It would be have been preferable to ... (do so and so).
Note that in all cases, the onus is placed on the candidate for
failing by not achieving the required standard. At no time must
the AE appear to have “FAILED” the person under test. There is
no place for a Check to Chop mentality. Instead, constructive
criticism will be offered by the AE before re-iterating the fail
points, to conclude the de-briefing.
2.14 Summarising
This section is not intended to be exhaustively comprehensive. It
is an outline of important areas that candidates for appointment
or re-appointment as Authorised Examiners need to be aware of
and be comfortable with; to ensure as far as possible that both
the intent of current Legislation and its dependent guidance are
satisfied with some level of evenness. The notes on assessing and
on how best to conduct de-briefings in the least confrontational
manner, come from experience and are offered as an introduction
to judging a performance and on how to say “You have passed”
or “NO” in the gentlest of manners that should also stop
arguments developing.
3.0 JAR-FCL1 — INSTRUCTOR & EXAMINER COURSES
(TEACHING AND LEARNING)
(List of topics that should be covered during training as an
instructor and/or examiner)
April 2003
37

3.1 THE LEARNING PROCESS
38
Motivation
Perception and understanding
Memory and its application
Habits and transfer
Obstacles to learning
Incentives to learning
Learning methods
Rates of learning
3.2 THE TEACHING PROCESS
Elements of effective teaching
Planning of instructional activity
Reaching methods
Teaching from the “known” to the “unknown”
Use of lesson plans
3.3 TRAINING PHILOSOPHIES
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX D
Value of structured (approved) course of training
Importance of a planned syllabus
Integration of theoretical knowledge and flight instruction
3.4 TECHNIQUES OF APPLIED INSTRUCTION
a. Theoretical knowledge — Classroom instruction techniques
Use of training aids
Group lectures
Individual briefings
Student participation and discussion
b. FLIGHT — Airborne instruction techniques
The flight and cockpit environment
Techniques of applied instruction
Post flight and in flight judgement and decision making
3.5 STUDENT EVALUATION AND TESTING
a. Assessment of student performance
The function of progress tests
Recall of knowledge
Translation of knowledge into understanding
Development of understanding into actions
The need to evaluate rate of progress
b. Analysis of student errors
Establish the reason for errors
Tackle major faults first, minor faults second
Avoidance of over criticism
The need for clear concise communication
3.6 TRAINING PROGRAMME DEVELOPMENT
Lesson planning
Preparation
Explanation and demonstration
Student participation and practice
Evaluation
3.7 HUMAN PERFORMANCE AND LIMITATIONS RELEVANT TO
FLIGHT INSTRUCTION
Physiological factors
Psychological factors
Human information processing
Behavioural attitudes
Development of judgement and decision taking
3.8 HAZARDS INVOLVED IN SIMULATING SYSTEMS FAILURES
AND MALFUNCTIONS
In an aeroplane during flight: Selection of a safe altitude
Importance of “touch drills”
Situational awareness
Adherence to correct procedures
3.9 TRAINING ADMINISTRATION
Flight theoretical knowledge instruction records
Pilot’s personal flying log-book
The flight/ground curriculum
Study material
Aircraft Flight and/or owner’s manuals or operating handbooks
Flight authorisation papers
Aircraft documents
The private pilot licence regulations
This list of human factors’ interest underpins the theoretical
knowledge, technical content and practical instruction syllabus
applicable to the various Instructor courses. (See JAR-FCL 1 Sub-
Part H for details of individual courses).
APPENDIX E
BIBLIOGRAPHY
JAA Publications
JAR FCL 1
Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Aeroplanes)
Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing of
Aeroplane pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers all
requirements for the issue and renewal of private and
professional aeroplane licenses and their ratings, including those
for instructor and examiner qualifications.
JAR FCL 2
Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Helicopters)
Contains detailed requirements for flight crew licensing of
Helicopter pilots within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers all
requirements for the issue and renewal of private and
professional helicopter licenses and their ratings, including those
for instructor and examiner qualifications.
JAR FCL 3
Joint Aviation Requirements — Flight Crew Licensing Requirement
(Medical)
Contains detailed Medical Standards required for flight crew
licensing within the Joint Aviation Authority. Covers requirements
for the issue and renewal of all medical certificates. Essentially for
Authorised Medical Examiners (AME) but useful information on
required health and medical standards for pilots.
JAR OPS 1
Joint Aviation Requirements — (Aeroplanes)
Subpart N — Flight Crew
Subpart O — Cabin Staff

JAR OPS 1 Details requirements that apply to the operation of
aeroplanes for commercial air transportation. The subparts listed
deal with crew composition and all initial or recurrent training
and checking matters for each class of aircrew mentioned,
including CRM and LOFT requirements.
JAR OPS 3
Joint Aviation Requirements — (Helicopters)
JAR OPS 3 details requirements that apply to the operation of
helicopters for commercial air transportation. Specific
requirements for training crews and cabin staff are similar to
those for fixed wing aircraft in JAR-OPS 1.
UK CAA Publications
CAP 53
UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication — The Private Pilot Licence
and Associated Ratings
The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements. It
provides information relevant to all Private Pilots in four Parts.
These deal with General and Medical requirements, Aeroplanes,
Rotorcraft and Balloons and Airships, each dealing individually
with a specific Licence and/or Rating, e.g. Syllabuses, Medical
Certificates, Revalidation of Ratings, etc.
CAP 54
UK Civil Aviation Authority Publication — Professional Pilot
Licences
The official guide to Licensing and Rating requirements including
the Instrument Rating and the Flying Instructor’s rating, CPL
Balloons requirements, clarification of hours countable towards
licence upgrade to ATPL and consolidated Navigation
examination details for military and ex military personnel.
LASORS
Licensing, Administration and Standardisation, Operating
Requirements and Safety. LASORS is a new CAA advisory
document for the pilots of single and multi-pilot aircraft, reissued
every January and updated either via the CAA Personnel
Licensing Department website (http://www.caa.co.uk/srg) or via email
to those individuals who register with the CAA PLD for the
LASORS Free Update Service. It contains clear, accurate answers to
frequently asked questions on all aspects of flight crew licensing
and comprises two parts:
■ LAS (Licensing, Administration and Standardisation)
supersedes the guidance material published previously in CAP
53 and CAP 54 and in General Information Documents.
■ ORS (Operating Requirements and Safety) is a digest of
practical knowledge requirements and best practices
procedures for the single pilot operator, consisting principally
of extracts from Safety Sense leaflets and Pink Aeronautical
Information Circulars.
LASORS is a ready source of information for those who are
commencing or engaged in flight training, upgrading flight crew
licences, revalidating or renewing their ratings or seeking to add
ratings to existing licences. It also puts essential safety
information into the pocket of those whose philosophy is “Don’t
assume, check.”
Safety Regulation Group Instructor Course and other notes
CAA TRE Standardisation Core Course
Joining instructions notes
CAA Standards document 14
Guidance to Examiners Single Pilot Aeroplanes (SPA)
APPENDIX E
Type and Class rating skill & proficiency checks and Instrument
Rating Revalidations
CAA Standards document 17
Aide Mémoire for the guidance of Authorised Examiners Oral
examinations
for the issue and revalidation of Class/Type ratings — Single Pilot
Aeroplanes (SPA)
CAA Standards document 23
Guidance to Examiners regarding aeroplane Certificates of
Test/Check or of Experience.
For persons who are authorised by the CAA to sign Certificates of
test and Certificates of Experience in a pilot’s licence or log book,
as required by JAR-FCL1 licensing. Also contains delegated
authority revalidation requirements and details who is also
cleared to carry out UK AOC Operator Proficiency Checks (OPC)
for pilots employed by a particular operator.
CAA Standards document 24
Guidance to Examiners Multi Pilot Aeroplanes (MPA)
Covering Type Rating skill tests and Proficiency checks
CAA Standards document 29
Guide to performance standards for Instructors of CRM training in
Commercial Aviation
The UK Air Pilot — UK Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP)
Covers all aspects of flight operations in UK Air space. Available as
a three volume publication, in CD-ROM format and on the CAA
website (http://www.ais.org.uk). AIP Supplements, AIRACS and all
AIC can also be found on the CAA website.
CAP 360 — Air Operators Certificate
Explains the administrative procedure for the issue and variation
of Air Operators’ Certificates (AOC) and to indicate the
requirements to be met by applicants and certificate holders in
respect of equipment, organisation, staffing, training and other
matters affecting the operation of aircraft.
CAP 737 — Crew Resource Management (CRM)
Explains the requirement for CRM training and how it can be
satisfied using formally accredited CRM instructors. The selection
of CRM instructors is also discussed and a useful Bibliography is
offered, for readers who want to learn more about the subject or
to prepare relevant in-house guidance for training staff.
CAA Flight Operations Department Notices (FODN)
Guidance to operators and AOC holders in amplification of CAP
360 requirements.
UK Aeronautical Information Circulars (AIC)
Supplementary information of current flight operational interest.
It is distributed on White, Yellow, Pink, Purple or Green paper, to
differentiate readily between subject matter.
Refer to White AIC for changes in Flight Crew Licensing
requirements and read all Pink AIC as they are of flight safety
import. Take particular note of their contents, but in particular
absorb the guidance held in the Pink AIC listed hereunder with
their identification number (as amended)
General
Controlled Flight into terrain (CFIT) 38/1999 Pink 191
— Risk Avoidance
Simulation of engine failure on aeroplanes 52/1999 Pink 193
Propeller feathering on twin 130/1997 Pink 153
piston-engined aircraft
Rejected Take-off 141/1998 Pink 182
April 2003
39

40
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX E
Inclement weather aspects
Operations from runways affected 81/1999 Pink 195
by snow, slush or water
Frost, ice and snow on aircraft 93/2000 Pink 8
Ground de-icing of aircraft 81/2001 Pink 25
— Holdover times
Induction system 145/1997 Pink 161
(piston engine carburettor) icing
Ice induced stalls on turbo-propeller 98/1999 Pink 200
& other propeller driven aircraft
Meteorological effects
Flight over and in the vicinity of 144/1997 Pink 160
high ground
Low altitude wind-shear 19/2002 Pink 28
Effect of thunderstorms and associated 72/2002 Pink 22
turbulence on aircraft
Aircraft induced turbulence
Wake Turbulence 17/1999 Pink 188
Vortex rings (helicopters) 147/1998 Pink 184
Approach
Use of ILS facilities in the UK 34/1977 Pink 141
Absolute Minima 49/2002 Pink 32
Performance
Take-off, climb and landing performance 67/2002 Pink 36
of light aeroplanes
Landing performance of large 11/1998 Pink 164
transport aeroplanes
ICAO Publications
ICAO PANS OPS Document 8168
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) Detailed
Standards for flight operations
ICAO Human Factors Digests
Digest No 1 (Recently re-circulated in UK as CAA CAP 719)
Addresses human factors concepts and includes some material
relevant to training and evaluation.
Digest No 2
Deals with CRM and LOFT concepts and makes some reference to
the instructor role in these exercises.
Digest No 4
Refers to the use of Human Factors in Personnel Selection.
Other publications on instructor pilot selection
Training and Development of Public Transport Training Pilots
A training guide in the Air Technology Series produced in 1982 by
the now defunct Air Transport and Travel Industry Board (ATTITB)
of the UK. This guide is now out of print.
Publications of ‘human factors’ and CRM interest
Feedback
Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting Programme
(CHIRP) magazine
Focus on Commercial Aviation Safety
The UK Flight Safety Committee Official Quarterly Publication
Human Error (By James Reason, 1990)
Errors and their Causes. May be seen as complementary to the
outline on errors given in ‘The airline Training Captain’ section of
this guide at 4.3.4 (ISBN 0-521-31419-4)
Human Factors and Aerospace Safety Published by the
Cranfield University, Bedford
Specialist Journal
Human Factors in Multi-crew operations (By Harry W. Orlady
and Linda M. Orlady, 1999)
A book specifically designed as a learning source, both for
students and self-study. It provides a practical context for the
appreciation of human factors, for those studying or engaged in
current air transport operations.
(ISBN 0-291-39838-3, hard back & 0-291-39839-1, paperback)
Human Factors for Pilots (By R.C. Green, H. Muir, M. James D.
Gradwell, R.L. Green, 1991)
Basic textbook introducing the world of human factors to
students learning to fly professionally. (ISBN 1 85628 177 9)
There follows a more comprehensive list of CRM and Human
Factors related information and guidance. For the full list, see UK
CAA CAP 737 Crew Resource Management (CRM) (Appendix).
CAP 737 APPENDIX (EXTRACT) — SOURCES OF FURTHER
INFORMATION
There are many hundreds of references on CRM and human
factors. A reasonably comprehensive list is given in CAP 737: Crew
Resource Management (CRM) (due to be published in early 2003;
http://www.caa.co.uk/publications)
A short list of some of the key documents may be found below:
ICAO Human Factors Training Manual. 1998. Doc 9683-AN/950
ICAO. Training of Operational Personnel in Human Factors. ICAO
Human Factors Digest No 3. ICAO Circular 227-AN/136. 1991
ICAO. Flight Crew Training: Cockpit Resource Management
(CRM) and Line-Oriented Flight Training (LOFT). ICAO Human
factors Digest No. 2. ICAO Circular 217-AN/132. 1989. Also
published as CAP720
Carver, T. Training and Maintaining Basic Airmanship Skills. Flight
Safety Foundation. 10th EASS ‘Managing Aviation safety — Back
to Basics’. Netherlands. March 1998
Dédale. Briefings: A Human Factors Course for Pilots —
Reference Manual and videos. 2000. Publishers Dédale, France.
ISBN 2-9509979-0-2 http://www.dedale.net/page_bfgs.html
CAA. Guidance Notes for Accreditation Standards for CRM
Instructors & CRM Examiners: Standards Document 29, version 1.
2001.
Krey. Neil Krey’s CRM Developers Forum
http://www.crm-devel.org
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/nasa/losdbrf/index.htm
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/transcan/transcan1.htm
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/raesperf/perfstan.htm
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/paper/raescrm.htm.
RAeS. Crew Resource Management. Paper produced by RAeS
HFG CRM standing group. http://www.raes-hfg.com
RAeS. CRM Resource Listing (94 pages) — listing of videos,
books, training material. (not updated since 1999).
http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRM — resource listing)
RAeS. Guide to Performance Standards for Instructors on Crew
Resource Management (CRM) Training in Commercial Aviation
(1998). Download from http://www.raes-hfg.com/civil-av.pfd
RAeS. Quality Crew Resource Management. Paper produced by
RAeS HFG CRM standing group.
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/paper/raescrm.htm.
RAeS. Royal Aeronautical Society Human Factors Group
http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRM pages)
http://www.raes-hfg.com/reports/loft-debrief.htm
http://www.raes-hfg.com /reports/crm_trng.pdf

Transport Canada. Crew Resource Management Manual.
http://www.crm-devel.org/resources/misc/transcan/transcan1.htm
Weiner, E., Kanki, B., Helmreich, R. Cockpit Resource
Management. 1993 San Diego, Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-
750026-X
RAeS. CRM Standards for Single Pilot Operators.
http://www.raes-hfg.com (CRMSG page)
FAA website on safety training and research for general aviation
pilots and instructors. http://FlySafe.faa.gov
Dunlap, J., and Mangold, S. Leadership/ Followership; recurrent
training. Instructor manual and student manual. February 1998.
FAA.
Endsley. Mica Endsley’s Situation Awareness Technologies
sitewww.satechnologies.com
Reason, J. Human Error. 1990. Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-31419-4
GAIN. Operator’s Flight Safety Handbook. Issue 2. December
2001.
ICAO. Human Factors, Management and Organization. ICAO
Human Factors Digest No 10. ICAO Circular 247-AN/148
Maurino, D., Reason, J., Johnston, N., Lee, R. Beyond Aviation
Human Factors; Safety in High technology Systems. 1995.
Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-948-5
Reason, J. Managing the Risks of Organizational Accidents. 1997.
Ashgate. ISBN 1-84014-105-0
GIHRE. Enhancing Performance in High Risk Environments:
recommendations for the use of Behavioural Markers. July 2001.
http://www2.hu-berlin.de/GIHRE
Helmreich. University of Texas; Bob Helmreich’s CRM and LOSA
site
http://www.psy.utexas.eduwww.psy.utexas.edu/psy/helmreich/nas
aut.htm
AIA/ AECMA. Propulsion System Malfunction and Inappropriate
Crew Response (PSM+ICR). Vols 1 and 2. November 1998.
FAA. Turbofan Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.
November 2000. Training video and notes. Also in CD form. For a
free copy, write to FAA Engine and Propellor Directorate, ANE-
110, 12 New England Executive Park, Burlington, MA 01803,
USA.Text can be downloaded from
http://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft (click on ‘Special Topics
— Safety Resource Page’ ) or from
http://www.faa.gov/certification/aircraft/engine_malf_famil.doc
FAA. Turboprop Engine Malfunction Recognition and Response.
Training video and notes. In preparation — may be ready late
2002 or early 2003.For further information, write to FAA Engine
and Propellor Directorate, ANE-110, 12 New England Executive
Park, Burlington, MA 01803, USA
FSF. Approach and Landing Accident Reduction (ALAR) Toolkit.
2000/2001. Flight Safety Foundation. CD. Free to FSF members.
http://www.flightsafety.org/pdf/alar_flyer.pdf
Dismukes, K and Smith, G. Facilitation and Debriefing in
Aviation Training and Operations. Ashgate. October 2000. ISBN:
0 7546 1164 7
APPENDIX F
APPENDIX F
USEFUL ADDRESSES
Information sources and providers of Publications
For calls from overseas, dial the local access code, then 44 (to
access the UK network) followed by the required number without
the leading digit (0) shown in the following listings of numbers.
FLYING REGULATORS AND PROFESSIONAL BODIES
Civil Aviation Authority
(UK National Regulatory Authority — Primary Information Source)
Personnel Licensing Department (PLD)
Aviation House Tel +44 (0)1293 57 3700
Gatwick Airport South Fax +44 (0)1293 57 3996
West Sussex e-mail (see website for particulars)
RH6 0YR, UK Website http://www.caa.co.uk/srg
Medical Department Tel +44 (0)1293 57 3685
(Address as above)
National Air Traffic Services (NATS)
(Provider of en-route air traffic services in UK)
Aeronautical Information Tel (Editorial) +44 (0)20 8745 3458
Service
Control Tower Building Tel (Distribution) +44 (0)1242 283 100
London Heathrow Airport Tel (Content) +44 (0)20 7453 6575
Hounslow Fax +44 (0)20 8745 3453
Middlesex Website http://www.ais.org.uk
TW6 1JJ, UK
Royal Aeronautical Society
(Provider of information and advice)
4 Hamilton Place Tel +44 (0)20 7670 4300
London Fax +44 (0)20 7670 4309
W1J 7BQ, UK e-mail raes@raes.org.uk
website http://www.aerosociety.com
The Guild of Air Pilots and Air Navigators
(Provider of information and advice)
Cobham House Tel +44 (0)20 7404 4032
9 Warwick Court Fax +44 (0)20 7404 4035
Gray’s Inn e-mail gapan@gapan.org
London website http://www.gapan.org
WC1R 5DJ, UK
The Air League Educational Trust
(Provider of general guidance for Non JAA JAR-OPS/FCL matters)
Broadway House Tel +44 (0)20 7222 8463
Tothill Street Fax +44 (0)20 8222 8462
London e-mail flying@airleague.co.uk
SW1H 9NS, UK Website http://www.airleague.co.uk
Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA-UK)
(Provider of general guidance for Non JAA JAR-OPS/FCL matters)
50a Cambridge Street Tel +44 (0)20 7834 5631
London Fax +44 (0)20 7834 8623
SW1V 4QQ, UK e-mail aopa@easynet.co.uk
Website http://www.aopa.co.uk
British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA)
(Pilot Representative Union — Information Source)
81 New Road Tel +44 (0)20 8746 4000
Harlington Fax +44 (0)20 8476 4077
Hayes e-mail balpa@balpa.org.uk
Middlesex Website http://www.balpa.org.uk
UB3 5BG, UK
April 2003
41

42
The human element in airline training
APPENDIX F
British Air Line Pilots Association (BALPA) Gatwick Centre
(Pilot Representative Union — Information Source)
Little Orchards Tel +44 (0)1293 449 117
Gatwick Road Fax +44 (0)1293 449 129
Gatwick e-mail eploymentservices@balpa.org
West Sussex Website http://www.balpa.org
UB3 5BG, UK
British Helicopter Advisory Board
(Information Source)
The Graham Suite Tel +44 (0)1276 856 100
Fairoaks Airport Fax +44 (0)1276 856 126
Chobham e-mail info@bhab.org
Woking Website http://www.bhab.org
Surrey
GU24 8HX, UK
The Confidential Human Factors Incident Reporting
Programme (CHIRP)
(UK Source of information and confidential advice on operational
occurrence matters)
Building Y20E, Room G15 Tel +44 (0)1272 395 013
Cody Technology Park Fax +44 (0)1272 394 290
Ively Road e-mail confidential@chirp.co.uk
Farnborough Website http://www.chirp.co.uk
Hampshire
GU24 8HX, UK
General Aviation Awareness Council
(Information Source)
50a Cambridge Street Tel +44 (0)20 7834 5631
London Fax +44 (0)20 7834 8623
SW1V 4QQ, UK e-mail info@gaac.co.uk
Website http://www.gaac.co.uk
The United Kingdom Flight Safety Committee
(Information Source)
The Graham Suite Tel +44 (0)1276 855 193
Fairoaks Airport Fax +44 (0)1276 855 195
Chobham e-mail ukfsc@freezone.co.uk
Woking Website http://www.ukfsc.co.uk
Surrey
GU24 8HX, UK
TRAINING ORGANISATIONS
Providers of Integrated Flying Training Courses, Modular and
Short pilot training courses, also MCC and CRM courses and
Instructor/Examiner courses tailored to suit as individually
required; to prepare instructors for the CAA examiners core
standardisation course and beyond.
A full listing of flying training establishments providing UK CAA
approved Courses both in the UK and overseas, may be obtained
from the Civil Aviation Authority Personnel (Flight Crew)
Licensing Department (PLD). Details may also be found on the UK
CAA PLD Internet website.
Approved Flying Training Organisations (Alphabetically):
BAE Systems Flight Training (Europe)
PPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCC
Flying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &
Helicopters (H)
Antigua Base Militar Tel +34 956 317 806
La Parra
Aeropuerto de Jerez Fax +34 956 182 433
Jerez de la Frontera e-mail info@jerez.baesystems.es
Cadiz Website http://www.baesystems.es
Spain
Cabair College of Air Training
PPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCC
Flying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &
Helicopters (H)
Cranfield Airport Tel +44 (0)1234 751 243
Bedford Fax +44 (0)1234 751 363
Bedfordshire e-mail cranfield@cabair.org.com
MK43 0JR, UK Website http://www.ccat.org.uk
Oxford Aviation Training
PPL, PPL/IR, CPL. CPL/IR, ATPL, MCC,
Flying School and Information Source — Aeroplanes (A) &
Helicopters (H)
Oxford Airport Tel +44 (0)1865 844 200
Kidlington Fax +44 (0)1865 376 797
Oxford, e-mail atmktg@oxfordaviation.net
Oxfordshire Website http://www.oxfordaviation.net
OX5 1RA, UK
PUBLICATIONS
All UK Civil Aviation Authority (CAP) Publications may be
obtained from:
DOCUMEDIA (Cheltenham Ltd)
37 Windsor Street Tel +44 (0)1242 235 151
Cheltenham Tel +44 (0)1242 283 100
Gloucestershire +44 (0)870 887 1410
GL52 2DG, UK Fax +44 (0)1242 283 131
+44 (0)870 887 1411
ISDN +44 (0)1242 283 140
Website http://www.documedia.co.uk
All JAA Publications may be obtained from:
RAPIDOC
Willoughby Road Tel +44 (0)1344 861 666
Bracknell Fax +44 (0)1344 714 440
Berkshire e-mail rapidoc@techindex.co.uk
RG12 8DW, UK

APPENDIX G
RATIONALE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This Guidance Document was prepared to supplement and
reinforce what information is available for callers who contact the
Royal Aeronautical Society or the Guild of Air Pilots and Air
Navigators, for advice on where to find guidance on human
factors in airline training and on how to become an Instructor.
The author wishes to acknowledge assistance and suggestions for
inclusion offered by the Guidance Document Working Sub-Group
and other members of the Royal Aeronautical Society Flight
Operations Group, The Society’s Human Factors Group and for the
information supplied by the ‘outside’ organisations listed
hereunder.
1.0 Flight Operations Group (FOG) Guidance Document
working-group
Captain Ronald MACDONALD, FRAeS
Chairman, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Retired airline pilot and qualified accident investigator
Captain David A.J. MARTIN, FRAeS
Chairman, Education and Training Committee, GAPAN
Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Retired airline pilot training manager and aviation consultant
Captain Richard K.J. HADLOW, FRAeS
Immediate Past Chairman & Member, Flight Operations Group
Committee, RAeS
Retired airline pilot, RAF flying instructor and helicopter pilot
Mr Peter MOXHAM, FRAeS
Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Pilot and Flying Training School instructor/ administrator
Mr Peter G. RICHARDS, IEng, FRAeS
Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Retired Senior airline Flight Engineer
2.0 Members of Royal Aeronautical Society Group
Committees
With particular thanks for help with the formulation of the
current JAA aviation scene and other matters, to (in alphabetical
order):
Mr Pieter HEMSLEY, BA, FCIPD, MRAeS
Chairman, Human Factors Group, RAeS
Wing Commander, Royal Air Force (Retired) and Aviation
Consultant
Captain Simon J. LAWRENCE, MRAeS
Consultant Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
US Air, FOG/United States Air Line Pilots' Association (ALPA) link
Captain Seamus J.P. LYTTLE, BSc, CEng, FCIT, MRAeS
Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Retired Flight Operations Manager & Airline Pilot, Chartered
Engineer and Aviation Consultant
Dr James David STEVENSON, MPH, FRAeS
Colonel, United States Air Force (Retired)
RAF Centre of Aviation Medicine/AMTW, RAF Henlow
For the RAeS Aviation Medicine Group
Captain Paul WILSON, FRAeS
Member, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Retired Airline pilot and Aviation Consultant
APPENDIX G
3.0 Other organisations
Help with information relating to this guidance document is also
gratefully acknowledged, with thanks to the UK Civil Aviation
Authority Safety Regulation Group (SRG) for documents received
from the Flight Operations Department, the Personnel Licensing
Department (PLD) the Operating Standards Division (HF specialist)
and the Gatwick Central Library.
IN CONCLUSION
May the thoughts offered in this publication, guide readers who
are, or intend to become, aviation instructors. Remain fair to your
fellow pilot and do your best to teach well all you know. Demand
absolute professionalism and stay firm in the maintenance of
Standards in your dealings with others. The dream of an accidentfree
world of flying remains in your hands to mould from lesson
one. Demonstrate by example and make a start by teaching the
basics of flight safety, then look to see how well the fundamental
safety precepts are absorbed by your pupils.
Encourage excellence and give praise where it is due. Remember
that constant interest on how best to improve your teaching
demands a lot of homework and effort from your part. Remain
curious and look for better ways to ‘sell the goods’ through
improved knowledge. In the final analysis, enjoy your work in the
knowledge that you have helped to form a happy and safe pilot.
Captain Ralph KOHN, FRAeS & Liveryman of the Guild of Air
Pilots and Air Navigators
Author and production co-ordinator
Vice Chairman, Flight Operations Group Committee, RAeS
Member Education and Training Committee, GAPAN
Retired airline pilot instructor/examiner & Regulatory Authority
Training/Flight Operations inspector
April 2003
43

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