The Roman and Byzantine Graves and Human Remains

isthmia 

volume ix 

the roman and byzantine 

graves and human remains

©2012 The American School of Classical Studies at Athens 

Personal use only. Do not distribute. 

ISTHMIA 

RESULTS OF EXCAVATIONS CONDUCTED UNDER THE AUSPICES OF 

THE AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CLASSICAL STUDIES AT ATHENS 

i oscar broneer, Temple of Poseidon (1971) 

ii oscar broneer, Topography and Architecture (1973) 

iii oscar broneer, Terracotta Lamps (1977) 

iv mary C. sturgeon, Sculpture i: 1952–1967 (1987) 

v timothy e. gregory, The Hexamilion and the Fortress (1993) 

vi steven lattimore, Sculpture ii: Marble Sculpture, 1967–1980 (1996) 

vii isabelle K. raubitschek, The Metal Objects (1952–1989) (1998) 

viii Catherine morgan, The Late Bronze Age Settlement and Early Iron Age Sanctuary (1999)



isthmia 

exCavations by the university oF CaliFornia at los angeles 

and the ohio state university 

under the ausPiCes oF 

the ameriCan sChool oF ClassiCal studies at athens 

volume ix 

the roman and byzantine 

graves and human remains 

by 

JosePh l. riFe 

the ameriCan sChool oF ClassiCal studies at athens 

PrinCeton, neW Jersey 

2012



© The American School of Classical Studies at Athens, 2012 

ISBN: 978-0-87661-939-1 

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data 

Isthmia : excavations by the University of Chicago, under the auspices of the 

American School of Classical Studies at Athens 

v. cm. 

Includes bibliographical references and index. 

Contents: v. 1. Temple of Poseidon / by Oscar Broneer—v. 2. Topography and 

architecture / by Oscar Broneer—v. 3. Terracotta lamps / by Oscar Broneer— 

v. 4. Sculpture I : 1952–1967 / by Mary C. Sturgeon—v. 5. The Hexamilion and the 

fortress / by Timothy E. Gregory. 

1. Isthmia (Greece)—Antiquities. 2. Greece—Antiquities. 3. Excavations (Archaeology—Greece—Isthmia. 

I. Title II. Broneer, Oscar, 1894–1992. III. Sturgeon, 

Mary C. (Mary Carol), 1943– IV. Gregory, Timothy E. V. University of Chicago. 

VI. University of California, Los Angeles. VII. Ohio State University. 

DF261.I85B76 938´7 76-362971 

typography by ascsa publications 

6–8 charlton street, princeton, new jersey 

printed in the united states of america 

by thomson-shore, incorporated, dexter, michigan



MATRI CARISSIMAE 

γειναμένωι χάριτας, γαμέται λέχος, ὑέι φάμαν 

ἄψογον ἐς πυμάταν ἀὼ ἐνεγκαμέναι


Personal use only. Do not distribute.



PreFaCe 

the study of the graves and human remains from the isthmian sanctuary and Fortress has 

had a long history. since the 1950s, excavations at isthmia by the american school of Classical 

studies at athens (asCsa) have uncovered over 150 graves and over 100 skeletons. apart from 

a few isolated interments and a scattering of disarticulated bones, these burials were investigated 

by the team sponsored by the university of California at los angeles (uCla) under the direction 

of the late Paul Clement. the analysis and publication of this material has been undertaken 

by his successor, timothy e. gregory, who directs the team sponsored by the ohio state 

university (osu). the known burials were nearly all located in two separate areas representing 

disparate periods in the history of the site: the West Cemetery on the edge of the modern 

village of Kyras vrysi, and the Fortress adjoining the hexamilion just northeast of the temple 

of Poseidon. the late archaic and Classical burials at the West Cemetery are the subject of 

a future volume that will describe the pottery, small finds, and bones from the graves and 

discuss the historical and social context of their interment. 1 the present volume covers the 

graves and human remains belonging to the local community in roman to byzantine times, 

particularly the inhabitants of the fortifications and the ruins of the sanctuary from the end 

of the 4th to the 7th or 8th centuries. 

the study of the graves and their contents has been an important component in the research 

program of the osu project almost since its inception. at the invitation of gregory, myra 

giesen conducted a preliminary examination of human bone from the site in 1989–1990. 

she was the first person to collate the pertinent records, to try to make sense of their depositional 

context, and to generate an inventory. 2 i assumed responsibility for the publication 

of the human remains in 1995 as a part of my larger study of the historical setting of the 

graves. i completed a new comprehensive analysis of the mortuary and skeletal remains during 

two long study seasons at Kyras vrysi in 1996 and 1997, and during shorter visits in 1998 

and 2000 to 2004. 3 John robb, who at the time was teaching at southampton but has since 

moved to Cambridge, joined me in 1998 to observe and to report on paleopathology. the 

introduction and many descriptions and identifications of lesions in Chapter 7 reflect his 

contribution. my lively dialogue with him has steered me away from many methodological 

and interpretive pitfalls, for which i am very grateful. 

although i began the composing this book in 1997, various professional and personal 

distractions, beyond the vicissitudes of compiling and analyzing complex data that reside 

1. For preliminary reports, see Clement 1969, pp. 142–143; 

1970, p. 119; 1974, pp. 102–105; Clement and thorne 1974. the 

West Cemetery previously was called lambrou Field after the 

surname of the former landowner. note that the graves discovered 

to the south across the modern road on the Filis property 

belong to the same necropolis. the author and martha risser 

are preparing the volume on the West Cemetery. 

2. gregory and Kardulias 1989, pp. 16–17; o’roark and 

giesen 1991; Kardulias and shutes 1992, p. 20; rife and giesen 

1994. the observations and conclusions presented herein 

supersede any previously published. 

3. gregory, Kardulias, and rife 1997, p. 4; rife 1998.



viii PreFaCe 

overseas, delayed its submission until 2005. at that point, recognizing that scholarship in related 

fields, particularly late antique archaeology, had increased dramatically in recent years 

and being aware of the duration of revision, editing, and production to come, i made the 

decision to stop incorporating new publications. therefore, i have not cited works published 

after 2005, even though certain important studies have now appeared that complement the 

present volume in interesting ways. 4 

graves and bones, particularly those of post-Classical date, are frequently encountered during 

excavation; almost all major sites, and many of secondary importance, have produced them. 

yet one of the greatest challenges i faced in preparing this book was the absence of a clear 

precedent in published scholarship on greek remains. this book brings a new perspective 

in various ways: it applies current theoretical approaches to the study of burial and society; it 

fully integrates the study of funerary ritual with the study of skeletal biology; it employs a contextual 

approach to understanding graves and human remains within the larger frameworks 

of a community and a region; it explores life and death in the greek countryside; and it investigates 

social history during the transition from ancient to medieval times. since this project 

contributes to an emerging scholarly discourse and the subjects it covers will not be familiar 

to many readers in the fields of classical archaeology and ancient history, i have considered 

it important to adopt a wide scope. accordingly, i have explained my data and techniques in 

detail, have compiled a generous bibliography, and have tried to situate the roman and byzantine 

graves and human remains from the isthmus in relation to published evidence from 

elsewhere in greece as well as other regions of the world. this will, i hope, provide a more 

useful and meaningful study for a larger audience than a simple catalogue and commentary. 

i hope, too, that it will highlight the dire need for the standardized collection, description, 

and publication of the abundant mortuary and osteological records of greece. 

i conducted the research for this book under the auspices of the american school of 

Classical studies at athens and with permission granted by the former Fourth ephoreia of 

Classical and Prehistoric antiquities at nafplio and the sixth ephoreia of byzantine antiquities 

at Patras. For their interest and support i gratefully acknowledge zoë aslamatzidou 

and Panayiota Kasimis, archaeologists for the ephoreia; William d. e. Coulson†, James b. 

muhly, and stephen tracy, successive directors of the american school; and scott Pike, former 

interim director of the Wiener laboratory of the american school. the directors of 

the excavations at isthmia, timothy e. gregory and elizabeth r. gebhard, have permitted 

my work and generously assisted in the preparation of this publication. in particular, i thank 

gregory for recognizing the significance of the graves and human remains and for enabling 

my study over the long term. 

in undertaking this study and preparing its publication i have enjoyed the technical aid 

and intellectual counsel of several people. nancy buschini, blanche Kim, and steve Koob 

offered their expert advice concerning the conservation and storage of the bones in 1995 

and 1996. i acknowledge the able assistance of several students in biological anthropology 

and mediterranean archaeology, including heather heerssen (Kenyon College, 1995), 

sarah Kielt (bryn mawr College, 1995), victoria semos (university of texas-austin, 1998), 

nancy tang (Cornell university and the university of london, 2000), and dhruva Jaishankar 

(macalester College, 2002). tang and Jaishankar diligently tabulated the taphonomic and 

osteological data. i thank nina loney and especially nora dimitrova for translating publications 

in bulgarian, russian, and serbo-Croatian during my research. all graphic material in 

this book appears by courtesy of the isthmia excavations. many individuals have helped with 

the visual documentation of the graves and their contents. the line art is the work of several 

4. one notable study is the thesis on the bioarchaeology of 

byzantine greece by P. tritsaroli (2006).



PreFaCe 

architects, illustrators, and excavators with the Chicago, uCla, and osu projects over the 

years, including myself. many photographs of the site, the graves, and the human remains 

in situ, along with a few photographs of the artifacts, were taken by emile serafis and Paul 

Clement. almost all photographs of the bones, several of the artifacts, and a few of the site 

and graves were taken by daniel m. Curtis. he has also prepared all drawn and photographic 

images for digital reproduction and printing. i sincerely thank him for his skill and professionalism 

in completing this most important part of the project. 

i also owe my gratitude to many teachers, colleagues, and friends. the success of any interdisciplinary 

endeavor depends on the constructive collaboration of people with diverse 

viewpoints. i warmly acknowledge the following individuals for their help during the course 

of my research and writing, without burdening them with complicity in any errors or disparities 

that remain in this book. gregory offered his unconditional encouragement and astute 

criticism at all stages. i have learned much about archaeology, history, religion, and the 

natural environment from discussion and correspondence with n. n. ambraseys, William 

Caraher, Kevin Clinton, John Coleman, Florin Curta, archibald dunn, John v. a. Fine Jr., 

ann ellis hanson, george Kacandes, P. nick Kardulias, Paul legutko, John mansfield, Charles 

Pazdernik, david Potter, raymond rogers, guy d. r. sanders, John shean, alice-may 

talbot, thomas tartaron, lita tzortzopoulou-gregory, and Fikret yegül. on topics of specialized 

scope and on classes of artifacts i have consulted individuals pursuing related research 

in the Corinthia: Professor gregory, John hayes, Jeanne marty†, melissa moore morison, 

dr. sanders, and Kathleen Warner slane on roman and byzantine pottery; birgitta lindros 

Wohl on lamps; liane houghtalin and orestes zervos on coins; and richard K. dunn and 

Jay stratton noller on geology and geomorphology. i thank them for furnishing unpublished 

evidence and valuable observations. in osteological study i have profited from the advice 

of anthropologists sandra garvie-lok, Kenneth a. r. Kennedy, Clark spenser larsen, and 

douglas h. ubelaker, who have discussed the project at various stages and assiduously reviewed 

drafts of Chapters 5 through 7. Finally, mireille lee has been my deepest source of 

intellectual guidance and personal support, for which i owe more than i can express. 

this book would not have been possible without the generous financial and administrative 

support of several institutions and offices. my study overseas in 1997 and 1998 was aided by 

grants from the horace h. rackham school of graduate studies of the university of michigan. 

i completed the basic research and writing while i was James rignall Wheeler Fellow 

at the american school of Classical studies (1995–1996) and townsend assistant Professor 

of Classics at Cornell (1999–2002). the department of Classics and olin library at Cornell 

provided the necessary resources and a conducive atmosphere for the completion of much 

of this book. the library staff of macalester College, particularly aaron albertson, assisted 

greatly with interlibrary loan acquisitions. lastly, i am grateful to the editorial staff of the 

asCsa Publications office, under the sure guidance of Charles Watkinson and andrew 

reinhard, for their hard work, high standards, and broad vision in exploring new avenues 

for scientific publication. 

i dedicate this book to my mother, Pat rife (1943–2000). she made me a sandwich in Kyras 

vrysi to nourish my work and bought me a computer in White bear lake to facilitate my 

writing. during the completion of this project, when i was far away, she developed leukemia. 

like Prima at Corinth, the radiant woman survives in the memory of the living so long as the 

living preserve her glorious memory. she will be with me, and i will continue to learn from 

her, for a long time. 

ix 

macalester College 

st. Paul, minnesota



x 

PreFaCe 

during the final preparation of this volume for production, i have not fundamentally altered 

the content or expanded the argument. this decision was motivated by a concern to preserve 

the study’s integrity and to ensure its rapid publication. i have, however, slightly enhanced 

the bibliography predating 2005 and have very selectively added citations of more recent 

publications pertaining to the northeastern Peloponnese and to human skeletal remains from 

greece, Cyprus, and asia minor. andrew reinhard, Carol stein, and timothy Wardell at the 

asCsa Publications office deserve my sincere gratitude for the timely and careful attention 

they have given this manuscript. Publication of this book was aided by financial support from 

the offices of the vice Provost for research and the executive dean of the College of arts 

and sciences at vanderbilt university, as well as from the von bothmer Publication Fund of 

the archaeological institute of america, the Packard humanities institute, and the ohio 

state university excavations at isthmia. 

vanderbilt university 

nashville, tennessee



Contents 

list oF illustrations xv 

list oF tables xxi 

bibliograPhy and abbreviations xxiii 

1. themes, ProCedures, and materials 1 

themes and aPProaChes 2 

ProCedure oF study 6 

the Creation oF the material reCord 11 

Part i: the arChaeologiCal, historiCal, and soCial Context oF the graves 

2. the graves and assoCiated remains 21 

the arChaeologiCal dimensions oF mortuary behavior 21 

the Chronologies oF burial 23 

desCriPtion oF the graves by area 25 

northeast gate 25 

toWer 2 56 

toWer 13 61 

toWer 14 62 

louKos Field 72 

deCauville graves 75 

roman bath 76 

hexamilion outWorKs 82 

West Foundation 88 

Palaimonion 91 

theater Cave 96 

Catalogue oF burial dePosits 99 

Catalogue oF Funerary artiFaCts 103 

3. burial Chronology, toPograPhy, and history oF settlement 113 

Phase i: the roman sanCtuary (mid-1st to late 4th Centuries) 114 

Phases ii–iii: the late roman FortiFiCations (end 4th to mid-6th 

Centuries) 120 

Phase iv: the early byzantine settlement (late 6th to 7th/8th 


Phase v: the middle to late byzantine Fortress (10th to 15th 


ePilogue: Kyras vrysi, ayios ioannis Prodromos, and its Cemetery 

by Lita Tzortzopoulou-Gregory and Joseph L. Rife 146



xii 

Contents 

4. Funerary ritual, mortuary variability, and soCiety 153 

greeK Funerary ritual during the roman and byzantine eras 159 

mortuary Form and variability 163 

rituals beFore burial 164 

seleCtion, aCquisition, and PreParation oF a site For burial 167 

multiPle burial 169 

grave design and tyPology 172 

burial orientation 181 

CorPoreal Position 183 

Funerary assemblage 187 

seCondary burial 199 

human disturbanCe oF graves 202 

soCial struCture and ideology 206 

age 207 

sex and gender 210 

vertiCal Position 213 

horizontal Position 218 

Christian ideology 222 

soCial and ideologiCal devianCy 230 

Part ii: the osteologiCal and bioarChaeologiCal Context oF the 

human remains 

5. the Condition and ComPosition oF the human remains 235 

the Condition oF the sKeletal assemblage 238 

osteologiCal methodology 247 

determination oF sex 248 

estimation oF age at death 249 

measurement oF bones 253 

observation oF nonmetriC traits 254 

the ComPosition oF the sKeletal samPle 258 

PaleodemograPhy 259 

PhysiCal aPPearanCe and diversity 265 

groWth and stature 282 

nonmetriC variability 286 

6. teeth and oral health 293 

diet and oral hygiene 293 

Conditions oF the teeth and alveolar struCtures 296 

variation in dental Form, loCation, and number 298 

enamel hyPoPlasia 306 

dental Wear 313 

dental trauma 319 

Plaque and CalCulus 324 

dental Caries 326 

alveolar deFeCts and amtl 334 

summary oF loCal dental Conditions 349 

oral health in the greeK World during roman and byzantine times 351



7. PaleoPathology and PaleoePidemiology 367 

Catalogue oF Conditions 368 

the PaleoePidemiology oF the sKeletal samPle 405 

Congenital anomalies 406 

hematologiCal disorders 409 

inFeCtious disease 413 

Joint disease 415 

trauma 429 

neoPlasia 436 

summary oF loCal PaleoPathologiCal Conditions 437 

disease and inJury in the greeK World during roman 

and byzantine times 441 

8. liFe and death at the isthmus betWeen rome and byzantium 457 

aPPendix: metriC and nonmetriC traits in the sKeletal samPle 469 

indexes 

Contents 

general index 481 

index oF burial sites and regions 497 

index oF lots Cited 503 

index oF obJeCts Cited 505 

index oF anCient, byzantine, and eastern sourCes 507 

index oF insCriPtions 511 

xiii





illustrations 

Figures 

1.1. the isthmus of Corinth 2 

1.2. the isthmian sanctuary 3 

1.3. the isthmian Fortress and adjacent graves 4 

1.4. human remains from neg 69-004, as stored by excavators in 1969 and retrieved for study in 1990 7 

2.1. northeast gate, actual-state plan 26 

2.2. northeast gate, schematic plan 27 

2.3. northeast gate, restored plan 28 

2.4. neg 69-103, 69-004, and 69-008 and surroundings 29 

2.5. Coverings of neg 69-103 and 69-004 30 

2.6. neg 69-103a, b in grave 31 

2.7. neg 69-004a, C–e, glass pitcher (7), and bottle (13) in grave 32 

2.8. neg 69-004b and legs of a in grave 32 

2.9. spiral and transverse fractures in long bones of neg 69-004C–e from handling by late roman builders 33 

2.10. Covering of neg 69-008 with lamp (5) 34 

2.11. stones on floor of neg 69-008 after excavation 35 

2.12. neg 67-001a–K, coins (1–3), ring, and buckle (18) in grave 37 

2.13. Coins (1–3) and ring in neg 67-001 37 

2.14. West end of neg 67-001 with cup (8) 37 

2.15. neg 67-003b in grave after removal of other skeletons 39 

2.16. Covering of neg 69-005 40 

2.17. neg 69-005a–C in grave 40 



2.20. neg 69-001a–d in grave 43 

2.21. West end of neg 69-001 with earring (19) 44 

2.22. east section of trenches 69-5/95-1 northwest of the northeast gate 45 



2.25. neg 69-007a, b in grave 47 

2.26. neg 69-009, plan and sections 48 

2.27. Covering of neg 69-009 and surroundings in 1969 49 

2.28. Covering of neg 69-009 in 1998 49 

2.29. inner layer of tiles sealing burial compartment of neg 69-009 49 

2.30. neg 69-010, plan and sections 51 

2.31. Covering of neg 69-010 and surroundings in 1969 52 

2.32. detail of cross on west end of covering of neg 69-010 in 1969 52 

2.33. Covering of neg 69-010 in 1998 52 

2.34. inner layer of tiles sealing burial compartment of neg 69-010 53



xvi 

illustrations 

2.35. tile fragments at west end of floor of neg 69-010 53 

2.36. tower 2, actual-state plan 56 

2.37. Covering and marker of t2 68-006 57 

2.38. t2 68-006a in grave 57 

2.39. t2 68-006 with stones lining walls after removal of skeleton 58 

2.40. Covering and marker of t2 68-002 59 

2.41. t2 68-002a in grave 59 

2.42. Covering of t2 68-003 60 

2.43. t2 68-003a, b in grave 60 

2.44. reconstruction of tiles (im 68-109) paving t2 68-003 after removal from cist 61 

2.45. tower 14, actual-state plan 63 

2.46. t14 67-002a in grave 64 

2.47. t14 67-002 64 

2.48. architectural terracotta (it 895) from under head of t14 67-002a 64 

2.49. t14 67-004a in grave 65 

2.50. lower legs of t14 69-701a 66 

2.51. Covering over east end of t14 69-991 67 

2.52. upper body of t14 69-991a in west end of cist 67 

2.53. lower body of t14 69-991a in east end of cist 67 

2.54. t14 69-002a in grave 68 

2.55. Covering of t14 69-003 69 

2.56. t14 69-003a in grave 69 

2.57. Covering of possible grave northwest of tower 14 71 

2.58. loukos Field, actual-state plan 73 

2.59. lou 69-801a in grave 74 

2.60. lou 69-801 74 

2.61. deC 69-901a, b in grave 76 

2.62. tiles covering deC 69-902 77 

2.63. Pitched tiles covering deC 69-902 after removal of outer tiles 77 

2.64. roman bath, actual-state plan 79 

2.65. slab and debris enclosing channel with rb 76-002 80 

2.66. rb 76-002 81 

2.67. differential preservation of femoral and tibial fragments of rb 76-002C and 76-002a 81 

2.68. hexamilion outworks, actual-state plan 83 

2.69. ho 70-901a–C 84 

2.70. Covering of ho 70-902 86 

2.71. top three skeletons in ho 70-902 87 

2.72. bottom seven skeletons in ho 70-902 87 

2.73. West Foundation, actual-state plan and sections 89 

2.74. WF 62-001a in grave 90 

2.75. reconstruction of tiles (it 811–814) enclosing WF 62-001 after removal from cist 90 

2.76. Central area of the sanctuary during its antonine phase 92 

2.77. Palaimonion, actual-state plan and sections 93 

2.78. temple of Palaimon during excavation in 1956 94 

2.79. Covering of Pal 56-001 94 

2.80. Pal 56-001a with earring (17) and beads (33) 94 

2.81. Pal 56-001 95 

2.82. theater Cave, actual-state plan 97 

2.83. tC 60-001a 98 

2.84. Coin of leo i (1) 103 

2.85. Coin of marcian (2) 103 

2.86. illegible coin (3) 103 

2.87. Pentanummium (4) 103



illustrations 

2.88. lamp (5) 104 

2.89. lamp (6) 104 

2.90. glass pitcher (7) 105 

2.91. Coarse-ware cup (8) 106 

2.92. Fine-ware jar (9) 106 

2.93. Coarse-ware bowl (10) 107 

2.94. unguentarium (11) 107 

2.95. Cooking pot (12) 107 

2.96. Pierced coin (pendant?; 14) 109 

2.97. bronze finger ring (15) 109 

2.98. Pair(?) of bronze earrings (16) 109 

2.99. bronze earring (17) 109 

2.100. iron buckle (18) 109 

2.101. Pair of gold earrings (19) 109 

2.102. beaded necklace with bone pendant cross (20, 21), suggested reconstruction 110 

2.103. bone pendant cross (20) and various beads (21a–k) from necklace 110 

2.104. iron loop (buckle or pendant?; 22) 111 

2.105. bronze ring (23) 111 

2.106. bronze buckle (24) 111 

2.107. stone bead on glass rod (necklace?; 25) 111 

2.108. iron disks (26) 111 

2.109. iron rings (27) 111 

2.110. iron nail (hobnail?; 28) 111 

2.111. bone button (29) 112 

2.112. iron buckle (30) 112 

2.113. bronze loop (31) 112 

2.114. shell bead (32) 112 

3.1. ayios ioannis Prodromos, Kyras vrysi in 2005 148 

3.2. Cemetery of ayios ioannis in 2000 149 

3.3. standard tomb type, ayios ioannis 150 

3.4. tomb at ground level with concrete border, ayios ioannis 150 

3.5. row of tombs, ayios ioannis 151 

4.1. distribution of the orientations of 25 burials by period 182 

4.2. survival of skeletal elements after secondary burial in ho 70-901 200 

5.1. surficial etching on right parietal and occipital of deC 69-901a 240 

5.2. surficial etching and structural degradation on left parietal and occipital of neg 67-001C 240 

5.3. Cavitation, flaking, and fracturing on frontal of neg 69-007a 240 

5.4. differential rates of preservation of skeletal elements in 48 adults 242 

5.5. differential rates of preservation of skeletal elements in 21 subadults 243 

5.6. age structure among skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 270 

5.7. distribution of age at death by sex among skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 270 

5.8. neg 69-103b 271 

5.9. neg 69-004b 271 

5.10. neg 69-004C 271 

5.11. neg 69-004d 271 

5.12. neg 67-001b 272 

5.13. neg 67-001C 272 

5.14. neg 67-001d 272 

5.15. neg 67-003b 273 

5.16. neg 69-005C 273 

5.17. neg 69-001a 273 

5.18. neg 69-001d 273 

5.19. neg 69-007a 274 

xvii



xviii 

illustrations 

5.20. neg 69-007b 274 

5.21. neg 69-999a 274 

5.22. t2 68-002a 274 

5.23. t2 68-003a 275 

5.24. t14 67-002a 275 

5.25. t14 67-004a 275 

5.26. t14 69-002a 276 

5.27. t14 69-003a 276 

5.28. lou 69-801a 276 

5.29. rb 76-002a 277 

5.30. rb 76-002C 277 

5.31. ho 70-901a 277 

5.32. ho 70-901b 278 

5.33. ho 70-901C 278 

5.34. ho 70-902d 278 

5.35. ho 70-902F 278 

5.36. ho 70-902h 279 

5.37. ho 70-902i 279 

5.38. ho 70-902J 279 

5.39. WF 62-001a 280 

5.40. tC 60-001a 280 

5.41. growth rates in five diaphyseal lengths in 17 individuals up to 12 years old 284–285 

5.42. distribution of stature by sex among skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 287 

5.43. sites of roman and byzantine date with skeletons of known stature for comparative study 290 

6.1. neg 69-103b 300 

6.2. neg 69-004b 300 

6.3. neg 69-004C 300 

6.4. neg 69-004d 300 

6.5. neg 69-004e 300 

6.6. neg 67-001b 300 

6.7. neg 67-001C 300 

6.8. neg 67-001d 300 

6.9. neg 67-003b 300 

6.10. neg 69-005b 301 

6.11. neg 69-005C 301 

6.12. neg 69-001d 301 

6.13. neg 69-007a 301 

6.14. t2 68-002a 301 

6.15. t2 68-003a 301 

6.16. t14 67-002a 301 

6.17. t14 67-004a 301 

6.18. t14 69-002a 301 

6.19. t14 69-003a 302 

6.20. lou 69-801a 302 

6.21. deC 69-901a 302 

6.22. deC 69-901b 302 

6.23. rb 76-002b 302 

6.24. ho 70-901a 302 

6.25. ho 70-901b 302 

6.26. ho 70-901C 302 

6.27. ho 70-902d 302 

6.28. ho 70-902e 302 

6.29. ho 70-902F 303



illustrations 

6.30. ho 70-902h 303 

6.31. ho 70-902i 303 

6.32. ho 70-902J 303 

6.33. WF 62-001a 303 

6.34. tC 60-001a 303 

6.35. ho 70-902?, linear enamel hypoplasia in C 1 l 303 

6.36. neg 69-004b, fractured upper incisors and mandibular amtl 303 

6.37. neg 69-004C, calculus, periodontitis, and acute abscess in periapical granuloma in P 3 r–m 3 r 304 

6.38. neg 67-001C, caries and periodontitis in P 3 r–m 3 r 304 

6.39. t14 67-002a, caries and periodontitis in m 1 r–m 3 r 304 

6.40. WF 62-001a, gross caries in m 1 r 305 

6.41. neg 67-001C, caries, periodontitis, acute abscesses in periapical granulomata and periodontal cyst, 

and amtl in upper and lower anterior teeth 305 

6.42. neg 69-007a, periodontitis, acute abscess in periodontal cyst, and amtl in P 4 r–m 3 r 305 

6.43. neg 69-007a, periodontitis, acute abscess in periapical granuloma, and amtl in C 1 l–m 3 l 305 

6.44. t14 67-002a, fracture, acute abscess in perapical granuloma, and amtl in P 4 l–m 3 l 306 

6.45. ho 70-901C, caries, periodontitis, acute abscesses in periodontal cysts, and amtl in P 4 r–m 1 r 306 

6.46. WF 62-001a, large periapical cavities around roots of m 1 l draining into maxillary sinus 306 

6.47. distribution of ages of growth disruptions causing enamel hypoplasia 311 

6.48. Frequencies of defects and amtl in alveoli of late roman to early byzantine date by age 346 

6.49. Frequencies of defects and amtl in alveoli of late roman date by age 346 

6.50. sites of roman and byzantine date with published teeth for comparative study 354 

7.1. neg 69-004b, three right fibula fragments with periostitis; neg 69-004?, unsided fibula 

fragment with periostitis 378 

7.2. neg 69-004e, right shoulder with degenerative changes from rotator cuff disease: right 

proximal humerus; right glenoid cavity 379 

7.3. neg 67-001a, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 379 

7.4. neg 67-001a, right ulna with healed fracture 379 

7.5. neg 67-001b, sternum with manubriomesosternal fusion and ossified first sternocostal cartilage 380 

7.6. neg 67-001b, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 380 

7.7. neg 67-001C, vertebral joint disease: C2–C3 with apophyseal ankylosis; t3–t4 with 

apophyseal ankylosis and spondylosis deformans 381 

7.8. neg 67-001F, frontal with healing cribra orbitalia in both orbits 382 

7.9. neg 67-003a, left radius with healed fracture 383 

7.10. neg 69-001?, right metacarpal iv with enchondroma 383 

7.11. neg 69-007a, ossified costal cartilage 384 

7.12. neg 69-007a, right and left first carpometacarpal joints with severe osteoarthritis: 

right and left metacarpals i; left trapezium 384 

7.13. neg 69-007b, left frontal with healed cribra orbitalia 385 

7.14. t2 68-003b, ossified left conoid ligament: coracoid process of scapula; clavicle 386 

7.15. t14 67-002a, sacrum with spina bifida occulta and sacralized coccyx 387 

7.16. t14 67-002a, right proximal humerus with degenerative changes from rotator cuff disease 387 

7.17. t14 67-002a, right and left first interphalangeal joints with severe osteoarthritis 387 

7.18. t14 67-002a, right and left radii(?) and ulnae with healed fractures; pseudarthrosis in right ulna 388 

7.19. t14 67-002a, left fifth finger with traumatic ankylosis from interphalangeal fractures 389 

7.20. t14 67-002a, left middle or lower rib with healed fracture 389 

7.21. t14 67-004a, sacrum with sacralized lumbar 392 

7.22. t14 67-004a, right and left shoulders with traumatic and degenerative changes from severe chronic 

anterior dislocation: right scapula and humerus and left scapula; right and left glenoid cavities 392 

7.23. t14 69-002a, sacrum with spina bifida occulta 393 

7.24. lou 69-801a, left tibia with popliteal enthesophyte 393 

7.25. rb 76-002b, right ulna with healed fracture 394 

7.26. rb 76-002C, left tibia fragment with periostitis 395 

xix



xx 

illustrations 

7.27. rb 76-002C, frontal with healed depressed fracture 395 

7.28. rb 76-002C, l5 with bilateral spondylolysis 395 

7.29. ho 70-901a, left ulna and radius fragments with four healed fractures 396 

7.30. ho 70-901C, right and left tibiae with enthesophytes 397 

7.31. ho 70-901C, right parietal with perimortem perforation surrounded by radiating, concentric, 

and crushing fractures 398 

7.32. ho 70-902g, sacrum with sacralized coccyx 400 

7.33. ho 70-902h, right parietal with healed depressed fracture 400 

7.34. ho 70-902J, lumbarized sacrum with sacralized coccyx 401 

7.35. ho 70-902? (z1), sternum with sternal aperture and ossified first sternocostal and xiphoid cartilage 402 

7.36. ho 70-902? (z1), sacrum with sacralized coccyx 402 

7.37. ho 70-902? (z5), sacrum with sacralized coccyx 402 

7.38. ho 70-902?, ossified costal cartilage, female type and male type 403 

7.39. ho 70-902?, left tibia fragment with periostitis 404 

7.40. ho 70-902? (z3), right fibula with ossified anterior talofibular ligament and posttraumatic 

degenerative changes from severe ankle sprain 404 

7.41. ho 70-902? (z5), right scapula with healed fracture 405 

7.42. t14 67-002a, lateral ends of left and right clavicles with degenerative porosity 420 

7.43. ho 70-902? (z2), sternum with ossified first sternocostal and xiphoid cartilage 421 

7.44. ho 70-902? (z4), l2–l5 with joint disease: l2–l5 with apophyseal osteoarthritis; l5 with 

intervertebral (osteo)chondritis and spondylosis deformans 421 

7.45. ho 70-902? (z1), l3–l5 with joint disease: apophyseal osteoarthritis; spondylosis deformans 421 

7.46. neg 67-001b, l1 with apophyseal osteoarthritis 422 

7.47. vertebrae with intervertebral (osteo)chondritis and schmorl’s nodes: neg 67-001b, t6–t7; 

t14 67-004a, t8; t14 67-002a, middle ts 422 

7.48. skeletal distribution of 22 traumatic lesions 430 

7.49. sites of roman and byzantine date with published bones for comparative paleoepidemiology 445



tables 

1.1. abbreviations for areas of the archaeological site 8 

1.2. Periodization of the early roman to early modern settlement 9 

1.3. Factors in the Preservation of the graves and human remains 12–13 

4.1. material Components of mortuary behavior in 30 graves by Phase 154–158 

4.2. distribution of the Position of the arms in 22 bodies by Period 185 

5.1. Periodization of 65 skeletons 237 

5.2. survival of erupted dentition in 61 skeletons 246 

5.3. sex and age at death of 65 skeletons 250–251 

5.4. Postcranial measurements in subadult skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 255 

5.5. Cranial and mandibular measurements in adult skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 256 

5.6. Cranial and mandibular measurements in adult skeletons of late roman date 257 

5.7. Cranial and mandibular measurements in seven adult skeletons of disparate dates 258 

5.8. Postcranial measurements in adult skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 260–261 

5.9. Postcranial measurements in adult skeletons of late roman date 262–263 

5.10. Postcranial measurements in six adult skeletons of disparate dates 264–265 

5.11. nonmetric traits in subadult skeletons of late roman and early byzantine date 266 

5.12. nonmetric traits in adult skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 267 

5.13. nonmetric traits in adult skeletons of late roman date 268 

5.14. nonmetric traits in six adult skeletons of disparate dates 269 

5.15. Cranial and Postcranial indices among skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date 270 

5.16. estimation of living stature in 26 adults of late roman to early byzantine date 287 

5.17. Comparison of stature in several greek skeletal samples of roman to modern date 288–289 

5.18. Coincidence of nonmetric and Congenital traits in multiple burials 291 

6.1. variation in dental Form and location 299 

6.2. instances of linear enamel hypoplasia 308–309 

6.3. Frequency of enamel hypoplasia by Period and sex 310 

6.4. mean Wear scores in Permanent dentition of late roman to early byzantine date by age 315 

6.5. mean Wear scores in Permanent dentition of late roman date by age 315 

6.6. angle of Wear in Permanent First mandibular molars by Wear stage 316 

6.7. mean Wear scores in Permanent dentition by Period 317 

6.8. mean Wear scores in Permanent dentition by sex 317 

6.9. instances of dental trauma 320 

6.10. instances of Calculus 325 

6.11. Frequency of Calculus by Period 326 

6.12. Frequency of Calculus by sex 326 

6.13. instances of dental Caries 328–329 

6.14. Frequency of Carious teeth of late roman to early byzantine date by dental Class 329 

6.15. Frequency of Carious lesions of late roman to early byzantine date by dental site 330 

6.16. Frequency of Carious teeth of late roman to early byzantine date by age 330 

6.17. Frequency of Carious teeth of late roman date by age 330



xxii 

tables 

6.18. Frequency of Carious teeth by Period and sex 331 

6.19. instances of alveolar defects 338–342 

6.20. instances of amtl 343 

6.21. Frequencies of defects and amtl in alveoli of late roman to early byzantine date by age 345 

6.22. Frequencies of defects and amtl in alveoli of late roman date by age 345 

6.23. Frequencies of alveoli with defects and amtl by Period and sex 347 

6.24. dental samples from roman and byzantine sites 352–353 

6.25. Cariosity in several greek dental samples of roman and byzantine date 360–361 

7.1. Paleopathology in 65 skeletons 369–373 

7.2. instances of Cribra orbitalia 374 

7.3. instances of Joint disease by site 375–377 

7.4. Frequency of Joint disease by Joint in adults of late roman to early byzantine date 417 

7.5. Frequency of Joint disease by Joint in adults of late roman date 418 

7.6. Frequency of Joint disease in adult vertebrae of late roman to early byzantine date 419 

7.7. Frequency of Joint disease in adult vertebrae of late roman date 419 

7.8. distribution of Joint disease during the late roman to early byzantine Periods by age 423 

7.9. distribution of Joint disease during the late roman Period by age 423 

7.10. distribution of Joint disease by sex and Period 423 

7.11. Frequency of trauma in skeletons of late roman to early byzantine date by site 431 

7.12. Frequency of trauma in skeletons of late roman date by site 431 

7.13. Paleopathology in several greek skeletal samples of roman and byzantine date 442–444



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AA = Archäologischer Anzeiger 

AASS = Acta sanctorum, 71 vols., antwerp 1643–1940; repr. 

turnhout 1966–1971 

ActaArchHung = Acta archaeologica Academiae scientiarum 

Hungaricae 

AIIN = Annali dell’Istituto italiano di numismatica 

AJA = American Journal of Archaeology 

AJHB = American Journal of Human Biology 

AJPA = American Journal of Physical Anthopology 

AM = Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 

Athenische Abteilung 

AmerAnt = American Antiquity 

Antiquity = Antiquity. A Quarterly Review of Archaeology 

AR = Archaeological Reports 

ArchDelt = Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον 

ArchEph = Ἀρχαιολογικὴ Ἐφημερίς 

ArchJ = Archaeological Journal 

ArchKorrBl = Archäologisches Korrespondenzblatt 

ArchNews = Archaeological News 

ArchOB = Archives of Oral Biology 

ArchRW = Archiv für Religionswissenschaft 

ArhVest = Arheološki Vestnik 

ΒΑΑΕ = Βιβλιοθήκη τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας 

BAR-BS = British Archaeological Reports, British Series 

BAR-IS = British Archaeological Reports, International Series 

BASP = Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists 

BCH = Bulletin de correspondance hellénique 

BF = Byzantinische Forschungen 

BiblArch = Biblical Archaeologist 

BICS = Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies 

BSA = Annual of the British School at Athens 

Byzantion = Byzantion. Revue internationale des études byzantines 

ByzZeit = Byzantinische Zeitschrift 

CAH 2 = Cambridge Ancient History, 2nd ed. 

CahArch = Cahiers archéologiques 

CarRes = Caries Research 

CÉFR = Collection de l’École française de Rome 

CFHB = Corpus fontium historiae byzantinae 

CIG = Corpus inscriptionum graecarum 

CP = Classical Philology 

CPG = e. l. leutsch and F. g. schneidewin, eds., Corpus par- 

oemiographorum Graecorum, 2 vols., göttingen 1839–1851 

CRAI = Comptes rendus des séances de l’Académie des inscriptions 

et belles-lettres [Paris] 

CSHB = Corpus scriptorum historiae byzantinae 

CurrAnthr = Current Anthropology 

DHGE = a. baudrillart, a. de meyer, and r. aubert, eds., 

Dictionnaire d’histoire et de géographie ecclésiastiques, Paris 

1912– 

DOP = Dumbarton Oaks Papers 

ΕΕΠΘ = Ἐπιστημονικὴ Ἐπετηρὶς τῆς Πολυτεχνικῆς Σχολῆς τοῦ 

Ἀριστοτελείου Πανεπιστημίου τῆς Θεσσαλονίκης 

EpetByz = Ἐπετηρὶς Ἑταιρείας Βυζαντινῶν Σπουδῶν 

Ergon = Τὸ Ἔργον τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας 

GazArch = Gazette archéologique 

GGM = C. müller, ed., Geographi Graeci minores, 2 vols., Paris 

1855–1861 

GOTR = Greek Orthodox Theological Review 

GRBS = Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies 

HB = Human Biology 


abbreviations oF PeriodiCals, series, and lexiCa 

xlvii 

HTR = Harvard Theological Review 

IG = Inscriptiones graecae 

IJAnth = International Journal of Anthropology 

IJCT = International Journal of the Classical Tradition 

IJO = International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 

JAC = Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 

JAnat = Journal of Anatomy 

JAnthArch = Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 

JAS = Journal of Archaeological Science 

JBJS = Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery 

JBL = Journal of Biblical Literature 

JFA = Journal of Field Archaeology 

JFS = Journal of Forensic Sciences 

JGR = i. zepos and P. zepos, eds., Jus Graecoromanum, 8 vols., 

athens 1931; repr. aalen 1962 

JHS = Journal of Hellenic Studies 

JMA = Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 

JÖB = Jahrbuch der österreichischen Byzantinistik 

JPaleopath = Journal of Paleopathology 

JRA = Journal of Roman Archaeology 

JSS = Journal of Semitic Studies 

lsJ = h. g. liddell, r. scott, and h. s. Jones, A Greek-English 

Lexicon, 9th ed., oxford 1940 

MAAR = Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome 

mansi = g. d. mansi, ed., Sacrorum conciliorum nova et amplissima 

collectio, 53 vols., Florence 1759–1798; repr. Paris 

1901–1927 

MÉFRA = Mélanges de l’École française de Rome, Antiquité 

MGHAA = Monumenta Germaniae historica, auctores antiquissimi 

MGHSS = Monumenta Germaniae historica, scriptores 

MGHSSrM = Monumenta Germaniae, scriptores rerum Merovin- 

gicarum 

OC = Oriens christianus 

OCD 3 = s. hornblower and a. J. s. spawforth, eds., The Oxford 

Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., oxford 1996 

OpAth = Opuscula atheniensia 

OWAN = Old World Archaeology Newsletter 

PastPres = Past and Present 

ΠΔΣΠΣ = Πρακτικὰ τοῦ Διεθνοῦς Συνεδρίου Πελοποννησιακῶν 

Σπουδῶν (Πελοποννησιακά suppl.) 

PG = J.-P. migne, ed., Patrologiae cursus completus, series graeca, 

161 vols., Paris 1857–1866 

PL = J.-P. migne, ed., Patrologiae cursus completus, series latina, 

221 vols., Paris 1844–1880 

Prakt = Πρακτικὰ τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς Ἑταιρείας 

RACrist = Rivista di archeologia cristiana 

RBK = K. Wessel and m. restle, eds., Reallexikon zur byzantinischen 

Kunst, stuttgart 1963– 

RDAC = Report of the Department of Antiquities, Cyprus 

SBMünch = Sitzungsberichte, Bayerische Akademie der 

Wissenschaften (München), Philosophisch-historische Klasse 

SEG = Supplementum epigraphicum graecum 

SkrAth = Skrifter utgivna av Svenska Institutet i Athen 

SIMA = Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology 

TravMém = Travaux et mémoires. Centre de recherche d’histoire et 

civilisation byzantine, Paris 

VigChr = Vigiliae Christianae 

WorldArch = World Archaeology 

YPA = Yearbook of Physical Anthropology



xlviii bibliograPhy and abbreviations 

aC = alveolar crest 

amtl = antemortem tooth loss 

atFl = anterior talofibular ligament 

C = canine(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript 

number[s]); or cervical vertebra/-ae (often followed by 

number[s]) 

CeJ = cementum-enamel junction 

cm = centimeters 

d. = died 

d. = depth/deep 

diam. = diameter 

h. = height/high 

km = kilometers 

i = incisor(s) (often followed by superscripted or subscripted 

number[s]) 

l = left, when referring to bones or teeth 

l = lumbar vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) 

l. = length/long 

abbreviations For terms in the text 

m = molar(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript 

number[s]) 

m = meters 

masl = meters above sea level 

max. = maximum 

mm = millimeters 

mos. = months 

nb = notebook (i.e., primary record of fieldwork) 

P = premolar(s) (often followed by superscript or subscript 

number[s]) 

p. = preserved 

r = right, when referring to bones or teeth 

s = sacral vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) 

sd = standard deviation 

t = thoracic vertebra/-ae (often followed by number[s]) 

th. = thickness/thick 

tmJ = temporomandibular joint 

W. = width/wide



1 

u 

themes, ProCedures, and materials 

this study describes and interprets the graves and human remains of roman and 

byzantine date in the area of the Panhellenic sanctuary1 and the succeeding fortifications 

on the isthmus of Corinth, which were excavated under the auspices of the american 

school of Classical studies between 1954 and 1976 (Figs. 1.1–1.3). these burials belonged 

to local residents during several phases in the long history of their settlement. most date to 

the late roman and early byzantine periods (end of the 4th to late 7th or 8th centuries), 

but a few date to the early to middle roman (mid-1st to 4th centuries) and the middle to 

late byzantine eras (12th to 15th centuries) or later. the 30 graves2 found in 11 separate 

locales in the central, northern, eastern, and far western3 areas of the archaeological site 

called isthmia contained the bodies of at least 69 individuals4 and an assortment of artifacts. 

bones from at least four other skeletons were found in secondary contexts to which they 

seem to have been moved during ancient building activities. besides the much earlier burials 

in the West Cemetery, these remains comprise the largest body of mortuary and skeletal 

evidence so far recovered at the isthmus. 5 

the graves are spare and mundane in form and content. they were built mostly from 

reused materials and were partially sealed, were seldom marked at the surface and apparently 

never displayed epitaphs, and infrequently contained objects, such as small vessels, 

lamps, coins, and articles of clothing and adornment. in contrast to the paucity and simplicity 

of the graves, the surviving hard tissues of the bodies were relatively well preserved, 

especially those from enclosed interments that were not extensively disturbed. several large 

graves contained multiple bodies that had been added over a short period. both men and 

women, adults and children were interred in the graves. For the most part the inhabitants 

led healthy lives, but suffered ailments that were not uncommon in ancient mediterranean 

society, such as tooth loss, broken arms, and arthritic joints. 

1. the word “sanctuary” refers to the entire area associated 

with the isthmian cults and festivals, whose exact limits 

remain unknown; see Isthmia ii, p. 3, n. 10. Within the sanctuary, 

the “central area” is the area occupied by the precincts 

of Poseidon and Palaimon and all contiguous structures 

(Figs. 1.2, 2.76). 

2. this total includes one unexcavated feature near tower 

14 that was probably a grave (pp. 71–72). 

3. one grave was found at the West Foundation ca. 2 km 

west of the temple of Poseidon (pp. 88–91). 

4. significant portions of 65 skeletons were available for 

study, although two subadults were represented only by teeth 

(neg 69-009a, 69-010a). the remains of at least two more 

subadults had completely or almost completely disintegrated 

before the graves were discovered (neg 69-008, deC 69-902). 

skeletons in two other graves (t13 54-001, Pal 56-001) were 

recorded in situ but not recovered. 

5. on the West Cemetery, see p. vii, n. 1. in addition, excavations 

in trench gW2 over the mycenaean Wall directly south 

of the central area (nb Jgh, p. 356 [oct. 3, 1959]) uncovered 

portions of one human right lower leg and foot (bone 

lots 83+89+97: metatarsals i, ii, iii, and v, first proximal phalanx, 

calcaneus, distal and shaft fragments of tibia and fibula). 

these remains, which were mixed with ovicaprid and canine 

bones, seem to represent undifferentiated refuse from an early 

period at the sanctuary.



2 themes, ProCedures, and materials 

themes and aPProaChes 

these graves and human remains furnish valuable evidence concerning society, religion, 

economy, and biology in the Corinthian countryside from roman to byzantine times, particularly 

for the late roman and early byzantine periods. When considered together with 

associated traces of habitation, the mortuary and skeletal remains bear vivid testimony not 

only to how these people died but also to how they lived. the graves, their contents, and 

their locations were used by the local community in an intentional and meaningful manner. 

When men, women, and children participated in the ritual process of mourning, interment, 

and commemoration, they identified themselves according to social relationships and expressed 

their beliefs concerning life and death. a close examination of the material remains 

of these funerary rituals can therefore reveal the social, economic, and religious character 

of the community and its composition by gender, age, descent, and status. Furthermore, 

study of the human bones and teeth can reveal the demographic structure, diet, occupational 

hazards, and health of local residents. 

the larger significance of the graves, the human remains, and the settlement emerges 

when they are considered within the frame of regional trends. 6 the full variability of mortuary 

6. For approaches to mortuary and biological variability on 

a regional scale, see, e.g., o’shea 1984, beck 1995a, and silverman 

and small 2002. 

Figure 1.1. the isthmus of Corinth



Figure 1.2. the isthmian sanctuary




Figure 1.3. the isthmian Fortress and adjacent graves 

behavior within a region can only be traced through intersite comparison. since separate 

communities within a geographic area live in proximity, share resources and natural conditions, 

and often interact with one another, their burial practices usually exhibit basic similarities. 

but the material and spatial dimensions of funerary ritual also reflect the structural 

or ideological variation between contemporary, contiguous groups. likewise, the examination 

of biological diversity within a region can reveal differences in life experiences and 

population boundaries stemming from locally distinct economic and subsistence strategies, 

settlement patterns, and familial relations. 

the evidence from the isthmus has therefore been examined within the regional context 

of the Corinthia. during the roman and byzantine eras, the regional center was the city of 

Corinth, which controlled two nearby ports, lechaion and Kenchreai, and maintained a 

dependence on the surrounding countryside (Fig. 1.1). the urban community at Corinth



themes and aPProaChes 5 

furnishes the most significant point of comparison to the community in its hinterland at 

the isthmus. While the two places were variously linked by the movement of traffic, regional 

military strategy, and systems of production and trade, they display different scales and complexities 

of settlement. thus, an understanding of the isthmus is dependent on an understanding 

of Corinth, and vice versa. 7 it has been worthwhile, as well, to consider evidence 

from locales elsewhere in the northeastern Peloponnese but still within the Corinthian orbit 

of communication, travel, and exchange. although the publication of mortuary, skeletal, 

and habitational remains of roman and byzantine date from this large region has been inconsistent, 

particularly in peripheral areas, the evidence from several major sites in addition 

to Corinth, such as nemea and argos, has been documented extensively. When compiled 

for comparison, the published record provides an adequate basis for beginning to outline 

general patterns of variation across the northeastern Peloponnese. 

such a contextual approach to the graves, human remains, and settlement at the isthmus 

sheds light on several essential developments in the transformation of greek society 

from classical antiquity to the byzantine middle ages. these include the demise of pagan 

cults and the evolution of Christianity, the implementation of imperial defensive schemes 

involving massive fortification, the diverse effects of plague, earthquake, and invasion on 

local communities, and the changing face of rural economy and settlement. the greeks 

who lived and died at the isthmus during these centuries saw their world fundamentally 

change. although their settlement diminished, they survived during the byzantine “dark 

age.” throughout this transitional era, they were hardly confined by rustic isolation, cultural 

stagnation, or material destitution. they continued to encounter frequent travelers and to 

interact with neighboring settlements. their shifting lifeways and funerary rituals speak to a 

capacity for adaptation and innovation. 

While the overarching goal of this study is to investigate these historical developments, 

the line of inquiry has been organized in order best to record and to interpret two rather 

different types of evidence, graves and human remains. to this end, the book is divided into 

four sections. the first section, the present chapter, introduces the main themes, the procedures, 

and the materials under study. the second section, which is comprised of three chapters 

(Part i: Chaps. 2–4), addresses the graves within their archaeological, historical, and 

social contexts. Chapter 2 describes the physical remains of the graves, including their form, 

contents, and associations. Chapter 3 discusses the historical and topographical setting of 

these physical remains by surveying long-term changes in settlement. Chapter 4 reconstructs 

the funerary rituals that led to the creation of the graves and examines the relationship 

between those rituals and the social structure and ideology of the local community. the 

third section, which also comprises three chapters (Part ii: Chaps. 5–7), addresses the human 

remains in their osteological and bioarchaeological contexts. Chapter 5 discusses the 

morphological and demographic composition of the skeletal sample, including sex, age at 

death, living stature, and metric and nonmetric traits. Chapter 6 examines teeth as evidence 

for oral development and health. Chapter 7 addresses the paleopathology of the bones and 

the paleoepidemiology of the skeletal sample. the fourth and final section (Chap. 8) summarizes 

the mortuary and skeletal evidence from the settlement at the isthmus and evaluates 

its significance for understanding the transformation of the greek countryside. 

although the description and analysis of the two primary data sets requires divided treatment, 

the mortuary and osteological sections of this study are integrated, so that discussion 

in one often depends on information presented in the other. therefore, the descriptions 

7. recent scholarship on center-periphery interactions in 

late antique greece and asia minor (e.g., mitchell 1993, lavan 

2001b) has demonstrated the importance of viewing ur- 

ban and rural communities as dual components in regional 

networks of settlement, production, and exchange.




of individual graves (Chap. 2) include summaries of skeletal traits (Chaps. 5–7), and the 

discussion of funerary rituals, social structure, and ideology (Chap. 4) takes into account 

the age, sex, and genetic character of the dead (Chap. 5). likewise, the investigation of oral 

health and paleopathology (Chaps. 6–7) refers back to a reconstruction of the local settlement 

and its living community (Chap. 4). this repetition of information and conclusions 

in separate sections is intended to aid the reader by consolidating relevant evidence and 

assembling a composite picture of life and death in a changing world. 

ProCedure oF study 

it is important to outline the procedure of study at the outset. the basic goal was to document 

the graves and human remains as accurately and precisely as possible using standard 

techniques in funerary archaeology and physical anthropology. the procedure was also designed 

in such a way as to derive information that would be pertinent to the central themes 

outlined above. Finally, measures were taken both to facilitate the comparative analysis of 

the graves and bones at the isthmus with those from other sites and to permit ready access 

to the remains for future investigation. 

the study began with the collection of all materials and primary records in the storerooms 

and workspaces at Kyras vrysi, the modern village on the ancient site. these include the artifacts 

and bones recovered from the graves and the field notes, reports, drawings, and photographs 

recording their excavation. inventoried and lotted artifacts and textual and visual 

records had been shelved and catalogued in the usual manner. the bones had remained 

since excavation in the storeroom of the isthmia museum (Fig. 1.4), in some cases for nearly 

three decades, in wooden crates and trays with handwritten labels. it was evident from references 

to the graves in notes, reports, and labels that the excavators had not systematically 

identified them. sometimes they were numbered sequentially by area (e.g., “tower 14 #2”), 

sometimes they were designated by an associated feature (“roman bath drain skeletons”), 

and sometimes they were given no identification at all. When numbers were assigned, those 

numbers were often used in field notes, on storage boxes for lotted pottery and bones, on 

plans and detail drawings, and in artifactual and photographic inventories. the old grave 

numbers have also appeared in previous publications, namely, the annual field reports in 

Αρχαιολογικόν Δελτίον and the description of the fortifications in Isthmia v. 

it was necessary to devise a new system for identifying burials from across the site that not 

only preserves the old numbers but also uniquely designates single graves and skeletons. 

these new burial numbers consist of five digits separated after the first two by a hyphen and 

followed by a letter. the first two digits indicate the year of excavation, the second three 

indicate the old number, and the letter indicates a single skeleton. For example, 69-004C is 

the third of at least three skeletons (a–C) from a grave called “grave #4” that was excavated 

in 1969. if the excavators had not assigned a grave number, or had repeated a number already 

used at another locale in the same year, the second three digits of the new number 

were arbitrarily assigned. thus, for example, the four graves that were the first ones discovered 

in four separate areas during the 1969 campaign, two of which had been designated 

“grave #1” and two of which were nameless, were renamed 69-001, 69-801, 69-901, and 

69-991. the assignment of letters was determined by the order in which the bones from 

one grave were examined, not the order in which they were either interred or excavated. 

bones in multiple burials that could not be associated with individual cranial or pelvic remains 

were designated collectively by the grave number followed by a question mark (e.g.,




Figure 1.4. human remains from neg 69-004, as stored by excavators 

in 1969 and retrieved for study in 1990 

69-901?). 8 one important class of information the new numbering scheme does not encode 

is the locale of excavation. therefore, abbreviated names for the areas where human 

remains were found have been prefixed to the burial numbers (e.g., rb 76-002b). the abbreviations 

for areas are given in table 1.1. 

in addition to the new numbering scheme, the study adopted a consistent terminology 

for referring to mortuary practices and to periods in the history of the local settlement. 

“grave” and “interment” refer to the physical presence of a space containing one or more 

bodies and other objects. “burial” refers to either the intentional, often ritual, act of interment 

or the product of that act, that is, one or more dead individuals and any funerary items 

placed in a grave. archaeologists and historians sometimes use the term “cist” to refer to an 

unprotected hole in which a burial is made (like modern greek λάκκος). in this study, “cist” 

designates the cutting for the interment, without implying the form of either the cutting or 

its enclosure. 

in retracing the history of the settlement and its burials, it was necessary to identify remains 

according to periods of habitation. this periodization is defined by major historical 

events, artifactual developments, and architectural phases at the isthmus, which will be 

8. in one unusually complex grave containing ten bodies 

(70-902), no bones could be identified with a single skeleton 

(pp. 85–86). therefore, separate skeletal elements (e.g., 

ulnae, femora) were given randomly assigned serial numbers 

after an altered form of the standard burial number (e.g., 

70-902z3).




table 1.1. abbreviations For areas oF the arChaeologiCal site 

neg northeast gate 

t2 tower 2 

t13 tower 13 

t14 tower 14 

deC decauville graves 

lou loukos Field 

rb roman bath 

ho hexamilion outworks 

WF West Foundation 

Pal Palaimonion 

tC theater Cave 

discussed in Chapter 3. the periodization of local settlement from roman to modern times 

is given in table 1.2. two major eras in the history of the site are commonly identified by 

a phrase linking sequential periods. “late roman to early byzantine” designates the era 

of most intensive, continuous occupation of the fortifications from the years just preceding 

their construction in ca. 410–420 through their renovation under Justinian, the slavic 

incursions of the late 6th to early 7th centuries, and the “dark age” occupation that ended 

in the late 7th or 8th century. in this study, “late antiquity” will be synonymous with the 

late roman period, 9 while the term “early Christian” has been eschewed. 10 “middle to late 

byzantine” will designate the second era of dense habitation at the Fortress, beginning with 

the revival of the local settlement in the 10th century, reaching its apogee during the 12th 

to 14th centuries, and declining during successive military operations in the 15th century. 

the next stage in the study was the close examination of the artifacts, bones, teeth, and 

primary records in order to establish the original state of the graves. this required a reconstruction 

of how the graves had changed since the time of interment, as discussed below. 

the study of the mortuary remains involved the collection and recording of all relevant 

depositional, artifactual, and structural data from the early excavations. it proved helpful 

to return to several burial sites for further exploration to clarify their form and associations. 

11 the study of the human remains was a two-part process. the first was an inventory 

of all skeletal elements and an evaluation of their state of preservation. the second was an 

examination of the remains in order to establish sex and age at death, to collect metric and 

nonmetric data, and to document paleopathology. 

during the examination, special attention was devoted to the handling of the human 

remains and to their long-term storage. 12 before inspection, many bones and teeth had to 

be cleaned. several retained soil matrix in cavities and fissures, and a few were coated with 

9. the elusive term “late antiquity” has had a varied usage 

in past and current scholarship; see bowersock, brown and 

grabar (1999, pp. ix–x) for a useful formulation. 

10. although the designation “early Christian period” is 

still used (e.g., Nemea iii, p. xxx), the author considers it a 

misnomer for general historical phasing. it is chronologically 

incorrect (the early phase of Christianity was the 1st century), 

politically inaccurate (imperial, military, and local administration 

was in many respects neither distinctly nor uniquely 

Christian), and culturally biased (Christianity was only one 

factor in the development of late antique mediterranean 

religion and culture). Furthermore, as a historical designation, 

it identifies one period by a single religion, even though 

that religion existed both earlier and later, during periods 

identified by ruling regimes (“roman” and “byzantine”). 

11. neg 69-103, 69-004, 69-001, 69-007, 69-009, 69-010, 

t2 68-003, t14 69-002, lou 69-801, rb 76-002, ho 70-902, 

Pal 56-001. 

12. sease (1994, pp. 48–52), bass (1995, pp. 331–338), 

and White (2000, pp. 292–300) provide useful overviews of 

the proper procedures for conserving and storing human remains.




table 1.2. Periodization oF the early roman to early modern settlement 

early roman mid-1st to early 2nd centuries 

middle roman mid-2nd to late 4th centuries 

late roman end of the 4th to mid-6th centuries 

early byzantine late 6th to 7th or 8th centuries 

middle byzantine 10th to 12th centuries 

late byzantine 13th to 15th centuries 

ottoman 16th to early 19th centuries 

early modern mid-19th to early 20th centuries 

a calcareous shell from environmental moisture. 13 once the bones and teeth were clean, 

they were conserved as needed. none was so friable that it required chemical consolidation. 

many, however, were broken and marred by postmortem degradation in their depositional 

context, by damage during excavation, by crowded and unpadded packing in boxes and 

bags, and by occasional handling. Furthermore, during the 1970s and 1980s some fragmentary 

bones had been rejoined using masking tape, which caused staining and exfoliation, 

and several postmortem breaks had been mended with elmer’s glue, a poly(vinyl) acetate 

emulsion which discolored the bones and stripped contiguous surfaces after only a few years 

in storage. 14 to rectify these earlier measures, the masking tape and white glue were carefully 

removed and selectively replaced with acryloid b-72 in a 10% acetone solution. 15 since 

its initial application in 1995 and 1996, acryloid has proven to be an optimal adhesive. 

the cleaned and restored remains were treated for clearer identification and better preservation. 

burial numbers were written on all major bones, all skeletal elements that could be 

identified with individuals were segregated, and all elements from the same skeleton were 

bagged by type or anatomical region. some bones had been wrapped by the excavators or 

their successors in newspaper or toilet tissue. these products had served well for cushioning 

in the short term, but in places the newsprint had bled onto the bones and the tissue 

had stuck to irregular surfaces, leaving tiny shreds in narrow crevices and cancellous tissue. 

these materials were removed and selectively replaced with ethafoam, a polyethelene packing 

medium that is pliable, acid-free, and shock-absorbent. 16 Finally, the remains were assigned 

by grave to numbered crates with the contents clearly marked. rectangular wooden 

crates were chosen because they are sturdy, easy to lift and transport, can be repaired at 

minimal cost, and stack tightly but do not completely seal off the bones. they permit the 

circulation of air but prevent intrusion by the common denizens of the apothiki, lizards and 

rats. 

one of the most important components in the study of the graves and human remains 

was their visual documentation in drawings, photographs, and digital images. drawing and 

photography are essential to archaeological research because they preserve visual data of a 

13. these elements were washed in warm water without additives 

and dried in a shaded, protected location away from 

direct sunlight and blowing sediment. dental instruments and 

soft-bristle brushes, both dry and moist, aided finer cleaning. 

lime concretions were removed from bones using a brush 

dipped in a 5% acetone solution of hydrochloric acid and 

from teeth using wooden picks and a sparing wash in a 15% 

acetone solution of acetic acid. special care was taken so as not 

to gouge the cortex or enamel, to erase pathological features, 

or otherwise to alter osseous or dental surfaces. 

14. Koob (1981), selwitz (1988), Johnson (1994, pp. 225– 

226), and sease (1994, p. 12) evaluate the utility of various 

adhesives in archaeological conservation, including Pvas 

(uhu) and cellulose nitrate resins (duco, durofix, uhu 

hart). 

15. acryloid is a thermoplastic acrylic resin that is recommended 

for its long-term stability, transparency, penetration, 

durability, and reversibility (brothwell 1981, p. 10; Koob 1986; 

Johnson 1994, p. 227). 

16. sease 1994, pp. 14–15.




contextual or material nature and allow for independent evaluation and comparative study. 

While traditional methods of photography have served these purposes well, 17 digital technology 

offers a more versatile medium for recording and sharing visual data. 18 in the study 

of the mortuary and skeletal remains at the isthmus we have implemented new techniques 

for capturing, manipulating, and storing visual information bridge the transition from traditional 

photography to digital imaging. 

the visual documentation of the material was a three-stage process beginning with the initial 

drawing and photography of graves and funerary artifacts. the excavators in the 1950s 

to 1970s always plotted graves on actual-state plans but seldom prepared formal drawings 

of them. 19 they always photographed the interments, which preserved crucial information, 

but procedures varied. 20 the excavators stored the human remains without study or photography 

but photographed funerary artifacts on 35 mm or medium format black-and-white 

film using a copy stand indoors. 21 many of these inventory photographs were publishable 

with only slight modifications. the excavators stored all negatives and prints in filing drawers 

and albums on site. over the years many negatives have been destroyed or lost, but in 

each case a high-quality print from the damaged or lost negative has survived. 

the second stage in the visual documentation of the mortuary and skeletal remains was 

conducted by daniel m. Curtis over roughly six weeks in Kyras vrysi during the summers of 

1996, 1998, and 2000. his goal was to complete the photographic record for publication and 

archival storage. he visited several burial sites to capture features that had not been previously 

documented and shot new photographs of several funerary artifacts. most of his efforts 

were devoted to photographing the human remains for the first time. 22 he photographed 

the bones on Kodak tmax iso 100 and ilford FP4 iso 125 black-and-white film with a 

35 mm slr camera (nikon 8008s or Canon a2) with a 50 mm lens for macro-focusing. 

the camera was mounted on a hama 6229 copy stand with four rotatable 100-watt tungsten 

bulbs. the subject was placed on a plate of nonglare glass suspended 5.5 cm over a sheet 

of black cloth. the direction of lighting and orientation of the subject followed scientific 

convention. 23 due to financial and temporal constraints, mr. Curtis did not compile a visual 

record of the total skeletal assemblage 24 but did photograph many more elements than appear 

in this volume. elements were chosen in order to create a primary visual archive of the 

bones and teeth and to illustrate published discussions of those remains. 25 

the third and final stage in the visual documentation of the mortuary and skeletal remains 

was completed by Curtis in the united states between 1998 and 2002. 26 this involved 

the digitization of all photographs, the manipulation of those digital images, and provision 

for the long-term preservation of the visual record. all black-and-white negatives pictur- 

17. dorrell (1994), howell and blanc (1995), and roskams 

(2001, pp. 119–132) offer useful introductions to archaeological 

photography. 

18. dorrell 1994, pp. 254–255; besser 2003. 

19. dillon and verano (1985) outlines the proper procedure 

for drawing graves. 

20. several photographs show the graves after the displacement 

or removal of their walls or bones: Figures 2.6, 2.46, 

2.50, 2.54, 2.59. the correct procedure for photographing 

graves is discussed in several manuals: dillon and verano 

1985, pp. 145–146; dorrell 1994, pp. 132–133; ubelaker 1999, 

p. 14; White 2000, pp. 284–286 (photography by Pieter arend 

Folkens); roskams 2001, pp. 130–131, pl. 23. 

21. howell and blanc (1995, pp. 75–84) outline the proper 

procedure for studio photography. 

22. apart from the work of Curtis, andrew reinhard 

photographed the fragmentary long bones in Fig. 2.9, and 

John robb photographed the pathological specimens in 

Figs. 7.1, 7.10, and 7.26. 

23. buikstra and ubelaker (1994, pp. 10–12), hillson 

(1996, pp. 305–306), and White (2000, pp. 309–312, 517–519) 

outline these procedures for the photography of archaeological 

bones and teeth. 

24. see the recommendations of buikstra and ubelaker 

1994, pp. 10–11. 

25. the following photographs were taken: all adult skulls, 

regardless of preservation, in the anterior, lateral, and posterior 

views; all upper and lower adult dentitions in the occlusal 

view; noteworthy details of the teeth, such as severe caries, 

attrition, or dental trauma; pubic symphyses and auricular surfaces, 

which are used to estimate age at death; all congenital 

defects, infectious lesions, trauma, and neoplasia; a representative 

sample of cases of cribra orbitalia and joint disease; and 

examples of postdepositional alteration to bones. 

26. besser 2003 is an introduction to digital image capture 

and digital asset management.




ing the graves, artifacts, and human remains were scanned to Kodak Photo Cd and Kodak 

Pro Photo Cd master disks, which served as an excellent storage medium in terms 

of affordability and quality. all preserved line drawings of graves and artifacts, as well as 

the prints of negatives that had been destroyed or lost, were scanned at high resolution 

(800 dpi for drawings; 300 dpi for prints). once all hard copies of visual data had been 

translated into 8-bit grayscale images, they were adjusted using adobe Photoshop (versions 

4.0 to 7.0) on a macintosh computer. this involved the application of standard tools, the 

regularization of sizes, and the insertion of scales and arrows. these modifications have not 

distorted or erased original visual information essential to the subject; such adjustments are 

the same as those made during the traditional printing and retouching of photographs and 

the drafting and copying of drawings. after preparing the digital images, Curtis archived 

the visual record in a way that would promote long-term stability and easy accessibility. the 

original negatives, prints, and drawings were catalogued, cleaned, relabeled, and returned 

to the site in improved storage spaces. 

the Creation oF the material reCord 

once these procedures had been established, it was possible to investigate the graves, artifacts, 

bones, and teeth as evidence for funerary rituals and skeletal biology. the gradual 

transformation of graves and bodies over time after death and burial can filter or even 

erase traces of both the osteological character of the deceased individual and the activities 

surrounding that individual’s death. the biological interpretation of human remains requires 

the assessment of the diachronic impact of natural and cultural agents. 27 the osteologist 

must distinguish postmortem changes from ante- or perimortem disease and trauma. 28 

moreover, understanding the state of preservation is necessary in order to examine the distribution 

and prevalence of pathological conditions in a skeletal sample. 29 it is also important 

to determine the depositional and postdepositional pathways, or formation processes, 

by which the material components of mortuary behavior have moved from a cultural to 

an archaeological context. 30 reconstructions of burial chronology and settlement history, 

along with interpretations of funerary custom and social identity, rely on the evaluation of 

formation processes. the natural environment and human activity were primary factors in 

the creation of the osteological and mortuary records at the isthmus. these factors are summarized 

in table 1.3. the calculation of the relative survival and preservation of the bones 

(table 1.3, right two columns) will be discussed in Chapter 5. 

the lithologic sequence and natural topography of the site of the isthmian sanctuary 

and Fortress constitute the depositional environment of the roman and byzantine graves. 31 

a bed of fine-grained, compact but soft marl is exposed on the north side of the Fortress and 

outside the circuit in the defensive ditch. a coarse limestone conglomerate bed overlying 

the marl crops out on the north edge of the enceinte. the soil overlying the conglomerate 

27. taphonomy is the study of the postmortem change 

of biomatter, especially bone and tooth, within a particular 

environment. White (2000, pp. 407–424) and mays (1998, 

pp. 15–37) offer useful introductions; lyman (1994) and martin 

(1999) present definitive surveys of taphonomy; haglund 

and sorg (1997a) provide a collection of introductory essays 

on forensic taphonomy. the author thanks thomas tartaron 

and raymond rogers for informative discussions about taphonomy 

in general and depositional conditions at the isthmus 

in particular. 

28. Wells 1967 is a classic essay on “pseudopathology”; see 

more recently ubelaker 1991; aufderheide and rodríguezmartín 

1998, pp. 15–18; and lovell 2000, p. 236. 

29. Walker, Johnson, and lambert 1988 (paleodemography); 

Waldron 1987; 1994, pp. 10–27 (paleoepidemiology). 

30. o’shea (1984, pp. 23–31) discusses factors affecting 

burial sites; schiffer (1987) gives a basic survey of formation 

processes. 

31. on local geology, see Isthmia viii, pp. 3–4; on local topography, 

see Isthmia ii, pp. 1–3; Isthmia v, p. 9; Isthmia viii, 

p. 15. the author thanks Jay noller for discussing the geomorphology 

of the isthmus.




Area and 

Grave No. 

table 1.3. FaCtors in the Preservation oF the graves and human remains 

Burial Design Environmental Factors 

No. Covering Lining 

Depositional 

Matrix 

Drainage 

Zone 

Presence 

of Snails 

Floritur- 

bation 

Sedimentary 

Compression 1 

neg 69-103 2 Complete none soil y y n n y 

neg 69-004 5 Complete Partial? soil y n n y n 

neg 69-008 1? Partial? Partial? soil y y n n n 

neg 67-001 11 none Complete soil y n y n y 

neg 67-003 5 none Partial soil y n n n n 

neg 69-005 3 none Partial soil y y n n n 

neg 69-001 4 Complete Complete soil y n n n y 

neg 69-007 2 Complete none marl y y y n n 

neg 69-009 1 Complete none marl y n n n y 

neg 69-010 1 Complete none marl y n n n y 

t2 68-006 1 Complete Complete soil y n y n n 

t2 68-002 1 Partial Complete soil y n n y y 

t2 68-003 2 Complete Complete Conglomerate y n y n n 

t13 54-001 1 Partial Partial soil n ? ? ? ? 

t14 67-002 1 Partial Partial soil n n n y y 

t14 67-004 1 none none soil n n n n n 

t14 69-701 1 Partial? Partial? soil n n n n n 

t14 69-991 1 Partial Complete soil n n n n y 

t14 69-002 1 Partial none soil n n n n y 

t14 69-003 1 Partial none soil n n y y y 

lou 69-801 1 none none soil n n y n n 

deC 69-901 2 Partial Partial soil y y y n n 

deC 69-902 1? Complete none soil y n y y n 

ho 70-901 3 none none soil y n n n n 

ho 70-902 10 Partial Partial marl y n y y y 

rb 76-002 3 Complete Complete 

stone-lined 

drain 

Graviturbation 

2 

y n n n y 

WF 62-001 1 Partial Partial soil n n n y n 

Pal 56-001 1 Complete Complete 

Concrete 

foundation 

n n n n y 

tC 60-001 1 none none soil in marl cave n n n n n 

1 this includes only those graves in which damage to bones, artifacts, and graves could be confidently attributed to compression. 

numerous teeth and ribs were also affected by sedimentary compression. 

2 this includes only those graves in which bones or artifacts had clearly moved after deposition. gravity affected all graves to a certain 

degree. 

3 this only includes surficial damage that can be confidently identified as having occurred during excavation. 

4 this includes only those graves from which bones were recovered after their initial excavation. 

is a fine, clayey to sandy matrix containing a fraction of calcium carbonate and decomposed 

organic matter, with a neutral to slightly alkaline ph (7–8). the local terrain is dominated 

by the rachi, a prominent ridge lying just south of the temple of Poseidon, and by the 

great ravine, which borders the site on the north and defines the course of the hexamilion. 

three roughly parallel tributaries cut across the site from the high ground in the south 

toward the great ravine (Fig. 1.2). the drainage of the sanctuary was facilitated not only by



Disturbance 

During 

Construction 


Anthropogenic Factors 

Reuse for Primary or Bones Excavation 

Survival 

Additional Secondary Removed after Damage to 

Rate of Bones 

Burial Burial Reopening Bones (%) 

3 

Intended Par- Unintended 

tial Recovery Partial Recov- 

of Bones ery of Bones4 y y Primary n n n n 65.02 40.63 

y y Primary y n n n 45.49 29.94 

y y Primary ? n n y 0.40 0.21 

n y Primary n n n n 44.28 30.72 

n y Primary y n n n 25.41 13.80 

n y Primary n y n n 47.42 37.45 



n n Primary n n n n 0.00 0.00 


n n Primary n y n n 63.95 59.87 

y y Primary n y n n 41.85 32.94 


y n Primary ? ? y n 0.00 0.00 

y n Primary n n n n 88.84 85.62 

y n Primary y n n n 90.13 89.70 

? n Primary ? n y y 12.02 10.52 

y? n Primary n n n n 32.19 20.17 

y n Primary y n n n 69.10 67.06 

y? n Primary n n n n 78.97 74.03 

n n secondary? n n n y 45.90 38.95 

n y? Primary n n n n 10.94 8.21 


? y? secondary y n n n 24.89 19.81 

n y Primary n y n y 46.48 22.09 

Preservation 

Rate of Bones 

(%) 




n n secondary y y y n 7.73 7.73 

deep gullies but also by artificial drains, several of which passed through the fortifications 

near the northeast gate and tower 2. 32 once these channels were no longer maintained, 

run-off collected at the base of the ramparts and in the steep taphros (defensive ditch), eventually 

burying them under accumulating sediment. 

microvariations in the local landscape generated small differences in the preservation 

of human remains. a few cists were cut into the marl and conglomerate, but most were 

cut into the soil above the conglomerate (table 1.3). in general, this slightly alkaline, 

32. Clement 1969, p. 142 (north drain); Isthmia v, pp. 47, 

48, 81, 116, figs. 8, 16, pls. 11:a–d, 14:a, 22:c, 42:b (drainage 

near the northeast gate and tower 2).




well-drained soil and the semiarid, temperate climate favored the preservation of skeletal 

material. 33 however, interment in calcareous strata promoted infiltration by soil water 

and the precipitation of salts; moisture then dissolved and leached out the organic and 

mineral constituents of hard tissues. as a result, surviving bones and teeth are sometimes 

fragile and display a thin encrustation or discoloration. 34 a secure covering and lining in 

a grave could mitigate, but not prevent, the deleterious effects of these natural agents on 

the remains inside. it is, therefore, not surprising that the decomposition of hard tissues 

was most rapid in drainage zones, especially in partly or completely uncovered graves on 

the north side of the Fortress. 35 bones and teeth in cists that were poorly sealed and exposed 

to draining water have completely or almost completely disappeared. 36 in contrast, 

the best-preserved skeletons were found in mostly sealed graves in the well-drained area 

on the west side of the Fortress. 

the flora and fauna of the isthmus had a negligible impact on the preservation of human 

remains. in most areas of excavation, vegetation is grassy with shallow roots, but bushes 

and trees grow here and there, especially alongside buried or exposed architecture where 

water tends to collect. roots of varying sizes had penetrated cists that were especially shallow 

and unshielded (table 1.3). invading roots sometimes marked the surface of bones, 

displaced them, or broke them down. there are scattered traces of burrowing rodents at the 

isthmus, but earthworms and molluscs are frequent in the moister areas on the north edge 

of the site, in the gullies, and near the marl exposures. the most common terrestrial snails 

in cists exposed to moisture were typical mediterranean species of turriculate and discoid 

gastropods (Rumina decollata and Eobania vermiculata; table 1.3). since these snails are not 

sarcophagous, they must have moved into the graves well after the decomposition of soft tissues, 

either burrowing to estivate or entering through worm action and erosional crevices. 

although there is no sign that molluscs directly destroyed the human bodies, their presence 

implies that other factors, such as air, water, organic matter, and shallow depth, affected the 

burial environment. 37 

natural processes also influenced the preservation of graves at the isthmus. gravity had a 

long-term effect on the position of the bodies after interment and skeletonization. 38 it was 

not uncommon for bones to shift over time into unnatural positions once soft tissues had 

dissolved. Jaws that had been closed or tied shut for burial sometimes dropped open with 

the decay of the temporomandibular ligaments (see Fig. 2.56). 39 the small bones of hands 

that had been placed over the chest, abdomen, or pelvis of the deceased often migrated to 

the floor of the cist with the decay of soft tissues (see Fig. 2.47). Chemical decay, sedimentary 

compression, and gravity determined the preservation and location of the funerary artifacts. 

the condition of these objects at the time of discovery depended on several factors, 

including material, soil chemistry and composition, and moisture. 40 nearly all iron objects 

are severely corroded (see Figs. 2.100, 2.104, 2.108–2.110, 2.112), and bronze objects often 

display green corrosion or have disintegrated (see Figs. 2.98, 2.113), while objects in gold, 

33. see henderson 1987, pp. 46–47; lyman 1994, pp. 418– 

419, 421–422; Janaway 1996, p. 69; martin 1999, pp. 152–155. 

on soil as a burial environment in general, see Janaway 1996, 

pp. 58–63. 

34. e.g., deC 69-901b, ho 70-902 (adult teeth unidentified 

to individual). in both cases, the staining may have arisen 

as much from the decay of contiguous roots as from minerals 

in soil water. 

35. bones: neg 67-003d-e, 69-007a, b, 69-009a, 69-010a, 

t2 68-002a, 68-003b, deC 69-901a, b. teeth: neg 67-001K, 

69-005C, 69-007a, t2 68-003a, b, deC 69-901a, b. 

36. neg 69-008, 69-009, 69-010, deC 69-902. 

37. the author thanks henk K. mienis, curator of the national 

mollusc Collections at the hebrew university of Jerusalem 

and tel aviv university, for identifying snail specimens 

and discussing their ecology. 

38. on the effects of gravity at archaeological sites, see 

Wood and Johnson 1978, pp. 346–352 and schiffer 1987, 

p. 216. 

39. neg 69-103b, t2 68-002a, t14 67-002a, 69-003a. 

40. Janaway (1996, pp. 78–81) surveys the decay of artifacts 

in burial environments.




lead, stone, bone, and shell remain intact (see Figs. 2.101–2.103, 2.107, 2.111, 2.114). terracotta 

lamps and vessels that had been buried intact were found in near perfect condition 

(see Figs. 2.88, 2.89, 2.91–2.94), but the condition of glass varies dramatically (see Figs. 2.7, 

2.90). textiles played an integral part in the funerary ritual, but did not survive to the time 

of the grave’s discovery. not unlike bones and teeth, small, round artifacts such as buckles 

and beads sometimes moved from their original positions. artifacts that had been worn on 

the torsos of the dead during the funeral and deposition, such as necklaces and pendants, 

remained over the chest until the skin and internal organs had dissolved, at which point 

they passed through the thoracic cavity and settled near the scapulae or vertebrae. 41 in three 

graves, earrings were found where they had come to rest after the earlobes to which they 

were once attached had disappeared (see Figs. 2.21, 2.80, 2.81). 

environmental agents did not significantly alter the form of the interments. lined and 

covered cists typically incorporated durable materials in sturdy designs. one exception was 

the disintegration of the coffin or bier in the grave cut into the Palaimonion (56-001), which 

left behind only splinters and nails. gravity had little effect on the form of the graves. Covering 

and lining elements shifted most when they were not supported by soil, stones, or mortar 

around the edges. the depth of sedimentation over the graves, especially those on the 

north side of the site, tended to enhance stability by encasing them. in some cases, however, 

the overburden displaced, cracked, or compressed coverings, particularly those using large 

flat tiles (see Fig. 2.62), which could crush bones. 42 downslope movement and soil creep did 

not affect the graves because most were interred in static deposits. 43 burrowing animals did 

not disrupt the graves, but tree roots dislodged the stones sealing the slabs over one grave 

(see Fig. 2.42), and smaller roots cracked and slightly displaced the tiles over another (see 

Figs. 2.62, 2.63). 

successive phases of human activity in earlier burial areas significantly affected the condition 

of bones, teeth, and graves at the isthmus (table 1.3). during the early 5th century, 

the builders of the hexamilion interrupted earlier graves south of the northeast gate and 

inside tower 2. Workers attempted to preserve these interments by setting the foundation 

blocks around them, but during the excavation of the footing trench they could not avoid 

opening graves and often altering their form and contents (see Figs. 2.7–2.9). during the 

initial occupation of the Fortress in the early 5th to mid-6th centuries, local residents commonly 

added bodies to preexisting graves rather than digging fresh cists. this practice produced 

several multiple interments with as many as 10 or 11 bodies. Continued inhumation 

in single graves is evident in the purposeful modifications to the designs of the graves and 

the relative positions of the skeletons (see Figs. 2.12, 2.16, 2.18–2.20, 2.66, 2.70). these activities 

affected not only the situation but also the survival and preservation of the human 

remains. the displacement of bones led to breakage, the disruption of the original grave 

design often exposed bones to weathering, and occasionally bones were removed. local 

residents also practiced secondary burial, the removal of human remains from one place 

and their redeposition in another, during late antiquity. the transplanting of remains led to 

a lack of protection over the new grave, an unconventional orientation of burial, the dense 

collection of bones, and the incomplete representation of skeletons. the process of secondary 

burial caused the loss of numerous small bones and damage to those that remained. 

41. neg 69-009, 69-010, t14 69-002, 69-991, rb 76-002, ho 

70-902, Pal 56-001. note, however, that the pocket of coins in 

neg 67-001 was discovered somewhat higher in the cist, closer 

to where it had originally been placed (Figs. 2.12, 2.13). 

42. e.g., t2 68-002a, t14 67-002a, 69-003a, WF 62-001a. 

lyman (1994, pp. 423–424) and aufderheide and rodríguez- 

martín (1998, p. 17) discuss this process. 

43. the surface markers above neg 69-009, 69-010, t2 68- 

002, and 68-006 were found in their original state, even though 

the first two had been erected on an incline (Figs. 2.27, 2.28, 

2.31–2.33, 2.37, 2.40).




Construction and secondary burial also affected earlier burials during later phases in the 

occupation of the site (table 1.3). the erection of small houses near tower 14 during the 

late byzantine era cut into underlying early byzantine cists. as in earlier times, these building 

activities altered the design of graves and led to both the partial destruction and the 

selective extraction of skeletal remains (see Figs. 2.45, 2.46, 2.49, 2.54). the two latest graves 

from the site also reflect unusual burial conditions. 44 in the first case, the skeleton might 

have been moved to the cist from another locale before the decomposition of the ligaments, 

and the extended legs were folded back over the chest (see Figs. 2.59, 2.60). in the second 

case, the body was already skeletonized when only the skull and a few other bones were redeposited 

in a cave above the ancient theater, together with various animal bones (see Fig. 

2.83). the modern residents of Kyras vrysi have had no significant impact on the graves. 

most interments are situated northeast of the village, buried well below modern ground 

level and protected within the archaeological site. however, olive cultivation south of the 

Fortress and bulldozing northeast of tower 2 has disturbed the tops of three graves. 45 

another important anthropogenic factor in the preservation of the mortuary and skeletal 

remains at the isthmus was the method of excavation and recovery. the decisions and actions 

of archaeologists determined the data that were collected from burial contexts. 46 the 

early excavators were unusually systematic and meticulous for the discipline of classical archaeology 

during the 1950s–1970s, but of course they did not attain the high standards set 

by archaeologists and anthropologists today. 47 they had no expertise in the documentation 

and analysis of mortuary or osteological evidence and did not fully comprehend its historical 

and biological importance. one important class of evidence that did not receive adequate 

attention was stratigraphic context. the excavators recorded depositional units, but in many 

cases had difficulty defining graves because the walls of the cists were indistinct at the top. 

depositional sequences in most of the burial areas can be retraced with confidence from a 

combination of elevations, written accounts, photographs, and artifacts. the lots from the 

early campaigns typically contained representative samples of finds from discrete excavated 

units, but excavators retained on average more material from graves than from other contexts. 

occasionally they discarded small finds, 48 but in most cases they saved well over half 

the sherds, and in some cases a total sample. 49 moreover, they almost always maintained the 

integrity of burial deposits, even when digging at the northeast gate and tower 14, where 

habitational remains were dense and the risk of contamination high. the return to selected 

burial sites for inspection or cleaning in recent years has resulted in the recovery of crucial 

information concerning the stratigraphic contexts and designs of graves. 

in recording graves and saving their skeletal contents, the excavators were veritable pioneers 

during a time when their colleagues at other classical sites usually neglected burials of 

roman and byzantine date and discarded human bones. their method of excavating graves 

involved opening the cist, clearing the fill to the level of the skeleton, and removing the 

bones. Frequent references in the notebooks show that sieving was a regular practice. 50 but 

the excavators did not always recover and store the bones from individual skeletons sepa- 

44. lou 69-801a, tC 60-001a. 

45. lou 69-801, deC 69-901, 69-902. 

46. schiffer (1987, pp. 339–364) discusses the practice of 

archaeology as a formation process. o’shea (1984, p. 26), 

haglund and sorg (1997b, p. 20), and mays (1998, pp. 14–15, 

22–23) note the impact of investigative method on mortuary, 

osteological, and forensic evidence. 

47. most handbooks review techniques for excavating 

graves and recovering human remains: e.g., Parker Pearson 

1999, pp. 198–204; ubelaker 1999, pp. 3–38; White 2000, 

pp. 279–291. hunter and dockrill (1996, pp. 40–53) and 

dirkmaat and adovasio (1997, pp. 39–50) provide useful introductions 

from the viewpoint of forensic archaeology. 

48. neg 69-004 (nail), 69-005 (nails), 67-001 (ring), t14 

69-991 (beads?), 69-002 (pins), rb 76-002 (leather or textile), 

Pal 56-001 (nails, beads). 

49. e.g., lot 67-t14-071 from t14 67-002 (see nb 1967 rP 

ii, p. 171). 

50. e.g., nb neg i, p. 127 (69-004); nb neg ii, p. 45 

(69-005); nb neg iii, p. 67 (69-001); nb neg iv, p. 49 

(69-007); nb Jn-lo ii, p. 103 (t2 68-003); nb t14 iii, p. 141 

(69-002).




rately, particularly when they came from complex multiple interments (Fig. 1.4). sometimes 

they did not recover all of the bones that survived in the graves, either out of disinterest or 

on practical grounds (table 1.3). more frequently, they missed bones because they simply 

did not recognize them. their main goal in excavating the total fill in each grave was to recover 

small artifacts, such as coins and jewelry, not diminutive or irregular bones, which are 

easily mistaken for rocks by the inexperienced. 

some postmortem damage to the bones can be attributed to excavation and handling 

(table 1.3). a comparison of the photographs of bones in situ to those of bones in the laboratory 

reveals that certain elements were drastically broken at some point after discovery. 

in one instance, a partially exhumed skeleton was left exposed over the easter holiday and 

the skull was crushed, purportedly by vandals (see Figs. 2.46, 2.47). 51 Certain fragile bones 

were inadvertantly destroyed during recovery. numerous crania exhibit damage caused by 

excavation and storage. some have perforations and gouges with clean, sharp edges and no 

soil adhering, which indicate forceful contact by digging implements. 52 the relatively high 

frequency of such damage on the crania can be variously explained. First, this part of an extended 

and supine skeleton often rests at the highest elevation in the grave and is therefore 

the first element encountered when digging. second, the excavators at the isthmus transported 

and stored skulls in square or rectangular boxes, crates, and trays that did not always 

accommodate their form as tall, thin-shelled, spheroid structures. this led to the abrasion 

or compression of the bones when containers were stacked and shelved. Finally, skulls are 

handled more often than other bones during excavation because, unlike any other element 

in the human skeleton, they fascinate the imagination and signify the mortal condition. 

one cranium that could be reconstructed from around 60 pieces had perhaps at some point 

shattered when it was accidentally dropped (see Figs. 2.83, 5.40). 

the cumulative impact of environmental and anthropogenic factors on the creation of 

the material record at the isthmus was not so profound that meaningful mortuary and osteological 

evidence was irretrievable. the varied remains that have been documented provide 

a broad basis for reconstructing funerary ritual and skeletal biology, as long as the effects 

of formation processes are taken into account. it is impossible to know how accurate such 

reconstructions are without excavating all graves and recovering all bones and teeth that exist 

at the site. numerous graves belonging to the settlement around the roman sanctuary, 

the late roman fortifications, and the byzantine community have yet to be discovered. the 

paucity of graves from the middle roman and late byzantine periods undoubtedly results 

from the selective nature of exploration. archaeologists have not systematically investigated 

much of the area on the periphery of the sanctuary where roman graves are to be expected, 

or inside the Fortress where byzantine graves are to be expected. although the number of 

graves so far discovered at the isthmus is small compared to other major Corinthian cemeteries, 

these 30 graves and their contents represent the mortuary interests and skeletal biology 

of over twice as many individuals, which is a significant total. the compiled mortuary 

and osteological evidence for the local settlement and its inhabitants contributes greatly to 

our understanding of the greek countryside during a pivotal era in its history. 

51. another mishap at easter two years later crushed the 

fragmentary cranium (69-999a) found in a secondary context 

at the northeast gate (nb neg 1969 i, p. 123). 

52. For a more specific discussion of such damage, see 

p. 239.

The Roman and Byzantine Graves and Human Remains

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