Eclipses through the Centuries

Eclipses through the Centuries 

Norma Teresinha Oliveira Reis 

(normareis@mec.gov.br) 

Brazilian Ministry of Education - MEC, International Space University - ISU, 

Intern at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Summer 2008 

1. Introduction 

“To the best of our knowledge, our Sun is the only star proven to grow 

vegetables.” 

- Philip Scherrer 1 

Other than Earth itself, the Sun and Moon are the celestial bodies most closely 

related to human reality. Although people in ancient times were curious about 

the stars and the universe as a whole, the Sun and the Moon have been the 

main actors in our celestial theater. Since they are most directly associated 

with quotidian issues such as the day and night cycle, as well as the seasons, 

they influence vital human economic activities such as agriculture. 

The Sun is crucial to us all. It is by far the closest star to the Earth and our 

ultimate source of warmth, light and energy. Could you imagine life on Earth 

without the Sun? 

Fig. 1 – The Changing Sun. These 13 x-ray images, obtained by the Yohkoh 

spacecraft between 1991 and 1995, provide a dramatic view of the Sun, highlighting 

how the solar corona changes during the waning part of the solar cycle as the Sun 

goes from an “active” state (left) to a more passive state (right). Source: NASA. 

1

Fig. 2 – Lunar eclipse in Athens, Greece, 

January 9, 2001. Multiple exposure 

technique shows an eclipsed Moon, which 

during totality assumes a deep red color. 

Credit: © 2002, photo by Fred Espenak. 

Early civilizations depended deeply on the 

Sun. That time, the Sun was essential to 

estimate the time of day. For this purpose, 

the Chaldean astronomers developed the 

gnomon (a shaft erected perpendicular to 

the horizon), used to indicate the passing 

hours through its shadow projected on the 

ground. Ancient people also studied the 

Sun’s cycles in order to know when to plant 

crops, to get ready for winter, as well as 

to plan ceremonies related to the changing 

seasons. Can you figure out when seasons 

are about to change? 

People in early times were usually fearful 

of eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Indeed, 

humans are sometimes frightened by the 

unknown and by whatever they cannot 

understand or predict. Imagine a spaceship 

landing in your backyard with creatures 

from another world – this would be most 

frightening! If we had no prior knowledge about the Sun’s disappearance in 

broad daylight during a solar eclipse (resulting from the temporary passage of 

the Moon between the Earth and our star), we would fear that the Sun’s light 

has been truly lost, and that such darkness might last forever. 

Eclipses are ineffable astronomical phenomena that have provoked human 

curiosity, fear, passion, and other strong feelings throughout the course of 

history. In this paper, you will learn more about solar and lunar eclipses, along 

with their influence in early and current societies. 

Before discussing further on eclipses, let us better understand the subjective and 

objective meanings of the Sun in early epochs. Ancient civilizations feared so 

much the disappearance of the Sun, in special because it ruled their economy. 

Indeed, those agricultural societies needed sunlight and warmth in order to 

exist. Moreover, it must have been most intriguing for early civilizations to 

suddenly be deprived of the Sun’s bright light during the day. They might have 

asked, “Is this the end of the world?” “Are the Gods angry with our behavior?” 

2

Human imagination is very creative at filling in gaps of understanding. 

Although the Sun was regarded as a powerful god and a cosmic hero, it also 

had enemies to fight. Sometimes demons of darkness obscured the Sun, and 

people wondered if their god would 

not return any longer. 2 Likewise, when 

a lunar eclipse occurs, the way the 

full Moon is occulted in a vast area of 

shadow, and the way its color changes 

to a blood red certainly would indicate 

some disturbance in the cosmic order. 

So it would not be a large stretch to 

wonder whether this was a signal of 

Fig. 3 – The invisible dragon. People in ancient 

China and old Southeastern Asian cultures believed 

that a dragon swallowed the Sun during solar 

eclipses. Source: NASA. 

divine anger, or the action of some 

demonic power. 3 As a consequence, 

several myths associated to eclipses 

arose. 

As mentioned, a solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes in front of the Sun 

and obscures it totally or partially. This configuration only exists during the 

new Moon phase, and then only when the Sun, Moon, and Earth are on a single 

line, with the Moon in between. Since the Moon’s orbit is tilted 5 degrees to the 

Earth’s orbital plane, this configuration will not happen every month. 

We do not know for certain since how long mankind has witnessed eclipses. 

Sequences of marks scratched on animal bones dating back 30,000 years 

suggest the changing phases of the Moon from one cycle to the next. 4 

Though eclipses are well understood today, the apparent disappearance of the 

Sun and Moon has been attributed to different reasons through the centuries. 

The ancient Chinese, for example, thought that there was an invisible dragon 

in the sky. This dragon was angry with them and, for this reason, would devour 

the Sun. Whenever this happened, they would follow several rituals intended 

to scare the dragon away and make the Sun reappear. 

One ancient Chinese tradition was to bang drums and pots and make other 

loud noises during eclipses in order to frighten the dragon away. Even more 

recently, in the nineteenth century, the Chinese navy fired cannons during a 

lunar eclipse to scare the dragon that was eating the Moon! 

3

In the ancient Near East, the dragon symbolized the four elements of nature: 

earth, air, fire, and water. They were usually associated with dark forces, and 

with the earth-dwelling serpent, representing evil. 5 

The idea of a ferocious animal or beast trying to swallow the heavenly luminaries 

was common to many civilizations. The battle between the powers of light and 

the powers of darkness, or the voracious appetite of mythical beasts was the 

basis for many explanations of eclipses. 

In this paper, you will learn more about the mechanism of eclipses and discover 

interesting stories about these awe-inspiring astronomical phenomena that 

have changed history through the centuries, advanced science and still today 

fascinate people of all ages, nationalities and cultures worldwide. 

2. Some Eclipse Legends 

Eclipses did not frighten some early 

civilizations, though. The Eskimo and the 

Aleuts, for instance, interpreted them as 

signs of good fortune. The Sun and the 

Moon would temporarily leave their natural 

places in the sky to reassure themselves 

that everything on Earth was going fine. 

Some eclipse legends are love stories and 

numerous others reflect local beliefs, as 

follows: 

a) In most Aboriginal cultures, it was 

believed that the Moon and Sun were 

husband and wife respectively, pulling 

curtains in the sky to ensure privacy for 

their union. 

b) The Athenians, in ancient Greece, considered an eclipse (solar or lunar) 

to be caused by angry Gods; therefore they were regarded as bad omens. 

c) The Mayans, in Central America, believed that during an eclipse of the 

Moon, a giant jaguar was eating it. The Jaguar moved through the darkness, 

4 

Fig. 4 – Conjugal eclipse. Some people 

had a romantic view of eclipses. The Sun 

and Moon are lovers who, when they 

embrace, turn off the lights to assure intimacy. 

Source: Bibliothèque nationale de 

France (BnF), photo Jean-Loup Charmet.

and its coat seemed a starry sky. 

d) In Japan, wells were closed to prevent the sky poison, hidden by the 

eclipse, from falling into them. 6 

e) In Scandinavia, two wolves named Skoll and Hat were believed to terrorize 

the Sun and Moon. 

f) In India, a dragon named Rahu, would have the head of a dragon and 

the tail of a comet. It rode in a chariot drawn by eight black horses that 

represented the sky. 

g) The Aztecs believed that Tzitzimine were star demons who caused eclipses 

when they waged battles with the Sun. 

h) In Bolivia, it was believed that dogs chased after the Sun and the Moon 

and the tore the Moon’s face apart with their teeth. It was the Moon’s blood 

that would turn the Moon red. The people howled and wailed in order to 

chase the dogs away. 7 

The fact is that humanity has never been indifferent to eclipses. Through the 

centuries, they have been mentioned as affecting or even determining important 

historical events. Empires would rise or fall, kings would be crowned or 

dethroned, and battles would be lost or won because of chance alignments of 

the Sun, Earth and Moon. 

3. Eclipses and the Advancement of Science 

From a scientific standpoint, eclipses have often opened doors to important 

knowledge. In early times, for instance, lunar eclipses constituted an important 

proof of the sphericity of the Earth. Lunar eclipses were central to debates 

of Pythagoras, Aristotle, and other Greek philosophers. Thus, if we have an 

eclipse of the Moon by the shadow of the Earth, the shape of that shadow must 

represent the profile of the planet. 8 

For instance, Aristarchus (310 - 230 BCE) used eclipses to estimate the relative 

sizes of the Earth and Moon by the curvature of the Moon’s disk and the 

curvature of the Earth’s shadow cast on it, having the Sun, Earth and Moon 

aligned in this sequence. He also estimated the distance of the Earth to the 

5

Moon and to the Sun, as well as the size of the latter. Moreover, he demonstrated that 

the Sun was more distant than the Moon and larger than the Earth. 9 

By the late 1800’s astronomers realized that the corona 10 was essential to understanding 

countless solar phenomena, perhaps even the mysterious auroras. In 1930, Bernard 

Lyot (1897-1952 CE) invented the coronagraph, an instrument that allowed the rare 

total solar eclipses to be recreated at will, and at a time and place of choosing. 11 

According to Mitchell (1869), “solar eclipses, at one time the terror of the ignorant, 

and the study of astronomers only, have come to be specialties also of the chemist, 

the physicist, and the photographer. The telescope, the camera, and the spectroscope 

work together, each crowded with work, and each finding its most fruitful field in 

the Sun.” For instance, during the eclipse of August 16, 1868, Sir Joseph Lockyer 

of England, and Monsieur Pierre Janssen of France independently discovered by 

spectroscopic means the telltale signs of helium in the Sun’s corona. Helium became 

the first chemical element to be discovered outside of Earth, taking its name from the 

Greek word for the Sun — Helios. 

Eclipses blot out the photosphere and reveal the presence of an atmosphere above 

the Sun beyond a solar radius. This medium became a matter for extensive study 

in the 19th century, and eclipse observations revealed a bright inner portion, the 

chromosphere, and a very extensive halo, the corona. 12 

Arguably, the most important eclipse of modern times occurred on in May 29, 1919, 

when Arthur Eddington (1882-1944 CE) used a solar eclipse to test Einstein’s general 

relativity theory by showing that strong gravitational fields, such as the Sun’s, are 

capable of bending star light by the amount predicted. 

6 

Fig. 5 – Aristotle’s geometrical argument. Shown 

in several ancient astronomy texts, including 

Cosmoghaphia, by Petrus Apianus and Gemma 

Frisius (1581) and Mustapha Ibn Abdullah’s Book 

of the Description of the World (1732). Source: 

Bibliothèque nationale de France (BnF).

Solar eclipses are used to photograph 

and study the composition and 

dynamics of the Sun’s corona, 

which is only visible when the 

Sun’s bright disk or photosphere is 

completely blocked out. 

Scientists also use these events to 

study space weather phenomena 

such as solar flares and coronal mass 

ejections (CMEs). Such phenomena 

are important due to the fact that 

they can directly impact space 

systems and human activities like 

telecommunications, navigation, 

and the extremely complex work of 

astronauts in space, especially while performing extra-vehicular activities. 

Presently, most people understand the basic mechanism of eclipses and are no 

longer frightened by them. They are usually seen as beautiful and fascinating 

events. Every year, people of different ages, nationalities and interests join to 

watch total or partial eclipses of the Sun and the Moon all around the world. 

But has something been lost? Does knowing how something works reduce its 

beauty and mystery? Or is the beauty of the world deepened by understanding 

the things we see? 

Fig. 7 – Coronal mass ejection. 

Huge bubbles of plasma ejected 

from the solar corona and that can 

disrupt Earth’s magnetosphere. 

Credit: ESA/NASA. 

These magnificent celestial spectacles are also 

observed worldwide by students and teachers of 

all levels, capturing youthful imagination towards 

the universe and encouraging new understandings 

about space. The example of the Danish astronomer 

Tycho Brahe (1546-1601 CE) well illustrates that. 

He made a career shift from law to astronomy 

after being fascinated by an eclipse at the age 

of fourteen. Before Brahe, astronomy was quite 

innacurate. He then decided to develop accurate 

tables for the observation of stars and planets. 13 

Brahe’s contributions to astronomy have indeed 

7 

Fig. 6 - The magnificent corona. This dramatic 

image is a combination of 22 photographs digitally 

processed, highlighting faint features of a total eclipse 

that occurred in August of 1999. The outer pictures of 

the Sun’s corona were digitally altered to enhance dim, 

outlying waves and filaments. Credit: © 1999, photo by 

Fred Espenak.

een significant. He catalogued with great accuracy more than 1,000 stars! 

Eclipses are an effective means of making people curious about the wonders 

and mysteries of the universe, and they fan the fires of curiosity and the human 

desire for exploration and discovery. They are a channel to unite people around 

the world to look at the starry sky as the place where we all came from long 

ago, cosmologically speaking. 

4. Eclipses: Definitions and Terminology 

The concept of a solar or lunar eclipse 

being viewed as the gradual eating of the 

luminary bodies by a celestial invisible 

dragon is manifested in the earliest 

Chinese term for eclipse, shih 14 (to eat). 

They believed that eclipses happened 

when this dragon attempted to devour the 

Sun or the Moon. 15 

The term eclipse originated from the 

Greek ekleipsis, from ekleipein ‘fail 

to appear, be eclipsed,’ from ek ‘out’ 

+ leipein ‘to leave’, also meaning 

‘abandon’, ‘failure’. 

According to the Oxford English 

Dictionary (1969), eclipse as a noun means “an interception or obscuration of 

the light of the Sun, Moon or other luminous body, by the intervention of some 

other body, either between it and the eye, or between the luminous body and 

that illuminated by it; as of the Moon, by passing through the Earth’s shadow; 

of the Sun, by the Moon coming between it and the observer; or of a satellite, 

by entering the shadow of its primary.” 

In the figurative, eclipse would mean an “obscuration, obscurity, dimness; loss 

of brilliance or splendour” e.g., the eclipse of an empire. 

8 

Fig. 8 – Ancient representation for eclipses 

of the Sun and Moon. Atlas methodique et 

elementaire de geographie, by Claude Buy 

de Mornas. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de 

France (BnF).

5. Scientific background 

“Some people see a partial eclipse and wonder why others talk so much 

about a total eclipse. Seeing a partial eclipse and saying that you have 

seen an eclipse is like standing outside an opera house and saying that you 

have seen the opera; in both cases, you have missed the main event.” 

Fig. 9 – Eclipsed Moon in Stonehenge. A reddened Moon 

appears between the stones of Stonehenge during the May 

2004 total lunar eclipse. Credit: Photo by Phillip Perkins, Astro 

Cruise Web site, http://www.astrocruise.com/ 

- Jay M. Pasachoff 16 

Compared to other celestial 

bodies, the Sun and Moon are 

the brightest when viewed 

from our home planet. For 

this reason, solar and lunar 

eclipses are also closer to 

our realities than any other 

celestial phenomenon. 

Furthermore, solar eclipses 

are much more notable than 

lunar eclipses, because, 

when total, they can “turn 

day into night!” During 

solar eclipses, for example, 

animals become agitated 

because they perceive that something is wrong about the natural order of things: 

Why that sudden darkness in the middle of the day! 

Eclipses are basically an alignment of at least three celestial bodies in a straight 

line. 17 The term solar eclipse is a misnomer, because the phenomenon is actually 

an occultation. 

Why is this so? The answer is simple. An eclipse occurs when one celestial 

body passes into the shadow cast by another (as with an eclipse of the Moon). 

An occultation occurs when one body passes in front of another. When the new 

Moon passes in front of or occults the Sun, as seen from Earth, the Moon also 

9

casts a small shadow on the planet. An “occultation” of the Sun is thus a partial 

“eclipse” of the Earth as well. 18 

You will find in the sequence a set of questions and answers that will help you 

better understand the mechanism of eclipses. 

A) When do we have a solar eclipse? 

When any part of the Earth 

enters any part of the Moon’s 

shadow, there is a solar 

eclipse somewhere on the 

planet. 19 

This configuration can only 

exist during new Moon, when 

the Sun, Moon and Earth are 

aligned with the Moon in 

between. Since the Moon’s 

orbit is tilted 5 degrees to the 

Earth’s orbital plane, this will 

not happen every month. 

Fig. 10 – The geometry of a solar eclipse. Because 

of this unique geometry, during a total solar eclipse the 

Moon occults the Sun with a nearly perfect fit. Extracted 

by permission from Fred Espenak’s Web site, http://www. 

mreclipse.com/ 

The lunar shadow is composed 

of two parts: a) the outer or penumbral shadow, and b) the inner or umbral 

shadow. From within the penumbra, only part of the Sun is occulted. In contrast, 

the dark, central umbra is the shadow of a total eclipse. During a total eclipse, 

the umbra sweeps across the Earth from west to east and the course it travels is 

called the path of totality. 

Anyone standing within this zone will see the Sun completely obscured by the 

Moon for as much as seven minutes. Outside the path of totality but still within 

the penumbra, a partial eclipse is seen. The path of the umbra is rarely larger 

than 300 km wide while that of the penumbra is about 7,000 km wide. 20 

B) Why do the Sun and Moon appear to be the same size during a solar 

eclipse? 

The Moon is only 3,500 km in diameter while the Sun is about 1,400,000 km 

10

across. One of the most remarkable coincidences in nature is that the Moon 

and Sun appear to be the same size when viewed from the Earth. This occurs 

because, although the Sun is 400 times larger in diameter than the Moon, it is 

also 400 times farther from the Earth. 21 

Fig. 11 – Scheme for visibility of eclipses. (a) An eclipse occurs when Earth, Moon, and Sun are 

precisely aligned. If the Moon’s orbital plane lies exactly on the plane of the ecliptic, this alignment 

would occur once a month. (b) For an eclipse to occur, the line of intersection of the two planes must lie 

along the Earth–Sun line. Thus, eclipses can occur only at specific times of the year. Credit: Chaisson/ 

Mcmillan, Astronomy Today, 6 ed., Pearson Education. 

11

C) Why doesn’t a solar eclipse occur at every new Moon? 

The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is not in the same plane as the Earth’s orbit 

around the Sun. The Moon’s orbit is inclined by about 5 degrees to the Earth’s 

orbital plane, which is on the ecliptic. Our planet’s natural satellite crosses 

this imaginary plane only twice a month at two points called the nodes. At 

other times, the Moon is either above or below the plane of the Earth’s orbit. 

Complete alignments of the Sun, Moon, and Earth only happen when the new 

Moon phase occurs at one of the nodes. 22 

D) Are solar eclipses rare phenomena? 

No. They are actually more 

common than lunar eclipses. In 

any one calendar year, there can 

be as many as five solar eclipses. 

There can be no more than three 

lunar eclipses per year, and it is 

quite possible to have none at 

all. Combining both solar and 

lunar eclipses, it is possible for 

one calendar year to contain a 

maximum of seven eclipses. 23 

Please note that we are referring 

to eclipses in general. Total solar 

eclipses are relatively rare and 

Fig. 12 - Geometry of the Sun, Earth, and Moon during a 

total eclipse of the Sun. The Moon’s two shadows are the 

penumbra and the umbra (sizes and distances not to scale). 

Extracted by permission from Fred Espenak’s Web site, 

http://www.mreclipse.com/ 

happen at any given specific location on average only once in hundreds of 

years. 

E) What is the most notable phase of a total solar eclipse? 

The most dramatic phase occurs during totality, when the Sun is completely 

obscured by the Moon. Totality never lasts more than 7 minutes 40 seconds. 

During each millennium, there are typically fewer than 10 total solar eclipses 

in which totality exceeds 7 minutes. Only during totality (See “The Experience 

of Totality,” at http://www.mreclipse.com/Totality/TotalityCh01.html) can the 

corona be observed without specialized equipment, so that total solar eclipses 

12

are very important for astronomers. 

F) Is it easy to predict a solar eclipse? 

Yes! Today, we understand the motions of celestial bodies and can model the 

forces on them with great accuracy. Computer programs fed with this knowledge 

easily compute the time and geometry of eclipses well into the future or the past. 

We can account for corrections due to relativity, tides, precession, and other 

effects yielding accuracies of within a second of time for eclipses relatively 

close to the present. 

G) Are eclipses visible everywhere on the planet? 

No. During a lunar eclipse, when the Moon passes through the Earth’s giant 

shadow, the event is visible during the night time in one entire hemisphere 

of the Earth, and totality usually lasts more than one hour. 24 However, even 

the partial phase of a solar eclipse will only be visible over a portion of the 

sunlit side of the Earth and totality can be seen only along a relatively thin 

(approximately 60-70 miles wide) line. 

Lunar eclipse geometry is shown in Fig. 13. A lunar eclipse occurs when our 

planet casts its shadow on the Moon, occulting it partially or totally. The Moon 

assumes a beautiful reddened color pattern when it is eclipsed by Earth. Perhaps 

it is for this reason that lunar 

eclipses have frightened early 

civilizations who associated the 

red color with blood or warfare. 

Fig. 13 – Geometry of the Sun, Earth, and Moon 

during a lunar eclipse. The Earth’s two shadows are the 

penumbra and the umbra (sizes and distances not to scale). 

Extracted by permission from Fred Espenak’s Web site, 

http://www.mreclipse.com/ 

13 

For example, during one of 

Columbus’ trips to the Americas, 

he used his knowledge of a 

forthcoming lunar eclipse to 

obtain favors from the natives. 

How? Basically, he threatened 

the natives by saying that, if 

they did not provide him with 

the supplies he and his people 

needed, his God would get

angry and darken the Moon, and 

that would be followed by famine 

and diseases. There are many other 

interesting examples in history 

of how celestial phenomena have 

influenced people. 

H) How many types of solar 

eclipses are there? 

There are three main kinds of solar 

eclipses as listed in Table 1. Total 

solar eclipses are rare spectacles that 

only last for a few minutes and are the 

only opportunity to observe the Sun’s 

Fig. 15 – Artificial solar 

eclipse. A spacecraft instrument, 

called a coronagraph, 

creates artificial solar eclipses 

by blocking the Sun’s light with 

an occulting disk. Credit: ESA/ 

NASA. 

Table 1 - Main types of solar eclipses. 

corona without specialized equipment. Although they 

occur somewhere on Earth approximately every 18 

months, it has been estimated that total solar eclipses 

reoccur at any given spot on average only once every 

300 to 400 years. The longest total solar eclipse during 

the 8,000-year period from 3,000 BCE to 5,000 CE 

will occur on July 16, 2186, when totality will last 7 

minutes 29 seconds. 25 

In addition to the main kinds of natural solar eclipses, 

astronomers are now able to produce artificial eclipses 

at any time by blocking out the Sun with an artificial 

mask or “occulting disk”, allowing them to study the 

Sun’s faint corona. 

Type Description 

Partial The Sun is partially covered by the Moon. 

Total The Moon completely covers the Sun. 

Fig. 14 – Total lunar eclipse over Maui, July 16, 

2000. Multiple exposure mode was used to capture 

the entire eclipse; a second exposure captures 

morning twilight. Credit: © 2000 photo by Fred 

Espenak. 

Annular The Moon’s center passes in front of Sun’s center while the Moon is near apogee. 

The Moon’s angular diameter is then smaller than that of the Sun so that a ring of the 

Sun can still be seen around the Moon. 

14

I) What are transits? 

Transit is a special case of eclipse, which happens with the passage of a planet 

across the disk of the Sun. From the Earth, the observable transits are from 

planets Mercury and Venus only. 

Fig. 16 – Transit of Venus. In a village in Slovakia, 

Tomas Maruska took this rare picture, showing Venus 

and the International Space Station (ISS) transiting 

the Sun at the same time. Credit: Tomas Maruska © 

2004. Source: NASA. 

They are far more rare than solar eclipses. On the average, there are only 13 

transits of Mercury each century. Transits of Venus, by its turn, usually occur 

in pairs with eight years separating the two events. More than a century elapses 

between each transit pair. 

The first transit ever observed in History was of the planet Mercury in 1631 by 

the French astronomer Gassendi. A transit of Venus occurred just one month 

later but Gassendi’s attempt to observe it failed due to the fact that the transit 

was not visible from Europe. In 1639, Jerimiah Horrocks and William Crabtree 

became the first to witness a transit of Venus. 26 

J) Can I look at the Sun with the naked eye during a solar eclipse? 

Looking at the Sun is dangerous when any part of the brilliant disk of the 

Sun (photosphere) is visible; this can cause permanent eye damage. This is 

true at any time, including during solar eclipses. Because an eclipse offers an 

unusually high temptation to look at the Sun, there is a elevated incidence of 

eye damage caused during solar eclipses. Directly viewing the Sun through any 

kind of optical aid, binoculars, a telescope, or even a camera’s viewfinder, can 

be extremely dangerous unless certain precautions are taken. 

K) How can I safely observe an eclipse? 

In order to better experience the amazement of observing a solar eclipse, certain 

cautions must be taken. Otherwise, what was expected to be a pleasant and 

15

joyful experience could become a real nightmare. Here you will learn how to 

proceed to safely observe a solar eclipse. 

Staring at the Sun without proper protection can cause irreparable damage to 

the eye and is not recommendable. The Sun is a source of electromagnetic 

radiation: solar X-ray, gamma ray, microwave, radio wave, ultraviolet, and 

visible light. 27 When the retina is exposed to intense visible light, two kinds 

of eye damage can occur, alone or simultaneously - retinal burns and thermal 

injury, the latter occur without any feeling of pain, but that can cause irreparable 

damage to the eye or even blindness. 28 

So how can we safely observe the Sun? There are several safe methods, but 

the best one is indirect projection (See “Observing Eclipses Safely,” at 

http://www.mreclipse.com/Totality/TotalityCh11.html). This can be done by 

projecting the Sun’s image on a white piece of paper using a pair of binoculars 

(with one of the lenses covered), or by putting a small hole (about 1 mm in 

diameter) in a piece of aluminum foil taped over a paper towel tube, often 

called a pinhole camera. It allows safe viewing of the Sun’s projected image. 

However, care must be taken to ensure that no one looks through the projector 

directly, especially if children and teenagers are present, because this would 

cause severe eye damage. 

The Sun can be also observed with appropriate filters to block its harmful 

radiation. Other improvised methods, such as looking at a reflection on water, 

or looking through a compact disk, are also dangerous. Only properly designed 

and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun, and these 

must be in perfect condition, as even a small defect could cause irreparable 

damage to the eye. 

Please be aware that standard or polaroid sunglasses are not solar filters. 

Although they may afford some eye relief if one is outside on a bright day, you 

should never use them to observe the Sun. You cannot use sunglasses, even 

crossed polaroids, to stare at the sun during partial phases of an eclipse. They 

provide essentially no eye protection for this purpose. 29 

Strictly speaking, it is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse when the 

Sun’s photosphere is completely covered by the Moon. The Sun’s corona will 

be visible, as will be the chromosphere, solar prominences, and possibly even 

solar flares. Nevertheless, even under these conditions, there is great danger in 

16

directly viewing the end of the total phase, and return of the “exposed” Sun, 

without protection, because all parts of the Sun’s disk are of similar intensity. 

Viewing a tiny sliver of the Sun could cause permanent eye damage. Actually, 

the 1 percent of the solar surface still visible is about 4,000 times brighter 

than the full Moon. 30 For this reason, viewing even the total phase of a solar 

eclipse through binoculars, or a telescope, or even with the naked eye, is not 

recommended. 

In summary, it is completely safe to observe solar eclipses, provided that the 

necessary precautions are taken. For this purpose we strongly recommend 

the use of indirect projection for a safe observation. We encourage you to 

cautiously enjoy the delightful experience of observing this awe-inspiring 

phenomenon that has both amazed and frightened people, changing the course 

of history through the centuries, as you will discover in the following pages. 

6. Eclipses and History 

“We had the sky up there all speckled with 

stars, and we used to lay on our backs and 

stare up at them and wonder about whether 

they was made or only just happened.” 

- Mark Twain 31 

Since the very beginning of History, people have 

been amazed by what they see when they look up 

at the sky. Indeed, looking at the celestial sphere 

without the unpleasant interference of city lights 

is magnificent. It can sometimes mesmerize 

us with a deep desire of traveling out to those 

celestial spheres to directly experience what our 

eyes cannot reach. Human imagination has no 

boundaries, but the universe is infinite! However, 

most ancient civilizations have viewed changes 

in the sky with great fear and apprehension. 

Comets, meteor showers, supernovae, lunar and 

17 

Fig. 17 – Desolation des Peruviens 

pendant L’Eclipse de Lune. Voyage 

Historique de l’Amerique Meridionale. 

The Spanish explorer Don Juan 

described the Peruvians despair during 

an eclipse. Source: The Philadelphia 

Print Shop Ltd., Web site, http://www. 

philaprintshop.com

solar eclipses were viewed as bad omens by most societies. 

As we discussed previously, the Sun and the Moon are the main actors in our 

celestial theater, the former being vital for life on Earth. The Moon, by its turn, 

has served as special inspiration for poets, writers, and lovers. The Sun and 

Moon have also been associated with religion and mythology, and sometimes 

regarded as gods with influence on the destiny of both societies and individuals. 

It is our nature as human beings to attribute meaning to events by whatever 

history, tradition or thought is available to us. The same is true for eclipses 

throughout the centuries. 

Solar and lunar eclipses were usually regarded as a disturbance in the natural 

order of the sky - as an indication that something was going wrong. Several 

historical events coincided with solar or lunar eclipses: battles, crowning or 

dethroning of emperors, peace treaties, and so forth. 

Unlike comets, which for a long time were regarded as unpredictable events, 

eclipses were accurately predicted at the earliest stages of mankind’s history. 32 

Early astronomers were able to predict eclipses by around 2300 BCE. Their 

predictions were based on empirical relationships, governing the recurrence of 

events by which the relative positions of the Earth, Sun, and Moon reoccur the 

same way after 6,585 days. The existence of a regular eclipse cycle, such as the 

Saros cycle, resulted from these coincidences involving complex combinations 

between the movements of the Moon, Earth, and Sun. This more detailed 

knowledge of eclipses started to be acquired during the second century BCE, 

the golden age of Greek astronomy. 

However, the general population did not understand these relationships. As 

governors began to realize the influence astronomical phenomena exerted 

over the population, they used this knowledge as an instrument of power to 

influence people’s psyche. The population would follow rituals and say prayers 

in order to prevent the supposed dire effects. Governors wanted to pretend they 

could influence the obscure powers involved, and likewise, astrologers and 

astronomers sometimes attempted to use their knowledge to manipulate and 

influence governors. 

Only in the last five hundred years or so, or certainly since the invention of 

the telescope in 1609, have we come to understand these cosmic concurrences 

primarily in terms of the natural order of the universe. As previously mentioned, 

18

these events are usually no longer feared, but regarded as singular opportunities 

to better understand the universe. 

In this article, we present some important solar and lunar eclipses, and their 

impact on people, societies, and science through the centuries. 

Ancient History 

1) Ho and Hi, the Drunk Astronomers, 2137 BCE 

Ancient Chinese astronomy was primarily a governmental activity. It was 

the astronomer’s role to keep track of solar, lunar and planetary motions, and 

explain what they meant to the ruling emperor. 

Throughout the centuries, Chinese astronomers devoted substantial attention 

towards predicting eclipses. Nevertheless, like all similar efforts prior to the 

Renaissance, this could only be empirical. 33 

The earliest record of a solar eclipse comes from ancient Chinese history. 

Identifications of this 

event have varied 

from 2165 – 1948 

BCE, 34 though the 

favored date is Oct. 

22, 2137 BCE. 

According to a 

legend, the Chinese 

royal astronomers 

Ho and Hi dedicated 

too much time to 

consuming alcohol 

and failed to predict 

the forthcoming 

eclipse. Traditionally, 

this solar eclipse was 

Fig. 18 – Eclipse observation in China around 1840. Astronomers 

calmly observe an eclipse and the servants, terrified, prostrate 

themselves on the ground to placate the bad omen. Credit: History of 

China and India © Mary Evans/ Explorer. Source: Brunier and Luminet, 

Glorious Eclipses, Cambridge University Press. 

19

ecorded in the Shu Ching (Historical Classic), and regarded as from the 3rd 

millennium BCE. “On the first day of the month, in the last month of autumn, 

the Sun and the Moon did not meet (harmoniously) in Fang”… so runs the 

text. 35 

The emperor became very unhappy because, without knowing that there was 

an eclipse approaching, he could not organize teams to beat drums and shoot 

arrows in the air to frighten away the invisible dragon. The Sun did survive, 

but the two astronomers did not have the same luck, and lost their heads for 

such negligence. This verse, whose author is unknown, well illustrates such 

tragedy:“Here lie the bodies of Ho and Hi/ Whose fate though sad was visible/ 

Being hanged because they could not spy/ Th’eclipse which was invisible.” 

Since then, a legend arose that no one has ever seen an astronomer drunk during 

an eclipse. 36 

2) Eclipse of Abraham in Canaan, 1533 BCE 

See Visibility Map: http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5MCSEmap/-1599--1500/-1532-05-10.gif 

“And when the Sun was going down... 

great darkness fell upon him.” 

Eclipses are also mentioned in sacred 

books such as the Christian Bible. 

One of the best-known references to 

eclipses appears in the book of Genesis, 

involving the journey of Abraham into 

the land of Canaan. 

It is possible to relate such description 

with a computed solar eclipse 

occurring on May 9, 1533 BCE. 37 Fig. 19 – Abraham journeying into Canaan. This 

image was produced by the French artist Gustave 

Dore and illustrates the journey into Canaan. 

Credit: Public domain. 

20

3) Homecoming of Odysseus, 1178 BCE 


“. . . and the Sun has perished out of heaven, 

and an evil mist hovers over all.” 

- Homer, the Odyssey 38 

The king of Ithaca Island, Odysseus, has been persuaded to go to the Trojan 

War, which lasted ten years. When Troy fell, the Greeks went back home. 

However, Odysseus’s enemy, the god of the sea Poseidon became angry with 

him, making that difficult for him to return home. 

Odysseus is the hero from Homer’s Odyssey, and could have returned to his 

Penelope on day of eclipse. That should have been a very beautiful eclipse, 

during which all planets were visible simultaneously, and the hidden Sun was 

“crowned” by the Pleiades. 39 

Basically, we have three evidences to sustain such hypothesis: 

a) Plutarch and Heraclitus interpreted a passage in the 20th book of Odyssey 

to be a poetic description of a total solar eclipse at Odysseus’ return; 

b) A century ago, astronomers estimated that such eclipse occurred over 

the Greek islands on April 16, 1178 BCE, the only one in the region close 

to the probable date of the fall of Troy; 

c) Recently, astronomical references led two scientists to suggest that the 

eclipse of 1178 BCE possibly coincided with the homecoming of Odysseus. 

Almost all classic scholars are skeptical of this correlation. If there was an 

eclipse, Homer must have had it in mind when he wrote of a seer prophesying 

the death of Penelope’s waiting suitors and their entrance into Hades. The story 

actually does not mention an eclipse, but omens and a poetic description of a 

total solar eclipse. 

The story tells that Odysseus arrived home wearing beggar’s clothes and hiding 

before revealing himself. It happens that, when Penelope’s suitors sat down at 

noon for a meal, they started laughing and saw their food spattered with blood. 

At this moment, the seer Theoclymenus foretells their death: “The Sun has 

been obliterated from the sky, and an unlucky darkness invades the world.” 

21

This description suggests a solar eclipse over Ithaca. As a matter of fact, 

Odysseus killed Penelope’s suitors, who were planning to steal his throne and 

his wife, and spent a long night of love with his wife. 40 

4) The Old Testament Eclipse, 763 BCE 


One passage in the Christian Bible says: “And on that day, says the Lord God:“I 

will make the Sun go down at noon, and darken the Earth in broad daylight.” 

The corresponding eclipse should have occurred on June 15, 763 BCE. 

A cross-reference is provided by an Assyrian historical chronicle known as the 

Eponym Canon. In Assyria, each year was named after a ruling official and the 

year’s events were recorded under that name in the Canon. 

Under the year corresponding to 763 BCE, a scribe at Nineveh wrote this 

simple line: “Insurrection in the City of Assur. In the month of Sivan, the Sun 

was eclipsed.” Historians have thus been able to use this eclipse to improve the 

chronology of early biblical times. 41 

5) Archilochus Eclipse, 648 BCE 

Fig. 20 – Penelope’s suitors, by John William 

Waterhouse (1912). While Odysseus struggled 

to return home after the Trojan War, his throne 

and his wife were being disputed. But Penelope 

decided to wait for his husband. Credit: Public 

domain. 


It is believed that the Greek lyric poet Archilochus witnessed a total solar 

eclipse, which happened on April 6, 648 BCE. 42 Delighted, he said: “Nothing 

there is beyond hope, nothing that can be sworn impossible, nothing wonderful, 

22

since Zeus father of the Olympians made night from midday, hiding the light of 

the shining sun, and sore fear came upon men.” 

6) Thales Eclipse, 585 BCE 


Is an eclipse capable of drastically changing the course of history? This story 

refers to the final battle of a fifteen-year war waged between the Lydians and 

the Medes. Also known as the “Battle of the Eclipse,” it occurred at the Halys 

River, Turkey, and was suddenly terminated on May 28, 585 BCE, 43 due to a 

total solar eclipse, interpreted as an omen indicating that the Gods wanted the 

fight to stop. 

In the West, the first prediction of a solar eclipse 

is associated with the Greek philosopher Thales 

of Miletus (624-547 BCE) who, according to 

Herodotus (490-425 BCE), foretold this eclipse. 44 

“In the sixth year a battle took place in which 

it happened, when the fight had begun, that 

suddenly the day became night. And this change 

of the day Thales the Milesian had foretold to 

the Ionians laying down as a limit this very year 

in which the change took place. The Lydians 

however and the Medes, when they saw that it 

had become night instead of day, ceased from 

their fighting and were much more eager both 

of them that peace should be made between 

them.” 

Although it is argued that Thales used the Babylonian Saros 45 period of 223 

lunations, 46,47 it is today agreed by historians that the Saros period was not 

discovered before the fifth or fourth century BCE, therefore Thales could not 

have used that time system. 

Considering that the exact dates of eclipses can be calculated, this battle is 

the earliest historical event for which a precise date is known. Thales was 

proclaimed a wise man by the oracle of Delphi in 582 BCE, possibly due to this 

23 

Fig. 21 – Battle of Halys. Source: 

Wisdom Portal Web site, http:// 

www.wisdomportal.com

prediction credited to him. However, it is evident that Thales did not understand 

the scientific basis of the phenomenon. 

7) Olympic Games, 413 BCE 


Either success or failure could be sides of the same coin. They usually result 

of someone’s beliefs, here associated with an eclipse of the Moon, which 

frightened an entire army who believed that would indicate a bad omen for 

them. This eclipse occurred on August 14, 413 BCE, during the 91st Olympiad 

and influenced a battle in the Peloponnesian War. 

Both the Carthaginians and the Greeks had settled parts of the south coast of 

Sicily, resulting in permanent conflicts. 48 The Athenians were ready to move 

their forces from Syracuse when the Moon was obscured, bringing disastrous 

consequences to an Athenian army thanks to the lack of decisive leadership 

by Nicias, the commander. The Athenian army was confronted in Sicily by 

the Syracusan army and, having somehow failed, they embarked and left the 

island. Read this excerpt from by Plutarch, in Life of Nicias: 

“Everything accordingly was prepared for embarkation, and the 

enemy paid no attention to these movements, since they did not expect 

them. But in the night there happened an eclipse of the Moon, at which 

Nicias and all the rest were struck with a great panic, either through 

ignorance or superstition. As for an eclipse of the Sun, which happens 

at the Conjunction, even the common people had some idea of its being 

caused by the interposition of the Moon; but they could not easily form 

a conception, by the interposition of what body the Moon, when at 

the full, should suddenly lose her light, and assume such a variety of 

colors. They looked upon it therefore as a strange and supernatural 

phenomenon, a sign by which the Gods announced some great calamity. 

And the calamity came to pass, but only indirectly was it caused by the 

Moon.” 49 

Indeed, soldiers and sailors were very frightened by this celestial omen and were 

reluctant to leave. Nicias consulted the soothsayers and postponed the departure 

for twenty-seven days. This delay gave an advantage to the Syracusans, who 

24

defeated the entire Athenian fleet and army, killing Nicias. 50 

8) Eclipse of Alexander, 331 BCE 

Fig. 22 – The battle at Arbela, Alexander versus 

Darius. Credit: Public domain. 

Plutarch, in Life of Alexander: 

Eclipses are sometimes interpreted as 

lucky signals coming from the sky. 

This was the case with Alexander 

the Great (356-323 BCE) after 

conquering Egypt. He marched 

east and pushed the Persians out of 

Babylonia, pursuing them north into 

Assyria. 51 

Just some eleven days before the 

victory of Alexander over Darius, in 

Arbela, Assyria, Plutarch and Pliny 

mention that the Moon had been 

totally eclipsed. See this excerpt of 

“There happened an eclipse of the Moon, about the beginning of the 

festival of the great mysteries at Athens. The eleventh night after that 

eclipse, the two armies being in view of each other, Darius kept his men 

under arms, and took a general review of his troops by torch-light.” 

This unexpected occurrence seems to have created considerable tumult in an 

alarmed Assyrian camp, a fact noticed by Alexander. His friends suggested 

an attack on the enemy’s camp at night, but Alexander preferred that the 

Macedonians should have a good night’s rest. 

It was then that he uttered the celebrated answer, “I will not steal a victory.” 

The eclipse happened on September 20, 331 BCE, and the celebrated Battle of 

Arbela, by its turn, was fought on October 1st, 331 BCE. 52 

The Greek knowledge of eclipses was largely derived from the Babylonians 

after 330 BCE, so probably Alexander obtained that information with the expert 

Babylonian astronomers. 53 

25

9) Ceasar Eclipse, 51 BCE 

See Visibility Map: http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5MCSEmap/-0099-0000/-50-03-07.gif 

Julius Caesar (100-44 BCE) died in 44 BCE and Arago associated his death 

with an annular eclipse of the Sun. Pliny, Plutarch and Tibullus describe that; 

Seneca and Suetonius add a comet to make the story more impressive. 

Shakespeare used it for his dramatic purposes. 54 When he was writing, the 

belief that God intervened in the world to punish individuals or nations for 

their sins was strong, so it is reflected in his writing, such as in the excerpt 

below, from Hamlet 1.1: 

“In the most high and palmy state of Rome, 

A little ere the mightiest Julius fell, 

The graves stood tenantless, and the sheeted dead 

Did squeak and gibber in the Roman streets: 

As, stars with trains of fire and dews of blood, 

Disasters in the sun; and the moist star, 

Upon whose influence Neptune’s empire stands, 

Was sick almost to doomsday with eclipse.” 

Actually, there was no eclipse when Caesar passed away. The factual record 

is that about the time of the great warrior’s death there was an extraordinary 

dimness of the Sun. Johnson suggests that Arago should have confused the 

record of an eclipse with some sort of meteorological interference. 55 Suetonius 

also implies that the event had a meteorological origin, so that may be regarded 

as some type of cloud formation. 

Nonetheless, we know accurately the day Caesar crossed the Rubicon, seven 

years before his death, on March 7, 51 BCE, because that was the only possible 

eclipse corresponding to the one mentioned by Dion Cassius. 56 

10) Augustus’ Eclipse, 14 CE 

Soon after the death of Augustus, Tacitus mentions a lunar eclipse, which has 

been identified with the eclipse of September 27, 14 CE. Soldiers thought the 

phenomenon was associated with their adventures, favoring their efforts. They 

26

elieved that if they made much noise they could have the eclipse to favor them. 

Tacitus says: “The Moon in the midst of a clear sky became suddenly eclipsed; 

the soldiers who were ignorant of the cause took this for an omen referring 

to their present adventures: to their labors they compared the eclipse of the 

planet, and prophesied ‘that if to the distressed goodness should be restored 

her wonted brightness and splendor, equally successful would be the issue of 

their struggle.’ Hence they made a loud noise, by ringing upon brazen metal, 

and by blowing trumpets and cornets; as she appeared brighter or darker they 

exulted or lamented.” 57 

11) The Crucifixion Eclipse, 33 CE 58 

See Visibility Map: 

h t t p : / / e c l i p s e . g s f c . n a s a . 

gov/5MCSEmap/0001-0100/29-11-24. 

gif 

Jesus Christ should have been 

crucified on day of eclipse, 

during the period when Pontius 

Pilate was procurator of Judea 

(26-36 CE). However, there is no 

consensus on the date. According 

to the evangelists, Jesus was 

crucified on a Friday afternoon, 

some hours prior to the beginning 

of the Jewish Sabbath. Evidence 

suggests April 3, 33 CE, 59 while 

others suggest April 7, 30 CE. 

Another hypothesis is that of a 

solar eclipse visible at Jerusalem 

on November 24, 29 CE. 60 The 

Greek historian Phlegon mentions 

this eclipse in his History of 

the Olympiads, and says that 

it has been accompanied by an 

earthquake. 61 “In the fourth year 

Fig. 23 – The crucifixion eclipse. According to the 

evangelists, the Sun darkened during the crucifixion of 

Christ. Later, the event was associated with an eclipse that 

was visible at Jerusalem. Credit: © Valenciennes, Musee 

des Beaux Arts, photo R.G. Ojeda. 

27

of the 202nd Olympiad, there was an eclipse of the Sun which was greater than 

any known before and in the sixth hour of the day it became night; so that stars 

appeared in the heaven; and a great Earthquake that broke out in Bithynia 

destroyed the greatest part of Nicaea.” In fact, mention is also made in the 

Bible to the Sun being darkened earlier that day: “The Sun shall be turned into 

darkness.” 

However, there are also various allusions in the Bible to the Moon being dark 

and turned to blood when it rose in the evening after the crucifixion, which 

sounds like a lunar eclipse. In Acts of the Apostles, Peter also refers to a Moon 

that is the color of blood and a darkened sky. There is other evidence that on 

that day the Moon appeared like blood. 

A New Testament Apocryphal fragment, the so-called Report of Pilate, states 

“Jesus was delivered to him by Herod, Archelaus, Philip, Annas, Caiphas, and 

all the people. At his crucifixion the Sun was darkened; the stars appeared 

and in all the world people lighted lamps from the sixth hour till evening; the 

Moon appeared like blood.” 62 This may be the result of a dust storm caused by 

the khamsin, a hot wind coming from the south. Under such circumstances, a 

lunar eclipse while there is much suspended dust, one would expect the Moon 

to appear the dark crimson of blood. 63 

The reason why the Moon is blood red is that, although it is geometrically in 

the Earth’s shadow, sunlight is refracted through the Earth’s upper atmosphere, 

where normal scattering will prevent blue light from penetrating. But this 

refracted light would be much weaker than direct light from even a small 

portion of the Sun and the blood color associated with the eclipse would not 

be visible to the unaided eye. However, the Moon would have an amber color 

from atmospheric absorption, similar to any other occasion when the Moon is 

low in the horizon. 64 

As mentioned, there is controversy among researchers whether that was a solar 

or a lunar eclipse, and also controversy about the date. In any case, an eclipse 

occurring in the very same day of the crucifixion would have been interpreted 

by believers as a supernatural sign and influenced the change of mind of the 

Jews and Pilate towards the body of Christ, leading to the placing of a military 

guard on the tomb. 65 

28

12) Muhammad’s Eclipse, 632 CE 

Middle Ages 

See Visibility Map: http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5MCSEmap/0601-0700/632-01-27.gif 

In ancient times, births and deaths of leaders were correlated to celestial omens. 

However, Islamic theology did not believe that God sent an eclipse as an 

omen of its prophet’s birth, Muhammad. Some eclipses have been historically 

associated to him, though. 

Muhammad was born in Mecca in the Year of the Elephant, CE 569-570. 

His birth year got its name from an invasion by the Abyssinians, who used 

elephants in the assault. The Year of the Elephant was also memorable because 

of its solar eclipse. 

Afterwards, when Muhammad’s infant son Ibrahim died tragically on January 

22, 632 CE, the Sun was eclipsed. Some Meccans said it was a sign from God, 

but Muhammad said “The Sun and Moon are signs of God and do not eclipse 

for the death or birth of any man.” 

Another solar eclipse related to Muhammad occurred 39 years after his death. 

In 661 CE, Mu’awiyah became leader of the empire after a revolt against Ali, 

the son of Muhammad’s chief Meccan enemy. Mu’awiyah decided to transfer 

the prophet’s pulpit from Medina to his capital in Damascus, Syria. As his men 

were removing it, stars became visible in a dark sky. It was considered a sign 

of divine anger and the relic remained in Medina as a symbol of Mu’awiyah’s 

failure. 66 

13) The Eclipses of Tatwine and Beda, 734 CE 

An Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that on January 24, 734 CE, 67 “the Moon was 

as if it had been sprinkled with blood, and Abp. [Abp. denotes “Archbishop”] 

Tatwine and Beda died and Ecgberht was hallowed bishop.” The inference 

apparently is that the Moon was somehow connected with the deaths of the 

29

two ecclesiastics. It is clear from the description of the Moon on that occasion 

that it exhibited the well-known coppery shade that is a recognizable feature of 

many lunar eclipses. 

14) European Eclipses, 828 CE 

Two lunar eclipses were observed in Europe in 828 CE, the first on July 1, very 

early in the morning, and the second in the morning of Christmas day. Totality 

occurred after midnight. 68 

The event has been associated with the following fact, described by the Anglo- 

Saxon Chronicle: “In this year the Moon was eclipsed on mid-winter’s Massnight, 

and the same year King Ecgbert subdued the kingdom of the Mercians 

and all that was South of the Humber.” 

15) Solar Eclipse of the Emperor Louis, 840 CE 


This is the story of the 

Eclipse that influenced 

the division of Europe 

as we know it today. 

Louis of Bavaria, the 

son of Charlemagne, 

was head of a great 

empire when, on 

May 5, 840 CE, he 

witnessed a solar 

eclipse. 

His imagination 

worked hard against 

him. Indeed, he 

interpreted the 

Fig. 24 - The Treaty of Verdun. Source: Northvegr Foundation, http:// 

www.northvegr.org 

phenomenon as a finger pointed at him. He took fright and never recovered, 

believing that his days must be numbered. Sure enough, he died a month later. 69 

30

“In the third year of the Indiction, the Sun was hidden from this world 

and stars appeared in the sky as if it were midnight, on the third day 

before the Nones of May (May 5) during the Litanies of Our Lord.” 70 

After this, his three sons began to dispute his succession. Their quarrel was 

settled three years later with the Treaty of Verdun, dividing Europe into three 

large areas, namely France, Germany and Italy. 71 

16) King Henry’s Eclipse, 1133 CE 


Visible in England and Germany, this total solar 

eclipse occurred on August 2, 1133 CE, and 

prompted many descriptions in the chronicles of 

both countries. 

For the English, the eclipse took place on the 

day after the departure of King Henry I, being 

interpreted as an omen of his death. In fact, he died 

shortly afterwards in Normandy, subsequently 

confirming the superstition. As for the Germans, 

they associated the darkening of the Sun to the 

sack of the city of Augsburg and the massacre of 

its inhabitants by Duke Frederick. 72 

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle mentions in 1135 CE: 

“In this year King Henry went over sea at Sammas, and the second day 

as he lay and slept on the ship the day darkened over all lands; and 

the sun became as it were a three-night-old moon, and the stars about 

it at midday. Men were greatly stricken and affrighted, and said that a 

great thing should come hereafter. So it did, for the same year the king 

died on the following day after Saint Andrew’s mass day, December 2, 

in Normandy.” 

Actually, the eclipse occurred two years before the King’s death, just after his 

final departure for France. 73 

31 

Fig. 25 - King Henry I. Credit: 

Public domain.

17) A Witch’s Eclipse, 1349 CE 

Eclipses have also been used through the centuries to trick ordinary people 

who ignored the science behind the phenomenon. This was the case of a lunar 

eclipse occurring on June 30, 1349 CE, visible in London. A “smart” witch 

tried to use that to threaten people to provide her with what she asked for. 

According to Archdeacon Churton, 

“The worthy Archbishop Bradwardine, who flourished in the reign of 

the Norman Edwards, and died A.D. 1349, tells a story of a witch who 

was attempting to impose on the simple people of the time. It was a 

fine summer’s night, and the Moon was suddenly eclipsed. ‘Make me 

good amends,’ said she, ‘for old wrongs, or I will bid the Sun also 

to withdraw his light from you.’ Bradwardine, who had studied with 

Arabian astronomers, was more than a match for this simple trick, 

without calling in the aid of the Saxon law. ‘Tell me’, he said, ‘at what 

time you will do this, and we will believe you; or if you will not tell me 

I will tell you when the Sun or the Moon will next be darkened, in what 

part of their orb the darkness will begin, how far it will spread, and 

how long it will continue’.” 74 

Evil plans like that sometimes just do not work, and the presence of Bradwardine 

should have made that lady just unhappy. 

18) The Black Hour, 1433 CE 


One of the most celebrated eclipses of the Middle Ages was called the “Black 

Hour.” It happened in Scotland and it has been said that darkness came about 

3 pm on June 17, 1433 CE, and was very deep. 75 

The eclipse is said to have been unusually extensive, lasting around one hour. 

The scientific explanation relates to a specific angle between the Sun and Moon 

that day: at the time of the eclipse, the Sun was only two degrees from perigee 

and the Moon no more than thirteen degrees from apogee. 76 

Some other interesting facts about this eclipse is that records of the epoch 

relate that nothing was visible during the height of totality – although it sounds 

32

exaggerated – and in the context of a very superstitious time, the pestilence that 

then prevailed has been attributed to the eclipse. 

19) Fall of Constantinople Eclipse, 1453 CE 

The Roman Emperor Constantine, in 324 CE, moved the capital of his realm to 

ancient Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople. This capital has ruled 

the eastern Mediterranean and the Black 

Sea region for more than a thousand years, 

providing a strong government and the 

continuation of the Roman Empire after 

it collapsed elsewhere. 77 

By the 15th century, the Ottoman Empire, 

in a large expansion, set out to conquer 

Constantinople. The Turks laid siege to 

it in 1402 and 1422, without success, 

the city being surrounded by its famous 

impenetrable walls. In 1453, the troops of 

Sultan Mohammed II returned to the walls. 

In addition to 250,000 men, the Turks 

brought a new eight-meter long cannon, 

capable of firing 600-kg cannonballs. 

Despite everything, the city’s defenders, scarcely 7,000 men in number, repelled 

three assaults and repaired their damaged walls each night. They were confident 

in old predictions, according to which Constantinople would never fall. The 

full Moon rose in eclipse on May 22 and their morale collapsed. Six days later, 

Mohammed II tried a new assault and succeeded, routing the defenders. 

A postern gate had been accidentally left open and some Turks entered the 

city. As the Sultan’s men crossed the walls, the fight turned into a tumult and 

Constantinople’s defense collapsed. The terrible sack of Constantinople that 

followed lasted three days and was a major shock to western civilization. 78 The 

eclipse had been seen as a bad omen by the Constantinople side and influenced 

their losing the battle. 

33 

Fig. 26 – The Siege of Constantinople. 

Scene from the battle of defense of Constantinople, 

painted in 1499, in Paris. Credit: Public 

domain.

Modern Ages 

20) Christopher Columbus’ Eclipse, 1504 CE 

After a long trip to the Americas in 1503 CE, in his fourth voyage, Columbus was 

stranded on the island of Jamaica. In principle, he managed to obtain provisions 

from the Caciques natives in exchange for some trinkets and rubbish. As the 

months went by, novelty and hospitality started to decrease and also the sailors 

started to become aggressive with the natives to obtain food. Upset, the Indians 

communicated to the Spanish that they would not provide any more supplies. 

Fig. 27- Columbus impressing the natives. This illustration from 

Camille Flammarion’s Astronomie Populaire shows how Christopher 

Columbus used an eclipse of the Moon to assert his power over the 

Indians in Jamaica. Credit: © photo Jean-Loup Charmet. 

Desperate with the threat of famine, Columbus came up with an ingenious 

plan. He checked his Calendarium, which contained predictions of lunar 

eclipses for several years. In particular, it predicted a total eclipse of the Moon 

on the Antilles on February 29, 1504 CE. That evening, Columbus invited the 

Caciques onboard his Capitana for a serious conversation. He told them that 

34

they were Christians and their God did not appreciate the way they had been 

treating them and would punish the Indians with famine and pestilence and, as 

a sign of dissatisfaction, he would darken the Moon. 

As soon as he said that, the Earth’s shadow started to cover the white disk. 

Terrified, the natives begged Columbus to bring back the light. According to 

Ferdinand Columbus (second son of Christopher Columbus), cited by Sinnot 

(1992): 

“The Indians observed this [the eclipse] and were so astonished and 

frightened that with great cries and lamentations they came running 

from all directions to the ships, carrying provisions and begging (…) 

and promising they would diligently supply all their needs in the 

future.” 

He replied that he needed to consult his God. He shut himself in a cabin for 

nearly two hours. Just before the end of totality, he reappeared and announced 

that God had given his pardon, and would bring them back the Moon provided 

that the Christians were given provisions. Immediately, the Moon reappeared. 

Astonished, the natives provided Columbus and his crew their needed provisions 

until they were able to return to Europe. 79 

The use of eclipses as a tool to manipulate populations less knowledgeable 

about eclipses is also present in diverse works of fiction. In 1889, Mark Twain 

published A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, a novel envisioning life 

in the sixth-century England. The author has Hank Morgan, the yankee in the 

title, hoodwinking the ignorant folk of that era by invoking prior knowledge of 

a solar eclipse on June 21, 528 CE. Twain has Morgan, who is jailed awaiting 

execution, threaten King Arthur with a blanking out of the Sun: 80 

“Go back and tell the king that at that hour I will smother the whole 

world in the dead blackness of midnight; I will blot out the Sun, and he 

shall never shine again; the fruits of the Earth shall not rot for lack of 

light and warmth, and the peoples of the Earth shall famish and die, to 

the last man!” 81 

The description provided by Twain is accurate in many senses, except for the 

fact that there was no solar eclipse at all visible in England in 528 CE. There 

are more examples of this theme in literature, such as The Adventures of Tintin 

by Georges Remi and King Solomon’s Mines by H. Rider Haggard. 

35

21) Cartographic Eclipse, 1706 CE 


This eclipse was of high interest to scientific geographers who relied on 

astronomical calculations to produce terrestrial maps. The moment of the 

eclipse became a cartographic point of reference, so that maps represented the 

world as it was in 1706 CE. 82 

From the tops of the Swiss mountains, at Montpellier, and other places in 

Europe, several stars were observable at the naked eye at the time of full moon, 

such as the Aldebaran and Capella, as well as the planets Venus, Mercury and 

Saturn. 

This eclipse caused great commotion. It is said that at Geneva the Council was 

compelled to close their deliberations, as they could see neither to read nor 

write. In several places people prostrated on the ground and prayed, wondering 

the Day of Judgment had come. 

Animals are also sensitive to these changes in the sky. Actually, in that day bats 

were flying, fowls and pigeons flew hastily to their roots, cage-birds become 

silent, hiding their heads under their wings, and animals at labor in the fields 

stood still. 83 

22) Edmond Halley’s Eclipse, 1715 CE 


Fig. 28 – The solar eclipse of 1715. Visible as partial at Paris, it provided the chance to observe 

the event in various ways: directly through telescopes, smoked glass, pinholes, sieves, and 

various filters, or indirectly by reflection in a bucket of water. Source: Bibliothèque nationale de 

France (BnF). 

36

“A few seconds before the Sun was all hid, there discovered itself round the 

Moon a luminous ring about a digit, or perhaps a tenth part of the Moon’s 

diameter, in breadth. It was of a pale whiteness, or rather pearl-color, seeming 

to me a little tinged with the colors of the iris, and to be concentric with the 

Moon.” 

- Edmond Halley 84 

This was the poetic, inspirational description of the British astronomer Edmond 

Halley (1656-1742 CE) for the solar corona during the total solar eclipse of 

April 3, 1715 CE, visible in England and Wales. The King of France and some 

of the royal family of England should have also had observed the eclipse. 85 

Halley became famous for discovering the periodicity of certain comets 

and predicting their return, such as the comet he had observed in 1682 and 

calculated to return after 76 years, and which was named after him. Basing his 

calculations on the law of universal attraction by Newton, he provided the first 

physical explanation for the appearance of these wandering bodies that had 

previously terrified people. 86 

23) Total Solar Eclipse of Louis XV, 1724 

CE 

See Visibility Map: http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/5M 

CSEmap/1701-1800/1724-05-22.gif 

This eclipse was visible in Paris on May 22, 

1724 CE. The young King Louis XV, at the 

time fourteen years old, observed it. The path 

of its shadow, very similar to the eclipse of 

August 11, 1999 CE, shifted southwards, 

and crossed England, France, and Germany. 

It was carefully calculated and mapped, and 

painters depicted scenes of the crowds of 

spectators. 87 

37 

Fig. 29 – Eclipses and the French royal 

family. 

This print shows Louis XIV sitting on a 

box with fan-shaped back in the center 

of a sun. The numerous rays of the Sun 

document indignities attributed to the 

King between 1667 and 1705 as well as 

the eclipse of May 12, 1706. Source: Online 

Catalog, Library of Congress.

24) Banneker’s Eclipse, 1731 CE 


Benjamin Banneker (1731-1806 CE) is the first Black American scientist of 

note. Born free on November 9, 1731 CE, he was son to Robert, a slave from 

Guinea, West Africa, and to his free wife Mary Banneky, of English-African 

descent. At that time, it was rare for Black people to be born free, but that 

occurred because his mother was a free woman. 

As a child, he was very curious: he enjoyed numbers, and learning how things 

worked. One of his first significant projects was to build his own clock. One 

day, a friend showed him a pocket watch. Benjamin was so fascinated that he 

decided to make his own. After two years of work he had a totally woodenmade 

clock! 88 

Despite working hard to support his family, Banneker had eight years of 

schooling from a Quaker teacher at an integrated private academy. He borrowed 

and read books by Addison, Pope, Shakespeare, Milton, and Dryden, studied 

the stars, and created and solved math puzzles as both entertainment and selfeducation. 

89 

Unarguably, his most remarkable accomplishment has been to accurately 

predict the solar eclipse of April 14, 1789 CE. Other famous scientists of the 

time disbelieved Banneker’s prediction, as they had their own dates; but as the 

Sun was partially being covered on April 14, 1789 CE, Benjamin Banneker’ 

‘star’ began to shine! 90 

Banneker is a brilliant example of a scientist who fought against socioeconomic 

and ethnical constraints, as well as social class determinants for Black 

researchers at the time, showing that barriers can and should be overcome and 

giving important contributions to Astronomy. 

25) Nat Turner’s Eclipse, 1831 CE 


The greatest slave revolt in North America was led by Nat Turner (1800- 

1831 CE). Very clever, Turner learned how to read with his masters’ son – an 

undesirable skill from the masters’ viewpoint for a slave during these times 

38

due to fear of rebellion. Turner, 

afterwards, dedicated himself to 

religion and became a preacher for 

his followers. 91 

In 1828 CE, he had a vision: he 

would lead his people to liberty, 

but he should wait for a sign from 

God – and it came from the sky. An 

annular eclipse of the Sun occurred 

on February 12, 1831 CE. Turner 

interpreted it as a ‘black angel’ 

occulting a white one – the time 

had arrived for blacks to overcome 

whites, so the time had come for 

rebellion. 

Several months later, after having 

murdered his original masters, 

Turner and his band of insurgents headed for the small town of Jerusalem where 

militiamen promptly interrupted their march. Most of the slaves, including 

Turner, went into hiding for seventy days before being taken to the gallows 

and hanged. 92 

Many people died during this revolt, and in no other episode in American 

history have a so large number of slave owners perished, a reason why Turner 

is considered a hero of the resistance to oppression against black people in the 

United States. 

26) Adams’ Eclipse, 1851 CE 

Fig. 30 – Nat Turner points at a lunar eclipse. He 

foresees the rebellion that would take place with the 

eclipsed Moon. Credit: Bernarda Bryson. 


The total solar eclipse of July 28, 1851 CE, was the first subject of an eclipse 

expedition. The total phase was visible in Norway and Sweden, and many 

astronomers from all parts of Europe traveled to those countries to observe the 

eclipse. 

Red flames were in evidence, and the fact that they belonged to the Sun and not 

39

to the Moon was clearly established. The first photograph of the solar corona 

was taken during this solar eclipse and the best observations were made in 

Scandinavia. Edwin Dunkin wrote: 

“The prominences were clearly visible, especially a large hooked 

protuberance. This remarkable stream of hydrogen gas, rendered 

incandescent while passing through the heated photosphere of the 

Sun, attracted the attention of nearly all the observers at the different 

stations.” 

The best account comes from the brilliant astronomer John Couch Adams. In 

1845 CE, he calculated, at the same time as the Frenchman Le Verrier, the 

position of Neptune. At this time in history, many astronomers had never 

observed a total eclipse, because these phenomena rarely occurred at any given 

place, and transport facilities were few and far between. 

In his inspirational article that appeared in the Memoirs of the Royal 

Astronomical Society, Adams’ lyrical style conveys the extraordinary emotion 

of an experienced astronomer who realizes that he is a complete novice in the 

arts of observing this spectacle for the first time: 

“The approach of the total eclipse of July 28, 1851, produced in me a 

strong desire to witness so rare and striking a phenomenon. Not that I 

had much hope of being able to add anything of scientific importance to 

the accounts of the many experienced astronomers who were preparing 

to observe it; for I was not unaware of the difficulty which one not much 

accustomed to astronomical observation would have in preserving the 

requisite coolness and command of the attention amid circumstances 

so novel, where the points of interest are so numerous, and the time 

allowed for observation is so short.” 

Adams then describes the awe-inspiring, magical appearance of the corona: 

“The appearance of the corona, shining with a cold unEarthly light, 

made an impression on my mind which can never be effaced, and an 

involuntary feeling of loneliness and disquietude came upon me… A 

party of haymakers, who had been laughing and chatting merrily at 

their work during the early part of the eclipse, were now seated on the 

ground, in a group near the telescope, watching what was taking place 

with the greatest interest, and preserving a profound silence… A crow 

40

was the only animal near me; it seemed quite bewildered, croaking 

and flying backwards and forwards near the ground in an uncertain 

manner.” 

In another written piece, he compares the corona with the luminous halo that 

painters draw around the heads of saints. 93 

27) General Gordon Fatal Eclipses, 1863 and 1885 CE 


Fig. 31 – General Gordon. Here he 

wears his uniform as governor-general 

of the Sudan. Source: DigNubia – Exploring 

the Science of Archaeology, 

http://www.dignubia.org 

An ancient Chinese aphorism says that every 

dynasty starts with the replacement of an old, 

degenerate regime ruled by corruption and 

ineffectiveness. Nevertheless, as time goes by, 

new governors, in principle virtuous, come into 

the same vices and the so-called “Mandate of 

Heaven” (as they reign by divine gift) is passed 

on. 

In such a society, signs of the sky can significantly 

influence politics. 94 The Ch’ing dynasty began 

in 1644 CE, and achieved great splendor. By the 

mid-19th century, however, it started to become 

ineffective and corrupt. 

At this time, the British general Charles Gordon 

was charged by the western powers to help the 

Emperor of China and his dynasty in their fight 

against the Taiping revolt. Skilled with military genius and leadership, Gordon 

commanded an army of Chinese mercenaries and had many victories. 

On November 25, 1863 CE, a partial eclipse of the Moon frightened his troops 

during the siege of Soochow (Suzhou) in Kiangsu (Jiangsu). The superstitious 

Chinese interpreted the event as a bad omen for the Emperor. Soochow was not 

conquered and the Taiping revolt was settled peacefully. This eclipse was thus 

the cause of General Gordon’s first defeat. 

Another eclipse, solar this time, on March 16, demoralized Gordon’s troops 

and was directly responsible for his death. In 1885 CE, he was in charge of the 

41

defense of Khartoum, the capital of the Sudan, under attack by a charismatic 

religious leader, the Mahdi. A solar eclipse demoralized Gordon’s troops. The 

city was taken before British troops could arrive with reinforcements and the 

British general did not survive the massacre. 95 

28) The Great Eclipse of 1878 


Considered one of the greatest 

eclipse events of that century, 

it is known as the great eclipse 

of 1878 CE for its large path of 

visibility. The Moon’s shadow 

took some 20 minutes to cross 

Wyoming and Colorado, in the 

United States, on July 29, 1878 

CE. Many tourists filled hotels 

to see the spectacle - even 

the famous inventor Thomas 

Edison was there! 

Extensive preparations were 

made by officers in charge of 

the National Observatory to 

Fig. 32 – Capturing the corona. Magnificent pastel drawing 

by E.L. Trouvelot of the total eclipse of Sun’s corona during 

the May 29, 1878 eclipse. Credit: American expedition to 

Wyoming; from the E.L. Trouvelot, Meudon Collection. 

observe the eclipse. Five expeditions were assigned to observe the phenomenon 

and conduct relevant scientific investigations, such as making drawings of the 

corona, and to study the physical constitution of the Sun. 96 Although the corona 

was photographed in 1851 CE, the results were not satisfactory and, in 1878, 

drawings provided the best information about its size and shape. 97 

The 1878 eclipse was observed by the American astronomer Maria Mitchell, 

the first woman astronomer to join the prestigious American Academy of Arts 

and Sciences. She led a team of five of her female students on a cross-country 

journey to Denver, Colorado, to observe and scientifically report a total solar 

eclipse. 98 They traveled by train at a time when ladies did not travel unescorted. 

Her students were fascinated with the trip, although a little frightened. 

42

Maria took care of all the logistics of sending telescopes to an observational 

site and gave each student instructions, telling them the observations they 

should make. “You will see Nature as you never saw it before – it will neither 

be day nor night – open your senses to all the revelations”, she pointed out. 

“Let your eyes take note of 

the colors of Earth and Sky. 

Observe the tint of the Sun. 

Look for a gleam of light in the 

horizon. Notice the color of 

the foliage. Use another sense 

– notice if flowers give forth 

the odors of evening. Listen if 

the animals show signs of fear 

– if the dog barks – if the owl 

shrieks – if the birds cease to 

sing – if the bee ceases its hum 

– if the butterfly stops its flight 

– it is said that even the ant 

pauses with its burden and no 

longer gives the lesson to the 

sluggard.” 99 

Fig. 33 – Maria Mitchell. Image courtesy of the Maria Mitchell 

Association. Source: Pocantico Hills Central School Web site, 

http://www.pocanticohills.org 

She described also the most 

glorious moment, that is, the 

observation of the corona! 

“As the last rays of sunlight 

disappeared, the corona burst out all around the Sun, so intensely bright near 

the Sun that the eye could scarcely bear it; extending less dazzlingly bright 

around the Sun for the space of about half the Sun’s diameter, and in some 

directions sending off streamers for millions of miles…” 

The young ladies were enthusiastic about the experience and harbored a 

brave attitude at a time when women were not supposed to be inside scientific 

circles. At an epoch when men’s colleges rarely engaged science students with 

direct field experience like this, Mitchell’s students were entering a new era of 

43

learning for women. This event represented significant scientific, societal, and 

pedagogical advancement promoted by a pioneering woman. 

29) Eclipse of Lawrence of Arabia, 1917 CE 

During the First World War, Thomas Edward 

Lawrence, known as Lawrence of Arabia, 

advised the Arabs in their revolt against the 

Ottoman Empire. One of his greatest exploits 

was the capture of Aqaba, a fortified port on 

the Sinai Peninsula, with a small troop of 50 

Bedouin. 

In the Seven Pillars of Wisdom, he reports 

a lunar eclipse in Egypt that helped him 

overcome the first defensive position, 

Kethira: 

“By my diary there was an eclipse. Duly 

it came, and the Arabs forced the post 

without loss, while the superstitious 

soldiers were firing rifles and clanging 

copper pots to rescue the threatened 

satellite.” 

Aqaba was taken a few days later. Thanks to this strategic port having fallen to 

the British, the Allies soon recaptured Jerusalem and Damascus. The Turkish 

soldiers had another reason to fear the eclipse: according to an Islamic tradition, 

the Day of the Last Judgment is linked to an eclipse in the middle of the month 

of Ramadan, and this was exactly the case on that date. 100 

This is just one illustration of how eclipses through the centuries have been 

recurrently associated by different civilizations to prophecies of the end of the 

world. Indeed, even today there are people who do not feel very comfortable 

to observe the shining solar disk being occulted by the Moon, wondering that 

such event would represent far more than a mere astronomical event, and that 

there would not be tomorrow. 

44 

Fig. 34 – Lawrence of Arabia. Credit: 

Public domain.

30) Einstein Eclipse, 1919 CE 


This eclipse has definitively revolutionized the history of science in the 

twentieth century, as it helped to confirm the General Theory of Relativity by 

Albert Einstein (1879-1955 CE). Indeed, one of Einstein’s most remarkable 

contributions to science was his General Theory of Relativity (GTR), formulated 

between 1913 and 1916 CE. This theory contradicted Newton’s and provided 

fundamental new understandings of time and space measurement. GTR was 

extremelyy complex to understand though and, in order to be accepted, it 

was necessary that Einstein’s theory predicted or explained some observed 

phenomenon that the Newtonian theory could not. 101 

In this scenario, Eddington came up with the idea that a total eclipse of the 

Sun would provide such a unique opportunity to quantitatively test Einstein’s 

theory. How? If it were correct, the light from stars would be bent by the strong 

gravitational field of the Sun. And what circumstance was necessary to observe 

this? Totality and stars appearing close-by because the test required several 

bright stars close to the limb of the Sun during the eclipse. The eclipse of May 

29, 1919, offered such conditions. 

Fig. 35 – Total solar eclipse in Sobral, Brazil, 1919. The large city of Sobral in Ceara, Brazil, as it was 

in 1919 (left), and a recent monument to celebrate the eclipse (right). Source: Sociedade Brasileira de 

Fisica Web site, http://www.sbfisica.org.br 

The path of totality crossed Brazil, in South America, and Principe, an island 

owned by Portugal in the Gulf of Guinea, just to the north of the equator and 150 

miles from the African coast. In northeastern Brazil, the city of Sobral, Ceara 

state, was the best post of observation of the phenomenon and two expeditions 

of American and English scientists joined the Brazilians to observe the eclipse. 

45

Their purposes were distinct. The Brazilian commission focused on studies of 

the solar corona, its form and shape, and performed spectroscopic analysis of 

its constitution. The American and English intended to verify experimentally 

the consequences of GTR. 102 

After analysis of the eclipse results, the royal astronomer Frank Dyson 

announced, in November 1919 CE, that the results confirmed the theory and it 

was made public: Einstein was right! In fact, what provoked such commotion 

was precise measurement of the deviation of starlight passing close to the 

Sun. The value of such deviation agreed with the prediction of Einstein’s GTR 

(1.75 arc seconds), but was almost double the value predicted by Newton’s 

gravitational theory (0.87 arc seconds). 

This is one of the most dramatic events in the history of science and was 

front-page news around the globe. The London Times featured the headlines, 

“Revolution in science. New theory of the universe. Newtonian ideas 

overthrown” and The Washington Post, with “New theory of space: has no 

absolute dimensions, nor has time, say Savants.” The president of the Royal 

Society, J J Thomson, described the general theory as “the greatest discovery 

in connection with gravitation since Newton... Our conceptions of the fabric of 

the universe must be fundamentally altered.” 103 

Although people were still mystified by Einstein’s theory, his worldwide 

popularity as a legendary sciencist 104 increased exponentially almost overnight 105 

thanks partly to the fanfare that followed the eclipse. Einstein was also very 

charismatic and became famous for his equation E=mc 2 . 

31) Eclipse of End of Millennium, 1999 CE 


The eclipse of August 11, 1999 CE, was eagerly awaited and witnessed for 

millions of people, many having traveled around to see the show. It covered 

the Atlantic near Newfoundland, and the path of totality proceeded eastwards 

to the southwestern tip of England. The Moon’s shadow then crossed France, 

Germany, several eastern European countries, Turkey, the Middle East, 

Pakistan, and India, before eventually reaching the Bay of Bengal. 106 

46

Stories about the end of the world have always frightened people throughout 

history. An eclipse of the Sun in the last year of the millennium would be the 

perfect scenario for consternation about this issue. One key ingredient for this 

eclipse was related to the forthcoming millennium, including predictions of 

catastrophes. 107 

32) First Eclipses of the Third Millennium, 2001 CE 


There were two eclipses opening the Third Millennium: a lunar and a solar one. 

The first happened on January 9, 2001 CE, and was lunar. That was total as 

viewed from most of Asia, Africa, Europe, and the eastern seaboard of North 

America. 

In Nigeria, the eclipse caused great commotion, and its advent was blamed 

on sinners. In the northeastern part of the country, there were rampages by 

gangs of youths. Similar destruction occurred in other towns. “The immoral 

acts committed in these places are responsible for this eclipse,” explained one 

of the leaders of the riots. 

Five months later, on June 21, 2001 CE, the first total solar eclipse of the 

millennium was also witnessed in Africa. As the track passed over Angola, 

Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and finally the southern part of the island 

of Madagascar, thousands of tourists and millions of local inhabitants watched 

the spectacle. 

Elsewhere wailing and gnashing of teeth accompanied what was considered the 

“rooting of the Sun,” from which the world would not recover. 108 The world did 

recover quite promptly, and we keep on waiting for the next meeting between 

our two closest celestial bodies in their marvelous space ballet. 

33) Eclipse seen from space, 2006 CE 


In Africa, many regard eclipses not simple astronomical phenomena, but 

attribute some metaphysical meaning to them, usually related to prophecies of 

the end of the world. 

47

In the countdown to the 29 March eclipse, for example, an Islamic “scholar”, 

a Mallam Muniru Hamidu, declared that the world was going to end because it 

is written in the Qur’an that when the end of the world got nigh, “God would 

cause the sun and the moon to come together”. Other religious books such as 

the Christian Bible connects eclipses with facts such as the Final Judgment. 

One of the signs is the descent of darkness in the daytime. 109 

The image below, obtained from the International Space Station, 230 miles 

above the planet, was positioned to view the umbral shadow cast by the Moon 

as it moved between the Sun and Earth during the solar eclipse on March 29, 

2006 CE. The astronaut image captures the umbral shadow across southern 

Turkey, northern Cyprus, and the Mediterranean Sea. People living in these 

regions observed a total solar eclipse in which the Moon completely covered 

the Sun’s disk. 

Fig. 36 - Eclipse in outer space. The Moon’s shadow passing 

over the Earth during eclipse. Source: NASA. 

48

Epilogue 

The Sun sends energy to the Earth and other planets in our solar system as heat 

and light, along with particles 

that constitute the solar wind. 

Therefore, the space between 

the Earth and the Sun is not 

empty, but filled with plasma - 

an electrified “gas” composed 

of ions, electrons and fields. 

Energetic radiation within 

this plasma coming from 

the Sun would be dangerous 

to human life if the Earth’s 

surface was not shielded 

by our atmosphere and its 

geomagnetic field and space 

plasma environment, 110 that 

is, the magnetosphere. 

Fig. 37 – Space plasma environment of the Sun and Earth. 

Magnetic energy bursts near the solar surface hurl plasmas 

outward from the Sun. Clear magnetic field structures appear 

in light blue. Source: NASA. 

The Earth’s magnetosphere and ionosphere is a plasma system. It is the region 

in space defined by the interaction of solar plasmas with Earth’s dipole-like 

magnetic field, extending from about 85 km above Earth’s surface to more than 

60,000 km in the sunward direction and to several hundred Earth radii in the 

anti-sunward direction. 111 

As mentioned, the magnetosphere shields the Earth against space weather: 

solar wind, solar flares, coronal mass ejections, solar energetic particles and 

so on. Similar to our atmosphere, the magnetosphere is a huge magnetic field 

with lines running along it and, at the poles, right to the planet itself. 112 The 

solar wind interacts with the magnetosphere so that the side facing the Sun is 

compressed and the side opposite to the Sun is elongated. 

Amazingly, there are plasmas out to the far reaches of the solar system. Space 

environments surrounding planets and their satellites are filled with plasmas 

such as the solar wind, solar and galactic cosmic rays (high-energy charged 

particles), and particles trapped in planetary magnetospheres. All planets, and 

49

the solar system itself, have their own unique space plasma environments. 

Plasma is also the state of matter inside 

the Sun. Basically, what we see when we 

observe a total eclipse of the Sun are huge 

amounts of plasma being ejected from our 

star to form the solar corona and the solar 

wind. Look at this magnificent image of 

the Sun and its corona taken by the SOHO 

spacecraft (Fig. 38), in combination with 

a ground-based image, during a period of 

maximum solar activity. 

But what are plasmas, anyway, and 

where can we find them? Plasmas are 

basically an electrically conducting, 

interactive combination of uncharged 

and charged particles, positive ions, 

negative electrons, electric and magnetic 

fields, constituting the fourth state of 

matter (see http://www.plasmas.org/). 

Plasma exists at very high temperatures, 

thousands or perhaps millions of degrees. At these temperatures the atoms 

break and individual elementary particles are free in space. 113 

The fraction of uncharged particles in a plasma varies substantially, ranging 

from more than 95% in the lower ionosphere to less than 1% in the solar wind 

– the continuous stream of plasma from the Sun. Plasmas conduct electricity 

and have other properties that make them more than simply a type of electrical 

‘gas.’ 114 

On Earth, plasmas are very common. For example, they are used for fluorescent 

lamps, arc lamps, and laboratory experiments in sealed chambers. Tiny 

plasma discharge elements constitute the pixel arrays of plasma televisions. 

And of course, lightning: brief, long-range electrical discharges through the 

atmosphere. Lightning is part of a global electrical circuit that links the Earth’s 

surface to the conducting ionosphere. There are plasmas inside our body as 

well. Today, plasmas are beginning to be applied as well in medicine: surgery 

without cutting and “bloodless scalpels” are now becoming a reality through 

50 

Fig. 38 – Composite images from the 2001 

total solar eclipse. Three distinguished images 

form this picture. In the center, an image 

obtained from space; the intermediate picture 

has been taken from the ground and the outermost 

image shows the corona as seen from 

space. In that year the Sun was in a period 

of maximum activity, so the corona is notably 

expanded. Source: ESA/NASA.

cold plasmas that can inactivate bacteria through a combination of free radicals, 

charged particles, and ultraviolet radiation, which work together to disrupt the 

integrity of bacterial cell membranes. 115 

Travelling farther, more than 99% of the visible Universe is in the plasma 

state, giving rise to Tony Peratt’s metaphor “Plasma Universe.” Actually, in 

space, we can find plasmas in the interstellar and intergalactic medium, in 

diffuse forms like nebulas and in more condensed and hotter forms like stars or 

supernovas. 116 Much closer to home, energy from the Sun produce phenomena 

such as auroras, rainbows, sunrises. 117 

Fig. 39 – The plasma universe. Intense regions of star birth within the 

Orion nebula appear in this Hubble image. All visible regions here and 

most of the low-density regions in between are dominated by plasmas 

containing neutral particles, ions, electrons and electric and magnetic 

fields. Source: NASA. 

Solar particles carry a magnetic field that can sometimes disrupting the 

magnetosphere, causing magnetic storms or auroras. 118 In special, auroras 

shimmer and glow in the polar regions of the Earth. They are also known as the 

Northern and Southern lights. 119 According to Peratt and Strait (1999), auroras 

are “indefinite, undulating sheets that move and dance (…) It is the visible 

manifestation of huge, invisible electric currents embracing Earth. The aurora 

is a natural plasma light show.” 

51

These beautiful auroral displays result from solar wind plasmas that filter 

through the magnetic field surrounding the Earth, eventually striking and 

exciting ionospheric atoms or molecules and causing them to radiate different 

colors. 

Fig. 40 – Aurora. This image obtained in January 2005 shows a marvelous 

aurora borealis over a gelid landscape in Alaska. Source: NASA. 

Next time you have an opportunity to observe a total solar eclipse, or even some 

beautiful aurora, be aware that you are witnessing a prime nearby spectacle of 

the same plasma processes that pervade the cosmos - a window to the plasma 

universe! 

52

Acknowledgements 

Writing a paper is such a special act - it is an act of love. We always wonder 

how to make that better, but at some point we just have to stop, hoping readers 

will enjoy that. Few significant accomplishments can be completed alone, so 

that I would like to express here my gratitude to a few exceptional people who 

have been fundamental to help me make this project a beautiful reality. 

Fig. 41– Dr. Timothy E. 

Eastman. Plasma physicist 

and group manager at 

NASA Goddard. Creator of 

the Web site plasmas.org. 

First, I want to express my deep and special gratitude 

to Dr. Timothy E. Eastman (Perot Systems at NASA 

Goddard), my mentor and supervisor, who provided 

full and unique guidance and support to make my 

NASA internship possible. Dr. Tim is a brilliant 

plasma physicist, and a wonderful person. He has 

made a tremendous difference in my life, teaching me 

fundamental professional, academic and life lessons. 

I am very thankful to Dr. 

Louis A. Mayo (SP Systems at 

NASA Goddard), my mentor, 

for our countless pedagogical 

and scientific discussions, 

which largely enriched the 

research. He is a great astronomer and space science 

education spacialist, and a special person who has 

greatly contributed to my internship experience at 

NASA. 

Fig. 42 – Dr. Lou Mayo. Astronomer, 

space science education 

specialist at NASA Goddard. 

Many thanks to Ms. Constance Carter, Head of the Science Reference Section 

of the Science, Technology and Business Division of the Library of Congress 

- LOC, who assisted me in finding several outstanding sources, which greatly 

contributed to the quality of this paper. 

53

I am deeply thankful to the guidance of Dr. Fred 

Espenak (NASA Goddard) who, for very good 

reasons, is known as “Mr. Eclipse”. Dr. Espenak 

kindly provided singular guidance and assistance 

during this research, indicating valuable sources, 

and making available various images from his 

eclipse-dedicated Web sites, books and papers. 

Other distinguished NASA specialists were 

exceptionally generous by collaborating to the 

enhancement of this project: Dr. Troy Cline, for his 

support in the production of this paper Web site and 

podcasts; M.Sc. Rita Johnson, for her partnership 

in the production of the Portuguese podcast; Dr. 

Robert L. Kilgore, and Dr. Glen A. Asner, for their 

critical reading and suggestions to the paper; and Dr. Jay Friedlander, who 

provided design and artistic support. 

Thanks to all NASA people who made my internship experience just wonderful 

and unforgettable! 

I would also like to express my gratitude to the Brazilian Ministry of Education 

(MEC), my sponsors and reference people in Brazil and abroad, for all their 

support that was essential to help me accomplish this project. 

My special thanks to my parents and masters, Mrs. Antonia Reis (who already 

passed away) and Mr. Antonio Oliveira Reis, whose unconditional love, 

continued support and encouragement have been essential to help me reach 

my dreams. 

Foremost, I want to thank God for the unique combination of gifts, opportunities, 

and for introducing such special people in my life. He has been opening doors 

to turn my “pathway to the stars” into such a wonderful reality – the lifetime 

passion I always dreamed about: NASA! 

54 

Fig. 43 – Dr. Fred Espenak. Astronomer, 

NASA Goddard, creator 

of the Web site mreclipse.com

References 1 

[1] Andrews, Tamra, Wonders of the Sky - Wonders of Nature: Natural 

Phenomena in Science and Myth, Westport: Libraries Unlimited, 2004. 

[2] Baikouzis, Constantino and Magnasco, Marcelo O. “Is an eclipse described 

in the Odyssey?” PNAS, v. 105, n. 26, July 1, 2008, p. 8823-8828. Available at: 

http://www.pnas.org/content/105/26/8823.full.pdf+html 

[3] Boston, Anne, “At Another Eclipse, a Star Was Born,” New Statesman, v. 

128, August 9, 1999, p. 16. 

[4] Brewer, B., Eclipse, Seattle: Earth View, 1991. 

[5] Brunier, S., Luminet, J. P., Glorious Eclipses: Their Past Present and 

Future, Cambridge University Press, 2000. 

[6] Chambers, George F., The Story of Eclipses, New York: D. Appleton and 

Company, 1902. 

[7] Duodu, Cameron, “The Day the World Failed to End-Again,” New African, 

n. 451, May 2006, p. 46+. 

[8] Eastman, Timothy E., “A survey of plasmas and their applications,” Plasma 

Physics Applied, 2006, p. 11-26 

[9] Eddy, John A., “The Great Eclipse of 1878,” Sky and Telescope, June 1973. 

[10] Espenak, Fred. Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses, Washington, DC: 

NASA, Scientific and Technical Information Office, 1987. 

[11] Fotheringham, J. K., “A Solution of Ancient Eclipses of the Sun,” Monthly 

Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. NASA Astrophysics Data System, 

v. 81, November 1920. Available at: http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/ 

seri/MNRAS/0081//0000112.000.html?high=4868316e3613496 

[12] Glaser, David and Beals, Kevin, Living With a Star: from sunscreen 

to space weather: teacher’s guide for grades 6-8, Berkeley: University of 

California, 2003. 

[13] Hajar, Rachel, “The Dragon: Mythical Beasts of the Middle East,” Part 2, 

World and I, v. 14, January 1999, p. 218. 

[14] Humphreys, J. Colin, Waddington, W. G., “Dating the Crucifixion,” 

Nature, v. 306, n. 5945, December 22, 1983, p. 743-746. 

[15] Ibid, “The Date of the Crucifixion,” JASA, n. 37, March 1985, p. 02-10. 

[16] Ionides, Stephen A. and Ionides, Margareth L., Stars and Men, Indianapolis, 

New York: Bobbs-Merril, 1939. 

1 The Web sites accessed for this project are indicated in the Footnotes section. 

55

[17] Lang, Kenneth R., Sun, Earth and Sky, New York: Springer-Verlag, Berlin 

Heidelberg, 1997. 

[18] Littell, Eliakim and Littell, Robert S., The Living Age, Boston: Son & 

Company, 1868. 

[19] Littman, Mark, Willcox, Ken and Espenak, Fred, Totality: Eclipses of the 

Sun, ed. 2, New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999. 

[20] Margulis, Lynn and Punset, Eduard, Suzuk, David T. (Contributor), Mind, 

Life, and Universe: Conversations with Great Scientists of Our Time, White 

River Junction: Chelsea Green, 2007. 

[21] Mitchel, S. A., Eclipses of the Sun, New York: Columbia University Press, 

ed. 5, 1951. 

[22] Mitchell, Maria, “The Total Eclipse of 1869,” from “Hours at Home for 

October,” APS Online, v. 26, n. 37, Nov. 13, 1869, p. 587. 

[23] NASA RP 1383 Total Solar Eclipse of 1999 August 11, April 1997, p. 19. 

[24] Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilisation in China, New York, Oxford: 

Cambridge University Press, 2008. 

[25] Newton, Robert R., Medieval Chronicles and the Rotation of the Earth, 

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1972. 

[26] Peratt, Anthony and Strait, G. Carroll, “At Home in the Plasma Universe,” 

World and I, v. 14, September 1999. 

[27] Peratt, Anthony L., Physics of the Plasma Universe, New York: Springer- 

Verlag, 1991. 

[28] Schaefer, Bradley E., “Lunar Eclipses That Changed the World,” Sky and 

Telescope, December 1992, p. 639-642. 

[29] Ibid, “Solar Eclipses That Changed the World,” Sky and Telescope, May 

1994, p. 36-39. 

[30] Ibidem, Q J R. Astr. Soc., v. 31, 1990, p. 53-67. 

[31] Scientific American, “The Total Eclipse of the Sun,” APS Online, v. 

XXXIX, n. 04, July 27, 1878, p. 56. 

[32] Sinnott, Roger W., “Columbus and an Eclipse of the Moon,” Sky and 

Telescope, October 1991, p. 437-440. 

[33] Smith, George and Thackeray, William M., The Cornhill Magazine, v. 18, 

1868. 

[34] Soares, Maria Norma Maia, Eclipse de 1919: Múltiplas Visões, ed. 2, 

Sobral: Edições UVA, 2003. 

[35] Steel, Duncan, Eclipse: the Celestial Phenomenon that Changed the 

56

Course of History, Washington, DC: Joseph Henry Press, 2001. 

[36] Stephenson, F. Richard, Historical Eclipses and Earth’s Rotation, 

Cambridge, UK; New York, Cambridge University Press, 1997. 

[37] The Oxford English Dictionary: A New English Dictionary on Historical 

Principles. Volume III, Oxford University Press, 1969. 

[38] The Washington Post 1877, “New Theory of Space,” 14 Dec. 1919. P. E5. 

[39] Twain, Mark, A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court, New York, 

London, Harper & Brothers, 1889. 

[40] Ibid, The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, New York, P. F. Collier & Son, 

1918. 

[41] Wilford, John Noble, “Homecoming of Odysseus May Have Been in 

Eclipse,” The New York Times, June 24, 2008. 

[42] Wilson, Robert. Astronomy through the Ages: The Story of the Human 

Attempt to Understand the Universe, London, CRC Press, 1997. 

[43] Wolff, Larry, Inventing Eastern Europe - The Map of Civilization on the 

Mind of the Enlightenment, Stanford University Press, 1994. 

[44] Wright, Helen, Sweeper in the Sky: the Life of Maria Mitchell First Woman 

Astronomer in America, New York: The Macmillan Company, 1949. 

57

Footnotes 

1 Extracted from the “Stanford Solar Center” Web site, maintained by the Stanford Solar 

Center ©2008, http://solar-center.stanford.edu/ 

2 Andrews, 2004. 

3 Brunier and Luminet, 2000. 

4 Steel, 2001. 

5 Hajar, 1999. 


7 Andrews, 2004. 


9 Wilson, 1997. 

10 The outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere, visible to the naked eye during a total solar 

eclipse, can also be observed through special filters and X-ray cameras aboard satellites. 

The corona is composed of hot plasmas, up to 1.5 million degrees centigrade, and generates 

the solar wind. 

11 Extracted from the “NASA Sun Earth Day - Eclipse” Web site, http://sunearthday.nasa. 

gov/2006/index.php 

12 Wilson, 1997. 

13 Ibid. 

14 Needham, 2008. 

15 Ibid. 

16 Littmann et al., 1999. 

17 Extracted from the “Eclipses” Web site, http://www.eclipsecubed.co.uk/ 

18 Extracted from the “Crystalinks” Web site, maintained by Ellie Crystals ©1995-2008, 

http://www.crystalinks.com/eclipse.html 

19 Newton, 1972. 

20 Espenak, 1987. 

21 Ibid. 

22 Ibidem. 

23 Ibidem. 

24 Extracted from the “Crystalinks” Web site (Idem 18). 

25 Eclipse predictions by Fred Espenak, from NASA Goddard. 

26 Extracted from the “NASA Eclipse Web site,” http://eclipse.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse.html 

27 Glaser & Beals, 2003. 

28 Pitts, 1993 in NASA, 1997. 

58

29 Extracted from the “Mr. Eclipse” Web site, maintained by Fred Espenak, http://www. 

mreclipse.com/ 

30 Littmann et al., 1999. 

31 Twain, 1918. 


33 Needham, 2008. 

34 Ibid. 

35 Ibidem. 


37 Stell, 2001. 

38 Mitchel, 1951. 

39 Baikouzis & Magnasco, 2008. 

40 Wilford, 2008. 


42 Fotheringham, 1920. 

43 Ionides and Bobbs-Merrill, 1939. 

44 Wikipedia. 

45 According to Fred Espenak, from NASA Goddard, the Saros cycle consists of a period of 

18 years, 11 days and 8 hours. If one goes forward or backward within this period, another 

solar eclipse, very similar to the first one, will be encountered. It will occur approximately 

at the same season, and with approximately equal distances to the Moon-Earth-Sun system. 

The Babylonians and the Chaldeans discovered it by keeping records of lunar eclipses. The 

Saros family of eclipse is imperfect, presenting northward or southward shifts. 

46 The mean time for one lunar phase cycle (i.e., the synodic period of the Moon) is 

29.530.589 days, or 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds. More specifically, a lunation 

is also commonly defined as the mean time between successive new moons. Extracted 

from: http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/astronomy/Lunation.html 

47 Needham, 2008. 

48 Steel, 2001. 

49 Chambers, 1902. 

50 Brewer, 1991. 

51 Steel, 2001. 

52 Brewer, 1991. 

53 Steel, 2001. 

54 Ionides & Ionides, 1939. 



59


58 Considering the hypothesis of November 24, 29 CE. 

59 Humphreys and Waddington, 1983. 


61 Idem. 


63 Duncan, 2001. 

64 Schaefer, 1990. 




68 Idem. 

69 Steel, 2001. 

70 Stephenson, 1997. 


72 Idem. 




76 Littell & Littell, 1868. 



79 Idem. 

80 Steel, 2001. 

81 Twain, 1889. 

82 Wolff, 1994. 

83 Smith, 1868. 

84 Extracted from “Eclipse Quotations,” in the “Mr. Eclipse” Web site, maintained by Fred 

Espenak, http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/quotes3.html 



87 Idem. 

88 Extracted from the “Social Studies for Kids” Web site, maintanned by David White, 

http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/ushistory/benjaminbanneker1.htm 

89 Extracted from the “Inventor Biographies” Web site, maintained by NetIndustries, LLC 

©2008, http://www.madehow.com/inventorbios/21/Benjamin-Banneker.html 

60


58 Considering the hypothesis of November 24, 29 CE. 



61 Ibid. 


63 Duncan, 2001. 





68 Ibid. 

69 Steel, 2001. 

70 Stephenson, 1997. 


72 Ibid. 




76 Littell & Littell, 1868. 



79 Ibid. 

80 Steel, 2001. 

81 Twain, 1889. 

82 Wolff, 1994. 

83 Smith, 1868. 

84 Extracted from “Eclipse Quotations,” in the “Mr. Eclipse” Web site, maintained by Fred 

Espenak, http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/quotes3.html 



87 Ibid. 

88 Extracted from the “Social Studies for Kids” Web site, maintanned by David White, 

http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/articles/ushistory/benjaminbanneker1.htm 

89 Extracted from the “Inventor Biographies” Web site, maintained by NetIndustries, LLC 

©2008, http://www.madehow.com/inventorbios/21/Benjamin-Banneker.html

90 Ibid 88. 



93 Ibid. 



96 Scientific American, 1878. 

97 Eddy, 1973. 

98 Extracted from “The Vassar Encyclopedia online,” Web site, maintained by the Vassar’s 

College Historian, http://vcencyclopedia.vassar.edu/ 

99 Wright, 1949. 

100 Ibid. 

101 Steell, 2001. 

102 Soares, 2003. 

103 Boston, 1999. 



106 Steel, 2001. 

107 Extracted from the ESA Web site, http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMQM9R1VED_ 

index_0.html 

108 Steel, 2001. 

109 Doudu, 2006. 

110 Lang, 1997. 

111 Peratt, 1992. 

112 Glaser and Beals, 2003. 

113 Margulis and Punset, 2007. 

114 Extracted from the “Coalition for Plasma Science” Web site, maintained by the Coalition 

for Plasma Science ©1999, 2000, http://www.plasmascoalition.org 

115 Extracted from the “Perspectives on Plasmas - the fourth state of matter” Web site, 

maintained by Tim Eastman, Plasmas International ©1999, 2004, http://www.plasmas.org/ 

116 Idem. 

117 Extracted from the “Stanford Solar Center” Web site, maintained by the Stanford Solar 

Center ©2008, http://solar-center.stanford.edu/ 

118 Glaser and Beals, 2003. 

119 Extracted from the “Traditions of the Sun” Web site, maintained by UC Regents ©2005, 

http://www.traditionsofthesun.org/chaco_book_eng/index.html 

62

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