alytical practical grammar - Toronto Public Library
alytical practical grammar - Toronto Public Library
alytical practical grammar - Toronto Public Library
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I~ dJLL~~<br />
~~
AN<br />
AN ALYTICAL<br />
PRACTICAL<br />
GRAMMAR<br />
OF THE<br />
ENGLISH LANGU1\GE.<br />
REVISED, CORRECTED, AND IMPROVED.<br />
By REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D.,<br />
LATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADElIlY, AND AUTHOR OF tHB<br />
SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLIBIl, ON TIlE SAME PL.lN, ETC.<br />
EIGHTEENTH EDITION.<br />
LONDON, C. W. :<br />
W. L. CARRY, RICHMOND STREET.<br />
1865.
PREFACE<br />
THIS work is prepnred on a more extended plan than the "Principles<br />
of English Grammar," and ia intended to occupy a higher plnce in the<br />
.. Series of Grammars, Engli~h, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan."<br />
Since that work was first publi.hed, a greater inter~st !Jn~ been taken iu<br />
the subject of educ,ltion generally thau for n long period before. Differ·<br />
ence of opinion, on vari:JIls subjects, hus led to diE'cussion-diEcussicn to<br />
inveE'tigation-and investigation to the discovery and establishment of<br />
truth. As a consequrnce of this, that which was sonnd and stable before<br />
has been confirmed-many points that were doubtful have been settlednew<br />
and improved tlJethods of investigating subjects, and of imparting<br />
instrnction, have been adopted-and the whole subject of education, in<br />
both theory and practice, has been advanced much beyond what it was<br />
at any former period. In this onward progress, the subject of English<br />
<strong>grammar</strong> haa not been left behind. Teachers in both higher and lower<br />
seminaries have given it their attention-authorities have been compared<br />
-original investigations have been made-views Imve been interchanged,<br />
privately and through the press-ull resulting in the advancement of<br />
this branch of study.<br />
The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here<br />
introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with its<br />
importance. Many questions on disputed points have been examined<br />
with much care; and something, it is hoped, has been done to contribute<br />
to their settlement; und when this required more space than was proper<br />
to be taken up in the body of the work, the diecuBsion has been thrown<br />
into the Appendix. A much -gl'eater variety of exercises has be ell introduced<br />
at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To<br />
every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the indllcti ve kind, has been<br />
annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the leal'Der may<br />
be trained to think aDd reason on the subject, and prepllred to profit more<br />
by the exercises that follow.<br />
By adopting the plnn of a running series of numbers to mark the para·<br />
graphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient,<br />
and is employed wherever it wus thought to be profitable.<br />
The Syntax is much fuller than ill the former work; and though the<br />
rules are not different, they ure arranged in a different order, 80 that all<br />
that belongs to one iubject is collected under one head, instead of being
iv<br />
PREFAOE.<br />
scattered ill different places; and the propel' 8ubordinatil)n or parts is<br />
exhibited in a series 0wubordinate rules, wherever it was neeessary. In<br />
this way the whole is rendered more eompact-the number of leading<br />
rules is redueed-and the unity of each subject is better preserved.<br />
In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony,<br />
and adaptation to the <strong>practical</strong> operations of the school· room, llllve been<br />
particularly attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced;<br />
at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an imprCilJ~'<br />
mmt, it has been made. It was fclt that It work on this subject, of a<br />
highe\' grade, and more suited to the wants of higher eeminaries, and<br />
more advanced students, without detracting from its simplicity and prac·<br />
tical character, was wanted, and the aim has been to supply this want;<br />
whilc, at the eame time, its relation to the series of which it is intended<br />
to form r. part, has not ollly becn preserved, but rcndered more close aOlI<br />
intimate.<br />
With a grateful sense of pa,t k,ndlle~"es, the author now commits the<br />
results of hi~ labor~ to the favorable consideration of 11 candid and enlightened<br />
public, and e~pecially to that of the 1'!acl,ers throughout the<br />
U Ilited States.<br />
PI{EFACE TO REVISED EDITION.<br />
NEW plates for this work having become necessary, the opportunity<br />
thus presented for a thorough revision bas been embraced. In this revision,<br />
the object aimed at has been, not to change, but to improve. For<br />
this end, criticisms and suggestions from various quarters, eSlJeci:uly from<br />
<strong>practical</strong> teachets, have been duly, and it is hoped profitably considered;<br />
greater precision and clearness of expression, ill some places, have been<br />
studied; errors not formerly noticed have bee!! corrected; numerous<br />
refercnces from one P,1I't to another for illustration by means of the<br />
running paragraph numbf!rs, have beeu inserted; technical terms have<br />
been more fully explained by definition or reference; additions have been<br />
made, where thought necessary, without interfering with the arrangement<br />
or character of the work; several articles have been inserted in the<br />
Appendix, to which proper refereuces are made from the body of the<br />
work; and a larger type has been adopted instead of the smallest size<br />
formerly IIsed. ~o paius have been sp~reJ to I'ender the whole as com.<br />
plete in its details, Rnd as attractive in its appearance as it can be made<br />
without increasing the size or the expense of the work, and to render it a<br />
text-book for Rcademies Rnd schools fitted to relieve both teachers aDd<br />
tbeir pupils from much uunecessary labol' and waste of time" in prosecuting<br />
this branch of learning.<br />
TBOT, N. Y., 1862.
INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS,<br />
GUHIMAR, DeHllitioll and Divisioll of ......................................................... PAGE 9<br />
PART J.-ORTHOHRAPHY.<br />
Letters, Division and Power of ................................. '" .... .•... ............ ... ...•.....•.. 10<br />
Syllables ......................................................................................................... l~<br />
:Spelling, Rules fOl' ....................................................................................... 13-1G<br />
Capitals, l'se of ................................................................................................ 16<br />
P.
6 CONTENTS.<br />
PROIl'OUlI'S, Definition and Division of ...................................................... PAGB 45<br />
Personal, simple, Declension of ................................................... 45, 46<br />
Obse .. vationson .......................... , .................................... 46<br />
Compound .. , ................. , ........ , ... ,................................... 48<br />
Pnl'sing of, and Oral Exercises on .................................... 49<br />
Exerdscs on ........... ... ....... ........ ..... ...... ...... ......... ... ...... 49<br />
COllst .. ncticn of .............................................................. 158<br />
Ro:lativc, Declensioll and Use of ................................................... DO-52<br />
Compound ................. , ..... ,......... .................................... 52<br />
Pal'sing of, and Exercises on .......................................... 53, .';~<br />
Constmction of ............................................................... 161<br />
Jlltt'fl'o:;ative and Responsive of ................................................... M<br />
Parsing of, and Exercises 011............................................. 55<br />
ArljcctivP, Defillition alld Did,ion of .......................................... 55, nG<br />
Possessive of ........................ ................................. ......... .';6<br />
Distributive of ............................................................... 57<br />
Demonstrative of .............................. ....................... ..... 57<br />
Indefinite of .................................................................. 57<br />
Parsin~ of, and Exercise, on ....................................... 5S, 59<br />
COllstmction of.. ............................................................. H2<br />
,"ERDS, Defillition of ........................... ............... ............ ......... ...... .................. 60<br />
Tran·itive and Intransiti\'e.................................................................. 60<br />
Oral and other Exercises on .................. .................. ......... .................. 61<br />
Division of .......................................................................................... ti:.!<br />
Auxilia .. y, Use or-" Shall,"" 'Vill," &c .................................... 62,63,64, G:J<br />
. Exercises on........................................................................ 60<br />
Anomalous Use of .......................................... .............. ...... IjG<br />
Inflection of, Accidents of ................................................ ...... ...... ...... 67<br />
Voice, Active ....................................................................................... oj<br />
Passive .................................................................................... 67<br />
Moods, Division of ............... ............................................. .................. 6~<br />
Indicativo ......... .................................... ......... ......... ...... ......... 69<br />
Potential 70<br />
SlIbjuncti ~~~~~~ ~'. ~:: ::........:..........'.... ::....::..::..: ..::'.:::....::','....... '.'.: '.:::::::'.:'.',:::::: ::: ::: 70<br />
Construction of ......................................................... 185<br />
Imperativo .............................................................................. i L<br />
Infinitive ...........................,.........................,..............,............ 71<br />
Construction of .................................................... Iso-I8.'<br />
Te)lSc~J Di\'i~ion of ... ...... ..................................................................... 7:!<br />
g: !~~ ~:~!~~~~~eM~~~d ........:......,'............::.'::::::..: ..:::..:..::..::..::..::..::..::<br />
.. : ...... : .. ~.2, ;!<br />
Of the Subjuuctive ~Io~d ...................................................... 75-76<br />
Of the Imperative ~lood ......................................................... "<br />
Of tho Infinitivo Mood ......................... :.................................. 77<br />
Construction of ...... ,., ........ , ...................................................... IS';<br />
Connection of 193<br />
I'articiplcs, Division ~i::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 78<br />
in ing in a passive senso ......... ... ....•....... ... ... ......... ......... ... 78<br />
as a Yerbal Noun<br />
Construction of ................................................... 79<br />
........................................................ 190, 191
CONTENTS,<br />
VERBS, Number aud Person of ............................................................... PAGE 7W<br />
Conjugation of .................................... ................................................ 80<br />
Of the Irregular Verb" to be n.......................................... 82<br />
Of the Regnlar Verb" to love," active Voice ..................... 86<br />
Or:LI Exercises and Exercises on ...... 5~, 89<br />
Negative Form ............................................................... 91<br />
Interrogative Form ......................................................... 92<br />
i' .. u~ .. essive Form ................................................ _ ......... 93<br />
Exercises on...... ... .............................. ......... ... U3<br />
Pa'i~ive ''''oice .................................................................. 91<br />
Observations on, Exercises on ........................ 96<br />
Parsing 0 r ...... ...... ............... ............... .............. .................................. 85<br />
Irre::u1:'..... ............ ........................ ..................... ......... .................. ...... 97<br />
Defectil'e ............................................................................................. 102<br />
Impe .. wnal. ......................................................................................... 103<br />
Exercises ...................................................................................... 103, 10·!<br />
Constl'Uction of ............................................................................. 165-167<br />
AD'I"ERBS, Definition or. ....... ........................................................................... 10,~<br />
Classification of .............. , .............................................................. 105<br />
Fo .. mation and Del"ivation or.. .......................................................... 106<br />
Comparison of ................................................................................. 107<br />
Parsing of, and Exercises Oll. ..................................................... 107,108<br />
Construction of ........................................................................ 19.~-197<br />
PREPOSITIONS, Definition and List of ......................................................... 109,110<br />
Observations on ...................................................................... 110<br />
Pars;'" of, ar,d Exercises on ................................................... III<br />
Construction of .................................................................. 171-177<br />
!l;JERJECTlONS, Definition and List of ............................................................ 112<br />
Parsing ................................................................................. 112<br />
Construction of ............................................................... 203,.204<br />
COXJU.~CTIONS. Definition and Division of ...................................................... 113<br />
Observations on ..................................................................... 113<br />
Parsing of, and Exercises on ............................................. 113, 114<br />
Construction of ..................................................................... 199<br />
Par.ing, Different Kinds of .................................................................. 115<br />
Etymological Method of ......................................................... 115<br />
lIIodelor. .................................................... 116-119<br />
Exercises in ................................................ 120-125<br />
PART lH.-SYNTA.X.<br />
SYNTAX, definitiolls ....................................................................................... 126<br />
SENTENCES, different Kinds of ........................................................................ 126<br />
1. Analysis of .............................................................................. 127<br />
A Simple Sentence, its Parts ...................................................... 127<br />
Subject of ................................................... 129<br />
1I10difications of ........................... 130<br />
Of modifying words ..................... 131<br />
Predicate of ................................................ 132<br />
Modifications of .. , ........................ 133<br />
Compound. Definition of ............................................................ 134<br />
Clausei of, different Kinds ......................................................... 130
CONTENTS.<br />
SBNTllNCE8. Clauses. Connection of ...................................................... PAGE 135<br />
Abridged Proposition~ ................................................ · .............. 137<br />
Analysis. Directions for ............................................................ 138<br />
Models of ..... : ............................................................ 139<br />
Exercises in............................................................... 142<br />
II. Construction of, General Principles .......................................... 143<br />
SYNTAX. ~~t:so~f·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::'144-~U'<br />
BULBS.<br />
I ...... Substantives in Apposition ............................................................ 148<br />
11 ...... Adjective with a Snbstantive ......................................................... 149<br />
Comparatives and SU}Jerlatives .......................................... 151<br />
III ...... Article and its Noun ..................................................................... 154<br />
IV ...... Pronoun and its Antecedent. Special Rules .................................... 158<br />
V...... Relative and its Antecedent.. ........................................... 161<br />
VI ...... The Subject Nominative ............................................................... 163<br />
VII ...... The Nominative. Absolute or Independent, Special Rules ............... 164<br />
VIII ...... 'l'he Verb and its Subject Or Nominative ....................................... 165<br />
Special Rules for ...................................................... 166.167<br />
IX ...... The Predicate Nominative ........................................................... 170<br />
X ...... The Objective J!:overned by Yerbs ................................................... IiI<br />
Special Rules ................................................... 171. 172<br />
Xl ...... The Objective governed by Prepositions .......................................... 1H<br />
. without a governing Word ....................................... 176<br />
XII ...... Prepositions after certain Words ................................................... 177<br />
XIII ...... Possessive governcd by Substantives ............................................. 181<br />
XlV ...... Suhjunctive lIIood ........................................................................ 185<br />
XV ...... Infinitive Mood .......................................................................... 186<br />
Special Rules ................................................... lSi. 188<br />
X~;: ............ ::~:i:::~: Sj~¥~~·s!~~e~:.:.:.:.:.::::.:::::.::.:::::.::::::.::::·:::.:::::::.::::::::.:.:::.:::.:.::~:9~. m<br />
XVIIl ...... Adverbs-Special Rules ................................................... 1115,196. 197<br />
XIX ...... Conjunctions sp~~i~i' R~·ies··::.·.·::.·.·::.·.·.·:.·::.·.·::.·:.·:::::.~::::::::::::::::::::::. 200. m<br />
XX ...... Interjections ................................................................................. 203<br />
~ili~~~~~i~·~~f~~~fi.;~i~:::.:::::.::::::::::::.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: !~i<br />
Parsing, syntactical. Definition of, Model of.. .................................................... 208<br />
Exercises. promiscuous. on Rules of Syntax ................................................ 210-214<br />
Improper Expressions, List of .................................................................. 214. 215<br />
""Ncr""''' ~~~jr;'.:::::::.:::::: .. :::: .. :::.::::.:::::.::::::: ill<br />
FIGURES differe~~eKrn:~~f l~~ed ~n Writing .............................................. 219. ~20<br />
, Of E I ........................................................................ 221<br />
Of R~mo ?gy and Syntax ............................................................... 221<br />
Poetic ~?~~~se·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·.::::::::·.:::::::::::::::·.:·:.·.·.::·::.·:::::.·::.:i23-~~~<br />
PART IT.-PROSODY.<br />
:::~=;;;~~~:::::.:::::··:!::·:·...L m<br />
~te rse of Grammar in Composition ........................ ::::::::::::::: 236<br />
e aw of LanguagcR~ie~·f~~ ................................................ 2-36<br />
Hints for correct and ele nt W~itii·; .. · .... · .... · .............. · .... · ........ 23S<br />
Th ~ C ·t· ga g ...................................... 238<br />
APl'BNDIX .•••••...• ~~~~ .. ~~ ... ~.~~~~~ .. '.~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~
GRAMMAR.<br />
1. GRAMMAR i~ both a SCIENCE and an ART.<br />
2. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the principle" of bnguage<br />
in general: as an ART, it teaches the right method<br />
of applying these principles to a particular language, so<br />
as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and<br />
proper manner, according to established usage.<br />
3. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking anel writing<br />
the English language with propriety.<br />
4. Language is ~ither Fpoken or written.<br />
5. The elemeuts of spoken language. are vocal and :utilulate ""~II.J:<br />
(25 aDd 26.)<br />
6. The elements of writleo language, [II'" charade; s or lcttcI"5 wbieL<br />
represent these souDlls.<br />
7. Letters nre formed into syllables nn,1 'Wor'I'; words into sentences;<br />
:md by these, properly uttered or written, o"n C'nl1lmullicate their thlll~llts<br />
to each other.<br />
8. GRAMMAR is divided into foUl' parts; namely, Orthography,<br />
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.<br />
9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables;' Etymology,<br />
of words; Syntax, of sentences; and Prosody,<br />
of elocution and versification.<br />
• Orthography is properly a part of Grammar. 1\, it beloul's to .. the art or spenk·<br />
in!?; and writing a lanl(lIagc with propriety." Yet a. the whole su\ljed is Irpatrd<br />
more fully in the spellin~-book and dictioll.rr. It hricf synopsis of its principles only<br />
is here Itiven. rather as 3 matter of form, tllan with", \' ew to its being pnrtiou\arly<br />
Rtudied at this stage. 'I'he teacher may t1wrcforc, it ho thinks prope,', pass ove'<br />
PART J. for the present, and begin with P-UlT n.
10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
PART I.<br />
ORTHOGRAPHY.<br />
10. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, and of the mode<br />
of combining them into syllables and words.<br />
11. A letter is a mark, or character, used to represent an elementary<br />
souud of the human voice.<br />
12. There hre Twenty-!ix letters ill the Euglish Alphabet.<br />
13. Letters are either Yowels or Cunsonants.<br />
14. A Vowel is n letter whic!l represents a simple inarticulate sound<br />
(25); nnd, in a word or syllahle, may be sOllnded Illone. The vowels are<br />
a, e, i, 0, U, find w aud y not before a vowel sounded in the same syllable,<br />
fiS in law, I)(ty.<br />
15. A Consunant is a letter which represents an articulate suuud (26) ;<br />
aud. in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connec·<br />
tion with a vuwel. Th" conEonants Ilre b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p,<br />
q, r, s, t, t', x, z, and wand y before a vowel sounded in the same sylla·<br />
ble, ns in war, youth.<br />
16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs<br />
are of two kinds, proper ani improper.<br />
17. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded,<br />
as OU, in out; oi, in oil; ow, ill cow.<br />
18 An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one iu which only one of the<br />
vowels is s"undpd, as on in court, ou ill boat.<br />
19. A 1'rtpltthollg i. the union of three vowels in one sound, as eau<br />
in beauty.<br />
THE POWEltS OF LETTIIRS.<br />
20. In IInal),ziug words into their elemeutal'Y sounds;.it is necessary to<br />
distinguish between the J/ollne lOf II letter lind its power.<br />
• 21. Tire 71Ctme of a letter is lh,\t by which it is usually called; as A,<br />
be, se, de. &c.<br />
22. The power of a lettcr i;; the effect which it has, either by itself, or<br />
combined with other lettcl's, ill forming a word or.syllable.<br />
23, Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have the<br />
snme powcr; and certain powers or elements of words Ilre represented by<br />
a combination of two letters.<br />
24. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are<br />
about forty. and are divided into Vocals, represented by vowels and
---~<br />
ORTHOGRAPHY-LETTERS. 11<br />
diphthongs; and Subvocals and odspirates, represented by consonants, sin·<br />
gle or combined.<br />
25. VOCALS are inarticulate sounds pl'oduc~d by tbe organs of voicl',<br />
with the moulh more or less open, aud with uo change, or but slight<br />
change, of position in the organs of speech.<br />
26. SPBVOC.\LS arc sounds produced by th9 (or;':lIn8 of voice, Ilriiwlrlicrt<br />
01' morlified by certain chdages in the position of the org:1IJ8 of ~peech.<br />
27. ASPIRA'fES are mere whispering sounds withe,ut vocality, but which<br />
,till h!l~e an audible effect in the enunciatiou of words. They ai'" all<br />
articulate exc{'pt h.<br />
23. The e!emental'Y pl'wers of lettel's can nut Le exhib:ted to the c~":'<br />
but must be learned from the living voicc.<br />
29, 1 hl' I\"AliP. of it ,"owel is always oue of its 1,0""1" (except 11.' :\lId y),<br />
amI. if from tl,,· uame of II conGonaut, we take away the vowel sound, wb t<br />
remains is gen.~'a\ly the I'uwcr of that COlJSOllant, excl'pt lL' and y,<br />
30. A full "iew of the €lclllcntury powers of letterR ill the formatir,lI<br />
of wl)"d", is exhibited ill tlte followiflg tabl(·. 1'1 the wol'c1~ :l:lllt'x",j a~<br />
examples, the letter wI",;.., power is indicated is printed in Italic. By<br />
pronouncing the word dis:illdly, and then lea\'in:; out all but the I'0Wl'\'<br />
of th" Hali" letter, and uttering that alune, we hal'(; the pOw~1' uf that<br />
letter.<br />
31. 'l'AnL~ 0/ E/ulltlIt"ry Sound,~ in the English LOil!!:uac;c.<br />
\'OC~\T,S,<br />
A. ale, able.<br />
A. (trt.<br />
A. all.<br />
:A.<br />
IE.<br />
,E.<br />
:1. ire,<br />
iI. m.<br />
at.<br />
me.<br />
met, egg.<br />
10. old.<br />
'0. move. ""Z~.<br />
:0. odd,<br />
U. ttme, '/lse.<br />
:U. IIp.<br />
e. fnIl.<br />
IOn. thmt.<br />
I liJ.<br />
:D.<br />
1 ( ~.<br />
Ir.<br />
L.<br />
,\1.<br />
N.<br />
~G,<br />
R.1f.<br />
ITh.<br />
1\',<br />
i~:.<br />
l<br />
z.<br />
z.<br />
SU B\'oCAL8.<br />
bat, orb.<br />
tio, did.<br />
gone, day.<br />
judge.<br />
Zie.<br />
man.<br />
no.<br />
ring.<br />
rope, far.<br />
this.<br />
1ce,<br />
yes,<br />
zinc.<br />
azure.<br />
ASPIRATES,<br />
l(---j'ix.<br />
H. ""t.<br />
K, keep, book.<br />
P. pen, tOl'.<br />
!:l.<br />
''1'<br />
iTil.<br />
,:-)h,<br />
IOh.<br />
,Who<br />
I<br />
SUIl.<br />
top, bat.<br />
faith.<br />
show.<br />
chide.<br />
Ichen.<br />
• R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound; as, ral, "ouglt: anel' a vowel, II<br />
80ft and liquid sound; as, arm,far.
-<br />
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
32. Oertain letters in thc English Alphabet have the same power as<br />
others in the preceding table, and may therefore be called Equivalents.<br />
Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are numerous.<br />
33. Of the Subvocals and A spirate~, cigh~ pairs are Correlatif.1es. In<br />
sounding the fil st of any of the~c pairs, the organs of voice'" and speech<br />
are in the same position as in souDding its fellow, but the first, or subvocal,<br />
has vocnlity; the second, or aspirate, has not.<br />
34. TABLE of Equivalents and Correlative8.<br />
EQUIYALE"T,';.<br />
------- ~- ------ -- ---<br />
CORRELATIVES.<br />
S1lbVOCO/8. Aspilotes.<br />
W =11 COl". mel". V. vow. F. fame.<br />
y =i tyrant, s!"tem. G. gone. K. keep.<br />
C hurd =k cat. B. bat. P. pen.<br />
IQ =k liquor. Z. zinc. S. sin.<br />
,<br />
Ie soft =8 fl'Ut.<br />
, D. do. T. top.<br />
iG soft -j gin. I Th. this. Th. thick.<br />
iX =ks Ji " I Z. azure. Sh. show.<br />
I I J. judge. Ch, chide.<br />
35. Thc,{! elementary sounds of the human voie!', sometimes 8imple,<br />
hut more commouly combined, 81'e formed into S1jl/ables nud wOl·d$.<br />
SYLLABLES.<br />
36. A Syllable is a certain vocal or articulate sound,<br />
uttered by one impulse of the voice, and represented by<br />
one or more letters, as,jarm,jal'nl-er, ea-gle, a-e-l'i-al.<br />
37. Every word contains as many syllables as it has dis!.inct vocal<br />
8oum]s, as gram-1IIa-ri-all.<br />
38. A word uf olJe syllabIc is cal!ed Il .Monosyllablc.<br />
39 . .A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable.<br />
40. A word of three syllables is cailed a Trisyllable.<br />
41. A word of mo~e than three syllables is called n Polysyllable.<br />
• The Organs of "oice are those parts (c'llled by physiologists the larynx and it.<br />
appelldao;cs) which are emplo.ved in the production of simple vocal sounds.<br />
The Organs of 8p~ec" are those parts employed to articulate or modify whispering<br />
or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate.
ORTHOGRAPHY-SYLLABLES. 13<br />
DIVISION OF WORDS I~TO SYLLABLES.<br />
42. The division of words into syllables is called 8yllabication.<br />
GE:a:UAL ltl'LE.<br />
43. Place tog~ther in distinct syllabll's, th .. "" ld{urs which make up<br />
the separate parts or divisions of II word, ns hellrd in its COlTtct pronun·<br />
ciatioll.<br />
44. The only definite rnle, "f much Volllle on thi, -ul,.i"d. are the {ol<br />
lowing:-<br />
45. Rule 1. Two or mure COllsonants forming but one elementary souud.<br />
are never separated; sllch as, ch, tch, th, sh, IIg, ph, wh, gh silent, or sound·<br />
ing f, lk sounding k, &c.; as, church-es, watch-", /I'or-thy, fish-e8, sing-il/g,<br />
philoso-phy, sigh.ing, co ugh. ing, walk-ing.<br />
46. Rule 2. The terminations, eean, cian, ceou." cious, cial, tiOIl, tiuu .• ,<br />
tial, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided; ag, o-ceall, gra-cious,<br />
na tion, coura-geous, &c.<br />
47. Rule 8. Compound words arc dividcd into theil' simple one,;; as,<br />
rail-road, bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, &c.<br />
48. Rule 4. The terminations of words, wheu tbey form II b) liable, nre<br />
/usually separated from their roots; as, writ-er, teach-es, think-iii£;, cold-er.<br />
old-est.<br />
49. Two separate words combined as one name, arc usually ~eparnted<br />
by a hyphen; as, rail-road, glass-house, bee-hive.<br />
50. In writing, a 'Word of more than one syllable may be diviJedat. the<br />
end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never.<br />
SPELLING.<br />
51. SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its<br />
proper letters.<br />
52. The Orthograpby of the English language is so anomalous, and in<br />
many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by practioe,<br />
and the use of the spelling·book or dictionary. Tbe follo\"iog lules<br />
ar~ of a general oharacter, though even to these tbere may be a few<br />
exceptions :-
ENGLISH GLAl\II\IAR.<br />
GENEr.AL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS.<br />
RULl! I.<br />
53. Monosyllables ending with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single vowel,<br />
double the final consonant; as, staff. mill, pass.<br />
54. Exceptions.-Of, if, af', is, has, was, ui" gas, yes, thie, us, thus, pUB.<br />
RULE II.<br />
55. WOlds ending with any consonant except f, I, or 8, do not double<br />
the finalleUcr; as, sit, not, lip, put, that, in.<br />
56. Exceplions.-Adu, LUlln, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, er,', inn, odd, purr.<br />
RCLE III.<br />
57. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before<br />
an ndditioual letter or Ryllablc; ns, spy, spies; happy, happier, happiest;<br />
curry, carrier, ca1Tied; .f..tncy, fanciful.<br />
58. E.rception l.-But y is not chnnged before ing; as, deny, denying.<br />
59.-2. Words eoding in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y unchang<br />
"tl; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood.<br />
Exception S.-But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said; aud day makeB<br />
daily.<br />
BULE IV.<br />
60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, endiJJg with<br />
a single consonant preceded by n ~ingle vowel, double that consonant<br />
before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel; !lS, rob, robber;"<br />
admit, admittance, admitted.<br />
Exception.-But x and h are never doubled.<br />
61. But when n diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the accent is<br />
not on the last sylIaLle, the consonant is not doubled; ns, boil, boiling,<br />
boiler; wool, woolen; fool,foolish; visit, visited.<br />
62. Exception. •.-In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel before<br />
it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, contrary to analogy<br />
and without necessity, double the 1 improperly before an additional<br />
syllable. These are such words as travel, trat'elier, travelling, trat'elied."<br />
63. So also sand p are generally, though improperly, doubled in bias,<br />
worship, and kidnap; ae, biassing, worshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and<br />
mnny writers following him, in these words conform to the general rule •<br />
• The words referred to are the followiug: Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel. carol.<br />
cavil. cbaunel, chisel. counsel, cudgel. disbevel, drivcl, duel, em bowel. enamel. empanel,<br />
equal, gamllol, gravel, !:r .. , d, bandsel, hatchel. imperil, Jewel. kennel, label,<br />
level. libel, marshal, marvel, luud"i, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pIstol, pommel, quarrel,<br />
ravel, revel, rival. rowel. shovel, shrivel, sui vel, tassel. trammol, travel, tunnel,<br />
unravel.
ORTHOGRAPHY-SPET.J.ING. 15<br />
RVLE v.<br />
64. Worus clJllipg with II ,h'op one I befure the termillations less anu ly,<br />
to prevent trcbliug; as, skill, skilles .• ; full, fully; finu some wrilel's, before<br />
ness Bndful; ns, fulness, skilful.<br />
65. But words ending in any other dOllble lette!', preserve the letter<br />
double before less, ly, ness, aud ful; ns, harmlessly, st~tfly, gruffness, d:c.<br />
llt;LIi: VI.<br />
66. Silent e is preserved before tbe termination?, mellt, less, ly, nndful;<br />
as, paleness, peaceful, ab({[emfllt, &c.<br />
67. E:ucptiolls.-Duly, truly, awful, Ilnd gencl'ally, judgment, acknowledgment,<br />
lodgment, nbtidgll1ellt, are except,-d. Argnment from the Latin<br />
argumentulll, is not au eXCl'j,tiol1.<br />
llt;LE YII.<br />
6B. ~'ilent e is omitted before terminations beginuing with a vowcl; as,<br />
slave, slavish; cure, curable; sense, sensible; lodge, lodging; IOl.e, lo·vest.<br />
69. Blame, mOI'c, reprol'e, .
16 ENG LISH GRAMMAR.<br />
CAPITALS.<br />
77. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both in writing<br />
anll in printing; but at present only the following words begin with capital<br />
lettel'8:-<br />
1. The first word of every book, chapter, Ictter, note, or of any othel'<br />
piece of writing.<br />
:!. The first wvrd after a period; also after a note of interrogation, or<br />
exclumation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are independent<br />
of each othcr.<br />
But if several interrogutory or exclamatory sentences are so connected,<br />
that the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the<br />
fird, may beg-in with a small letter; as, "How doth the city sit solital'Y,<br />
that was Cllll of people I how are her habitations become as desolate!<br />
holV is she become as a willow!<br />
S. Proper nalll€~, titl·;s of otlice or honor; as, George Washington, General<br />
Lee, Ju1gc Sto"Y, Sir J,Valter Scott, .america, the Ohio, Pratt, Woodford<br />
~- Co., Pearl Strut, RfW York.<br />
4. The pronoun I, and the inteQection 0, are written in capitals.<br />
6. The first word of every line in poetry.<br />
6. The appel!ations of the Deity; as, God, Most l1igh, the .almighty,<br />
the Supreme Being, &c.<br />
7. Adjectives derived from the proper naIDes of places; as, Grecian,<br />
Roman, English, .le.<br />
8. The first word of II direct quotation (1l24), when the qaotation would<br />
form II complete sentence by itself; as, "Alway~ lem"mber this ancient<br />
maxim: 'Know thyself.'''<br />
'Yhen a quotation is not iutroduced in the direct form (1l26), but follows<br />
II comma, the first word must not begin with a capital; as, "Solomon<br />
ob"erves, that' pride goes before destruction.' "<br />
9. Common nouns when personified j as, .. Come, gentle Spring."<br />
10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; as,<br />
h Euclid's Elements. of Geometry;" ., Goldsmith', Delerted Village."<br />
78. Other words, besides !he preceding, .m~y begin with capitals, when<br />
they are remarkably empbatlCal, or tbe prlUclpal subject of the composi.<br />
tion.
ETYMOLOGY-WORDS. 17<br />
PART I I.<br />
ETYMOLOGY.<br />
79. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words,<br />
their various modifications, and their derivation!'.<br />
WORDS.<br />
80. A WORD is an articulate sound used by common<br />
consent as the ",ign of an idea.<br />
81. A few worda consist of vocal or vOlVel s(,unds only, withont articu·<br />
lation; as, I, ah, awe, 011, owe, eye, &c.<br />
82.-1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are<br />
either P1'irnitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound.<br />
83. A Plimith'e word is one that is noL del'i"cd from any other word in<br />
the language i as, boy, just, father.<br />
84. A Derivative word is one that is de\'il'cd from ,'orne other word;<br />
as, boyish, justice, fatherly.<br />
85. A Simple word is one that is not combiued with any other word;<br />
as, man, house, city.<br />
86. A Compound word is one thnt is made lip of two or more simple<br />
words; as, manhood, horseman.<br />
87.-2. 'Vords, in respect of Form, are either Declinable<br />
or Indeclinable.<br />
88. A Declinable word is one which undel'goes certain cbanges of form<br />
or termination, to express the different relations of gellder, number, case,<br />
degree, voice, mood, tense, person; usually termed in Grammar, ACCIDI!NTS i<br />
I1S, man, men; love, loves, loved, &c.<br />
89. In the changes which they nndergo, Nouns and Pronouns are said<br />
to be declined, Verbs, to be inflected or conjugated (473.)<br />
90. Au Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form; liS;<br />
I!ood, some, perhaps.
18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
91.-3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are<br />
divided into different classes, called Parts of Speech. .<br />
92. The principle according to which word~ are classified is their use,<br />
or the part they perform in the expreRsion of thought. Words which are<br />
names of objects are classpd as nouns; those which qualify nouns are<br />
adjectives; those which attribute an action or state to some subject Bl'e<br />
verbs, &c, Hence, when the sallie word i, used for diffaent pUl'posesat<br />
oue time a- a name, at another to qualify a noun, and at another to<br />
expl'es, an action or state -it should, in parsing, be assigned to that class<br />
of words, the office of which it performs for the time: thus, "Before<br />
honor [noun] is humility," .. Honor [verb] thy father and thy mother."<br />
93. PARSING is the art of resolving a sentence into its<br />
elements or parts of speech (574, 575).<br />
94. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical.<br />
95, A wOI'd is parsed Etymologically by sLuting the class of words to<br />
which it belnng~, with its accidents 01' grammatical properties.<br />
96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the relation<br />
in which it stands to other words, and tbe rules according to which they<br />
are combined in phrases and sentences.<br />
97. Thesl' two, though related. are perfectly
ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS. 19<br />
NOUNS.<br />
100. A NouN is the name of any person, place, or<br />
thing; as, John, London, book. Hence,<br />
The names of persons, places, or things, are Nouns.<br />
101. Nouns are of two kinds, Propel' and Common.<br />
102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an individual<br />
only; as John, London, America, the Ohio.<br />
103. A Common Noun is a name applied to all things<br />
of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, book.<br />
104. REMARKs.-Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals of the<br />
same class from one another. Common nOllns distinguish sorts 01' classes,<br />
and are equally Rp?licable to all things of the same class. Thus, the com·<br />
mon noun boy is equally applicable to all object9 of that class; but the<br />
proper nouns John, Jame8, Robert, &c., are applicable only to partIcular<br />
indit·idual. of a class,<br />
OBSERVATIONS ON NOUNS.<br />
105. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole elMS, it becomes<br />
common, and generally has an article before it; as," The twelve Ca:sars,"<br />
.. He is the Cicero of his age," "A Daniel come to judgment." A Campbell,<br />
i.e., one of the Campbells.<br />
106. Common nouns become proper when perwnified (1041\ 1), and<br />
also when used as proper names; as, Hail, Liberty! The Park.<br />
107. Under common nouns are usually ranked,-<br />
1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in the<br />
singular number; as, army, people.<br />
2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities; as, piety, wickedness.<br />
3. Verbal nouns, 01' the names of actions, &e.; as, reading, writing,<br />
sleeping.<br />
4. Diminutive nouns, or nouns derived Crom other nouns, and decoting<br />
R small one of the kind; as, stream, streamlet; leaf, leaflet;<br />
hill, hillock, &e.<br />
108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, letter,<br />
mark. or character, of which we can thin I" speak, or write, regarded<br />
merely as an object of thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do<br />
not give it a name. Thus, when we ~ay, "Good" is an adjective, a is a<br />
vowel, b is a consonant, A is a capital, 4 is an even number, t is a fraction,<br />
, is a mark of interrogation, + is the sign of addition, - of subtraction,<br />
= of equality-Good, 0, b, A, 4, t, Y, +, -, -, ure all to be<br />
regarded as nouns.
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
109. REMARK.-A noun is also called a substantive. But tbis term for<br />
convenience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to mean a noun,<br />
n per.onal pronoun, or a phrase used as a noun, and usually called" a Bubs/anti/'e<br />
phrase." Thus, in such a rule as this, "An adjective qualifies the<br />
substantive," .!xc., the word substantive may mean either a nonn, 01' pronoun,<br />
or substantive phrase.<br />
EXERCISES."<br />
1. In the fonowing list, distinguish proper nouns from common, and give<br />
n reason for the distinction ;-<br />
Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, bor~c, bouse,<br />
garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio,<br />
Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun,<br />
moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, J\iars, man, woman, boy,<br />
girl, John, James, l\hry, Susan, mountain, stream, valley.<br />
2. In the following sentence~, point out the nouns. Say why they are<br />
nouns; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus," Table,"<br />
a noun, because the name of a t.hiug; common, b"canse applied to all things<br />
of the sam e sort.<br />
The table and chairs in this room belong to John j the bookcase,<br />
writing·desk, and books, to his brother.-Time and tide<br />
wait for no man.-The largest city in Europe is London j in<br />
America, New York.-'l'he northern states produce wheat,<br />
oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes j while cotton, tobacco,<br />
rice and sugar, are the products of the south.<br />
s. 'Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and my some··<br />
thing respecting each, so as to make a sentence; thus:- -<br />
Summer-summer is the warmest season of the year.<br />
4. Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and why; which<br />
are proper, or common, and why.<br />
ACCIDEXTS of THE NOCN,<br />
no. The accidents of nouns are PerSall, Gender,<br />
Number, and Case.<br />
NOTE.-These accidents belong also to pel'sonal and relative pronouns<br />
(239) .<br />
• The exerdses furnished l!ere, and throughout this work, are intended merely as<br />
a speclme.n of the w.ay III \Vhlcl~ the leadm~ truths ,and facts in Grammar may he<br />
wrought IIIto the mmds 9f PIlPlls, by means or exerCIses properly devised. It is lI'lt<br />
however, eX(lect~d or deSIred that the teaeher .hould limit himself to these. Every<br />
active a.nd mgell!olls teacher .will devis,e slIch new and various methods of exercising<br />
hIS pupIls as theu' a!,:,', capacIty, alld CIrcumstances, and his own judgment and expertence<br />
m~y Sll~g~st, ,as best calculated to dl'aw out tlleir powel'S, and culth'ate in<br />
them a habit of thlUking and reasoumg for them.elves.
ETYIIIOLOGY-NOUNS-PERSON. 21<br />
PERSON.<br />
Ill. PERSON, in Grammar, is the distinction of nonns<br />
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person<br />
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.<br />
(120). Hence,<br />
112. There are three persons, called Fint, Second, and Third.<br />
113. A noun is in the first persou, when it denotes the speaker; as, .. I,<br />
Paul, have written it."<br />
114. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or thing<br />
addressed; as, "Thou, God, scest me."-" Hail, Liberty!"<br />
115. A noun iR in the third person, when it denotes the person or thing<br />
spoken of; ae, .. lVashington was brave."-" Truth is mighty."<br />
116. RnrARK.-The third person is used sometimes for the first; R~,<br />
" thy 6ervant became surety for tho lad to my father." Gell. xliv. 32.<br />
Sometimes, particularly in the language of supp:ication, it is used for<br />
the fecond; as, "0 let not the Lurd be angry." Gen. xviii. 30. .. Will<br />
the Lord bless us !"<br />
OBSERVATIONS ON PERSO~.<br />
117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denoting<br />
persons, or things personified; becauile pel'sons only can "peak or be spoken<br />
to. The third person may beh.ng to all nouns, becanse every object,<br />
whether person or thing, may be spoken of.<br />
lIS. A noun can be the subject of a verb (5~5), only in the thil'd person.<br />
A noun in the first 01' second person is never used as the subject of a<br />
verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first 01' second pel'sonal pro·<br />
noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis; and sometimes in the<br />
second person, without a pronoun, as the object addressed.<br />
119. A uoun in the predicate (600), is generally, though not always,<br />
in the third person, e'\'en when the subject is in the first or second; as, "I<br />
am Alpha," &:c., " who is." So with the pronouus I anu thou; a9, " I am<br />
he." ., Thou art the man."<br />
!20. REMARK.-Pr
20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
109. RF.~r.\nK.-A noun is also caIleu a wbstantivc. But this term for<br />
convenience is here usctl in a more comprebensive sense, t{l mean a noun,<br />
n per,onal pronoun, or a phrase used as a n~un, and us~all:r callen ." a 8ubstantil'e<br />
phrase." Thus, in such a rule as tblS, "An adjective qualifies tbe<br />
substantive," &c., the word substantive may mean either a nOlin, or pro·<br />
nOUll, or sub.tantive phrase.<br />
EXERCISES.-<br />
I. In tbe following list, distinguish proper nouns from common, and give<br />
n reason for the distinction :-<br />
Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house,<br />
garden, 'Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio,<br />
Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun,<br />
moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, 1\lar8, man, woman, boy,<br />
girl, John, James, 1\1!lry, Susan, mountain, stream, yalley.<br />
2. In the foIlowing sentcnces, point out the nouns. Say "'hy they are<br />
nouns; tell wbether tbey nre proper or common, nnd why. Thus," Table,"<br />
a noun, because the name of a t.lling; common, b"c:luse applied to all things<br />
of the same surt.<br />
The table and chairs in this room belong to John; the bookcase,<br />
writing·desk, and books, to his brother.-Time and tide<br />
wait for no man.-The largest city in Europe is London; in<br />
America, .New York.-The northern states produce 'wheat,<br />
oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes; while cotton, tobacco,<br />
rice and sugar, are the products of the south.<br />
S. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, anel my some·<br />
thing respeoting eacb, so as to make II sentence; tbus:-<br />
Summer-summer is the warmest season of the year.<br />
4. Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and wily; which<br />
are proper, or common, and why.<br />
ACCIDENTS OF THE NOn,.<br />
no. The accidents of nouns are Person, Gender,<br />
Number, and Case.<br />
NOTE.-These accidBnts belong also to personal and relative pronouns<br />
(239).<br />
• The exercises furnisbed here, and throughout this \vork, are intended merely as<br />
n specimell of the way iu whicl~ the leading truths and facts in Grammar may be<br />
wrought 1I1to tho mmds ,!f pupils. by means or exer."es properly devised. It is Hilt<br />
however, expectcd or deSired that the teacher shOUld limit himself to these Every<br />
active and ingen!ous teacher .will devise snch new and various methods of e~erc'ising<br />
hiS .puplls ns then' age, capacity, aud clfcumstances, and his own judgment and expencnce<br />
m~y sU~g~st,.as best calculn~ed to draw out their powers, and cultivate in<br />
tbem a habit of thulking and reasolllDg for themselves.
ETYrtIOLOGY-NOUNS-PERSON. .21<br />
PERSON.<br />
111. PERSON, in Grammar, is the distinction of nonns<br />
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person<br />
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.<br />
(120). Hence,<br />
112. There are t"ree persons, called First, Second, and Third.<br />
113. A noun is ia the first persou, when it denotes the speaker; as, " I,<br />
Paul, have written it."<br />
114. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or tbing<br />
addressed; as, "Thou, God, scest me."-" Hail, Liberty!"<br />
115. A ntlun is in the third person, when it uenotes the person or thing<br />
spoken of; as, "lVashington was brave."-" Truth is mighty."<br />
116. REMARK.-The third person is used sometimes for the first; 8S,<br />
" thy servant became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 32.<br />
Sometimes, particularly in the language of supp:ication, it is nsed for<br />
the fecond; as, "0 let not the Lord be angl·Y." Gen. xviii. 30. ., Will<br />
the Lord bless us !"<br />
OBSERVATIONS ON PERSON.<br />
117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denoting<br />
persons, or things personified; because persons only can speak or be spoken<br />
to. The third person may beh.ng to all nouns, because every object,<br />
whether person or thing, may be spoken of.<br />
118. A noun can be the subject of a verb (5()5), only in the third person.<br />
A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject of a<br />
verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first 01' second personal pro·<br />
noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis; and sometimes in the<br />
second person, without a pronoun, as the object addressed.<br />
119. A uoun in the predicate (600), is generally, though not always,<br />
iu the third person, e\'cn when the subject is in the first or second; as, ., I<br />
am .IIlpha," &c., ,; who is." So with the pronouns I and thou; a9, "I am<br />
he." "Thou art the man,"<br />
120. REMARK.-PERSON makes no chant,!c either in the meaning 01' form<br />
of a Boun, but simply denotes the mannel' in which it is used, as above<br />
~tated. MOJ'eovel', as the name of the speaker, or of the person spokpn<br />
to, is seldom expreesed (the pronouns I and thou, we and you, beiDg used<br />
in their stead), it seems to be a useless waRte of t.ime, in parsing, to men·<br />
tion the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second perSOD, which<br />
will not happeu more than once in a thousand times. Much time there<br />
fore will be saved, and no \OS9 sustained, if it be considered as taken for<br />
granted, without stating it, that a noun i~ in the third person, unle~s it be<br />
otherwise mentioDlld,
ENGJ..ISH GRAMMAR.<br />
GENDER.<br />
121. GENDER is the distinction of nonns with regard<br />
to sex. ApPENDIX I.<br />
122. There are three gender~, ltlasculine, Feminine,<br />
and lYellter.<br />
123. Nonns denoting males are Masculine; as, man,<br />
boy.<br />
124. Nouns denoting females are Fem inine; as woman,<br />
girl.<br />
125. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e.,<br />
things without sex, are Nellter; as, house, book, tree.<br />
126. Nouns which denote either males or females, such as parent, neigh.<br />
bar, friend, &c., are sometimes, (or the sake of convenienep, said to be of<br />
the Common Gender, i. e., either masculine or feminine.<br />
127. There are three ways of distinguishing the sex e .•.<br />
1. By different words; as,<br />
lIIa.cul i 'Ie. Feminine. lIIascul inc. Feminine.<br />
Bachel'lr maid Horse mare<br />
Beau belle Husband wife<br />
Boy girl King queen<br />
Brother sister Lord. lady<br />
Buck doe Man woman<br />
Bull cow Master mistress<br />
Drake duck Nephew niece<br />
Earl countess Ram, buck ewe<br />
Father mother SPll daughter<br />
Friar nun Stag hind<br />
Gander goose Uncle aunt<br />
Hart roe \\"izard witch<br />
2. By a difference of termination; a~,<br />
Masculine. Feminine. 1I'1ascu/ille. Pemilline.<br />
Abbot abbess Arbiter arbitress<br />
Actor actress Author authoress<br />
Administrator administratrix Baron baroness<br />
Adulterer adulteress Bridegroom bride<br />
Ambassador ambassadress Benefactor benefactress
ETYMOLOG Y-NOUNS-G ENDER.<br />
23<br />
Masculine.<br />
Count<br />
Deacon<br />
Duke<br />
Elector<br />
Emperor<br />
Enchanter<br />
Executor<br />
Governor<br />
Heir<br />
Hero<br />
Hunter<br />
Host<br />
Jew<br />
Landgrave<br />
Lion<br />
Marquis<br />
Mayor<br />
Patron<br />
3.<br />
Sparrow.<br />
Goat.<br />
Servant.<br />
Child.<br />
Descendants.<br />
FellLinine. lIIasculinr. Ji'cminine.<br />
countess Peer peeress<br />
deaconess Poet poetess<br />
duchess Priest priestess<br />
electress Prince princess<br />
empress Prior prioress<br />
enchantress Prophet prophetess<br />
executrix Protector protectress<br />
governess Shepherd shepherdess<br />
heiress Songster songstress<br />
heroine Sorcerer sorceress<br />
huntress<br />
{sultana, or<br />
Sultan<br />
hostess<br />
taness<br />
jewess Tiger tigress<br />
Iandgravine Traitor traitress<br />
lioness Tutor tutoress<br />
marchioness Viscount viscountess<br />
mayoress Votary yotaress<br />
patroness "'idower widow<br />
By prefixing a distinguishing word; as,<br />
Ma.culine.<br />
A coc/: sparrow.<br />
A he goat.<br />
A ma n serva.nt.<br />
A male child.<br />
JJIaie descendants.<br />
sul-<br />
Feminine.<br />
A h( It sparrow.<br />
A ~ltc goat.<br />
A maid servant.<br />
A fr1lla/" child.<br />
Fer/wle descendants.<br />
OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER.<br />
128. Many masculine nonns have no corresponding feminine; liS, baker,<br />
brewer, &c.: and some feminine DOUDS have no conesponding m:lsculine;<br />
as, laundress, seamstress, &c.<br />
129. Some nouns natuI'ally neuter, IIrc often, by a fi~ure of speech<br />
(1046, I), converted into the ma~culine or feminine; as, when we say<br />
of the sun, .< He is setting;" of the moon, .. She is eclipsed;" or of a<br />
ship, "She aails."<br />
130. REMARK.-This inferior species of personification, peculiar to the<br />
Engli'h langu:lge, is often used with gl'eat bcauty to impart animation<br />
and livelincss to the style, witlJOut rentiering it inflated or passionate.<br />
No certain rul", however, can be given as to the gender as.urned, except<br />
that nouns denoting ol~ects distinguished for 8tr.,ngth 01' b"ldness, are<br />
u8ually regarded a8 masculine, while, on the other hand, tho.e dp.llotiu!( (,b·<br />
jects noted fur softness, beauty, and gracefulness, are cODsidered feminine.
24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
131. In speakingof ani'!1nls whose sex is not ~no.wn ~o us, or not re~ard.<br />
ed, we as~i",n the masculine gender to those dlstmgUlshed for boldness,<br />
fidelit.y, genero
ETYlIIOLOGY-NOUNS-NUlIIDER. 25<br />
NUMBER.<br />
135. N UlIlBER is that property of a noun by which it<br />
expresses one, 01' more than one.<br />
136. Noun" have two numbers, the Singular and the<br />
Plural. The singular denotes one: as, book, tree; the<br />
plural, m01'e than one; as, books, trees.<br />
GEXERAL llULE.<br />
137. The plural is commonly formed by adding s to<br />
the singular; as, book, books.<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
138. RULE I.-Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or 0, form<br />
the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, .Misses; brush, brushes;<br />
match, matches; topaz, topazes; fox, foxes; hero, heroes.<br />
139. Exceptions.-Nouns in eo, io, lind yo, have s ouly; as, cameo,<br />
cameos; folio, f9lios; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, contos. Junto,<br />
tyro, grotto, pOl tieo, sulo, halo, quarto, furmerly had s only in the plural;<br />
but now more commouly es under the Rule; as, junto, juntoes, &c. Nouns<br />
in ch sounding k, add s only; as, monarch, monarchs. See also 144.<br />
140. V{henc,'cr s or es will not coalesce with the tinal sy\laole, it adds<br />
a syllable to the wurd; as, age, pI. ages; box, boxes. But where s 01' es<br />
will coalesce, it doe,; not add a syllable; as, book, books; cargo, cargoes.<br />
The swill Dlake an additional syllable only after e final, preceded by g 01'<br />
an s·sounJ; a~, cage, cages; race, ruces; j'ose, roses. E" will coal~sce, and<br />
so not add a syllable, only after 0; as, echo, echoes.<br />
141. RuLI'.: Z.-N ouns in y after a consonant, change<br />
y into ies in the plural; as, lady, ladies. But<br />
Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y,<br />
follow the general rule (137); as, day, days; the Pompeys,<br />
the Tullys, &c.<br />
142. RULE 3.-Nouns inf or fe, changef or fe into<br />
ves in the plural: as, loaf, loaves; life, lives,
26 ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR.<br />
143. Exceptions.-Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, hand·<br />
kerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, reproof,<br />
follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s; a~, muff,<br />
muffs; except staff, plural stal'cs; but its comp"unds are regular; as,jlag'<br />
staff, jlagstaffs; wharf has either wharfs or u-harl'es.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it;<br />
thus, Fox, plural, foxes. Rule-Nouns in s, sh, ell soft, Z, x, or 0, form<br />
the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly; Nouns in x form thc plural by<br />
adding es.<br />
Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach,<br />
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife,<br />
story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato,<br />
peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city,<br />
difficulty, distress, wolf.<br />
Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy,<br />
army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto,<br />
nuncio, punt!tilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, Illuff,<br />
cliff, whiff, cuft: ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief.<br />
2. OJ what number is-Book, trees, plant, 8hrub, globes,<br />
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses,<br />
prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies,<br />
hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher,<br />
valleys, mountain, cameos?<br />
3. Take six of the above worde, and say somctbin" respectinO' each;<br />
first in the singular, and then in the plural. " "<br />
NOUNS IRREGULA.R IN THE PLURAL.<br />
144. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of tbeir plural; sucb<br />
as-<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
Man<br />
men<br />
'.rooth<br />
teeth<br />
Woman<br />
women<br />
Goose<br />
geese<br />
Child<br />
children<br />
Mouse<br />
mice<br />
Foot<br />
feet<br />
Louse<br />
lice<br />
Ox oxen Cow formerly kine<br />
but now regular, cows<br />
145. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular furm of the plu.<br />
ral, but with different significatiolls; as-
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
Brother (one of the same family) brothers<br />
Brother (one of the same society) brethren<br />
Die (a stamp for coining) dies<br />
Die (a Emall cube for gaming) dice<br />
Genius (a man of genius) geniuses<br />
Genius (a kind of spirit) genii<br />
Index (a table of reference) indexes<br />
Index (a &ign in algebra) indices<br />
Pea (as a distinct seed) peas<br />
Pea (as a species of grain) pease<br />
Sow (an individual animal) sows<br />
Sow or swine (the species) swine<br />
Penny (a coin ---) pennies<br />
Penny (a sum or value) pence<br />
146. NOTE.-Though pence is plu1'al, yet such expressions as fourpencc,<br />
stxpence, &c., as the name. of a 6um, or of a coin representiug that sum. is<br />
oftcn regarded as singular, and so capable of a plural; as, " Three four·<br />
pences, 01' two sixpcncis, make a shilling:' .. A new sixpence is heavier<br />
than all old one."<br />
147.-CompounJs eliding inful o1'full, and generally those which have<br />
the important word last, form the plural regularly; as, spoonful, cupful,<br />
coachful, handful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, camcra-obscum, &c.;<br />
plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, &e.<br />
148. Compounds in which the principal word stanJs first, pluralize the<br />
first word; ae-<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
Commander-in-chief<br />
commanders-ill-chief<br />
Aid -de-camp<br />
aids-de-cam p<br />
Knight-errant<br />
knights-errant<br />
Court· martial<br />
courts-martial<br />
Cousin-german<br />
cousins-german<br />
Father-in-law, kc.<br />
fathers-in-law, kc.<br />
o<br />
£Tl'MOLOGY-NOUNS-NUl\1BER. 27<br />
Man-servant changes both; as, men-servants. So IIlso, women-servants,<br />
knil5hts-tcmplars.<br />
149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word; a"<br />
fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, and not com·<br />
pounds of man, form the plm'al by the general rule; as, Turcoman, Mus<br />
Bulman, talisman; plural, Turcomans, Mussulmans, &c.<br />
150. Proper Dames, when pluralized, aud other p:ll'td of speech used
28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
DS nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar endings i<br />
as, the .Ill·istot/es, the Sol(Y(ls, the MariustB, the Pompeys, the Ciceros;<br />
the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs; by sixes and ,evens, by fifties;<br />
three fourths, two halves; "His andB aud his Drs ;" "One of the bub is<br />
superfluous."<br />
151. EXCEPTION.-Such words endiug in y after a consonant, follow the<br />
general rule (137), and not tile special rule (141) i 8S, the Livys, the Tully.,<br />
the Henrys-" The whys and the bys."<br />
152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures. are made plural by adding<br />
's; 8S," Dot your i's and cross your t's."-" Y I)UI' s's are not well made."<br />
"The +'s and -'s are not in liue."-" Four 6's = eight 3's."-" 9's give<br />
place to 0' s."<br />
153. NOTE.-Some good writers form the plural of proper names, &0.<br />
in this way; as, the Marius's, the PompeY's.-the why's amI the wherefore',.<br />
But this is unnecessary. and should be avoided.<br />
154. Word. adopted without change froID foreign languages, generally<br />
retain their original plural. .As a general rule, nouns in um or on, have a<br />
in the plural. Latin nonns in is, in the plural change is into es; Greek<br />
noum in is, change is into ides; Latin nouns in -a change a into t1!; but<br />
Grpck noulls change a into ata in the plural. The following nre the most<br />
common, some of which, however, from common use, have become so much<br />
a part of the English language as to have also the English form of tbc<br />
plural. In the followiug table, thcse are indicltej by the letter n.<br />
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.<br />
Alumnus alumni Chrysalis chrysalidcs<br />
Alumna alUlnnrn Crisis<br />
crises<br />
.Amanuensis amanuenses Criterion criteria<br />
Analysis analyses Datum data<br />
Animalculum animrucula, R. Desideratum desiderata<br />
.Antithesis antitheses Dimresis dirnreses<br />
.Apex<br />
apices, R . Effluvium effluvia<br />
Appendix appendices, R. Ellipsis ellipses<br />
.Arcanum arcana Emphasis emphases<br />
.Automaton automata, R . Encomium encomia, R .<br />
.Axis<br />
Bandit<br />
Basis<br />
axes<br />
banditti<br />
bases<br />
Ephemeris<br />
Erratum<br />
Focus<br />
ephemerides<br />
errata<br />
foci<br />
Beau<br />
beaux, R. Formula formulre<br />
Calx<br />
calces, R. Fungus fungi, funguses<br />
Cherub cherubim, R. Genius genii (145)
ETy~roLOGY-NOUNS-NUMBER. 29<br />
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.<br />
Genus genera Nebula nebulre<br />
Gymnasium gymnasia, TI. Oasis oases<br />
Hypothesis hypotheses Parenthesis parentheses<br />
Ignis fatuus ignes fatui Phenomenon phenomena<br />
Index (a pointer) indexes Radius radii<br />
Index (in al~b ra )indices Scholium scholia, R.<br />
Lamina laminre Seraph seraphim, R.<br />
Larva larvre Speculum specula<br />
Magus magi Stamen stamina, R.<br />
Medium media, R. Stimulus stimuli<br />
Memorandum memoranda, R. Stratum strata<br />
Metamorphosis metamorphoses Thesis theses<br />
Miasma miasmata Vertebra vertebrru<br />
Momentum momenta, R. Vertex vertices, R.<br />
Monsieur meSSleurs Virtuoso virtuosi<br />
Mr. (master) messrs. (mast';r~) Vortex vortices, R.<br />
EXERCISES ON NOUNS IRREGULAR IN ~Ul\lBER.<br />
Give the plural of-Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox. child,<br />
woman, brother, goose, tooth ;-sow, die, court-martial, father·<br />
in-law, son-in-law;-cupful, coachful, spoonful; erratum, medium,<br />
radius, genius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum,<br />
axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, serllph, &c.<br />
Of what number is-Dice, arcana, fishermell, geese, dormice,<br />
alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, child, court·<br />
martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, geniuses, indices, indexes,<br />
mathematics, Matthew, James, John?<br />
OBSERV.ATIONS ON NUMBER.<br />
155. Some nouns nre used in the singular only. Such are the names of<br />
metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, aud things weighed<br />
or measured; as, gold, meeknesB, piety, idleness, intemperance, sculpture,<br />
geometry, wiido'm, flour, milk, &c. Except when different sorts of things<br />
nre expreesed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, liquors, &c.<br />
156. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, annals, antipodes, ar.<br />
chives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothe~, calends, colors (mili·<br />
tary banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestmes, literati, lees, lettel-S,<br />
(literature), minutice, manneTf, morals, nones, orgies, pleiads or pleiades,
30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
shambled, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, victuals; Also, thiugs consisting<br />
of two part,; as, bellows, drawers, hose, nippers, pincers, pliers, snuffers,<br />
3cissors, "henTS, tongs, &c.<br />
A few wonls usually plural, viz., bowels, embers, entrat/s, lungs, have<br />
sometimes a singular, denotin:; a part or portion of that expressed by the<br />
plural; as, bowel, lung, &c.<br />
157. Some nouns are alike in both Ilumber.; as, deer, sheep, swine,<br />
vel'min; grouse, salmon, tench, trout; apparutu~, hiatus, series, (o?!geries,<br />
species, superficies; head (in the sense of individual), cattle; certain build.<br />
ing materials; as, brick, stone, plank, joist, in mass; olso fish, and sometimes<br />
jowl, denoting the da's. But several of the-e, iu a plural sense,<br />
denoting individuals have the re:;lIlar plural also; ns, salmons, trouts,<br />
.fishes, fowls, &c.<br />
158. The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hundred,<br />
thousand, nnd some oll,,'r?, "fter a,ljecth-es of number, are either singular<br />
or plural; as, a brace, a· dozen, a hundred; two brace, three dozen, six hundred,<br />
&c. But without an adjective of Dumber, or in other constructions,<br />
and particularly after in, by, &c., in a distributive sense, most of these<br />
words, in the plural, assume a plural form; as, "In braces and dozens."<br />
"B_v scores and hunJrc./s."-" 'Vorth thousands."<br />
159. 1. The following words, plural in form, are sometimes .ingular,<br />
but most commonly plural in signification, viz.: amends, means, richel,<br />
pains (meauing laborious cffort), odds, alms, wage .. ; and the names of eert<br />
.in scien('e~; a~, mathematics, ethics, optics, acouslia, metaphYSiCS, politics,<br />
pneumatics, hydrostatics, &c.<br />
2. jJleans and amends, referriug to one object, are sillgular; to more than<br />
one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to signify the middle<br />
between two extremes. .I11ms (lElmesse, Anglo-Saxon) and riches (richesse,<br />
Frenc!!), are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural sense.<br />
Neu:s, formerly singular or plural, is now mostly sillgular. Molasses and<br />
measles, though ending like ~ plmnl, are singular, and so used. Oats is<br />
generally plmal; gallows is both singular nnd plurnl, though a distinct<br />
plural form, gallowses, is also iu use.<br />
160. The following nrc singular in form, but in construction various;<br />
thu~, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, meaning persons,<br />
are always construed as plural; cannon, shot, sail, cavalry, infantry,<br />
8S singular or plural. People (also folk), when it signifies a community<br />
or body of persolls, is a collective Iloun in the singular, and sometimes,<br />
though rarely, tnkes a plural form; us, "Many peoples and nations."<br />
Rev. x. 11.
ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS-CASE. 31<br />
THE PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES.<br />
161. Proper names for the most part want the plnral; but-<br />
1. Proper names without a title are used in the plural, when they refer<br />
to a race or family; as, "The Campbells." "the Stuarts j" or to several<br />
persons of the same name; as, "The twelve Ca;sars j" or when they are<br />
used to denote character; as," The Ciceros of tbe age."<br />
2. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, 01' with any title, pre·<br />
ceded by the numerals, two, three, &c., pluralize the name, and not the<br />
ti tIe; as, " The Mrs. Howards j" .. thCi two Miss fllortons j" "the two MI'.<br />
H~nrys."<br />
3. But when several per.ons of the same name are spoken of individually,<br />
and distinguished by a particular appellation, or when persons of<br />
different names are spoken of together, the title ollly, and not ti,e name<br />
is marle plural; as," Misses Julia and Mary Robinson ;n .. 1I1es91's. George<br />
and Andrew Thomson;" .. Messrs. Pratt, Woodford, & Co."<br />
Thus far, usage and the rule are settled and uniform; but-<br />
4. In other cases, usage is still unsettled. Some writers, perhaps the<br />
majority, pluraEze the title aud not the name; as, "The Misses Brown;"<br />
"the Messrs. Harper." Others, of equal authority, rpgardiIlg the title as<br />
a sort of adjective, or the whole as a compound name, pluralize the name<br />
and not the title; ao, the Miss Browns j" "the 1111'. Harpers." This form<br />
is mor'e common in conversation, and, being lesa stiff and formal, is more<br />
likely to prevail. A few irnp~operl}' pluralize hoth name and title; as,<br />
"The Misses Browns j" "the fllessrs. Harpers,"<br />
6. N am(>s with other titles prefixed, follow the same analogy; as, .. Lords<br />
Wellington anel Lynedoch;" "the lords bishops of Dur ham and St.<br />
David's;" "the geneIals Scott and Taylor."<br />
CASES OF NOUNS.<br />
162. CASE is the state or condition of a noun with<br />
respect to the other words in a sentence. See 164-166.<br />
163. Nouns in English have three cases, the Nominative,<br />
Possessive, and Objective.
32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
164. The Nomina/ire case is used-<br />
1. Whcn a nuun is used simply as the name of an object.<br />
2. When it is used as that of which something is affirmed; as, "John<br />
reads."<br />
3. When it is used as a predicate (600) j as, ., John is a good boy."<br />
4. Whe" it is used absolutely or independent of any oLher word j as,<br />
" 0 .I1bsalom, my son!"<br />
165. The Possessil'c case connects with the name of an object, the idea<br />
of origin, possession, or fitness; as, The sun's rays; John's book j a boy's<br />
cap; men's shoes.<br />
166. The Objective case is used-<br />
1. To denote the object of a transitive verb (317) in the active voice<br />
(368); a_, .. James assists Thomas."<br />
2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a preposition (538);<br />
as, .. Tlll'y live in London."<br />
3. To denote time, value, weight, or measure, without a governing word<br />
(828) j as," James is ten years old."<br />
GE:iERAL RULES.<br />
167. The nominative and the objective of nouns are<br />
alike.<br />
168. The possessiyc singular is formed by adding an<br />
apostrophe and s to the nominative; as, John's.<br />
169. 'Vhen the plural ends in s, the po>,,-cs,.:iyc is<br />
formcd by adding an apostrophe only; as, ladies'. But<br />
when the plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe<br />
and s are added; as, men's, children's.<br />
DECLEXSIOX OF XOU:-;S.<br />
170. Nouns are thus declincu-<br />
Singular. Plural. Sin"u/ar. Plural.<br />
Nom. Lady ladies 1Ilan men<br />
Poss. Lady's ladies' Man's men's<br />
Obj. Lady Indies :Man men<br />
171. Proper names for the most part wnnt the plural (161).<br />
Singular.<br />
John<br />
John's<br />
John<br />
OI3SERYATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE.<br />
172. The's in the possess,v'~ case is evidently an abbreviation for the<br />
old Eogli>h termination of the gcniti '\"e in es or is. Thus," The king's<br />
crown" was written, .. The kingis crown:' That s is not an abbreviation
ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS-POSSESSIVE. 33<br />
for his, as some have supposed, is manifest from tbe fact, tbat it is used<br />
where his could not be properly employed; tbus, woman's, men's, children's,<br />
book's, &c.. can not he resolved into woman ~his, men his, children<br />
his, &c.<br />
The apostrophe (') after s in tbe plural, is not a mark of abbreviation,<br />
but is used, in modern times, merely as a sign of the possessive. Its use<br />
in the pi ural is but of recent date.<br />
173. When the nominative singular ends in 8S, or in letters of a similar<br />
sound, tbough to retain the s after the apostrophe is never wrong, yet, as a<br />
matter of taste, it is sometimes omitted in order to avoid barshness, or too<br />
close a succession of If!ssing sounds; as, "For goodness' sake;" c, for con·<br />
science' sake;" so also" Moses' disciples;" .. Jesus' feet."<br />
174. NOTE.-There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on<br />
this point. Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in every<br />
position; as, .. Xanthus's stock of patience."-L'Estrange. Others drop<br />
the 8 only before a word beginning with an s or an s·sound, as above;<br />
while others drop the s wherever the use of it would produce harshness,<br />
or difficulty of pronunciation. Though in this last, the usage which omits<br />
the s is less prevalent and less accurate than that whi'Jh retains it, yet,<br />
from the sanction it has obtained-ft'om the stiffness and harshness which<br />
retaining the s often occasions-and from the tendency in all sp"ken language<br />
to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against<br />
all arguments to the contrary.<br />
175. RE1CARK.-In written language, the omission of the s occasion9<br />
but little inconvenience; for the apostrophe sufficiently indicates the case,<br />
and the construction will generally indicate the number. In spoken Ian·<br />
guage, however, tbe use of the 8 is more necessary, to avoid obscurity,<br />
especially in proper names. Thus, in spoken language, .. Davy's Surveying,"<br />
aDd "Davies' Surveying," sound preCisely alike, though the names<br />
are different. Hence, to indicate the last name correctly in speaking', it<br />
will be more accurate, though less euphonic, to say, " Davies's Surveying."<br />
Tbus, also, .. Perkins' .Arithmetic," "Spark"' .Analysis," in spoken language,<br />
may be mistaken for" Perkin's .Arithmetic," .. Spark's .Analysis."<br />
In such cases, precision will be secured at the expense of euphony, by<br />
retaining the s, while euphony will be attained, frequently at the expense<br />
of precision, by dropping it.<br />
176. The meaning of the possessive may, in general, be E'xpressed by<br />
the word of with the obj~ctive; thus, for" man's wisdom," ., virtue's reward,"<br />
we may say, .. the wisdom of man," "the reward of , virtue'" This<br />
mode will generally be preferred, when the use of the possessive would<br />
appeal' stiff or awkward; thus, "the length of the day," is better than<br />
"the day's length." In some few words wbich want the possessive plural,<br />
such as father-in-law, court-martial, &(1., this is the only substitute. These<br />
two modes of expression, however, are not always equi valent; thus, .. the<br />
king'. pictnre," means any picture belonging to the king; "a picture of<br />
the king," means a portrait of him, without saying to whom it belongs.<br />
So also, of with the objective, ean not always be represented by the possessive;<br />
as, "A. piece of gold," .. a cord of wood," .. the house of reprBsentativ.,,"<br />
elrc. 3
34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
PARSING (93) THE NOUN.<br />
177. A noun is parsed etymologically, by stating its<br />
accidents, or grammatical properties (110), as exemplified<br />
(182).<br />
178. NOTE.-The possessive is easily known by its form. As the nom·<br />
inative and objectivp. of nouns are alike, in parsing nouns in the following<br />
lists, all nouns not in the possessive, may be said to be in the nominative.<br />
The method of distinguishing the nominative and objective will be ex·<br />
plained in ils proper place. ~s pers?n belongs, n,?t to the form, bat to the<br />
relations of the noun, the mention of It may be o~ted for the present.<br />
179. N. B.-In all parsing, much time will be eaved, if the pupil be<br />
accustomed to my every thing necessary to be said, st once, without wait·<br />
ing to have each particnlar drawn from him by a question-to say it in<br />
the shortest possible manner-and also to say the same things always in<br />
the same order. Every teacher will of course select that order which he<br />
prefers. The order here directed may perhaps be acceptable to most<br />
teachers (182).<br />
180. As it makes no difference in the construction of a sentence, whether<br />
a noun be proper or common, there seems to be little or no advantage in<br />
mentioning this distinction in parsing. Some accordingly omit this, as<br />
well as person in parsing, for the sake of brevity-an object worthy of con·<br />
sideration in a large school, where economy of time is important. Or, when<br />
a proper noun occurs, which is comparatively seldom, it may be mentioned,<br />
taking it always fOI" granted that a noun is common when not otherwise<br />
mentioned. This appears to be sufficient for every purpose.<br />
PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
181. In proceeding to parse the noun, the teacher. if he thinks proper,<br />
may begin by some such inductive process as the following: The class<br />
having gone through the preceding definitions and rules, the teacher may<br />
call on some one to mention the NAME of any thing he sees or happens to<br />
think of; and suppose he mentions the words hOZlse, tree, book, desk,pen,<br />
&c, let these words be .written on the black~lOard: . He may til en call on<br />
a.nother, and !LDother. lD the. sam~ way, ~tlll ,,:ntlDg the names as men.<br />
tlOned. In thiS way the pupils WIll furDl~h a hst of exercises for them.<br />
selves. The teacher may then take the first of these .. house" and write<br />
it by ~tself on the bo~rd, at the left hand, and pr~ceed with some such<br />
q~estlOns as the fO.lloWlDg, the auswers to which, from what has been pre.<br />
vlously learned, Will be obvious, and readily given;-<br />
Is HOUSE the name of any thing ¥<br />
What part of speech is the name of a thing i<br />
Then, what part of speech is House? AnB. ".11 noun."<br />
(After the word house on the board now write the word "noUII.")<br />
What is a noun I-How many kinds of uouns are there'<br />
What is a proper noun ?-what a common noun'<br />
Is the word house proper or common' Ans. COlllmon. Why ,<br />
(Then after the word "noun" write the WOld common as before)<br />
What are the properties or accidents of the noun"<br />
•<br />
What is gender '-How many genders are there r
ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS. 35<br />
What nouns are masculine I-what feminine I-what neuter j<br />
To which of these does the word house belong 1 Ans. Neuter. Why 1<br />
(Then write the word neuter after common, as above.)<br />
What is the next propertv of the noun I<br />
What is number ?-How inany numbers are there 1<br />
What does the singular denote i-the plural?<br />
Does House denote onc 01' more than one 1<br />
Of what number then is House? Ans. Sini;ular.<br />
(Now add as above the word singular.)<br />
What is the next property of a lloun 1<br />
How many cases are there 1 Name them.<br />
Declino House in the· singular: iu the plural.<br />
Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentione,l simply as the<br />
nBme of an object (164, 1.) I<br />
Hou3e being used in this manner here, ill what case is it? Aus. In the<br />
Nominative.<br />
(Then write nominative at the end, as above.)<br />
There will now have been written Oil the black boa rei the following:<br />
HOUSE, Noun, Common, Ncuter, Singular, Nomill(l/;ve.<br />
The teacher may then ask, as a sort of revie\v, why do you ca 11 house<br />
a noun 1-why, common ?-why, neutcr ?-why. sin~ "/ccr I-why, the nominative<br />
?-requiring a di3tinct answer to c:\ch question. Alul lastly, he<br />
may requit'e the pupil to state these re3sons in on],>r, withont the questions<br />
being asked; thus:-<br />
HOUSE-a Noun, because the name of a thing;<br />
Common, because it belongs to all things (,f the 301 t ;<br />
Neuter, because without sex;<br />
Singular, because it denotes one, plnral, houses;<br />
Nominative, because it is used only as a name (164-1.)<br />
By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs to<br />
the parBing of a noun will becomc so familial', and eo clearly understood,<br />
as to be always easy.<br />
182. In parsing. these accidents may be stated, either in the order<br />
above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, "A common neuter<br />
noun, in the nominative singular." Others prefer, us giving more p!'omineuce<br />
to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonions, to say, "A noun, common,<br />
neuter, in tlte nominatwe singular; -01' omitting the kind of noun,<br />
except when a 'proper Doun occurs, for reasons eta ted (180), to say more<br />
briel'ly, .. A noun, neuter, in the nominatil'e singular." This last method is<br />
the one here recommended, as being brief and sufficiently descriptive.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. State the gender, case, and number of the following Douns, and<br />
always in the same order; thus, "Father. II noun, masculine, in the nominative<br />
singular."<br />
Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats,
36 ENGLISn GRAl'rIM.A.R.<br />
sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's<br />
born, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, grass, t?oth, tongs,<br />
candle, chair, Jane's boots, Hobert's shoe, horse, brIdle.<br />
2. Go over the ~ame list, gi \'ing a reason for everything stated; thus,<br />
.. Father, a noun. because the Ilame (,f an ohject; masculine, because it<br />
denotes a male; nominatil'e, because mentioned simply os the name of an<br />
object (164-1); 8ingular, because it denotes one."<br />
THE .· ... n TICLE.<br />
183. ~\.N .ARTICLE is a word put before a nOUD, to indicate<br />
the manner in 'which it is used (707 &c.)<br />
184. There are two articles, a or an and the.<br />
185. A or an is called the i,ulcfinile article. because it shows tbat its<br />
noun denotes a person or thing mdcfinilely, or without distinction; as,.d<br />
man, i. e. any man, or some man, without stating which one.<br />
186. Jl is used before a consonant; as, a book; also before a vowel, or<br />
diphthong, which combines with its oouncl t~e power of initial y. or w; a!,<br />
a unit, a use, a cu/artY, a ewe, many a one.<br />
187 . .Iln is used before a vowel or silent h; :)', an ac:c, an hour; also<br />
hcfol'e wOI'ds beginning wi:h h sounded, when l11e accent is on the second<br />
"Y liable; as, an heroic actioll, an historical nceount ;-becfLllse h in such<br />
words is but slightly sounded.<br />
188. "ou.-Tbe primary form of this article is .]n lane). The n has<br />
been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony.<br />
139 .• '.1 or an is ';OIll,:li'Il>'S used in the sense of one, each, tt'try; as,<br />
" Six cents a pound;" "t\\'o shillings a yard;" "one dollar a day;" "four<br />
bun(h'ed a year."<br />
190. R~M~RK.-In tbe ~xpressious a hunting, a fishing, a ;oin;. a runnlllg,<br />
a bUlldm;, alld the like; also, in the exprcsoions, now nearlyobsolete<br />
.. "a JVcdncs:]Il!lS," "a ni;hts," .. a pieces," &c., a :s equivalent to at,<br />
to, 1Il, 011, and 18 tLl be reg-arde,l, not us an article, but as a preposition<br />
(548). In tbe Fame sense, it is used as a prefix in snch words as afloat,<br />
ashore, asleep, abed, &c.<br />
191. The is called tbe definite artick becanse it shows tbat its noun is<br />
used definitely, and ref,,}·, to SODle particubr person or thing; as, the man,<br />
i. e., some particular ma? Ilsc~rtained .01' pointed out. See Syntax (707-2).<br />
192. NOTE,-Tbe artICle IS sometimes saill to limit tbe signification of<br />
a noun, 1lI~(1 is thcrcfurc c:llled !l- ., definitive." This is scarcely correct.<br />
A noun With a or an prefixed, IS always used in an individual sense to<br />
denote olle of a cla~s. But this being for the most part sufficiently i~di-
ETYMOLOGY-ARTICLE. 37<br />
eated by the singular number, the use of the article to mark the inuiviullal<br />
is necessary only in the few cases in which the noun, in the singular num·<br />
bel', is used in a generic, as well as individual sense. Thus, the terms man,<br />
woman, oak, &c., without an article, mean the 6p(cic.~; bllt with a or an<br />
prefixed, they mean the individual; as, a man, a lOoman, ah oak. So far<br />
only can a or an properly be said to limit, or perform the part of a defini·<br />
tive. In other respects, it rather shows the want of limitation.<br />
193. In like mauner, the article the communly indicates that its nOllU is<br />
limited. anci refers to some pat ticular person or thiug, but still the article<br />
is not the limiting word.· A noun may be limiteu in a nriety of ways; by<br />
notoriety or eminence, by previous mention, by an adjective, a possessive,<br />
a relative clause, a preposition and its cuse, &c.; but never by tbe article,<br />
except perhaps in the case of previous mention, nnu even that is doubtful.<br />
Thus, when we say, .. The red book," "the boy'.1 book," "the !Jnok !Vhich<br />
we lost," " the book on the table," we perceive that the word book, follow·<br />
ing the, is limited-not., however, by the article, but by the words red, boy'S,<br />
&c. This fact constitutes a specifie difference between tne article and the<br />
adjective: the adjecth·e al!Vays descTibc.~ or limits its noun (195); lite arti·<br />
cle does not, but is only a sort ot inucx, to give previous uotice that the<br />
nonn is used in a particular way.<br />
194. P ARSING.-The article is parsed by stating whether<br />
it is definite or indefinite, and to what noun it belongs;<br />
thus, "A book." A is the indefinite article, and belongs<br />
to book.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
Is it proper to say-a man, or an man? why?<br />
a apple, or an apple? why?<br />
a house, or au house? why?<br />
a hour, or an hour? why?<br />
a unicorn, or an unicorn? why?<br />
a ewe, or an ewe? why?<br />
1. Prefix t.he indefinite article a or an correctly to the following words.<br />
2. Tell wh:ch words nre nouns, and why-parse them (177)-decline<br />
them.<br />
Chair, table, horse, cart, boek, house, garden, bird, owl, egg,<br />
ear, eye, tree, cow, unit; use, old man, young man, word, hook,<br />
pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, uncle, aunt;<br />
open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, old bat.<br />
3. In the following, correct such as are wroug, and give a reason (or the<br />
change ;-parse the articles and nouns.<br />
An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, an<br />
wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a ostrich, a<br />
pen-a ugly beast, a useful tree, an humming-bird, an neat<br />
cottage, a upper room, au huge monster.
38<br />
THE ~\DJECTIYE.<br />
195. AN ADJECTIVE is a word used to qualify a substantive<br />
(IOD); as, "A good boy;" "a square box;"<br />
"ten dollar~;" "we found him poor."<br />
196. A noun is qlUdfied by an adjective. when the object named is<br />
thereby JescrilJcd, lill/ited, "1' di.\lingui.hed from other things of the Bame<br />
name. Thi; is done two ways:-<br />
1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by which<br />
the objects nallled are descrillcd or distinguished from others of the same<br />
kind; as, "A red tl,,~;" "an amusing story." Such are common and participi(ll<br />
adjectil'es (~{'~).<br />
2. Others merely limit. without expressing any quality; as," An Amer·<br />
ican book ~IJ "ten dollars ;" "last w€:ek;" H tltis yetlr;" "every day," &c.<br />
~uch are circlt1llstautial, numeral, and definitive adjectives (202).<br />
197. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive mood, or clause<br />
of a sentence used as a substantive; as, "Tv play is p[easallt."-" That the<br />
,.ieh aTC happy is not always Irw."<br />
198. Several adjecti \'C3 sometimes qualify tte same noun; as, .. A<br />
smooth. 1'ound stone."<br />
199. An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of another<br />
adjective, the two formillg a sort of compound acljccti,e; as, .. A briglttTed<br />
color;" "a dark·blue coat;" "a cast-iron ball."<br />
200. 'When otber parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun<br />
or pronoun, they perform the part of an adjective, and ~hould be parsed<br />
as such; thus,<br />
Xoun; as, "\ gold ring; sill'fI' cup, sea water, a slone bridge.<br />
Pronouns; as, A Ite bear; a she wolf.<br />
Adverbs; as, h the child well? for very age; the then killg.<br />
Prepositions; as, The above remark; the under side.<br />
201. On the contrary, adjectiHs without a substantive are sometimes<br />
used as nouns; as, "God rewards the good, and punishes the bad. "-" The<br />
lJirtuou,. are the most happy." AdjectiYCs used in this way are usually<br />
preceded by tltc, and when applied to persolls, arc for the most part con·<br />
Bid cred pI ural.<br />
DIVISlnx OF ADJECTIVES.<br />
202. Adjectil'es are sometimcs t..lividi!d iuto the following~classcs, viz. :<br />
l. Common, which exp"ess quality; as, good, bad, 8weet, &c.<br />
2. Ci rwmstanti.al, '" hich expres.s circumstanccs of time, place, uatiou,<br />
&c.; as, da!!,II. eastern. Engllslt, American. J:c. ' -, -, _ ."_': ..<br />
3. K1tmer~l •. which e:,p~ess numbe~;. as, one. two, tlzTee .. first, sccond, &c.<br />
4. Partzczpaal, .CO~8Ist\Dg of .,partIClplcs: 01' com~?unt..ls of participles<br />
used as adJectives; ~L'. Au amu5wg story; "an unmerited rebuke<br />
i" "to pass unmolested." Some add~
ETYMOLOGY-ADJECTIVES. 39<br />
5. ])efinitive, ,,:hic~ do not .expr~ss an! property of an object, but<br />
merely pOlDt. It out, or limit In vanous ways tbe meaning of tbe<br />
noun. '1'0 this class Lelong such words as this, that, eaclt, every,<br />
8?me, boOt, &c.. Tbese sometimes accompany Ibe noun, and "Ollletimes<br />
refer to It understood, or stand instead of it, after the manner<br />
of pronl)uns, and hence are sometimes called Pronominal adjectives<br />
and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.) ,<br />
203. Tbis classification of adjectives, however, is of but littJoe <strong>practical</strong><br />
use, as adjectives of all classes are used in the same way.<br />
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.<br />
204. Adjectives expressing number are called Numeral<br />
adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and<br />
Ordinal.<br />
205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many j they<br />
are one, two, three, four, &c.<br />
206. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a<br />
number j they are first, second, third, &c. In compound<br />
numbers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, twenty<br />
FIRST; two hundred and fiftY-THIRD, &c.<br />
207. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, arc often nscd<br />
as nouns, and so have tbe iuflection and construction of nouns; tbus, by<br />
IID08, by Ims, by fifties. For ten's sake, for twent?/s sake. One and one<br />
are two. Two IS an even number. Five IS tbe balf of ten. Three five&<br />
ARE fifteen. Fifteen IS divisible by three. Twice two IS four.* Four 1&<br />
equal to twice two. Three fourths.<br />
208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable.<br />
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.<br />
209. Common and participial adjectives for the most<br />
part have three forms, called degrees of comparison;<br />
namely, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative .<br />
• In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of multiplyingsuch<br />
a,.q U Twice two are four, twice three are six "-is incorrect. It should be •<br />
.. Twice two is four," &c.; for the word two is used as a singular noun-the name of<br />
a nnmber. The adverb" twice" is not in construction with it, and consequently<br />
does not make it plural. The meanine; is, .. The number two taken twice is equal to<br />
four" For the same reason we should say ... Three times two IS six," because the<br />
meaning is, If Two taken three times is six." If we say, .. Three times one are three."<br />
we make ,. times" the subject of tbe verb. whereas the subject of the verb really Is<br />
•• one," and" times" is in the objective of number (828). 2: 4 : : 6 : 12. sbould be read<br />
u As 2 is to 4. so is G to 12;" not." As two are to fOUf. so are," &c. But when numerals<br />
denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substllntive expresssd or<br />
IInderstood, they must IIlIvc II plural constl'1lction.
'"<br />
ENGUSH GRAM'IfAR.<br />
210. The Positive expresses a quality, simply; a~,<br />
" Gold is heavy."<br />
211. The COllljiarative expresses a quality in a higher<br />
degree in one object than in another, or in<br />
several taken together; as, "Gold is heavier<br />
than silver." "He is wiser than his teachers."<br />
212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object<br />
in the highest degree compared with several<br />
others; as, "Gold is the most precious of the<br />
metals."<br />
213. REMARK.-Thc supetlntive degree, when m1de by prefixing the<br />
:ulverb most, is "ften used to express a very high degree of a quality in an<br />
object, without directly comparing it with othcrs; as, "He is a most distinguished<br />
m~n." Thus used, it is called tlte 8uperlative of eminence, and<br />
commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular; and is without<br />
an article, if the noun is plural. The same thing is expressed by prefixing<br />
the adverb .Jery, exceedingly, &c.; as, c, a ver!! distinguished man j"<br />
"very distillguished men." The superlative of comparison commonly has<br />
tlt~ before it.<br />
RULES FOR OOMPARIEO~.<br />
214. RULE 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the comparative<br />
by adding er to the positive, and the superlative<br />
by adding est,- as, sweet, su'ceter, sweetest.<br />
Words ending in e mute, drop • before er and est; as, large, lal'ger,<br />
iar[Jfst (68.)<br />
215. RULE 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are<br />
commonly prepared by prefixing more and most to the<br />
positive; as, IlWllerOUs, more 1lumerous, most nllmerous.<br />
216. RE~!ARK.-Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, yet<br />
adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er and est;<br />
as, " Our tenderest cares j" " The commonest materials," and some adjectives<br />
of one syllable, as, wise, apt,fit,
ETYMOLOGY-ADJECTIVES. 41<br />
l~s8 and least to the positivI); as, sweet, less sweet, least sweet. This, by way<br />
of distinction, is sometimes called the compari"on of diminution, or comparison<br />
descending.<br />
218. The meaning of the p02itive is sometimes diminished without employing<br />
comparison, by annexing the syllable is"; as, white, whitish;<br />
black, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also<br />
yarious shades, degrees, or modificatious of quality are frequently expressed<br />
by connecting with the adjective such words as rather, 80mewhat,<br />
slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, &c., Rnd, in the comparative and superlative,<br />
by such words fiS much,far, altogether, by far, &c.<br />
219. Such adjectives as, ,uperior, inferior, exterior inttrior, &Ce., though<br />
derived from Latin comparatives, and inyolving the idea of comparison,<br />
are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than such<br />
words as preferable, p!'evious, &c. They have neithcr the form nor the<br />
construction of the comparative (963-2.)<br />
IRREGULAR COMPARISON.<br />
220. The follow ing adjectives are compared irregularly,<br />
viz.<br />
Positive.<br />
Good<br />
Bad, evil, O/' ill<br />
Little<br />
Much 01' many<br />
Late<br />
Near<br />
Far<br />
Forth (obsolete)<br />
Fore<br />
Old<br />
Oomparative,<br />
better<br />
worse<br />
less (somctilllcS lesser)<br />
more<br />
later (i ITcgllla r, lattcr)<br />
nearer<br />
farther<br />
further<br />
former<br />
older 01' elder<br />
Superlative.<br />
best<br />
worst<br />
least<br />
most<br />
latest or last<br />
nearest or ncxt<br />
farthest<br />
furthest<br />
foremost or first<br />
ohlcst 01' elucst<br />
221. Afuch, is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to things<br />
that are numbered; more andm08f, to both. Farther and farthest gencr·<br />
ally denote place or distance; as, " The farther they went, the more iutcr'<br />
eating was the scene; further and furthest refer to quantity or addition;<br />
aB, "I have nothing further to say." Older and oldest are applied to<br />
perBons or things, and refer to age or duration; fl', " Homer is an older<br />
poet than Virgil;n .. The pyramid~ are olde-r thall the pantheon." Elder<br />
and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same<br />
family. and denote priority of birth; as, "An elder brother." Later and<br />
latest have respect to time; latter and last to position or order.<br />
222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to the<br />
comparative, and sometimes to the word from which the comparative is
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
formeil ; as, upper, uppermost, or upmost from up; nether, nelhermo.!t;<br />
inner, i1lnermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hinderuwst, or hindmost,<br />
from hind; ouler, outermost, or utm08t, from Ollt.<br />
ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED.<br />
223. "·\djectivcs whose signification does not admit of<br />
increase or diminution, can not properly be compared.<br />
These are-<br />
1. ]o.'llmerals; as, one, two; '''ird,jourth, &c.<br />
2. Proper adjectives; as, English, American, Roman.<br />
3. Ailjcctives that denote figure, shape, or material; as, circular, square,<br />
vJooden, &c.<br />
4. Such adjpctivc, as deride posture or position: as, perperldicltlar,<br />
horizontal.<br />
5. Deji nillvcs; as, each, every, all, some, &c.<br />
6. Ailjectives of an absolute or superlative signification; as, true,perj£cl,<br />
universal, chief, extreme, injinite, complete.<br />
224. REMAltK.-Of these last however, comparative and superlati7c<br />
forms are sometimes u,ed, either to give greater force to the expression,<br />
01' wheu the words arc llsed in a sense not strictly absolute or superlative.<br />
The following arc eX!lll1ple.':<br />
Extreme.- u The ext rem est of e\'ils."-Bacon. "The e.rire,,,est verge."<br />
-Shaks. "His extrcmest st,ate."-Spellcer. [SlJ in Greek IrrxaTtf,TaTor.]<br />
Chiej.-" O!ti(!~,.\t of the herdsmen."-Bible. "Ohiifest courtier."<br />
Shaks. "First and cltirfest."-JIiltolt.<br />
Perfect.-I> HaviDg" more perfect knowled~e of that way," i.e., knowledge<br />
near~r to perfection.-Bibie. ~u." The most perfect society."<br />
E. Everett. "Less perfect imit.1tiuns."-Macaulay.<br />
lJlore complete, most complete, less complete, are common.<br />
225. PARSIXG.-In parsing an adjective fnlly: 1. State its class. 2.<br />
Compare, if admitting comparison (~09), and if not compared, so state it.<br />
3. Tell its degree of cump:lrison, if compared. 4. The noun which it<br />
qualifies. Do this always in the same order and in the fewest words possible.<br />
EXA)lPLES.<br />
U A wise Bon maketh a glad falher."-" Wisdom is more precious than<br />
rubies." -" The slllg;ar,l is ,oi.er in his own conceit., than seven men that<br />
can renuer a reason."-u Blessed are the pure in ht':I1 t:'<br />
lVise i~ a common adjective, cOllljJared by er and est (214), positive, and<br />
qualifies son (196).<br />
Glad is n common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and quali.<br />
fies father
ETYMOLOGY-AD.JECTI'VES • 43<br />
.lIfo~e precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, com·<br />
parative, and qualifies wisdom (705, 4).<br />
n"iser is a common adjective. compared by er and est, comparative, and<br />
qualifies sluggard (196) and (705, 4).<br />
Seven is a nunural adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men.<br />
Blessed is 1\ participinl adjective, cumpared by more and most, positive,<br />
and qualifies men, undcntood.<br />
Pure is a common adjective, compared by er ant! est, positive, and quali·<br />
fies men, understood.<br />
226. ABUREVIATlON.-This process may be abbreviated without loss, by<br />
omitting the class (202), liS of no u~c in Syntax (5S4), and also omitting<br />
to mention the degree of comparison (209), except the comparative 01'<br />
superlative, taking it for granted, in adjectives compared, that it is in the<br />
positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of degree, in IIdjcctives<br />
not compared, would be improper. In this way the preceding adjectiYl's<br />
may be parsed thus,-<br />
IVise is an adjective, compared by eJ' and est, lind qualifies son.<br />
More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, comparative.<br />
and qualifies wisdom.<br />
n"jsCl' is an adjective, compared by cr and cst, comprrrative, and quali·<br />
fies sluggard.<br />
227. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES.<br />
What is an adjective 1 The pupil having given the definition (H)5) in<br />
answer, for the pnrpose of illustrating it, a list of nouns rnay again be<br />
formed on the blackboard as directed (lSI); aIHI supposing the list to be<br />
man, horse, apple, house, tree, book, &c., the teacher may take them up,<br />
each in order, and proceed in some such way as the following :-<br />
MAN.-What part of speech is man? Why? Arc all men exactly<br />
alike I If not, mention some things in which they differ. AilS. Sume<br />
are tall; some are short; some old; some young; some learned; some<br />
unlearned; some wise; some foolish, &c.<br />
When you say, " a tall man, a short man, an old mrrn, II young man,"<br />
what is tbe use of tbe words tali, short, 0[,/, &c. i Ans. They are used<br />
to qualify the word" man," by telling what sort of a man is meant( 19(;.1).<br />
What part of speech Rl"e woros used to qualify nouns 1 Then what part<br />
of speech are tall, short, old, young, &c. ~ Prefix an adjective to each of<br />
the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prefix as many adj ec·<br />
tives to each noun separately, as you can think of, to make sense; thus:<br />
HORSE-a large horse, a small horse. a young bOI'se, &c. What pllrt of<br />
speech is large, small, young, &c. ·Wby 1<br />
COMPARATIVE DEGREE.<br />
Are 1111 men equally lall? Ans. No; some men are taller than others.<br />
When you eay, "James is tall~r than John," in what fqrm or degree is<br />
the adjective taller? What does tbe comparative degree express (217) I<br />
Row is the comparative degree formed' When is the comparative formed
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
by annexing cr? When, by prefixing more? What is the ~omparntive<br />
form of tali, sharf, old, young, &c.l What is the comparalIve form of<br />
ltarned, IInlcarned, (ooli,h, virtuous, &c. 1 Put the aujectives prefixed to<br />
nouns in the li,t aiJ
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 45<br />
PRONOUNS.<br />
228. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun;<br />
as, "John is a good boy; he is diligent in his studies."<br />
229. The nouu instead of which a pronoun is used, is called its antece·<br />
dent, because the pronouu refers to it as previously mentioned, or in some<br />
way understood (236).<br />
230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speaking, to<br />
prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the nOlin. Thus, withont<br />
the pronoun, the above example would read, "Jolm is a good boy; John<br />
is diligent in John's studies."<br />
231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun ; a~, " You<br />
aud lmust attend to OUR duty." See '7:;0.<br />
232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Relative,<br />
Interrogative, and Adjective.<br />
233. Personal Pronouns<br />
the person by their form.<br />
Compound.<br />
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.<br />
are those which distinguish<br />
They arc either Simple or<br />
SDIPLE PERSOXAL PRONOUNS.<br />
234. The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she,<br />
it; with their plurals, we, you, they.<br />
235. Of these, I is of the first person, and denote3 the Bpeaker; thou is<br />
of the second, and denotes the person addressed; he, she, it, are of the<br />
third, and denote the person or thing spoken of (111).<br />
236. The pronouns I and thou denote the 8peaker, and the person addressed,<br />
without previous mention, or even knowledge of their names, the<br />
persons intended being sufficiently indicated by their presence, or some<br />
other circumstance. The pronouns of the third person refer to some person<br />
or thing previously mentioned, or easily understood from the context,<br />
or from the natnre of the sentence.<br />
237. He, she, it, and they, are frequently us~d as general terms in the<br />
beginning of a sentence, equivalent to II the person," &c., without reference<br />
to a noun going before; as," He [the person] that loveth pleasure shall be<br />
a poor man." "How far is it [the distance] to the city?"
46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
238. They is also used in a vague sense for" people," in such expressions<br />
as "They say," [like the French on, or tbe German man].<br />
239. The Accidents of personal pronouns, like nouns<br />
(110), are Person, Gender, Kllmber, and Case. They<br />
are thus declined :-<br />
SrXOlJLAR.<br />
PLURAL.<br />
Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.<br />
1. 111. or F. I mine me \Ye ours us<br />
2. JI. or F. Thou (2·H) thine thee You (:243) yours you<br />
{ ,Must. Re his him They theirs them<br />
n<br />
".<br />
j?('HI" She hers her They theirs them<br />
}I,~('ld. It its it They theirs them<br />
OBSERYATIOXS OX PERSONAL PROXOUXS.<br />
240. In many Grammars, tbe possessive of all the pronouns, except lte<br />
and it, bas two forms, as follows: 1Iy or mine; thy or thine; her or hers ..<br />
ollr or ours .. your "I' yours; Iheir or theirs. According to this nrrnngement,<br />
tbe first form, my, thy, dec., is always used before a noun denoting<br />
the object pUfsesscd; tbe second form, mine, t1line, &c., never before<br />
tbat noun, but only referring- to it as previously mentioned, or evident<br />
from the connection. The possessive ca,e of nouns, is used in both ways.<br />
To this classification there is no importnnt objection; and such as prefer<br />
it may readily adopt it, thougb, for reasons assigned (289), a d'ifferent<br />
classificatioll is bet'e preferred. 1[ine and thine are sometimes used as<br />
possessives for my and thy (293).<br />
241. Some, again, regard my, Ih!/, &c., ns the only form of the possessive<br />
case, and 1IIi1l', thi1le, eYc., not as a possessive case at all, but as a<br />
substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun and tbe noun referred<br />
to together, and that it is in the nominative or objecti,e cose, according<br />
as the noun referred to would be, ill the full expression; thus, .. Your<br />
book is old, mine is new," is equivalent to .. Your book is old, my book is<br />
new." Hence it is inferred, tbat mine is not a possessive case, but a substit'lte<br />
(or ?II!! boole, and the Ilominati,e to is. Tbis, tbough plausible, is<br />
obviously incol'1'ed. If, instead of the pronoun mine, we snbstitute a<br />
noun, that nOUlI will have to be in the lJ
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 47<br />
for my, &c. Thus, we cannot say "ltfine book," but "llfy book ;" but<br />
we can with equal propriety say, "Joh ,,'s book," or "The book is John'8."<br />
See Appendix II., page 2!7.<br />
242. Iu the same manner may be explaiued, the use of the possessive<br />
after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions; thus,<br />
"James lost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning my books.-" A<br />
picturll of the king's." is a picture of (i. e. from) the king's pictures. So<br />
.. A book of mine," is a book of (from) my books. "A friend of yours,"<br />
is a friend of (from) your friends. It is worthy of notice, that though<br />
this use c,f the possessi ve after of, originally and strictly implies selection,<br />
or a part only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection<br />
is, or ever can be, intended. Thus we may say, "That houge of yours,"<br />
•. that farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other houses<br />
01' farms belong to you; and when we say, "That head of yours" selection<br />
is obviously excluded by the sense.<br />
'<br />
243. In royal proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like,<br />
where there is no individuall'esponsibility, we is frequently applied to one<br />
person.<br />
244. Tholt is now used only in the solemn style-in addresses to the<br />
Deity, or to some important object in nature,-or to mark special emphasis,-or<br />
in tbe language of contempt. Ye, the plural (,f thou, is @eldolll<br />
used (excep-t 8S the subject of the imperative), and only in the solemn styll'.<br />
It is sometimes used as the objective for you; as, "Y ain pomp and glory<br />
of this world, I hate ye I-Shah.<br />
245. You, the common plural of thou, is now used 8lso to denote one<br />
persoll, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. This<br />
usage bas become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent <strong>grammar</strong>ians<br />
contend for its being regarded as singular. No a
48 l:NGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
3. It is used in the same manner after the verb to be, in int(.'rrogati fe<br />
sentences; as, .. Who is it!" ,. What is it?" &c.<br />
4. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to such verbs as to be, to hap.<br />
pen, to become, and the like, referring to an infinitive mood, or eub·<br />
stulltivc phrase, which follows the verb, and is its true suLject; a~,<br />
,. It is an honor for a man to cease from strife; i. e., To cease from<br />
strife is an honor for a man. .. It has been proved, that tlte earth<br />
revolves on its axis;" i. C" It, namely, tit at the eartlt revolves on it.<br />
axis, hus been proved.<br />
6. It is used indefinitely before ccrtain verbs, to denote some cause unknown,-or<br />
general,-or well known, whose action is expressed by<br />
thc verb; us," It rains;" "It snows;" .. It thunders;" .. It is cold ;"<br />
., It is h,.t," &c. Verbs beforc "l>hieh it is thus used. are said to be<br />
impersonal (520).<br />
6. It is eometimes used as a mere expletive; ns, "Come and trip it as<br />
you go."<br />
247. Thc possessives, Iters, itB, ours, yours, theirs, should never be<br />
written Iter's, it's, our's, your's, tlteir's.<br />
248. His and its, before a noun, are possessive pronouns; without a<br />
noun following, they are the possessive case (292). Her, before a noun, is<br />
the possessive pronoun; without a noun, it is the objective ease.<br />
CO:'IPnl:XD PERSONAL PROXOUXS.<br />
249. llf.'lself (om'self), thyself (yourself), himself, herself, itself, with<br />
tileir plurals, oursellJes, yourselves, thEmselves, are called Oompound personal<br />
pronouns, Tiley are used in two cases-the nominative and the<br />
oujeclire. III the nominative they are emphatic, and are added to their<br />
respective personal pronuuns, 01' are used instead of them; as, "I myself<br />
did it," "lno,self shall come." In the objective they are reflexive, showiug<br />
that the agent is also the object of his own act; as, "Judas went and<br />
hanged himself."<br />
250. The simple pronouns, also, are sometimes used in a reflexive sense;<br />
as, .. Thou hast l!ewed thee out a sepulchre, us he that heweth him out a<br />
sepulChre on high."-L'iUlc,<br />
251. Ourself and yourself are used as compounds, corresponding to U'~<br />
and you, appliod to an individual; as, "lie ourself will follow."-Shaks.<br />
" You must do it yourself."<br />
252. The possessive emphatic or reflexive, is made by adding tbe word<br />
own to the possessives my, thy, !tis, her, &e. (295); as, .. God created man<br />
in his own image."
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS.<br />
PARSING.<br />
253. Personal pronouns are parsed nearly like the<br />
substantives for which they stand (182). Thus," I love"<br />
-/ is a pronoun of the first person, masculine or feminine,<br />
in the nominative singular.<br />
As an additional exercise, a reason may be assigned for each statement.<br />
thuB:-<br />
I is 1\ pronoun, because it shnds for a noun or name.<br />
perBonal,-its form determines its person.<br />
first person,-it represenh the speaker.<br />
Ma8culine, or Feminine,-it denotes male 01' female.<br />
Nom;nalive.-Bubject (595) of loue.<br />
Singular,-it denotes but one.<br />
254. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
What is a pronoun (228)? What is a personal pronoun (233) 1 In the<br />
sentence, .. John is in the garden; he says it is full of trees," for what<br />
noun. or name, does the word he ptand 1 Then what part of speech is he I<br />
Why? For what noun does the word it stand I-then what part of speech<br />
is itt Why' What other words stand instead of nouns? (Writc a list<br />
of them on the blackboa:d.)<br />
Write sentences, each containing one of these pronouns, ond tell for<br />
what noun it stands.<br />
Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any readiDg.les,oD, or<br />
book, and say for what nouns they stand.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Parse the following list, as directed (253).-1, thou, W(I,<br />
me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them. its, theirs,<br />
you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, it ;-myself, ourselves, yourself,<br />
himself, themselves.<br />
2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sE'ntences, and parse<br />
them; if of the first or Eecond person, state what they designate; if of the<br />
third, state the nouns for which they stand.<br />
James says he is older than I; but I am taller than he.<br />
'rhat book i's mine; take it and read it.-Let them do it themselves.-When<br />
you learn the lesson, come to me, and I ... ill<br />
hear you say it.-They will go when we return.-Thou art the<br />
man.-Your knife is sharper than mine; lend it to me, if you<br />
please, till I mend my pen.<br />
3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain n plonoun in the nominative<br />
o8se-in the possessive case-in the objective case.<br />
4
50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
4. Change tbe following sentences, so that the pronoun it shall be<br />
omitted, and the suLject or thing spoken of shall stand first (246-4).<br />
It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. It<br />
is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that the<br />
cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk.<br />
II. RELATIVE PRONOl'NS.<br />
255. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and<br />
connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it<br />
called the antecedent (229); as, "The master who<br />
taught us."<br />
256. The antecederJt of a relative may be a noun-a pronoun-an infinitive<br />
mood-a clause of a sentence (636)-or any fact or tbing implied in<br />
it; a~, "A king who is just, makes his people happy;" "He that is wise,<br />
is wise for himself;" "He who reads all will Dot be able to think, witbout<br />
which it is impertinent 10 read; nor to act, without whicl. it is impertinent<br />
to tbink;" ,. 'We are bonnd to obey the Dit'ine law, which we cannot do<br />
without Divine aid;" "The man was said tl' be innocent, wltich be was not."<br />
257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Simple and<br />
Compound.<br />
258. The simple relative pronouns are who, which,<br />
that, and 1('lwt. That and what are indeclinable, and<br />
used only in the nominative and objective.<br />
Who is ma~culine or feminine, and which is masculine,<br />
feminine, or neuter. They are declined thus :-<br />
Singular and Plural.<br />
Singular and Plural.<br />
J.Yom. Who<br />
Which<br />
P(JSS. Whose<br />
VillOse<br />
O~j. Whom<br />
Which<br />
259. Who is applied to persons only; as, "The boy<br />
who reads."<br />
260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things<br />
without life; as, "The dog I('hich barks"-" The book<br />
which was lo~t."<br />
~6~. Thi~ r.elative, as in Latin, sometimes,. for the sake of grealel' per.<br />
SPICUlty, bas Its antecedent repeated after It; as, "I gave him a knife
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 51<br />
with au ivory handle, which knife he still has." This construction, however,<br />
is inelegant, and should be avoided.<br />
262. Which is applied also to collective nouns, expressing collections of<br />
persoos, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the pel'80nS<br />
composing it; as, "The committee which was appointed." Also to names<br />
of persons considered only as a word; as, "Nero, which is only another<br />
name for cruelty."<br />
263. Which has for its possessive whose; as, .. A religion whose origiu<br />
is Divine." Instead of "whose," however, the objective with of before it<br />
is more common; as, " A religion the origin of which is Divine."<br />
264. That is applied to both persons and things; a,,:,<br />
"The boy that reads ;" " the dog that barks;" "the book<br />
that was lost" (748).<br />
265. What is applied to things only, and is never used<br />
but when the antecedent is omitted; as, "This is what'<br />
I wanted:-<br />
266. In this example, properly speaking, what neither includes the antecedent,<br />
nor has it understood, in the ordinary sense of that expression.<br />
If it included the antecedent, then what would be of two case. at the l'amc<br />
time, which, if 110t absIlrd, is an anomaly not to be rl'adily admitted. If<br />
the antect'dent were understood, it could be supplied, and then the sentence<br />
would stand, .. This is the thing what I wanted." But this is not<br />
English. The truth is, what is a simple relative, having. wherever used,<br />
like all other relatives, but one case; but yet it has this peculiarity of<br />
usage, that it always refers to a general antecedent omitted. but easily<br />
supplied by the mind, and to whieh belongs the other case in the construction.<br />
The antecedent referrcd to is always the wvrd "thing" or<br />
"things," or· some general or indefinite term, obvious from the ~ense.<br />
When that antecedent is expressed, the relative following must be which<br />
or that, but never what.<br />
Thus," This is what J wanted," is equivalent to<br />
.. This is that which, or the thing which, I wanted." Hence, though it is<br />
true that what is equivalent in meaning to that which, or the thing which,<br />
yet the error to which this has imperceptibly led. viz., that what is a compound<br />
relative, and includes the antecedent, should be carefully avoi(led.<br />
-See Appendix III. p. 247.<br />
267. The office of the relative is twofold :-<br />
1. It is sometimes merely additive or descriptive. and connects its clause<br />
with the antecedent, for the purpose of further describing, without modifying<br />
it; thus used, it is a mere connective, nearly equivalent to and with<br />
a personal pronoun he, she, it, &c.; as, "Light is a body which moves with<br />
great celerity"=" Light is a body, and it moves with great celerity."
52 ENGLISH GRAl\fMAR.<br />
2. It is more commonly restrictive, and connects its clause with the<br />
antecedent, in order to modify or restrict its meaning. Thus used, the<br />
relative with its clause is equivalent to an adjective; as, "Every thing<br />
which has life is an animal"=" Every livin~ thing is an animal." When<br />
used in this way, the relative can not be resolved into and with a personal<br />
pronoun, for we can not say, "Every thing is an animal, and it has life."<br />
268. 'Illf~ relatives who and which are used in both senses. That is<br />
used in restricti ,e, more commonly than in descriptive clauses.<br />
269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pronoun<br />
(303), equivalent to this or these, and qualifies or limits tbe snbstantive<br />
following it (tJ 16); as, c, Which tbiugs are an al\egory"~" These things are<br />
an al\ egory'"<br />
270. In Englisb, a relative must always be in the same sentence with<br />
itH antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connectiou with it. In Latin,<br />
t8e relative often bas its antecedent in a preceding sentence, and connected<br />
witb it by a conjunctive term. When tbis is the case, it shfluld<br />
be reudered into English by a demoustrative, or personal pronoun. This<br />
difference of idiom should be carefully marked by classical students •• Sec<br />
Lat. Gr., 295.<br />
271. In such sentences as the followin~-" Shun such as are vicious"<br />
.. Send such as you have"-some <strong>grammar</strong>iaos consider tbe word as a<br />
relative: in tbe first example, as the nominative to are; and in the second,<br />
as the objective, governed by have. Others, more properly, regard it, in<br />
all sucb sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions as elliptical-to<br />
be supplied thus: "Shun such as [those wboJ are vicious."-" Send such<br />
Q$ [Lbose wbicb] you have."-See Appendix IV. 248.<br />
CO"jIPOUND RELA.TII'E PROKOUXS.<br />
272. The relatives who, which, and what, with eva or soever annexed,<br />
are called compound relatives. They are used instead of the simple relative<br />
and a general or indefinite antecedent; aa, " JV!zosoever committeth<br />
sin is the servant of sin;" tbat i3, "Anyone or everyone who committeth<br />
sin," &c. .. TVhalaer is evil sbould be avoided;" tbat is, "Every thing<br />
which is evil," &c,<br />
273. Like the relative what, tbe compound relatives nre used only when<br />
the indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is expressed the<br />
eimple relative who, which, or that, should be used as in tne prec~ing<br />
examples.<br />
274. It is therefore not correct to say, eitber tbat these relatives include<br />
tbe antecedents, and so have two cases, or tbat the antecedent is understootl.<br />
Tbe snme reasoning that is applied to the relative what (266) is<br />
equally applicable to the compound relatives, only it must be remembe:'ed<br />
that the antecedent referred to in these, and to wbich one of the cases<br />
properl'y belongs, is lliways a general or indefinite term.
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 53<br />
275. In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expre@sed,ei.tber<br />
before or after tbe compound relative, for the sake of IZreater empha'18 or<br />
preci,ion; as, "Blessed lS he, whosoever ~hall not be 0f!en~ed i~ me."<br />
Eng. Bible. "lVhosoever will, let him talie th~ water of hfe. ThIS usage,<br />
however. is now nearly obsolete except with the word whatever; as,<br />
"WhatEver you do, let it be done well."<br />
276. IVhoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whosoever, is now<br />
obsolete.<br />
277. Wnat, whatever, whatsoet'er, whichever, or whichsoever, are often<br />
used befure substantives, as a sort of indefinite adjective; as, "lVhat<br />
money we had was taken away:' "Whatever course you take, act uprightly."<br />
When thus used, the noun is sometimes placed bet wee" what,<br />
which, or whose, and soever; as, "What course soever"-" Into whose house<br />
soet'er ye enter" (856).<br />
PARSING.<br />
278. The relative is parsed by stating its gender,<br />
number, case,<br />
•<br />
and antecedent [the gendpr and number<br />
being always the same as those of the antecedent (742)];<br />
thus :-<br />
"The boy who studies what is useful, will improve."<br />
Who is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and<br />
refers to "boy," as its antecedent.<br />
IVhat is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and<br />
refers to .. thing," or .. that," as its antecedent, omitted: if supplied,<br />
what must be changed into which (266); thus, tbe thin!J<br />
which, or that which.<br />
'j'he pupil may assign reasons for the statements made in parsing, I1B<br />
exemplifi~d (253).<br />
EXERCISES ON THE RELATIVE.<br />
1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column on tbe<br />
left side, nnd write after each its proper relative; tbus, .. The man-who;"<br />
.. Tbe bird-which."<br />
2. In the following sen tenceR, point out the relative, and the antecedent,<br />
or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is aJiditive or<br />
restrictive (267):-<br />
A man who is generous will be honored.-God, by whose<br />
kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, is<br />
eternaJ.-That is the book which I lost.-He who steals my<br />
purse, steals trash.-This is the boy whom we met.-This is<br />
the man that did it.-These are the books that you bought.<br />
The person who does no good, does harm.-The woman who<br />
was hurt, is well.-This is the cat, that killed the rat, that ate<br />
the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built?
54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
3. III each of the following sentences. point out the compound relative<br />
-mention the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the antecedent<br />
in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the relative<br />
(273):-<br />
'Whoever steals my purse, steals trash.-Whoever does no<br />
good, does harm.-",Vbatever purifies the heart, fortifies it.<br />
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them<br />
also.-1Vhoever sins, will suffer.-I love whoever loves me.<br />
Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do.<br />
4. In the following sentences, wherever it call be done, change the relative<br />
and antecedent for the compound relative:-<br />
Bring with you every thing which you see.-Any one who<br />
told -such a story, has been misinformed.-Any thing that is<br />
worth doing at all, is worth doing well.-Any thing that gives<br />
pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure.-Every one<br />
who loves pleasure, will be a poor man.<br />
III. INTERROGATIYE PRONO"C"XS.<br />
279. Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions,<br />
are called Interrogative Pronouns; as, "H7w is<br />
there ?"-" JVhich will you take ?"-" JJ7wt did he say?"<br />
280. Who and which are declined like the relatives (~;jS).<br />
281. In questions, who is equivalent to what person; which and !I'hat<br />
have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, th~y belong j or they<br />
refer to one understood, bnt easily supplied: thus, " Who [what person] is<br />
there 1"-" IYhich book will you take ?"-" '''hat [thing] did he say 1"<br />
282. TVh() applies to persons only; which and u-l",t, to pereons or<br />
things.<br />
283. As applied to persons, who inquires for the name; u'hich, fOl' the<br />
individual; what, for the chamcter or occupation; a~, .. Tfrho wrote that<br />
book ("-" IIII'. W ehster."-"Which of them ("'-,'loa" Webster."-" lVhat is<br />
he 1"-" A lexicographer."<br />
284. The same pronouns used responsively, in tbe beginning of a clependent<br />
clau6e (636), or in what is called the indircct question Ii. e. in a<br />
way whi.ch, in .an independent clause, :would be a direct qlle5tioll), ar~ properly<br />
neuher mtcrro",,,IlI'CS nor relatIVes, but a sort of indefinite Pl'OIlOUOS<br />
(306). This will be best illustrated by an example:-<br />
Interrogative.-" TVllo wrote that letter ('<br />
Relative.-" I know the person who wrote that letter;" that is I am<br />
acquainted with him.<br />
I<br />
Indefinite.-" I know who wrote that letter;" that is, I know by whom<br />
that letter was written.
ETYMOLOGY -PRONOUNS. 55<br />
285. It is necessary to these words being regarded 8S indefinites-I.<br />
That they begin a dependent clause; 2. That they do not ask a question;<br />
3. That an antecedent can not be ~upplied without cbanging the een~e;<br />
and 4. That the whole clause be either the suhject of a verb, or the object<br />
of a verb or preposition.<br />
These remarks will apply to all the following<br />
examples: "I kuow who wrote that letter."-" Tell me who wrote that<br />
lelter."-" Do yuu know who wrote that letter 1"-" Nobody knows who<br />
be is."-" Who he is, can not be kuown."-u Did he tell you who he is I"<br />
-" We can not tell which is he."-" I know not what I shall do."-" It<br />
is uncertain to whom that book belongs. "-" Teach me what is truth nnd<br />
what is error."<br />
PARSING.<br />
286. Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and<br />
the indirect questions, are parsed by stating their gender,<br />
number, and case; thus:-<br />
"Who comes 1 I know not who comes."<br />
Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or feminine in the nomina·<br />
tive singular.<br />
Wno is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pronoun used respon·<br />
sively), ma~culille or feminine, in the nominative singular.<br />
Rea~ons may be assigned for each statement, as I'xemrlified (253).<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, which, and u;hat are<br />
relatives; in which, interTogatiL'cs; and ill which indefinites.<br />
Who steals my purse, steals trash.-To whom did you give<br />
that book ?-What I do, thou knowest not now.-Who you are,<br />
what you are, or to whom you belong, no one knows.-What<br />
shall I do ?-Who built that house ? -Do you know b.\- whom<br />
that house was built ?-Is that the man who built that hou~c?<br />
Which book is yours ?-Do you know which book is yours?<br />
1 saw a book which was said to be yours.-1 know which book<br />
is yours.-What in me is dark, illumine.-W'hat is crooked,<br />
can not be made straight.-What is wanting, ('an not be nUll1-<br />
bered.-What is wanted ?-1 know what is wanted.<br />
2. Write sentences, eaeh of whICh shall contain one of these prononns<br />
In one or other of these different sense~.<br />
IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.<br />
287. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are words used, sometimes<br />
like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like<br />
pronouns, to stand instead of nouns.
56 ENGLISH GRA:'IDIAR.<br />
288. Adjective Pronollns are divided into four classes:<br />
Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite.<br />
289. Adjectives mcd as nouns, or with a noun understoo:l, commonly<br />
take th,) article the before them (21)1) ; as, the young; the old; the good,<br />
&c. Adjecti ve pronouns do not.<br />
290. or the adjective pronouns, the Possessives (291) clearly have a<br />
double charncter. As an adjective. thpy qualify a noun, and as a pronouD,<br />
stand iustead of a noun. The Distributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites,<br />
as adjecti \'eg, qualify a noun expl'eBsed or understood, or they stand ill~tead<br />
of a IlOULl, and thus lIlay be rq~:lI'ded sometimes as adjectivee, and some·<br />
times as prolJouTls. Hl'nce they arc classed by some <strong>grammar</strong>ians as ad·<br />
jectives, alld c"lIed pronominal adjectil'es; and by others a~ prvDUllnl,<br />
I1.lId culled adjective pronouns. The latter classitication and name arp.<br />
here prelerred, because they helVe been admitted into the <strong>grammar</strong>;! of<br />
alm,,,t all languag.·,,; and lJ~cause a change of established nomenclature<br />
is an evil pf '0 sel'iuus a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for<br />
the mo,'t urgent reasons. ::>till, it is a matter of little moment ill itself<br />
which of the,e classifications is adopted. The principal point for the<br />
learner is. to know what words nre adjective pronouns [or pronominal<br />
adjectives], and tbeir characte,' and me; and every teacher may adopt<br />
tLat cla',ificatiou and nnme which he prefers. For the convenience of<br />
such as prefe,' to cnnsidel' them pronominal adjectives, they nre clas~ed<br />
Its ddinitiv~s (20~-5).<br />
POSSESSIVE PROXOVNS.<br />
291. The POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS are such as denote<br />
possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its,-our, your,<br />
their-own.<br />
292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal. and combine<br />
the office of th ... adjective aDd prononn. for they always limit one<br />
noun denoting the ohject pos'essed, und stand instead of anotbel' denotinO'<br />
the p
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 57<br />
295. Own is not nsed as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is add~d to<br />
tbe othp.r possessive pronouns, or to the possessive ca.e of nouns, to rel)der<br />
'he posi'ession expressed by tbem emphatic; a>. "My own book;" "Tbe<br />
boy's own bonk." 'The possessive pronoun, with own following it, may<br />
have its substantive understood; as, "This book is my olen."<br />
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.<br />
296. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as<br />
taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither.<br />
297. Each deuotes two or more objects taken separately.<br />
298. El'ery denotes each of more than two objects taken individually,<br />
aud comprehends them all.<br />
299. Either means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes used for<br />
each; as, " On either side of the river."<br />
300. !I'either means not either.<br />
301. Tbe distributives are always of the third person singular, even<br />
when Liley relate b the persons speaking'. or to those spoken to; liS, " Each<br />
of us-each of you-~acll of them-has his fault • ."<br />
DEillONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.<br />
302. The Demonstratire pronouns point out objects<br />
definitely. They are this, that, with their plurals, these,<br />
those, (692-694).<br />
303. Yon aud which, before a noun, seem more properly to belong to<br />
this class of words than to any other; as, .. Yon trem bJing coward;"<br />
.. Yvn tall cliff;" .. JVhich thiugs are an allegory" ~ .. These things," &c.<br />
304. Jbl1ller and latier, first and last, with the prefixed-though often<br />
used like that aud this-referriug to words contrasted, arc properly aJjectives<br />
(2 1 )1).<br />
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.<br />
305. The Indefinite pronouns designate objects indefinitely.<br />
They are, none, any, all, such, whole, some,<br />
both, one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three<br />
last are declined like nouns.<br />
306. To these may be addeJ no, much, mallY, few, several, and the like;<br />
also, who, which, aud what, used responsively (284).<br />
307. One, del'oting a definite number, is II numeral adjective (205): a~,<br />
" One Illan is 8ufficient." But one, referriDg indefinitely to an individulIl,<br />
is aD iudefinite [Nnoun. Thus used, with it~ nouo following, it is inde-
58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
clinable like the adjective, as, II One man's interest is not to be preferred<br />
to another's." 'Without its noun following, it is either singular or plural,<br />
and is declinable, like the substantive: as, "One is ns gond as another i"<br />
" One's interest is as good as another's;" "He took the old bird, and left<br />
the young ones;" .. One might say." The same remark is applicable to<br />
the indefinite3, other and another.<br />
The expr
ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 59<br />
EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.<br />
1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and sentences,<br />
and parse them :-<br />
·Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own fortnne.-':Do<br />
good to all men-injury to none.-All things come<br />
alike to all.-Your own friend, and your father's friend, forsake<br />
not.-This one, or that one, will answer my purpose; both are<br />
good.-Some men love their money more than their honor.<br />
Everyone of us has his weak points (301).<br />
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES O~ PRONOUNS.<br />
In the following phrases and sentences, poin t ont the pronouns, and parse<br />
them-each as already directed;-<br />
Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is<br />
old, he will not depart from it.-Remember now thy Creator<br />
in the days of thy youth.-He ii:! an object of pity, who can<br />
not respect himself.-Feeble are all thoso pleasures in which<br />
the heart has no share.-You lllay read the lesson yourself.<br />
John and he lost thelllseives in the woods.-You and he may<br />
divide it between you.-You and ~he and I will divide iOt<br />
among ourselves.<br />
EXERCISES ON ALL THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECII.<br />
In the following sentences, point out the nouns, articlc~, adjectives, and<br />
pronouns, in the order in which they occur, and parse them:-<br />
My son, forget not my law; but let thy heart keep my commandments:<br />
For length of days, and long life, and peace, shall<br />
they add to thee.-Let not mercy and truth forsake thee; bind<br />
them about tby neck, write them upon the table of thy heart.<br />
Honol' the Lord with thy substance, and with the first-fruits of<br />
all thine increase: So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and<br />
thy presses shall burst out with new \Vine.-Happy is the man<br />
that findeth Wisdomo-Length of days is in her right hand,<br />
and in her left hand riches and hOlloro-Her ways are ways of'<br />
pleasantness, and all her paths are peace.-" The sluggard<br />
will not plow by reason of the cold; therefore shall he beg in<br />
harvest, and have nothing."-" TLe hand of the diligent mak.<br />
eth rich."
60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
THE VERB.<br />
314. ;\ VERB is a word uSf'd to express the act, being,<br />
or state of its subjoct (315); as, "John runs;" "The<br />
boy sleeps;" "Weare )'" "He is loved." Hence-<br />
A word th,lt expre~ses the act, bein~, or stale of a person or thing. ie a<br />
verb. Thu', we say, Tuns is n verb, because it expresses the act of John,<br />
&c.-See Appendix VI. p, 2.50.<br />
315. The slllject of a verb is tbat person or thing. whose act. being, or<br />
state, tbe verb cxpl'es~es. Tbuo, in tbe precedillg example, "rUllS" expresses<br />
the nct of •. John "-" ,lccIIO," the "tate of" boy,"-" are," the<br />
being oc existence of ., u'p," and" is h,\"e"," the !'tate of "he," as the ohject<br />
aded upon (:169). Iu like mannel'. in tbe sf'lIkIICes, "Let him come;"<br />
.. I saw a man cutting wood;" "let" expl'es-es thn act of thou undel"tood,<br />
denoting the person addreosed-" come," the act of ,. him," and" cutting,"<br />
the act of ,. man."<br />
316. Verbs are of two kind", Transitive and Intransitive.<br />
"<br />
317. A TRANSITIVE verb expresse" an act done by one<br />
person or thing to another; as, "J ame" strikes the<br />
table;" "The table is struck by James" (367).<br />
318. An INTRANSITIVE yerb expre:-;scs the being or<br />
state of its subject, or an act not done to another; as,<br />
"I am;" "He sleeps;" "You run."<br />
319. In tbis division, Trnnsiti'l'e (passing over) verbs include all those<br />
wbich express nn act thnt passes m'er from the nctor to nn object; or the<br />
meaning of which has such a reference to an object, as to render the expression<br />
of it nece.sary to complete the sense; n .... He LOVl:S us;" "I<br />
HEAR you;" .. James I:ESEMBLES his brother j" "He HAS a book."<br />
Intrnn,itive verbs iOl!lude all those which are not transitive, whether<br />
they express actioo or not; n~, .. I am;" "You walf..:;" "They run."<br />
320. These two clas",'s of verbs may be thus distinguished:-<br />
1. Transitive verbs in tbe ncti,'c v(lice, reqnire nn object after them to<br />
complete the sense; ns, "James strikes tbe ta.ble ;"-Intransilive verbs do<br />
not reqllire nn object after them, but the sen,e is complete without it; 8S,<br />
"He sits;" " YUII "ide;" " The wied blows;" "The wheel turns."<br />
2. As the object of a transitive active verb is in the ohjective case, any<br />
verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it, them, after it, is transsiti"e.<br />
A Hrb that does not make senRe "ilh one of these words /lfter<br />
it, is intran,itive; thus, strikes is transiti'l'e, because we can say, .. James<br />
• 'fhe dh'isioll of verbs into transitive and intransitive has bas been so generally<br />
!ldopted and approved by the best <strong>grammar</strong>ians, thnt any discussion of the subject<br />
IS now ullnecessary.
ETYMOLOGY-VERBS. 61<br />
strikes me;" sleeps is intransitive, because we cannot say, "James sleeps<br />
me." Hence-<br />
When a verb in the active voice has an object, it is transitive; when it<br />
has not an object, it is intransitive.<br />
3~ In the use of transitive verbs, three things nrc alwny~ implied-the<br />
actor, the act, and the object acted upon: in the use of intransitive verbs<br />
there are only two-the subject, and the being. state, or act ascribed to it.<br />
321. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive-<br />
1. Wben followed by a noun of the same, or similar signification, as an<br />
object; ns, intransitive, " I run;" transitive, " I run a race."<br />
2. By the addition of another word; as, intransitive, " I laugh;" transitive,<br />
" I laugh at."<br />
322. The same verbs are sometimes u3ed in a transitive, Ilnd sometimes<br />
in au intransitive sense. Thus, in tbe sentence, " Charity thinkellt no evil,"<br />
the verb is transitive. In tbe sentence, " Thin!;; on me," it is intransitive.<br />
323. So also verb~, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they<br />
have no object, aud tbe sense inteuded, being merely to denote an exercise,<br />
is complete witbout it. Thug. when we say, .. That boy reads and writes<br />
well "-" reads" and ., writes" are really transi li ve verbs; because, a person<br />
who reads and writes, must read and write something. y,·t, as the<br />
ilense is complete without the object, nothing more being intended than<br />
simply, " That boy is a good reader and writer," the verbs, as here used,<br />
are intransitive.<br />
324. PRELUIIN ARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
When we SRy, "John runs," what part of speech is John I-Why'<br />
What is the use of runs in the sentence 1 It tells wbat John does. Is<br />
what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thiug 1 What part<br />
of speech are words lhat express the act of a person or thing ~ Vel'bs.<br />
Then what part of speech is rlm.,?-Why 1 Of what is it that verbs<br />
express the act, being, or state' Of tbeir sn bject. Whose act does run.<br />
express? Then what is John to the verb runs? When you say, .. John<br />
runs," does it mean that he does anything to another 1 What sort of verbs<br />
express an act not done to another 1 What kind of a verb, then, ie runa?<br />
If you sny, "John cuts wood," which worel tells what John does 1 Then<br />
what part of speech is cuts? Is it transitive or intransitive 1-Why 1<br />
EXERCISES-<br />
1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs. and whywbich<br />
are transitive, and why-which are intransitive, Bnd why.<br />
The boy studies <strong>grammar</strong>.-The girls play.-Grass grows in<br />
the meadows.-The farmer ploughs his field, and sows his
62 ENGLISH GRAMl\IAR.<br />
grain.-Romulus built Home.-The sun shines . .-The winds<br />
blow.-Tbe tree fell.-Bring your books, and prepare your<br />
lessons.-Have you recited ?-Who read last ?-God created<br />
the heavens and the earth.-Columbus discovered America.<br />
2, W rito a list of nouns, or names of persons or of things, in a colbmn<br />
011 the left ,ide of the blackboanl; write after each, a word which tells<br />
something that ~a{'h of tbese doe8; toll wbat part of speech tbat word is,<br />
and wby: if a verb, whether transitive or intransitive, and why.<br />
DIVISION OF VERBS.<br />
325. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular,<br />
Irregular, and Defectice.<br />
326. A REGULAR yerb is one that forms its past tense<br />
(415) in the indicative active, and its past participle<br />
(554) by adding ed to the present; as, present, act; past,<br />
acted; past participle, acted.<br />
N OTE,-Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed; 3S, love, loved, loved,<br />
(68). Bee 494.<br />
327. An IRREGULAR ycrb is one that does not form its<br />
past tense in the indicative active, and its past participle,<br />
by adding ed to the pre~cnt; as, present, write; past,<br />
wrote; past participle, 1crittell. ,<br />
328. A DEFE(,TIYE verb is one in which some of the<br />
parts are wanting. To this clas~ belong chiefly, Au:riliary<br />
and Impersonal verbs.<br />
AUXILIARY VERBS.<br />
329. AUXILIARY (or helping) Yerbs are those by the<br />
help of which other verbs arc inflected. They are, do,<br />
have, be i-shall, will i-may, call, must i-and, except<br />
be, they are used only in the present and the past tense;<br />
thus :~<br />
Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must.<br />
Past. Did, had, should, woultI, might, could,<br />
330. Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, beJonO' to<br />
irregular verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parls (354).'"<br />
For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, Bee 4~4, 507,<br />
and 516.
ETYMOLOGY-AUXILIARIES 63<br />
THE USE OF AUXILIARIES.<br />
331. Verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at firet used as<br />
independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb in<br />
the infinitive-the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now is<br />
after such verbs as see, hear, feel, &c. (877); thus, "I can [tol do"-" They<br />
will [to 1 writc"-" We could [to] go," &c. ; and some gramlllarians contend<br />
that they should be so considered still (381).<br />
332. Shall, 1Oill, may, can, and their past tcn"es, should, .,eould. &e., as<br />
auxiliaries. retain the personal {'ndings of the second person singular; thus,<br />
shalt • .,eill, mayst. canst-shouldst. wouldst, mightst, couldsl. But in their<br />
present 1 hey do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular;<br />
thus, we say. he shall, will, may, can-noL he shalls, u'ills, mays, cans. This<br />
will be seen by thei,' use in the iuflection of verbs.<br />
333. Do is used 8S an auxiliur.y in the present tl'll~e, all,1 did in the past,<br />
to render the expre-sion emphatic; as, "I do love"-" I did lo"e." Also<br />
when the verb in these tense' is used interrog-atively, or negatively; as.<br />
"Does he study 1"-" He does not study."-" Did he go 1"-" He did not<br />
go."-Do is used as all aUXiliary in the second person sillgular of the imperaLi<br />
ve; as, "Do thou love."<br />
334. Have is used as an auxiliary in the prcsc1tt·perfect tense, and had<br />
in the past.perfect.<br />
Shall and Will-ShoHI(l and IV0111d.<br />
335, Shall, p,·imarily an,\ strictly. denotes present obligation; and will,<br />
present inclillation, pUl'pose, or voliliuu, from which the futurity of the<br />
act, &0.• is nat.urally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification<br />
is lost sight of, and they are used simply to denote futurity-slill<br />
modified. however, in their U5e, by their primary signification. They are<br />
usually distinguished as follows:-<br />
SHALL and WILL, expressing RESOLUTION, PURPOSE, d:c.<br />
336. lVill denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclinll/ion, of a person,<br />
in reference to his own act.; Rnd shall, his purpose, &c.. in reference to<br />
the acts of olhers over whom be bas authority or power. As the pUl'pOSC<br />
expressed may be that of the speaker, of the penon addressed, or of the<br />
person spoken of, hence will arise the three following forms, viz.:-<br />
FIRST FORM.-Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my purpose<br />
or intention that-I will write-you shall write-he shall<br />
write, Or, without a preceding clause: I will write-you shall<br />
write-he shall write.<br />
SECOND FORM.-Expressin~ the resolution of the person nddres~ed. It<br />
is your purpose, &c., that-I shall write-you will write-he<br />
shall write.<br />
THIRD FORM.-ExprcEsing the rllSolution of the penon Epuken of. It is<br />
his purpose, &c., tbll.t-I shall write-you sllall write-he (bim.<br />
self) will write-he (anotber) shall write.<br />
The second and tllird forms can not be used without a preceding clause.
64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolution,<br />
promise, &c., of the aubject of th" verb. Thus:<br />
I will go, } {M.!f resolution, &c.<br />
Thou wilt go, expresses 1'hy resolution, &0.<br />
He will go,<br />
His rosolution, &c.<br />
338. Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expl'essed in a more<br />
positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by will,<br />
becan~e in tbis way, the person, as it were, divests himself of will, and puts<br />
him~elf entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a person may say," I<br />
shall go, though much agdiust my inclination."<br />
For this reason, 8!tall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and<br />
more offensive in a threat, than will.<br />
IlIif'l',·ogatit'ely.<br />
339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries in this sense, are used with<br />
reference to the will of the second per,,,n, to whom a question is always<br />
suppose(1 to be addreased, and hence are used as in the second of the above<br />
forms; thus-<br />
Shall I write I Will you write 1 Shall he write I-Equivalent to-<br />
Is it your purpose that I shall write ?-you will write I-he shall write?<br />
SIJALL and WILL expressing Fl"TURITY.<br />
340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shrIll and will is directly<br />
the reverse of what it is in the expression of resolution: that is, will takes<br />
the place of shall, and .hall takes the place of will. In other words, when<br />
a person in reference to himself foretells what is future, shall is used i and<br />
in reference to others, will is used, Thus-<br />
FIRST FOUI.-I tbin); that I shall go-that thou wilt go-thnt he will<br />
go. Or, without a preceding clause: I shalt go-thou wilt gohe<br />
will go.<br />
SECOND FORM.-Y ou think that I will go-that you sl,all go-that he<br />
will go.<br />
THIRD FCRM.-He thinks that I 'rill go-that you will go-tbat he (biro"<br />
self) shall go-that he (another) will go.<br />
341. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as plea,iug. or<br />
repugnant .• sf/all is med wi Ih reference to the fil st person, even when<br />
others are represented as foretelling; as-<br />
You seem to think t that<br />
He seems to fear f<br />
I s/tall recover.<br />
I shall not recover.<br />
Illterrogatit'eiy 1'especiillg the jlltltre.<br />
342. Shall i~ used interrogatively in the first and the second person,<br />
and will in the third; ns. "Shall I arrive in time ?"-" Shalt you be at<br />
home to·morrow 1"-" lI'ili your brotber be thel'e 1"<br />
343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided,<br />
tllOugf" unles3, &c.-the adverbs when, wllile, untIl, after, before, d:c.<br />
and also after w"o.~oever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictivll clause<br />
(261-2); as, "If they shall enter into my rest"-" When he 8hall ap"
JJ:TYMOLOGY-AUXILIARIES. 65<br />
penr "_" There is nothing covered which .~hallnot ),e reveal,.L1"-" Who·<br />
ever ~hall put away his wife."<br />
344. Should, the past tense of shall, and would, the p""t tense of !cill,<br />
are auxiliaries of the past potential; and, in dependent clauses, are used<br />
in the same manner after a past tense, that shalt and ,,·ill are used after<br />
the present or future. Hence, in the preceding exnmplcs (3:::6 to 338),<br />
if the verb in the preceding clause is put in past time, should will take<br />
the place of shall, and would, the place of !Oill. in the dependent clause;<br />
thus-<br />
FIRST FORM.-It was my purpose that I would write-you should write<br />
-he should wrile.<br />
So al>o in the other forms: and when therc is no dependence on a preceding<br />
clause, these words will be used as in the fi,.,t ["I'm.<br />
JJlay, can, 1nmt-m-ight, "(I'lid-to llf'.<br />
345. jJ[ay denotes present liberty or permission; ,'an, prescnt ability;<br />
and nlllst, present obligation or necessity. They are used as auxiliaries in<br />
the present potential, to exprcss these ideas.<br />
346. JJ[ay sometimes denotes mere possibility; flo, "He may write, perhaps"-"<br />
It may rain to·morrow."<br />
347. JJray, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a wish 01'<br />
prayer; as, "llIay you be happy!"<br />
348. Call, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst; as,<br />
"Thou trees and stoncs can teach."-Davies.<br />
349. JJlight and could expres8, in past ti me, the same ideas generally<br />
that are expressed by may and can in the present. They are used as aux·<br />
iliaries in the past potential.<br />
350. lIlight, beforc the subject, is also IIsed to express a wish; as,<br />
"NigM it but turn out to be no worse than this !"<br />
351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, mig/tt is used for may; as, "These<br />
things I say, that ye might be saved."-John v. 34.<br />
352. Combined with have. these form a new series of compound auxiliaries;<br />
thus, shall have and toill have are auxiliaries of the future-perfect<br />
indicative; may have, can have, and must have, of the present-perfect potential;<br />
and might have, &c., of the past-perfect potential.<br />
353. But though may denotes prcsent liberty, may have does not denote<br />
past liberty, but only the present possibility; thllS, "He 11/fly have<br />
written," means, It is possible that he bas wl'itten, So also, mllst have<br />
does not denote past necessity, but present certainty; thu~, II He must<br />
have writteu," means, There is no donbt he has written; it can not be<br />
otherwise.<br />
354. The verb" to be" in aU its moods and ten~es, is used as an auxiliary<br />
in forming the passive voice; as, ., I am loved;" ., He was loved," &c.<br />
(507). Also, in the progressive form of the active voice; as, "I am writing;"<br />
"He was writing," &c. (506).<br />
355. All these auxiliaries are sometimes used without their verb. to<br />
upress, by ellipsis, the same thing as the full form of the verb, together<br />
5
66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
with its adjuncto, when that is used immediately before, either in the same<br />
or in a different tense; thus, "He writes poetry as well 8S I do;" "I can<br />
write as well as he can;" "If you can not write, I will;" "He will do that<br />
as well as I can;" "James can get his lesson as well as ever I cO'IJld;"<br />
.. He envies me as mnch as I do him."<br />
356. Tl1e verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the substitute of<br />
Rnother verb 0\' pbrase previously used; RS, .. We have not yet found them<br />
all, nor ever shall do."-l>Iilton. "Lucretius wrote on the nature of things<br />
io Latin, as Empedocles had already done in Greek."-Acton.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Correct the errors in the following sentence~, an:! give a reason for<br />
the correction :-<br />
I will be a loser by that bargain.-1 will be drowned and<br />
nobody shall help me. I will be punished if I do wrong.-You<br />
shaH be punished if you do not reform.-It shall probably rain<br />
to-morrow.-If you shall come I shall come also. I will be<br />
compelled to go home.-1 am resolved that I shall do my duty.<br />
-I purposed that if you would come home, I should pay you<br />
a visit.-1 hope that I will see him.-1 hoped that I would see<br />
him.-You promised that you should write me soon.-He shall<br />
come of his own accord, if encouragement will be given.<br />
2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which are<br />
wrong, aod why:-<br />
It is thought he shall come.-It will be impossible to get<br />
ready in time.-Ye will not come to me.-Ye shall have your<br />
reward.-They should not do as as they ought.-Weare resolved<br />
that we will do our duty.-They are resolved that they<br />
shall do their duty.-1 am determined that you will do your<br />
duty.-1 am sure you will do your duty.<br />
ANO:llALOUS USAGE.<br />
357. Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in a way which<br />
it is di~cult, p~rhaps impossible, to explain in 11 satisfactory maDDer,<br />
I1nd whICh may Justly be regarded as anomalou,. The following are a<br />
few of these:-<br />
358. Had is sometimes .used in poetry for lIJould,. a~, "I had rather,"<br />
.. I had as hef," for, "I would rather," ,. I would as lief."<br />
Sometimes it is used for fOOPlld have; as, "!lIy fortune had<br />
[would have] beeo his. "-Dryden. Sometimes for migltt·<br />
as, "Some men had [might J as well be schoolboys, a~<br />
schoolmasters."<br />
359. Will is sometimes used to express what is customary I1t the preseot<br />
time:; as, "He will sometimes sit whole hours iD the<br />
shade;" "He 'Will read from morning till night."
E'l'YMOLOGY-VERBS--VOICES. 67<br />
360. Would, in like manner, is sometimes used to express wbat was<br />
customary in past time; as, "The old man lOould shake his<br />
years away;" .. He'd sit him down."<br />
361. Would is sometimes uSEd as a principal verb, equivalent to the<br />
present of wish or desire; as, II When I make a feast, I<br />
wcmld my guests should praise it-not the cooks."-" Wheu<br />
I would t when I wisb to] do good, evil is present with me."<br />
Thus used, the subject in the first pel son is sometimes<br />
omitted' as .. Would God it were even "=" I pray God ."<br />
"Would'to God,"=" I pray to God.'" ,<br />
362. lVould, with a negative, used in this wny, is uot merely negative<br />
of a wish or desire, but imp1i€s strong oppo"ition or refusal;<br />
as, " How often would I have gathered thy children-but ye<br />
would not;" "Ye would none of my reproof."<br />
363. Slwuld is used in all persons to denote present duty, and should<br />
have, to denote past duty; 8S, "You slwuld write;" "I<br />
should Ilavf' written ;" " The rich should remember the poor."<br />
It often denotes merely a supposed future eycnt; as, "If<br />
he should promise, he will perform."<br />
It is sometimes used in an indefinite scnse after III at ; as,<br />
" It is surprising that you should SIIY so."<br />
354. Should and would nre sometimes used to express an assertion in a<br />
softened manner; thus, instead of sRying, "I think him<br />
insane"-u It seems to be improper," it is milder to say,<br />
"I should think him ineaue"-" It wcmld seem to be improper."<br />
INFLECTION OF VERBS.<br />
365. The Accidents of verbs are Voices, Moods,<br />
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons (473*).<br />
OF VOICE.<br />
366. VOICE is a particular fornl. of the verb, which<br />
shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken of, to<br />
the action expressed by the verb (494, 507).<br />
367. Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active<br />
and the Passive.<br />
368. The ACTIVE VOICE (-194) represents the subject of<br />
the verb as acting; as, "JAMES strikes the table."<br />
369. 'The PASSIVE VOICE (507) represents the subject<br />
of the verb as acted upon; as, "The TABLE is struck by<br />
James."
68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
In other words, the verb, in the actil"e voice, expresses the act of its<br />
subject ;-in the passive, it expresses the 6tate of its subject, as affected by<br />
the act. In the active voice, the subject of the verb act8-in the passive,<br />
it is acted upon.<br />
370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the active<br />
or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in certain verbs in<br />
the present tense (509). There is tbe Imrne act, the same actor, and the<br />
Eame object acted upon. The difference is only in the form of expression.<br />
By the active voice, we represent tbe subject as acting; by the passive, as<br />
acted upon-Witb the active voice, the actor in the nominative case is the<br />
subject of tbe verb (760); with tbe passive, the actor is in the objective case<br />
after a preposition (818).-ln using the active voice, the ohject acted upon<br />
is in the objective case, governed by the verb (801); in using the passive,<br />
the object is in the nominative case, as tbe subject of the verb.<br />
371. It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the person or<br />
thing doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, by means of<br />
the two voices, exprtss tbe fact in two different ways; thus, "God created<br />
the worl'l;" or, "The world was created by God." Also-<br />
372. When the active voicc is used, we may sometimes omit the object;<br />
thll~, we cun say, "John reads," without saying what he reads (323); and<br />
when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or actor; thus, we can<br />
say, "The letter is written," without stating by whom.<br />
373. Hence, tbe following advantages arise from these two forms of<br />
expression :-<br />
1. We can, by the 'form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the<br />
actor, or to that which is acted upon-to tbe former, by using the active<br />
voice-" Gon created the world "-to the latter, by using the pll.Ssive<br />
"The WORLD was created Ly God."<br />
2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we<br />
eitber do not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom<br />
the act was done. Thus we can say, "The glass is broken," though we do<br />
not know wbo broke it; 01' if we know, do not wish to tell.<br />
3. By this means, aleo, we ba~e a variety, and of course, a choice of<br />
expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most<br />
perspicuous, convenient, or elegant.<br />
374. Intransitive 'l'Crbs can have no distinction of voice, because they<br />
have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive. Their<br />
form is generally active; os, "I stand;" "I run." A few are used also<br />
in the passive form, but with tho snme sense 8S in the active; RS, .. He ia<br />
come;" .. They are gone ;" equivalent to, "He haa come," "They have<br />
gone."<br />
375. Intransitiye verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and so capable<br />
of a passive form-<br />
1. By the addition of another word: thus, "I laugh," is intrausitive'<br />
.. 1 lauglt at (him)" is transitive j passive, "He is laughed at (by me)." ,
ETYMOLOGY-VERBS-MOODS. 69<br />
In paning such examples, it is generally better in tbe active voice, to<br />
parse the words. separately-laugh, as lin intrunsiti ve verb, and at a' a<br />
preposition, followed by its object; but in the pussive voice, tbey must be<br />
parsed together as one word-a transitive verb, in the passive voice.<br />
2. Intransitive verbs are transitive. when followed by a nonn of similar<br />
signification as the object; as, intransitive, " I run;" transitive, active" I<br />
run a race;" passive, " A race is run by me."<br />
3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a callsfltive sense;<br />
that is, when they denote the causing of that act or state which the verb<br />
properly expresses; as, " Walk your horse round thc Yllrd."-" The pro·<br />
prietors run a stage·eoach daily." Passively, "Your horse was walked<br />
[made to walk] round the yard."-" A stage·coach i8 Tim [made to run]<br />
daily by the proprietors." Intransitive verbs, used in this way, are called<br />
CAUSATIVES.<br />
4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English,<br />
are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, bnt for which the passive<br />
will not IIlwllys be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field plol/glts<br />
well "-" These lilles read smootbly "-" This fruit tastes Litter "-" Linen<br />
wears better than cotton." The idea here expressed is quite different from<br />
tbat expressed by the passive form: "This field is well ploughed"<br />
.. These lines are smoothly read." Sometimes, howeyer, the same iclea is<br />
expressed by both forms: tbus, "Wheat sells readily," or, .. is sold readily<br />
at an advanced price." (ExpressioDs of this kind are usually maGe in<br />
French by the reflected verb; thus, .. Ce champ se laboure bien,"-" Ces<br />
Jignes se lilent aisement.") When used in tbis sense, they may properly<br />
be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are never followed by an objec.<br />
tive case.<br />
MOODS.<br />
376. MOOD is the mode or manner of expressing the<br />
signification of the verb.<br />
377. In English Grammar, the moods are five j namely,<br />
the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctil!e, Imperative, and<br />
Infinitive.<br />
378. The bDICATIVE mood declares the fact expressed<br />
by the verb, simply and without limitation j as, " He is,"<br />
-" He loves,"-" He is lOlled" (494, 507).<br />
379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to its subject the<br />
(lct, being, or ,tale, expressed by the verb, simply and without limitation.
70 ENGLISH GRAMl\fAR.<br />
380. The POTENTIAL mood declares, not the fact expressed<br />
by the verb, but only its possibility, or the liberty,<br />
power, will, or obligation, of the subject 'with respf'ct to<br />
it; as, " The wind may blow "-" \Ve may walk "-" I<br />
can swim "-" He would not stay "-" Children should<br />
obey their parents."<br />
In other words, the potential mood expre,se_, not what the subject<br />
doe&, or is, &c., but what it may, can, must, mig/tt, could, would, or 8hould<br />
do ur be, &-e.<br />
381. The auxiliaries map, can,
ETYMOLOG Y-VERBS-MOODI>. 71<br />
388. The conditionality or contingency, &c., expressed by this mood. is<br />
usually intimated by such conjunctions as if, Iltou91t, lesl, IlllleiJs, 80, &c.,<br />
prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb.<br />
389. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction,<br />
by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative;<br />
as, "Had I," for" If I had"_u Wel'e Ite." for "If he were"-u Had lIB<br />
gone:'-for .. If Ite !tad gone "-" lVould he but reform," for .; If he would<br />
but reform," &c.<br />
390. Some <strong>grammar</strong>ians consider the subjuDctive present only us an<br />
abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that,<br />
the supplfffient may always be made; thu~." If he s/udN." &c.• thnt is.<br />
"if he shall (or .~/w1tld) studN," &c.-'· Though he [.,hould] conw," &c.<br />
This view is plamible. and may apply to the prl'8ent teuse of the ~ub·<br />
junctive in most cases; but it will not apply to the past subjuDctive of<br />
the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we<br />
might say, " If I should be," for" If I be," yet we cannot say, "If I<br />
~hould were;" and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive<br />
form seems to be indispensable; &S," Sec thou do it llOt"-" If he do but<br />
try, he will succeed." Still,-<br />
391. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling<br />
greatly into disuse. ;fhe tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to<br />
use the indicative or potential in i!s stead, wherever it can be done.<br />
According to rule, the Bubjunctive form is used only when it hus a future<br />
reference; a~, .. If he come [viz., at a future time] he will be welcome."<br />
The same idea is expressed by saying. "If he comes" (406), .. If he shall<br />
come "-or, " If he should come "-and Olle or other of these expressions<br />
is now genernlly preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of<br />
supposition, the present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future<br />
refer9nce or not; liS, .. Though God be high, yet hath he respect to the<br />
lowly."<br />
In all such expressions, ace cording to present usage, the present<br />
indicative would be used; thus, .. Though God is high," &c.<br />
392. The IMPERATIVE mood commands, exhorts, entreats,<br />
or permits; as, "Do this "-" Remember thy<br />
Creator "-" Hear, 0 my people "-" Go thy way" (596).<br />
393. The INFINITIVE mood expresses the meaning of<br />
the verb in a general manner, without any distinction<br />
of person or number; a5, to love.<br />
394. The infinitve is often used us a verbal noun (8M, 867) is the<br />
nominative case, as the subject of a verb; as, " To play is pleasant." Or,<br />
in the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or<br />
of a preposition; 8S, .. Boys love to pl(/y "-" He is about to go" -" What<br />
went ye out for to see?"<br />
395. The infinitive mood generally has no subject; yet the act, being,<br />
or stq.te, expressed by it, is referabl~ to some word conneete~ with it.<br />
Thus, in the above examples, to play 18 referable to boys; to go 18 the act<br />
of he, &c.-See Appendix VI. p. 250.
ENGJ.\"H GRAMMAR.<br />
396. But wh"j} the infinitive as n subject has its own subject, it is in<br />
tile objective race, introduced by for; as, "For us to lie, is base." But<br />
when the i ,dinitive wi th its subject is the object Gf a transitive verb, that<br />
suh}:et in the objedi I'C cafe needs no connecting word; as, "We believe<br />
him to be sincere." Here, him is the subject of to be, and the wbole<br />
c1ausp," I,im to he ,illcere" =" tbat he is sincere " is tbe object of "believe"<br />
(8i:2).<br />
•<br />
397. The iufiniti \'C' active by an anomaly uot uncommon in other languages,<br />
is sometimes used in a passi,'c sense; a., "Y Ol! are t·) blame"<br />
(to be LJanwd)-" A ilouse to let "-" A road to make "-" Goods made<br />
to sell "-" Knives to :;rinrl," &c.<br />
TE:cISES.<br />
398. TCXSES are certain forms of the verb, which<br />
serve to point ont the distinctions of time.<br />
399. Time iq Ilaturally divided into the past, tbe present, and th~future<br />
The past includes all that goes beforc th e present; the future includes all<br />
th,t comes after the present; and the present, BtI'iclly ~peaking, is the<br />
Jloint in which the past and future meet, and which h'18, itself, no space<br />
or continllance. In <strong>grammar</strong>, however, the present is not rt'g:u'ded in<br />
this strict senoc, but as extending to a greater or less period of which the<br />
passing instant fOl'n" It part; as, this 111 ament, hour, day, luck, &c. In<br />
each of these, an act, &c., may be expressed, either simply and indefinitely<br />
U9 present, or definitely as completed; and these are expressed by differ~nt<br />
forms of the verb culled tenses. Hence-<br />
400. The tenses in English are six-the Present, the<br />
Prescnt-peljeet, the Past, the Past-pelject, the Future,<br />
and the Future-pclfeet.'"<br />
401. Of these, t.he present filld the past, ill the indicutive mood, und the<br />
pl'po"nt iu the subjunctive, al'e simple tenses, consisting of the verb only;<br />
a~, "I lDl'c "-" I laNd." All the rest are compouud, consistin" of the<br />
auxiliary find the vel b; as, "I hal'e loved." "<br />
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
402. Thc PRE:"EXT tense expressc:" what is going on<br />
at the present time; as, " I {oee "-" I am lal'ed."<br />
'" The past tense ill Engli· .. dl dne's Hnt correspond tothe imperfect in Latin Or Gret'l>:<br />
hut ra~hcr to the Greek .Jlorisl. TIH'l'C' is, therefore, no propriety in retaining tli(:<br />
naill(' 111/ jJel'fcct. The Latill ill1jll'rfl'l't t'UITt' .... pnlld:s precisely to the past-pr(Jr/i'('SS;"c<br />
in ElI!.!:Ii~11 (:illl)). ~(f, al-.;u, the pres('nt-pt'l:tt.'ct does not cor!'espontl prccisefr to tho<br />
Latin pn:t; ct, as tll:lt 1" liSP!! in an indefinite sense. like the Greek Aorist and also<br />
in a dr-tinit.e srnse.likc· tho Endlsh jJJ'('sc)1t-pcrfect. The past-perfect co;rc!"ponds<br />
to the [,Il!perfect ill Lotin. 'l'tIC flllll"e and the fllture-perfect in English correspond<br />
to the tenses of the somCllamc ill Latin.-See Latin Grammar, § 4l.
ETYMOJ,OG Y - VERBS-TENSES. 78<br />
403. This teuse is used also to expreEB what is habitual, or always true;<br />
as, "He goes to church ,,_u Virtue is its own reward "-" Vice produces<br />
misery."<br />
404. It is used, iu auimated narration, to express past events with force<br />
and interest, as if they were present j as, .. Cresar leaves Gaul, crosses the<br />
Rubicon, and enters Italy" (11146, 5).<br />
405. It is used sometimes instead of the present-perfect tense, in speak.<br />
in~ "f authors long since dead, when refel'ence is made to their works<br />
whieh still (>xist; as, .. Moses tells UB who were the descendants of Abra·<br />
ham "_u Virgil imitates Homer j" instead of ,. hfU told," ,. has imitated."<br />
406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before,<br />
if, as soon as, after, till, and al"o after relatire pronouns, to express the<br />
relative time of a future action, that is, of au action future at the time of<br />
speaking, but which will be p!'esent at the time referred to j as, .. When<br />
he comes, he will be welcome" _u We shall get our I
74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
has created the hcal'ens," because reference is only to the act of God at II<br />
certain past time indicated by the WOI ds, " In the beginning."<br />
412. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the<br />
future-perfect, to repl'csent an action, &c., as perfect at a future time j as,<br />
" The cock shall not crow, till thou lta,t denied me thrice."<br />
413. Sometimes tbis tcnse is used iu effect to deny the present existence<br />
of tbat of wbich the verb expresses·. tbe completion; as, "I hat'e' been<br />
young "-meaning, this is now finisbed-" I am young no more."<br />
414. This tense corres;lOnds to the Latin perfect definite.<br />
415. The PAST tense expresses what took place in past<br />
time; as, "In the beginning, God created the heavens."<br />
-" God said, Let there be light. "-" The ship sailed<br />
when the mail arrived." See 913.<br />
416. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and,<br />
howevet· near to the present, it does not embrace it; as, "I saw your<br />
friend a moment ago "-" I wrote yesterday."<br />
417. In such expressions ns "I wrote this morning "-" this week "<br />
" this year," &c., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in<br />
these yet unfinished periods.<br />
418. This tense is used to express what was customary in past time; as.<br />
"She attended church regulnrly all her life."<br />
419. The PAST-PERFECT tense represents an action or<br />
event as completed at or before a certain past time; as,<br />
"I had walked six miles that day"-John had been<br />
busy that week "-" The ship had sailed when the mail<br />
arrived "-that is, the ship sailed before the mail arrived_<br />
See 914, gI5.<br />
420. The sign of the past-perfect is had; second person, hadst. This<br />
tense corre,'pOll(]S to the Lut,in plupelfecl.<br />
421. The Fe'ITRE tense expresses what will take<br />
place in future lilllc; as, "I will see you again, and<br />
your hearts shall 1'Ijoice."<br />
422. The signs of the fnture are shall, will.<br />
423. The FUTURE-PERFE\JT tense intimates that an action<br />
or event will be cOl1lpleted at or before a certain time<br />
yet future; as, " J shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock"<br />
-" He will havefinished his letter before you are ready."<br />
424. The sigDs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have.
ETYMOLOGY-VERB-TENSES. 75<br />
TENSES OF THE POTE';{TIAL ~IOOD.<br />
425. The Potential mood has four lenses-the Present,<br />
the Presmt-perjl'ct, the Past, and the Past-perfect.<br />
426. The Present potential expre-S€B presellt lioui!l. To/nrr, "I' obli·<br />
gation.<br />
427. The signs of the Prpsent arc may, filii, mud.<br />
428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not corre~l'0nd in IHe .. ning<br />
to th
76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
436. The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, according to present<br />
approved usage, has always afuture reference; that is, it denotes a pre·<br />
sent uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed future action (lr<br />
event; thus, U If he write," is equivalent to, "If he should write," or, "If<br />
he shan write."*<br />
437. Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present action<br />
or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjunctively; 'IS, "If<br />
he writes as well as he reads, be will succeed."<br />
438. The PRESENT'PERFECT subjunctive is only the same tense of the<br />
indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as Ii If she have brougltt<br />
up children," &c. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete.<br />
439. The Past snbjunctive is used in two senses-<br />
1. It is used to express a past action or state as conditional or contino<br />
gent; as, U If he wrote that letter he deserves credit, and shonld be reo<br />
warded;" "Ifhe was at home, I did not know it."<br />
2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something present, and im·<br />
plies a denial of the thing supposed; as, ., If I had the money now, I would<br />
pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this way, the verb" fo be" (and<br />
of course the passive voice of transitive verbs) has a separate form in the<br />
singular, but not in the plural, viz, I were, thou wert, he were; for I was,<br />
thou wast, he was; thus, "If my kingdom were of this world, then would<br />
my servants fight," implying, It is not of this world; "0 that thou wert<br />
as my brother," implying, "thou art not."<br />
440. In this way, the Past subjunctive seems to be always used when<br />
the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is placed before<br />
its nominative (389); as, .. Had,t thou been here, my brother had not<br />
[would not have (358)] died."<br />
441. When a supposition, &Ce., respecting something past, is expressed<br />
in this way, the Past-perfect must be used; as, "If I had had the money<br />
yesterday, I would have paid it," implying, I had it not; "0 tbat thou<br />
hadst been as my brother," implying" thou wast not."<br />
442. Though the pas I tense, used in this way, refers to a present act or<br />
state, yet, as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be called the past<br />
tense.<br />
• From this usagE" some gTammarians regard this as an elliptical form of the<br />
fntnre, or of the past potential, in a future sense, the signs shall or should being<br />
omitted; and some have given it as B future. in the conju"ation of the verb, HoweVPf<br />
plausib10 this may appear, from the present prevailing nsag(>, there can be no<br />
donbt that this, so called, elliptical future was formerly considered, and is cven still<br />
used. as a present subjunctive. It is often used when the time is manifestly pre·<br />
sent, and in such a way that neither shall, nor slwuld, nor any similar term, can be<br />
supplied without changino; the sense; and where the Jlresent usage would require<br />
tho present indicative; thus. "Though the Lord be ps, high," &c -Fs. cxxxVlii. G .<br />
.. If thou be [artl the son of God."-Malth. iv. 3,6. 'That which thou sowest is no$<br />
quickened exce»t it die [dies]."-l Cor. XI'. 36- "Whether he be lis] 1\ sinner or not<br />
I know nol."-John ix. 25, &c.<br />
•
ETYMOLOGY-VERB-TENSEs. 77<br />
TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.<br />
443. The Imperative mood has only the present tense, and that has<br />
respect to the time of the command, exhortation, &c. The doing of the<br />
thing commanded, must, of course, be posterior to the command requiring<br />
it.<br />
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.<br />
444. The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the Present<br />
and the Perfect.'" These do not so properly denote the<br />
time of the action, &c., as its state (446 and 449); as,<br />
" To write "-" To have written."<br />
445. In the other moods, the time expressed by the tenses, is eetimated<br />
from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present; as, "I<br />
wrote" (that is, in a time now past), "I write" (that is, in time now present),<br />
"I shall write" (that is, in time now future). But the infinitive<br />
represents the action or state expressed as present, not, however, always<br />
at the time of speaking, but at the time indicated by the preceding verb,<br />
or some other word in the sentence; as, "He wishes to write"-now-tomorrow-next<br />
week, &c. ; "He wished to write" then (viz., at the time of<br />
wishing, now past)-next day-this day-to-morrow, &c.; "He will wish to<br />
write"-then (viz., at the time of wishing, now future)-next day, &c.<br />
Hence the following definitions :-<br />
446. 1st. The Present infinitive expresses au act or state not finished,<br />
indefinitely, or at any time referred to, expressed or implied; as, "I wish<br />
to write"-" I wished to go"-" Apt to teach."<br />
447. The sign of the present infinitive is, to (549).<br />
448. After the verb to be, the present infinitive is sometimes used to<br />
express a future action or event; as, "He is to go;" "If he were to go,"<br />
&c. (876-3).<br />
449. 2
78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
PARTICIPLES.<br />
452. A PARTICIPLE is a word which, as a verb, expresses<br />
an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies<br />
. a noun or pronoun; as, "The man came seeing"<br />
"Having finished our task, we may play." See 494,407.<br />
453. Participles are so called, becfluse they belong partly to the nTb,<br />
and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have signification,<br />
voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the ltltter.<br />
454. Verbs have three participles-the present, the<br />
past, and the perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved, in<br />
the active voice; and being loved, loved, having been<br />
loved, in the passive. See 494, 507.<br />
455. The participles, lakcn by tbemsel'>eB, like the infinitive, do not so<br />
properly denote the time of an nction, as its state; while the time of th",<br />
act, whether progl'essive 01' finished, is indicflted by the verb with which<br />
it is conllected, or by some other word; thus, "I saw him writing yester.<br />
day;" c'I see him writing now jn "I will see him lcriting to·morrow."<br />
In all these cnmples, writing expresses an act present, and still in progre@B<br />
at the time referred to j but with respect to the time of speaking',<br />
the act of writing. expressed in the first example, is past; in the second, it<br />
is present; and In the third, it is future, as indicated by tbe accompanying<br />
verbs, saw, see, will see.<br />
456. The present participle active ends always in ing. In all verbs it<br />
has an acti ve signification, and denotca an action or state as continuing<br />
and progressive; as, "James is building a bouse." In some verbs, it has<br />
also a passive progressive signification: as, "The house is building." Appendix<br />
YIII. p. 25~.<br />
457. This usage, some suppose, has its origin in the use of the verbal<br />
noun after in, to express the same idea j thus. "Forty and six years wag<br />
tbis temple in building;" "And the house when it was in building was<br />
built of stone made really-so thnt there was neither hammer nor axe<br />
heard in the house, while it was in building." In the absence of emphasis,<br />
the in being indistinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be<br />
written, a; ae, " While the ark was a preparing" (1 Pet. iii. ~O), and .finally<br />
to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have in the<br />
expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, &c. Others, again,<br />
suppose that tbis ought to be regarded as an original idiom of the InnguaO'e,<br />
similar to tbe passive use of tbe infinitive active noticed before (3\1'7). Btlt<br />
whether either of these is the tI'ue account of this mutter 01' not, the fact is<br />
certain. It is therefore the duty of the <strong>grammar</strong>ian to note the fact, though<br />
he may be unable to account for it. The following are examples: "This<br />
new tragedy was acting."-E. Everett. c, An attempt was making."-D.<br />
JVebster. "Tbe fortress was building," &e.-lruing.
ETYMOLOGY-PARTICIPLES. 79<br />
458. The Present participle passive has always a pa~sive signifioation,<br />
but it has the same difference of meaning with respect to the time or state<br />
of the action as the present indicative passive (509).<br />
459. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In tbe<br />
active voice, it belongs equally to transitive nnd intransitive verbs-has<br />
always an active sense-forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present·perfect<br />
and Past-Ilerfect tenses-and is never found hut thus combined; liS, "hRs<br />
loved," "had loved," &c. In the passive voice it has always a passive<br />
scnse, and, with the verb to be liS an allxiliary, forms the passive voice;<br />
as, " He is loved;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun; as, " A man<br />
loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the active and the<br />
passive participle will be eeen in the following examples, viz.: ACTIVE<br />
.. He has concealed a dagger under his cloak;" l' ASSIVE-" He has a dagger<br />
concealed under his cloak."<br />
460. The Perfect participle is always compouud (47'1), and represents<br />
an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an<br />
active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense in the passive; as,<br />
ACTIvll:: "Hrlving finished our task, we may play." PASSIVE:" Our ia!;k<br />
having been finished, we may play."<br />
461. The Present participle active, and the Past participle passive,<br />
when separated from tbe idea of time, become adjectives, and are usually<br />
called participial adjectives; as, "An amusing story "-" A bound book"<br />
(202-4).<br />
462. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun (107-3), baving<br />
the nominative and tbe objective case, but not the possessive. In this<br />
character, the participle of a transitive verb may still retain the govern·<br />
went of the verb; as, .. In keeping his commandments tbere is a great<br />
reward;" or, it may be divested of it by inserting an article before it, and<br />
the preposition oJ after it; as, "In the keeping of hi~ commandments."<br />
When of follows the participle, the or a (an) should precede it (899). But<br />
of cun not be used before a preposition.<br />
463. So also the Perfect participle; as, "There is satisfaction in having<br />
done well "_H His having done his duty, was, afterward, a source of satisfaction."<br />
NUMBER AND PERSON.<br />
464. Every tense of the verb has two NUMBERS, the Singular and the<br />
Plural, corresponding to the singular and the plural of nouns and pronouns.<br />
Tbe singular asserts of one; the plural, of more than one.<br />
465. In each number, the verb has three PERSONS, called the first,<br />
second aud third. The first asserts of the person speaking; the second, of<br />
the persou "Poken to; lind the third, of the persou or thing spuken of.
80 ENGLISH GRAl\1!IIAR.<br />
466. The subject of the verb, in the first person singular, is always I,<br />
in the plural, 1l'e; in the second per~on singular, thou, in the plural, ye or<br />
you; in the third person, the subject is the name of any person or thing<br />
spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in its stead; also, it may be an<br />
infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, or any thing of which a person<br />
can think or speak (7G::!).<br />
467. In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the eecond<br />
person, because a command, exhortation, &e., can be addressed only to the<br />
person or persons spoken to.<br />
468. In such expreseions as "Let us love,"-"Let him love,"-"Let them<br />
love,"-phrases by which the fir.t and the third person of the imperative<br />
in some languages are rendered-let is the proper imperative, in the<br />
second person, with thou or ye as its subject understood, and love the infill'<br />
itive without the sign (877). Thus," Let [thou] us [to] love," &c.<br />
469. This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no definite<br />
individual is addressed; as, "Let there be light."<br />
470. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a fir.lt and a third<br />
pe, Bon in the imperati ve; ae, "Confide we in ourselves alone"-" With virtue<br />
f,c we armed."-Hunt's Tasso. "And rest we here, Matilda 6aid."-Scott.<br />
"Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm,<br />
And live the rest secure from future harm."-Pope.<br />
"Laugh those that can, lcecp those that may."-Scott.<br />
471. Such expressions as "Hallowed be thy name "-" Thy kingdom<br />
come "_u Be it enacted "-" So be it," 6:c., may be regarded either ad examples<br />
of the third person ill the imperative, or as elliptical for "May," or,<br />
"Let thy name be hallowed "-" Let it be enacted "_u Let it be so," &c.<br />
472. The injinitit'c, because it usually has no subject (872), has neither<br />
number nor person.<br />
COXJUGATION.<br />
473. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination<br />
and arrangement of its several voices, moods,<br />
tenses, mtmbers, and persons. '"<br />
474. In the active voice, most vel'be have two forms-the Common and<br />
the Prot;ress,,'c, See Appendix VIII., I., 1, p. 252.<br />
is the mskin/'; of tbone cbanges of form which<br />
• INFLECTION properly speakin~,<br />
the verb undergoes JD its several parts; Conjugation is the combining or arran~nll:<br />
of these forms in the several voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, to which<br />
they belong. Both are usually included under the term conjugation.
ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION.<br />
S1<br />
1. The Common form expresses the simple existence of the fact; 8S,<br />
" He speaks "-" She writes" -" They talk."<br />
2. The Progressive form represents an action' as begun, and in progress,<br />
but not completed. It is formed by annexing the, present participle<br />
to the verb" to be," through all its moods and tenses; as, "I alii<br />
writing," &c. (506).<br />
475. Besides these, the~e is in the present and the past indicative, a<br />
third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with emphasis 01'<br />
force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the auxiliary do, in the present<br />
tense, and did, in the past; as, "I do write "-" I did wl'ite:' The<br />
other tenses, and also the progressive form and passiTe voice are rcn
82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
8)OS in Lhe plural, nnd the first and third in the singular, are all alike,<br />
e~cept ill the verb .. to be," in which the form of the singular is different<br />
from that of the plural; thus, singular, was, wast, was-plural, were.<br />
485. The principal parts of the verb are the Present,<br />
indiwtive, the Past indicatil'e, and the Past participle.<br />
In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called<br />
conjugating the verb. Thus :-<br />
Present. Past. Past Participle.<br />
Regular (326), Love, loved, loved.<br />
Irl'c,gular (327), Write, wrote, written.<br />
CONJUGA.TION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB "TO BE."<br />
486. The irrpgular and intransitive vel'b ., to be," is used as a prin.<br />
cipal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and in the progressive<br />
form of the actiye voice. It is thus inflected through all its<br />
mooJs and tenses:-<br />
PRINOIPAL PARTS.<br />
Pr~sent, am. Past, was. Past pal'tit'fpk, been.<br />
INDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESENT TENSE.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I am.+ 1. "Te are.<br />
2. Thou art (244). 2. You are (245).<br />
3. He is. 3. They are.<br />
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Sign, have.<br />
1. I have been. 1. We have been.<br />
2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been.<br />
3. He has beeD. 3. They have been.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
1. I was. 1. 'We were.<br />
2. Thou wast. 2. You were.<br />
3. He was. 3. They were.<br />
• Be and beesf were formerly used in the present indicative: as, "'Ve be true men"<br />
-Bible-for, We are tnle meu.-"U thou beest he."-Milton.-" There be as many<br />
miseries beyond richeij as on this side of thew."- Walton. This uSlIi:e is now oblolete.
ETl'MOLOGY-VERB-CONJUG ATION. 83<br />
PAST'1-'ERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Sign,had.<br />
1. I had been. 1. We had been.<br />
2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been.<br />
3. He had been. 3. They had been.<br />
FUTURE TENSE.<br />
Signs, shall, will.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall be. 1. We shall be.<br />
2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be.<br />
3. He shall be. 3. They shall be.<br />
FUTURE· PERFECT TENSE.<br />
Signs, shall have, l('ill have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall have been. 1. 'We shall have been.<br />
2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been.<br />
3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been.<br />
POTENTIAL MOOD.<br />
PRESENT TENSE.<br />
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I may be. 1. We may be.<br />
2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be.<br />
3. He may be. 3. They may be.<br />
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Signs, may hal'c, can have·, or must have.-Inflcel with each.<br />
1. I may have been. 1. '1Ve may have been.<br />
2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have beell.<br />
3. He may have been. 3. They may have been.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
Signs, might, could, would, should.-Infiect with each.<br />
1. I might be. 1. 'V c might be.<br />
2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be.<br />
3. He might be. 3. They might be.<br />
PAST·PERFECT TENSE.<br />
Signs, might hal'c, could have, would have, should have.-Illfleel with each.<br />
1. I might have been. 1. \\T e might have been.<br />
2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been.<br />
3. He might h&ve been. 3. They might have been.<br />
• Can have as an alUiliary, is not used in ajfirmative sentences.
84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Singular.<br />
l. If* I be.<br />
2. If thou bE'.<br />
3. If he be.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).<br />
PRESE:-:T TENSE.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. If we be.<br />
2. If you be.<br />
3. If they be.<br />
1. If I were.<br />
1. If we were.<br />
2. If thou wert, VI' were. 2. If you were.<br />
3. If he were.<br />
3. If they were.<br />
Singular.<br />
1. Be, or be thou.<br />
PRESENT TENSE.<br />
To be.<br />
11IlPERATIVE MOOD.<br />
I~FIXITIVE MOOD.<br />
PARTICIPLES.<br />
Plural.<br />
2. Be, or be ye or you.<br />
PERFECT TENSE.<br />
To have been.<br />
PRESE:\T, Being. PAST, Been. PERFECT, Having been.<br />
487. All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the potential mood<br />
are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunction before them, thus:<br />
Present-" If I am," "If thou art," "If he is," &c. (386). Present-perfect<br />
-" If I have been," &c. Past-" If I was," &c.<br />
488. The verb to be, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular future<br />
tense, which often expresses duty, necessity. or purpose; as, "Government<br />
is to be supported" -" Weare to pay our debts "-" If we l
ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGA TION. 85<br />
PARSING.<br />
491. A. verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive or<br />
intransitive) its form (regular or irregular), conjugating<br />
it if irregular' (485), and stating its tense, mood, voice,<br />
person, and number, and also the subject of which it<br />
affirms; thus,<br />
'0 He is."-Is is a verb. intransitivl', irmijular-am, was, been-found<br />
in the present, indicativc, active-third person, singular, acd affirms of its<br />
subject he.<br />
492. Besides stating the scveral properties of the verb, as above, the<br />
teacher may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exer·<br />
cise, to assign a reasou for each statement; thus,-<br />
I< Is-a verb, because it affirms being or existence of " He."<br />
intransitive-it has no object.<br />
irregular-its past tense and P3st participle do not end in ed-am,<br />
WlUI, been.<br />
present-it refers to the present time.<br />
indicative-it declares simply and without limitation.<br />
active-its subject is not acted upou.<br />
third person-its subject is spokeu of.<br />
singular-it asserts of but one, " lIe."<br />
As tbis process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often<br />
be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with it, and<br />
prompt in assigning the reasons as above,<br />
SENTENCES.<br />
493. NOMINATH·E.<br />
1. A sentence is an affirmation and must contain a verb, in tho indica·<br />
tive, potential, 01' subjunctive mood, by which the affirmation is made;<br />
and II subject, of which the verb affit'ms. The subject is !!enerally a noun<br />
or pronoun, in the nominative case; thus. the sentence, .. God is gnod,"<br />
conhins lin IIffirmation. The verb is affirms of the noun God, which is<br />
of course its subject, and in the nominative case.<br />
2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain a<br />
fommand ..,cxlwrtation, &c. The subject is that to w hieh the command is<br />
given (117).<br />
3. Tbe subject of a verb, except in the infiniti ve mood, is always in the<br />
nominative case.<br />
4. When that which is amt'med of a subject in tbe Dominative case, is<br />
something expressed by a noun or pronoun aftet' the verb to be, that noun<br />
or pronoun is IIhvllys in the nominative case, and called the predicatenominative,<br />
or nominative after the verb; as, "Socrates was a philoso-<br />
• In parsin:;, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular,<br />
and it is unnecessary, because its being anuounced to be regular sufficiently ascertains<br />
its principal parts. All irregnlar verbs should be conjugated as in 518. Every<br />
teacher, however, will adopt tbe course which he prefers.
86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
pher." Here philosophel' is in the pl'edieate.nominati ve, and expresses<br />
what the verb" was" affirms of its subject, "Socrates," See 796.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. State the tense, mood, person, and number of the verb ", to be," in the<br />
following examples; thus, ".11m," present, indicative, active, firi!t person<br />
singular.<br />
2. Parse all the w('rda. Thus," .11m," a verb, intransitive, irregularam.<br />
was, beeu-in the present, indicative, active, first person singular;<br />
(491), aud the pronouns as directed (253).<br />
Am; is; art; I was; we were; they are; you have been;<br />
she had been; he was; we will be; they shall be; we had<br />
been; hast been; hadst been; wast.<br />
We may be; they may have been; he might be; you might<br />
have been; you must be; they should have been; if I be;<br />
thou wert; though he were; if I had been; though I were; if<br />
we could have been; they might be.<br />
Be; to be; do thou be; be ye; to have been; being; been;<br />
baving been; be thou.<br />
CONJUGATIOX OF THE REGULA.R \~ERB "TO LOVE."<br />
494. The re~'ular transitive verb " To love" is inflected<br />
through all its moods and tenses as follows :-<br />
ACTIVE VOICE.<br />
PRINCIPAL PARTS.<br />
Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle, loved.<br />
INDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESENT TENSE."<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I love. 1. '" e love.<br />
2. Thou lovest. 2. YOlllove.<br />
3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love.<br />
PRESE:'T TENSE.<br />
1. I do love.<br />
2. Thou dost love.<br />
S. He doe' love (01' doth love).<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
1. I did love.<br />
2. Thou didst love.<br />
3. He did love.<br />
1. We do lovt'.<br />
~. You do lo\'e.<br />
3. They do Jove.<br />
1. We did love.<br />
2. You did Jove.<br />
3. Tbey did love.
ETYl\wtOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 87<br />
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Sign, have.<br />
1. I ha.ve loved.<br />
1. We have loved.<br />
2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved.<br />
3. He has loved. 3. They have loved.<br />
PAST TEIISE.<br />
1. I loved. 1. We loved.<br />
2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved.<br />
3. He loved. 3. They loved.<br />
PAST'PBRFEOT TENSE.<br />
Sign, had.<br />
1. I had loved. 1. We had loved.<br />
2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved.<br />
3. He had loved. 3. They had loved.<br />
FUTURE TENSE.<br />
Signs, .hall, u:ill.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall love. 1. We shall love.<br />
2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love.<br />
3. He shall love. 3. 'fhey shalll()ve.<br />
FUTURE·PERFECT TENSE.<br />
Signs, shall have, will have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved.<br />
2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved.<br />
3. He shall have lovad. 3. They shall have loved.<br />
POTENTIAL MOOD.<br />
PRESENT TENSB.<br />
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I may love. 1. We may love.<br />
2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love.<br />
3. He may love. 3. They may love.<br />
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Signs, may have, can have,· mllst have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I may ha.ve loved. 1. We may have loved.<br />
2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved.<br />
3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved .<br />
• Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in a!llrmativ8 sentences.
88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
PAST TE!'SE.<br />
Signs, mi:;ht, would, could should.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I might love. 1. We might love.<br />
2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love.<br />
3. He might love. 3. They might love.<br />
I'AST'PERFECT TENSE.<br />
Signs, might have, could have, ,could have, should have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I might have lovell. 1. We might have loved.<br />
2. Tholl mightst haye loyed. 2. YU\l might have loved.<br />
3. He might haye loyed. 3. They might have loyed.<br />
Singular.<br />
I. If I love.<br />
2. If thou love.<br />
3. If he love.<br />
Cummnn furm.<br />
Emphafil' form.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).<br />
PllESE:-.'T TENSE (435).<br />
Plural.<br />
1. If we love.<br />
2. If you love.<br />
v. If they love.<br />
DlPERATIVE :lIOOD.<br />
Singular.<br />
2. Love, or love thou.<br />
2. Do thou love.<br />
Pluml.<br />
2. Love, or love ye ur you.<br />
2. Do ye or you love.<br />
I:\FINITII'E 1I100D.<br />
PHESENT, To love.<br />
PERFECT, To have loyed.<br />
PARTICIPLES.<br />
PRESENT, Loving. P MiT, Loved. PERFECT, Having loved.<br />
495. PRELIMINARY ORA.L EXERCISE.<br />
Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus :-<br />
When you say, "John loves learning," which word expresses what<br />
John does? What part of speech are words ,yhich express the act of a<br />
person or thing (314) 1 Then what part of speech is loves? Why'<br />
Whose act does loves express 1 Then what is Joltn to the verb loves<br />
(315) 1 Then John is the ~ubject of loves.<br />
What is it said thnt John loves? Leal·ning. What does John do to<br />
learning? Of what class are verbs which express what one person or<br />
thing dues to another (317)1 Is loves, lhen, transitive or intrausitil'e 1<br />
'l'rllusili ve.<br />
Conjugate love (485). "'hat is its past tense I-its past participle 1<br />
In what do they end 1 Of what form are verbs which have the past tense<br />
nod the past participle ending in ed (326) 1 'l'hen is love regnlar or irregnlar<br />
1 Regular-conjugated, love, loved, loved.
ETYMOLOGY--VERB--CONJUGATION. 89<br />
(Do all verbs form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed?<br />
Let ns try. Is it right to say, "I go;" 'Yould you say, "I goed to church<br />
yesterday 1" What would you say! What are those verbs called which<br />
do not add ed to form the past tense and the past participle (327)? Thcn<br />
is "go" regular or irregulur 1 Why 1)<br />
When you say, "John loves learning," does 101'es express a prescnt, a<br />
past, or a future act 1 When a verb expresses a present act. in what tense<br />
is it (402) I In what tense, then, is loves? Present. Why 1<br />
(What would you say. to express the same act as past 1-as future!<br />
Then what tense is loved ?-willlove?)<br />
When you say. "John loves learning," do you declare a fact simply, or<br />
wilh any limitation? What mood declares an act simply (3~8)1 Then<br />
what mood is loves? Indicative.<br />
In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is acted upon' "That<br />
voice represents the subject as acting (368)! Then what voice is 10l'es!<br />
Is J olm representfd here as speaking, spokm to, or spoken of? What<br />
person represents the subject as spoken of (465) 1 Then what person is<br />
loves? Third person.<br />
Does loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one 1 What<br />
number asserts of one (464)? Then what number is loves? Singula~.<br />
496. The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order, thus:<br />
"Loves"-a verb, transitive, ,'egulO1', conjugated love, loved, loved-found in<br />
the present indicative, active, third person Singular, and cxpresses the act<br />
of "John." This is called l'ARSING, in which the eame order of statement<br />
ehould he observed.<br />
497. This may be exte~ded, by giving the reasons of each statement, as<br />
follows:<br />
"LoVEs"-a verb, bec~use it expresses an act of its subject (314).<br />
transitive, because it expresses an act that passes over from the<br />
actor-John to an object leaming (319).<br />
regular, because its past tense and past participle end in edt<br />
conjugated, love, loved, loved (485). .<br />
present,-it expresses what John does now (402).<br />
indicative,-it expresses the act simply (3'18).<br />
octive,-it represents its subject as acting (368).<br />
third person,-its subject is spoken of (465).<br />
sillgular,-it asserts of only one (464).<br />
EXERCISES, NO. I.<br />
Intlect tbe following irregular verbs in the same mauner as the verb<br />
"to \('ve :"-taking care to use the past participle in the compound<br />
tenses (477).<br />
Present.<br />
Go<br />
Write<br />
Do<br />
Give<br />
Have<br />
Past.<br />
went<br />
wrote<br />
did<br />
gave<br />
had<br />
Past P(lrticip/e.<br />
gone<br />
written<br />
done<br />
given<br />
had
90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
EXERCISES, NO. II.<br />
1. In the following exercise, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and<br />
number, and always in this order, thus: "Loves"-Present, indicative,<br />
active, third person, singular.<br />
2, In the Imperative, omit the tense, and say thu~," Love thou "-Imper·<br />
ative, active, second person, singular.<br />
3. In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, and<br />
say thus, " 1'0 love"-Present, infinitive, active; "Loving"-Present parti.<br />
ciple, active.<br />
N. B.-The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to show<br />
its person and Dumber. The auxiliaries ( or signs) are not taken separate·<br />
ly, but always with the verb; so that the two words, and sometimes three,<br />
as in the future-perfect indicative, are parsed together as one word; thu~,<br />
" Has loved "-the present· perfect, indicati re, active, third person, singular.<br />
lIe loves.-We have loved.-He lovcd.-They had loved.<br />
You shall love.-They may have loved.-We might love.<br />
Love tholl.-To love.-You had gone.-They will go.-To<br />
have gone.-W e will write.-They may write.-They should<br />
go.-He has fallen.-You had given.-W e might have gone.<br />
-James has written.-Robert loves to write.-To write is<br />
useful.-Writing is useful.-Having written.-We gave.-<br />
1'hey have given.-You will give.<br />
EXERCISES, XO. III.<br />
THE OBJECTIVE OASE.<br />
498. A transitive verb, in the nctive voice, tells what its subject does to<br />
some other person 01' thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb,<br />
and is in tbe objective case. Tbus," He lovea UR," loves is a transitive verb,<br />
in tbe active voice, and tells what its subject, he, does to us. Us, then, is<br />
its object, nnu is in the objective case. See also 820.<br />
1. In the following exerci"es, tell which words are verbs, and why;<br />
whether transitive 01' intransitive, and why; what is tbe subject, and why;<br />
:lnll if transitive, what is their object, and wby.<br />
2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and<br />
number; tbus, " Loves "-Verb, transitive, regular-love, loved, loved-in<br />
tbe prescnt, indicative, active, tbird person, singular.<br />
He lo,es us.-I will 10'le him.-Good boys study their lessOlls.-Children<br />
love play.-God created the world.-Remember<br />
thy Creator.-Do good to all men.-Forgive your enemies.<br />
He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the Lord.-You<br />
should study <strong>grammar</strong>.-We should read the best books.-Bad<br />
books injure the character. ,Yar makes rogues, and peace<br />
hangs them.-Children, obey your parents.-A good cause<br />
makes a strong nrm.-Show mercy, and thou shalt find it.
ETYl\10LOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 91<br />
EXERCISES, NO. IV.<br />
PAaSING.<br />
In tbe preceding exercises (No. III.) parse each word in order; the<br />
noun, as directed (182); the article, as directed (194); the at.!jective, as<br />
directed (225); the pronouu, as directed (253), and the verb, as directed<br />
(491 or 496). Or, more fully, as an occasional exercise (492 or 497),<br />
tbus ;-<br />
" Loves "-a verb, because it expresses an act, viz., of hc.<br />
tj'(tll~iti('c, because it has an object, 'Its (498).<br />
reg1da,",-its past,tense and past participle end ill fd ;<br />
conjugated, lure, lowl, lo!'cd.<br />
l))'esent, because the act takes place in prese',d time.<br />
indicati ce,-it declares the fact simply.<br />
third pl:l'son,-its subject he is spoke'//. of.<br />
sin~/Hla/',-it asserts of but one.<br />
]l\egati;ve form of the Verb.<br />
499. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after the<br />
simple form; as, .. Thou lovest not;" and between tbe auxiliary and<br />
the verb in the compound form; as, " I do not love." When two auxiliaries<br />
are used, it is placed between them; aR, .. I would not have loved."<br />
500. Iu the infinitive and participle~, the negative is put first; 8S,<br />
"Not to love "_u Not loving "-" Not loved:'<br />
501. The simple form is seldom used with the nf'gatil"e. In the present<br />
nnd past tenses, the compound or emphatio forID is more common. The<br />
fullowing synopsis will ehow the maDnel' of using the negati\'e ;-<br />
INDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESENT. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c.<br />
PRES-PERF. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c.<br />
PAST. 1. I did not love, 2. Thou didst not love, &c.<br />
PAST-PERF. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &e.<br />
FUTURE. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c.<br />
FUT.-PERF. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved,<br />
loved.<br />
&c.<br />
POTENTIAL MOOD.<br />
PRESENT. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c.<br />
PRES.-PERF. 1. I may not have ~. Thou mayst not have loved,<br />
loved.<br />
&c.<br />
PAST. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst 110t love, &c.<br />
PAST-PERF. 1. I might not have 2, Thou mightst not have loved,<br />
loved.<br />
&c.
92 ENGLISH GLAMl'lIAR,.<br />
PFE~E:-n.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).<br />
1. If I do not love. 2. Ifthou do not love, &c.<br />
. IMPERATIVE ~'IOOD.<br />
Si1l!jllltlr.<br />
Plural.<br />
2. Love not, or do not thou love. !? Love not, 01' do not ye love.<br />
INFINITIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESENT. Not to love. PERFECT. Not to have loved.<br />
PARTICIPLE.<br />
PRESENT. Not loving. PAST. Not loved.<br />
PERFECT. Not having loved.<br />
Intcrro!jative form of tlte rcrb.<br />
502. The \'erb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative<br />
01' subject after the simple form; as, "Lovest tbou ?" and between the<br />
auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; llS, "Do I love 1" When<br />
tbere are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed between them; 85,<br />
"Shall I have loved 1 "<br />
503. The SUbjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can uot<br />
have the interrogative form.<br />
504. The simple forlD of the yerb is seldom used interrogatively. The<br />
following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interrogative<br />
forlD .-<br />
INDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
PREsE:>T. 1. Do I love! 2. Dost thou love 1 &c.<br />
PRES.·PERF. 1. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved! &c.<br />
PAST. 1. Did I love 1 " Didst thou l,,\'e 1 &c.<br />
PAST· PERF. 1. Had I loyed ? 2. Hadst thon loved? &c.<br />
Fr'Tl'RE. 1. Shall I love 1 2. "'ilt thou love 1 &c.<br />
FeT. ·PERF. 1. f-Ihall Ihave loved 12. 'Yilt thou have loved! &c.<br />
POTENTIAL MOOD.<br />
PRESE:-IT. 1. May I love 1 2. Canst thou love 1 J:c.<br />
PREi'l.·PERF. 1. Maylhaveloved1 2. Canst thou have loved 1 J:c.<br />
PAST. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love 1 &c.<br />
PAST·PERF. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved!<br />
loved?<br />
&c.<br />
505. Interrogative senl.€nces nre made negative by placing the negative<br />
('ithcr before or nfter the nominative; as, "Do I Qot love?" or, "Do not<br />
I love!"
':TYlIIOLOGY-VERBS-CONJUGATION. 93<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Inflect tU l'erb to love in the negative Corm.<br />
2. Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogati va form.<br />
a. Change the exercises (p. 90) into the negative form, and write them<br />
out.<br />
4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into the<br />
interrogative form, and write them out.<br />
Prog1'essive form of the Active Voice.<br />
506. The PROGRESSIVE form of the verb is inflected by prefixing the<br />
verb to be, through all its moods and tenses, to the present participle;<br />
thus-<br />
PRESENT. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c.<br />
PRES.-PERF. 1. I have been writing.:? Thou hast been writing, &c.<br />
PA~T. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, &c.<br />
PAST-PERF. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadstbeenwriting,&c.<br />
FUTURE. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, &c.<br />
FUT. -PERF. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been<br />
been writing. writing, &c.<br />
NOTE.-Verbs which in the common form imply continuance, do not<br />
usually admit of the progressive form; thus, .. I am loving" (if proper),<br />
would mean nothing more than" I love." Appendix VIII. I, 2. p. 252.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive<br />
form :-<br />
He writes.-They read.-Thou teach est.-We have learned.<br />
-He had written.-They go.-You will build.-I ran.-John<br />
has done it.-We taught.-He stands.-He stood.-They will<br />
stand.-They may read.-We can sew.-You should study.<br />
-We might have read.<br />
2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form:<br />
We are writing.-They were singing.-They have been<br />
riding.-We might be walking.-I may have been sleeping.<br />
They are coming.-Thou art teaching.-They have been eating.-He<br />
has been moving.-We have been defending.<br />
3. Parse these verbs, in the progressive form; thus, .. We are writing"<br />
_u are writing" is a verb, transitive, irregular-write, wrote, written-in<br />
the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form.<br />
4. Change the exercises, No.2, into the negative form; thus, "We<br />
are not writing ;"-into the interrogative form; as, "Are we writing 1"<br />
into the negative-interrogative form; as, II Are we not writing '" or, "Are<br />
Dot we writing lit
94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
PASSIVE VOICE.<br />
507. The PASSIVE voice is inflected by adding the<br />
past participle 10 the verb "to. be," as an auxiliary,<br />
through all its moods and tenses, thus (486):-<br />
PRI:-;CIPAL PARTS.<br />
Present, "\m loyed. Past, 'Yas loved. Past participle, Loved.<br />
JXDICATIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESE:-"I TENSE.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I am loved. 1. We are loved.<br />
2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved.<br />
3. He is loved. 3. They are loved.<br />
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSK.<br />
Sign, have.<br />
1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved.<br />
2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved.<br />
3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
1. I was lovell. 1. We were loved.<br />
2. Thou wast loyed. 2. You were loved.<br />
3. He was loved. 3. They were loved.<br />
PAST,PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Sign, had.<br />
1. I had been loved. 1. 'Ye had been loved.<br />
2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved.<br />
3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved.<br />
FUTURE TENSE.<br />
Signs, shall, will,-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved.<br />
2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved.<br />
3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved.<br />
FUTURE·PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Signs, shall have, 1cill have,-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I shall have been loved. 1. 'Ye shall have been loved.<br />
2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved.<br />
3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved.
ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 95<br />
POTENTIAL MOOD.<br />
PItESENT TENSE.<br />
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved.<br />
2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved.<br />
3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved.<br />
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSE.<br />
Signs, may have, can have,· or must have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved.<br />
2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved.<br />
3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
Signs, might, could, would, shoulrl.-Infiect with each.<br />
1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved.<br />
2. Thou mighst be loved. 2. You might be loved.<br />
3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved.<br />
PAST'PERFEC'r TENSE.<br />
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have.-Inflect with each.<br />
1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved.<br />
2. Thou mighst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved.<br />
3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have beel1loved.<br />
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).<br />
PRESENT TENSE.<br />
Singular.<br />
Plural.<br />
1. Ift I be loved. 1. If we be loved.<br />
2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved.<br />
3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved.<br />
PAST TENSE.<br />
1. If I were loved. L If we were loved.<br />
2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved.<br />
3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved.<br />
IMPERATIVE MOOD.<br />
Singnlar.<br />
Plural.<br />
2. Bo thou loved. 2. Be ye 01' you lo,"o(l.<br />
----<br />
• Oan have as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmati-ve sentences.<br />
t The conjunctions. if, tI.ough, lest. unlelS, &c., do not fontI part of the subjunctive<br />
mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contin;;ency (388). Tbe<br />
pupil may go over the iudicative, as a subjunctive, with one or other of these<br />
j)Onjuuctions prellxed.
96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
INFINITIVE MOOD.<br />
PRESENT, To be loved.<br />
PERFECT, To have been loved.<br />
PARTICIPLES.<br />
PRESEXT, Being loved. PAST, Loved. PERFECT, Having beeu loved.<br />
OBSERVATIOKS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.<br />
508. The passive voioe, in the finite moods, properly affirms of the<br />
subject the receiving of the act performed by t he actor; and in all tenses,<br />
except the present, exprcsses passively the same thing that is expressed<br />
by the same tense in the active voice: thu~, "C,esar ccmquered Gaul," and<br />
"Gaul was ccmqllered by Cresar," express tbe same thing. Hence, the<br />
subject of the verb in the pa8sive voice, is the object of the act, i.e., it is<br />
acted upon by the actor (369).<br />
509. The present-passive has a somewhat different meanin!? in different<br />
verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress-in others, as<br />
now completed. Iu the former, it expresses passively the presellt continuance<br />
of the action, just as the present active does. Thus," James loves<br />
Robert," aud "Robert is loved by James," express precisely the same<br />
thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses not the continuance,<br />
but the reRuit of the act now finbhed, as a predicate of tbe subject; as<br />
"The house is built!" The act of building is here represented not as<br />
continuing, but as completed; and the result of the act expressed by<br />
"built " is predicated of " house."<br />
510. In all such verLs, the idea expressed by the present.passive differs<br />
from that expressed by the present·active; the latter expressing a can·<br />
tinuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in this c1aes of<br />
verbs, can be expressed pas.i..-elyonly when the participle in ing has 1\<br />
passive as well as an active sense (456).<br />
511. There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form<br />
in the active voice, t'xcept where the participle in i'lg is used passively;<br />
as, "The house is building." The form illtroduced within the last fifty<br />
years, and now defended by some <strong>grammar</strong>ians, viz., "The house l! being<br />
built," ought to be regarded only liS a clumsy solecism. On this Bubject,<br />
see 4;)7 and Appendix VIII. p. ~5:!.<br />
EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOIOE.<br />
EXEROISES, NO. r.<br />
Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved, 507.<br />
Prosel/t. Past. Past partidple.<br />
Am commended, was commended, commended.<br />
Am taught, was taught, taught.<br />
Am told, was told, told.<br />
Am placed, was placed, placed.
ETYMOLOGY-"ERBS-IRREGULAR. 97<br />
EXERCISES, NO. II.<br />
1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, and per<br />
son, and always in this order, viz. : "Is loved "-present, indicative, passive<br />
third person, singular.<br />
2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thUB: "Be ye loved," imperntive,<br />
passive, second person, plural.<br />
S. In the infinitive and participles. omit the person and number, and eay<br />
thus: .c To be loved," pr6Ecnt infiniti ve, passive. .C Being loved," present<br />
partici pie, rassi ve,<br />
They are loved; we were loved; thou art loved; it is loved;<br />
she was loved; he has been loved; you have been loved; I have<br />
been loved; thou hadst been loved; we shall be loved; thou<br />
wilt be loved; they will be loved; I shall have been loved; you<br />
will have been loved.<br />
He can be loved; thou mav~t be loved; she must be loved;<br />
they might be loved; ye wouid be loved; they should be loved;<br />
I could be loved; thou mayst have been loved; it may have<br />
been loved; you might have been loved; if I be loved; thou<br />
wert loved; we be loved; they be loved. "Be thou loved; be<br />
ye loved; you be loved. To be loved; loved; having been<br />
loved; to have been loved; being loved.<br />
4. Put the above exercisee, first in the negative form, and then, in the<br />
indicati ve and potential mood, in the interrogative form, as directed (499<br />
and 5(2).<br />
EXERCISES, NO. III.<br />
Change the exercises (page (0) into the passivtl form. Write them out,<br />
and then parse them; thus, c. Weare loved by him," &c. Put each example<br />
in the negative form, and those in the indicative or potential, in the<br />
interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502).<br />
IRREG ULAR VERBS.<br />
512. An IRRi
H8 J.cNGLISH GR ~ ~\"I ,\ ll.<br />
Present.<br />
Awake<br />
Bake<br />
Bear, tu brillfl f(!I'/I,<br />
Be:w, to f(tfr!}<br />
Beat<br />
Begin<br />
Bel1
1!:TYl\IOLOGY-VERBS-IRREGULAR. 99<br />
Prtlent. Past. Past participle.<br />
Dream dreamt dreamt, R.<br />
Drink drank drank, drunk<br />
Drive drove driven<br />
Dwell dwelt, R. dwelt, R.<br />
Eat ate, eat eaten<br />
Fall, be- fell fallen<br />
Feed fed fed<br />
Feel felt felt<br />
Fight fought fought<br />
Find found found<br />
Flee fled fled<br />
Fling flung flung<br />
Fly flew flown<br />
Forbear forbore forborne<br />
Forget forgot forgotten, forgot<br />
Forsake forsook forsaken<br />
Freeze froze frozen<br />
Get, be- for- got, gat gotten, got<br />
Gild gilt, R. gilt, R.<br />
Gird, be- en- girt,R. girt, R.<br />
Give, for- mis- gave given<br />
Go, ~mder- went gone<br />
Grave, en- R. graved graven, graved<br />
Grind ground ground<br />
Grow grew grown<br />
Hang hUllg hung'*<br />
Have had had<br />
Hear heard heard<br />
Heave hove, R. hoven, R.<br />
Hew hewed hewn, R.<br />
Hide hid hidden, hid<br />
Hit hit hit<br />
Hold, be- with- held held, holden<br />
Hurt hurt hurt<br />
Keep kept kept<br />
Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R.<br />
Knit knit, R. knit, knitted<br />
Know knew known<br />
• Hang, to take away life by banging, is resuJar, as, .. The robber was hanged, but<br />
the gown was htfllg up,
100<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Present.<br />
Lade, to load*<br />
Lay<br />
Lead, mis<br />
Leave<br />
Lend<br />
Let<br />
Lie, to reelille<br />
Light<br />
Lose<br />
Make<br />
Mean<br />
Meet<br />
Mow<br />
Pay, jOC-<br />
Pen, fo ellclo~e<br />
Put<br />
Quit<br />
Read<br />
Rend<br />
Rid<br />
Ride<br />
Ring<br />
I-tisc, a-<br />
Ri\Oe<br />
Run<br />
Saw<br />
Say<br />
See<br />
Seek<br />
Seethe<br />
Sell<br />
Send<br />
Set, be-<br />
Shake<br />
Shape, mis<br />
Shave<br />
Shear<br />
Past.<br />
laded<br />
laid<br />
led<br />
left<br />
lent<br />
let<br />
lay<br />
lighted, lit<br />
lost<br />
made<br />
meant<br />
met<br />
mowed<br />
paid<br />
pent, R.<br />
put<br />
quit, R.<br />
readt<br />
rent<br />
rid<br />
rode, rid<br />
rang, rung<br />
rose<br />
rived<br />
ran, r,~n<br />
sawed<br />
said<br />
saw<br />
sought<br />
seethed, sod<br />
sold<br />
sent<br />
set<br />
shook<br />
shaped<br />
shaved<br />
sheared<br />
• Lade. to dip, is regular.<br />
Pa$t participlt.<br />
laden<br />
laid<br />
led<br />
left<br />
lent<br />
let<br />
lain, [um<br />
lighted, lit<br />
lost<br />
made<br />
meant<br />
met<br />
mowD, Ro<br />
paid<br />
pent, R.<br />
put<br />
quit, R.<br />
readt<br />
rent<br />
rid<br />
ridden, ,oid<br />
rung<br />
risen<br />
riven, R.<br />
run<br />
sawn, Ro<br />
said<br />
seen<br />
sought<br />
seethed, sodden<br />
sold<br />
sent<br />
set<br />
shaken<br />
shapen, R.<br />
shaven, R.<br />
shorn,<br />
t Pronounced red.
El'Yl\IOLOG~-VERBS-IBBEGULAB.<br />
lOt<br />
Present. Past. Past participle.<br />
Shed shed shed,<br />
Shine shone, R. shone, R.<br />
Shoe shod shod<br />
Shoot shot shot<br />
Show showed shown, R.<br />
Shrink shrunk, shl'allk shrunk<br />
Shred shred shred<br />
Shut shut shut<br />
Sing sang, sung sun" ,.,<br />
Siuk BUnk, sank sunk<br />
Sit sat sat<br />
Slay slew slain<br />
Sleep slept slept<br />
Slide slid slidden, slid<br />
Sling slung, slang slung<br />
Slink slunk slunk<br />
Slit slit slit, slitted<br />
Smitc smote smittcn<br />
Sow, to scatter sowed sown, R.<br />
Speak, be· spoke, spake spoken<br />
Speed sped sped<br />
Spell spelt, R. spelt, R.<br />
Spend, mis- spent spent<br />
Spill spilt, R. spilt, R.<br />
Spin spun, spall spun<br />
Spit, be- spit, spat spit<br />
Split split split<br />
Spread, be- spread spread<br />
Spring sprang, sprung sprung<br />
Stand, with-, &c. stood stood<br />
Steal stole stolen<br />
Stick<br />
Sting<br />
stuck<br />
stung<br />
stuck<br />
stung<br />
Stink stunk or stank stunk<br />
Stride, be- strode, strid stridden, strid<br />
Strike struck struck, str icl:c 10<br />
String strung strung<br />
Strive strove striven<br />
Strew,* be- strewed strewed, strewn<br />
• Strew and iMW are now giving way to ,trow and shew, as they are pronounced.
102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Prcsent. Pa .• t. Past partiCIple_<br />
Strow, be- strowed strowed, strown<br />
Swear swore, swal-r sworn<br />
Sweat sweat, R. sweat, R.<br />
Sweep swept swept<br />
Swell swelled swollen, R.<br />
Swim swam 0)" S1('nm swum<br />
f'wing s,vung swung<br />
Take, uc-, .tc. took taken<br />
Teach, mis- 1"C- taught taught<br />
Tear tore, f(o'e torn<br />
Tell told told<br />
Think, /'c- thought thought<br />
Thrive thrived, throve thriven, R.<br />
Throw threw thrown<br />
Thrust thrust thrust<br />
Tread trod trodden, trod<br />
Wax waxed waxen, R.<br />
Wear wore worn<br />
'Veave wove woven<br />
Weep wept wept<br />
Wet wet, R. wet, R.<br />
Whet whet, R. whet, R.<br />
"'in won won<br />
Wind wound, R. wound<br />
\York wrought, R. wrought, R.<br />
\Yring wrung, R. ""rung<br />
'" rite wrote written<br />
DEFECTIVE VERBS.<br />
514. A DEFECTIVE verb is one in which some of the<br />
parts are wanting. The following list comprises the most<br />
important. They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary :-<br />
Present. Past. Present. Past.<br />
Can could Shall should<br />
May might Will would<br />
l\Iust Wis wist<br />
Ought<br />
Quoth quoth<br />
Wit,<br />
Wot<br />
wot<br />
Im1Jerafil·e-Beware.
ETYlIIOLOGY-VERBS-DEFECTIVE. 103<br />
515. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now used to signify<br />
present duty; and must to denote present obligation or nece8sity. When<br />
they rcfci' to past time, a change is made in the infinitive with which they<br />
are joined; tilus, Present- H Theee things ye ought to do;" Past_u These<br />
things ye ought to have doue." (436 and 420).<br />
516. TVtll, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the secoud<br />
[·elson singul"l·. They are both without inBection in the third person<br />
singular. Jnll, as a principal verb, is regular.<br />
517. H'i .. , wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now ousolete.<br />
Wit, of the same meaning ancl origin, is now med only in the infinitive,<br />
in the phrase, .. to ]l'ft," that is, .. namely."<br />
518. Beware (properly be and ware, or wary) is now used only in the<br />
imperative, and sometillles after an auxiliary; as, "Beware of him "_<br />
"VV' e should beware."<br />
519. Quoth, to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous language; its<br />
nominative always cOlnes after the verb, aud it has no variatiou for per·<br />
son, number, or tense; as, " Quoth he "-" Quoth they," &c.<br />
To defective "erbs also properly belong-<br />
DIPERSON AL VERBS.<br />
520. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the existence<br />
of some action or state, but refer it to no particular<br />
subject. They are always in the third person<br />
singular, and in English are preceded by the pronoun<br />
it ; as, " It rains "-" It hails "-" It behooves," &c.<br />
521. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, methought ;<br />
meseems, 1IIescemed; sometimes used for, .. Tt seems to me "_u It appears to<br />
m.e," &c.<br />
522, The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its Bubject., is the<br />
substitute of some unknown and general, or well·known cause, the action<br />
of which is expressed by the verb, but which can not, or need not, itself<br />
be named (246-5).<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating why<br />
they are called irregular; also, which are transitive, and which are intran·<br />
sitive and why (320-1);-<br />
Take drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, bereave,<br />
~m, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel,
to!<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
forsake, groW', have, hear, hide, keep, kllo,y, lose, pay, ride, ring,<br />
shake, rUll, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand,<br />
tell, win, write, weave, tear.<br />
2. Take the first three transitive verbs of the prece,ling list; conjugate<br />
and inflect them through ~,Il their moo,)" nnd tenses in the acth'e and in<br />
the passive voice.<br />
EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH.<br />
1. In the following exercises, parse the several words; viz., the nouns<br />
as directed ('~2)-arlic\es as (194)-adjec!jves as (~~5) pronouns as (253)<br />
and verbs as (491 and 496).<br />
[The words in Italics are prepositions, amI the nouns or pronouns follow·<br />
ing them :Ire in the objective case.j<br />
The wind shakes the trees.-Tbe apples fell to the ground.<br />
God created all things.-Tbe heavens are the work of his bands.<br />
-Alexander the Great conquered many countries.-The sun<br />
shines.-Tbe fields are covered u'ith ~rain.-The crop~ are<br />
excellent.-The rivers run into the sea.-A good man 1.'ho"s<br />
pity to the poor (201).-The fear of the Lord is the beginning<br />
ofwisdom.-Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.<br />
-Time flies.-All things come to an end.-A bad man can<br />
not be happy.-Redeem time.-Do good to all men.-Truth<br />
is mighty.<br />
2. Form a list of ten nouns; suy something I'e~pectitlg each: nnd parse<br />
the sentences so forlI!ed, as above.<br />
ADVERBS.<br />
523. An An,ERB is a word joined to a 'l.'erb, an adjective,<br />
or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some<br />
circumstance respecting it; as, " Ann speaks distinctly;<br />
she is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly."<br />
524. An ndverb is generally equivalent to n modifying phras('. or aujunct<br />
(541) of the word to which it is joined. Til"., in the preceding example,<br />
"distinctly" means, in a distinct manne')'; "remarkably," ill a remarkable<br />
degree. So, "now" menns, at this time; "theil," at that time, &c.<br />
Hence, adverbs and adverbial adjuncts are often used indiscriminately in<br />
modifying vCl'b~, adjectives, and adverbs.
ETYMOLOGY-.\ DVERBS. 105<br />
525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another adverb, it<br />
sometimes also moclifies an acljuDct, a phrase, 01' a eentence; as, "I met<br />
yonr hrother FAR from home "_," He will be here SOON after mid·day"<br />
.. \Ve shall go HIMEDIATEI.Y after the mail an'ives,"<br />
526. A few adverbs are wmetimes used as adjnncts of nouns and pro·<br />
nouns; as, I only [that is, I, and uo one else] am escaped alone to tell<br />
tbee."-" The women also were present," that is, the women as well as the<br />
others-in additIOn to the others.<br />
The adverbs uscd in this way are such as the following: Chirjly, parti·<br />
cularly, especially, erltirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, partly, also, Wee·<br />
,cisc, too, &c.<br />
527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs, is called an<br />
adverbial phrase; a~, in short, in vain, in general, at most, at least, at all,<br />
on high.<br />
CLASSIFICA TION OF ADVERBS.<br />
528. Adverbs havc becn divided into various classes,<br />
according to their signification. The chief of these are<br />
the following :-<br />
1. Adverbs of ~fA:-;);EIl; as,justly, bravply, s:Jftly, &('.<br />
2. Of PLACE; as, here, there, where-hither, thtnee, &c.<br />
3. Oi TIME; as, noUl, tAen, when, soon, often, never, &c, (929).<br />
4. Of DIRECTIO);; as, upward, downward, forward, &c.<br />
5. Of AFFIR1IATlON; as, yes, verily, eel·tainly, doubtless, &c.<br />
6. Of NEGATION; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c.<br />
7. Of h'TERROGATION; as, how? why? when? where? whither? &~.<br />
8. Of COMrAIlISO);; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c.<br />
9. or QUA);TITl'; as, much, some, little, enough, sufficiently, &c.<br />
10. Of ORDER; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c.<br />
529. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used a9 an<br />
introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, and some<br />
others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, follows the verb; 3S,<br />
"The~e is no doubt of the fact "-" There came to the beach a poor exile<br />
of Edn "-" Therc appears to he a mistake somewho"p.." Sometimes,<br />
whf'n the subject goes before. it is placed between Ii:., .ubject and the<br />
verb; as, " .A. mistake there is." In nil such cases, there is a mere expletiye.<br />
It adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form<br />
of expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise exist.<br />
This will app .. ar by omitting it in any of the preceding examples.<br />
Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a certain<br />
circumstance, or a case supposed; as, "If you will go, thell [that is, in<br />
that case] say SQ.<br />
Now is sometimes user! without reference to time, mHely to indicate<br />
the transition from one sentence to another; as, .. Not this man, but Bar.<br />
abbas. Now Barabbas was n robber."
106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
530. The words, to-day, lo-night, la-morrow, yeslerday, used as adjuncts,<br />
may be called adverbs of time, or they may be regarded as nouns in the<br />
objective cuse, without the governing word (828) or as nouns in any cuse<br />
the construction may require.<br />
531. In comparison, as alld so, in the anteced~nt clause. are usually<br />
reckoned udverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb.<br />
The corresponding as and so, sometimes called conjunelions, are properly<br />
adverbs also. because resolvable into all adjunct (5~4); thus, "It is aa high<br />
as henven," tbut is, It is higb in Ihe degree in which heavell is high.-" So<br />
fur as I know," that is, fal' 10 Ihe exlent 10 which I kllOW.<br />
532. So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, phrase'<br />
01' sentence, in order to prevent its repetition; as, "To make men happy,<br />
and keep them so "-" France is highly cultimted-England more so "<br />
.. James is in good health, John is not so "-" I believed that you would<br />
succeed, nnd I told you so.<br />
533. Therefore,1"herefore, also, sometimes called conjunctions, are more<br />
properly adverbs because used for the adjuncts, for this reas07l, for which<br />
rcason, in addition (524).<br />
COXJUNCTIVE ADYERBS.<br />
534. A C07lju7lctit'e ,l]dverb is one that slands for two adjuncts, one of<br />
which contains a relative pronoun, and the other, its antecedent; thus,<br />
"I will see you when you come." Here, when is equivalent to at the time<br />
at which; the first part, "at the time," modifies" will see," and the second,<br />
" at which," modifies" come." Ag.lin," I know not how it is done." Here,<br />
how is equivalent to the manner in which. The first part, "the manner,"<br />
is the object of "kn,ow," I1nd the second, "in which," is the adjunct of "is<br />
done." In 11 similar WilY, where may be resolved into, the place in which;<br />
whither, into, the I,la"e to which, &c.<br />
These adver·l" perform 11 ooullle office; they modify two different words.<br />
and connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, when, u'herc,<br />
whilr. whither, uhe7lce. TIley are also used io:errogati\'"ely, both directly<br />
aod inoir'ectly. Thus used, they are not conjunctive; as," TVhen [tbat is,<br />
at what time 1 will you "ome?"-" Thou knowest not whence [from what<br />
place] it cometh, and whither [to what placp.] it goeth."<br />
FORMATIOX AXD DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.<br />
535. Aoverbs are either primitive or derivnti\'"e.<br />
1. A few adnrbs are primitive, or derived from no oLher words in the<br />
Ja.nguage, as, yes, no, not, here, there, now, then, &c.<br />
2. Many adverbs of qU:llity or !Lanner are derived from adjectives by<br />
adding ly; aB, diligent, diligently; happy, happily (67); or by changing<br />
Ie into ly; ns, able, ably; simple, silllply. But adverbs are seldom formed<br />
from adjectives in ly, the adjunct being used in preference. 'lhus, we<br />
woulo not say, " He acted manlity/" but" i1l l! manly marmer," or "ltke a<br />
7nan,"
ETYMOLOGY-ADVERBS. 107<br />
3. Many compound adverbs aTt! formed by combining words together,<br />
so as of two or more words forming lin adjunct. to make one compound<br />
term; as, indeed, hereby, thereby, whercn'ith, therefore, wheresoever, nevertheless,<br />
&c.<br />
4. Some nouns and other words are converted into lid verbs by prefixing<br />
a, signifying at, in, on, &c.; as, abed, ashore, aloft, ahead, astern, aground,<br />
apalt, adrift, afresh, alike, asleep, J:c. (190)_<br />
o. Many words lire nseJ sometime. as adverbs, and sometimes a8 other<br />
pa:ts of speech; Ihus-<br />
Much is used-l. As an adverb; as, "lie is much better."<br />
2. As an adjective; liS, ,. In much wisdom is much<br />
grief."<br />
3. As a noun; a9, "'Where much is given, much is required."<br />
.<br />
Yesterday is ueed-l. As an adverb; liS. "He came yesterday" (530).<br />
2. As a noun; !l3," Yesterday is past."<br />
But is used-I. As an aliverb; as, .. Give but one kind word."<br />
2. As a preposition (538); as," None but the brave."<br />
3. As u cunjunctioll (561); RS, ., He is poor, but<br />
honest."<br />
TVhat is used-I. As an interrogative; as," What is that?"<br />
2. As a relative; liS," We speak what we know."<br />
3. As an adverb; as," TVhat [partly] with ODt! thing,<br />
Dnd what [partly] with another, we had enough<br />
to do."<br />
6. CirCutUstlll3ces of time, place, manner, &c., are often expressed by<br />
two or more worus constituting an adverbial phrase (027 and 530); as, at<br />
length, not at all, by no mUlIls, in vain, in order, long ago, by-and-by, all<br />
over, to and fro, forever, &c. Such phrascs may be taken together as onc<br />
word, and parsed as an adverb, or separately, as other words, wher~ it CDn<br />
be done, supplying the ellipsis when neccssary.<br />
CO:\lPARISO~ OF ADVERDS.<br />
536. Adverbs of quality, derived (rom adjectives, and<br />
a few others, admit of comparison like adjectives; as,<br />
nobly, more nobly j<br />
soon, sooner, soonest.<br />
The following are compared irregnlarly; ae-<br />
Pas. Camp. Sup. Pas.<br />
Badly, 0,. ill, worse, worst. Much,<br />
Far, farther, farthest. "Veil,<br />
Little, less, least.<br />
PARSING.<br />
Camp.<br />
more,<br />
better,<br />
Sup.<br />
most.<br />
best.<br />
537. An adverb is parsed by stating what part of<br />
speech-the class to which it belongs- the word which
108 };NGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
it modifies-its derivation and comparison, if derived<br />
nnll compared. Thus:-<br />
"He speaks fllwntly."-Pluently, an ndverb of maDner, nDd modifies<br />
".peaks ;" derived fromjlucnt, aDd compared more fluently, most fluently.<br />
PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
WheD we say, .. John I'lm~ rapidly," what part of speech is John?<br />
what is 1'lillS (3H)? What is the usc of the w01'l1 rapidly in that sentence?<br />
What part of specch are those words '\\' hich express the maDner<br />
of doing a thing (!\28-1) 1 What palt of speech, then, is rapidly? Why 1<br />
Can you thilJk of any other "'ords that might be user! to elo:press the<br />
manner in which" John runs? "-" Swiftly, slowly, 1/'ell, ill." What<br />
pUI·t of speech are these words' Suppose yon say, .. John ran yesterday"<br />
_u John runs now "-" John will run soon "-what is the use of the words<br />
yesterday, 11010, soon? ,,'hat are words called which clo:press a circumstance<br />
of timc (528-3)1<br />
£oon? \\. hy!<br />
Then what part of speech arc yesterday, nou',<br />
What otbN words besides the verb do adverbs ruoJify (523) 1 Wben<br />
we ~ay ... John is n Vtry good boy," what word modifies good? What<br />
part of 8pecch is good? Why 1 Then what part of spcech is very?<br />
Why?<br />
If I S.1Y, "John reads exceedingly well," what worrl modifies reads?<br />
AilS. TVell. Then what part of ~pe('ch is lNIl? Why 1 What word tells<br />
U3 how he reads I What word Joes exceedingly modify! Then what part<br />
of speech is it? Why 1<br />
EXEIWISES.<br />
1. T~lI to what class the foliowiDg adverbs b..!ong-whethel' pl'imitive<br />
01' derivative-if not primitive hvw they are formed-comp3rc, if com·<br />
pared :-<br />
J ustIy, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, sufficiently,<br />
thirdly, neal']y, almost, perfectly.<br />
Here, there, any ",here, hither, thither, ye1', no, thence, some<br />
",here-now, then, to-day, hereafter.<br />
2. Forlll senteuces, eaeh "f which will l',,!,!a:n one of tbe pl'cceJing<br />
auvcrbs. Parse ns Jir~clcu (537).<br />
EXERCISE", ON ADVERBS, IRREGUI,AR VERTIS, ETC.<br />
Parse the following exercises as iu "Geueral Exercises," p. 103, and<br />
(537) :-<br />
Peter wept bitterly.-He ii:l here now.-She went away yes'<br />
tcrday.-They carne to-day.-They will perhaps buy some to.<br />
morrow.-"fe shall know hereafter.-She sang sweetlv.-Great<br />
men are not always wiEe.-]\fary 1'0se up hastily.-·They that
ETYMOLOG Y-PREPOSITIONS. 109<br />
have enough may soundly sleep.-Cain wickedly slew his<br />
brother.-I saw him long ago.-He is a very good man.<br />
Sooner or later all must die.-You read too little.-They talk<br />
too much.-James acted wisely.-How many lines can you<br />
repeat r-You ran hastily.-He speaks fluently.-Then were<br />
they glad.-He fell fast asleep -She could not hold her head<br />
still.-The ship was driven ashore.-N 0, indeed.-They are<br />
all alike.-Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener<br />
you read with attention, the more you will improve.-Will<br />
you be at home when I come ?-James will sit here, while you<br />
stand there.-As for this man, we know not whence he is.<br />
PREPOSITIONS.<br />
538. A PREPOSITION is a word which shows the relation<br />
bt'tween a noun or pronoun following it, and some<br />
other word in the sentence; as, "The love OF money."<br />
-" Come TO me."<br />
539. Of the wonls related, that before the preposition i~ called the<br />
antecedent term of the rclntion, and that wl.ich follows it is called the<br />
subsequent term. TlJis, being govel'lled by the preposition, is ulso called<br />
its regimen, as in the examples above.<br />
540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may be followed by<br />
an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, used as a substantive; as,<br />
"We are about to depart."-" IIonorcd for having done his duty."-" The<br />
crime of being a young man."<br />
541. The preposition and its regimen united are called the adjunct of<br />
the antecedent term; ancl the antecedent term, as related to its adjunct,<br />
may be called the principal. 1t is usually a noun, or pronoun, an adjective,<br />
a verb, or an adverb; as, "The waters of Jordan."-" He with the book in<br />
his band."-" It is good for me."-" Prll!/ for U6."-" He acts consistently<br />
with his principles."<br />
542. The same word not unfrequently has severn! adjlll1cts; a', .. He<br />
WENT from, Boston, by railroad, to 1'.',w York, ill eight hours." Also the<br />
noun or pronoun in the adjunct, may be limited by ove or more adjuncts<br />
-the whole forming a compound adjunct; us, "It is CONSISTENT with the<br />
character of a man of honor." Here," of honor" is the adjunct of man,<br />
.. of a man of honor" is n compound adjunct of charact(r; and the whole,<br />
.. with the character of a man of honor," is a compound adjunct of con·<br />
sistent.<br />
543. The preposition i3 so called because it is usually placed beforo its<br />
regimen, as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the sentence<br />
may be eo inverted that the preposition follows its regimen immediately,<br />
or at Bome distance; a~, .. Where echo walks the steep hills among."<br />
.. WI/.Om did he speak to r
110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
544. III the natuml order of a sentence, the adjunct follows its pl'inoi.<br />
pal' as, .. He withdrew affa suppa." It is often con'l'enicnt, bowe'l'cl',<br />
to ~rrange the ndjunct first; as, c, ./1f"r supper, he withd,ew 'with his<br />
friend who had cnlled f,,1' him," H~rc the sarue sense can not be gi"en by<br />
placing the adjunct, .. after supper," anywhere eise in the scntcllCE'.<br />
545. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.<br />
'1'0 be committed accurately to memory.<br />
About Behind From Through<br />
Above Beneath In Throughout<br />
Across Beside Into Till<br />
After Besides N otwithstandingTo<br />
Against Between Of Touching<br />
Along Betwixt Ofl' Toward<br />
Amid I Beyond On Towards<br />
Amidst 5 But Over Under<br />
Among I By Out of Underneath<br />
Amongst 5 . Concerning Past Until<br />
Around Down Pending Unto<br />
At During Regarding Up<br />
Athwart Ere Respecting Upon<br />
Bating Except Round With<br />
Before Excepting Save Within<br />
Below For Since Without<br />
546. Cvneerning-, exeepti1lf;, regarding, respecting, and tOl/eking, were<br />
originally pre8ent participles active, of tl':ln8itive verhs, and as such required<br />
nn objective case after them (801). Tbey may frequently be EO<br />
construed still. During may be regarded as originally the present par·<br />
ticiple active, of nn intransitive verb, baving tbe noun or pronoun in the<br />
nominative case absolute (769); tbu8," During life," mcans life during,<br />
or while life endw·es. Notll'ithstlln
ETY ;o.IOLOG Y - PRli:POSITIONS. 111<br />
549. To, the sign of (h~ infinitive mood. &hould not be regarded as 1\<br />
preposition, but as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the vprh<br />
in that plitt.<br />
550. When a preposition has !lot an object, it becomes nn adverb; as,<br />
"He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out,fall 011, &c.,<br />
up, out, on, should be con,idC1'c(1 IlS parte of the verbs to which th~y nre<br />
joined, rather than as prepositions or advel bs.<br />
551. Several words in the preceding list nre used sometimes as pr('positions<br />
nnd sometimes as other parts of speech; ns, tbus, till, until, after,<br />
before, &c., are frequently ndvel·bil. But alld save, followp.d by the ohjec·<br />
tive case, are used as prepo,it.ions; followed by a nominative, they are<br />
conj unction~. For anu since are also used as conjunctions.<br />
552. All words used a< prepositions are followed by an objective case,<br />
and may by this be distinguished from other words.<br />
r.\USING.<br />
553. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of<br />
speech, and between what words it shows the relation;<br />
thus," The waters of Jordan." O/is a preposition, and<br />
shows the relation between Jordan and waters.<br />
Here Jordan is tbe regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the all·<br />
junct of waters; and waters is the principal tLl which the adjunct IJe1ollgs.<br />
554. PRELDIINARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
When I say, .. The book is on the table," what word shows the relation<br />
of book to the table? What part of speech are words that show the rela·<br />
tion between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence? Theu<br />
what part of speech is on? Could the book be in any other relation tQ the<br />
table than on it i It might be off the table, above the table, under the<br />
table, beside the table, &0. Then what part of speech are off, above, under,<br />
beside? Why i When we say, .. They live ill the country," wbat word<br />
shows the relation between country and iit'e? Then what part of speech<br />
is in?<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In tbe following sentences, point out the preposition, and the words<br />
between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and principal.<br />
In what sentences has the principal more th,m one adjunct I-in what, a<br />
compound adjunct I<br />
He went from Boston.-He went to Wasbington.-He went<br />
from Boston to W ashington.-W e reside in the country.-All<br />
rivers flow into the sea.-He gave his book to me.-He gave<br />
[to] me bis book.-Flowers bloom in Bummer.-In summer<br />
flowers bloom.-He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in<br />
the street.-He was trayeling toward Rome when he met him
112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
at Milan, without a single attendant.-Be kind one to another.<br />
-The love of money is the root of all evil.-Do good to all<br />
men.-Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good.<br />
-For his gallant conduct in rescuing so many from a watery<br />
grave, he was highly honored. ~<br />
2. In the preceding exercises, parse each word in order as directed, p.<br />
103, Rnd Nos. 1'>37 and 553.<br />
INTERJECTIONS.<br />
555. An INTERJECTION is a word used in exclamations,<br />
to express an emotion of the mind; as, "Oh ! what a fall<br />
was there!"<br />
556. The Interjection i~ so called, because it is, as it were, throu'll in<br />
among the words of a sentence, without any grammatical connection with<br />
them. Sometimes it stands at the be~inning of a sentence, sometime. in<br />
the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too<br />
strong to admit of other words being spoken.<br />
A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.<br />
557. The following is a list of the interjecti
1;:TYlIfOJ.OGY-CONJUNCTIONS.<br />
tIS<br />
CON JU~WTIONS.<br />
561. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects words,<br />
phrases, or sentences; as, "He (lnd I must go, but you<br />
may stay."-" Of him, (lnd through him, and to him, are<br />
all things."<br />
562. Here, and (,ODnects the word, He and I, aud but COIJIlCcts the sentences,<br />
.. He and I must go," and" you may stay."<br />
563. ConjuDctions sOllletimes bec;in Relltences, even aftet· a full perio,l,<br />
to !how a cOD:'ectioD betwcen sentence; iu the general tenor of disco>ul'St',<br />
See, I\S examples, the first chapter of Genesis,<br />
564. Conjunctions are di vided into two classes: Copulative<br />
and Disjunctive.<br />
565, Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be considercd<br />
together. They are, amI, both, as, because, for, if, since, that.<br />
566 . .and is the principal copulative, anc! connects what follows as an<br />
addition t'.> that which precedes. The otherd connect what fOllows as II<br />
condition, supposition, cause, motive,
114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it<br />
connects; as, "He and I must go; but you may stay."<br />
.and-a copulative conjunction, and connects the words He and 1.<br />
But-a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the 6entcnces, "He Bnd I<br />
must go," and" you may stay."<br />
573. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.<br />
When we say, "John and James study," what word connects John nnd<br />
James 1 What class of words connect words or sentences 1 'Yhat part of<br />
speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads and write~," what docs and<br />
connect i What does and connect in the following phrases, "A red and<br />
white rose "-" A red rose and a white rose "-" Well and truly said I"<br />
What coujunction connects the following sentences, .. 'fhe.y are happy,<br />
because they Ilre good"! Here the following facts may be noticed (\146,<br />
.1:c.):-<br />
1. 'Vhen two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same<br />
case, and in the same construction.<br />
2. When two verbs are conuected, they have the same subject; as,<br />
"James reads and writes."<br />
3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the Eame noun or<br />
pronoun.<br />
4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word.<br />
6. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect individnal<br />
words in the sentence. Thus," They are happy, because they are<br />
good," the conjunction does not connect they with they, nor are with<br />
are, DOl' happy with good; but, "They are happy," with" they are<br />
good." So also when they connect phrases: .. He spoke to James,<br />
and to me "-" Of him, and througb him, and to him, arc all things."<br />
EXERCISES O~ C'JNJUNCTIONS.<br />
1. In the following sentence~, point out the conjunctions, aud state what<br />
words, or Bentences, or phra~es. they connect. Sometimes the order is so<br />
inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first.<br />
2. Parse the words in their order.<br />
Time and tide wait for no man.-The eyening and the morning<br />
were the first day.-The memory of the just is blessed, but<br />
the name of the wicked shall rot.-If thou taint in the day of<br />
adversity, thy strength is small.-Two and two make four.<br />
George or John will go.-They will succeed because they are<br />
industrious.-Because they are industrious they will succeed.<br />
Of him, and through him, and to him, are all thiugs.-Though<br />
he slay me, yet will I trust in him.-Of making many hooks<br />
there is no end, and much study is a weariness to th" flesh.<br />
My SOD, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not.
ETYMOLOGl'-PABSING. 115<br />
PARSING.<br />
574. PARSING is the resolving of a sentence into its<br />
elements or parts of speech.<br />
575. Words may be parsed in two ways: Etymologically<br />
(576), and Syntactically (983).<br />
1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts<br />
of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its<br />
uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and derivation,<br />
if derived.<br />
2. Syntactical. parsing adds to the above a statement<br />
of the relation in which the words stand to each other,<br />
and the rules according to which they are com bincd in<br />
phrases and sentences.<br />
3. In the natural order, Etymological parsing should precede "1I1alysu;,<br />
because we can not analyze II sentence before we have learned tbe cliar·<br />
acter of the words it contains; nud .Bnalysis should precede Syntactical<br />
parsir.g. hecnuse, till we know the parts and elements of a sentcnce. we<br />
can Dot understand their relations, nor intellig,·ntly combine them into one<br />
consistent whole. Still, theee are all so intilllntely cunnected and blended<br />
togethel', tbat to do anyone of tbem ill tbe best manner. a knowledge of all<br />
is necessary. As Etymological pnrsiug bas to do only witb the accidents<br />
of words. it matters not wbether the words parsed are unconuected. or in<br />
sentences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical pari'ing, not only must<br />
the words constitute a sentence, hut that also must be both intelligible and<br />
understood; for no one con either analyze or por2e syntactically that which<br />
he does not understand.<br />
ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING.<br />
576. Words are parsed etymologically in the manner<br />
directed under each part of speech, viz.: Nouns (182)<br />
-articles (194)-adjectives (225)-pronouns of different<br />
kinds, viz., personal (253), relative (278), interrogative<br />
(286), adjective (313)-verbs (491 and 496)<br />
adverbs (537)-prepositions (55~)-interjections (560)<br />
-conjunctions (572).<br />
577. That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercise. is of<br />
much importance, in order to pursue with pleasure and Sllccess the study of<br />
Syntax, and to a correct underetanding of the forms and usages of speech<br />
in the English langunge.
116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
578. A senteuce to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is necessary for<br />
tbe pupil. in the first place, to understand it. When he under8tands a sen·<br />
tencp, and also tbe definition of the differellt parts of speech given in the<br />
<strong>grammar</strong> he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them<br />
each wor;l belongs; that is, which of the words are .. nalll~s of thing8 " or<br />
nouns; which" qualify the names of things," or, "affirm anything conceruina<br />
them," that is to say, which words are adjectil'es, and which are verbs.<br />
Tbis method will ex\}rcise the Ji,criminating powers of the pupil better,<br />
engage his attention much more, and. on trial, be found much more easy<br />
and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every occa~ion-a<br />
plan always !abol:ious, often unsatisfactory, and .which, instead of I.eading<br />
him to exercise hIS own powers, and depend on hiS own resources, will lead<br />
him to habits of slavi"h dependence on tbe authority of others.<br />
579. The following general principles should be remembered, and stead·<br />
ily kl'pt ill view, in parsing every sentence, viz.:-<br />
1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pronoun, expressed or<br />
understood (195, and J 96).<br />
2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing spoken oj, is always<br />
in the nominative (except when the verb is in the infinitive), and said to<br />
be the nominative to the Terb (315 and 762).<br />
8. ETery verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative,<br />
has a nominative or subject, expressed or understood (661, 4).<br />
4. Every verb in the active voice ueed transitively, and every preposition,<br />
is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, or by an infinitive<br />
mood or a clause of a sentence equivalent to it; and every objective<br />
case, except as in (828), is governed by au active trnnsitive verb, or pro·<br />
position (661, 6).<br />
5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends on, or is governed by,<br />
a verb or adjective (865).<br />
580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL l'ARSING.<br />
"The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively examined, affords a<br />
thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent<br />
Hand by which it was created.""<br />
• In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verhs, it is quite unneces~ary to repeat the words<br />
gender, ~llm.beT, ~a5e, t.enlie, mood, voice. Thus, "Father is a noun, masculine gender, in<br />
the nommall\"e cast, smgular number." It is enough, and is both neater and briefer to<br />
say~ "a noun ~nsculine. in the nominative singular.,t So ,vith the ~erb: instead of<br />
S:lYJIlg-, "'Loves IS n verb," &'c.," in the present tense, indicati\'e mood active voice third<br />
perSOIl, singular number:' it is sufficient and better to ~ay ... In the 'pTesent jndic~tive<br />
Active, third person singular!' The conjugatiun of regular verbs al50 (485) "I,rithout any<br />
detriment, may bf? omitted, the form of the principal. parts being sufficiently ascertained<br />
whe~l ~hey are said to be regular (491. note). All thls saves much time, and it is just as<br />
expllcllllS the full (orm often used. For the same reason, and ns fonnerly mentioned<br />
(lOS), the word~ proper nnd common, ad applied .to nouns~ may be omitted i because,<br />
whether a noun IS proper or common, makes no difference In the construction of n St::n ..<br />
tence ; no use .is made o( it, nothing d~pends on it. In like manner, the designation of<br />
person, as applied 10 nouns, may be omItted, except when they are of the first or 6eoond,
ETYMOLOGY-PARSING. 117<br />
Previous to parsing this sentence, the pupil may be Jed to understand<br />
it better, and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attending to 8uch<br />
questions as the following: What is 8poken of in this s~ntellce 1 How<br />
3re plant :lltd animal qualified? What is said of them thus qualified!<br />
How is wonders limited 1 What else is said of plant and animal? Whom<br />
do they oblige I What do tbey oblige us to do I Hew is hand qualified I<br />
What hand 1 cite.<br />
581. Tbese words mny be parsed fully, tbus :-<br />
The •.•.•... DEFINITE ARTICLE, sbewing that plant ond animal al'e defined<br />
or limited.<br />
minutest . ..• An ADJECTIVE, beeall8e it qualifies a nonn, plant, &c.<br />
compared by er and est, or by prefixing more and most.<br />
6uperlative degree-expresses tbe greatest degree of minute·<br />
ness compared with others.<br />
plant . ...... A NOUN-the name of an object.<br />
neuter-is witbout sex.<br />
nominative, becausc tbc subject of affords nnd oblige.<br />
singular-it denotes but one; pluml, plants.<br />
or ......... A DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIOS-conueets plant and animal as<br />
alternates.<br />
animal .•..•. A NCVN--tbe nnme of an object.<br />
neuf€r-consiuered without sex (125)<br />
nominative singular, for reasons above :-(Eee ldanl).<br />
if .......... A CONJUNCTIO::-counects the sentence, "[it is] at/entirely<br />
examined," as a condition, to the s('utence, "affords," &c.<br />
it . ......... A PRONouN-~tandB instead of a nouu, plant or animal.<br />
7leutcT-it denotcs neither male nor femalc.<br />
personal-its form indicates its person.<br />
third pason-it is spoken of.<br />
sit/gular-it denotes but one.<br />
i~ eXlImilled • . A VERB -expresses an act.<br />
transitive-expresses an act done to plant, &c., represented<br />
by it.<br />
regular-its past tense and past participle eud in cd.<br />
present-expresses a present act.<br />
indicative-n.ed subjunctively, and expresses a conditiou.<br />
passive-represents the su~ject as acted upon.<br />
third person-affirms of its subject r-poken of.<br />
singular-affirllls of but one.<br />
atLcntivaZy •• An AD\'EIlB-modifies examined; fOl'llled f,om the adjccti ve<br />
attentive by nddir.g ly; compared t.y prefixing more nnd<br />
most.<br />
afford, . ....• A VERB-it exprcs
118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
regular-its past tense and past participle end in ed.<br />
present-expresses a present act.<br />
indicative-declares simply.<br />
active-represents its subject as acting.<br />
third person-affirms of its subject spoken of.<br />
fingu/ar-nffirms of but one.<br />
a . ...••.... I:-WEFI:-;ITE ARTICLE-showing that .. thousand wonders" is put<br />
indefinitely as oue wbole, that is. one thousand.<br />
thousun,l . ... An AD.JECTlvE-qunlifies u·ollrier.,.<br />
numeral-denotes number.<br />
rIIrdinal-dpnotes how many; not compared.<br />
!I·ondas A Nou:-;-the name of an object.<br />
neuter-without sex.<br />
objective-the object of affords.<br />
plural-denotes more than one.<br />
ul,d ........ COPULATIVE cO:-;JU:-;CTlO:-I-connec!s the succeeding sentence<br />
fiS an addition to the preceding.<br />
obliges . ..... Same as affords.<br />
u, ......... A PERSO:-fAL l'fiONO[;:-;-th" sub,titute of the speaker and<br />
othtl'o', and consequently first person.<br />
masculine orfeminine-may denote males or females.<br />
objective-the object of obliges.<br />
plural-denotes more than one.<br />
to (./,/mire . " A 'EBB-expresses an act.<br />
transitive-hus an object. hund.<br />
regular-its past tense and past participle end in ed.<br />
present-expresses an act present at the time referred to in<br />
tbe preceding verb, obliges.<br />
infinitive-without limitation of perwn or number'.<br />
active-represents the subject referred to (395) fiS acting. It<br />
is the attr.bute of us, or has us for its subject.<br />
und ........ COPULATIVE CO:-fJU:-;CTION-connec!s to adore as an addition to<br />
to admire.<br />
adore . ...... Same as admire. without tI:e sign (880).<br />
that . ....... DEMO:\,STBATIVE ADJECTIVE rRo:\,ouN-used to point out defi.<br />
nitely the word hand.<br />
Omnipotent . . An ADJECTIVE-qualifies hand; Dot compared because it does<br />
not admit of increase.<br />
halid ....... A NOU:-f-Same a5 wondels, exceptsingular-denotes<br />
one. and is the object of admire and adm·e.<br />
by .•••••••. A PREPosITJO:-f-Ehows the relation between 1(·(./S created Ilnu<br />
which.<br />
,,·hich ...... RELATIVE PRONOU:\,-71cu!er, in the objecth-c sil1guhr, refers<br />
to hand fiS its antecedent, ant! is govtlmed by by.<br />
singular-mcans but one.<br />
it ..•....... A PERSONAL PRONOl'N-stands for plant or animal, same as<br />
before.<br />
was created. A vlIRB-expresses an net done by hand, represented by which.
t'ry ~JOr,OG V--PARSING,<br />
It!}<br />
im1lsitive-expresses an act done hy olle person 01' thing to<br />
another.<br />
rRgula,·-its past tense and past participle end in cd.<br />
pasl-exrresses an act now 1'''8t.<br />
indicative-declares simply.<br />
passive-represents its subj .. ct as aete.] upon.<br />
tltird persoll-its subject is spoken ufo<br />
sinqlliar-aflhms of Cone.<br />
ABBREVIATED r.IODEL.<br />
582. The length "f time neces~ary to parse eyen a few words in this<br />
way, renders it impracticable to do it often, though occasionally it may tw<br />
pl'ofitable. The following brief method will answer every purpose:-<br />
Tile . ....... Definite article, Lc-Ionging to planl and animal, anrl showing<br />
them to be limited.<br />
minute .• t . ... Adjective, supctlative degret', qualifying plallt. &c.<br />
pla,d ...... A noun, neuter, in tbe nominative singular. subj,·C't of affords.<br />
or . .....••. A disjunctive conjunction, c"nncding Flant and allimal as<br />
alternates.<br />
animal .•••. A noun, neuter, in thc nominative singulal', subject of afford .•.<br />
if . .....••. A conjunction, connecting the sentences.<br />
it .......•. Third personal pronoun, neutel', in the nominntivc singnlar,<br />
standing for plant or animal, nnd subject of i .., e.rnmined.<br />
is t;:umi,.,d. A verb transitive, I'el;ular, in the present indicative. active,.<br />
expreseing what is done to its slll~ect ii, used for plallt or<br />
a"imal.<br />
attwtivtly .. An adverb, modifying e.wmilled; compal ed by more alld<br />
most.<br />
affords . ...• A verb transitive, regulal" ill the prcpent indicative, activf',<br />
third person singufar, and affirll1s of pla>!' or animal.<br />
a ••....••• , Indefinite nrticle, showing tlloltsalld wOllder~ to be indefinite<br />
thousand . .•. A numeral adjecti ,'e, used to qualify 1llonders.<br />
wOllde" . .... A noun, neuter, in the objecti ve plural, object of offords.<br />
and •.....• A copulative c"njunction; COIlnects the pred:cales offord."<br />
&c., nnd oblifJes.<br />
obliges . ..... A verb transitive, regular. in the present indicative active,<br />
third person singular, and affirms of plallt or animal.<br />
1IS ••••••••• First personal pronoun, masculine 01' feminine, in the "bjrc.<br />
tive plural, object of obliges, and subject of to admire, &c.<br />
10 admire .• . A verb tran.itive, regular, ill the prr,cnt i"finitive, active,<br />
attribute of !lS, or object of oblifJes.<br />
and.. . .... A copUlative conjunction; conoects to a,.'rnire and to adore.<br />
to udore A verb transiti,'c, regular, in the present infinitive, act.ive,<br />
attribute of liS, or object of ob!;geR.
I:2U<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
thai •....... Demonstrative adjective pronoun, definitely pointing out halld.<br />
Omnipott1lt . An adjective, qualifying hand; not compared.<br />
hand ••••••• A uoun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of adore.<br />
by ...•..... A prepositiou, which sbows the relation between was created<br />
and which.<br />
u·hich ••••.. A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objecti<br />
ve, and g.,ycrned by by.<br />
it . •.•....•• Third personal pronoun, same as before j subject of WIl8 cre·<br />
ated.<br />
;oas Neatcd .• A verb ttan.it.i\·e, regular, in the past indicative, passive,<br />
tbird person singular, and affirms of it.<br />
583. EXERCISES IN PARSING.<br />
1. Two or more acljectives in ~uccessi()n. either with or loit//Out a conj""C'<br />
lion, qualify the same /(·(ml; as,<br />
1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his maRter's interc.t.<br />
~. A dismal, dense, and portcntouo cluud overhangs tbe city. 3. A stea.iy,<br />
sweet, and cheerful t"lllper affords great deligbt to its possessor. 4. He<br />
has bought a fiutl new coat.<br />
:!. lVhen an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally qualifics theUl &01" ;<br />
as,<br />
1. They waited for a fit time :In,\ place. :!. I am delighted with the<br />
sight of green woods and fields. 3. He uisplayed great prudence aud<br />
moderation. 4. He was a man of great wisdom and moderation.<br />
s. lI T hen an adjective comes after a verb intransith'e, it generally quali·<br />
fies the 710minative of that verb; as,<br />
1. JGhn is wise. 2. They wcre temperate. S. The sky is very clear.<br />
4. These riYers are deep and rapid. 5. The apples wiII soon be ripe.<br />
6. We have been attentive to our lessuns. 7. These mountaius are Hl'y<br />
high.<br />
4. lVhatever wOl'ds t"everb" 10 be" serves to unite, rcferri'lg to the Same<br />
thing, must be of the same case; as,<br />
1. Alexand~r is a student. 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 3. Hope<br />
i3 the balm of Ii fe. 4. Content is a grcat blessing, envy a great cllree.<br />
Ii. Knowledge is power. 6. His meat was locusts and wild honey. 7. He<br />
was the life of the company.<br />
NOTE.-It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words<br />
cOlJuected refer to the ~ame thing. This connection is often made by<br />
othr worus tban the verb" to be "c( 605 01' 7(17).<br />
Ii. Nouns alld pronouns. placed tu.qctl,er fOI' the sake of empha.'is. or ex·<br />
planation, alld denoting the same 01)- ct, n.rc said to be in apposition. Im«<br />
always agrte in ca~e; as, ' .
ETYMOLOGY-PARSING, 121<br />
1. Alexander the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apostle Paul.<br />
2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. S. Thomsen, the author<br />
of "The Seasons." is a delightful poet. 4. Tempel"ance, the best preserver<br />
of health, should be the study of all men.<br />
NOTE.-In parsing such seutences as those above, a relative and a verb<br />
may be inserted betwecn the words in apposition. JJfllsclf, thysdj. hilllself,<br />
&c. often stand at a considerabl,) distance from the words with which<br />
th ey agree; as,<br />
5. Thomas degpatched the letter himself. 6. They gathered the flowers<br />
in the garden themselves. 7. Ann saw the transaction herself, aud could<br />
1I0t be mistaken.<br />
6. Myself, thyself, himself. d:c., often form the objectives after activetransiti"e<br />
verbs, of wltich the words they represent are the subjecls or nom inative~.<br />
as,<br />
They are in such cases generally called Reflexive prono!l1i8 (249) ;<br />
1. Ihurt myself. 2. He wronged himself, to oblige us. S. They will<br />
Bupport themselves hy their industry. 4. She endeav,)ured to show hereelfolfto<br />
advantage. 5. We must confine ourselves more to our studies.<br />
u. They hurt themselves by their great anxiety.<br />
7. Adjective., taken as nouns, and used in referellce to persons, are gen.<br />
erallyoj the plural number (201); as,<br />
1. The valiaut never taste of death but onCl'. 2. The virtuous are<br />
generally the most happy. 3. The diligent make most improvement. 4.<br />
The sincere are always esteemed. 5. The inquLitive are generally talIm<br />
tive. 6. The dissipated are much to be pitied.<br />
8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in tlte same connection, must be of tlte<br />
sa1ne case; as,<br />
1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He aDd she were schoolfdlows.<br />
3.:My brother anel he are tolerable <strong>grammar</strong>ialls_ 4. He gave<br />
the book to Juhn and Thomas. 5. I lent my knife and peucil to oue of<br />
the scholars.<br />
9. A relative generally precedes tlte verb tltat governs it; as,<br />
1. He is a friend W/lOni I greatly rnpect. ~. They whom luxury has<br />
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of life. 3. The books which<br />
I bought yesterday, I have not yet received. 4. The trees which he planted<br />
in the spring have all died.<br />
10. lV/ten both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb belollging<br />
to it, tlte Telati,.e is commonly tlte nominative to tlte first verb, and tlte ante.<br />
cel.ellt to tlie second; as,<br />
1. HJ.: who acts wisely DESERVES praise. 2. He who is a straugel' to indns·<br />
tl'Y may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 3. They who are born in high<br />
stations are not always the most happy. 4. The mall who is faithfuU,<br />
attacued VI relig:on m,lY be relied on with confidence.
11. Tlte relative wbat in it8elll'epresellts but one case-tI,e 1!ominat~",;<br />
or objective; but it implie8 a reference to II general antecedent omitted, to<br />
wltici. bel()ngs the other case required by tlte constrllction. When litis antecedent<br />
is trrpressed, which must be 1,sed instead of what (266).<br />
1. This is precisely what was necessary. 2. Wh~t can not be prevented<br />
must be endured. 3. We must not delay till to·morrow what ougbt to be<br />
done today. 4. Choose what is most fit; custom will make it the most<br />
agreeable. 5. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they have lost,<br />
than what they possees. G. What he gained by diligence, he squandered<br />
by extravagance.<br />
12. Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple relative, and a<br />
general or i"definite antecedent, and in parsing may be so resolved; thus,<br />
whoever = nny one who. The Slime is the case "'ill, whatever alld whalso·<br />
ever; whatever ~ everytlling which; as,<br />
1. Whoever tolJ such R. story, must have been misinformed. 2. Who·<br />
ever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly happy io the midst<br />
of plenty. 3. Whoever passes his time in idleness, can make but little<br />
improvement. 4. Whatever gives paio to others, deserves not the nnme<br />
of pleasure. 5. Whatever is worth doiog at all, is worth doing well.<br />
NOTE.- lVhatevcr is IDOSt frequently useu as what somet!mes i~ (2'77)<br />
simply to qualify a noun i as,<br />
6. Aspire at perfectioo, in whatever slate of life you 1D3Y be placed.<br />
7. I forget what words he uttered. S. By what means shall we obtain<br />
wisdom' 9. By whatever arts we may attract atteotion, we can secure<br />
esteem only by amiable dispositions.<br />
13. 77wugh partic;ples never directly declare, yet tlup always imply<br />
'mnething either dOTle or doi7lg; alld are useJ in reference to some noun or<br />
pronoun; a8,<br />
1. Admired aod applauded, he became vain. 2. Having finished our<br />
le~eolls, we weot to play. 3. Proceediog on his journey, he was seized<br />
with a dangerous malady. 4. Beiog engaged at the time of my call, he<br />
had not a moment to spend with me.<br />
14. TI,e pa.,t patticiple of a few intransitive verbs is sometimes joined to<br />
the verb" to be," which git'es 811eh verbs a passive appearance (374); as,<br />
1. I am come, in compliance with your desire. 2. If such maxims anJ<br />
practices prevail, what has become of deceocy nnd virtue! The old house<br />
is fallen down. 4. John is gone to Londoo.<br />
15. Intlansitive verbs are often followed by pupositions, making what<br />
are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. Tlte verb and preposition<br />
may, in weft cases, be parsed either togetlter or separately in tlte active voice.<br />
In the passive voice, they mU8t be parsed together; as,
L He laughed at such folly. 2. They smiled upon us in such n way as<br />
to inspire courage. 3. He struck at his friend with great violence. 4. He<br />
was much laughed at for such conduct.<br />
16 • .A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, without being<br />
connected in grammatical construct·ion with any other words of the sentence,<br />
It is tl,m called the nominative absolute, or independent; as,<br />
1. The fatller being dead, the whole estnte came into the hands of the<br />
eldest son. 2. He destroyed, or won to what may wod, his utter loss, nIl<br />
tbis will 50011 fullow. 3. Whose gray top sball tremble, he descending.<br />
1 '1. To the sign of the infinitive, i8 omitted ajter tlte verb .• bid, dare,<br />
need, mak'!, see, hear, feel, and let; and sometimes after perceive, behold,<br />
observe, have, know, &:c., in the active "oice, but is retained after tlte sallle<br />
verbs in the passive; as,<br />
1. Let me look at your portrait. 2. He bade me go with him. 3. I<br />
heard him assert the opinion. 4. I like to see you behave so well. 6.<br />
Let him apply to his books, and then he will make improvement. 6. Let<br />
us make all tbe haste in our power. '1. I saw him ride past at great<br />
speed. S. I have observed some satiriets use the term.<br />
IS. Verb8 connected by cOl/junctio1l8, are usually in tlte 8a111e mood and<br />
ten8e, but in tlte compound tenses, t!le sign i8 often used 10ith the first ollly,<br />
and understood witlt tlte rest; as,<br />
1. He can neither read nor write. 2. He shall no longer tease and vex<br />
me as he has done. 3. He commanded them that they should not depart<br />
from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of the father. 4. His diligence<br />
should have been commended and rewarded.<br />
19. NOUI18 and pronoun8 are often governed by a preposition understood;<br />
and nouns denotin!} time, value, weight, or measure, are used to Tp.strict<br />
verbs or adjecti'Jes, witllOut a governi,,!} word (S~8); as,<br />
1. He gave [to] me a full nccount of the whole affair. 2. Will you lend<br />
me your knife. 3. It is not time yet to go Iwme. 4. He returned home at<br />
a very inconvenient lenson. 5. He traveled on foot, In,t summer, as far ns<br />
London. 6. He was in Paris last month.<br />
20. The conjunction8 than and as, implying comparison, have tlte same<br />
case .afler throt as bifore them; and /!le latier case ItflS /he same cons/rite·<br />
tion as the former; as,<br />
1. He has more books than my brot/ler (has). ~. j[ary is not so hand·<br />
some u.s her silter (is). 3. They respect him more than (they respect) u.'.<br />
4. James is not so diligent ns Thomas. 5. They Are much greater guiners<br />
than I, by this unexpected event.<br />
21. The clasB of words, or paris of 8peech to which a word belongs, depends<br />
often on its application; as,<br />
1. Calm was the day and the scene delightful. 2. We may expect a
124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
calm after a storm. 3. To prevent pa~Bion is easier than to calm it. 4.<br />
Bettcr is a little with coni cnt, tban a great deal witb anxiety. 5. The gay<br />
fiud dissolute think little of the mi~eries which are stealiug softly after<br />
them. 6. A little attentiou will rectify some errors. 7. Though be is out<br />
of daugel', be is still afraid. 8. He labored to still the tumult. 9. Still<br />
waters are commonly deepest. 10. Damp air is unwholesome. 11. Guilt<br />
often casts a damp OVH our sprightliest hours. 12. Soft bodies damp tbe<br />
sound much more than bard ones.<br />
22. Do, have, and be, are principal verbs when used by themselves, but<br />
auxiliaries when connccted with oilIer verbs; as,<br />
1. He does all iu his power to gain esteem. 2. He did his utmost to<br />
please bis friend. 3. We must do nothing tbat will sully our reputation.<br />
4. She bas a strong claim to our respect. 5. Tbe man who has no sense<br />
of religion is Iittlc to he trusted. 6. He who does the most good hns the<br />
most pleasUl"e. 7. He is at home. 8. They are all well there.<br />
23. A n infinitive, a participle used as a noun, 01' a member of a 6elltenu.<br />
which ma.'! be called a substantive phrase, is ofteTi tlte nominative to a verb,<br />
01' the objeclillc after an active tran8itive Vlrb or preposition (762 and 802);<br />
a.lf,<br />
1. Nominative.-l. To study hard is the best way to improve. 2. To<br />
endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind.<br />
3. To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy. and comfort the distressed,<br />
are duties incumbent on all. 4. John's being from bome occasioned the<br />
deby. 5. His haviog neglected opportunities of improvement, was the<br />
causc of his disgrace.<br />
2. Objectivc.-1. He that knows holV to do good and does it not, is with·<br />
out excuse. :? He will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement<br />
when it may be too late. 3. He declared that nothing could<br />
give him greater pleasure. 4. Of making maoy books there is 00 end. 5.<br />
You will never repent of having done your dnty.<br />
24. lVl/C11 (j substantive phrase (583, 23) is governed by a ve,b or prepositIon,<br />
t" is regimen does not ailecl the case of i"dividual nouns or pronouns<br />
in t"at phrase, but leaves them subject to tlte i"jl!lence of other words within<br />
the phrase itself.<br />
If the infinitive or participle of the vCI'b "to be," or of a passive verb<br />
of naming, &c., is used in this way without a definite subject, the sub<br />
~tantive which follows it as a predic!lte is neither the subject of a verb<br />
nor is under the regimen of any wore!; tbus, "His being an expert dancer<br />
does not e?title him to our regard." The phrase, "beinq an expert dancer,"<br />
IS the sub,Ject of the verb, "docs entitle," bllt tqe word "dancert in that
ETYMOLOG Y-PARSING. 12£><br />
pbrase, is neitber tbe subject of nny verb, nor governed by any word in the<br />
sentence. Of this kind are 01\ Fuch expressions as the following: "It is nn<br />
honor to be the alltlior of such II work."-' '1'0 be 8Urtty for a stranger is<br />
dangerous "-" The atr0ciulH crime of {"oi1l1; a yOUllg man, I sball attempt<br />
neither to pr.lliate nor dl'ny,'·-l'itt. III all such examples, whether the<br />
phrase be the ~ubject of II verb, 01'· the obj,'ct of an active·transitive verb<br />
01' preposition, the noun or pronounJollowillg' the verb" to be," or a passi ve<br />
vel'l" is pruperly in the predicate-nominative (6::; 1 and 799). The words<br />
m "Y be parsed separately, or the whole ph rose may be parsed 08 one word.<br />
L He h",,1 the honor of being a director for life. 2. By being a diligent<br />
student, he soon ncquired eminence in his profession. ~. l\Iony benefits<br />
result to men from being wise aud temperate (men).<br />
25. It qj'ten refers to persons, or to an infinitive coming after: as,<br />
1. It is Joltn that is to blam e. 2. It wa.l I that wrote tbe letter. 3. It<br />
is the duty of all to improve. 4. It is the business of every mau to pre·<br />
pare for death. 5. It was reserved for Newton to discover the law of<br />
gravitation. 6. It is easy to form good resolutions but difficult to put<br />
them in pmctice. 7. It is iocumbent on the young to Inye and honor their<br />
parents.<br />
26. WorJs,:especially in poetry, are ofiO! much transposed; as,<br />
1. Great is Diana of the Ephe,ians. 2. On yourEelf depend fol' aid.<br />
3. Happy the man:wbo puts his trust in his ~I:tker. 4. Of uight tbe glllom<br />
was dark and dense.<br />
5. Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand,<br />
Showers on her kings barbaric, real'ls aud gold.<br />
6. No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets.<br />
'1. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow.<br />
As additional exercises in parsing, ~he little work entitled" PUOGUESSIVE<br />
EXERCISES in Analysis and Parsing" may now be used, or sentences from<br />
any plain, simple, and accurate composition, such as arc contained in tbe<br />
reading lessons, may be selected. The excrcises under the bead of<br />
., ANJ.LYBIS," page 12, &e., may be used for the same purpose.
PART I I I<br />
SYNTAX.<br />
584. SYNTAX is that part of <strong>grammar</strong> which treats<br />
of the proper arrangement and connection of words in<br />
a sentence.<br />
DEFINITIONS.<br />
585. A SENTENCE is such an assemblage of words as contains an affirm·<br />
ation, and makes complete sense; as, "Man is mortal" (660).<br />
586. A PHRASE is two or more words l'ightly put together, but not con·<br />
taining an nffirruation or making complete sense; as, "In truth"-"ln a<br />
wOTd"-" To say the least."<br />
587. A SUBSTANTIVE PHRASE is one which, in the construction of a sen·<br />
tence, is equivalent to a noun or substantive, being 1. The subject of a<br />
verb; os, .. To do good is to be happy;" 2. The object of a transitive<br />
verb (320, 1); as, "To do good forget not." 3. The object of a preposi·<br />
tion (540); as, "By pursuing this course he succeeded." 4. The attribute<br />
after a copulative verb (604}; as. II He appears to be doing well."<br />
588. An ADJUNCT is a preposition with its regimen (541) as related to<br />
its principal or antecedent term; as, "The waters of Jordan "_" They<br />
came to Jordan."<br />
589. Sentences are of different kinds, according to the nature of the<br />
tl;ought intended to be expressed. They are-<br />
I. Declaratory, 01' Buch as declllre a thing; as, " God is 1000t."<br />
2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question; as, "Lov8st thou me'"<br />
3. Imperative, or such as express n command; 8S, "Lazarus come forth,"<br />
4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation; as, "Behold how he<br />
loved him."<br />
590, All sentences are either simple or compound. See 635. NOTE.<br />
591. A simple sentence cODtnins only n single affirmntion; as, "Life iB<br />
81wrl."
SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 127<br />
592. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentencetl<br />
connected together j as, "Life, which i8 ShOI'/, should be well improv«l."<br />
593. The simple sentences which make up a compound ecntence, are<br />
called CLAUSES or MEMBERS (635,636).<br />
I. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.<br />
The subject of Analysis bere introduced will be found to be an intcrest·<br />
ing and profitable exel ej,e for pupils, and an important preparation for the<br />
OONSTRUCTIO~ OF SENTENCES (660, &c.). After the pupil hns gone through<br />
this portion and become tolerably familiar with it, tbe Analysis of two or<br />
three Eentences daily will be an amusement ratber than a ta8k. He should<br />
begir. of course with sentences of the simplest character, gradually advancing<br />
to those that are more complex. For this purpose, sentences may be<br />
selected from any" Reading book" of easy lessons, or from" Parsing Exer·<br />
cis"s" (583), or from the little work entitled" PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES IN<br />
ANALYSIS AND PARSIlW," adapted to this Grammar. At first, the teacher<br />
may direct the attention of the pupil orally to the order of Analysis by<br />
such questions as thc following: What is a sentence I-Is this senter,ce<br />
[" God i8 good "] simple or compound 1-Why simple 1-What are tbe parts<br />
of a simple sentence (593) 1-What is the sul~ect of a £entence (595) I-or<br />
whom docs this sentence affirm I-Then. what word is tbe subject of this<br />
sentence 1-What is the predicate of a sentence (600) I-What is here<br />
affirmed of the subject .• Gou" I-Then what is the predicate in this eent"nce<br />
I-Of how many parts does tbe predicate consist (601) 1-What are<br />
they! -In this predicate, what word is the attribute 1-What, the cupula I<br />
What is a verb called when used as a copula only (604) ~-Wbat are the<br />
verbs commonly used as copulatives (60,)? Having, in some such way as<br />
tbis, conducted tbe analysis of simple selltences till tbe pupil has become<br />
familiar with it, tbe eame, or a similar procei's may be pursued witb sen·<br />
tences in wbich the subject or the predirate is modified j and so with sen·<br />
teuces having a compound subject (613). or a compound predicate (627);<br />
and then procced to compound sentenc
128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
with (59~) or without a subject (394), a participial nOlln (46~\ R subs/an·<br />
tive phrase (587), or a c[Illtse of a .• entmee (6\);l); ns, "To lze IS ba~e."<br />
"Ji'or us to lie is base."-"Lying is bnse."-" To do wrollg knowingly is<br />
blse."-" That mC/t should lif is base" (G4o).<br />
597. When the iufiniti I'e with n subject in the objective case (872), is<br />
used as the subject (Of a propositiou, it is introduced by the particle for ;<br />
RS, "For us to lie is basc."<br />
598. Wheu a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb (761) and<br />
its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it ia introduced by the<br />
conjunction that; as, " Tltat mvu should lie is base."<br />
599. When the infinitive or the clause of a sentence as the subject fol·<br />
lows the verb, the pronoun it preceues it, refearing to the subject (246, 2,<br />
4); as, "It is base that men should lie."-"It is base to lie."-" It is base<br />
for us to lie."<br />
600. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject; as, .. Truth<br />
is mighty."-" God reigns.'<br />
Notc I.-The word" affirm" here is to be unuerstood as applying to all<br />
kinds of sentences-declaratory, whether affirmative or negative, interroga.<br />
tory, imperative, or ezclamatory (589).<br />
Note 2.-The name of a peri'on or thing addressed forms no part of the<br />
eentence; as, "La,!ant8, come forth."<br />
601. The predicate properly condsts of two parts-the attribute affirmed<br />
of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is made.<br />
Thus, in the sentence, I, God is love," "God" is the subject, aud " is love"<br />
is the predicate, in which" lovs" is tbe attribute, and" is" tbe copula.<br />
602. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, which,<br />
in that case must always be a verb; as, "The fire burl1s."=" The fire i8<br />
burning."<br />
603. The predicate may be a nOlm or pronoun, an adjective, sometimes<br />
a preposition witlt its case, or an adverb-also an infinitit'c, or clause of a<br />
sentence, connected with the subject by a copula, see examples (6~1 and<br />
622): or it may be a verb, which includes in itself both attribute and<br />
copula (602).<br />
604. When a '\'erb does not complete the predicate, but is used as It<br />
copula
"YNTAS-ANAI.Y~T"·<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
I. In the following, point ullt which are sentence.~, and why-which are<br />
phrases, and why.<br />
2. In the sentences, what is the subject, and why /-What is the predi.<br />
cate, nnd why. Also which predi~at", al'e made by copulati!" verbs, and<br />
which, by attributives. In buth, what is the attribute?<br />
Snow is white.-Ice is cold.-Birds fly.-RosCB blossom<br />
The tree is tall.-'l'he fields are green.-Grass grows.-To say<br />
nothing.-l\Ian is mortal.-God is immortal.-Home is sweet.<br />
-Sweet is home.-'Who i~ Paul ?-Has he come?-'Will<br />
James go ?-Are you tired ?-At all events.-To be sure.<br />
3. :\Iake sentences of wbich one of the following words shall be the subject,<br />
i. e. affil'm something respeeting each of them.<br />
Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thunder, the<br />
wind, the clouds, time, he.<br />
4. Analyze each of the sentences thus made, as directed above, No.2.<br />
THE ~UBJECT.<br />
607. 1. The subject of a proposition is either graml/1atical 01' logical.<br />
608. The 9n"'!II1"I;('''/ subject is the person (.1' thing spoken of, unlim<br />
ited hy olher words j as, "Knoll'led!Je is power."<br />
609. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with<br />
all the words or phraec" by which it is limited or defined: thus.<br />
I n the sentence, "Every man at bis best state is vani ty," the grammati·<br />
~:ll subject is "man j" tbe logical is, "Enery man at his best state."<br />
610. Wben the gralllmatical ~ub.iect hns no limiting wor,ls connected<br />
with it, then the grammatical and the logical eubject arc th" oame j II",<br />
1\ (;C)ll is good."<br />
611. II. The subject of a proposition is eitber simple or compound.<br />
612 A simple subject consists of one subject of thought (f,\l6) j a~,<br />
" Time is money."<br />
613. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to<br />
which belongs but one predicate j as, "James and John are brothers."<br />
"You and I are friends."-" Two and three are five."-" Time and tide wait<br />
for no man.'''''<br />
• The .... ulIJcl't is here considered :1'" compoulld, v.hether the predicate can be affir~ed<br />
of each simple sullJect or not. Thu:-:, we can say, "Time waits for no man, and tide<br />
Wall" (or no man;" but we can not say, "'fwo nre five, A.11l11hree arc five." . Still the<br />
pr~cedjllg examples-" Time and tid,..," and •• two and thru"-are equally confilllered as<br />
Gompound subjecIs, because Ihey consist each of more than one sU['J"ct.<br />
~
ISO<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
I. 1. In each of the following seutences, poiut out the. grammatical sub·<br />
ject-the logical.<br />
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.-Wisdom's<br />
ways are pleasantness: all her paths are peace.-~he love of<br />
money is the root of all evil.-Hu~an knowledge IS progreso<br />
sive.-Righteousness exalteth a natlOn.<br />
II. 1. Iu each of the foliowing senteuces, point out the slt1dect,-the<br />
predicate.<br />
2. State whether the subjects are simple or compound; limited or IIftlimited.<br />
In each, point out the grammatical subject-the logical subject.<br />
Paul aud Silas sang praises to God.-Peter and John went<br />
up into the ternple.-Gold and silver are precious metals.-Locusts<br />
and wild honey were his food.-Socrates and Plato were<br />
Grecian philosophers.-In unity consist the welfare and secu·<br />
rity of society.-Summer and \yinter shall not cease.-Three<br />
and three are six.-John and Jane are a handsome couple_<br />
3. Write predicates to the following compound subjects:-<br />
James and John.-He and she.-You and I.-The rich and<br />
the poor.-Virtue and vic e.-Heat and cold.-France and<br />
Mexico.-The sun and the moon.<br />
MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT.<br />
614. A grammatical subject, beiug a noun, may be modified, limited, or<br />
described, in various ways; 8S,<br />
1. By a noun in apposition-i. C., a noun auded in the same case for the<br />
sake of explanation (668); as, "l\1ilt"n the poet was blind."<br />
~. By a noun in the possessive case; as, "Aaron's rod budded."<br />
3. By an adjunct (;'41); as, "The works of Xaturl' are beautiful."<br />
4. By an adjectiv~ .wOl·d (that is, an article, * adjecti ve, adj~ctive pronoun,<br />
or parhClple); as, "The hour has ul'l'ived."-"A qood name is<br />
better than riches,"-" Your time is precious." _u Lost time can not<br />
be recovered."<br />
5. By a relative and its clause; as, "He who does no good, docs harm,"<br />
6. By an infinitive moorl; 8S, "A desire 10 learn is praiseworthy."<br />
7. By a clause of 8 sentence (593); as, "The fact that he was a scholar<br />
was manifest,"<br />
8. Each grammatical subj~ct may h;t"c several modifications; as, "Seve.<br />
ral stars (,f lC88 magDltuJe, whICh we had not observed before now<br />
appeared." ,<br />
•. Though, for the reasoll. as~ig~ed (192), th~ arti,ele is not properly a limiting word, yet<br />
R, ,t .hows that the word IS linuted or modified 111 some \\'3\' it is here ranked amollg<br />
the mOlhficn.<br />
'
SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 131<br />
615. A grammatical subject, being a pronoun, is usually modified by a<br />
noun in apposition; as, "I, Paul, would have come :" or by a relative<br />
clause as in No.5 above.<br />
Note.-Pronouns of the third person, and also relative pronouns, refer to<br />
their antecedents together with their modifications; as, "Rebuke a wise<br />
man, and he will love thee."<br />
616. When the grammatical subject is an infinitive, or a participle used<br />
as a noun, it may I:.e modified like the verb in the predicate (630).<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In the following propositions. point out the grammatical sulJjecL-the<br />
logical-and state how the grammatical subject is modified :-<br />
All men are not wise.-Tall oaks from little acorns grow.<br />
Milton's" Paradise Lost" is a work of great merit.--W isdom' s<br />
ways are pleasantness.-The love of money is the root of all<br />
evil.-Evil communications corrupt good manners.-The disposition<br />
to do good should be cherished.-The walls of Babylon<br />
were fifteen miles long.-A desire to excel will stimulate to<br />
exertion.-The effort to succeed will be cromled ,vith success.<br />
-All things come alike to all.<br />
Write Eeutences which have the subject mvuified by a noun in app",i.<br />
tion-vr a nouu in the possessive case-or by an adjunct-or by an adjective<br />
word-or by an infinitive mood-or by a clause of a sentcnce.<br />
MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS.<br />
617. Modifying or limiting words mDy themselves be modified :-<br />
1. A nQun modifying another, may itself be modified ill all the wnya in<br />
which a Doun as a grammatical subject is modified (614).<br />
2. An adjective qualifying a noun rnay itself be mcdified:-<br />
1. By an adjunct; as, "Be not weary in well.doing."<br />
2. By an adverb; as, "Truly virtuous men often endure reproach."<br />
3. By an infinitive; as, "Be swift to hear, and slow to speak."<br />
3. Again, an adverb may be modified :-<br />
1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to Nature."<br />
2. By another adverb; as .• < Yours very sincerely."<br />
618. A modified grammatical subject, regarded us a complex ide,'. r;twy<br />
itself be modified; as, The OLD bla!'k horse is dead.-The FIRST two hnts<br />
are good, the LAST two are bad. Here old,jirst.last,-each modifying sllb·<br />
jects already modified, viz., black horse, two lincs, two (linfs).<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modif) illg r:OQ1S<br />
modified '-tbe adjectives I-the adverbs'
132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem.<br />
Josephus, the Jewish histOJ;ian, relates the destruction of the<br />
temple.-That pictme is a tolerably good copy of the original.<br />
-Pride, that never failing vice of fools, is not easily defined.<br />
The author of Junius's letters is I:ltill unknown.-Truly great<br />
men are far above worldly pride.<br />
~. In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate.<br />
Iu lll(,dified subjects, distinguish the grammatical and logical (608, 609).<br />
To be good is to be happy.-To create creatures liable to<br />
wants, is to render them sU3ceptible of enjoyment.-To heal'<br />
patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great perfections of<br />
conversation.-To speak the truth is but a small part of our<br />
uuty.-It is a difficult thing to be idle (599).-It is a wise provision<br />
of Providence that inferior animals have not the gift of<br />
speech.-It is not intended that any individual should possess<br />
all advuntages.-That any individual should possess all advantages<br />
is not intended.<br />
THE PREDICATE.<br />
619. I. The predicate, like the subject (607), is either grammatical or<br />
logical.<br />
620. The grammatical predicate consists 0' the attribute and copula<br />
(601), !lot modified by other words.<br />
621. The attribute, which, together with the copula, f()I·ms the predi.<br />
cate, may be expressed by n noun or pronoun, an adjective. n participle,<br />
a prepositioo with its regimen, aod sometimes an adverb; as, "James is<br />
11 sc'wlar"-"J~mes islte'·-".Jamcs is diligent"-"James isZearncd"<br />
.. James is in health "-" John is not 80."<br />
622. The attribute is also exprcssed by an infinitive, or a dependent<br />
clause: as, "To obey is /0 e1Voy."-" The day is to be celebrated."-u The<br />
order is, that we must go."<br />
623. The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words 01'<br />
phrascs that modify it. Thus-<br />
"Nero was cl'Gel to his subjects."-" Was cruel" is the grammatical,<br />
and U was cruel to his subject"," the logical predicate. Again:" The<br />
Greeks took Troy by strata~em."-" Took" is the grammatical, and" took<br />
Troy by stratagem" is the logical predicate.<br />
624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms connect·<br />
ed with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the same; as,<br />
.. Life is short."-" The fire burn8."<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. In each,<br />
tell what is the grammaticill predicate, aod what is the logical predicate:
SYNTAX-A.NA.LYSIS. 133<br />
Time flies.-The summer is past.-The fields are covered<br />
with grain.-Great is trutb.-Coll4llbus discovered America.<br />
America was discovered by Columbus.-A free press is the<br />
beginning of a free government.-All governments should be<br />
founded on love.-It is religion that gives liberty to the world.<br />
62S.-U. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple 01' compound<br />
(611).<br />
626. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute; a8,<br />
" Life is short."-" Time jlif8."<br />
627. A compound predicate consists of two or nlorc simple predicates<br />
affirmed of one subject; as, "Cresar camc, and saw, amI c01l(Jlured."=<br />
" Truth i8 great ami will prevail."<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. Stato<br />
whether the predicate 13 8imple 01' compound. Distinguish the grammati·<br />
cal and logical:-<br />
1\Ian is mortal.-Wisdom is the principui thing.-God is<br />
good and merciful.--Honesty is praised and neglected.-The<br />
heart is the best and the worst part of man.-The use of travel<br />
is to widen the sphere of observation, and to euable us to examine<br />
and judge of things for ourselves.-Avurice is a mean<br />
and cowardly vice.-Talent is strength and subtility of mind.<br />
-Genius is mental inspiration and delicacy of feeling.-Talent<br />
is the lion and the serpent-genius is the eagle and the dove.<br />
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE.<br />
628. A grammatical predicate may be modified 01' limited in different<br />
ways.<br />
629. When the attribute (601) in the gl':lmmaticni predicute is a nuun,<br />
it is modified-<br />
1. By II noun or pl'onoun, limiting or describing the attriuute; as, "He<br />
is John the Baptist."-" He is my friend."-h lIe is my father's<br />
friend."<br />
o By an adjective or participle, limiting the attribute; as," Solomon<br />
was a wise king."-" It is a bird &il1ging."<br />
630. When the grammatical predicate is an nltrilJUtivc velb (604), it is<br />
modified-<br />
1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the at·<br />
tributive verb i as, .. John reads Homer,"-" I have heard him."<br />
2. By an adverb i as, I, John reads well,"<br />
3. By an adjullct (641); as, "They live in London."<br />
4. By an infinitive; as, "Boys love to play."<br />
5. By a dependent clause; ae, "Plato tuught that Ihe SOld is immorta.l."
ENGLISH GLAMMAR.<br />
631. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the<br />
verb in tbe predicate (630).<br />
632. 1J.. modifying clause, if a dependent propos:tion, mny be modifleu<br />
In both its subject aud predicate as other propositions.<br />
633. All other modifying words may themselves be modifieu, as similal'<br />
words al'e when modifYlIlg the subject (GLt).<br />
634. Srl'cra) moJifications nre sometimes connected with the same<br />
I'ledic·ltt:'.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In tile ful1owin?; sentences, name the subject anJ prcdicate-distinguish<br />
thc grammlltical and the logical predicate-show in what way the grarumatie:t1<br />
predicate is mouified in the logical.<br />
According to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches<br />
his flames ill the ocean.-Sincerity and truth form the basis of<br />
every \'irtuc.-The coach will leave the city in the morning at<br />
Bunrise.-The Sp:ll'tan youth werc accustomed to go barefoot.<br />
·-The atrocious crime of bein~ a youug man I shall attempt<br />
neither to palliate nor deny.-'l'rustillg in God implies a belief<br />
in him.-ll is pretence was, that the storm prevented his attend<br />
:mce.-His intention was to destroy the fleet.-Time flies rapidly.-I<br />
confess that I am in fault.-'\Villiam h:103 determilled<br />
tv ·go.-I "ish that he may succeed in his enterprise.-They<br />
said, "Thou hast t:~"ed our lives."<br />
[11 thp preceding exercises, show in which 2fntences, and by 'll'hat words'<br />
the modifiers of the predicate are themselves modified-also, in which the<br />
predicate h.'8 more than one modifier.<br />
CO)lPOUND SENTENCES.<br />
635. A COMPO!:!,;]' sentence consists of two or morc EimpJe sentences or<br />
propositions (592) connected t"6'cthel'; as, "If time is monry, wasl ing it<br />
must bc proJigality,'"<br />
636. The propositions which make up a compounJ sentence are called<br />
Ilumbers or clauses. III the preceding cVlDpounu sentence, the Illembers<br />
nre, ,. Time is money," and, "wasting it must be prodigality."<br />
.. Some gram!f1arians divh.le sentences into 3imple, complex, and compound. AcC'onliug<br />
to 1lu..; di\"isJOIl ('llmplex sentelll'('.:' are those which have olle or mOle ofLheir mt'lIIher:o;<br />
d"pendellt or subordinate; :1lld compound sentences arc those whose members are<br />
nil hl-eUpendent or t:oordinate. The classification seems to be defective iuloO"lCal accu·<br />
ruey inasmuch as every complex ~l'ntence is. ill one view atieast (646), al.~0 ~ompound<br />
anu 13 of course inclucted under that head. The division in th~ text 13 believed to L~<br />
more simple and accurate Ihan Ihe 11Irecfoid division here proposed.
SYNTAX-A NAT,\"5fS, 135<br />
L.~DEPENDENl'<br />
AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES.<br />
637. The clauses of a compound t'entence are either independ6l1t 01'<br />
dependent; sumetimes called co·orJi7late and suoordinale.<br />
63S. An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itsdf.<br />
639. A dependent clause is one that mal;es complete sense only in connection<br />
with auother clause.<br />
Thus, " 'Ve left when the sun set ;" " We left," is an independent clanse;<br />
it makes scnse by itself; "when the sun set." is a depenuent clause; it<br />
does not make complete seuse unless joined with the other clause.<br />
640. The dependent clause may often stand first; a~, .< When the sun<br />
set, we left."<br />
641. All the clauses of a seutence may be independent; one of them<br />
always must be independent.<br />
642. The clause on which another depends is called the leadin.1 clause;<br />
its subject, the leadillg subject; and its predicate, the leading predicate.<br />
But this leading clause itself may be depen!lent 011 another, which i" a<br />
leadi ng clause to it.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
Iu the following sentences, state which are ,qimple nnu which are com·<br />
pound. In the compound sentences, point out the members or clauses:-<br />
Ignorance moves our pity, and that modifies our aversion.<br />
If we have not always time to read, we have always time to<br />
reflect.-The poor if! haied ercn of his own neighbour, but the<br />
rich hath ruany friends.-The eyes of the Lord are in eYl'r,v<br />
place beholding the evil und the good.-Righteousness exalteth<br />
a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people.-Pride goeth before<br />
destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall.-Death and<br />
life are in the power of the tongue.-Though he slay me, yet<br />
will I trust in him.-The slothful man saitb, "There is a lion<br />
in the way."-When the righteous are in authority, the people<br />
rejoice.<br />
In the preceding simple scntences and members, point out the 8ubject<br />
and predicate, with their respective modifications-state what clauses are<br />
independent aud what dependent.<br />
COXNECTION OF CLAUSES.<br />
643. Clauses of the same kind, that is, indepenuent or depent!J:ltIt, aTe<br />
connected by such conjunctions and, OT, nor, but, yet, anu the like; as,<br />
II The harvest is past, the Bummer is ended, and we are not saveu,"
136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
644. In such sentences, the counective is often omitted, and generally.<br />
when the sentence consists of more than two members, it is omitted in all<br />
except the last, as in the above example (643).<br />
645. The memhers of a compound sentence, containillg onc or more<br />
dependent clauses, are usually connccted by relatives, cOlljunct.ion~, 01'<br />
conjunctive adverbs (534); thus,<br />
Relative-" That WHICH can not be cured must be endurerl."<br />
Conjunction-" The miser lives poor, TUAT he may die rich."<br />
COT/jILl/ctive .Adverb-" We shall go WHEN the cars go."<br />
III the first sentence, the relatioe not only stands as the subj('ct of "can<br />
1I(.t be cnTed," but also connects its c1ame with the leadillg clause; that<br />
connects the clauses in the eccund example, and when in the third.<br />
646. When a clause connected by that Can be regarded eithcr as the<br />
,ubject or the object of the vel b in tLe leading clau,;e, it is in c')U"tl'uction<br />
equivalent to a'substantive', and the whole may he I'egar,)ed as a simple<br />
sentence, though in a form really compuund. Thus, in the 8clltcnce,<br />
.. That melt should lie is base," there are two clalL,es c,)unecterl b\' tliat,<br />
constituting, of course, a compound sentence, an,] yet the dependent clause,<br />
.. That men should lie," is really tbe subject of is, and equivalent, to a noun.<br />
Thus viewed, the whole llJay be regs.rded as R simple sentence. So al,o,<br />
when the dependent clause is the olJect of the leadin::; verb; as, " I said<br />
thai ye are gods;" nnd also when either subject or predicate is modified by<br />
a relative clause.<br />
647. The connecting word is sometimes omitted; as, "This is the b(,nk<br />
I lost; I suppose yon found it," for, " This is the book whit'h I lost; I sup·<br />
pose that you found it."<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In the following compound sentences, state which c"lltain onlv independent<br />
clauseR, and which contain dependent "ne.s-point out the -dependent<br />
clauses, and show on what leading clauses tLey depend-name the connt'ct·<br />
ing words-state which llJay also be l'cgal'ued as simple sentences (6-16)_<br />
The weather was fine and the roads were excelll'nt, but we<br />
wero unfortunate in our companions.-It is said that the Atlantic<br />
is three thousand miles broad.-'While the bridegroom tarried<br />
they all slumbered.-As [is] a bird that wandercth from<br />
her nest, so is ~ man that wandereth from his place.-Beauty<br />
attracts attentIOn, as honor [ attracts] applause.-Talent is<br />
environed with many perils, and beauty [is emironed] with<br />
many weaknesses. -If we aim at nothing, we shall certainly<br />
achieve nothing.-Time is ever advancing, hut leaves behind<br />
it the traces of its flight.-1'his we know, that our future depends<br />
on our present.-Books which save the trouble of thinking<br />
are in great demand.-After the new world had been<br />
discovered, }'erdinand made a decree that no lawyers should
SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 137<br />
embark thither.-That is best which is most rationnl.-When<br />
I was a child, I thought as a child; but "hen I became a man<br />
I put away childish things.-I will come again and receive you<br />
to myself, that where I am there ye may be also.<br />
In the following sentences, what connecting words nre omitted!<br />
Pay me that thou owest.-It is said he can not pay his debts.<br />
-There is no doubt he is a man of integrity.-I am sure we<br />
can never accolllpli8h this without assistunce.-That is all you<br />
Imow.-All you can find is yours.-Could we have foreseen<br />
this difficulty, "\\"e might have avoided it.-I soon perceived I<br />
had still the power of motion.-The author dreads the critic;<br />
the miser, the thief; and the criminal, the judge.<br />
ABRIDGED rROPOSITIONS.<br />
648. A c"OII"'UlHl sentencE' may sometimes be converted into a simple<br />
Ol1e, by abridging its d('pendent elause.<br />
649. A depcudent clame is frequently Gbridged by omit ling the con·<br />
Ileeling word, and changing the verh of the predicate into a participle or<br />
iufiuitive.<br />
650. 'fhe pa,·tieiplc in the abridged clause will then stand either with<br />
its 8uhstantive in the case absolute (769), or ae a modifier of the leadill~<br />
subject. Thus. Absolule-" When the boys have finished their les50"",<br />
we will play;" abridged, "The boys having finished their lessons. we will<br />
play," As a modifier-" Wben we have finished our lessu113 we will play;"<br />
abridged, .. Hnvi11g finished our lessons we will play." Passively and<br />
absolulely-" \\'I,ell our work is fiuiBhcd we will play;" abridged, '" Our<br />
work being filiifhed, we will play."<br />
651. When the attribute, in the depelldent clause, consists of a noun<br />
0'" pronoun in the liomiuative case after the verb as a copula. it remains<br />
ill th2 same case in the abridged form; thus, II That he is a judge i3 of no<br />
c"llscqucnce; nbritlge:l," His being ajud,qe is of no cOllsequellce."-" I wns<br />
"ot aware that he was a judge ,-" abridged, "I was not aware of his beiug<br />
njudge" (799).<br />
652. The difference Letween these two modes of expression is thi, : In<br />
ti,e full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affirmed,- in<br />
the abritlged form, it is assumed.<br />
653. When the dependent clauoe is the object of the verb in the leadi11g<br />
clauoe, it may often he chanl!:ed for the infinitive with a subject; as,<br />
.. I know tbat be is a scholar;" abridged, " I know hill! to be a scholar."<br />
654. When, in such cases, the suluect of the dependent clause is the<br />
s"me as tbe suldect of tbe principal, it is omitted III the aLridged form;<br />
u., II I wished that I might go ,-" abridged, I wished 10 go."<br />
655. When the subject of thE!' uepen(\ent clause, connected by what,<br />
U,llld, whom, where, when, !tow, and the like, and relating to something yet<br />
futur~, is the same as that of tbe independent one, it is sOjlletimeR
lS8<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
abridged by retaining the connecting word, and omitting the subject be·<br />
fore the infinitive; as," I know not what I shall do;" abridged, " I know<br />
not what to do." In this way are to be analyzed and explained such<br />
phrases as, ., Il'here to go," .. when to read," .. how to do," .. whom to smd."<br />
&c.<br />
656. A depeudeut clauoe may often be abridged by sub.,tituting an<br />
equivalent qualifying word, or au adjunct; as, .. Tbe man w!to is honest<br />
will be respected;" abridged, " The !tonest ma:J. will Le respecten."-<br />
.. IVhen the sun set we returned; " abridged, "At 81lnset we returned,"<br />
657. ~everal dependcnt clauses may bc varionsly connected with the<br />
same leading clause, and abridged in the same manner as above; aB,<br />
U When they arrived at the station, they were informed that the cars had<br />
passed, an hour before;" abridged, .. Having arrived [or, on arriving]<br />
at the station, they were informed of the cars having passed all hour before."<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
1. Abridge snch propositions iu the preceding exercises as can be<br />
abridged.<br />
2, Extend the followiug abridged simple sentences into compound sentences.<br />
Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for<br />
California.-What to do 1 know not.-N 0 one can tell us where<br />
to go, or how to do.-The IVaI' being at an end, the troops were<br />
disbanded.--At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss<br />
"here to go.-The industrious and capable need fear no want.<br />
-A good name is the richest possession we have "hile living,<br />
and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead.-Of his<br />
having been successful, we have full assurance.-Of Lis being<br />
successful now, there is reason to doubt.<br />
658. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.<br />
State whether the sentence is simple 01' compound.<br />
If simple, name the logical subject and the logical predicate.<br />
Name the grammatical subject.<br />
Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical subjrct. is<br />
modifieu in the logical.<br />
Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is motli<br />
fied.<br />
Name the grammatical predicate.<br />
Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical predicate is<br />
modified in the logical.<br />
Show by what modifying words or phmses, if any, each modifying word<br />
Is modified.
SYNTAX-ANALYSIS,<br />
139<br />
If the sentence is compound, mention the members or clauses.<br />
State whethE:r they are independent or dependent.<br />
Show how the members are connected.<br />
Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its snbject, predicate,<br />
&c., as above.<br />
In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary to supply words left out by<br />
ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to tlJe relative what, nnd to tlJe com·<br />
ponlld relatives, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever; making also the<br />
change wlJich is necessary iu the relatives themoel \'es, whcn the antecedent<br />
is snpplied (266).<br />
659. MODELS OFAXALYSIS.<br />
1. "God iq good."<br />
This is a simple seutence, becanse it co~tains a single affil'mation (591).<br />
God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good is<br />
affirmed.<br />
b good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its subject.<br />
b is the verb or copula, lind good is the attribute.<br />
III this selltcnce, the grammatical subject aUlI predicate are tbe sume<br />
us the logical, because tbfY ure not. modificll by other words «(;10 and<br />
G~4).<br />
0,', more briefly, tbus,<br />
The logical subject is God.<br />
The los;ical predicate is is good, iu which is is tbe v(>rb 0" copula, and<br />
good the attJ'ihute.<br />
The grammatical subject amI prec:licate are the samc as the logical.<br />
2. "The sun and moon stood still."<br />
This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject.<br />
The logical subject is The ,.un and moon.<br />
The lc·gical predicate is stood still.<br />
The gl flmmatical subject is sun and moon, compound, alld cOllnected hy<br />
and, both modified by the (614, 4, Note, aud 711).<br />
The grammatical predicate is stood, moc:lified by 8till, an adverb, expressing<br />
manner.<br />
3. "The fear of tbe Lord is the beginning of wist 10m."<br />
This is a simple sentence.<br />
The logical subject is The fear of the Lord.<br />
The logical predicate is i,. lite beginning of wisdom.<br />
The grammatical st;bject isfear. It is limited by the alljunct of the<br />
Lord, and ,hown to be limitcd by the article the (GI4, 4, Note).<br />
The gl'amruatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or<br />
copula, nnd beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of<br />
wi,dom, aud shown to be limited by tILe.<br />
4. "A good ruan does what (= that which) is right, from principle."<br />
This i" a compounc:l sentence, containing oue leadiug and one depcndeut<br />
clause, connected by wlticlt.<br />
Tbe independent clause is A good man doe8 that from principle,
140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
The dopcndent clause is which is right, and is restricti"e of tl!(I·t in the<br />
lcauing clause, the antecedent to wlLich, the connecting w('rd.<br />
In the first or leading clanse-<br />
The logical subject is A good man.<br />
Tile logical predicate is docs tl,al from principle.<br />
The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to be<br />
indefinite by a.<br />
The grammatical predicate is docs, modified by its object, that, and the<br />
anjunct fr01ll principle; thai is modified by tile relati ve clause.<br />
In tlie second, or dependent elause-<br />
The l"gical subject is which. It also connecLs its clause with the ante·<br />
cedent that, and restl icts it.<br />
The l",>ical predicate is is rigid, in which is is the vcrh or copula, and<br />
right is the attl illUte.<br />
The grammatical suhject and predicate are the same :
SYNTAX-ANALYSTS. 1.11<br />
6. "Conversation makes a mlln wax wis('\' than himself, and that more<br />
by an b,ol\l"S discourse than by a day's meditation."<br />
This is a compoun,1 sentence, comisting of two iuJependent clauses,<br />
connected by and .. each of them has its owu depeudellt clause.<br />
The first independent clause is GOllvers.,lion make., a man [to] ,vax llriser.<br />
Its depeGdent clause is himself [is]. connected by them.<br />
The secont! independent dall'0 is [he does] that more by an hOlu's di .•-<br />
course. Its dependeut c1a'l,e is [hc does] by a day's 1IIcdil"lioll, conuccte,J<br />
by than.<br />
(The won]s supplie'l nre included in hrackets.)<br />
In the first independent clause-<br />
The logical subject is conversation.<br />
The logical preuicate is makes a man [to] u'ax wiser.<br />
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.<br />
The grammatical pn·uicate is makes, ll1d, man, which<br />
is also the subject of the verb 10 wox (872). It is shown to he uscu<br />
indefinitely by a, ond is (Iualifi,>, I by the predicati ve n,ljecti ve ,ei.,cr.<br />
In the clause dependent on the preccding, and connectecl by Iha,,<br />
The logical subject is himself (in thc nominative) (24(»).<br />
The logical predicate is is (understood).<br />
The grammatical subject and preclicate nre the ~ame as the logical.<br />
In the second independent proposition connected to the firAt by (111"<br />
The logical subject is he understood (for alllan).<br />
The logical predicatc is [does] that more by an hour's discouru.<br />
The grammatical subject is the same as the logic,d.<br />
The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is mo,liiied by its<br />
object that, representing the phrase fI'ax wiser Ihfln kilns"f: aI,,, by<br />
the adverb more, and the adjunct by discourse; alltl di,course j" limitcd<br />
by hour's which again is shown to be indefinite I;y the nrticle an.<br />
In the clause depenuent on the preceding, and connected by Ihan<br />
The logical subject is he (a man) understood,<br />
The logical predicate is [does] by a day's meditation.<br />
The grammatical subject is the same as the logic:ll.<br />
The grammatical predicate is does (lludersto
142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
The first dependent clause is [it is] attentively examined, connected as a<br />
condition by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges.<br />
The second dependent clause is by lchich it was created, connected also<br />
by which to hand in order to describe it.<br />
In the independent clause-<br />
The logical subject is The minutest plant or animal.<br />
The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to<br />
admire and adore the Omnipotent hand.<br />
The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound; its parts are<br />
connected as r.lternates by or (569), and both modified by IIdnutest<br />
(704).<br />
The grammatical predicate is affords and oblige~, compound; its parts<br />
flre connected by and. .I1ffords is modified by it.s object, wonders,<br />
wbich is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object, us,<br />
the infinitive to admire and to ado-re, of which us is also the subject,<br />
and tbese infinitin~s are modified by their object, hand, which is quali.<br />
fied and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by which it<br />
was created.<br />
'J'be verbs affords and obliges are modified also by the<br />
conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined.<br />
In tbe first dependent clause-<br />
The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal.<br />
The logical predicate is is attentit·cly examined.<br />
The grammatical subject is it.<br />
The grammatical predicate is is examined; which is modified by the<br />
adverb ~f manner, attentively.<br />
In the second dependent c1ause-<br />
The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal.<br />
The logical predicate is was created by which.<br />
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.<br />
The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct,<br />
by u'hich, refel'l'ing to hand, its antecedent;<br />
The preceding process of analysis, wbich takes up so much room on<br />
paper, may be accompli,hed orally with great rapidity. L~t this be done<br />
in the following-<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
In the sarno way, analyze tbe follow:ng sentences:-<br />
Knowledge is power.-Truth is the basis of honor: It is the<br />
beginning of virtue: It liveth and conquereth for ever.-Time<br />
is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven.-Tbe heart<br />
and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man.<br />
Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment.<br />
Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the<br />
mind.
SYNTAX-ANALYSIS.<br />
He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive.<br />
True religion give;; order and beauty to the world, and, after<br />
life, a better existence.<br />
A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a great.<br />
er brings us back to it again.<br />
. What we know is nothing, but what we are ignoral'lt of is<br />
Immense.<br />
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even<br />
so to them.<br />
1\1any men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but<br />
great aud glorious in life and death.<br />
To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great per·<br />
fection~ of conversation.<br />
Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions<br />
which sa\'e the labor of working, are in universal demand.<br />
Solon Gompared the people to the sea, and orators and coun·<br />
sellors to the winds; for (he said) that the sea would be calm<br />
and quiet if the winds did not trouble it.<br />
Sume cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect phi.<br />
losophers in practice j as others anvocate religion, who are<br />
nevertheless indifferently religious.<br />
II. COKSTRCCTION OF SENTENCES.<br />
660. \V ORDS are arranged in sentences, according to<br />
certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax (662 and 666).<br />
661. GENERAL l'R1NCll'LEB.<br />
1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (01' subject),<br />
expressed 01' understood.<br />
2. Every article, aojectiyc, adjective pn'noun, 01' participle, mu,t have<br />
a substantive (IO(). expreEsed or undel'>tood.<br />
3. Every nominative or subjed has its own verb, expressed or undel"<br />
stood.<br />
4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infiuitive or partici.<br />
pIes) has its own nominative, expressed or understood.<br />
5. Every possessive case is governed by n noun or substantive whose<br />
signification it sel'ves to limit.<br />
6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the active
144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
voice, or a preposition, or denotes circumstances of lime, value, weight, or<br />
measure (828).<br />
7. The infinitive mood is governed by !l verb, adjecti ve, 0[' noun.<br />
The exceptions to these genel'"l principles will appear nnder the Rules<br />
of Syntax.<br />
PARTS OF SYNTAX.<br />
662. The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to<br />
three hc~cls, viz., Concord or agreement, Government,<br />
and Position.<br />
663. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has<br />
with another in gend·,-!', number, case, or person.<br />
664. GOYERNIIIENT is the power which one word has<br />
in determining the mood, tense, or c~se, of another<br />
word. The word goyerned by another word is called<br />
its regimen.<br />
665. POSITION means the place which a word occupies<br />
in relation to other \yords in a sentence.<br />
666. III the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean·<br />
ing of. a sentence often dep('[]ds milch on the position of the words of wbich<br />
it consists. .<br />
RULES OF SYNTAX.<br />
RULE I.-Substantives denoting the same person or<br />
thing agree in c~se; as,<br />
The river Thames. Cicero tbe orator. Paul the apostle. I myself. I<br />
Paul have WI itten it. I Wisdom dwell with prudence. Napoleon the<br />
third (emperor of that name). Ye mcu of Athens. Queen Mary (667, ,\:c.)<br />
RULE 11.-1. An adjectiyc or participle qualifies the<br />
substantive to which it belongs; as,<br />
A good boy; a new book; and old hat; a rough road; a steep hill; a<br />
lofty mouutain; God is good; an amusing story; a man loved by all.<br />
2. Alljectiycs denoting OIlC, qualify nouns in the singular:<br />
adjectives dcnoting more than one, qualify nouns<br />
in the plural; as,<br />
One man; this book; that house; two men; th~se books; those houses;<br />
th~ sixth day; seven days j several weeks; many sorrows; these people<br />
thIS court (676. &e.)
RULES OF SYNTAX. 145<br />
RULE I1I.-I. The article a or an is put before common<br />
nouns in the singular number, when used indefinitely<br />
j as,<br />
A man; a house; II tree; an acorn; an hour; II history; an historical<br />
fact; a youth; a unit. 186-187 and '107.<br />
2. The article the is put before common nouns either<br />
singular or plural, when used definitely j as,<br />
"The SUD shines."-"The moon rises."-uThe city of New York."<br />
"The age of improvement."-" The seven stars."-"The twelve Cresars."<br />
"The most virtuous (men) are the most happy" (707, 2).<br />
RULE IV.-Pronouns agree with the nouns for which<br />
they stand in gender, number, and person; as,<br />
"All that a man hath will he give for his life."-" A tree is known by<br />
its fruit."-" Jane is fond of her books; though she has long lessoDs, she<br />
learns them well."-" The court has finished its busin!'ss."-" The people<br />
elect their rulers" (729, &c.)<br />
RULE V.-:-The relative agrees with its antecedent in<br />
number and person; as,<br />
"The man who speaks."-" The book which was lost."-" The frieuds<br />
whom we love."-" Ye who love mercy."-'·I that speak to yon."-"The<br />
same man that we saw."-"The best tbing you can do" (742, &c.)<br />
RULE VJ.-The subject of a finite verb is put in the<br />
nominative; as,<br />
"I am."-"Thou speakest."-" He l'eads."-" We talk."-" Time flies.'<br />
-" Who did that ?"-" I know who did it."-" Do you know who is to<br />
blame "'_u He is taller than I (am)-than she (is)" ('160, &c.)<br />
RULE. VII.-A substantive whose case depends on no<br />
other word is put in the nominative absolute; as,<br />
"The ship having arrived, all is safe."-" He being alooe, there was no<br />
one to disturb him."-uYour fatbers, wbere are tbe) 1"-"01' I only and<br />
Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working '''-'' 0 Absalom 1 my<br />
son, my son I "_u Plato, thou reasonest well" (768, &0.)<br />
RULE VIII.-A verb agrees with its nominative in<br />
number and person; as,<br />
"I write."-"Thou writest."-" He reads."-" We sell"-" They buy."<br />
-"John and James are brothers."-"Jane or Mary is at home.,,-uThe<br />
army is on its march."-" The people are kind."-u The man 'Who met us!'<br />
_u He that is soon aDgry dealeth foolishly."_u Come (ye) and 8ee."-" Go<br />
thou and do likewise."-" Who art thou i" ('176, &0.)<br />
RULE IX.-The predicate substantive after a verb is<br />
put in the same case as the subject before it; as,<br />
10
146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
" I :un he."-u Y (' are they who justify yom·,elves."-" God is love."<br />
" W II" do BIen sny that I, the Son of man, alii 1"-" He is a good 01111l."<br />
.. lie is said to be a good man."-" They )'('pl'esented him to be II gnod<br />
m IU."-"Snying is not doing" (796, &c.)<br />
RULE X.-A transitive verb in the active voice, governs<br />
the objective case; as,<br />
"We love him."-" He loves us."-" '.Yhnm shall I send 1"-" Send me."<br />
_" Honor thy father and mother."-" Them that honor me I will honor."<br />
_" Boys love to play."-" Boys love playing."-" I know that thou fearest<br />
God."-" Jesus I kuow, amI Paul I know; but who art thou 1" (B01. &c.)<br />
RULE XI.-A preposition governs the objective case;<br />
as,<br />
"Of him, nnd through him, and to him, are all things: to whom be glory<br />
for ever."-" To whom much is given, of him much shall be required."<br />
.. Come with us and we will do (to) thee good."-" Science they do not<br />
pretend to."_" Whom did he speak to ,n (BIB, &c.)<br />
RULE XII. - Certain words and phrases should be followed<br />
by appropriate prepositions; as,<br />
"Confide in,"-" dispose 0f,"-" adapted to,"-" swerve from," &c. (Bi4,<br />
«c.)<br />
RULE XIII.-One substantive governs another in the<br />
possessive, when the latter substantive limits the signification<br />
of the former; as,<br />
"Pompey's pillar." -" Virtue's reward." -<br />
II Locke's essays."-" For<br />
righteon3ness' sakc." _" For con@cience' sake."-" The duke of Wellington's<br />
funeral."-" The secretary of state's office."-" Whose pen is this f"-" It<br />
is John's-it is not mine" (241)-" It came from the stationer's."<br />
•• Brown, Smith, & Uo.'s warehouse" (839, &c.)<br />
RULE XIV.-The SUbjunctive mood is used in dependent<br />
clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and<br />
futurity, are expressed; as,<br />
"Though he slay me yet will I trust in him."-" If he study he wi1l improvc."-"If<br />
he do but touch the hills they shall smokc."-" See thou do it<br />
not" (857, &c.)<br />
RULE XV.-The infinitive mood is governed by verbs,<br />
nouns, or adjectives j as,<br />
"I desire to learn."-" A desire to learn."-u Anxious to learn."-"To<br />
do good and to communicate, forget not."_U To perform is better than to<br />
promise."-" Fools who came to scoff, remruned to pray."_CI Let us go."<br />
.f You need not go" (B66, &c.)<br />
RULE XVI.-Participles have the construction of<br />
nouns, adjectives, and verbs; as,
tmLES OF SYNTAX. 117<br />
(NOUN.)_II Saying is not doiog."-" In lhe keepiog of his command·<br />
ments."-" A forsaking of the truth."-" Avoid doing evil." (ADJEOTIVE.)<br />
-" The sword hangs rusting on the wall."-" A bound book."-" The lost<br />
sheep!' (VERB.)-" Having loved his own, he loved them to the eDd."<br />
" The men stood speechless, heariDg a voice, but seeing no mfLD" (8\)0, &c.)<br />
RULE XVII.-In the use of verbs, and \\-orc.1s that in<br />
point of time relate to each other, the order of time must<br />
be observed; as,<br />
II I have known him many year8."-" I expected he would come" (not<br />
"would have come.")-" I expect he will come."-" It would have been<br />
easy to do it" (not" to have done it." )-" I expected to go " (Dot" to have<br />
gone") (90S, &c.)<br />
RULE XVII I.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and<br />
other adverbs j as,<br />
"John speaks distinctly; he is remarkably diligent; nnd rends vel'Y<br />
correctIy."-" Jnlia sings well."-" The clay is far spcnt."-"Time passes<br />
swiftly and imperceptibly."-" Where have you bepn ?"-" Whom did you<br />
see there 1 "-" When will you retul'll! "_" Soon" ([I~~, &c.)<br />
RULE XIX.-Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or<br />
sentences j as,<br />
"You and he must go; but I stay at homc."-" Honor thy father amI<br />
thy mother."-" He or his brother is to blame."-" They can neither read<br />
nor write."-" He is slow, but sure."-" While the earth remainclh, sced·<br />
time and harvest, aDd cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and<br />
night, shall not cease" (~H, &c.)<br />
RULE XX.-Interjections have no grammatical connection<br />
with the other words of a sentence; as,<br />
"0 ye of little faith 1"-" Ah me 1"-" 0 cruel thou 1"-" Envious of<br />
David Garrick 1 Poh 1 poh! Pshaw I pshaw 1" (97(), &c.)<br />
GENERAL RULE.<br />
In every sentence, the words employed, and the order<br />
in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly<br />
and properly to express the idea intended; and, at the<br />
same time, all the parts of a sentence should correspond,<br />
and a regular and dependent construction be<br />
preserved throughout (973).<br />
ELLIPSIS.<br />
RULE I.-An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admi!,<br />
sible, when they can be supplied by the mind with such
48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense; as,<br />
"We walked by faith, not by sight" (977, &c.)<br />
RULE 2.-An ellipsis is not allowable when it would<br />
obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended<br />
with any impropriety (97!), &c.)<br />
SUI3STANTIVES IN APPOSITION.<br />
667. RULE I.-Substantives denoting the same person<br />
01' thing, agree ~'n case (162); as:-<br />
" Cicero the orator."-" I Paul have written it."-" We, the people of<br />
the United States."-" re woods and wilds."_u This was said to us men."<br />
-" The river Thamcs."-" Jane and Eliza, Mary's cousins."-"Tha chief<br />
(If the princes, he who defied the enemy," &c.-" That was related of Dr.<br />
II "est, him who trnDslat,~d Pindar."<br />
668. The word nnn~xed is said to be in apposition with the otber, and<br />
is added to express some attribute, description, o~ appellation, belonging<br />
to it. The "'
SYNTAX-ADJECTIVES. 149<br />
674. A substantive is sometimes conuected with another in a 601 t of ap·<br />
position by the word as, meaning in the condition or. in the capacity of,<br />
thus, "Cicero, us an orator, was bold-us a ~oldil'J", he was timid." But<br />
here-the reverse of the former case (6G9)-the wldantive in apposition<br />
with another in the possessive case, or with a possc what!<br />
III what case do tbey agree 1 Give the rule:-<br />
Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity.<br />
Byron, the poet, the only son of Captain John Byroll, was<br />
bom in 1788.-Coleridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative<br />
poet, was the friend of 'Yorc1sworth.-My brother<br />
,Villiam's estate has been sold .<br />
.. And on the palace floor, a lifeless corsc she lay."<br />
EXERCISEr:; TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
As the nominative and the objective cnee in nOllns arc aliko in EIl::;-lisl"<br />
there is no liability to error under tbis rule, except in the case of prononns.<br />
Please give that book to my brother William, he who standt!<br />
by the window.-The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned<br />
before.-Do you speak so to me, I who have so often<br />
befriended you ?-I speak of Yirgil, he who wrote the .lEneid.<br />
AN ADJECTIYE WITH ~\. SUBSTANTIYE.<br />
676. RULE II.-1. An adjcctiee or ji(/rticiplc qualifies<br />
the subsialltiec to which it belongs (196); as, ,,~\ good<br />
man.<br />
2. Adjectives denoting ONE, qualify nouns in the sin-
150 ENGLlSII GRAMMAR.<br />
gular; adjectives denoting MORE THAN ONE, qualify nouns<br />
in the plural; as, " This man."-" These men."-" Six<br />
feet. "<br />
677. AJjectives denoting one are tlie ordinals first, second, third, &c.<br />
(206), last-this, that-one, each, every, either, neither, much, and its com·<br />
parative lIlore-all, denoting quantity, enough, whole.<br />
678. When any of these is joined to a plural noun, the whole is reo<br />
garded as ons aggregate; as, "The first two weeks "-" Every ten miles"<br />
-" The last four lines "-" The last days of summer," die. But the verb<br />
after such subjects is usually plural.<br />
679. In such expressions, the cardinal number, if small, may precede<br />
the words .first and last, but not the other cardinal! ; as, .. The two first<br />
weeks "-" The four last lines" (705-3), meaning the two weeks at the<br />
beginni7li;, or preceding all the rest-the four lines at the end, or succeeding<br />
all the rest.<br />
680. 'I'wo 01' more adjectives, expressIng qualities that belong to diffelent<br />
objects of the mme name, and that name expressed only with the last,<br />
should have an article before each; as, "The red and the wltite rose "<br />
that is, two roses, the one red, and the other white. So," The first and<br />
the second page "-" The first and the second verse "-" The Old and the<br />
New World." It has become common, however, even with good writers,<br />
to drop the second article, and change the singular into the plural, to express<br />
the same idca; thus, U The first and second pages "_U The Ii.rst and<br />
second verses," &c. This mode of expression, though incorrect in itself,<br />
is lcss stiff and formal than the other. (See Appendix IX.) When adjectives<br />
denoting one are connected by or, nor, &c., the noun must be singular.<br />
681. Adjectives denoting more than one are the following, viz.-all cardinal<br />
numbers above one; as, two, three, &c.-few, many, with its compara·<br />
tive more-all, denoting number, both, several, and enow. Enow is nearly<br />
obsolete.<br />
682. Adjectives withont s substantive expressed are often used as<br />
nouns; as, "The rich and the poor meet togcther " (201). This is especially<br />
common with all adjective pronouns except the possessive, and the<br />
distributive every; as, "Of books, some are gOOd, some are bad."-" All<br />
things come alike to all" (289.)<br />
683. A,ljectives are sometimes usell indefinitely after an infinitive or<br />
participle, without reference to any particular substantive, to express an<br />
abstract idea; as, "To be good is to be Itappy."-" Being good is better<br />
than being great."<br />
684. 'When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its substantive<br />
in the subject; as, " God is good, he is also just."_u To do good<br />
to others is profitable to ourselves."-" That men should lie, is basc."<br />
685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not<br />
considered simply as a substanti ve, but as a substantive affected by the<br />
action of the connecting verb, which, in that ca~e, may be regarded as a<br />
strengthened or modified copula (601); as, "That type stands low."<br />
" Thisfruit tastes bitter."-" The wind blows cold,"_u The door is painted
SYNTAX-ADJECTIVES. 151<br />
grccn."-" John grows tall."-" Milk turns sour."-" Clay bums whitc."<br />
" Down feels soft."<br />
686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly, called<br />
adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead<br />
of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction should be e"refully<br />
marked. Thus-<br />
The adverb exprcsses the manner of the ael.<br />
The adjective expresses the condition, or state of the subject.<br />
Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding<br />
adjunct (5,11), the adverb should be used; as, "The' stn'am flows mpidly"<br />
(in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fioll's.<br />
But when the meaning call be expressed nearly by suhstituting the \'erb<br />
to be or to become as a copula, the adjectil'e should be usc,l; as, "The<br />
stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is furthcr illustrated by the follow·<br />
ing examples, viz. ;-<br />
ADJECTIV ES.<br />
John grows [becomes] old.<br />
She looks [is] cold.<br />
He feels [is] warm.<br />
The eagle flies lis J Itiglt.<br />
The apple tastes l is] sweet.<br />
ADVEaD.:;.<br />
JOhll grows j'apidly [in a rapid manncr.l<br />
She looks coldly [in a cold mannc,'] on him.<br />
He feels warmly [in a warm manlll'!'] the insult.<br />
The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift mauncr.]<br />
JlIary 8iugs "wcetly [in a swect manner.]<br />
687. Adjectivcs should not be used liS adverbs; thus, "mi.,erable poor,"<br />
should be, "miserably poor "-" sings elegant," should be, .. Binga elegantly."<br />
So also, adverbs should not be used as a'ljcctivcs «()25); thus, " He arrived<br />
safely," should be, .. He arrived safe."<br />
688. This here, that there, tit em books, are vulgarisms, fur this, that,<br />
those hooks.<br />
689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and noun togcther<br />
as one compound term; liS, " A venerable old man "-" The best black tea."<br />
690. Sometimes lin a,ljcctive modifies the~eaning of another adjec,<br />
tive; as, .. red·hot iron "_u a bright·red color."<br />
691. Severlll adjectives frequently qualify the same substauti\'c; liP,<br />
" A large, strong, black horse."<br />
This, that-these, those.<br />
692. Whcn two or morc objects are contrasted, this refcl'3 to the bot<br />
mentioned, that to the first; as, Virtue and vice are opposite qualities;<br />
thai ennobles the mind, this debases it."<br />
693. FJrl/ler amI latter are used in the same way (304). So also, the<br />
one, the otlter, referring to words in the singular or plural (307).<br />
694. When no contrast is expressed, this refel's to a thing near, or just<br />
menti.ned, and that to a thing more rcmote or formerly mentioned.<br />
CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.<br />
695. When one object is compared with one other of the same class, or<br />
with more than one of a different class, individually, Of in the aggregate,
152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
tbe comparative is used; as,."James is the weal,". of the t~~"_11 He is<br />
taller than his fllther.-" He IS taller than any of IllS brothers.<br />
696. Sometimes however, when two objects of the same class are com·<br />
pared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal;<br />
as, "James is the lIwlkesl of the two."<br />
697. When one object is compared with more than one of the same<br />
class, the superlative is u,e
SYNTAX--ADJECTIVES. 153<br />
8. It has been disputed whether the Ilumerals, two, three, four, &c.,<br />
should be placed before the WOld" first an,1 last, or after them, when used<br />
to indicate the beginning and the end (,f a series. On thi, poiut, with<br />
email nnmber8, usage is ueady c'{nally divided; aud, a8 the matter now<br />
stands, in some cases the (Inc form Beems to be preferable, and in some, the<br />
other. In thi~ COllS!l'uCliolJ, a~ ill Borne oth;rB. which in.volve Il? impr?pri.<br />
ety, euphot,)' and taste Eu'lll to govern. fl,l" much IS certam-Iletther<br />
form can be justly condemned, nil ll:c grvund of either authority 01' propriety.-Sce<br />
A ppendix X. p. 256.<br />
705. An acljcclive is placed (lfler its
154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire.<br />
-The boat glides slUooth over the lake.- (685) Magnesia feels<br />
smoothly.--Open the door widely.--The door is painted greenly.<br />
(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst<br />
of all.-Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost.<br />
(69~) I, For beast aDd bird;<br />
These to their grassy cuuch, those to thtil' Dests, repair."<br />
" Night's shadows lJeuce, from theDce the lIlorning's shine;<br />
That bright, this dark, til is eartilly, that divine."<br />
(69:!') That very subject which we are now discussing is still<br />
involved in mystery.-This vessel, of which yoa spoke yesterterday,<br />
sailed in the evening.<br />
(698-700) That merchant is the wcalthiest of aa his neighborB.-China<br />
has a greater populatioll than any nation on<br />
earth.-That ship is larger than any of it~ class.-There is<br />
more gold in California than in any part of X orth A merica.<br />
The birds of Brazil are more beautiful th:lIl any in South America.-Phibdclphia<br />
is the most regulat' of :my city in Europe.<br />
-Israel loved Joseph more than all his children.-Solomon<br />
was wiser than any of the ancient kings.<br />
(701, 702) A morc worthier Illan you can not find.-The<br />
nightingak's voicc is the most s'.Ycetcst in the groyc.-A worseI'<br />
evil ,Yet awaits us.-Tlw rumor h:18 not spread so llniversaIIy<br />
as we sllPposed.-Dnt,y that line Jl1ure perpendicular.-This<br />
figur'e is a mure perfect circle than that is.-IIe is far from<br />
being so pcrfcct a~ hc thinb he is.<br />
THE ~\RTICLE AND ITS NOUN.<br />
707. RULE 111.-1. The article A or AN is put before<br />
common nouns in the singular nwnb, r when used INDEF<br />
INITELY (185); a>" ".:1 man"- "An apple;" that is,<br />
"any man "-" {(IIY apple" (186, 187).<br />
8. The article THE is put before common nouns, eithe1'<br />
singular or plural, when used DEFINITELY (191); as,<br />
"The sun rises "-" The city of New York."<br />
[See Etymology of the Article 183.J:<br />
708. A common nOUD, in tLc singular number, witilout an article or<br />
limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense; ao, " Nan is mOl'lal ,,_<br />
" Anger is a short madness."
SYNTAX-ARTICLE. 155<br />
709. The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particularize a<br />
species or class, without specifying any individual under it; as, the oak,<br />
the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, horse,<br />
or raven, but the class, so called, in a general sense. Iu such cases, wheththe<br />
noun is used to denote a class or an individual, can be determined<br />
only by the sense, as in the following examples: "The oak produces<br />
acol'DS "-" The oak was struck by lightning."-" The horse is a noble animal<br />
"-"The horse ran away."-"The lion sha\) eat straw like the ox "<br />
"The lion tore the ox in pieces."-" The night is the time for repose "<br />
"The night was dark."<br />
710. Every article belongs to a nouu, expressed or understood, except<br />
as in '714 and '115.<br />
711. When several nouns are connected in the same constrnction, the<br />
article is commonly expressed with tbe first, and understood to the rest;<br />
as, "The men, women, and children are expectcd." But when emphasis,<br />
or a different form of the article is required, the article is prefixed; as, "The<br />
men, the women, and the children, are expected "_,, A borse and an aIi9."<br />
712. But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunctively<br />
connected, the article must be repeated; as, "The men, OJ' the women, 01'<br />
the children, are expected."<br />
713. The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun; as, "The<br />
l'ighteous is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before adjectives in<br />
the superlatiTe degree, when comparison is implied (213); as, "Gold is<br />
the most precious of the metals." But when comparison is not implied,<br />
the superlative is either without an article, or has a or an preceding it; as,<br />
".11 most excellent man."<br />
714. The is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adverbs in<br />
the comparative degree; as, ., The higher the mountain, the colder its top"<br />
-" The faster he goes, the sooner he stops." Thue uscd it performs the<br />
function of lin adverb.<br />
715. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, commonly has tho<br />
article the before it; as, "Alexander the Great "-" Charles the Fifth."<br />
This may be considered as inverted for "The grcat Alexander." "The<br />
fifth Charlcs;" or, by ellipsi~, for" Alexander, the great [conqneror],"<br />
"Charles, the fifth [emperor of the name]."<br />
716 . .11 or an is sometimes put before the IIdjectives few, hundred, thousllnd,<br />
follol\!ed by II plnral noun; as, ".11 few men "-".11 hundred acres "<br />
".11 thousand miles." In such cases, the adjective lind noun may be considered<br />
as a compound term, expressing one aggregllte, lIud having lhe construction<br />
of a collective noun ('790). 01' the adjective may he regarded as<br />
a collective noun (20'7), and the noun following governed by oj, understood;<br />
as, ".11 few [of] men "-".a hundred [of] acres," &c. This is evidently the<br />
construction of larger numbers; thus, we never say, "A million dollars,"<br />
but, "A million of dollars."<br />
717. When two or more IIdjectives belong to the same noun, the article<br />
of the noun is put with the fir~t adjective, but not with the rest; as, ".11 red<br />
and white rose," that is, one rose, partly nd and partly while. But,<br />
7lB. When two or more adjectives belong each to a dWerenl object of<br />
the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective; as, .. A
156 ENGLISH GRA~!~IAR.<br />
red and white rose "=" A retl rOEe and a white rose," thnt is, two roeea,<br />
one red and the other white.<br />
719. The same remark applies to the demonstrative that; as, "Thnt<br />
great and good man "-" That gr('at nnd that good man."<br />
720. So also when two 01' more epithets follow a noun, if both designate<br />
the same person, tbe article precedes the first only. If they designate dif·<br />
ferent persons, tbe article must precede each; thus, "Johnson, the book·<br />
seller and stationer," menns one man, who is both a bookseller and a sta·<br />
tioner; but, "Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," means two men,<br />
one a bookseller, nnmed Johnson, and the olher a staticner, not named.<br />
721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the<br />
same person or thing, the last must want the article; as, "He is a better<br />
soldier tban statesmall." But when thcy refer to different persons, the<br />
last must have the article; as, "lIe is a better soldier than a statesman<br />
[wonld be]."<br />
722. The article a before the adjectivcsfew and little, rendera the mean·<br />
ing po.ritirc; as, "A few men cau do that "-I< He deserves a little credit."<br />
But without the article the meaning iH negath'e; as, "Few men can do<br />
that "-" He deserves little credii."<br />
723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and some other writiuga of<br />
that time, the is often used before which; as, "'fhat worthy name by the<br />
which ye are called "-"The which when 1 had Ec(:n."-Bunyan.<br />
724. The article is generally omitted before proper names, abstract n01lns,<br />
and namcs of l'irtues, vices, arts, sciences, &c., when not restricted, and such<br />
other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to require it;<br />
a~, "Christmas is in December "-"Lo;ic audowthematics are important.<br />
studies "-" Truth is mighty." Still certain proper uames, and names used<br />
in a certain way, have the article prefixed; as, "The .'lIps "-I< The Rhine"<br />
-" The .I1zores "_" The immortal JVashington "-" TIe wao a JOh",OIl, of<br />
thc family of the Johnsolls, in England."<br />
POSITION OF THE .ARTICLE.<br />
725. The article is commonly placed before its nonn; as, ".11 man"<br />
"The man."<br />
726. If the noun is qualified by an adjective bcfore it, the article pre·<br />
cedes the adjective; ns, ".11 good man."<br />
727. But the article follows the adjectives, all, such, many, what, both;<br />
and nil ndj ectives preceded by ioo, so, as, or how; as, ".!J.ll the men"<br />
"Such alDan "_" Many a mau "--I< H7wt a mnn "-" Both the men "<br />
"Too great a man "-1< So great a man "-".I1s great a man "-" How great<br />
a man."<br />
728. When the adjective follows the noun, not as au epithet, the article<br />
remaius before the noun, and the adjective is witbout it; ae, "A man<br />
destitute of principle should not be husted." For an adjective as an epi.<br />
thet, see (715) above.<br />
NOTE.-The use of the article is so ,aried, tbat the best general rule is<br />
to study what the sense requires, both as to its proper u~e and position.
SYNTAX-ARTJCLE. 157<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give II rea·<br />
son for so doing :-<br />
(707-1 and 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a<br />
spring.-A life of the modern soldier is ill represented by heroic<br />
fiction.-Earth existed at first in the state of chaos.-An<br />
age of chivalry is gone.-A.. crolld at the door was so great that<br />
we could not enter.-The large number of men was present.<br />
(708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, arc four<br />
elements of the philosophers.-Reason was given to a man to<br />
control his passions.-A man was made to mourll.-The gold<br />
is corrupting.-The sil,er is a preeious metal.<br />
(709) Horse is a noble animal.-A lion is generous, a cat is<br />
treacherous, a dog is faithful.-A horse-leech cries, "Give,<br />
give," and a grave is never satisfied.-Tho war has means of<br />
destruction more dreadful than a cannon or a sword.<br />
(71~) Neither the man nor boy was to blame.-A man may<br />
be a mechanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and respectedj<br />
but idler or spendthrift can never be either.<br />
(713) We should ever pay attention to graceful and becoming.<br />
-The memory of just is blessed; but the name of wicked shall<br />
rot.-Best men are often those who say Jeast.-James is a man<br />
of the most brilliant talents.-Keep good and throw bad away.<br />
(715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty; Pliny<br />
younger for gentleness and benignity.-l'eter Hermit proposed<br />
his plan for recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin n.-The<br />
father of William Cowper, poet, was chaplain to George II.<br />
(717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed<br />
from the tower.-A beautiful stream flows between the old and<br />
new mansion.-A hot and cold spring were found in the same<br />
neighborhood.-The young and old man seem to be on good<br />
terms.-The first and second book are difficult.-Thomson the<br />
watchmaker and the jeweler made one of the party.<br />
(721) A man may be a better soldier than alogician.-There<br />
is much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a<br />
mastel'.-He is not so good a poet as an historian.<br />
(722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business.-A<br />
little respect should be paid to those who deserve<br />
llone.-Let the damsel abide with us a few days.-Are not my<br />
days a few?-A few men of his age enjoy 80 good health.
158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
A PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT.<br />
729. RULE IV.-Pronouns agree with the words for<br />
which they stand, in gender, number, and person; as,<br />
" All that a man hath will he give for his life "-" A tree<br />
is known by its fruit."<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
730. RULE l.-JVhrn a pronoun refers to two or more words taken<br />
together, it becomes plural; and, if they are of different persons, prefers<br />
the first person to the second, and the second to the third; as, "He and she<br />
did their duty," "John and you and I will do our duty."<br />
RULE 2.-mien a pronoun refers to two or more words in the singular<br />
taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it musl be singular; as,".A<br />
clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved."<br />
RULE 3.-But if either of the wOl'ds referred to is plural, the pronoun<br />
must be plural also; as, "Neither he nor they trouble themselves." Dish'i·<br />
butives are always of the third person singular (301).<br />
731. Nouns are taken together when connected by and-8cparately<br />
when connected by 01' or nor, as above; also after each, every, no, though<br />
connected by and; as, "Each book and each paper is in its place."<br />
732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately,<br />
they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun,<br />
common gender, except by a clnmsy repetition of pronouns of the corresponding<br />
genders; thus, .. If any man or woman shall violate his or her<br />
pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such<br />
cases, though sometimes used, is improper; as, "If any man or woman<br />
shall violate their pledge," &c.<br />
733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the com·<br />
mon gender (126), tnken in a general sense, are commonly masculine; as,<br />
".A parent should love his child."-" Every person has his faults."-" No<br />
one should commend ltimscU:" The want of a oingular personal prononn,<br />
common gender, is felt also in tbis construction.<br />
734, A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, ex·<br />
pressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular; but when<br />
the noun expresses many as individuals, the prononn should be plural; as,<br />
"The army proceeded on its mnrch."-" The court were divided in their<br />
opinion."<br />
735. A singular noun after the phrase, .. many a," may take a pronoun<br />
in the plural, but never in the same clause; as-<br />
H In Hawick twinkled many a light<br />
Behind him soon they set in Dight."-W. Scott.
SYNTAX-PRONOUNS. 159<br />
736. The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the beginning of 1\<br />
Hfnt"nce, instead of the word person or persons; as, .. IIe who" -" They<br />
who "-also" Those who "-for" 'I he persons who."<br />
737. Pronouns representing nouns personified (12G), take the gender<br />
(,f the noun as a person; as, .. Kight sable goddess, from her chon throne."<br />
But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorically (1046, S) agree<br />
with them in their literal sense j as, .. Pitt was the pillar which in it.<br />
strength upheld the state."<br />
738. It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the slime<br />
person by pronouns of different numbers j as, "I InLorcd long to make<br />
thep. happ), anl now you reward me by ingratitude." It should be either<br />
" to make you happy," or" thou rewardest," (245).<br />
739. In the usc of pronouns, when it would Le uncertain to which of<br />
two or mOI'e antecedent words (229) II pronoun refers, the ambiguity may<br />
be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by<br />
changing the form of the sentence, thus, .. When we see the beautiful<br />
variety of color in Ihe rainbow, we are Jed to cODsider its cause "-better<br />
" the cause of that variety."<br />
POSITIO~ OF PRONOUNS.<br />
740. The first and the second personal pronoun commonly Btand instead<br />
of nouns implicd, but not expressed. Possessive pronouns, and the pronouns<br />
of the third person, fire commonly placed after their antece'lents<br />
(229) j bnt sometimes this order, especially 10 poetry, is reversed.<br />
741. When words of different persons come together, the usnal order<br />
of nrrangement, in English, is to place the second persoll before the third,<br />
and the first person last; as, " You and he nnd 1 are sent fo1'."-" This<br />
matter concerns you or him or me."<br />
In connection with these rules and obsermtions, see also the observa·<br />
tions on gender (128-134), on number (155-160), and on personal pronouns<br />
(240-252).<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In each sentence, state the antecedent words to which the pronouns refer;<br />
change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the<br />
change:-<br />
(729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions j<br />
if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing.-Extremes<br />
are not in its nature favorable to happiness.<br />
A man's recollections of the past regulate their anticipations<br />
of the future.-Let every boy answer for themselves.-Each<br />
of us had more than we wanted.-Every one of you should<br />
attend to your own business (301).<br />
(730-1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance.-Both<br />
cold and heat have its extremes.-You and<br />
your friend should take care of themselves.-Y ou and I must<br />
be diligent in your studies.
160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
(730-2) John or James will favor us with their company.~<br />
One or other must relinquish their claim.-N either wealth nor<br />
honor confers happiness on their votaries.-(731) Every plant,<br />
and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise.-Eaeh day<br />
lind each hour brings their changes.-Poverty and wealth have<br />
each their own temptatioos.-No thought, no word, no action,<br />
however secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be<br />
good or evil.<br />
t 732) Let every lllan and ever.r womall strive to do their<br />
best.-If any boyar girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit<br />
their pillce.-N 0 lady or gentleman would do a thing 80<br />
unworthy of them.<br />
(733) One should not think too highly of themselves -:\.<br />
teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils.-A<br />
parent's care for her children is not always requited.-Every<br />
one should consider their owu frailties.-Let each esteem<br />
others better than herself.<br />
(734) The assembly held their meetings ill the e"ening,<br />
The court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise.-The regiment<br />
was greatly reduced in their number.-Society is not always<br />
answerable for the conduct of their members.-The committee<br />
were divided in its opinions.-The public lire informed that its<br />
interests are secured.<br />
(737) The earth is my mother; I will recline on its bosom.<br />
-That freedom, in its fearless flight, lllay here announce its<br />
glorious reign.-Poliey keeps coining truth in its mints, such<br />
truth as it can tolerate. and every die, except its own, it breaks<br />
and casts away.-As time advances, it leaves behind him the<br />
traces of its flight.<br />
(738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man.<br />
Care for thyself, if you would have others to care for you.-If<br />
thou wert not my superior, I would reprove you.-If thou forget<br />
thy friend, can you expect that your friend will remember<br />
thee?<br />
(739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is<br />
his enemy.-J ohn gave his friend a present which he highly<br />
valued.<br />
(7411) I and my father were invited.-An invitation was<br />
sent to me and George.-You and I and James were to be of<br />
the party; but neither I nor you nor he can go.
TH<br />
SYNTAX-RELATIYE. 161<br />
TIELATI \'E AND ITS ANTECEDEi\T.<br />
742. RrLE Y.-The relative agrees with its antecedent<br />
in number ({mi person; as, "Thou who speakest."<br />
"The book wI! ich was lost."<br />
[See Etymology, ~55, ,~c.]<br />
743. TI,e numbcr of the relative can be determined only from the<br />
number of the antecedent.<br />
744. Who is applied to persons or thing! per30nijieJ (l~()) j as, "The<br />
man "'''0''-'' The fox who had never ,cen a lion."<br />
745. Which is applied to things and inferior animals-sometimes to<br />
children-to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity-and also to<br />
persons in asking questions.<br />
746. In the tl':lnslation of the Bibl,', whicl! is applied to persons j as,<br />
" Our Father "'hieh art in heaven."<br />
747, WlIiclt applies to a noun Jenoting a person, when the character,<br />
or the name merely as a word, is referred to; as, "He i8 a good writer,<br />
1f,hie" is all he l'rofeEses to be."-" That was the work of Herod, ,c!tiel! is<br />
but another name for cruelty."<br />
748. That, as a relative, is used instead of wl!o or ",!tic!t-<br />
1. After adjectives in the superlative degree-after the words I1ery.<br />
same, and all-often after no, some. aUlI any-and generally in<br />
restrictive clauses (268).<br />
2. When thc antecedent includes both persons lind things; liS, "The<br />
man an,l the !torse that we saw."<br />
:i. After the intrrrogntive who, and often after the personal prononns;<br />
n,. " Who that knew him could think so 1"-" I Ilwl speak in<br />
righteousllc,;s."<br />
Generally when the propriety of It'ho or wh,en is doubtful; as, "The<br />
little child that was placed in the midst."<br />
749. The relatives who or wlticlt and tit at should not be mixed in a<br />
series of relnti ve clau8es baving the snme antecedent. Thus it is improper<br />
to 8ay, "The man tltat met us and whom we saw," It should be, .. who<br />
met us;' or "t!tat wo saw."<br />
750. The relative refers sometimes to} the idea expressed by an adjective,<br />
sometimes to the infillitive. But Ihis construction is rare. See exnmples<br />
(256).<br />
751. Tbe relative in the objective case is often omitted; as, "Here is<br />
the book I promised you." The relative iu the nominative case is hardly<br />
ever omitted except in poetry; as-<br />
I< In this, 't is God-directs, in that, 't is mnn."<br />
752. Tbe antecedent is omitted before what (266). and generally before<br />
tbe compound relatives (273), It is sometimes understood. especially in<br />
poetry j as-<br />
" rHe] wbo Ii vee to nature, rarely can be POOl',"<br />
11
]6~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
753. What ehollld not he tiRed for the conjnnction that. Tbus." I can<br />
not helieve but 'IJlIat it is so," should be. "but that it is so." Also the<br />
demonstrative that should not be used fill' tbe l'ebti ve what; n~, "We<br />
speak that we do lmow," betteI'. "what we do know."<br />
puSITION OF THE RELATIVE.<br />
754. The relative is generally placed after its antecedeut.<br />
755. To prevent ambiguity. the relative should be placed as near its<br />
antecedent as possible, and so that tLere can be no uncertainty as to what<br />
word it refers.<br />
756. In most instances. t.he sense will be a sufficient guide in tbis mat·<br />
tel'; thu" "They removed theil' wives and children ill wagons covered<br />
with tbe ,kill" of animals, u.Jtic/t formed their simple habitatioos." Here<br />
tbe sense only can determine to which of the three words wagu1t8, Rkins,<br />
or animals, the relatiye t,-hich refers. But-<br />
757. When the antecedent can not be determined by the SCI/se, it should<br />
be determined by the po~ilion of the relative, which, as a general rule,<br />
should belong to the Bcarest autecedent. Thus-<br />
'Ye walked from the hOllS" to the barn ~ l . l b d b t d"<br />
" 'Ve walked to the barn frOID the house S IC lie I a een erec e .<br />
Here the relative Ichich,!lS determined by its position, refers, in 1he first<br />
sentence, to barn, and iB the second, to hou3e.<br />
758. So also when the antecedents denote the same o\'ject, the oue being<br />
in the subject and the otber, in the predicate, tbe relative takes the<br />
person of the olle Ilext it; a" •., I am the man who commands you" -not<br />
.. command you." If the relative refer to I, the words should be arranged,<br />
" I who command you am the man." Heoce-<br />
759. A relative clause which modifies the subj.ct should not be placed<br />
in the predicate; tbus, "He should not keep a horse that can not ride."<br />
should be, "He that can not ride, should not keep a horse."<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In tbe following sentences, which are the relatives? What is tbe anle.<br />
cedent to which each refers i Correct those which are wrong, and give<br />
the rule, or the reason for the change :-<br />
(744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her.<br />
This is the friend which Ilove.-(745) That is the vice whom<br />
I hate.-The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity.<br />
-The court who gives currency to such manners should be ex.<br />
emplary.-The nations who have the best rulers are happy.<br />
Your friend iB one of the committee who was appointed yester.<br />
da!.-The family- 'll"ith 'll"hom I lived has left the city.-(747)<br />
HIB father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired<br />
to be.-If you intend to be a teacher, who you can not be<br />
without learning, you must study.
SYNTAX-NO:.lIlNATIVJ3. 163<br />
(748) It i~ the best situation which cau be got.-That mau<br />
was the first who entered.-This i~ the same horse which ,ye<br />
saw yesterday.-Solomon was thc \'.-i~est king whom the world<br />
ever saw.-The lady and the lapdog, which we salY at the "indow,<br />
have disappeured.-I who speak unto you am hc.-l'; 0<br />
man who respects himself would do so meau an action.<br />
(749) 0 Thou "ho hast preeencd us, and that wilt still preserve<br />
us !-The man "bom "e met to-day, and that was at our<br />
bonse yesterday, is tbe same-O Thou that art, aud ,,-ho wast,<br />
and tbat art to come!<br />
(7.32) I have sent everytbing what YOll ordcred.-;\ll whosoever<br />
came were made "elcome.-E,·erything ,rhabocrt:r ye<br />
would that men should do to you, do ye eH'n so to them.-IIe<br />
whoever steals my purse steals trash.-(753) I can not beliere<br />
but what you hare been sick.-It is not impossiblo but ,,-hat<br />
you are mistaken.<br />
(7':;5) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, 'I ho<br />
had neyer before committed so unjust an action.<br />
(759) He needs no spectacles that can~not seC', 110r boots<br />
that can not walk.-Those must not expect the sympathy of<br />
the diligent, who spend thcir time in idleness.<br />
760. RULE VI.-The subject of a .lillife rcrb is )lut il£<br />
the 1lOminalirc j as, " I am" -" Thou art "-" He is "<br />
" They are "-" Time flies. "-" The leller j" written."<br />
761. A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or<br />
imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these parts it is limited<br />
by person and number. In the infinitive and participle" it is n(,t so<br />
limited.<br />
762. The Bulljl'ct of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, all<br />
infinitive mood (394). a participle ,,,cd as a noun (462), or a clause ()f a<br />
sentence (636). All these, "hen the subject of the verb, ale rfgarJe·rl as<br />
substantives in the nominative (109 and 867).<br />
763. Every nomina/ire, not absolnle (71)(1), or in apposition (I;GS), or in<br />
the predicate (796), is the subject of n verb, I xl"-esscd or untler:otootl.<br />
764. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative who has<br />
no verb to which it is the nominative, viz.: These evils were caused by<br />
OatiJine, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been<br />
exposed to so great dangers." Bctter-" If Oatiline, by whom these evils<br />
were caused, had been punishe(l," &c. Hence-
164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
765. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as the nomina.<br />
tive to the eame verb; thm, .. The king he is just," should be, "The king<br />
is just." Except wheu the compolluJ pronouns are added to the subject<br />
for the sake of ellJpha,is (24~1); as, " The king himse{f has come."<br />
766. The nominati I't" especinlJy in the answer to a question, aud aftel'<br />
than or as, often h,,; the verb Ulldcl'st',od; as, .. TV710 saiLl ao? "-" He<br />
[,niJ a'>j."-"Jnlllcs i:l taller than 1 [nm]; bllt not so tall as you [nre]."<br />
POSITIOX OF 'fIIE SUBJECT.<br />
767. The subject is cOllllllonly plnccd before the verb. But in impera·<br />
tive or i!ltelTngalil'e sel,tcncp~, nnd in sentences inserted for the sake of<br />
eml,I",,;.s or euphony, lhe subject is often placed after the verb; as, "Go<br />
thOll,"-H D,d he g" 1 "-" ~hy you be happy !"-" 'Vere 1 he."-·' Neither<br />
did th,y:'-" SaiJ 1,"-" There was a man," &c,<br />
Untler this rule tber" is liability to crror o';]y in the use of pl'onouns,<br />
DUU in lea"i"g :1 nOllliuative witlJOut its verb.<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED,<br />
,rl.i,'h nouns 01' pronouns ill the following sentences are the subject of<br />
a vCI·b! If llot iu the proper case, chauge them, and give the rule, or<br />
reason f!r tbe chaugc?:-<br />
(7GO) IIim allCl me are of the S:llue age.-Snppose you and<br />
Ille goo -Them are exceUent.-'Vbom do you think bas arrived?<br />
-Them that seek wisdom sball find it. - You and us enjoy mnny<br />
privileges.<br />
(7GG) J obn is oldel' than me.-You are as tall as her.<br />
'Vbo bas a knife? l\Ie.-Who came in? Her and him.<br />
You can write as well as llle.-That is the boy whom we think<br />
desefl'es the pl'izt'.<br />
(iG;j) Yirtue, however it Illay be neglected for a time, yet<br />
men rrre so constituted as to respect genuine merit.<br />
THE NQ:\IIK~\.TIYE<br />
_\BSOLUTE OTt INDEPENDENT.<br />
7G3. RULli: VII.-A substantit'l' w!wse case depends on<br />
no olher word, is put iii the nominative absolute.<br />
N')TE,-Tbe IWloinative undel' tbis rule, is usually called the nominative<br />
absolute or indcpendent; because, iu Ellglish, tbough always in the form<br />
"f the nominaLi ,'C, ye', it has llO gramlll~tical dependence on any wortl in<br />
ti,e fcntcucc, This OCClll"" in all eXfllllples uncleI' tbe followiDg-<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
769, RULE 1.-.1 subs/anth'c with a participle, whose case depends on no<br />
other word, i< Jlul in the nominative; as," He beiDg gone, only two rewain."
SYNTAX-NO~lINATIYE. 165<br />
770. In tbis construction, tbe substantive is sometimes understood; a" .<br />
.. His conduct, viewing it even favorably, ean not be commended ;" that iii,<br />
"we [a person] viewing it," &~.<br />
771. S',metimes being and '/lwill"! been are omi(t,'J; as.' lIer wbeel<br />
[being] at rest "-" He destroyed or won," &0., tbat is, "He hat'ing bel'll<br />
destroyed or !l'on," &c -" This said," that i", •. This 6rill:;' said."<br />
~72. In this construction, th(' substantive with the participle is med to<br />
express an a'sumecl fact in an abbrevi.,I,',1 form. and is equh':tlenl to a<br />
dependent clause, connected 1,y ,then, while, if, sillce, because . .i:,~. (,;,',(1);<br />
:lS. " He having gone. bis brother returned;" ~ .. Since 01' bccau'c he 1cent,<br />
bis brotber returned."<br />
773. RnE ~.-.l person or thing u'{./rcgs(',/, without a cab or "!ot'ernill!{<br />
/l'ord, ;3 put in the nominath'e; as, ., I r.,'maiu, dear sir, yours truly"<br />
" Plato, tbou reasonest welL"<br />
774. RuLE 3.-.0 substantitc, unconnected in mCl'e exclamation, is i,ui in<br />
the nominatiL'e; a", "0, the times! 0. the manners! .,<br />
775. RULE 4.-.0 substantive, used by pleonasm (1""11. ~) before fin aifirmation,<br />
i, put ii' the nominalit'l'; 3S, "The boy, ob! where was he 1"<br />
" Your falhers, where lll'e thl'Y I-the 1""0/'''1'1 ;, du tb"y Ii ve forever ~ ..<br />
U ueler this rule, a mistake can be lll:Hle ouly in the C:lee of pl'Onoulls.<br />
EXERCISES TO BE COJeREOTED.<br />
Puint Ollt the nouu or pronoull ",hoBe case depcll·ls Oil no otl,,'r word<br />
-put it iu the case required by Ih, rule, ali,1 gi\'" the 'lwC'ial rule reo<br />
qui I'ing it.<br />
DIe being absent, the business \\'a8 neglected.-IIn mrtue as<br />
\\'ise proverbs as any bou.", hilll only l'XL"'IJte,L-.\'II eJI.i"yeu<br />
themselves very much, 11~ excepted.- Whom being d,':!,l, we<br />
shall come.<br />
'\\"h",c gray to,p<br />
fOhali tremble, him descending.<br />
The bleating sheep with my complaint, :l:!rce ;<br />
Them parched with heat, and me iullam2·1 by t:,,,c.<br />
lier quick l'dapsing te· bel' former ,lale.<br />
Theil all tlly gifts nnd !:;r!lces we rli'play,<br />
Thee, only thee, dir,'clillg all 0111' way.<br />
THE VERB .\XD ITS NmIlNATIn~.<br />
176. l~uLE '-IlL-A 'verb agrees with its 1lOlllill({tivl'<br />
In 1I11JJ1Uer (lnd persoll; as, "I read," "Thou (crulcst,"<br />
" He reads," " \\' l' read," &c.
166 ENGLISH GRAlIIlIIAR.<br />
[Respectiu,; the nominativc or subject, see (493). This rule, find the<br />
"reeinl rules under it, apply to an iufin;tive mood or clausc of a sentence,<br />
\\,1"'11 the subject uf a ycrb (71;2), aq well as to nouns and pronouns.)<br />
RrCMAnK.-fmpcrsollul verbs (5211) are always h the third person .ingn<br />
Jar; n~, "It hails," "it rains," &c. Such expr~~sionB as "it appears," " it<br />
seems," "it hl!l'jl~ns," and the like. sometimea called impersonal verbe,<br />
ure reilly personal, h.wing for their subject lin infillitive mood or sub·<br />
stantive phl'll5e fullowing', to whieh "it" preceding refers; liS, .. It appeaTl:<br />
that the !'i,'Ct· is ri"ing."-'· It seems to be so." See 246, 4. So 11180, in<br />
tlte expression asfollows, a~ concerns, as appears, and the like, the vet'b<br />
is not imper"lll."ll; but whether singlllar or plural, refers to a subject<br />
und~r,t,,().l; :10, " The ea:
SYNTAX-NOJ\IINATIVE. 167<br />
"James or John attends "-"Neither James nor John attends "-"John,<br />
and not [bnt not] Jame", attends "-" John, as well as James, attends"<br />
"Not John, but Jame~ attends."<br />
786. Nouns taken separately, are connected by or, nor, as well as, 0"'/<br />
also, &c. A noun taken so as to exclude others, is connected with them hy<br />
such phrases as and not, bUI not, not, &c. Tn such, the verb agrec~ with<br />
the subject affirmell of, and is understood with the others.<br />
NO'fE.-Sin~ular nouns connected by nor, sometimes ba\,,' a plural verb.<br />
In that case, the verb dellies equally of all, and nor is equivalent to and,<br />
counecting the nouns, and a negative which is tmnsferred tn, and modi ties<br />
the verb; as, "Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Sul'Jll, nor Lycurgus, were<br />
eloquent men."-.iclon.=" Jlloses, and Min"" and Solon, and Lvcurgus,<br />
wero not eloquent men," or, "were none of them eloquent." This construction<br />
has not been generally noticeu, uut it often occurs in the best<br />
writers.<br />
787. But when two or more Euh,t~ntives, taken separately,. are of dif.<br />
fereut numbers, the verb agrees with the 0,,(, next it, aud the plural su!'.<br />
ject is usuullyplaced next the veJ'b; as, ,. Neither the captain nor the<br />
sail"r8 were s:n'cu i" rarely, ., N citLer the sailurs nor the captaill was<br />
Baved."<br />
788. RULE 4.-TVlten substantives, taken separately, are of diOerent persons,<br />
the verb agrees with the one next it; as, "James or I alii in the wrong"<br />
_u Either you or he is mbtaken "-;-" I or thou art to blume."<br />
789. Though sentences are often furme,} according to this rule, yet they<br />
are generally har"h and iuelegant. It is generally better to put the verb<br />
with the first substauti\'e, and re~eat it with the second; or to express the<br />
same idea by urrunging the sentence differently; aB, "James is in the<br />
wrong or I am," or "One of us is in the wron" "-" Either you arc mistaken<br />
or he i. "-" I am t" blame, or thou art." This remark is sometimes applie-aLle<br />
also, when the suhstantives are of the same person, but different<br />
in number, and requiring each a different form of the verb; a8, "Either<br />
the captain or the eailors were to blame;" otherwise, "Either the captain<br />
was to Llame, or the sailors were."<br />
790. RULE 5.-1 . .d collective noun, expressing many, as O~E WHOLE, ha&<br />
a verb in the singular; as, "The company /I'as large."<br />
791.-2. But Ichen a collective noun expresses many, as individuals, the<br />
verb must be plural; as, "My people do not consider."<br />
792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun<br />
expresses unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use<br />
the plural, wh~e the singular is not manifestly required.<br />
793, A nominative after "many a" has a verb iu the singular; as, uFull<br />
many a flower is born," &c. (735).<br />
794. Two or more verbs connectecj in the same construction as a compound<br />
pre,Jicate (627) have the Bame nominative; a8, .. James reads and<br />
writes "-" James neither reads nor writes."<br />
795. But when verbs are not connected in the same construction, each<br />
verb should have its own nominative. Tbe following sentence is wrong
168 El'iGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
in this respect; ,( The whole is produced as an illusion of the first class,<br />
an.1 hopes it wil! be found worthy of patronage;" it should be, either" He<br />
produces the whole as an illusion," &c., "and hopes," &c.; or, "The whole<br />
is produced," &c., "and he hopee," &c., or, .. and it is hoped," &c.<br />
For the P"SITIOX of the verb and its subject see (7G7), and also (741).<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
What is a verb in each of the following sentences? What is its sUhject 1<br />
See if they agree. If they do, give the rule aud show how it applies. If<br />
they do not, change the verb so as to agree with its nominative, and give<br />
the rule. Thus, loves should be lOI'e, to agree with I, in the first person,<br />
singular. Rule-" A verb agrees," &c. (':71;).<br />
(776) I loves reading.-A. soft answer turn away wrath.<br />
We is but of ycsterda.,', and knows nothing.-The days of man<br />
is as grass.-Thou sees Low little has been done.-He dare not<br />
act otherwise.-Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds<br />
of flour.-A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye.-Su<br />
much of ability and merit are seldom found.-A. judicious arrangement<br />
of studies facilitate improvement.-Was you there?<br />
-Circumstances alters cases.-There is sometimcs two or three<br />
of us.-I, who are first, has the best claim.-The derivation of<br />
these words are uncertain.-Much does human pride and folly<br />
require correction.-To do good unto others are the duty of all.<br />
-To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable.-(482)<br />
She needs not trouble herself.<br />
(777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour.-The horse<br />
was sent forward to engage the enemy.-The foot, in the meantime,<br />
was preparing for an attack.-Fifty sail was seen approaching<br />
the coast.-Two dozen is as many as you can take.<br />
-One pair was spoiled; five pair was in good condition.<br />
(778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.<br />
-Life and death is in the power of the tongue.-Anger and<br />
impatience is always unreasonable.- Out of the same mouth<br />
proceedeth blessing and cursing.-Idlene15s and ignarance produces<br />
many vires.-Temperance and exercise preserves health.<br />
-Time and tide' waits for no man.-Our welfare and security<br />
consists in unity.-To profess regard and to ac!t differently<br />
marks a base mind.-To be good and to seem good is different<br />
things.-To do good and to shun eril is equally our duty.<br />
(781) That able scholar lind 'critic have died.-Your friend<br />
and patron, who were here yesterday, have called again to-day.<br />
(782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every dt'op of water,<br />
teem with life.-Every man and every woman were B~arched.
."'YNTAX-tior.nNATIVF.. 169<br />
-Each day, and hour, and moment, are to be diligently improved.-No<br />
,"\"ife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares.-;\o<br />
oppressor, no tyrant, triumph there.<br />
(7S.) Either the boy or the girl were present.-Neither precept<br />
nor discipline are so forcible as example.-Our happiness<br />
or J11i~ery depend much upon our own eonduct.-When sickness,<br />
infirmity, or misfortune, affeet us, the sincerity of friendship<br />
is tried.-N either ability nor inclination are wanting.<br />
--.'\ man's being rich, or his being poor, do not afIect Iii"<br />
character for integrity.-To do good or to get good are equally<br />
neglected by the foolish.<br />
(7SG) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost<br />
in the undertnking.-He, and not we, are to blame.-James,<br />
and also hi" brotiJc'I', have embarked for the gold region.<br />
Boob, not pleasure, occupies his mind.-He, and not they,<br />
are mistaken.<br />
(787) N eitbel' the scholars nor the teacher was present.<br />
Whether the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no difference.<br />
(788) Either he or I arc willing to go.-Neither thou nor<br />
he art of age.-Y ou or your brother are blamed.-Neither<br />
James nor I has had a letter this week.-Either Robert or his<br />
sons has met with great losses.-Thou, or he, or John, art the<br />
author of that letter.<br />
(700) Stephen's party were entirely broken up.-The meeting<br />
were large and respectable.-The people often rejoices in<br />
that which will prove their ruin.-The British parliament are<br />
composed of lords and commons.-Congress consist of a senate<br />
and house of representatives.-Never were any nation so in fatuated.-The<br />
noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, 0 God !-A<br />
great number of women were present.-The public is rC'spectfully<br />
informed.-The audience ,yas much plellsed.-The council<br />
was not unanimous.-Congress have adjourned.<br />
WLile still the busy world is treading o'er<br />
The paths they trod five thousund years before.<br />
(793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain.-Many<br />
a broken ship have come to land.<br />
(795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came<br />
by mail, is lost.-It was proposed by the president to fit out<br />
an expedition, and has accomplished it.-Our friend brought<br />
two loads to market, and were sold at a good price.
nu<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE, &c.<br />
796. RULE IX.-The predicate substantivc, after a<br />
vcrb, is put in the same case as the subject be/ore it; as<br />
" It is 1"-" He shall be called John "-" She walks a queen "-" I took<br />
it to be him "-" He seems to be a sc1wlar "-" The opinion is, that he u'i!l<br />
live." Hence-<br />
NOTE.-A. the 8ubject of a verb can he only in the nominative (760).<br />
or objective (872) the predicate 6uLstantive can be only in the nominative<br />
or objective.<br />
797. Any verb may b,' the copula betweeu t.he subject nnd the predicate<br />
8lILstanth'e, except a transitive verb in the active v.)ice. But those most<br />
cOlDlllunly u,~d in this way are the verLs to be, to become, to seem, to appear;<br />
intrallsitive ",,110.; of motion, position, &e, aud passive verbs, denoting to<br />
cl/ll, name, style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, rcckon, &e.<br />
798. The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can<br />
ue the SUbject of a verb (7G:;).<br />
799. The infinitive without a subject, or the participle of a copUlative<br />
verb (601) iu a substantil'c clause, has a predicate Bul)stantil"e after it in<br />
the nomi:,a(:ve; as,<br />
" To be a fordgner is a dislldvflnbge."<br />
., lie wa' not known to be a {urci::ner."<br />
"IEs vein; aforeir;ner was not kllOWU."<br />
.. lIe wa, suspected of being a foreigner."<br />
" W l' did not know his being [or, of bis being] (J foreigner.<br />
In all tbese examples, the word fureigner i; the predicate nominative<br />
after to be, 01' being, becau,e these phrases being only abritlgcd dependent<br />
chusrs (051). (be preJie:ote nonn lemailiS iu the same case nfter the clanse<br />
is ai)l'itiiicd as it was befure. 'fhu"," He wa_ ""t known to be a foreigner<br />
"=" It was not known thllt he was II (o}'(if!,ner." A" then, in the latter<br />
furm.J')rcl~·"er is ill the numina(i," untie!' the rule, it remains the same in<br />
the abritic:e,J furm, aud w of tbe uther examples. But when we say. "For<br />
him (0 be a/urci"lIer," 01', .. \\' e did not kr.ow him to be nforeigner" (396),<br />
hilll, in butb examples, i, the subi,'ct of to be, audforeigner is in the object<br />
I I'c', according to tlie rule. '<br />
POSITlON.<br />
800. Tbe usual position of the predicate substantive is after the verb,<br />
as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construction.<br />
But in both the direct and the indirect questioD, and in inverted<br />
selltclIc('S, its place is often differen!; thlls, " WHO is he ?:'-" We know not<br />
WPO h~ ~~ "=:~ 1~ /(~ !t. .~'!L'DL~r'~ "~" He is th! ~ame THAT ht' was "_u The
f'YNTAX-OBJECTIVE. 171<br />
DOG it was that died "-" A MA:i' he was to all the country dear "-" FEET<br />
was I to the lame "-" Far other SCE:>iE is Thrasymen" now:'<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In each of the following sentences, which is the copulative verb!-whnt<br />
is its subject l-what the predicate substantive 1 Correct where it is<br />
wrong, and gi ve the reason for the correction. Thus, me is the predicate<br />
substantive, and ehould be 1, becal!se the subject it is in the nominative.<br />
Rule-" The predicate," &c.<br />
(70G) It is me.-It "'as me who 'Hote the letter, and him<br />
who carried it to the post-office.-I am sure it could not ha,'c<br />
been her.-It is them, you said, who deserve most blame.<br />
You would probably do the same thing if you were him.-l<br />
understood it to be he.-It may have been -him, but there is no<br />
proof of it.-If I were him, I would go alJroad at once.-1<br />
little thought it had becn him.-It is not me you are in love<br />
with.-Art thou proud yet? Ay, and that I am not thee.<br />
Whom do you think he is?-,\'ho do you think him tQ be?<br />
- ,rhom do men say that I am ?-She is the persoll ,y ho I<br />
understood it to be.-He is the man whom you said it was.<br />
Let him be whom he may.-Can you tell whom that \Dan ii:l?<br />
-1~ it not him whom you thought it was ?-Thomas lme\\' not<br />
whom it was that called, though quite certain it was not her<br />
who we saw yesterday.-Let the same be she who thou hast<br />
appointed for thy servant 1saac.-He was not the person ,,-!Jom<br />
he affected to be.<br />
THE ()DJECTIVE r:OVER~ED BY VEUBS.<br />
801. RULli: X.-A transitive verb in the (/ctil'e t'oice<br />
goetrll; the objective case; as, "\Ve love hilil."-" He<br />
loves 118. "-" JVhom did they send ?"<br />
802. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or part of a sentence,<br />
may be the object of a transitive verb, as well as a noun or pronoun;<br />
as, "Boys love to play."-" [ know who is there,"-" I wish that they were<br />
wise."-" You Bee how few have returned."<br />
SPECIAL R GLES.<br />
803. RULE I.-An intransitive verb doe8 n.:'! govern an Objfclit'€ case<br />
(320, 1). Thu8-
172 ENGLISH GRAMlIIAR •<br />
.. Repenting Ii im of his design," should be, II Repenting of his design.' I<br />
Still, a few Illiomalies of this kind are to be fonnd; as, " They laughed him<br />
to scorn."-" Tile manline!'s to look the subject in the face."-" Talked the<br />
night away."<br />
804. RULE 3.-Intransitive t'erbs ill a trallsilivt sense (375) gOI'em the<br />
objecth'e (a,c (321, 1, 2); as, "He runs a race."-" They live a holy life."<br />
805. To this usage may be referred sucb expres!ions in poetry as the<br />
following: "The brooks ran nectar "_H The trees wept gums and balms"<br />
-" Her lips 1Ilu8h deeper sweets," &c.<br />
806. To this rule nlso belongs tbe objective nfter causatit'es (375-3) ;<br />
as, "He runs a stage."-" John walks his horse."-" He works him hard,"<br />
&c. Such expressions, however, as " Grows corn," are inelegant, and should<br />
be avoided.<br />
807. RULE 3.-1ntransilil·e I'erbs to not admit a passive voice, except when<br />
used transitively (375). Thus-<br />
"I am purposed "-" I am perished," should be, "I have purposed<br />
"-" I am perishing." But we can say, "l\fy race is 1'ltn,"<br />
beca1'lse nm is used transitively. Such expressions as "I am H<br />
sol!'ed"-" He is deceased "-" He is retired from business"-"\Ye<br />
(/re deier?n';'d,r/ to go on," &c., though common, are incorrect. It is<br />
better to say, "I hCll'C resolved "-" He has retired," &c.<br />
808, A transitive verb in the active voice, without nn object, either has<br />
an object understood, 01' is used i!ltransitively (320).<br />
809, RULE 4.-.R transitive verb does not admit a proposition after it;<br />
thus, "I must premise lrilh a few observations."-'· I will not allow oj it."<br />
Omit with and of.<br />
810. RULE 5.-Verbs signifying 10 NAME, CHOOSE, APPOINT, CONSTITu-TE,<br />
and the like, generally gOl'fTn two objectives, t·i:., the DIRECT, denoting the<br />
pPTson or thing acted upon, and the INDIRECT, denoting the result of the act<br />
expressed; as, "They named him John."-"The people elected him president."-"<br />
They made it a book."<br />
811. In sucb sentences, when the verb is in tbe passive voice, the direct<br />
fJ~ject of the actiye form is made the snhject of tbe passive, and the indirect<br />
remains as the predicate nominative after the verb, according to Rule<br />
IX. Tbus." He was named John."-" He was elected president."-" It was<br />
made a book."<br />
812. Besides the direct 01' immediate object in the objective case, some<br />
vel bs have a remote object belwe~n tbe immediate and the verb, governed<br />
by a preposition understood; as, "John gave ME a book." But when the<br />
remote object comes last, the preposition must be expressed; os, "John<br />
gave a book to ME." The verbs thus used are such as dignify to ask, teaeTt,<br />
offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others.<br />
813. These verbs properly talte the immediate object of the nctive
sYNTAX-OBJECTIVE. 173<br />
voice as the subject in ~he passive, and the remote object remains in the<br />
objective after the passive, governed by a preposition expressed or understood;<br />
as," A book was promised me or to me." (811).<br />
814. In loose eompo,ition, however, the r~mote object 'is sometimes<br />
matle the subject, and the immediate object remains in tI,e objective CfI,C<br />
after the passive voice; as, "I was promised a book." The \'Cl'bs ask and<br />
teaclt frequently have this doubl., construction in the p"",i\',', hut in general<br />
the regular construction is better.<br />
Similar to this are certain expressi'"IS sufficiently correct in the active<br />
form, but which arc nn":11alous, and ealJllut he analyze!l in the form usu·<br />
ally but incorrectly given to them in the passive: Thus, .dcti,·c-" They<br />
touk possession of the farm." P""i I'e (illeUl'l'cctl,Y) "The farm was taken<br />
p,,",scs,ion of 1y them."-(correetly) "i'oE,"2si"ll of the farm was taken<br />
by them." This anomaly arises f!'Om inadvcrtently makillC: the object of<br />
the preposition, (farm,) instcad of the object of the ,"erb in the acti,'c<br />
""ice, (po.~6ession,) the subject of the verb in the passive. Such anomalies<br />
are the following: "The circumstance was made lise of." "The ship<br />
was lost sight of."-" The occasion was taken adl'anta~,' of." Eithcr the<br />
regular passive f..Jl'm of expression should be lIsed, 01', if that be awkward,<br />
a t1ifferent form of expression should be chosen.<br />
POSITION.<br />
815. As the nominative and the objective c,,,,, of nOUllS nrc frlikc, the<br />
arrangement of the sentcnce should clearly distinguish the one case from<br />
the other. The nominative generally precedes the vcr!', aud the ohjective<br />
follows it. Thus," Brutus killed Ca)~ar." If one (or both) of these should<br />
be a pronoun, the order may be varied without oll'clllin~ the sensp, an']<br />
sometimes the objective is rendered more emphatic by being placedfiyst;<br />
Il'i, "Him he slew."<br />
816. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, it<br />
precedes both the verb and its nominativc; as, "The man ",hom we ~a\V<br />
i3 t1earl."-" lVhom did you send I"<br />
817. The ohjective should not, if pOo;ihle, be separater! from its verh<br />
by intervening clauses. Thus," We could not discover, for the want 01<br />
proper teets, the quality of the metal." Better." We could not, fijI' want<br />
,,[ Fopel' tests, discover the quality of the metal.<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In the following sentences, correct the errors aeeol'ding to the I'ule, an,1<br />
give a reason (or the rhange. Pars,· the sentences corrected, Thus, I<br />
should be me, heeause goverucd hy loves. 1I,'/e, X, .. A transitive verb,"<br />
&c. :-<br />
(801) He loves 1. - He and they we know, but who art thou?<br />
-She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply.-Ye only<br />
have I known.-He who committed the offence thou shouldst<br />
correct, not I who am innocent.-They that honor me I will
174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
h0I101'.-Who do you think I ~:1\y y('~t erday 7-Who did he marry?-.<br />
Sbe \\ ho we u~et at the t:)prings last summer.-'Vho,<br />
having not· Sl'{'n, we love.-'Vho should 1 meet the vther rlay<br />
but 111 \ olJ friend 7-,V ho dost tllOU t:1ke to be such a coward?<br />
( 803) You will have re:1SOl1 enough to repent you of your<br />
foolish cOllduct.-They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the<br />
sllbject.-Go, £lee thee away into the laml of Judea.-Hasten<br />
thee hOllle.-Sit thee dowll and rest thee.<br />
(807) ScnTal pet'SOnR were entered into a conspiracy.<br />
Fif't,r men are deserted f!'Om tIle army.-I am purposed that I<br />
will not ~in.-IIe i8 almost perished with cold.-I am resolved<br />
to ga.-lie is retired to his room.-The plague was then entirely<br />
ceased.-Is your father returned'? He was not returned<br />
an hour ago.<br />
(809) No country will allow of such a practice.-False accusation<br />
can not dilllil!i~h from his realmerit.-His servants ye<br />
are, to whom ye obey.-lIe ingratiates with some by traducing<br />
other~.-Tbl'y shall not ".-ant for encouragement. \\T e do not<br />
want fot, a11ything.-l'oyet earnestly for the best gifts.<br />
Change the follu\yil'g iuto the regulm' form, and give:l reason for the<br />
change ;-<br />
(813) I was promised a pension.-He was offered a pardon.<br />
-i5he would not accept the situation, though she was ofl'emJ. it.<br />
-1 was paid a dollar for my services.-I was given a book of<br />
great value.-The commissioner was denied access.<br />
(SI i) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so<br />
pO\rerful an inte-rest, bis resolution to maintain his right.-The<br />
troops pursued, ,yithout waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates.<br />
THE OBJECTIYE C(JYERNED BY PREPOSITIO::-;rS.<br />
818. RULE XI.-A preposition gOL'CI"1lS the objecth'('<br />
case; as, "To to/wm much is gi ,-en, of him much shall<br />
lJe required."<br />
819. The object of II preposition is sometimes an infinitive mocu-a<br />
r-articiple wed as a nOlin-part of a sentence-a phrase, or depeT/delit<br />
clauu, as well liS a nonn or pronoun; as, .. He i" ABOUT to depart."<br />
i, AFTER we came."-" ON l'eceil l illg his diploma."-" Much depends ON who<br />
are his advisers."<br />
820. As II general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect either 8n<br />
active transiti,e verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the<br />
same object. Thu8," I wrote to lind warned him." Better," I wrote to
SYNTAX-OBJECTlYE. 175<br />
him and warned lIim" SO. ''OJ him, and through "illl, nnu lu hi1l1, nre all<br />
things." I\" ot of, and tllI'ough, and lu !ti1l1," cl:('.<br />
821. Tbis general rille is Sf) little regnrcted, evpn hy the besl writer".<br />
that it i" a matter of doubt whether it ~h01J]d any ]ngn retain a plae'.: in<br />
our <strong>grammar</strong>R. In many inst:lIJcc'. at least, the form of .'pre·eh condemned<br />
by the rule is clearly better in 1'''811('('1 of perspicuity, Lrevity, and<br />
strength, tban that wLich it re""mmcnd", and in such cnbes it should be<br />
mlopted. Iu some cases, a,!;aiu. as in the "I,uvc example, the full form is<br />
belter tban the elliptical. Iu Ihi" maller, everyone must Le guided by<br />
his last" and judgerneut, avoiding equally 0k"llrity and har,bncsB.<br />
822. WheD the prepositions to, Ill,in, st:lDlI before names of placec, the<br />
following nsage should be cm'dully oL,erved, ·";z.:-<br />
I. To-i, used after a v('rb of m"lion toward; ~S, "lie went to Spain:'<br />
But it is omitted before home; ap, "Go ''''11''',''<br />
2, At-is used Lefore names of house,., vi/l":I' s, (,J/f'I/S, anu forri.,!11<br />
cities; as, 'I He l'~~idcs at the ~lan~ioll 11()11:1t':'-'~ At ~a('at~'~::l<br />
Spdll~~."-(j .At Lisbon."<br />
'"<br />
3. In-is used Lefore nUIll(·.' "f cowllfrif,~ and large rilieR; U~, " He<br />
lives in ElI~Jalid "_" in Loudon "-" in New York," Hut at<br />
is used Lcf~re the r.ames of places and lar(,;" cities after the<br />
yell,s 101lCh, arril'~' lnud, anu frequently after the ,'ell> /1) uC;<br />
os, .' ,\V c touel:ed at Liverpool, and, after a .hl"t FPc:!:;",<br />
IUIJ(Icd al New Orleans."-" I was at New YOlk."<br />
·1, In "peaking of one's residence in a ('ity. at is u,,·t! I"·[,,re tI,,· ].."0,<br />
and in Lefore the street .. ao, "Ile 1L"id"3 at No.--."-" He<br />
Ii \'('5 in State street." "'hen hoth are mentioned t"~dLcr, the<br />
preposition is commonly understood hcfore tlie ]::H; a~, .. He<br />
lives at No. --, State street," or "lie livc3 in State slrpet,<br />
~TO. __."<br />
823. The preposition ii frequently unuerstuou as fol:ows :-<br />
I. A preposition expressed with the first 1I0UI) or pronoun of a ,erie',<br />
may be understood to the 1'e,t; as, ,. Be kind to John and Jalll(S<br />
nud j[ary."<br />
2. When the remote object of a ycrb, governed by a prpposition, is<br />
placed between tbe Verb and ils illlmediate o~ject, the prep",i·<br />
tion is often omitted; as, "Give me yuur hand."-u Dring me a<br />
chair."_" Get me a book." {b 1 ~).<br />
3. '1'0 is commonly omilted after lik,', "car, nigl,; as, " Like bis falber."<br />
-" Near a dver," J.:c,; and of freflu"lIlly aftcl' l£ortl'!J au,] 1111'<br />
/IIJrtj, fl.<br />
824. S
176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
be supplied, and each woru purseu separately; as, "In a vain manner. -<br />
" In a secret place," &c.<br />
826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases cnding with a preposition,<br />
ti0vern B noun following, in the objective; us, " j[aufJre hell," that i~, .. in<br />
spite of hell."-Milton.<br />
827. Though worus denoting weiglte, measure, &c., are evidently gov·<br />
erned by a preposition, yet, as it is for the most part understood, it is<br />
bettcr to dispose of such case~ by the following-<br />
SPECIAL RULE.<br />
828. RULE.-Nouns denoting TIME, VALUE, WEIGHT or<br />
MEASURE, are commonly put in the o~jective case, without<br />
(( governing word (165, 3) ; as,<br />
"He was absent six months last year."-"lt cost a shillillfJ."-" It is<br />
not worth a cent."-" It weighs a pound."-" The wall is six feet high,<br />
and two feet thick."<br />
This may be ca,llcu the objective of time, value, weifJlte, &c., us the case<br />
may be.<br />
829. Nouns denoting time1ww 10nfJ are generally without a preposition;<br />
as, "He is ten years old." All nouns denoting time when, in a general or<br />
indefinite way; as," He came last week." But nouns denoting the time<br />
when, definitely or with precision, generally have the preposition ex·<br />
pressed; as, "He came last week, on IVednesday, in the evening."<br />
I'OSITION.<br />
830. Prepositions should be phc('d before the words whiclJ they govem,<br />
alHl us ncar to them us p08oi1le; IJllt never before that as a relative.<br />
831. 1T7wlIl and which are somctimes governed by a preposition at<br />
fome distance after tlJem; this. howevcr, should be avoided ue much as<br />
possible. Thus," Thut is tLe mau whom I gave the letter to." Generally<br />
up.tter thuB-" to whom I guve the Idter."<br />
832. The preposition with its regimen (539) should be placed as ncar<br />
as possible to the word to wLich it is related.<br />
833. Under this rule, there is liability to error only in the use of pro·<br />
nouns and with regard to position (130).<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In each of the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the<br />
word governed by it. Correct the errors, and give n reason for the<br />
change. Parse the sentences when corrected :-<br />
(818) To who will you give that pen r-That is a smaH matter<br />
between you and I.-He came along with James and 1.-
SYNi'AX-PREPOSITIOl\';. 177<br />
He gave the hook to some 011:', 1 know not "lTho.-(8:31) ,\"ho<br />
does it belong to (-The book which 1 read that story in islmt.<br />
(822) 1 h:iye been to Boston.-They live in Saratoga SpriJ]!:~.<br />
- \\r t' toul'hed in Livelj)Qol on our \\a.,· for .x elY T ork-II e<br />
has been to home for Borne da,"s.-lIe lil"es at Hud~oll stred,<br />
in 1\(). 42.-\\C e remained in; village in the vicinity of' London.<br />
(,'::23) Be so gliliu as lend to me .rour <strong>grammar</strong>.-- Get to him<br />
a hook like that.-Ask of me that question a!:!;uin.-This l"l~<br />
taught to me a lesson \\"hich I will always be mindful of.-Pay<br />
to me what you owe to me.-l shall be pleased to do to him a<br />
kindness.-Will you do to me a favor?<br />
(830) The nature of the undertaking ,,"as SUt·h a~ to render<br />
tbe progre~~ ycry slow of the work.-Beyond this period the<br />
arts can not be traced of civil society.<br />
(.~32) The wrong position of tIle preposition find its regimen ..(ten pru<br />
Jnces very I",jicrous sentences. TLe foIIowio" are a specimen;-<br />
,Van ted a young man to take care of some hor~es, of a reiigious<br />
turn of mind.-The flillowing \'l'rse~ were wfittL'n by a<br />
young man who has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement.-A<br />
public dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast<br />
beef and plum pudding.-l saw thai the kdtle had been scoured,<br />
witb half an eye.-He rode to town, and drove hrdve cows,<br />
on horseback.-The man was digging a well, with a Roman<br />
Dose.<br />
834. RULE XII.-(,erfain words (/1/(/ phrases should<br />
be followed by ajJpl"oJlria/c prepusitiuJls.<br />
The following list Illay be useful for rderellce ;-<br />
Abhorrence of.<br />
Abonud in, witlt.<br />
Abridgefrom.<br />
Al,sputfrolll.<br />
Access to.<br />
Accommodat" to.<br />
Accord (l1;tlt.<br />
Accuse of.<br />
Acquaiut !Ditl •.<br />
Acquit of.<br />
Apqniesee in.<br />
Adapted to.<br />
Adequate to.<br />
Adhere to,<br />
12<br />
AdjuJge to.<br />
Admonish of.<br />
Address to,<br />
Admission (acees") 10.<br />
Ad,ui,sion (entrance) into.<br />
Advantage over, 0(.<br />
Affiuitv to, with.<br />
A tfeeti~1I1 t;,r.<br />
Agree witlt a peroou; 10 a proposition<br />
from anotber; upon a 1 hing<br />
among themselves.<br />
Agreeable to.<br />
Allude to.<br />
AIter to, alteration i71,
178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Amerce in.<br />
Convict of a crime; in II penalty.<br />
Annex to.<br />
Copy after a person; from a thing.<br />
Analogy to, with.<br />
Currespond (to be consistent) with;<br />
Antipathy to, against.<br />
(answering 01' suitable) to.<br />
Approve of.<br />
Corresponuence wilh.<br />
A rray with, in.<br />
Cured oJ.<br />
Arrive at.<br />
Debar from.<br />
Ascendant over.<br />
Defend (others) from ;-(ourselves)<br />
Ask of a person; for a thing; after against.<br />
what we wish to hear of. Demand of.<br />
Aspire to, after.<br />
Denounce against a person.<br />
Associate with, seldom /0.<br />
Depend, dependent upon, on.<br />
Assent /0.<br />
Deprive of.<br />
Assure of.<br />
Derogate from, derogatory to.<br />
Attain 10.<br />
Derogation/rolli, of.<br />
Averse to,fl'01l1.<br />
Despair of.<br />
Banishfrom, to.<br />
Despoil of.<br />
BeIio::ve in, sometimes on.<br />
Devolve on.<br />
:Bereft of·<br />
Die, perish of II disease; by an in-<br />
Bestow 1, 'lon, on.<br />
strument, or violence; for an·<br />
Betray t; b. person; into a thing. other.<br />
Boast of.<br />
Differ, different from.<br />
Bind to, iii.<br />
Difficulty in.<br />
Blush at.<br />
Diminish from, diminution of.<br />
Borcler upon, on.<br />
Disabled from.<br />
Call 00 a person; at ,a p]"ce. Diagr(·e with a person; /0 a pro-<br />
Cn paci! y for.<br />
Cal eful of, in.<br />
posal.<br />
Disagreeable to.<br />
e.teh at.<br />
DisaJ;>pointed of what we do not get;<br />
Cbange (exchange) for; (alit.:) to, an what does not answer when<br />
into.<br />
got.<br />
Charge on a person; with a thing. Disapprove of.<br />
Compare with, in respect of quality; 1-~;SCOU1'8ge from; discouragement<br />
to, by way of illustration.<br />
to.<br />
Comply, compliance with. Disgust.-. 'd .al, v:ith . .<br />
Composed of. Dispose oJ .' ~Isposed (adJ) 10.<br />
Concede to.<br />
Dispossess oJ.<br />
Concur with a person; in l\ meas- Disqualify f&1'.<br />
ure; to an effect.<br />
Conclescend to.<br />
Dissent from.<br />
Distinct from.<br />
Confer 011, upon.<br />
Divested of.<br />
Confide in.<br />
Divi,\e between two; among ;nore.<br />
Conformahle, conformity to, wit/t.. Eager ill, 011, of, for. a/ler.<br />
Congenial to.<br />
Embark in.<br />
Congratulate "pon, on.<br />
Employ in, on, about.<br />
Consonant to.<br />
Enamoured witlt.<br />
Cumist (to be composed) of; (to be Encroach "pon, on.<br />
cnmprised) i1l.<br />
Endeavor after a thing.<br />
Consistent ,!,illt..<br />
Contrast 1Otth.<br />
Engage in a work; fOT a lime.<br />
Enjoin upon_ .<br />
Conversant with men; ill things; En'trance into.<br />
about and among are less proper. Equal to, with.
SYNTAX-PREPOSITIONS. 179<br />
Eq ui valent 10.<br />
Intrude inlo a place enclosed; upon<br />
Espouse 10.<br />
a person, or a thing not en-<br />
Estimated al.<br />
closed.<br />
Exception/rom, 10.<br />
Inurecllo.<br />
Exclude, exclusion from.<br />
Invested with, i".<br />
Exclusive of.<br />
Lame of.<br />
Expelleclfrom.<br />
Level with.<br />
Expcrt at (before a noun); in (be- Long for, after.<br />
fore an ncti,'c participle). Louk on what is prebellt; for what<br />
Fall ""de>' di-,;mre; from a tree; is absent; after what i8 distant<br />
inlo a pit; 10 work; "pon an )!ade oj.<br />
enemy.<br />
Made mucb oj.<br />
Familial' to, willt; a thing is famil- Marry to.<br />
iar to us-we Kith it. Mortyr for .<br />
.Fawn "pon, all.<br />
Militate again.II.<br />
Followed by. :,Ii:ltru~tful of.<br />
Fond oj.<br />
N etd of.<br />
Fureign to, sometimes from, Obeclient 10.<br />
Foundecl "pall, 011, ill.<br />
Object to, against.<br />
Free/rom.<br />
Othen"lIlCe, ubs€rvatioll of.<br />
Fruitful in. Obtrude UPJII, 01/,<br />
Full of.<br />
Occasion/or.<br />
Glall of something gaiued by our· Offensive, 10.<br />
selves; at something that be- Operate upon, 011.<br />
falls another.<br />
Oppusite, oppu,it.iou to.<br />
(;rattfullo a l,eI'50U; for favors. Partake 0/; participate of, in.<br />
Hankel' afler.<br />
Penetrate ill/o,<br />
Binder frolll.<br />
Pcrse"ere in.<br />
Hold of; as, "Take hold of me." .Pitch upon.<br />
Impose upon.<br />
POOl' in.<br />
Incorporate (active transiti"e) into; Prefer to, over, abore.<br />
(inlrausitive or passin') witlt. Pr
J80<br />
ENGLISH GRAlIllllAR.<br />
Redueo (611bJu~)<br />
case,,) to.<br />
Reil,~ct upon, on.<br />
Reganl for; in reg:ll'tl to.<br />
Rely "pan, on.<br />
Replete witlt.<br />
Reproached for.<br />
Uesemblallce Iv.<br />
Resolve on.<br />
nespeet to; in re,pcd 10, oj.<br />
Restore to.<br />
Rich in.<br />
Rob oj.<br />
Rule over.<br />
Shlll'c in, of.<br />
Sick of.<br />
Significant of.<br />
Similar to.<br />
l:;ink into. beneath.<br />
Skilful (hefore a noun) in;<br />
II participle) aI, in.<br />
Strain out.<br />
Strip of.<br />
under; (in other Submit to.<br />
Sent to.<br />
Swerve fr01l1.<br />
Ta~le oj, means actual cnjoymeut;<br />
-taste jar, mean, capacity ur<br />
genius for.<br />
Tax with (for example, a crime, an<br />
act) ; jar (a purpose, J. state).<br />
Th~nkful JOT.<br />
Think of, on.<br />
Touch at.<br />
Unite (trnnsitive) to; (intmusitive)<br />
with.<br />
1.:" niwn with, to.<br />
esefulfoT.<br />
Value upon, on.<br />
Vest, before the possessor, ;11; before<br />
the possessed, with.<br />
Wait UpCnI. on.<br />
(before Wit"ess of.<br />
Worthy, unworthy of. But nfter the~e,<br />
of is generally omitted.<br />
835. What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as much upon<br />
what folluw>,. as upon what goes before. Thus," To fall from a height "<br />
.. into a pit "-" in battle "-" to u'ork "-I< upon an enemy."<br />
836. Into is \1se,] only nfter verbs of motion, and implies entrance. In<br />
is used after VCI bs of motion or rest, nnd denotes situ(ltion, but never<br />
entrance; as, " !Ie went 1IIto the c:lrl'iage, nnd rode in it."<br />
837. Boast, appro!'e, and disapprol'e. arc often used without a preposi.<br />
tion following; so also worthy aud unworthy.<br />
838. The same preposition th:tt follows a verb or adjective, usually<br />
follows the noun derived from it, nnd vice versa; as, "Confide ill "<br />
"Confiden: in "-" Confidence in."<br />
EXERCISES '1'0 BE CORREOTED.<br />
In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the nntecedent<br />
term. If not appropriate, correct, and gi ve the rule :-<br />
This remark is founded "ith trutb.-He was eager of recommending<br />
him to his f'ellow-citizens.-I find great difficulty of<br />
"riting.-E\'ery change is not a change to the better.-Chauged<br />
for a worse shape it can not be.-It is important, in times of<br />
trial, to have a friend to whom you can coufide.-You my rely<br />
in the truth of "hat he ~ays.-J\1any have profited from good<br />
advice, but ha,e not always beeu grateful of it.-I have no occasion<br />
of his services.-Favors are not always bestowed to the<br />
most deserving.-This is very different to that.-Virtue and<br />
vice differ "idely with each other.-Come in the hou8e.-We
SYNT A X-POSSESSIVE. 181<br />
rode into a carriage with four hOl',ics.-The boy fell under It<br />
deep pit.-Such conduct cannot be reconciled to .I'our PI',)!,"'·<br />
~ioll.-G 0, and be reconciled with thy brother.-.\ man had<br />
four sons, and he divided hi" property between them.-I :\In<br />
now engaged with that work.-lIe in~i,h Oll it tklt he is righl.<br />
TnI: PI )~::;E::;SIYE CU\'El~XED BY :-;eDS'rc~XTl \'ES.<br />
839 RULE XIII.-A substantive that l:mits the signi<br />
./ication oj another, must be pul in (he jJ.·ls,~;('s8iu·? case;<br />
((S, " Virtuc's reward "-" John's books."<br />
840. Th,' suhstantive in the Po'sQ8sive Cl'e limit, the signi:ictli"" "f<br />
11H' other, bv l'ppresenting the thing n:lIn"l !I" l'T,)"ud;II:1 from,l'0'.iv'" rn'y be noy nOlln in any<br />
0:l'I·. or a verbal Ii·.un (4G~), either al.,",~ (·1' with it;; rc'.~ilr",n. or mndifyin.~<br />
word.'!; a.'l, "On (lagle's /"i1lflS.,"_u lIe wa.., 0pp0scd 10 .fohn's ?f'ri/ing,"<br />
-" I nm in favor of a pupil's cnmpns;".7 (("'J"cn!1!1" (S0';}.-" JilL,,',<br />
hll1lill[J dO)·,/Nl himself too milch to sl;,d!! was the C \lI"8 of his si,·1",(·,,,.·'<br />
( 463).<br />
842. Thc noun limited hy the possc'oive i., uften under.,t"",l; as, I, Thi3<br />
IJI)"k is John's [book]." It is always omitt",l aft"r the posse,si,'c ('[\s.~ uf<br />
the personal pronouns; :-U~, "Thi3 Lf)ok i ... 1llillc, thine, ours:' &l~.~ :1nd, in<br />
this con,tructioo, when supplied, the 1'0''''"-i,,, case must b" chan~cJ fur<br />
the poesessive pronoun (241); a.," This is "'!I bOllk, 1/'.'1 buok, vur b,,"k;"<br />
not mine bouk, ,\:c., (292).<br />
843. TI,,, p"",,,,,ive cn.'e, nnd the pl'eposilion of \"ith the ol)jcetiv0, arc<br />
often e'lui\~:dc'nt; as, "j!y father'S house "-" The h"'lS~ of "'!I fathe·r."<br />
j:llt-<br />
844. Somclimcs the ide:. (·xpresscd by of with the ol'i,>ctive, can not<br />
be expl'cesC'l at all by the possc3sive; a3, .. A rill;; or' !/"Id,-q A cnp of<br />
1M/er "-" A piece of land "-" The house of Cr'f"[!"," &c. Sometil1le~,<br />
1l~;lil1, 1hc ideas ~~xpr('ssed arc diffel'ent; thu:'), "The ·Lr)n{'6 day" nlcallS<br />
tile sabbath. ,. Tlw dRy of 'he Lo)Yl," means til,c day "f .i,,·lgment. "~ly<br />
father'S pietul'e," means a picture belonging t" my fatll!'r. .. A picture<br />
of 'fIIy father," means a portl'ait of bim. .. Uo.!', luv~." meal!' only the<br />
Inve ",hieh God feels. "The l"l'e of Gnd," means either tile love which<br />
G.)d feels to us, or tllat which we feel to him.<br />
845. Of, before a pos
182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,<br />
846, Ev('n when the posseesive case, and of with the ubjective, are<br />
equivalent in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as well as the perspicuity<br />
of the sentence, will often render the or,e expression preferable to<br />
the other. When this is the case, care should be taken to use th,lt form<br />
:",hich, in the circumstances, is best. Thus," In the name of the army,"<br />
IS better than, "In the army's name;" ":'II Y mother's gold ring," is bet·<br />
tcr than, "The gold ring' of my moth"r.·' A succession of words in eithel'<br />
form is harsh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two;<br />
thus. "JlIy brother's wife's sister "-better-" The sister of my brother's<br />
wife."-" The sickness of the son of the king "-better-" The sickness of<br />
the I.ing's son."<br />
847. When severnl nouns come togetber in tbe possessive case, imply.<br />
ing common possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last,<br />
nnd \Iuden,tooll to the rest; as "Jane and Lucy's books," tbat is, books<br />
the common property of Jane and Lucy. nut if common possession is<br />
not implied, or if several words intervene, tbe sign of the pos
BYNTA X-POSSESSIV~. 18~<br />
the sign of the possessive must be aunexed to each; as, I, He took refuge<br />
at the governor's, the king's representatl \'e," that is, "at the governor's<br />
house."<br />
853. The s after the apostrophe is sornrtimes omitted, when the first<br />
word ends; and the following word begino, with an ", or when the me of<br />
it would occasion a disagreeable repetition of s sound.; a~, " For righteonsness'<br />
sake "_u For conscience' ~ake "-" For Je~us' sake "-" At Je.<br />
sus' feet" (173). In other cases, such on,issil>ns would generally be improper;<br />
a'", II James' book "_" Miss' shoes," instead of, "J.lInes's book"<br />
.1 Mis,'s shoes."<br />
854. A clause of a sentence should uevcr come betwepn the posse,siyc<br />
case aud the word wh:ch it limits; thus, "She bpglln to extol the brmer's<br />
as she called him, excellent understanding," should be, .1 the excelleut<br />
understanding of the fanner, as she called him."<br />
855. A noun limited by the possessive plural, or by two or more nouns<br />
Feverally in the possessive singular, should not be plll"al unless the SCIl.;P<br />
require it. Thus," The men's health [nut healthsJ sdfere.J f"om the climate<br />
"-" John's and William's wife [not wives] are of the same age."<br />
856. The possessive whosesoever is sometimes divided by interposing the<br />
word which it limits; as, "u·hose house .'Ofl'tr." This, in ge,2eral, howeveJ',<br />
is to 1e avoided, and to be admitted only when euphony ad'!'! precision nre<br />
thereby promoted (277).<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substHntive, anu<br />
which is the oue limited-where wrong, correct according to the rule or<br />
observations.<br />
(83!l) Virtues reward.-One mans loss is often another malls<br />
gain.-Mans chief' end is to glori(y God.-My ancestors yirtuc<br />
is "not mine,-A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures<br />
gifts for mans advantage.-On eagles wings.-For Christ<br />
sake.-For ten sake_-Which dictionary do you pl'efer.-'\Vebster,<br />
Walker, or Johnson? -( 172) Asa his heart was perfeet.<br />
-John Thorn pson his book_-Lucy Jones her book.<br />
(841) lie waH averse to the nation imolving itself in wal'_<br />
?II uch depends on your pu pil com posing frequently.-He being<br />
rich did not make him happy.-l am opposed to him going 011<br />
such an expedition.<br />
(842) That book is James book, and that one is Roberts.<br />
That knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife.-My<br />
book is old, but your book and Roberts book are new.-Which<br />
is the best book, your book or my book?<br />
(845) That landscape is a picture of my father. The work<br />
you speak of is one of Irving.-Gravitation was a discovery of<br />
Sir Ieaac Newton.-That is a ring of my mother.
184 Jo:NGLISH GRAlII.LHAR.<br />
(846) The world's government is not left to cbance.-Tbe<br />
tree is known by the fruit of it.-The commons' vote was against<br />
the measure, but the 101'(1:;' vote was in its favor.-The weekly<br />
return of the day of the Lord is a blessing to man.-The representatives<br />
house is now in session.-The extent of tbe prerogati<br />
\'e of the king of England is well understood.-J obn's<br />
brotber's wife's mother is sick.-The severity of tbe sickness<br />
of the son of the king caused great alal'm.-Your brothers ser<br />
"allt'" ~ituation is critical.<br />
(847) William's and Mary's reign.-Cain and Abels sacrifice<br />
,,-ere not the same.-David and Solomon's reign were prosperaus.-John<br />
and 'Villiam'::! wife are cousins.-l\Ien, women, and<br />
childrells ~hoes for salc.-lIe cared for his father and also for<br />
his mother'.,; interest.-The Betsy and Speed wells cargoes were<br />
both SU\'l!ll.<br />
(848) Messrs. Pratt'", Woodford's, & Co.'s bookstore is in<br />
New York.-Thompson's &: Company"; office was on fire.<br />
.T ack's the ,viant-killer's wonderful exploits.-The bishop's of<br />
London's charge to his clergy.-The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's<br />
palace.-The secretary's of war report.<br />
(850 c';: 851) Call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's.<br />
The parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's.<br />
He emulated C!Bsar the greatest general of antiquity's bravery.<br />
-General Taylor, president of the United :)tates, au excellent<br />
mall and brave soldier's residence.<br />
(852) That house is Smith the poor man's frieud.-'Ve spent<br />
an agreeable hour at Wilson, the gowrnor's deputy .--The coach<br />
I:ltopped at Mr. Brown, Henry's father.<br />
(853) James father arrived yesterday.-Cbarles books are<br />
completely spoiled.-King James translators merely revised<br />
former translations.-Eor conscience's sake.-}
SYNTAX-SUBJUNCTIVE. 185<br />
SUBJUXCTIVE MOOD.<br />
857. RULE XIV.-The subjunctive mood is 'Us(d in<br />
dependent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and<br />
futurity, are expressed j as, "If he continue to study he<br />
will improve."<br />
858. When contingency or doubt only, and not futlll'ity, is implicd, the<br />
indicative is used; as, "If he has money he hCJ" it."<br />
859. Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the conncctives, if,<br />
thoug", unless, eXClpt, whether, &c.; but whetber futurity is implied or lIot,<br />
must be gathel'ed frolU the context. In general, when tbe sellse is the<br />
same, with shall, will, or should prefixed to the vcrb, as witbout it, the suhjune-tive<br />
may be used; otherwise, not. Tbus, in the preccedil,t; example,<br />
.. If he coutinue," and, "If be shall continue," mean the same thint;.<br />
860. lti'Jn is not whether man be a free agent."-Ho/,vn. "If<br />
thi, be an elTor, it is a harmless one." In Done of these can ,,,,,", or will,<br />
,,1' should, be intrvc\uc"d, witbuut changing or destroying the sense. Iu all<br />
"f them, present usage wonld substitute is for be. It will not do, howevet',<br />
rur the <strong>grammar</strong>ian t .. sct IJp a rule, by which establishe,1 and reputable<br />
u';lge is cOIHlemned, though the present t:hte tends alJother way. Still,<br />
there are cases in which this cbange is inadmissible (3~IO).<br />
861. [{,'/ and thai, anncxed to a command, !'equi", the subjlJnctive<br />
lllood; as, .. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty"-" Take heed that<br />
thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." And sOllletimes wjthout a<br />
cOlllmnnu; as, "They shall bear thee up, le,t thou dash thy foot against a<br />
st"ne."-L I, nut this the fa&t that I havll chosen-that thou brine; the poor<br />
to thy ilJ>Ilse."<br />
862. {{, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, rcquil'CS the<br />
suhjunctive mood; as, "If he do but touch the hHls, they shall emoke."<br />
But when future time is not implied, the indicative is used; as, "If he doc,<br />
but whisper, every word is heard distinctly,"
186 £NGLISH GRAlIll\fAR.<br />
863. Tbe 8ubjunctive mood is used to express a wish or de8ire; aa, '"r<br />
wish I were at home." .. 0, that he were wise!"<br />
864. A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the thing supposed<br />
or d"si ret!, i, expressed hy the past subjuncti ve; as, to If my king·<br />
dom u'ere of this world, then would my servants fight," implying, .. It is<br />
not of this world."-" 0, that tbou wert as my brother!" implying, ,j Thou<br />
art not" (4 :,9-2).<br />
EXERCISES TO DE CORRECTED.<br />
'Yhat verhs in the following sentences, should, according to tbe rule,<br />
be in the subjunctive mood, ond what in the indicative I-correct them<br />
IIccordingly- parse the sentences corrected.<br />
(857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely<br />
be put to death.-W e must go to-morrow, unless it rains.-<br />
There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good.<br />
-Though the sky be clear, it is cold.-He will maintain his<br />
cause, though he loses his eRtate.-We may get letters, if the<br />
mail arrives in time.-If John be come, why did you not tell<br />
me ?-If it sno,,"s all night, the roads will be impassable.-Ask<br />
John if he know when the legislature meets.-If he know any<br />
thing, he surely knows, that unless he gets better he can not be<br />
remuved.-lf thou be the Son of God, command that these<br />
stones be marle bread.<br />
(861) Take care that the horse does not run away.-See<br />
that thou dost it not.-Let him that standeth take heed lest lIe<br />
falls.-Kiss the Son, lest he is angry.-Reprove not a scorner,<br />
lest he hates thee.<br />
(862) If he is bnt ill health, It will be the cause of great<br />
thankfulness.-lf he does but run, he will soon overtake them.<br />
-If be be but in health, I am content.-O, that be was wise!<br />
-1 wish I was at bome.<br />
(SG4) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.-If it<br />
was not so, I would hal'e told Jou.-If be was a year older, I<br />
would send bim to 8choo1.-,Vas gold more abundant, it would<br />
be of less value.--If he was an imposter, be must have been<br />
detectec1.-If I was be, I would accept the offer.-",Vas I he, I<br />
would accept the offer.<br />
THE INFINITIVE MOOD.<br />
863. RULE XV.-The infinitive mood is governed by<br />
VERBS, NOUNS, or ADJECTIVES; as, "I desire to learn "<br />
"A desire to learn "-" Anxious to learn."
SYNTAX-INFINITIVE, 187<br />
866. The infinitive is n sort of veroal nOHU, nnd ha~ the const, uctioD of<br />
hoth a verb and a noun.<br />
367. As n !:oun, the infiniti \"e may be, 1. The sunjcel of It ved" (394) "<br />
:t Q , " To play is pleaQnnt." 2. The object of a HIO (8112); a', "Boy" l"I'e<br />
10 pia!]." ~,Thepredicaie ?lominatin' after a copulativp \"frh (7~Is); !Ie,<br />
.' He is t" b" marl ietl." 4. In apposition wilh allotht-r lIC>lln (G70); !l8,<br />
"Spare, spare your fricnus the task, 10 r(ll'!, to nod, to seoJf, condemn."<br />
:i. The object of a preposil:ulI {819); as, .... 11"'1/1 to depa.rt "-" Wh It wellt<br />
ye out for to 'cc 1"<br />
868. At tl,,· same time that tbe infilliti,'e i, u,d as n no:!", it may k11'e<br />
an the modifications of a v(·rb in I'CSP' ct to time, ~·ol'crllmcllt. ('I' adjuncts,<br />
forming, with them, an al,ridl(ed pentcnel\ 01" cla,,,,, or pi"",.,<br />
(t~',3), as, "To f'ee tlte Htn at nddnight is impos,ii,le." H(ol'(', 10 Sl'C is<br />
modified loy its (,hj.. and<br />
the infinitive remains aftcr it,like tbe indirect objcct (811), TllU',. 'lctit'c,<br />
" I de3ircd him to go."-Passive. " He was desired to go."
188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
875. RULE 4.-The infinitive i·$ used as a predicate nominative after any<br />
verb a, a copula (59'1'); a~, " You are to blame" (397).<br />
876. Wheu used a~ a predicate uominati ve aftet· the verb to be, tbe infinitive<br />
,Ienotcs-<br />
1. All equivalent expression; as, "To obey is to enjoy."<br />
~. Wbat IS possible or obligatory; as, "Gold is to be found in California<br />
"-" The laws are to be observed."<br />
3. What is settled and determined upon, and, of course, future; as,<br />
,'Tbe sbip is to sail to morrow."<br />
877. HULE 5.-1'0, the sign of the infinit;,'e, is 1Iot Ilsed after the verbs<br />
BID, DARE, NEED, MAKE, EEE, HEAR, FEEL, and LET, in the activ6 voice, nor<br />
after LET in the pas.~ive; as, "I saw him do it "-" You need not go "<br />
" He was let go."<br />
878. To this rule there nre some exceptions. As it relates only to<br />
euphony and usage, to ma'y be inserlerl when harshness will not thereby<br />
be produceu; thus, " Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised."<br />
McKc71:ie.<br />
879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verbs peraive,<br />
behold, observe, have, and know.<br />
880. When several infinitives come tg"ther in the same construction,<br />
the sign to expressed wit.h the first, is sometimes omitted befure those<br />
that follow; thus, ,. It is better to be a king and die, than to live and be<br />
a prince." 'ruis should never be done wben either harsbuess or obscurity<br />
woule! be the result.<br />
881. To, the sign of the infiuiti I'e, shoull never be used for tbe infinitil'e<br />
itself. Thu-," I have not written. and I do not intend to," is a colloquial<br />
vulgarism for, "I have not written, ane! I do not intend to write."<br />
882. RULE 6.-The infinitive is used to expre!s the PURPOSE, END, or,<br />
DESIGN of the preceding act; as, "Some who came to scoff, remained to<br />
pray." Here, to scoff and to pray are not governed by came and remained;<br />
but Rre put without a governing word, to express the end for which they<br />
came and remained.<br />
883. This construction of the intiniti ve is sometimes preceded by the<br />
phrase, " in order;" and formerly was pre('eded by for; as, "What wen t<br />
yc out for to see? " This is now obsolete.<br />
884. RULE 7.-In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so AS, TOO<br />
or TIIA"; as, '. Be so good as to read this lettet' "-" Too old to learn "<br />
.. Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider this construction as ellipticalo<br />
and tbat the i"finitive depends on a word understood.<br />
885. The infinitive is sometimes used to aS13igll, in an abridged form<br />
the reason of that which goes before; a3, "Base cOlVard that thou art I<br />
to flee! "-' Ungrateful man! to waste my fortune, rob me of my peace! "<br />
&c._ u lIust not one sigb, to reflect on so grave a subject."
SYNTAX-INFINITIVE. 189<br />
886. The infiuitine is sometimes put nb~ollltel.", without n governing<br />
word: R~, "To ~ay the truth, I was in fault."<br />
887. The infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, "I considel' bim [to /'f]<br />
an honest man."<br />
888. The verb '/ave, fullowed by the illfiuitive, sonwtilllcs expre""ol<br />
obligation 01' 1Irce.,,,ily; as, "'Ye h/lVC to do it," t.llIIt j" ""'e must do it."<br />
889. In parsing, the iuliniti Ye, in these sevemi constructiuns, ma'y be<br />
briefly stated thus: "The infinitive as the subject of--"-" as the object<br />
of--"-" as the predicale.nomi,wtive after--"-" The infinitive of<br />
l' Ii "P'J ',(-('! I111 jll' r i.~f)ll-CaUsc-uscd absolutely."<br />
EXERCISES TO BE COnnEOTED.<br />
There is b:1t little liability to err in the use of this 111,,0d, txccpt in its<br />
tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign I".<br />
When there is no rule to author ise the omission, it should be inserted.<br />
(S65) Strive learn.-They obliged him do it.-I" on ought<br />
not walk so fast.-(S69) It is better li\'e on a little thau outlive<br />
a great deal.-It is better to be a king and die than li rt'<br />
and be a prince.-(870) He scorns either to temporize, or<br />
deceive, or be guilty of evasion.<br />
(SiI) You ueed not to be so serious.-I ha\'e seen some<br />
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly.-He bid<br />
me to go home.-The boyf' were all let to go at once.-Let no<br />
man to think too highly of himself.---They all heard him to say<br />
it.-He was heard s:ry it bv evervbody.-Some oue sa,,- them<br />
to pass the house.-'!'hey ~ere seen 'pass the house.-1 have<br />
observed some artistes to use the term.-Dare be wise.-They<br />
were bid come into the house.-(881) Be sure to write yourself,<br />
and tell him to.-1 strive to live as God designed me to.<br />
Point out the use of the infinitive in lhe fullowin!; correct seutenr.ce, anJ<br />
show how it is goverued.<br />
It too often happens that to be abole the reach of want just<br />
places us within the reach of avarice.-It does no good to<br />
preach generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither<br />
sense nor souL-He was born to be great.-To accomplish<br />
these ends, savages resort to cunuing.-'rhey thought to make<br />
themselves rich.-Great desires are difficult to be gratified.<br />
Some people are difficult to please.-To know ourselves, we<br />
must commence by knowing our own wealmess.-If we have<br />
not always time to read, we have always time to reflect.-To<br />
be or not to be? that is the question.-I do well to be angry.<br />
- Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.~<br />
Having food to eat and raiment to put on, be content.
190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
THE PARTICIPLES.<br />
890. RULE XV I.-Participles have the construction<br />
of nouns, adjectives, and verbs (452, ~c.)<br />
891. The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the<br />
subject of a verb (762), or the predicate.nominative after it (798); as,<br />
.. Sayin9 is'not doin9." In the objective case, it may be the object of a<br />
transitive verb (80~), or preposition (819); ns, "Avoid doin9 evil."<br />
(, There is pleasure in doing good."<br />
892. In a sul)stantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect<br />
participle (ns well as the infinitive 799) of a copulntiv.e verb (604), is in<br />
the predicate·nominative; as, "His being ao expert dancer "-" The crime<br />
of being a young man," &c.<br />
893. The participle, as an adjeotive, expresses nn attribute, of a noun<br />
or prononn, without affirmation; as, (, The sword hangs rusting on the<br />
wall.<br />
894. The participle, while used as a r:oun or adjective, may be modified<br />
in all respects as the verb (630).<br />
895. To participles used iu theile ways. the rules of syntax for nouns,<br />
arljectives and verbs, mr.y of course be applied.<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
896. RULE 1.-Wilen tlte present or perfect participle is uMd a& a<br />
nOlin, a nOun b'fore it is put in tlte pos8essive caBe (841); RS, "Much<br />
depends on the pupil's composing frequently."-" Joltn's having done so is<br />
evidBnt."<br />
897. But a pronoun, in this construction, must be the possessive pronoun,<br />
and not the posse,s;ve case; as, "~Iuch depends on your compo·<br />
~i og," .xc.; not yours.<br />
898. In mauy ca~es, the nominati ve or the objective before the present<br />
participle DS an adjective, will express nearly the same idea. Thus,<br />
"Much will depend on the pupil'. composing," and" Much will depend<br />
on the pupil composing," mean substantially the same thing. Still, the<br />
?onstruction i~ d.iffercnt: in the first, tbe dependence is on the composing,<br />
~u the second It IS ull tbc p"pil " and though in .these examples Ihe sense<br />
I~ nearly ~he same, yet there arc often examples in which the Bense is<br />
entirely different. Thus," What do you think of my horse', running today?"<br />
implies he has run, and asks, "How do you think he ran? " But<br />
.. What do you think of my !torse 1"llllning to·day I " implies he Itas not run,<br />
and Dsk~, « Do you think be should run i"<br />
899. RULE 2.- lVhen tlte pu,ent participle, used as a noun, !tas an<br />
ARTICLE or ADJRCTn E before it, tile preposition OF follows; as, "By t/.e<br />
observin~ oj
YNTAX-PARTICIPLES. 191<br />
900, In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and ~an<br />
not be modified as a verb, Hence we can not say, "By the observlDg<br />
carefull1/ of these rules ," because the adverb carellllly can not mouify a<br />
noun, But we can ~ay,' c, By the careful observing of," d:c,; because ca?"c<br />
.lui, being an adjective, can modify a noun. Or we can sa)" "By observlDg<br />
these rules carefully ," &~.; because the and of being both removed observing<br />
can be modified as a verb (922).<br />
901. Both the article anu of may be omitted; but not the one without<br />
the other. By this omission, the participle becomes II participal noun'.ll:nd<br />
catl be mouifieu as the verb (462). Of can not be used "'hen a preposltIou<br />
follows.<br />
902. So here, again, in either of the~e COllStrudions, the sense in mnny<br />
cases will be the same. Thus," By the observing of these rules he be·<br />
came eminent," anu .. By ob:lerving these rules he became eminent," ex·<br />
press the same idea. But, as in thc other case (898), so here, there are<br />
exampl~s in which the sense is entirely different. Thus," He expres8ed<br />
the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," and "He expressed<br />
the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher," mean entirely diffCl ent<br />
thiogs, So" At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and" At hearing<br />
the ear, tLey will ohey." The first is sense-the last, nonsense.<br />
III sllch cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the followiog-<br />
903. RULE 3.- When tll~ verbal noun expresses something of which the<br />
noun following denotes the nOER, it should have t he article and tlle preposilion;<br />
as," It was said in the !learing of the witness." But when it e:c.<br />
pres6ts ~ometldng of which the noun following does 110t denote tlte doer, but<br />
the OBJECT, botlt should be omitted; as, "The court spent some time in<br />
hearing the witness."<br />
904. RULE 4,-Tlte past participle, and 1Wt Ihe past tense, 8hould be used<br />
a{ter tIle auxiliaries HAVE and BE; as, "I have written" (not wrole)<br />
"The letter is u'ritten" (nut wrote.)<br />
905. So, also: the past participle should not be used for the past tense;<br />
3S, " He ran," not run-" I saw," not seen-" I did," not dOlle.<br />
906. Iu many verbs whose present passive expres~e8, not the present<br />
continuance of the act, but of the result of the act in a finished state, the<br />
present participle active has a passive as well a~ an active sellse; and is<br />
used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the prescnt passive progres<br />
Ei'l'ely; as, .. The house is bllilding" (not being built). When, ill such<br />
verb., the participle in in!! has not a passive BenBe-or where the use of<br />
it in a pa~si ve sense wonld be ambiguous, a different form of expression<br />
shoulu be used (456, &c.)<br />
907. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, hwing no dependence<br />
on !lDy otbel' word; as, "Properly speaking, there is no such thin" as<br />
chance" (769 and 770).<br />
c<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In the following sentences correct the errors, and give a reason for tbe<br />
change :-
192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
(892). Its being me need make no difference.-We could<br />
not be sure of its being him.-The whole depend on its being<br />
them.<br />
(896) Man rebelling against his l\faker, brought him into<br />
ruin.-Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled<br />
for good.-God upholding all things, is an evidence of his power.<br />
-He being a great man did not make him a happy man.-A<br />
man being poor does not make him miserable.-(S98) What do<br />
you think of my horse running tl)-day? Did he run well ?<br />
What think you of my horse's running to-day? 'ViII it be safe?<br />
(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics.<br />
-By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect.-By ob·<br />
taining of wisdom you will command respect.-This was equal<br />
to a rejecting the proposa1.-This was equal to rejecting of the<br />
proposal.-The learning anything well requires application.<br />
-Learning of anything well requires great application.<br />
Meekness is manifested in suffering of ills patiently-in the suffering<br />
ills patiently-in the suffering of ills patiently.-In the<br />
patient suffering ills-in patient suffering of ills.-Because of<br />
provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them.<br />
(903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of<br />
sundry papers much time was spent.-The greatest pain is suffered<br />
in the cutting of the skin.<br />
(904) He has broke his cup.-I have drauk enough.-The<br />
tree was shook by the wind.-The tree has fell.-Some one has<br />
took my pen.-I seen the man who done it.-He has began<br />
the work.-Some fell by the way side and was trode down.<br />
The French language is spoke in every part of Europe.<br />
The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel IVebster. Irving. N. A ~<br />
Review, Cooper, Bancroft, ThomaA Brown, Sir G. M'Kensie, Butler, &c.,<br />
have been changed into modern newspaper English, Restore them, ac·<br />
cording to (906 :-<br />
The fortress was being built.-The spot where this new and<br />
strange tragedy was being acted.-An attempt was being<br />
made in the English parliament.-The magnificent church now<br />
being erected in the city of New Y ork.-While these things<br />
were being transacted in England.-While the ceremony was<br />
being peri'ormed.-Tbe court was then being held.-And still<br />
be being done and never done.-Wheat is being sold at a fair<br />
price.-Gold is being found in great quantities.-A report is<br />
now being prepared.-Goods are now being Bold off at first cost.<br />
-While the necessary movement was being made.
:;l'NTAX-TENSES. 193<br />
CO~NECTION OF TENSE~,<br />
908. RULE XVII.-In the lise of verbs {lnd !Cun/:;<br />
that in point of time relate to each other, the order of<br />
lime must be observed jaB, "I have known him tll6se<br />
many years "-not, "I know him these many year:,,;"<br />
nor, "I knew him these many years."<br />
909. REMARK.-Tbe particular tense necessary to be used must~epend<br />
up"u the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases.<br />
But it may be proper to observe-<br />
910. An observation which is always true must be expressed in tbe<br />
present tense; as, "The stoics believed that· all crimes are equal'" (408).<br />
911. The present-perfect, and not the present tense, shonld be used in<br />
connection with words denoting an extent of time continued to the present;<br />
thus, .. They continue with me now three days, should be, .. have<br />
continued," &c. (40~).<br />
912. The present-perfect tense ought never to be u,ed ill connection with<br />
words which express past time j thus, "I have formerly mentioned his<br />
attachment to study," should be, .. I formerly mentioned," .tc_<br />
913. To express an event simply as past, without relation to any othcr<br />
point of time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time<br />
1l1cntioned, the past tense is used; as, .. God created the world.'·-" In<br />
the beginning, God created the world." Exercises in (~Il:!) are examples.<br />
914. When we wish to represent an event as past at or before a certain<br />
past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past-perfect tense. Thus,<br />
when we say, "The vessel had arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, at nine<br />
o'clock the arriving of the vessel was past. But when we say, "The<br />
vessel arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, the arri ving of the vessel was<br />
then present.<br />
915. It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event be<br />
PAST at the time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that in<br />
pointing out the time of a past event, two points 01' periods of time are<br />
often mentioned-the one for the purpose of ascertaining tlte other. Thus,<br />
.. We arrived an hour before wnset." Here the past-perfect is not used,<br />
though the arriving is represented as past before a past time mentioned,<br />
,iz., sunset, because sunset i8 not the time referred to, but is mentioned in<br />
order to describe that time; and at the time described, the even!, arriving,<br />
was not PllSt, but present. If in this example we omit the word<br />
.. hour," and merely say "before sunset," the construction will be the same.<br />
This will show that it is correct to say, "Before I went to France I visited<br />
England," because the visiting of England is represented as present, and<br />
not past at the time indicated by the word before. But if the event mentioned<br />
is represented as rast at the time indicated by the word before, lOr<br />
if the sentence is 80 arranged that only one point of paot time is indicated<br />
at which the event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be nsed ;<br />
as, "They had arrived before we sailed."-" They arrived after we had<br />
sailed."-" I !tad visited England when we returned to America."<br />
13
191 ENGLISH GRAMlIJAR.<br />
916. Th0 present anu thc past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can,<br />
should uever Le associated ill the same sentence; and care must be taken<br />
that th" sui ,s'~queut verb be expressed in the same tense with the antece·<br />
dent verb (344); thus, "I may 01' can do it now, if I choose "-" I migllt<br />
or could do it IIOW, if I chose "-" I shall 01' will do it, when I can "-" I<br />
may do it, if I can "-" I once could do it, but I wonld not "-" I would<br />
have done it thCll, Lut I could not." -" I mention it to him, that he may<br />
stop if he choose "-" I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he<br />
chose'i--" I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop "-" I had mentioned<br />
it to him. that he might stop ,,_u I had mentioned it to him that<br />
he might have stopped had he chosen.<br />
917. In dependent clauses, the past·perfect indicative or potential is<br />
used to express an event antecedent to, b!lt never, contemporary with, or<br />
subsequent to, that expressed by a .erb in the past tense in the leading<br />
clause. Thus, we can say. "I believed he had done it," but not, .. I<br />
hoped he had done it;" because belief may refer to what is past, but hope<br />
always refers to something future. See also the infinitive (920, 921).<br />
918. When should is used instead of ought, to express presmt duty<br />
(363). it may be followed by the present 01' present-perfect; as, "You<br />
should study, that you may become learned."<br />
919. The indicative present is frequently used after the words when,<br />
till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action<br />
(-!06); as, .. When he comes, he will be welcome." When placed before<br />
the present-perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future<br />
action or event; as, "He will never be better till he ftas felt the pangs<br />
of poverty."<br />
920 . .A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pre&ent tense (446),<br />
when it expres'es what is contemporary in point of time with its governiug<br />
verb, or 8ltbseqllent to it; as ... He appeared to be a man of letters."<br />
-" The apostles were determined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs<br />
denoting hope, desire, intention, or command, must be followed by the<br />
present illjinitive, and not by the perfect (401).<br />
921. But the perfect infini tive must be used to express what is antecedent<br />
to the time of the governing verb; as, "Romulus is said to have<br />
founded Rome."<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
(9 to) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst.<br />
The philosopher said that heat always expanded metals.-He<br />
said that truth was immutable.<br />
(911) I know the family more than twenty years.-1 am now<br />
at school six months.-l\1y brother was sick foul' weeks, and is<br />
no better.-He tells lies long enough.-They continue with me<br />
now three days.<br />
(!H2) He has lately lost an only son.-He has been formerly<br />
very ~isorderly.-I have been at London last year, and Been<br />
the kmg last ::mmmer.-I have once or twice told the story to
SYNTAX-ADVERBS. 195<br />
our friend before he went away.-lle has done it yesterday.<br />
Some one has long ago told the same story.<br />
(914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on<br />
his voyage of discovery.-When we finished our lessons we<br />
went out to play.-He that was dead sat up and began to sl,eak.<br />
-When we had arrived at the palace, we delivered the letters<br />
which we previously procured.-It was a strang"e thing to 1I1e,<br />
for 1 never saw snch a thing before.-\Vhell I came, he was<br />
gone.<br />
(916) I should be obliged to him if he 'woul
1!l6 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAR.<br />
924. Sometimes an adverb modifies a preposition, and sometimes an<br />
adjunct or clause of II sentence (525); as, "He sailed ma,.zy rOllnd the<br />
globe "-" Ju.\t bel010 the ear "-" Verily I say unto you."<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
925. RllLE 1.-A.lvcrbs should not be used a8 adjectives, nor adjectilles<br />
as adverbs (G86, 6~7).<br />
Thus, .. The above [preceding] extract." _u It seems strangely [It range ]."<br />
_u We arrived safely [saft]."-u He writes beautiful [beautifully]."<br />
REMAIIK.-Though it is perhaps never necessary to use au adverb as an<br />
IIdjective; yet, the authority of good writers has 80 far sanctioned the<br />
violation of this rule in certain cases. that remonstrance would be una·<br />
vailing. Thus, such phrases as the following are common, U The above<br />
rule "-" the then ministry ;"-" For very age ;"-" the h.ither side ;"<br />
"thine often infirmities," and the like. Adverbs 80 used should of course<br />
be reckoned adjectives and parsed as such.<br />
926. The adverb3 Itence, thence, whence, meaning from thi8 place, from<br />
tltat place, from ,,,hiel, pface, properly should not have from before them.<br />
beCAuse it is implied. But the practice of the best writers has so sane·<br />
tioned the lise of it, tbat the onHEsion uf it would now sometimes appear<br />
stiff and affected.<br />
927. After verb, of motion, the adverbs, hither, thither, whither, are<br />
now used only ill solemn ~tyle" In ordinary discourse. here, there, nnd<br />
where, are \l-ed instead of them; as, U We came here "-" They walked<br />
there "-" 1I7,ere did hc go 1"'<br />
928. lVhere should not be used for in which, except the refel"enCe is<br />
to place. Thus," They framed a proteEtation, where [better, in which]<br />
they repeated their former claims."<br />
929. The adverbs now, th.en, when, where, in &uch phrases as till nou',<br />
till then, xincl? when, to where, &c., are sometimes used by good writers as<br />
nouns. This, however, is rare in prose, and should not be imitated. In<br />
poetl"y it is more common (1048).<br />
930. Of this character are the expressions at once, far from hence,<br />
&c., but these are now establiEhed idiolU8, nnd in parsing are regarded a!<br />
"ne word (535-6).<br />
931. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an introduc·<br />
tory expldi vo; as, "There came to th .. beach" (529).<br />
932. RULE 2.-Two negative8 in tllt same clause are eq1livalmt to an<br />
affirmative, and should not be used lInless affirmation is intended; as, .. I<br />
can not drink no [anp] more," or, U I can drink no more."<br />
REMARK.-But a repetition of the negation by independent negative<br />
words or phrases, or by transferring the word neither to the end of the<br />
clause, usually strengthens the negation; DS, "There is none righteous,<br />
no, not one." _u He will never consent, not he, nut I neitlter."<br />
933. One negative is sometimes connected with another implied in the<br />
negati.ve p~e1h:es, .ai." un, i,,!, il'. i', ir, &c.; as,. U You are not unacquain.<br />
ttd With his mer.te," that IB, '~ You are acquainted," &c. In this way a
SYNTAX-ADVERB~. 197<br />
PI~lislog variety of elpl'e8sion is sometimes produced. But the wurd ollly<br />
with the negative, preserves t.he negation j as, "lIe was not only illiberal,<br />
but even covetous."<br />
934. The adverbs nay, M, yea, yes, often >!and alone as a negative or<br />
ao affirmative answer to a question; as, U Will be go? "-"So "~" He will<br />
not go!'-"Is he at homel"-"l'cs"="He is at home." .I1men is an<br />
affirmative verb, equivalent to "Br it so," or ",1[,11/ it be so."<br />
935. No. before a noun, is an adjecth'e; :l~, "1"0 man." Before an adjective<br />
or adverb in the comparative Jeg"e!', it is an adverb; as, "No taiteI'''<br />
-"1\;0 sooner." In all ot.her cases t.he proper negative is not; as, " He will<br />
Mt come "-" Whether he come or not."<br />
POSITIO~.<br />
936. RULE 3.-.I1dverbs are Jar the most part placed befoTe adjcctives,<br />
afltr a arb ill the single form, and after the first allxililll'Y in the compound<br />
form; as, " lIe is very attentive, behaves wcll, nOll is much esteemed."<br />
937. This rule applies gene, ally to adverbial adjunct phrases as well as<br />
t" adverbs (8~5).<br />
938. This is to be considered ollly as a general rule, to which there nre<br />
many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the a,herb can be<br />
given, w:lich is not lial)le to exceptiou~. That order is the be,t which conveys<br />
the meauing with most precision. In order to tbb,. the ndl'erh is<br />
p"rH,·times placed before the vet·b, 01' at wme distance artel it.<br />
939. }1"eIJer, often, always, sometimes, generally precelle tbe verb. Not,<br />
with the participle or infinitive, "h"uld generally be placcd hefore it (500).<br />
940. The improper position of the advrrb only often occasions nmbiguity.<br />
This will generally be avoided when it rc·fers to a sentence or<br />
clause, hy placing it at tbe begiuning of that Eentence or clau,"c; when it<br />
refer~ to a predicate, by placing it before the predicated te, m j nnd when it<br />
refers to a su~ject, by placing it aft!'r its name or description; as, "Only<br />
acknowledge thinc iniquity."-" The thoughts of his heart nre only evil."<br />
"Take nothing for your journey but a staff only." These observations will<br />
generally be applicnble to the words merely, solely, chiefly, first, at lcast,<br />
and perhaps to a few other3.<br />
941. In prose, to, the sign of the infioitive, or rather a part of it, shonld<br />
never be Reparated by placing an adverb irnmeJintely after it. Thus,<br />
" They a,'e accustomed to carefully study their lcswo"," Ehould be "to study<br />
clIrefully," or "carefully to study," .!Lc.<br />
942. Tho r.dl·erb enough is commonly placed aftcr the adjective which<br />
it modifies j H8, "A large enow;h house "-" A home I a('g'e enough for all."<br />
943. El"'f' find never are sometimes improperly confounded j thus, .. Seldom<br />
or el'er," Eh"uhl be "Seldom 0(' nuer," or ., Seldum if evll'." Ever so.<br />
referl'ing to quantity 01' degree, means ill no/Ill I ""././ r degree. Hence<br />
.. Charming never so wisely," should be "ucr so wisely." :':0," EreI' so<br />
much," U ('tlcr so wi5'e," &c.
198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
As all verbs are indeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in<br />
their position, or in u'oing as adverbs words that are not so, or in using<br />
adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors in the fol<br />
lowing:-<br />
(82::;) They boped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war.<br />
-The then emperor wa:! noted for his cruelty.-He was befriended<br />
by tbe then reigning duke.-She walki:l graceful.-He<br />
Bpoke eloquent.-She did that work good.-Our friends arrived<br />
safely.-The boat moves rapid.-His expressions sounded<br />
barshly.-Shc ii:l a remarkable pretty girl.-My foot Blipped,<br />
and I pretty near fell down.<br />
(D26) He departed from thence into 8 desert place.-I will<br />
send thee far from hence to the Gentiles.-From hence! away!<br />
(D27) Where art thou gone ?-c\nd he said unto me, "Come<br />
up bere."-The city is near, oh! let me escape there.-'Vhere<br />
I am, there ye can not come.<br />
(D28) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own<br />
merit.-The condition where I found him was deplorable.-He<br />
went to London last year, since when I have not seen him.<br />
(D32) I can not do no more.-He will never be no taUer.<br />
He did not say nothing at all.-~ either he nor no one else can<br />
do that.-I have received no information on the subject, neither<br />
from him nor from his friend.-I never did repent for doing<br />
good, nor shall not now.-I can not see to write no more.<br />
N otbing never can justify ingratitnde.-(935) Be so kind as<br />
to tell me whether he will do it or no.<br />
(D3G) "\Ve should not be overcome totally by present events.<br />
-We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure.-It is impossible<br />
continually to be at work.-N at only he found her em·<br />
played, but pleased and tranquil also.-In the proper disposition<br />
of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as<br />
the sense.-They seemed to be nearly dressed alike.-(937) I<br />
wished that anyone would hang me a hundred times.<br />
(D3S) The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily,<br />
to assist the government.-He determined to invite<br />
back the king, and to call together his friends.-(939) Having<br />
not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he<br />
failed of success.<br />
(9-10) Theism can only be opposed to polytheisDl.-By greatness,<br />
I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the
di"tinctuc,~ of a whole I'iew.-Only you klH' 1 k110\\,11 01 all<br />
tile nations of th2 carih.-In promot'ing tlil' public goud, lI'l'<br />
only discharge our duty ,-He only read one book, Bot, two.<br />
lIe read the book only, but did nui keep it.-II e only rcad the<br />
book, but not the letter.-He chiefly spoke of yirtue, not of<br />
vice.-He only reads English, not }'rench.<br />
(!)·H) Scholars bhoulu be taught to carcflllly SCl'utill;ztJ tbo<br />
sCl1limcllts adyanccd ill the books they rend.-T,) make this<br />
sentence pcrpicuous, it \,ill be nCCeSSCll'Y to entirely l'cillodd it.<br />
COXSTRUCTrn", OF CO;'\JGX(,TIONS.<br />
944. RULE XIX. - Conjunctions connect WORDS,<br />
PHRASES, or SENTENCES (561).<br />
945. Word, of the same class, having a similar relation t) anotlJer lIurd<br />
tu which they belong, are connected uy a cOlljunetion. Thus-<br />
1. Nouns or pronouns; as, "James nnd John and I are herr."<br />
2. Atlj "eli ve~; as, "A prudent, brave, nnd honorable man."<br />
3. Y l'rbs; as, "Cresar came and saw and conquered."<br />
1. Adv"rhs, or ndverbs and adjuncts; a8, "lIe won the prize fairly and<br />
honorably," or "fairly and lei/It honor," or" with fairness and witlt<br />
honor."<br />
[,. Prepositions; as, " To and from the city"-II Up and dOll'n the hill."<br />
946. Ycrbs conuectcJ have the same nominative; as, "James reads<br />
and writes."<br />
947. Kouns or pronoulJs conncctell in the nominative case, either as sub·<br />
jects or attriuutes, are related as such to the same verb; as, "John and<br />
J
~oo<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
954. Conjunctions are frequeutly uuderstood between the words or<br />
sentences cODDected; as, "Cresar came, sau', and conquered."-'~ The men,<br />
u'omen aual children were present."-" It is the part of thoee that are great,<br />
to giv~-of those that are poor, to ask."-" LeaI"Ding collects materials;<br />
wisdom applies them."<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
955. RULE I.-Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of vel'bs,<br />
and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, "Do good, and Btek peace."-" Honor<br />
thy father and mother."<br />
[This rule applies to the infinitive and participles·l<br />
956. Yerbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are geuerally<br />
also iu the same form (474); as, .. He reads and writes," (not, does write).<br />
957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by II conjunction, but having a<br />
different construction, may be in different moods and tenses; as, ,I I read<br />
that I may learn."<br />
958. When two or more verbs iu the compound tenses, or in the progl'essi<br />
ve 01" emphatic form, or in the passive voicc, are connected, the auxiliary<br />
expressed witb the first, may be understood to the rest; as, "He<br />
can neither Tead nor write."-" Diligence should be commended and rewarded."<br />
Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is ofteu more emphatic:<br />
as, "They shall come, and they shall declare his t.ruth."<br />
959. Y erbs of the same mood, tense or form, connected as a compound<br />
predicate (627), have the nominative expres~ed with the fh'st, and understood<br />
to the rest; as, "Cresar came, saw, and conquered." But-<br />
960. When verbs connected are not of the 8ame mood, tense, or form,<br />
and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but, though, yet, is<br />
intended the nominative is frequently repeated; as, .. He came, but he<br />
would not stay." But still-<br />
961. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance<br />
with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are<br />
many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony aad perspicuity;<br />
and when these are preserved without repeating the nominative, it<br />
may be omitted; as, "The two charges had been, and still are, united in<br />
one persoD."-ll'orth British Review.<br />
962. After expressions implying doubt,fear, (;r denial, the conjunction<br />
that is properly used-not lest, but, but that; as, .. I do not doubt that be<br />
is honest."-" I am afraid that he will die."-Also, what should never be<br />
used for that. Thus, I, He will not believe but what I am to blame," should<br />
be, "but that I am to blame."<br />
963. RULE '2,-Certain u'ordsin the antecedent member of a sentence,<br />
·require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one; thus-<br />
1. In clauses or words simply connected-<br />
Both requires and (567); as, "Both he and I came."<br />
Either --- or (5'10); as, "Either he or I will come:'<br />
Neither --- nor (670); 3S, "Neither he 7101' I came."<br />
Whether --- or; n., "lrlttther he or I came."
SYNTAX-CON JUNCTIONS. 201<br />
Though --- yet.: as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in<br />
him."<br />
Not only --- but also; as, "Not only he but also his brother<br />
goes."<br />
2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison-<br />
The comparative degree requires than; as, "He is taller than I am."<br />
Other requires than; as, .. It is no other than he."<br />
Else than; as, .. What else do you expect than this i"<br />
As<br />
as (expressing equality); as," He is as tall a' I am:'<br />
As<br />
so (expres.ing equality); ae, "As thy ,Jay is, so shall<br />
thy strength be."<br />
So<br />
as (with a negative, el·<br />
lieved," or-
202 ENGLISH GRAlIlMAR.<br />
2. If thi, call llot be done, we lllay complcte the construction of the<br />
first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave the subse·<br />
quent of the second uULlerstood. Thus, .. He was more belved but not<br />
so much admired as Cynthio," is not c'Jrrect, becaus" we can not say ... He<br />
wa" more beloved as Cynthio." It should be, " Hc wag more IJcloved than<br />
CYflthio, but not so much admired."<br />
969. The principle of this rule applies to the nppropriate selection of<br />
words ns well as to their constrllcti",,; thns, .• This doctrine is founded<br />
and rtlsi,teut with the trulh," should be, "founued upon, aUll cousisteut<br />
with," &c.<br />
EXTmCTSES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In the following scntences point out the conjunctions, the words or scntCflCCS<br />
connected by them-see whether they correspond, according to the<br />
rules, and if not, correct anu give a reason for the change.<br />
(D55) He reads and ,",rote ,,,ell.-Anger glances into the<br />
breast of a "ise ruan, but will rest only in the bosom of fools.<br />
If he understand the subject and attends to it, he call Bcarcely<br />
fail of success.-Enjoying health and to live in peace are great<br />
blessings.-Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about<br />
showing it.-Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than<br />
to show it.<br />
lOU and me are great friends.-This is a small matter between<br />
you and L-J\Iy father and him are very intimate.-He<br />
is t.aIler than me; but I am ohler than him.<br />
(D56) He reads and writeth \"ell.-He reads and does write<br />
well.-He reads and is writing well.-Does he not read and<br />
"rites well ?-Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee<br />
to forgive him ?-Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life.<br />
(958) He can neither read nor can write.-1 will come and<br />
will see you, and will tell you the "hole story.-He should have<br />
written, or should ha\'e :;ent, or should have come himself.<br />
(DGO) Can these persons consent to sllch a proposal, and will<br />
consent to it ?-How distinguished for talents he i~, and how<br />
useful might be.-He might have been happy and now is con<br />
"inced ofit.-He could command his temper, though would not.<br />
(D62) I do not dellY but he has merit. They "ere afraid<br />
lest you would be off'ended.-'Ye were apprehensive lest some<br />
accident had happelled to him. 'Ve call1lot deny but what he<br />
was ill-treated.-\Ve can not doubt bnt ,,·hat he is wel1.-1 Gan<br />
llot Bee but what he is well.<br />
(D63-1) It is neither cold or hot.-It is so clear as I need<br />
not explain it.-The relations arc so uncertain, as that they reo
SYNTAX-INTER.JEUl'IONS.<br />
2U3<br />
quire much examination.-The one is equally deserving as the<br />
other.-I must be so candid to o,,"n that I have been mistaken.<br />
-He ,,"ould not do it himself nor let me do it.-lIe ,,"as as an<br />
I;l'y as he could not speak.-So flS thy day" so shall thy strength<br />
be.-Though he slay me so ,,"ill I tru~t in him.-Hc must go<br />
himself or send his servant.-Thm·e is no condition so secure as<br />
can not admit of cklllge.-He i::; not as eminent and a3 much<br />
c~ieemed as he thinks himself to be.<br />
(£lG3-2) He has little more of the scholar besides the ll'lllle.<br />
- Be ready to succor such persons who m'l'll lhy assi,t:1llce.<br />
They had no sooner risen but they applied thclllsch'es to theil'<br />
::;tudic~.-These savage people seemed to have no other clenll'nt<br />
but ,,"ar.-Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided.<br />
-He gaiued nothing further by his speech, but Gnly to be' commended<br />
for his cloquence.-This is none other but the gate of<br />
Paradise.<br />
(DG7) I always have and I alw"ays shall be of this opinion.<br />
lIe is bolder but not so ,,"ise as his companion.-Sin(·,'rity i::; as<br />
valuable and even more so than knowledge.-'l'heil' intentions<br />
might and probably ,,"ere good. The re\\ard has already or<br />
will hereafter be given to him.-\\' ill it be ul';;"ll that these<br />
books are as old or even older than tradition-This book is<br />
prcferrable and cheaper than the other. He takes no care nor<br />
iuterest in the matt~r.<br />
INTERJECTIONS.<br />
970. RULE XX.-Interjections hal'(~ no grammati('((/<br />
connection with the other words in a sentence (JSG).<br />
971. After interjections, pronouus of the fi.rst person nre commonly ;u<br />
the ol~ective C30e; those of the second, in the nominati¥c; as, " All me!"<br />
-"0 thouI"<br />
972. In neither of thcs
'20-1<br />
ENGLISH GLAl\IMAl1.<br />
(It the same time, all the parts of the sentence should correspond,<br />
and ({ regular ((lid dependent construction be<br />
P1'1'8r'l'l'cd throughout.<br />
974. TLis may be regardeu as a general rule, applicable to eve,'y case,<br />
and tLercf"re comprchending all the preceding. Though these arc 80 full<br />
nnu minute as to cmbrnce almost Herything belunging to the proper eonstruetioll<br />
of ,pntcnces, yet there will sometimes occur instances of impropriety<br />
iu the use, and arrangement, an,l connection of word~, for the avoidillg<br />
or e"''I'ecting of wLich no velY specific rule can be given.<br />
975. Amoug Lbe evils to be guarded ngainst under this geueml rule,<br />
n,·p the fullol"illg:-<br />
1. J'hc use of words which do not correctly or properly convey the idea<br />
intenuerl, or which convey another with equal propriety.<br />
2. The flrrnngement of words and clauses in such a way that their relath'n<br />
to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to be<br />
perc .. i 7cd.<br />
3, T"" "'p,lratiug of nrljllncts (:>41) from their principals, and placing<br />
them so that they mlly be joined to words to which they do not<br />
I:clong (.~82).<br />
4. Thc sep'lr:1ting of relative clauses imp"operly from their antecellents<br />
(755 and 759)<br />
5. U"ing injlllliciously. or too frequently, the third personal or po,'~e"s'<br />
iv,- 1,,""lOll1l, ,'specially in indirect di~course (1129.)<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
The following "ellt('nce~ are not grammatically incorred, but from SODle<br />
uf th(~ cau:-:(':-> 111cntioned :111(IY(', are obscure, int/rga'ltt, Q'Jnb(quolls, or unintelligible.<br />
Let the pupil point out the error amI COJl'cct it., nnd give a<br />
rca son fur the correction.<br />
The son said to his father that he had sinned against Heaven.<br />
-0\ farmer went to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had<br />
gored his ox.-'l'hc Grceks fearing to be smrounded on all sides<br />
lI'heeled about and halted with the ri,'er on their bacKs.-N or<br />
\\"as Philip wanting to corrupt Demostbenes, as he had most of<br />
thc lr'ading men of (hccce-Parmcnio had sened, with great<br />
fiddity, Philip the father of "\lexaDder, as well as himself, for<br />
",holll he fi ..,t opened the w::Iy into asia.-Belisarius was general<br />
of all the forces under J LIstinian the First, a man of rare<br />
,'alor.-Lysias promi~ed his fat.her never to abandon his friends.<br />
-Carthage was demolished to the ground so that we are unable<br />
il) say where it stood, at this day.-Tbus ended the war with<br />
Antiochll~, twelve years after the sccond Punic war, and two<br />
aftcr it had been begllll.-Clandius was cunonized among the<br />
god~, who scareely deserved tho name of a mUll.
SYNTAX-ELLIPSIS<br />
976. Another class of improprieties arises from the improper onllSSlon<br />
of words, by which the grammatical construction (If a sentence is brokcll<br />
up. As a general rule, the fewer the words are by which w., expr."s Oul'<br />
iJens, the bet: er, proviJeJ the meaning is clearly brought out. This may<br />
often be done without using all the "urus neec;.'ar), to the full grmllmatieal<br />
form of a sentence, and hence, as the tcnJellry always is to abbreviate<br />
~peccb. such words a. can be .pared, aecordin~ to tbe lloage of the<br />
lan;:!;J!;'e, are properly omitted. This omission is called<br />
ELLIPSES (1044-1).<br />
Respecting the ""e of this figure, nothing more udlaile can be laid<br />
down than "hat is contained in the fullowing<br />
SPECIAL RL'LES.<br />
977. RULE I.-An ellipses, or omission of IV mZ" is admissible wlten<br />
tlleY can be 8upplied by the mind with such ecr/ail/ly and re'l
206 ENGJ.ISH GRAMMAR.<br />
7. The vcrb to be, with its su~iect, in dependent clauses, is often omitted<br />
after the connectives, if, though, yet, when, &c.; as, "Study, if [it is]<br />
neglected, becomes irksome."-" Though [he was] poor, he was honest."<br />
(9G5).<br />
8. Tn poetry, verbs which expl'ees address 01' answer, are often omitted;<br />
as, "To him the prince [replicd]." Also, when the words connected<br />
readily indicate what the verb must be, if expressed; as, "I'll hence to<br />
London "-" I'll in "-" AU'(lY, old man I "-Shaks.-" Up, up, Glenarkin I'"<br />
-lV. Scott.<br />
9. The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after<br />
the auxiliul'Y, when the same verb is used in the first clause; as, "You<br />
have read, but I have not [read]." Also, verbs connected in the same<br />
voice, mood, and tcose, Laving the auxiliary with the first, omit it with<br />
the rest; ns," lIe will be loved and respected for his virtues."<br />
10. ADVEItB.-When nn adverb modifies more words than one, it is<br />
placed only with the last; as, "He spoke nnd acted gracefully."<br />
11. PRIlPOSITloN.-When the same preposition connects two or more<br />
subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually<br />
omitted before all except the first; ns, " Over the bills and the valleys "<br />
" Through woods and wilds."<br />
12. CONJUNCTION.-When several words and clauses come together in<br />
the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely,<br />
sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all except the last;<br />
ns ... He caused the blind to set', the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the<br />
lepers to be cleansed."-" We ran hither nnd thither, seeking novelty and<br />
change-sympathy and pastime-communion and love,"-" Youth is the<br />
season of joy, of bliss, of strength, and pride."<br />
13. bTERJECTIO:
SYNTAX-ELLIPSIS. 207<br />
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.<br />
In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to tbe<br />
sense :-<br />
(977-1) Cicero was :m eloquent man, an able man, a generous<br />
man, anlt he was a truly patriotic man.-Avarice and cunning<br />
may gain an estate, but avarice and ("unnin~ cannot gain<br />
friends.-l venerate him. I rcgpect him, I love hilll, on account<br />
of his virtues.-(Dii -4) lIe has an affectionate brothel' and an<br />
affectionate sister.-(~)7i -G) Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence<br />
to be strengthened and to be confirmed by principle.<br />
-Per"e\'erance in lauuablc pursuits will \"l'\\ ard all our toils,<br />
and will produce effects bey~lld our calcull1tion.-(977-10) \\' c<br />
often commend imprudently, as \\"di as censure imprudently.<br />
(97i-ll) Cbanges are alnm;t cOIJ8tantiy taken place in men<br />
and in manners, in opinions and in customs, in pri \Ute fortunes<br />
and in public conduct.-(977-1. G. 9.) He is temperate, he is<br />
disinterested, he is bene\·olent.-H e regards the truth, but thou<br />
dost not regard it.-\r e succeeded, but they did not succecd.<br />
In tbe following 8ellten~es. supply tbe words improperly omittcu, and<br />
state why they shoulLi be l"('stul"ecl :-<br />
(9j9) \\r e are natur:l11y inclined to praise who praise us, and<br />
to flatter who flatter us.-\Vho best can suffer best can do.-A<br />
beautiful garden and trees "ll"e1'e sold ....L.lIis honor, intcrest, religion,<br />
were all embarked in tbis undertaking.-l\Iany days and<br />
even weeks pass away unimproved.-The captain had Sl'\'cral<br />
men died in his ship.-lIis conduct is not scandalous, and that<br />
is the best can be said of it.-They enjoy a free constitution<br />
and laws.-That is a property most mell hare, or at least lIlay<br />
attain.-This property had or will be sohl.-You suppose him<br />
younger than I.-It requires few talents to "ll"hich most men<br />
are not born, or at least may not acquire.-lIe may be said to<br />
have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently entitled to<br />
the reward.-The people of this country possess a healthy<br />
climate and soil.-l have purchased a house and orehard.~A<br />
noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune; his greatness of<br />
Boul is not to be cast down.<br />
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON RULES 1 AND 2.<br />
The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns.<br />
There is a God who made and governs the world.-Of whom<br />
hast thou been afraid or feared ?-I deny not but that religion<br />
consists in these things.-1'his sentiment is well expressed by<br />
Plato, but much better by Solomon than him.
208 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAH,<br />
SYNTACTICAL PARSING.<br />
983. SYNTACTICAL PARSING includes etymological, and<br />
adds to it a statement of the relation in which words<br />
"tand to each other, and the rules according to which<br />
they are combined in phrases and sentences.<br />
Before parsing a sentence syntactically, it should ti"st be analyzed, as<br />
directed (658), and exemplified (659).<br />
MODEL OF SY~T.ACTICAL PARSING.<br />
" The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examineu, affords a thousand<br />
wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand by<br />
which it was created."<br />
This sentence contains all the parts of speech cxcept the interjection.<br />
It is !JllrBed etymologically (581 and 5S~), and analyzcd (659-7), which<br />
see. It may now be parsed syntactically, as follows:-<br />
J.'/w ••••.•. is the DEFIXITE AR'rlCLE; it belongs to plant or animal (711),<br />
and shows these words to be limited.-RuLE Ill, 2. "The<br />
article the is put," &c. (707).<br />
minutest ... . is an ADJEOTIVE, compared here by er and est, superlative, and<br />
qualifies plant or animal.-RuLE n., 1." An adjective or<br />
participle," &c., (676).<br />
plant ..... . is a XOL'N, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of<br />
affords and obliges.-RuLE VI., " The subject of a finite verb,"<br />
&c. (760).<br />
or •........ is a DISJUNCTn'E CONJUNCTlO:-I, connecting as alternates plant<br />
and animal (569).-RuLE :XI:X. "Conjunctions connect," &c.<br />
(944).<br />
animal •.. . is a NOUN, neuter, in the nominative singular-same as plant<br />
-and connected with it by or.<br />
if ......... is a conjunction; it connects its clause with the preceding as<br />
a condition.-RuLE XIX. "Conjunctions connect," &c. (944).<br />
it .•....... (understood) is a third PERSONAL PRONOUN, neuter, in the<br />
nominative singular; it stands for plant or animal.-RuLE<br />
IV., 2. c, When a pronoun refers," &c. (730); and is the<br />
subject of is examined.-RuLE YI. "The subject of a finite<br />
verb," ('760).<br />
is examined. is a VERB, transitive, regular," in the present indicative, passive,<br />
expressing an act done to its subject it, with which it<br />
agrees.-RuLE VIII. ".!. verb agrees," &c. (776) .<br />
• Oonjueating i, here omilted for brevity, it bci 19 unnecessary, because the verb is<br />
mentloned as regula, un, note).
SYNTAX-PARSING. 209<br />
attentively • . is an AllnRB, deri\"ed from attentive, and compared by more<br />
and most; it modifies is examined.-RuLE XVIII ... Adverbs<br />
modiry, &c. (922).<br />
affords .... . is a VERB, tramitive, regular; in the present indicative, active,<br />
third pel'son singular; agrees with, and affirms of plant or<br />
animal.-rrc·LIi: 3 under RULE YIII. "Two or more substan.<br />
ti ves singular," &c. (70:).<br />
a .....••... is tbe INDEFINITE ARTICLE, Rnll belongs to thousand. It showB<br />
tbat the number is rvganled aR one aggregate (711:).-RuLE<br />
III., 1 "The article a or an," &c. (7117 and 726).<br />
thousand . .. is a NUMERAL ADJECTIVE, cardinal, qualifying wonders.-RuLE<br />
II.,1. "An adjecti\'e or participle," &c. (676).<br />
wonders .•. . is a NOUN, neuter, in the ohjective plural, the object of, and<br />
governed by, affords.-Rl;LE X ... A transitive verb," &c.,<br />
(801).<br />
and • ••••••• is a COPULATIVE CONJUNCTlO~; it connects affords and obliges.<br />
-RULE XIX. "Conjunctions connect," ,te. (944).<br />
obliges ••... is tbe same liS affords. See above.<br />
us . ..•..... is a PERSONAL paO:-'OUN. first person, mascnline or feminine,<br />
in tbe objective plurnl, the object nf, lind governed hy, obliges.<br />
-RULE X. "A transitive verb," &c. (finl). It is at th,' same<br />
time the sul~ect of t'J admire amI to adore.-RULE 3 under<br />
RULE XV. "The infinitive as the subject," &c. (87~ and 873).<br />
to admire .. . is II VERD, transitive, regular, ill the present infinitive, active,<br />
governed by obligcs.-RuLE XV. "The infinitive mood is<br />
governed," &c. (86:;).<br />
and. " ••.•. is a COPULATIVE CO:-'JUNCTION; it connects to admire nnd to<br />
odore.-RuLE XIX ... Conjunctions connect," &c. (944).<br />
to culore ••.. is the same in parsing and c
210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
was created .iq a VERB, transitive, r~gular, in the Jast indica.tive: pasgive,<br />
thil'o pel'son singular; affirms of. lin agrees with It.-RuLlI:<br />
YIII. .. A verb agl'ell~," &c. (7'11;).<br />
In the snme manuer, paroe the other ~entences analyzed (659); and<br />
Ilnlll)'Ze nnd plrse the exercises following them page 143, al)d any correct<br />
seut"IlC~B from any goou aUlhor.<br />
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES<br />
O~ THE RULES OF SYNTAX, ETC.<br />
~ In the preceding ., Exercises to be corrected," care bns beeD tuken<br />
to Ill.,el t such eX:!Il' pIes Duly as can be cOl'reeted hy the rule, or the ob,<br />
sel'vnti,,"s ulldel' wl,ich they are placed, or hy those which precede them.<br />
In the f"Howing .. Promiscuous Exercises," no palticular arrangement is<br />
observ .. d. Every sentence contains one error. many of them two, and<br />
sOllie of I hem thl ee "I' more. Mnny of the errors, too, are such as art:<br />
oftl'n made. and, on accollnt of our tamilial'it~· ",itb them, are uot so readily<br />
noticed. Others are such as nohody wuuld make. and of course will at<br />
once he detected. These are in'erted, nllt so much to be guarded against,<br />
liS to iJlustl'ate and draw attenlion to the rule which tLey violate, and to<br />
show that others which are not so obviolls, aud which are eometime, c"m·<br />
rnitted, invoh'e the parne error. For example, nobody would say, "Him<br />
wrile'." Sume perhaps might .ay. "Here is the mao whom everybody<br />
8'Y8 i" the writet· of that letter; and yet the error iu both is the same,<br />
anu violates Rule VI. 1n all the~e examples for correction, the ohject<br />
aimed at i, to put the pnpil in possession of the ide" intended to be exprl·",·rI-nnd<br />
tbe exercise for him is to express that irlea grarnmaticlllly,<br />
in tIll' be,! manoer 'I'Ll'r€ can be no danger of imitatillC'; an expression<br />
wbich he i, forewarned is wroog; while it WIll exercise his ju I~meut to<br />
dete'" t, e (:'1'01'. I"st Li~ knowledge of <strong>grammar</strong>, auu be a profilable exel'<br />
cise in eomposilion to put the sentence right.<br />
All these exercises Illay fir,t be corrected orally-showing wherein each<br />
is wrong. and why-col'recting Ihe e'Tot'-and giving' a reason fOl'the<br />
cha ge made. They may then be writteu out ill a COl" eele,] state. After<br />
that each sentence may be analyzed as directed (658), aod then parsed<br />
syntactIcally as dil'ected (983).<br />
1.-1. Too great a \'ariety of studies perplex and weakeu the<br />
judgment.-2, I called to see you, but you was not at home.-<br />
3. '1'0 act with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish<br />
the manll, character.-J, The crown of virtue is peace and<br />
honor.-5. In the human species, tbe inlluenl'e of instinct and<br />
habit are generally assisted by the suggestions of reason.<br />
ti The train of our ideas are often interrupted.-7. They were<br />
both unfortunale, but neither of them were to blame.<br />
2.-1. We arrived safel.V at our jouruey's end.-2. That is a<br />
matter of no conl:lequence between you and 1.-3. This should<br />
not happen between Buch friends as him and me.-i. Them
SYNTAX-PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES, 211<br />
that seek knowledge will find it.-5. Such are the men whom,<br />
we might suppose, know better.-6. Our welfare and security<br />
COIl~iSt8 in unity .-7. The love of virtue, and devotion to pleasure,<br />
ig opposed to each other.-S. Every leaf, (:\'t!ry twig,<br />
every drop of water, teem with life.-9. No oppressor and no<br />
tyrant triumph there.-lO. All the world is spectators of your<br />
conduct.<br />
H.-I. ::\othing iR more lovelier than virtue.-2. His associates<br />
in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his<br />
conduct.-8. He i:! taller than me, but I am stronger than bim.<br />
-4. 1'1 either riches or beauty furnish solid peal'[' and c()ntent·<br />
ment.-5. The abuse of mercies ripen us for judgmenb.-6.<br />
John, William, and Henry's hats were stulen.-7. A mans<br />
manners frequently infiuerice his fortune.- S. Much depentls<br />
on this rule being observed.-D. Such will ever be the ('ffeet of<br />
youth associating with vicious companions.-lO. Give to en'!')<br />
one their due.-II. It has been fully shown that neithcI' of<br />
them are eorrect.-l~. E\'ery bone, every mu"de, e\'er.'· part<br />
of man, are known to Him which made him.<br />
4.-1. lIo writes tolerably wel1.-2. Three months' notice<br />
are required to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the<br />
schoo1.-3. That rose smells sweetly.-4:. He employed allother<br />
friend of his father to assert his claim-[whose claim ?]-5.<br />
A soul inspired with the love of truth, will keep all hi:l powers<br />
attentive to the pursuit of it.-G. It is the duty of everyone<br />
to be careful of their reputation.-7. It is remarkable his continual<br />
endeavours to serve us.-S. "rhatever antiquitie~ he<br />
cculd procure, he purchased them at any price.-D I am not<br />
so well as when you was here.-lO. It is three (bys yesterday<br />
since you haye promised that money.-I1. This mode of expression<br />
has been formerly in use.-l::!. He promised long ago,<br />
that he had attended to that matter.-13. Ile was expected to<br />
have arriyed earlier.<br />
5.-1. Twice three are six.-2. t:lix times three are ei!.ihtecn.<br />
-3. As two are to four, so arc six to twelve.-1. l
Q12<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
such a piece of work-three is too few.-16. Three shot was<br />
fired without effect.-17. The fleet consisted of six Bails.-18.<br />
A drove of forty h~ads of cattle passed along.<br />
G.-I. Molasses are thicker than water.-2. The measles are<br />
spreading through the country.-3. Wheat is being sold fur a<br />
dollar a bushel, and oats is in demand.-4. The news by the<br />
last arrival is better than were expected.-5. ,Ye hoped to have<br />
heard from you beforo this.-G. Do you not think he writes<br />
good ?-7. The wind blows coldly from the north, and the snow<br />
lies deeply on the ground.-8. James is as tall if not taller than<br />
I am.-9. He never has and he never will do so well.-lO. He<br />
whoever said so was mistaken.-ll. There are a heroic innocence<br />
as well as a heroic courage.-12. He puts down the<br />
mighty and exaltetl} the humble.-13. Piety toward God, as<br />
well as sobriety and yirtue, are necessary to happiness.<br />
7.-1. Take care who you admit into your friendship.-~. I<br />
always understood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book.<br />
-3. If I was him, I would take more care for the future.-4.<br />
There is two or three of us who have been at Europe last year.<br />
-5. We were in Havre when the revolution broke out at<br />
France.-6. I have been to Boston for a few days, and spent<br />
the time very pleasant.-7. That is the man and the horse<br />
which we met before.-8. George was the most enterprising<br />
young man whom I ever knew.-9. All who were present were<br />
pleased with the entertainment.<br />
8.-L This excellent person was fully resigned either to have<br />
lived or to have died.-2. Between he and I there is some disparity<br />
of years, but none between he and she.-3. To be moderate<br />
in our views, and proceeding temperately in pursuit of<br />
them, is the best way to insure success.-4. Enjoying health,<br />
and to live in peace, are great blessings.-5. Which dictionary<br />
do you prefer, ,Yebster or "\Valker ?-6. Though this event be<br />
strange, it certainly did happen.-If he does but consider the<br />
suhject, he will no doubt change his opinion.-S. Ignorance is<br />
the mother of fear, as well as admiration.-9. Let him be whom<br />
he may, I can not wait for him.-lO. We have no need for his<br />
assistance.-ll. Among every class of people, self-interest<br />
prevails.<br />
9.-1. Many have profited from the misfortunes of others.-<br />
2. :l\Iany ridiculous customs have been brought in UBe during<br />
the hundred last years.-3. Is there no person who you can<br />
Bcnd on that business ?-4. Little attention to business is neces-
SY~TAX-PRO.l\lISCUOUS EXERCISES. 213<br />
O:lry, if you would succeed.-5. A truth is virtue to which we<br />
::;hould pay little regard.-G. Without firmness, nothing that is<br />
g:reat can be undertaken j that is hazardous, accompli~hed.-7.<br />
The people of the United States enjoys a free constitution and<br />
laws.-S. That is a propcrty most men have, or at least may<br />
attain.-9. The pyramids of Egypt stood more than three thousand<br />
years.-l0. It is thought they have been built by the<br />
Egyptian kings.-ll. When the nation complain, the rulers<br />
should listen to their -roice.-12. Whom say the people that<br />
I am?<br />
10.-1. They that honor me, I will honor.-2. He only got<br />
ihe money for a few days.-3. He was mistaken evidently in<br />
his calculations.-·j,. No man is fit for free conversation, for the<br />
inquiry after truth, if' he be exceedingly resened j if' he be<br />
haughty and proud of his knowledge j if he be positi,'e and<br />
dogmatical in his opinions; if he be one who al\\"ay8 afrecb to<br />
outshine all the company; if he be fretful and peevish j if ho<br />
affect ,yit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles.-G. A<br />
good end does not warrant the using of bad means.-G. A good<br />
end does not warrant using of bad means.-7. Humility neither<br />
~ceks the last place, or the last word.-S. Either wealth or<br />
power may ruin their possessor.-9. Avoid lightness and frivolity;<br />
it is allied to folly.-lO. Do you know who you are<br />
talking to (-11. Art thou the man who hast dared to insult<br />
me ?-12. 0 that the winter was gone!<br />
11'-1. We are often disappointed of things which, beforo<br />
p015ses,ion, promised. much enjoyment.-2. We can fully confide<br />
on none but the truly good.-3. You may rely in that.-4. The<br />
Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their power.-5.<br />
He was accused with acting unfairly, at least in a manner illy<br />
adapted for conciliating regard.-6. There is more business<br />
done ill New York th:m in any city of the United States.-7.<br />
The same laws and the same constitution which belongs to one<br />
citizen of tho United States belongs to all.-S. If there was<br />
better management, there would be greater security.-D. 'rbe<br />
ship Panama is carly expected from Canton in the spring.-<br />
10. Every year, every day, and e\'ery hour, bring their changes.<br />
-11. Whom say ye that I am (<br />
1~.-1. Many a youth ha-re ruined their prospects for life by<br />
one imprudent step.-2. No power wa" ever yet intrusted to<br />
man without liability to abuse.-3. A conceited fool is more<br />
abominable than all fools.-4. 1\1y gra-rity never did no one any
214 ENGLISH GRAl'IIl\lAn.<br />
harm.-5. A constant display of the graces are fatiguing to a<br />
sober mind.-6. These coins of compliment and flattery circulate<br />
everywhere in society: the true is of gold, the base is of<br />
brass.-7. Expectation and reality makes up the sum total of<br />
life.-8. l\fusic, the love of it, and the practice of it, seems to<br />
pervade all creation.-9. All soils are not adapted for cultivation<br />
-10. 'l'he vain abhors the vaill.-I1. The author dreads<br />
the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the<br />
judge, the horse dreads the whip, the lamb dreads the wolfall<br />
after their kind.-l~. The intellectual and the moral censor<br />
both ha"e the same ends iu "iel\".<br />
13.--1. I was engaged formerly in that busine~s, but I never<br />
shall be again concerned in it.-~. We do those thingl3 frequently<br />
which we repent of afterward.-3. Not to exasperate him, I<br />
only spoke a few words.-4. Shall you attain success without<br />
that preparation, and escape dangers without that precaution<br />
which is required of others ?-5. That picture of your motbel"s<br />
is a vel''' exact resemblance of her.-6. The winter Iw.s not<br />
been as· s:overe a~ we expected it to have been.-7. In ref'<br />
erence to that transaction, he deser"ed punishment as much or<br />
more than his companions.-8. In such circumstanccs, 110 man,<br />
no woman, no child are safc.-9. Everyone of those ple:lsul'('t-\<br />
that are pursued to excess, cou\'ert themselves into poison.-<br />
10. 'l'hou, Lord, ,vbo h:lth permitted affliction to come upon U",<br />
shall deliver us from it in due time.-ll. The sea appeared to<br />
be more than U.3113lly agitated.-l~. By these attainments arc<br />
the mastel' honored and the scholar encoUl'aged.-13. The temple<br />
c,'Dsisted of one great and several smaller edifices.-14.<br />
Whether he ,,·ill be learned or no, depends on his application.<br />
A LIST OF DIPHOPEH EXPRESSIONS.<br />
SELECTED ClllEFLY FIlOli PICKERING'S VOOABULARY.<br />
Improper.<br />
PT"per.<br />
The alone God. Thct'lone motive. The one God. The only motive.<br />
I an't; you au't; he an't, &c. I am not; you are not; he is not, &c.<br />
~1"y manner of means.<br />
Any means.<br />
He was walking back and forth. --- backward Rnd fOl wal'd.<br />
llis argument was based on this fact. His argument wag fOllUded on thi s<br />
falt.<br />
The mODey was ordered paid. The Illoney was ordered to be paid.<br />
I calculate to lea~e town soon. I intend 10 leave town SOOD.<br />
A. chunk of bread.<br />
A pil:ce of bread.
A. clever bo\flle.<br />
He conducts well.<br />
He i, considerable of a scholar.<br />
His farm was convenient to mine.<br />
He is a decent scholar. writer.<br />
Her si tuation was distressi ng<br />
d'gree.<br />
SYNTA"X-I'UNCTt1ATION. 215<br />
A good house.<br />
lIe conducts himsell well, respecta'<br />
bly.<br />
He if' a pretty good scholar.<br />
His fal'm Was contiguolls to mine,<br />
closp.<br />
He is a p"etty good scholar, wl'iter.<br />
to a --- W:IS extremely
216 ~~NGLISH GRAMMAR,<br />
CO~1MA.<br />
989. The comma is generally used in d,ose parts of a sentence in whieh<br />
a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in closeness to<br />
that which is unbroken.<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
990. RULE I.-In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used; as,<br />
,I Hope is ueee,sary in every condition of life."<br />
991. RULE 2.-When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by<br />
the addition of seTeral adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the grammatical<br />
su Lject, a comma is usually inserted before the "erb; as, "A<br />
steady and nndivided atteution to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior<br />
mind."<br />
992. RULE S.-In compound sentences, the clauses or members are<br />
usually separated by commas; as, "Crafty men contemn studies, simple<br />
men admit'e them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are<br />
short, or closely connected, the comma is not used; as, .. ne.elatioll tells<br />
118 how we may attain happiness."<br />
993. RULE 4.-Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunc·<br />
tiou expressed, do not admi t a comma Let ween them; as, "The earth and<br />
the moon are planets."-'· He is a wise and prudent man."-" lIe catcltes<br />
and arrests the hours,-"He acts prude/lily and vigorously." But when<br />
the conjunction is uot expressed, a comma is inserted after each; as,<br />
" Reason, virtue, ansWer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, the lnst<br />
should not he separated by a comma from its noun; as, " He is a plain honest<br />
man :" Nor enn two ndjecti ves be separated from each other by a com<br />
Illa when used together as a compound adjective j as, "A bright-red color."<br />
994. RULE 5.-More than two word- of the same class connecte,\ by<br />
conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as,<br />
" Poetry, music, aDd pAinting, are fine arts." But when the words connected<br />
are adjectives, the last .hould not be separated from its noun by a<br />
comma after it; as, " David was a 1vise, bralle, and prudent king."<br />
995. RULE 6.-Words used in pairs tuke a comllla after each pair; as,<br />
" Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the<br />
consequ
PUNCTUATION.<br />
dull" But when the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, the<br />
comma is not used; as, .. Wisdom is better than rubies."<br />
999. RULE lO.-The adverbs nay, 80, lienee, again, first, secondly, &c.,<br />
when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence,<br />
should be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Nay, but<br />
we will serve the Lord." So also, as and t/&US, introducing an example or<br />
quotation; as, &c.<br />
1000. RULE ll.-A relative with its clauses, explanatory of its antecedpnt,<br />
is usually sepal'Bted from the rest of a sentence; as, "He who disrep-ards<br />
the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or,<br />
.. He TUllst be utterly abandoned, who disregards," &c. But when the<br />
re1atiYe, with its clause, is restrictive (267-2), and the connection so close<br />
that it can not be separated, the comma is not used; liS," Self·denial is<br />
the sacrifice wliich virtue must mllke."<br />
1001. RULE l2.-Tlwt, used liS a conjunction, and preceded by another<br />
. clausc, usually has a comma before it; as, U Be virtuous, that you may be<br />
happy." But when the clanse introduced by that, is the suhject or the<br />
o~ject of the verb in the preceding clauAe, the comma is not inserted; as,<br />
.. Jt is wcll that he should know it."-" I said tltat ye are gods."<br />
1002. RULE 13.-When a verb is understood, a comma must be insert.ed;<br />
A". U Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and<br />
writing, an exact man."<br />
1003. RULE H.-lVords repeated are separated by ~ comma; as,<br />
.. ~,oly, holy, boly, is the Lord God Almighty."-" No, no, no, it can not<br />
be.<br />
1004. RULE 15.-Inverled sentmces, by throwing two or more words<br />
Ollt of t]'l'ir regular connection, often require a comma; as, "To God, all<br />
things are pos8ible." Not inverted, it would be, "All things are possible<br />
to God."-" His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural<br />
onl",', "To ass;st the distressed was his delight."<br />
1005. RULE l6.-A short expression, in the manner of a quotation, is<br />
separated by commas; as, "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also<br />
th" ve1·b, .
ENGLtsa ntUMMAtl.<br />
tain in themselves 11 complete and independent proposition, but still having<br />
a connection with the other part~.<br />
SPECIAL RULES.<br />
1009. RuLlsillg of Heavcn."-" The orator makes the truth rlain to hiS<br />
hem'ers; he awakeus them; he excites them to action; he shows tbem<br />
their impendiug dangel·."-" Be at peace with many; nevertheless, have<br />
but few counoelJol"."<br />
1010, RULE 2.-IVhen several short sentences. complete in themselve~,<br />
but bavilJ!.(' a sligbt Cllllilection in idea, follow ill succession, tbey ,hould<br />
be spp,uated by a selllic,)lou; lB. "The epic poem recite. the exploits of<br />
a hem; tra"edy rcp"esent8 a di-a,trous Hent; c'Huedy ridicules the vices<br />
nnd f"llies of manl,iod: pastoral poetry descl·ibes rural life; and elegy<br />
displays the tenuel' em"tions of the heart"<br />
lOll, RULE 3.-Wben a sentence comists of several membcrs, an,1<br />
tbe~e members are complex, and sul"livided by commas, the lal'ger divisions<br />
of the S"lItcllce are sometimes separated by a semicolon; as, "As<br />
the desi, ~ of approbation, wh('n it works accol'(ling tu reason, improves<br />
the amiable part of our speei8, in c"erythiu!; that is laudable; so nothing<br />
is more d,'n, uctive t" them, when it i. governed by vanity and folly,"<br />
1012. RULE 4.-When a general term has se,eral othe,'s, as p,u-Licular.t<br />
in appositi"n ulldcl' it" the geneml term is separated from the particularS<br />
by a ""llIicolon, and the purticulars, from each otber hy commas; as,<br />
"ArljPctiv(lo pr41llouns are divided illto fOlH~ classps; p()~~es5iye! dl'mpn3tra.~<br />
ti H', dist rihlltiYe. and indefinit,·:' But if the word namely be illtroduced,<br />
tbe separation i" made hy a cumma ollly,<br />
COLON.<br />
1013. The colon is used to divide a sentence inlo two or more parts,<br />
less connected than tbose which are separated Ly a semicolon, but not 80<br />
indepeudent as to require a period,<br />
SPECI AL RULES,<br />
1014, ReLE I.-A colon i. I1Sl'd wllPn a s .. ntence is complete in itself,<br />
in lJl>lh sense and con-truction, but is [,,\Iowe,l bv some ad,litional remark<br />
or illustratiou, depellliing upon it ill sense, th"uih nuL ill Syntax; as, "A<br />
brutl' nrri ves at a point of perfectiou that he can never pass: in a few<br />
Y"'lI'S he bas all the endowments of whicb he is cnpable,"-" StuJy to ncquirc"<br />
hauit of thinking : nothing is lDore important."<br />
1015. HnE 2.-·Wben several short sentenre" f"lIow in succes;ion, earh<br />
cOlltaining a complete ,"(loe in it,df, uut all bavillg a common dependence<br />
on sOllie wb.cq"en/ claus,,; t1,,',e senttll"'!S are separated from the<br />
subsequ('nt clause by n rolon, aud [,'om each other by a sl'lllicolou; as,<br />
• That Nature is unlimited in her operations; th.lt she has inexhausLible
PUNCTUATION. 219<br />
tesourses in reserve j that knowledge will always be progressive j and that<br />
all future generatiolls will continue to make discoveries: these are alllong<br />
the assertions of philosophers."<br />
1016. RULE a.-Either a c[,lon or !l,emicolon may be used when an example,<br />
a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; 3S, "Always remember thia<br />
ancient maxim; • Know thyself.' "-" The Scripture, give us an amiahle<br />
representation of the Deity in these \\ ords: • God is love.'''<br />
1017. RULE 4.-The insertion 01' omission of a conjunction before the<br />
concluding memb~r of a sentence, frequently detcrmilll's the u,e of the<br />
colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expresse,j before the cou·<br />
cluding member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the<br />
colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as,<br />
"Apply yourself to learning: it will redound to your honor."-" Apply<br />
yourself to learoing; for it will rcrlound to your honor."<br />
PERIOD.<br />
1018. Sentences which are complete in ~ense, and not connected i:1<br />
either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a period;<br />
thus, .. Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all lIIeD."<br />
1019. But when sllOrt sentences are conoeeted in meaning, uut not ia<br />
construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010).<br />
1020. Long sentences, if complete, even thou. h grammatically con·<br />
nected by cODjunctions, often insel t a period (563); UIUB, .. He who !
ENG LISH G RAlIIlIIAR.<br />
emotion of any kind; also, in invocations 01' addresses; as, "Eternity I<br />
tllOn plen,ing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it,<br />
01' after the next word; as, "Oh! that he would come." Eut when 0<br />
is used. the note is placed after some intet'vening words; as, "0 my<br />
friends !"<br />
1026. l'arenthesis ( ) includes n clause inserted in the body of a sen·<br />
tence in ol'ller t() some useful or Ilecessary iuformation or remark, but<br />
",hid: may be omitted without injuring' the constrnction of the sentence;<br />
as, .. Know ye n
FIGURES. 221<br />
FIGURES.<br />
1039 A FIGURE, in <strong>grammar</strong>, is some derivation from<br />
the ordinary form, or construction, or application of word,;<br />
in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety,<br />
or elegance of expression.<br />
1040. There are tbree kinds of Figures; viz., of Etymology, of Syntax,<br />
and of FJ,c/'" it. The first nnd the second refer to tbefoTIU of words, or<br />
to tbeir construction; and tbe last to tbeir appliwtion.<br />
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.<br />
1041. A figure of Etymology is a departure from tbe usual or simple<br />
funll of words, merely.<br />
1042. Of these, tbe most important are eight j viz., A-ph((!r-e-sis, Prosthe-sis,<br />
Syn.co·pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-gog-ge, Di-((!r-e-sis, Syn-tEr-e-sis, and.<br />
Tme-sil.<br />
1. AphtETesis is tbe elision of a By liable fl'om the beginning of a word;<br />
as, gainst, 'gan, 'bove, 'neath, for against, began, above, beneath;<br />
2. Prosthesis is the prefixiDg of a syllable to a word; as, adown, agoing,<br />
&c., for dOll.m, /Joinj, ,-te.<br />
3. Syncope is the elisioD of a letter or syllabIc, usually a short one, from<br />
the middle of a word; as, med'cine, sP'Tit, e'en, for medicine, spirit, even,<br />
.1. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word;<br />
:lS, tho', for though, th' fur the.<br />
G. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word; ns,<br />
deary, for dea r.<br />
6. DitEl'esis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syl.<br />
lables, usually marked thus ( .. ) on the second vowel; as, couperate, aerial,<br />
7. Syn((!resis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either orthography<br />
or pronunciation; as, dost, seest, for do est, sei!st, or, loved, learned,<br />
pronounced iu one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed.<br />
8. Tlllesi, is separating the parts of a compound word by an interveninc;<br />
term; as, " J~7wt time soever "-" On which side soever"_" To us<br />
1L'ard."<br />
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.<br />
1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construction of<br />
words in a ~entence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force.<br />
1044. Of these, tbe most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis,<br />
Enallage, Hyperbaton.<br />
1. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the full
222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended<br />
(977). Such words are said to be understood; as, "The men, lVomen, and<br />
children," for" The men, the women, and the children."<br />
:2. Pleonasm is the nsing of more words than are necessary to the full<br />
cunstruction of a sentence, to give greater force 01' emphasis to the expression;<br />
as, "The boy, oh ! where was he."<br />
3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which we con,<br />
ceiye the sense of words otherwise than tbe words import, and construe<br />
them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, " He<br />
shine5 "-of a ship, .. She sails" (130).<br />
4. EIlIIl/age is the use of one part of speech for another, 01' of one<br />
modification of a word for another; a •. all adjective for an adverb, thus:<br />
"They fall success ice, and successive rise," for successively; tbe use of we<br />
nnd you in the plural, to denote an individual, &c. (2·15); the use of one<br />
case f"r another j as, "than whom," for than who (\166).<br />
5. Hyperbaton is tbe transposition of words and clauses in a sentence,<br />
to give "ariell'. fOI'ce, and vivacity, to the composition; as, "Now come<br />
we to the lasl."-" .!l man he was to all the country dear."-" He wanders<br />
earth around."<br />
FIGURES OF RHETORIC.<br />
1045. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary application<br />
of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to the compo·<br />
sition. Th,·sc figures are sometimes called tropes.<br />
1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz.:-<br />
Personification, Hyperbole, Climax,<br />
Simile, Irony, Exclamation,<br />
Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation,<br />
Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis,<br />
Yision, Antithesis, Apostrophe.<br />
1. Personification, or prosopop(t!ia, is that figure of speech by which<br />
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects j a" " The sea saw it and<br />
fled"<br />
2. A simile expre,ocs the resemblance t.hat one ubject hears to anotber;<br />
a_, ,. He shall be like a tree planted by the ril'ers af wfller."<br />
3. A metnphoT is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c,) of compari·<br />
son j as, " He shall be a tree planted by," &(1,<br />
4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in<br />
sense as to f"l'm a kind of pal'able or fable. Thus the people of Israel<br />
are repn"ented under the image of a ville: " Thou hast brought a vine out<br />
of Egypt," &c., PS, lxxx. 8-17. Of tbis style are LEsop's FaI:Jies, Bunyan's<br />
.. l'ilgrim's PI'ugl'css," &c.<br />
5. Vision. or imagery, is a figure bv which the ~penker represents pnst<br />
eYeut" or the ohjecls of his imagination. as actually present to his senses'<br />
as, "Cresar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, anll enters Italy."-" Th~<br />
combat thic~ens : on, ye braves I "
POETIC LICENSES. 223<br />
6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less.<br />
better 01' w(>r
221 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
"A man he was to all the country deal',<br />
And passing rich with forty pounds a year."<br />
"By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen."<br />
"Shall I receive by gift, what of my own,<br />
When and where likes me best, I can command I'<br />
"Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey."<br />
"The whiles, the vaulted shrine around,<br />
Seraphic wires were heard to sound."<br />
"On tee first friendly bank he throws him down."<br />
"I'll seek the Eolitude he sought,<br />
And stretch me where he lay."<br />
" Not Hector's self should want an equal foe."<br />
2. More ,iolent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than in<br />
prose; as-<br />
" Suffice, to.nigbt, these orders to obey."<br />
" Time is our tedious song should here have enlling."<br />
" :For is thero aught in sleep can charm the wise I"<br />
" 'T is Fancy, in her fiery cal',<br />
Transports me to the thickest war."<br />
" 11'/", never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."<br />
"Bliss i,; the same in subject as in king,<br />
In ll'ho obtain defence, or who defend."<br />
3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nOUns which<br />
they do not strictly qualify; as-<br />
U The ploughman homeward plods his weary way."<br />
"The tenants of the warbling shade."<br />
" And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."<br />
4. The rules of <strong>grammar</strong> are often violated by the poets. A noun and<br />
its pronoun are often used in reference to the enme verb; asu<br />
It ceased, the melancholy sound."<br />
" My banks they are furnished with bees."<br />
5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, the sign of the<br />
infinitive; as-<br />
"To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell;<br />
To slotely trace tbe forest's sbady scenes."<br />
6. A. common poetic license consists in employing or and nor instcad of<br />
either and neither; as-<br />
-----" And first<br />
Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea."<br />
" Kor grief nor fear shall break my rest."<br />
'7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, anll adjectives uRe,1 like<br />
abstract nouns; as-<br />
H The ligb tninge flash a IA1'ger cur\'e,ll
POETIC LICENSES •<br />
.. Still in harmonious inter('onrse, they lived<br />
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart."<br />
.. Meanwhile, whate' er of beautiful or new,<br />
By chance or search, was otfel'ed to his view,<br />
He scanned with curious eye."<br />
8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable ia poetry,<br />
though inadmissible in prose; as,-<br />
" He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme."<br />
.. Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold."<br />
.. There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call,<br />
Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame."<br />
.. Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed."<br />
----- " Never since created man,<br />
Mt't such embodied force."<br />
1049. Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but deuied to<br />
prose writers; and among other purposes which they obviously serve,<br />
they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by iucrensiug<br />
the boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, b,·tween it<br />
and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry. the difficultyattendant<br />
upon this species of composition would probably be so<br />
great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of writing<br />
verse.<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
Point out. name, and define, the figures uf Etymology in the folIo Iving<br />
phrases and sentences :-<br />
His courage 'gan fail.-Bend 'gainst thp, steepy hill thy<br />
breast.-'T was mine, 't is his.-Vain tamp'ring has but fostered<br />
his disease.-Enchained he lay, a monster.-What way<br />
soe'er he turned, it met him.-Th' aerial pencil forms the<br />
scene anew.<br />
Point out, nRme, and define, the figures of Syntax in the fullowing sen·<br />
tences:-<br />
The law 1 gave to nature him forbids.-So little mercy shows<br />
who needs so much.-My head is filled with dew, and my.1ocks<br />
with the drops of the night.-Consider the lilies of the field,<br />
how they grow.-He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord.<br />
Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following sen·<br />
tences :-<br />
As thy day is, so shall thy strength be.-Without disciplin~,<br />
the favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild.-Thy name IS<br />
as ointment poured forth.-The Lord God is a Bun aDd shield.<br />
-1 saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted<br />
fir.-At which the universal host sent up a shout that tore<br />
bell's concave.
PA.RT IV.<br />
PROSODY.<br />
1050. PROSODY treats of Elocution and Versificatioll.<br />
ELOCUTION.<br />
1051. ELOCUTION is correct pronunciation, or the proper<br />
management of the voice in reading or speaking.<br />
1052. In order to read and speak with grace and effect, alteution must<br />
be paid to the proper pitch of the voice, the accent and qUill/lily of the<br />
syllables, and to emphasis, pauses, and tones.<br />
1(}53.-1. In the PITCH and management of the voice, it should be<br />
neither too high nor too low; it should be distinct and clear; the utterance<br />
neither too quick nor tuo slow, and neither too varied nor too monotouous.<br />
1054.-2. ACCE"T is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a certain<br />
syllable in a word, as the sy Hable vir- in vir' tue, vir' tuous.<br />
1055.-3. The QUANTITY of a syllable is the r~lative time which is required<br />
tu pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to two short<br />
ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded as long again as pin,<br />
tub, not.<br />
In English versificatiou, an accented syllable is long, an unaccented<br />
one is short.<br />
1056.-4. E~IPHA8IS me:tD8 that greater stress of the voice which we<br />
lay on some palticular word or words, iu order to mark their superior importance<br />
in the sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea intended<br />
by the writer or speaker.<br />
10!J7.-5. PAUSES or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order to enable<br />
the reader or speaker to take breath; and to give the heal'er a distinct<br />
perception of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the whole<br />
discourse (985). For poetic pauses, see (1115-1118).<br />
1058.-6. TONES consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes,<br />
or val'iations of Bouod, which we employ in speaking, to express the dif·<br />
fe~ent sentiments, emotions, or fecliugd, intended .<br />
... * A full cousideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would<br />
be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would require a<br />
volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in<br />
works on elocution-a subject which is, or should be, taken up liS a separate<br />
branch of study.
PROSODY-VERSI FIe A l'ION. 227<br />
VERSJFICATIOX.<br />
1059. VERSIFICATION is the art of arranging wurd~<br />
into poetical lines, or verses.<br />
1060. A rase, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain nUlllber of ac·<br />
ccnted and unaccented syllables, armnge~ according to fixed rules,<br />
1061, A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or YerSC'3 takclJ together,<br />
whether rhyming with each otber or not. A Triplet c(>n,i,!8 of<br />
three lines rhyming together,<br />
1062, A Stan=a is a combination of several verses Ol' lim'8, yaryillg in<br />
number according to the poct's {ancy, nnd constituting a regular divi8inn (of<br />
a poem or song. This is often incorre~tly called a t'ersc.<br />
1063. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in tbe ]att syllables uf two or<br />
more lines arranged in a certain order. Poell'y, the verses of wbich have<br />
this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme.<br />
1064. Blank Verse is the name given to that species of puc!ry whieh<br />
is without rhyme.<br />
FEET.<br />
1065. Feet are the smaller portions into wbich a line is dividc'cl-e:lch<br />
of which consists of two or more syllables, combined nccordil'g' to ncc~llt.<br />
1066. In English versification, an accented Ryllable is accountco. Ion";<br />
an unaccented syllable, fhoTt. In the following examples. a straight line (-)<br />
over a syllable shows that it is accented, and a curved line, nr breve (v).<br />
that it is unaccentp-d.<br />
1067. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as without aCcent.<br />
often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and are long or ,hort, according<br />
as they are with or withont the accent. Thus-<br />
" To roUse hIm with the spur and rein,<br />
With more than rapture's riiy."<br />
In the ancient languages, each ~yllable has a certain quantity, 10llg nl'<br />
short, independent of accent, for which there are certain definite rnle". In<br />
this they differ widely from the English.<br />
1068. MetTe, or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain nnmlJer of<br />
poetical feet in a verse or line.<br />
1. When a line bas the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called<br />
.aeataleetic.<br />
2. When it is deficient, it is called Cataleelic.<br />
3. When it has a redundant syllable, it i8 callcll HY)Jw"illicciic, or<br />
Hypermeter.<br />
1069. A line cODsisting of ODe foot is called monometer; of two, dime/er ;
228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
of three, trimeter; of four, tetrameter; of five, pentamcier; of six,<br />
hCJ'ameter; of seven, heptameter.<br />
1070. Scanlll:/lg is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is<br />
composed.<br />
1071. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds; four of two<br />
syllables, and four of three, as follows :-<br />
I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES.<br />
1. ~-\.Il Iambus ~ -; as, defend.<br />
2. A Trochee - '"' ; as, noble.<br />
3. A Spondee - -; as, vain man.<br />
4. A Pyrrhic ~ '-' ; as, on :\ (lilll).<br />
II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES.<br />
1. An Anapxst '-' v - ; as, Intercede.<br />
2. A Dactyl - _ v; as, durable.<br />
3. An Amphibrach 1.1 - v; as, abundant.<br />
4 .• t Tribach ~ - '-'; as, (tol)erable.<br />
1072. Of all these, the principal are the Iambns, T"ochee, A 1/(/-<br />
1)(1':;/, and Dactyl.<br />
The other four feet are used chiefly in connection<br />
with these, in order to give variety to the measure.<br />
1073. A T,."chre has the first syllable accented, anl! the last uuaccented;<br />
as, "D/tli!, miisic.<br />
1074. An Iambus has the first syllable unftccented, and the last<br />
accented; as, (idore, di'ji:ml.<br />
1075. A SpollClee has both the words or syllables accented; as,<br />
" i'a"in nl,(fn."<br />
1076. A Pyt'lhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as,<br />
"un a (hill)."<br />
1077. A Duclyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last<br />
unaccented; as, 'l"trtll,!lIs.<br />
107S. An A mphill/'ach has the firilt and the last syllable unaccented,<br />
and the middle one accented; as, cilnti!ntment.<br />
1079. An A naprest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the<br />
last accented; as, lldircede.<br />
1080. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; nmn I ldibll.<br />
10Sl. A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which<br />
predominates in it; thus, Iambic, T'l"ochaic, &c.<br />
I. IAMBIC VERSE<br />
1082. An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently<br />
has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, &c., syllables. It has<br />
different metres, iii follows:
PROSODY -<br />
VERSIFICA TION.<br />
229<br />
1. One joot, or Monometer ; as<br />
'Tis sweet<br />
To meet.<br />
2. Tll:O jeet, or Dimeter ; a.';<br />
With thee \ we rise,<br />
With thee we reign.<br />
3. Th ru jeet, or T ri !Heier; as<br />
In pIa I ctlS far I or near,<br />
Or fa I mous, or I obscure.<br />
4. FUll,. jeet, or Tetra1lltta ; as-<br />
How sleep I the brave, I \\]1
230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
vcree. Such is 1Ililtoll's " Paradiso Lo~t," dic. By the admission of trochees<br />
anapoosts, &r., ill certain places, it is capalJle of many varieties.<br />
1088. [(lI"bic Hexamclcr.-A verse of six feet is called .Illexandrine.<br />
1089. Tho Eler;ilfc ,\anza conei ;f", of f .. 'm prntnmcter lines rhyming,<br />
al tp.l'nut...1y ; as-<br />
'The Cllr I few t
PROSODY-VERSIFICA TION.<br />
231<br />
5. Five feef, or Pentameter (Vl'l'Y uncommon) ; as<br />
In the I dark, and I gloomy I valley,<br />
Satyrs, I by the I brooklet, Iloye to I d,tlly.<br />
6. 8;); jeet, or IJewm.;t€1' ; as-<br />
On a I mountaIn, I stretche,1 be , neath it , h,,;-u'y I willolV,<br />
Lay ii. I shepherd, Bwain, and, viewed the I rolling I l,m',\V,<br />
1094. Each of these may take an nclditionnl long syllable, and so become<br />
hYl'ercatalectic, 01' h!lpennetcr; tllu'l-<br />
1. Tumult I cease,<br />
SInk til I p~~~ce.<br />
2. In the I days of I old,<br />
Fables l,laiuly, told.<br />
3. T:csth,,;, I m(ll'tal~ , toil for Inuught,<br />
Bliss in I vain from' earth is I sought.<br />
4. Idle I after I dinner, , in his I chair,<br />
Sat a I farmer, , rurIdy, I fnt, amI I fail'.<br />
U. Hail to I thee, blithe I spirit! , hird thou I never' /l'at,<br />
That from I hean;l1, or I near it, I pourest I thy full I 1"'«1'1.<br />
6. l'ight and I mornin!?, , were nt I meeting, , (,WI' I Water /100,<br />
('ul:ko hadlsung theirlearliestlgreetinglfaillt audllow they:cncw.<br />
1095. In the la-t two form~, each line is usually di,·ided into two, thus-<br />
5. Hail to I thee, hlithe I spirit!<br />
Bird thou I neyer' wert.<br />
G. ~ight and I morning' were at , medillg,<br />
lh'Cl' I 'Yater /100.<br />
1096. Trochaic \'dse, with an additional long syllable n.t the cud, is<br />
the saUle u, IamLic verse, wanting a short syllnble at the beg-inning.<br />
AN.\P.E:3T1U YEflSE.<br />
1097. A7lopwstic YerEe, cr,nsi,t, chidly of allllji".,/." and, when pmc,<br />
hn.s the ncceut on c,'cry third syllable. It Ii." different metre,. r,s fullows<br />
:-<br />
1. One joot, or Jlo/l.omeia, as<br />
But too far,<br />
Each proud star.<br />
2. Ttro feci, or dimeter ; as<br />
Biit hls coil I rage 'gan fiil,<br />
01' no arts I could avail.
232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
3. Threefeet, or Trimf'lrr; aso<br />
ye woods! , spread your branch , es apace,<br />
To your deep I est recess' es I fly,<br />
I would hide, with the beasts' of the chase,<br />
I would yau I i~h from ev , ery eye.<br />
4. Four fret, or Tdramell'l'; as-<br />
May I gov I ern my pass, ions wIth iib , soliite sway,<br />
And grow wis , er and bet' ter as life, wears away.<br />
1098. Of these. the first is ambiguous, for by placing an accent on the<br />
first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer hypermfter.<br />
1099. The ucond 80metimes admits an additional short Ayllable at the<br />
end; M-<br />
On the road I by the val, ley,<br />
As he wand I ered lament 'lng ;<br />
To the green I of the for I est,<br />
He returned, him repentlng.<br />
1100. The tltird is a very pleasing' measure, and is much u'erl in both<br />
s"lemn and cheerful Buhj£ctB, but it seldom takes an additional "yllable.<br />
1101. The four/It, or tetmmcier, admit, an additional syllahle, which<br />
oftell has a pleasing effect j as-<br />
On the warm I check of youth I smiles and rOB I es are blend ling.<br />
DACTYLIC VERSE.<br />
1102. Dactylic ,erse cOllsists chiefly of dactyls, and has the following<br />
varieties ;-<br />
1. One f""I, or monomeler ; as<br />
Fearfully,<br />
Tearfully.<br />
2. Twofeet,'or:dimrtcr; as<br />
Free from sa I W;ty,<br />
Care and anx I iety,<br />
Charms in va riety<br />
Fall to his , sha re.<br />
3. Three fect, or fI'imeter ; as-<br />
WearIng a , way ln h'ls , yuuthfUlness,<br />
Loveliness, I beauty, and I truthfulness.<br />
1103. Each of the~e sometimes takes an aU.ditionallong syl1ahle, and so<br />
becomes liypermtter; 8S-<br />
1. Over a I mead,<br />
PrickIng hIs' steed.<br />
2. Covered with, snow was the , vale,<br />
Sad was the I shriek of the I gale,<br />
When to the , night, woful I wail<br />
Rose to the I skies-to the , skies!
PROSODY-VERSIFICATION.<br />
233<br />
3. Time n has , passed, and the , lady is , pale,<br />
Pale as the , lily that I lolls on the , gale.<br />
1104. By combiDiDg these kind!l, examples of tetrameter, pentamet6r,<br />
nnd even llexameter, nre obtained; but they are seldom used.<br />
1105. A doctylic verse seldom eDds with 0. dactyl; it more commonly<br />
adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the follpwiDg lines:-<br />
Brlghtllst and, best Of the , suns Of the , mOrnIng,<br />
Dawn on our , darkness and ,lend us thine , aid.<br />
1106. The following i8 an example of dactyls and spondees aller.<br />
nately:-<br />
Green III the , wIldwood, profldly the, tiill tree ,looks on the ,<br />
brown plain.<br />
The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter:<br />
Over the, viilley, wUh , speed llke the , WInd, all tM , steeds were<br />
. a-galloptng.<br />
1l07. Con~idering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar<br />
ndaptednees to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that is has<br />
Hot beeu more cultivated.<br />
MIXED VERSES.<br />
1108. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic<br />
"f'rse, for example, sometimes admits otper feet into the line, particularly<br />
at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The followiDg are exam<br />
I,les of iambic lines With different feet introduced:-<br />
Trochee. I'rl>phet , of plagues, , forev , er bod , ing ill !<br />
Dactyl. Murmuring, , and with, him fiedlthe shadeslof night.<br />
Anctpo:st. Before I all tem , pIes the up , right heart' and pure.<br />
PY1·rhic. Brought death' tnto I the world, and all-our woo<br />
Tlibrach. And thun-ders down' impet-uous to , the plain.<br />
1109. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted;<br />
and the verse becomes trochaic with an additioDal long syllable.<br />
1110. In trochaic versp, the initial long syllable is sometimes omitted;<br />
nnd t.he line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable.<br />
1111. If the two fhort syllables Bre omitted at the beginniDg of an<br />
mlapre.~tic \ine, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So-<br />
1112. If tbe initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it be·<br />
comes anapreslic with two short syllables added.<br />
1113 A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling iambuses and<br />
anap(r.!tic, :IS in the following lines :-<br />
" I come, I I come! , ye have ciilled , me long;<br />
I come I o'er the moun , talns with lIght I and song!<br />
Ye m~y trace I my. steps , o~er t~1\ wakJ_enIn~ earth,<br />
By the Winds whlCh tell, of the vI I olet's bIrth,<br />
By the prim , rose stars I of the shad I owy grass,<br />
By the green ,leaves op , aning I as I pass."
234 ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR.<br />
1114. In odes and lyric pieces, versea of different kinds and ,Jifferent<br />
metres or measures are often intermingled, after the manner of the ancient<br />
choral oues, with a pleasing effect, "Alexanuet·'s Feast," Collins' "Ode<br />
to the Passions," &c.. are examples.<br />
POETIC PAUSES.<br />
1115. Be"iu03 the usual pauses required to mark the sense in reading,<br />
anu which may be called sentential pauses, indicateu oy the punctuation.<br />
there are other pauses in poetic composition, required by, and nece,sary<br />
to give proper effect to, tbe movement of the line.<br />
1116. These are chiefly the Filial pause and the C(£SltTal pause.<br />
1117. The jinal pause is required at the end of every line of poetry,<br />
even whpre tbere is no Reutential pause. When that is the case, it consiiits<br />
in a brief suspension of the voice, without any change iu its tone or pitcb.<br />
'Vben a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very<br />
ofteu, it takes tbe plnce of, nnd supersedes tbejinal pause.<br />
1118. The c(£wral panse is a snepension of the voice somewhere in the<br />
line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be manifest<br />
when poetry is well I'e~d. It, doe, Hot occur in very ehOl·t lines. In<br />
lines of sOllie length, it generally occurs near the middle; sometimes,<br />
however, neare\' the beginning', and sometimes nearer the end; orten in<br />
the middle of a foot, but never in tbe midule of Il woru. Sometimes,<br />
besiJcs this, a Fort of demic(£sltral pause is required, to give full effect to<br />
the expression. Tbe following lines furuish examples of the C(£SUTlll pause<br />
in different pllrts of the line, aud also of the demint'.,ural pause. The<br />
furmer is marked ( ") nnu the btter ( ');-<br />
" The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet,<br />
Aud harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet."<br />
" The crested basilisk" and speckled snake."<br />
" Aud on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day."<br />
"But not to me returns<br />
Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn."<br />
" No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all<br />
The multitude of angels" with a shout<br />
Loud" as from nnmbers without numbers," sweet<br />
As from blest yoices" uttering joy."<br />
" \Varms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze<br />
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the tr~es .<br />
Lives' through all life," extends' throu .... h all extent<br />
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent> '<br />
EXERCISES.<br />
As exercises ill scnnning, lines or stllnzas from [lny poetical work may<br />
be selected.
COMPOSITION. 235<br />
COMPOSITION.<br />
1119. COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our sentiments<br />
in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds,<br />
Prose and Poetry.<br />
1120. Pro3e compositions are those in which the thoughts are expl'esscd<br />
in the natural order, in common and ordinary language.<br />
1121. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sellti·<br />
ments are expressed in measured verse. iu loftier and more inverted stvle,<br />
by words and figures B~lected and arranged eo as to please the ear, ;\ud<br />
cuptivate the fallcy.<br />
1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or ;nrlircd.<br />
1123. Direct discoursc is that in which a wl·itel' 0[' speaker delivers his<br />
own sentiments.<br />
1124. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person rclnte8, in<br />
his own langua!;e, what another speaker 0[' wlitel' said.<br />
1125. In thefiTst, when the speaker referR to himself, he uscs the first<br />
person lor IDe. W hen he refers to the person (II' persons aJdresoed, he<br />
nees the second person tllOlt, you, Joe.<br />
1126. In the second or indirect di,c()ul's(', whether the speaker is reported<br />
as referring to himself, or to those whom he addrest't'8, tLe thiro<br />
person is used in either ca~e; a" he, she, they, &c. An example will best<br />
illustrate the rlistinction. Thus:<br />
1127. DIRECT DISCOl:RSE.<br />
TLen Paul stooo in the midst of ~[ars hill ond said: "Yemen of A thens,<br />
I perceive thnt in all things ye are too supel",titious; for as I pa'8c(1<br />
by and beLeh! your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription: • To<br />
TOE U:-OXNOWN GOD.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him de·<br />
clare I unto you."<br />
1128. INDIllECT DISCOURSE.<br />
'l'he same, reported iu indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus:<br />
Then Paul, standing on Mars hill. told the men of Athens, he perceived<br />
that in all things they were too superstitious; for as he passed by and beheld<br />
their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription: .. To THE<br />
UNKNOWN GOD." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, him ,Iec1ared<br />
he unto them.<br />
1129. When the reporter, the speaker rcporteu, and the person
236 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAR.<br />
"Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] that he (the<br />
Eon) had sinned against Heaven and in his (his father's) sight."<br />
It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed in brackets,<br />
for explallation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word !t~,<br />
the fallteT or the son was intended; so al80 with respect to the word !
COMPOSITION. 237<br />
1135. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not<br />
be confined to this or that province or district. "Those," to use Camp.<br />
bell's apposite similitude, "who devillte from the Leaten road may be in·<br />
comparably more numcrous than those who travel in it; yet, into whatever<br />
number of by.paths the former may Le divided, there may not Le<br />
found in anyone of these tracks 80 many as travel in the king's highway."<br />
1136. Thirdly, this nsage must be present. It is difficult to fix wilh<br />
any precision what usage may in al! cages be deemed present. It is pcrhaps<br />
in this respect different with different compositions. In general,<br />
words and forms of epeech, which have Leen IODg dismcd, should not be<br />
employer\. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the pl'esent day is not<br />
implicitly to be adopted. Mankind lire fond 0f novelty, and therc is a<br />
fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation,<br />
delight in creating new words, and using new forlns of phraseology.<br />
Now, to adopt cvery new-fangled up,tart at its birth, would argue, not<br />
taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for sin::;ulal'ity and novelty.<br />
But should any of these maintain its ground, nml receive the sanction of<br />
reputable usage, it must in that case be received.<br />
1137. The uoRge, then which gives law to language, and which is generally<br />
denominated good usage, must be r~p"table, 1!alional, and prcaent.<br />
It happens, however, that .. good usage" is not IIlwnys uniform in ber<br />
decisions, and that in unquestionable lIuthorities arc found far different<br />
modes of expression. In such cases, the fullowing CANONS, proposed by<br />
Dr. Campbell, will be of &ervice in enabling to deciJe to wbich phraseol.<br />
ogy the preference ought to be giveu. They are given uearly in tbe worus<br />
of the author ;-<br />
1138. CANON I.-When the usage is di ..ided 119 to Ilny particular worus<br />
or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptiLle of a Ji.tferent<br />
meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the expression<br />
which is strictly univocal should be preferred.<br />
1139. CANON :l.-In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded.<br />
1140. CAliON 3.-When expressions are in other respects equal, that<br />
should be preferred which is most agreeable to tlte ear.<br />
1141. CAliON -i.-When none of tbe preceding rules take place, regard<br />
should be bad to .implicily.<br />
1142. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justified<br />
which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that<br />
every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be retained. In many Buch<br />
cases, custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose province it is,<br />
not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology<br />
which may be either unnecessary or coctrary to analogy, but also to ex·<br />
trude whatever is reprehensible, though iu g~neral use. It. is by this, her<br />
prerogative. that languages are gradually refined and l~proved. In<br />
exercising thi8 authority, she can not pretend to degrade, IDstantly, any<br />
phraseology which she may deem objectionable; but she may, by repeated<br />
remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in<br />
iueh cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down<br />
by the same author ;-
288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
1143. RULlI: I.-All words and phrases,particularlybarsb and not ahso·<br />
lutely nece:;sary, should be dismissed.<br />
1144. RULE 2.-When tbe etymology plainly points to a different sig·<br />
nification from wbat the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its<br />
dismission.<br />
1145. RULE S.-When words become obsolete, or are never used but in<br />
particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an<br />
air of vulgarity and cant, when ibis general disuse renders them obscure.<br />
1146. RULE 4.-All words and phrases which, aflalyzed grammntically,<br />
inclulle a solecism, should be dismissed.<br />
1147. RULE: 5.-All expressions which, according to the established<br />
rules of language, eitber bave no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or,<br />
according to the rair construction of the words, convey a meaning different<br />
from the intention of the speaker, should be diemissed.<br />
1148. In ordcr to write any Jangulge with grammatical purity, three<br />
things are required :-<br />
1. That the words be all of tbat language. The violation of this rule is<br />
called a bal'bariwi.<br />
2. That they be cou;lrued and arranged according to the rules of syn·<br />
tax in tbat language. A violation of this rnle is called a ,oleci&m.<br />
3. That tbey be employed in tbat sense whicb usage has annexed to<br />
them. A violation of tbis rule is called impropriety.<br />
1149. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The soleci&m is<br />
au offence against the rules of syntax; and the impropriety is an offence<br />
lIlf'linst l~xicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases.<br />
HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING.<br />
1150. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of<br />
words, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences.<br />
I. In so far as respects single words, tbe chief things to be observed ari<br />
purity, propriety, and precision.<br />
PI.TlUTY.<br />
115~. Purity ~onsists.in the rejection.of suoh words and phrases as are<br />
not strictly English, nor 10 accordance With the practice of good writers or<br />
speakers.<br />
1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expreelion' as, "Fraicheur "_<br />
"polite888"-" He repents him of his folly." ,<br />
2. A.void ob~olete and unauthorized words; 1l~1 albeit, ajor,timt instp",<br />
tator I Judgmatical.<br />
•
COMPOSITION. 289<br />
PROPRIETY.<br />
1152. Propriet.y consists in the use of such words as are best adapted<br />
to express our meaning.<br />
1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, .. To get into a scrape."<br />
2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical' as "This<br />
morn "-" The cel~,tial orbs:' ' ,<br />
8. A void technical terms. unless you write to those who perfectly under.<br />
Etand them.<br />
4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses; as<br />
"The king commrnicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to<br />
the secretary, who made it known to the public."-" His own reason might<br />
bave suggested belter reasolls."<br />
5. Supply words that are wanting, Rnd necessary to complete the sense.<br />
Thus, imtead of "This action increased hiS furmer services" say, "This<br />
action increased tbe merit of his former services."<br />
6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His memory shall be<br />
lost on the earth."<br />
'1. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, "I have nn<br />
opaque idea of what you mean."<br />
PRECISION.<br />
1153. Precision rejects superfluous words.<br />
1. Avoid tautology; as," His faitfifalne88 and fiJelity were unequalled."<br />
z. Obsel've the exact meaning of words nccoulltc,1 synonymous. 1 hUB,<br />
instead of "Thougb his actions and intentions \\'tr" g"od, he lost his char.<br />
acter," say, " He lost his reputation."<br />
II. With respcct to sentences, clearness, unil!l, strength, !md a proper<br />
application of the figures of speech, are necessary.<br />
CLEARNESS.<br />
1154. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words.<br />
1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed<br />
as near as pOEsible to the words whicb they affect, and in such a situation<br />
as the sense requires.<br />
2. In prose, a poetic cullocation must be a voided.<br />
8. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which<br />
they stand.<br />
UlIITY.<br />
1155. Unity retains one predominant object through a '~eDteDce, or a<br />
series of clauses.<br />
1. Separate ioto distinct senteoc€s such clauses as have r.o immediate<br />
connection.
21O<br />
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
2. The priucipal words must, throughout a sente.uce, be the most promi.<br />
neut, and the leading nominative should, if possIble, be the subject of<br />
every clause.<br />
S. Avoid the introduction of parenthe@es, except when a lively remark<br />
may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes<br />
before.<br />
STRENGTll.<br />
1156. Strength gives to every word and every member its due impor.<br />
tance.<br />
1. Avoid tautology, and reject nil @uperfluous words and members. In<br />
the following sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted:<br />
" Being couscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission."<br />
2. Place the most impurtant words in the situation in which they will<br />
make the strongest impression.<br />
S. A weaker assertion shoulu not follow a stronger; and, when the<br />
sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding<br />
one.<br />
4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other whex:e<br />
eitber resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance In<br />
the language and construction should be preserved.<br />
6. A senteuce should not be concluded with a preposition, or any incon'<br />
siderable word or phrase, unless it is emphatic.<br />
1157. FIGURES OF SPEECH.<br />
l. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when<br />
it serves to illustrate 01' enforce what is said.<br />
2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not<br />
remote or foreign from the Bubject, and not pursued too far.<br />
3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together.<br />
4. When figurative language is used, the SRme fignre should be preserved<br />
throughout, and diff~rent figures never jumbled together.<br />
TRANSPOSITION.<br />
1158. As a prE'paratory step to the important business of composition,<br />
the pupil, arter he has acquired a knowledge of <strong>grammar</strong>, may be exercised<br />
with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members<br />
in sentence., so as to try in how mauy different ways the same thought or<br />
sentiment may be expressed. This will give bim a command of lauguage,<br />
and prove, at the Bame time, a source of considerable mental cultivation.<br />
It is often neceFsary to give an entirely new turn to the expression, before<br />
a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous.<br />
1159. There are chiefly foul' ways in which the mode of expressing a<br />
thought rna, be varied:-<br />
1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an actiTe<br />
verb; as, "The sun di8loluea the snow "-" The Bnow i. di"olll~d by the<br />
IIun."
COllIPOSITION.<br />
2.Jl<br />
~. By invel';ions or transpositions, which consist in cLalJ"ill" the order<br />
in 'Yhich the"wnn]s s~aud in a sentence; as, " Competet;Jce ~ay be acquired<br />
by J[]dustry -" By J[]dustry competence may be acqUired,"<br />
~. By: changing a? affirmative into a negative, or a negative into [Ill<br />
affirm:ltIH, of an entirely coutrary character; as, ",'irtue promotes happiness<br />
"-" Yirtuc docs not promote miser~."<br />
.1. By either ~ partial or an. ~ntire change of t1~e words employed to<br />
express any sentiment; RS, "DIlIgence and applicatIOn are the best means<br />
of improvement "-" r;uthing promotes improvement like diliO'encc and<br />
apl'licJtion."<br />
b<br />
EXERCISES ON TItAXS!'OSITIOX.<br />
The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of<br />
luxury. I 8m willing to remit all that is past, provided it Clln be dOLle<br />
with safety. A good man has respect tu the feelings of others in all that<br />
he says or does. J:ravely to conteud for a good cause is noble' !'il('ntly<br />
tn Buffer for it is heroic.<br />
'<br />
EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION.<br />
The RomaLl state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of<br />
luxlll')'. In proportion to tht' increase of luxury. the Roman state evidently<br />
declined. The Roman etate, in proportion to the increlEc of luxury<br />
evidently declillcd.<br />
'<br />
EXEItCISl!;S ON VAUIETY OF ExrllESSIOX.<br />
Ilis conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be<br />
moved by false glor~' than not to be moved at all. I shall attend the<br />
mceting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in modesty<br />
as he improHs in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to greatness of<br />
mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability.<br />
EXA~IPLE OF VAnIETY OF EXPRE8SIO~.<br />
His cooeluct was Ie,s praiseworthy than his sister's. Ilis sister's conduct<br />
was more praiseworthy than his. ilis siSler's mode of acting was<br />
entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise<br />
than that of his sister, &c.<br />
1160. Another excrcise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for<br />
composition, consi,ts in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list<br />
of words, witl! directions tlO form from them such sentences n! shnll contain<br />
these words.<br />
EXERCISES IX COMPOSITIO)/.<br />
Construct a number of BuelL sentences as slwll tacT, ,:ontai.n one or 1t~ore<br />
of the following wordB :-Contentment, behaviour, c?nSlderatlO~, elevatIOn,<br />
distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, ~vldence, SOCIal, bereavement,<br />
nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury,<br />
disarm, expatiate, &e.<br />
16
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
LETTERS.<br />
1161. Oue of the 8implest and yet most useful spe('ies ~f COll~position<br />
is letter writing. This species of composition may be practiced elt~er by<br />
way uf real corr~spondence l?etwcen ~hose. pursuing the same studle~, or<br />
it mny cOllsist of letters wrItten to Imog.l~nry con:esponden!s. The followil,g<br />
nre a few topics adapted to composltwn of tbls latter klDd;-<br />
L,tter 1.-Write to a friend at a distance. State to him tbe ohject. of<br />
yOlll' writin:.:. Tell bim wllat studies you are pursuing, and bow you lIke<br />
them. Men"tion bow yourself and friends are. Give an account o~ so~e<br />
of the alteratioos which have been lately made, or nre now maklDg 10<br />
\'001' neighbourbood ; and conclude by expressing your desire either to see<br />
him or henr from him soon.<br />
Letter ~.-Write to a companion an account of a.long walk whicb J:ou<br />
lately had. Tell bim whether you were alone or In company. ':\Iellt~oll<br />
what particular things struck YOIl by the way; and enumerate all the 10-<br />
cidents that occurred of any moment.<br />
Letter 3.-Write to a friend who is suppose!l to have sent you n present<br />
of books. nu,1 thank him for such kinrlness. Tell him the use you intend<br />
to make of them; and inform him to what particular books you are most<br />
pnrtial. Conclude by giving some Rccount of those you have been lately<br />
reading, nnd bow you like them.<br />
Leiter 4.-Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. Describe to<br />
him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and your native<br />
country. Express your regret at losing him. but state your hope that you<br />
will not forget each otbcr when seas roll between you. Request him to<br />
write to you frequently; and advise him to be careful about his health and<br />
uf the society he keeps.<br />
Letter 5.-Write to a friend at a distance, and give him an account of<br />
a sail which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what places you<br />
visited, and state the objects tbat most delighted you. Tell him how long<br />
you were away, wbat 80rt of weathcr you had, and what were your feelings<br />
upon returning home.<br />
Letler 6.-Write to a friend an account of the church you were at last<br />
Sabbath. Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns that were<br />
Bung, and the portions of Scripture that were read. State the text from<br />
whiclI the minister preached; and give your opinion of the different<br />
sermons.<br />
~162. These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon<br />
wh.Jeh the st',ldent who bas acquired a knowledge of <strong>grammar</strong> may be reqUIred<br />
to wl'lte. The prudent Bnd skilful teacher will be enabled to mul.<br />
tlply and vary them at pleasure to any extent.<br />
REPRODUCTION.<br />
1~63 .. Anot~er method ,?f exercising the minds of pupils in composition,<br />
consIsts 10. readlDg: some SImple BtOry or narrative, till such time as they<br />
~re a?qunlOted WIth the facts, and then directing them to express these<br />
~n theIr own words. A shll further, and perhaps even a simpler method<br />
IB, to take adv~ntage of a young person's having ~iven some account of<br />
w~a~ he has eIther seen, heard, or read, and deBne him to commit to<br />
wnhng what he has stated orally .
COMPOSITION. 24$<br />
THEMES.<br />
1164. The next st(>p in composition is the writing of regular themes.<br />
The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the capacity<br />
of the person who is desired to compose, for, if it is, the whole benefit<br />
resulting from the exercise will be nullified.<br />
1165. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required<br />
to write; or the dissertation that has been written upon sllch a subject.<br />
Some of the simrlest suhjects for themes are those drawn from natural<br />
history, 01' natura philosophy. At all events they should not. in the fil"t<br />
instance, be drawn fl'om subjects of an abstruse and abstra'~t characl€r.<br />
1166. The following may s~l've as specimens in thi~ department ;<br />
Tllflnc I.-The horse.-1. Describe what sort of animal the horse is.<br />
2. Tell some of the different kinds. S. :Mention the vaJious ways ill<br />
which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State what would be<br />
the consequence of wanting him. O. Mention the treatmellt to which he is<br />
entitled, and the cl'uelty of ill-using such a creature.<br />
Write themes upon the cow, the dog. the slurp. poultry; amI follow lhe<br />
same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse.<br />
Theme 2.-The Bun.-1. Begiu hy stating what the BUll is. 2. Tell all<br />
you know of its size, figure, and distallce from our earth. 3. Mention<br />
the effect it has upon the earth, nnd the benefits we derh'e from it. 4.<br />
State what would be the consequencc if the Bun were extinguished; and<br />
what ou\' feelings ought to be toward the Supreme Being for such au<br />
object.<br />
Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, wattr; and in all,<br />
follow the sume plnD.<br />
Theme S.-Day and night.-I. Tell what you mean by day and night.<br />
2. State whether they are always alike long. and what is the advantage<br />
arising from their length being different at different seasons. 3. Mention<br />
the different purposes to which they are adapted. 4. Say of what the<br />
continued succession of day lind night is fitted to remiud us, alld hnw this<br />
should ) ead us to act.<br />
·Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, ri"lirs,<br />
and the tirks of tile sea; aud follow a similar plan ill the whole.<br />
Theme 4.-0n composition.-l. Explain what you mean hy this term.<br />
2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by showing how much it<br />
contributes to add to tbe nlue of one's knowledge. S. Mention what is<br />
necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State the means by which<br />
skill in this art is to be obtained.<br />
Theme D.-On company.-l. Explain what you mean by company. 2.<br />
Show how natural it is for mall to seek society. 3. State the danger of<br />
keeping either too much company, 01' of keeplDg bad comllany. 4. Point<br />
out the advantages of good company.<br />
Write themes upon comJersalion, study, impro'Jf1l1ellt of time, cllo·ice of<br />
books, memory. and the different organs of sense, &c.; and in all, follow the<br />
same method as you did in writing on Company.<br />
Theme 6.-Narratives.-Describe the place or scene of the actions<br />
related, the persons concerned in, the time, posture of IIffairs, state of<br />
mind, moti vee, eDds, dze., of the aetora; results.
244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Write themes upon the d;scrnJery of .America, the Frencl, war, the Revoluti01lary<br />
war, tlte battle of Bunker'8 Hill, the French revolution.<br />
Theme 7.-Dissert,ations on remarkable events in sacred or profane<br />
history .. -The place, the origin. the circumstances, results, moral influence,<br />
&c.<br />
Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a composition<br />
on: the creation, dcalh of Abcl. tlte deluge, Ihe world after tlte .flood, tlte<br />
tower of Babel, the Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from it, lite giving<br />
of tlte ialo from ,sinai, the advent of Ihe Jtfessiah-his death-his resurrection,<br />
destruclion of Jerusalem, &c., the siege Of Troy, rist and fall of<br />
Ihe Roman empire, tlte crusades, tlte burning of Moscow, Ihe battle of<br />
lVaterloo, lite clealh of Bonaparte, &c.<br />
TllCme 8.-Give an account of some of the most distinguished chal'<br />
Rcters in different ages of the world-warriors, statesmen, artists, philosophers,<br />
poets, orators, philanthropists, divines-menticning what is known<br />
respecting their country. parentage, education, character, principles, exploits,<br />
influence on society fo~ good or evil, death.<br />
1167. The following list of Themes is selected from Parker's Exercises<br />
in Composition :-<br />
1. On Attention, 26. On Fortune,<br />
2." Adversity, 27." Fear,<br />
3." Ardor of ]\1ind, 28." Forgi veness,<br />
4." Art, [cal, ~\l." Government<br />
5." Attachment, 10' 30." Grammar<br />
r.." Anger, 31." Greatness, true,<br />
7. u Air, 32." Genius,<br />
8." Benevolence, 33." Habit,<br />
9." Beauty, 34." Honor,<br />
10." Biography, 35." Happiness,<br />
11." Bad Scholar, 36." Humility,<br />
12.
COMPOSITION. 245<br />
88. Life is Short, ()7. Pleasures of Memory,<br />
89. Miseries of Idleness, 98. Exam piG better than Precept,<br />
90. Never too old to Learn, 9(). Misery is wed to Guilt,<br />
91. <strong>Public</strong> Opinion, 100. Value of Time,<br />
~2. Diligence insul'es Success, 101. Viltue, the way to Happille£~,<br />
93. Idleness destroys Character, In2. No one lives for Ilimself.<br />
94. Contrivance proves Design, 103. Tbou God seest me,<br />
95. Avoid Extremes, 104. Trust not Appearance~,<br />
96. Vbit to an Almshouse, 105. Whatever i~, is RigbL<br />
106. "An honcst man's the noblest work of God."<br />
10'1. Every man the architect of biB own fOl'tune.<br />
108. Man, .. Mysterious link in being's endlcss chain."<br />
109. "A little learning is a dangerous thing."<br />
11 O. How blcssings Lrighten, as they take their tljgh t.<br />
111. Advantages dcrivcd from the invention of the mariner's compaos-of<br />
the telescope-the steam·engine-the art of printing-of gunpowder ..<br />
112. History of v. needle-a cent-a Bible-a" heaver hat.<br />
113. Description of 8 voyage to England-eoa,t of Africa--Coll~f nntinoplo<br />
-South Amerie8-East Indies-China.
APPENDIX.<br />
APPENDIX I.<br />
GleNDER OF NOUNS.<br />
III dlllall"uaO'cs the distinction of nouns with regard to sex, has been<br />
noted. Ev~ry ~ubstantive denotes either. a male or femnle, .01'. that which<br />
is neither the one r.or the other. This accident, or characteristIc of nouns,<br />
is called thcir Gender. In English, all words denotin~ male an!~aI8, are<br />
considered as masculine; aT! those denoting {tmale Ilmmals, femtntne; and<br />
those denoting things neither TIlale nor female, are termed nwler. "In<br />
t.his dislributiulJ," says Crombie, "we follow the orJer of naturE', and o~r<br />
language iq, ill this respect, both simple and animated." Both in Latin<br />
and Greek, many words denoting things without sex, are ranked as maFCU<br />
line or feminine, wilhout any re~arJ to their meaning, but simply on account<br />
of their terminations. In Frer,ch, all nouns are regarded as either<br />
masculine or feminine, which is a still greater departure from the order<br />
anu simplicity of nature, for which the English language on this point is<br />
distinguished.<br />
Some have objected to the desiO'nation of three genders; they think that<br />
as there are but two sexes, it wo;ld be more philosophical aDd accurate to<br />
say there are only two genders; and to regard all words not belonging to<br />
these, as without gender. A little reflection, I think, will show that this<br />
ol~iectiOD has no just founuation, either in philosophy or fact, aDd that the<br />
change it proposes would be no improvement. It has probnbly arisen<br />
from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a kind, claaa,<br />
or species, (Lat. gCl!1tS, French gtnre), with the word sex, nnd considering<br />
them a~ synonymous. This, howc\"er, is not the case; these words do not<br />
mean the same thing; and they can not be properly applied in the same<br />
way. 'Ve never S:1Y, "the masculine sex, the feminine sex;" nor" the<br />
male gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word<br />
sex can be predicated only of animated beings; the word gender, only of<br />
th~ term by which that being is expressed. The being man, has sex, not<br />
genuer; the 1('ord man, has gender, not sex. Though therefore it is very<br />
absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper to speak of three<br />
genders; that is to say, there are three classes (geoders) of nonnR, distinguished<br />
from one another by their relations to sex. One denotes objects<br />
of the male sex, and is called masculine; another denotes objects of the<br />
female sex, and is called feminine; and the third denotes objects neither<br />
male nor female, for which a n!lme more appropriate than the term neutel'<br />
ueed not be desired .<br />
. The term "Common gellde~'," applie? !O such words as parent, child.<br />
frIend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of word3 which are<br />
neither masculine, nor femininl', 001' neuter, hut i~ uaed for ~onveDience,
.\PPENDIX-PRONUU NS MINE, ETC. --\\' HAT .\ II F LYrI YI. ::: j'l<br />
merely to indicate that snch words sometimes deuote a mule, ~nd sometimes<br />
a female. Instead of "common," those who prefer it, may call such<br />
words" masculine or feminine."<br />
A.PPENDIX II.<br />
TilE PR0:-10UNS MI:-1E, THl:-I!E, ETC.<br />
Some gm.mmarians have given it as their opinion that mille, thinc, our."<br />
yours, their .•, are not pronouns in the pos,esqil'e ease, but thllt they ar~<br />
somethinc: or other in the nominative or objective cae". but never in the<br />
possessive. This is surely a very singular notion. The anomaly whi',h<br />
such nn idea would introduce into our langu[lge, wouh! be a curious olle.<br />
According to this view, these words conI, I l>elullg to no part of speech<br />
hitherto defined. They are not nouns, for they are not the """les of anything-nor<br />
adjective .•, fur they do not qualify noulls. nOt' can e,'cr I", .join,,']<br />
with them-DOl' pronouns, for they never stand ins!",..1 lOf 11 ""till. but<br />
always instead of a pronoun and a possessil'c pronoun t"6"tl,cr, They have<br />
always the sense of the possessive case, and an- always cOIlslrw'.! ju;t as<br />
the possessive case of a noun is, not folluwed Ly a noun; aut! yet t"n<br />
are never in the possessive case. These wurds, stnndiuc: by thelllscl n',.<br />
have no fixed or determinate meaning, and yet in senteuces tL"y mrty<br />
have as many different meanings as there are objects capable (If \",ille;<br />
possessed, Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my '",/,<br />
"'.'/ stick. my g"ll. my-anything you please. AnJ besides this, those of<br />
them which a~e singular in form, according to analogy, may have a l'illnd<br />
verb, and those of them which are plural ma.r have a singular verb; thus,<br />
H John's books are new; mine are old;" agalD, "John's house is built of<br />
stone; ours is built of brick." Such is the result to which this notion<br />
leads us; and if these words are not possesives, but in the nominative or<br />
objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more curious words in the<br />
Engli,h, or in any other language.<br />
APPEN DIX III.<br />
lVhat AS A RELATIVE •<br />
.. Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the relative<br />
what. It is said to be a' compound relative pronoun, including botL<br />
tbe antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which, or the thing<br />
which.' Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examination.<br />
that Mhat is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and include.;<br />
Dothing else. Compare these two sentences :-<br />
.. , I saw whom I wanted to see'<br />
'" I saw what I wanted to see.'<br />
"If ,,·hat, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing which,<br />
!(.hom, in the former, is eqUivalent to !tim whom, or the person whom.<br />
, lV/tO steals my purse steals trash,' is equivalent to he who, or, the man<br />
who.<br />
"And on the same principle, Wh~D the relative is omitted, the anlecedent<br />
sho'uld be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent.
2·18<br />
ENG LISH GRAMMAR.<br />
Thus, 'I saw the man I wnnted to see.' Here, man should be reprcsented<br />
as equivalent to the own ,,110m. .<br />
.. Tbe cause of tbe error in respect to lI'hal, is, tbat t~e a.ntecedent IS<br />
IlPver exprcssc,\ with it, It is not like the ,:or~ who., whICb IS usell u?th<br />
when tbe antecedent is expressed, and wben It IS omItted. The relative<br />
Ih"t, however, was furmerly used in many cases where ~e u~e what, that<br />
is with tbe antecedent omitted. A few examples of thIS Will help uS,to<br />
,,;certain the nature of what; ',r e speak that we do know.'-ElIgI1slt<br />
Biblc.-' I am that I am.'-liJ.<br />
," Who had been seen imagine mot~ thereby,<br />
That wbylome of Hercules bath been told:-Spcnser.<br />
" 'Escbe\ve that wicked is.'-GOll'fr.<br />
'" T, it po~si1,le he should not know what he is, and be that he is.'-Sltaks.<br />
" 'Gather the sequel by that went beforc.'-Ib.<br />
"In the,e examples, that is a relative, and is exac!ly synonY!li0us with<br />
".hat. " .. one would contend, that that stands for Ibclf and. I~S ante.ce·<br />
dent at the snme time. The anteced~nt is omitted because it IS IDdefimte,<br />
or easily supplied."-Butler's Grammar, p. 48.<br />
These rl'lllm \;s appeal' to me just, and conclnsive on tbis point,<br />
APPENDIX IV.<br />
IS as EVER A REL,\TlVE?<br />
Tl>at the word AS should not be considered a relative in any circum·<br />
stances, I think is plain from tbe following considerations:-<br />
1. It bU3 neither the meaning nor the use of U relative, Its office is<br />
simply to connect things compared, and, together with its antecedent<br />
word, to express the idea of equality, likenes." &c., between them; thus,<br />
"James is as tall as his father."-u Your bat is such as mine,"<br />
~. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before it,<br />
called tbe antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but<br />
is related only to the comparative word, as, Bueh, so, &c., in the preceding<br />
clause. Thus, in the sentence, "As many 3S received him," the second<br />
as relates to the first, and the two convey tbe idea of equality. Again,<br />
"Send such books as you have." Here, as refers not to books, but to sue",<br />
Take away such, and as can not be used.<br />
3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun,<br />
nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it.<br />
4. 10 sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has the<br />
same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be ouly [\ con·<br />
junction. Compare tbe following examples: "As many as five men received<br />
a reward."-u As many as received bim,"-" As many a.~ they can<br />
give." In all these, the phrase " as many as" menns, anel is felt to mean<br />
th~ san;re thi~g-equality of number. There .mely, then, caD be no pro~<br />
prlct,Y Ill. callJng the second as a conjunction in the first sentence, flnll a<br />
relatIve In the other two. Tbe same thing will be evident if we chan"e<br />
the antecedent word. Thus," Such books as tbese are useful."-" Slt~"<br />
books as are useful."-" Such books as you can give."
APPENDIX-ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 249<br />
5. If the word as in the preceding sentences nn,l clause'S is a relative<br />
pronoun, for the same reason alleged for this, the word than must be a<br />
relative in those which follow. The construction is precisely the Fame:<br />
II ;'\lore books tha1l were wanted."-" ~Iore books titan are u~eful "<br />
"More books than you can give:' Kow, if, in the second of these exam·<br />
pIes, titan is not a relative :n the nominative case before are, nor in tbe<br />
third a relative in the obje('ti vc case after can .qive, what need for consid.<br />
ering as a relative in the saDle position, iu the same construction, and for<br />
the saDle purpose, to denote cornparbolJ? There is the same ellipsis in<br />
both, and the same words necessary to be sUI'plied, in the one case, as iu<br />
the uther. Tbus, ":More books than [those which] were wanted,"<br />
I, '\[ore books than [those which] are useful," &c. So." Such books as<br />
[those which] were wanted."-" '\3 many books as [thosc which] art'<br />
llCcl..."",;:::ary," &~.<br />
APPENDIX V.<br />
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNL<br />
The fourth class of pronouns, sometimes called adj"c! i ve pronoun .•, and<br />
sometimes pronominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distributive,<br />
demonstrative, and indefinite. Of tbese, the first or possessit'e are<br />
derived from the persoual, and in meaning are strictly pronouns, being<br />
always the representative or substitute of a noun; but in construction they<br />
are adjectives, and are always joined with a noun, and hence are appropriately<br />
denominated adjective pronouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectivcly. By<br />
some, they are classed with adjective~, and called pronominal adjectives.<br />
In many <strong>grammar</strong>s the possessives my, thy, Itis, her, its, our, yow', tlteir,<br />
are set down as the possessi,e case of the personal pronoun., with mine,<br />
tltin8, Itis. ItcT8, its, o",-s, yoltrs, theirs, making two forms of the pos,esoi\-e<br />
case: thus, my 01' milte, thy or thine, e~c. Which of these methods is<br />
adopted in teaching or studying <strong>grammar</strong>, is n matter of no <strong>practical</strong><br />
moment: some <strong>grammar</strong>ians adopt the one, and some the other, merel ....<br />
as n matter of taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classi·<br />
fication in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple,<br />
because the possessives my, thy, et.c., like the adjective, can never otand<br />
alone, as the possessive case does, but mllst be supported by a noun following<br />
them; thus, we say, "It is the king's;" "It is Y011rS ;" but we can<br />
not say, "It is your,"-the presencc of a noun being nete- "':c"y to the ]a;t<br />
expression.<br />
This classification is favored by the analogy of other langual;;e:J both<br />
ancient and modern. The possessives my, thy, &c., for example, have pre·<br />
cisely tbe same meaning as the Latin jJfells, mea, meum; or the French<br />
"fon, ma; or the German "fein, (or meiner), meine, mein; or the Auglo.<br />
tlaxon (which is the mother of the English language), "fin, milLt, min;<br />
and they are used in precisely the same way. There scems, therefore, to<br />
be Do good reason for giving them a different classification. Indeed, !he<br />
ouly circumstance which renders it possible to regard them as a possessive<br />
case iu EngliRh, ie, that like the English adjective they are indccliDable.
";NI.7LISH I.7RAlIIlllAR.<br />
Had they beeD dl'clinable, like the Latin or .Frencb, etc., they never could<br />
have been used a~ a possessive case.<br />
The words belonging to the otber three divisions, have been found morc<br />
difficult to arrange in a 8:ltisfactory manner. They seem to occupy a.sort<br />
of middle grou~d between adjectives and pronouns, and fire sometImes<br />
used as the one and sOllletimes as tbe other, witbout the strict and appro·<br />
priate character of pither. They are genera~ly adjectives in co?st.ruction,<br />
having a noun expressed or understood, which they serve to lImIt or reo<br />
Rtrict in various ways. On the other band, wIth few exceptions, tbey arc<br />
~" often used witbout a nOUD, or as its substitute, tbat they are not im·<br />
pl'Opel'ly reffarded as pronouns, though in a eense less strict than the<br />
others; thu:' "Let each esteem others better than themselves."-" Among<br />
men . .'07ne are good, others bad, none perfect." "All things come alike<br />
to aU,"
APPENDIX-DIVISION OF VERBS. 2&1<br />
infinitive expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, without affirming<br />
attributes dying to a person, expressed by the word mo. So when w~<br />
say, .. I see a man walking," the word walking expresses an act of the<br />
person man, though there is properly no affirmation. In like manner,<br />
when I say, " Do this," the v~rb do attribu~es action imperatiYcly to the<br />
perEon addressed, but there IS no affirmation. To speak of .. affirming<br />
Imperatively" is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a bet.<br />
tel' expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense.<br />
For these reasons, the definition of a verb which eays it is "a part of<br />
speech which asserts or affirms," appears to me to be defective. It stateR<br />
one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at least does not ;".<br />
eluJe, others. It gives. as the distingui5hing characteristic of a "erb, tbat<br />
which does not belong to it in several of its parts and uscs. It is too r'··<br />
strictive.<br />
The definition formerly given in my" Principles of English Gmlomar,"<br />
is liable to an objection of an opposi te kiud: it is too general, and not<br />
sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, "express nn IIction or Male,"<br />
but there arc other words that do 60 nlso. Nouns such as luve, drsin',<br />
wis!t, !tope, &c., aDd most verbal nouns, such liS eruption,fiction, cullisioll,<br />
d!ff"sion, progreBsion, &e" express action, and many worde, both n0l111~<br />
and adjectives, express a state.<br />
The definition given in the text, though perhaps uot unexceptionable,<br />
occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids the indcfioitenes",<br />
of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objection than most of<br />
those which have been given.<br />
APPENDIX YII.<br />
DIVISION OF VERns.<br />
The division of verbs into Tranaitive aud Intl'an"itiue is now eo gene·<br />
rally adopted by <strong>grammar</strong>ians, instead of the former division into Active,<br />
Passive, and Neuter; and its propriety and simplicity so obvious, that it<br />
seems now unnecessary to argue the point. Of this division, it is need·<br />
ful only to observe-<br />
1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transiti"e nnd Intrausitive,<br />
distinguished by a clear and definite cbaracteristic, derived from tbeir use<br />
in the construction of sentences. To tbe first belong tho~e which are used<br />
transitively, whatever be their meaning or form; and to the second, all<br />
that are used intransitively, wbether they denote action or not (319),<br />
2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the term Acti~e an(1<br />
Pauive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms winch all<br />
transitive verbs assume, called the actil'e and the passive voice.<br />
3d. It dispenses with the term tlmter altogether, as applied to verbs,<br />
and leaves it to bc appropriated in <strong>grammar</strong> to the desi~nation of gender<br />
only.
252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
APPENDIX VIII.<br />
TilE I'j,ESr;:
APPENDIX-PRESENT INDICATIVE, ETC. '253<br />
act, and as sucb is predicated of tbe subject. Thus." The house is built."<br />
Here it is implied tbat the act of building is completed, and has ceased,<br />
and tbe result, expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all verbs<br />
of tbis kind, the past participle, after the \'Crb to be, has reference to the<br />
state resulting frem the act .as prcdica~ed of, or .qualifying the subject of<br />
the verb, and not to the act Itself. Stnctly speakIDg, then, the past participle<br />
with the verb to be is not the present tense in the pn,si I'e voice of<br />
verbs thus used j that is, this form does not express passively the doing of<br />
the act. These verbs either have no present passive, or it is made by annexing<br />
the participle in iny, in its passive seme, to the verb to be; a~,<br />
.. The house i, building."<br />
It is supposed by some that" is built," though in the form of the present.<br />
passive, really is a present-perfect; because it represents the act as com.<br />
pleted, and because the perfect·definite, in Latin, is often translated by<br />
this form into English. Due consideration, however, I think will show<br />
that it differs quite as much frem the present·perfect as it does from the<br />
present. To be satisfied of this, compare the following expressions: "This<br />
garment is torn," merely asserts the present Btate of the garment, with no<br />
referencp- to the act hnt what is implied. But when we say, "This garment<br />
haB been torn," the reference is chiefly to thc act as having heen done,<br />
with no reference to the Btate of the garment but what is implied. The<br />
one asserts tbat the garment remains torn, the other does not-it may have<br />
been mended; the latter is the regular passive of the prescut'!Jerfect active,<br />
the former is not. Tbis will perhaps be more clearly perceil'cd by<br />
means of another example: "This house has been painted, but the paint is<br />
.com off." Tbis is good English. But if we say. "This house is painter!,<br />
but the paint i~ worn off," WP. should assert a contradiction.<br />
There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding to the progrcssive<br />
form in the active voice, except ,,-bere it is maue by tLe particip!e<br />
in ing, in a passive sense; thus, "The house is building "-" The garments<br />
are making "-" Whent is selling," &c. An attempt has been Illade by<br />
some <strong>grammar</strong>ians, of late. to banish such exprcssions from the IRnguage,<br />
thongh they have been used in all time past by the best writer" and to<br />
justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which. has recen.tly been introduced<br />
chiefly through the newspaper press, but which has gained such cUl'I'ency,<br />
and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with<br />
all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as "The<br />
house is being bnilt "_u 'The letter is being written "-" The mine is being<br />
worked ,,_u 'fhe news is being telegraphed," &c. &c.<br />
Respecting this mode of expreesion, it mny be noticed-<br />
1. That it had uo existence in the langnage till within the last fifty<br />
years. This, indeed, woul? not make t~~ expression W!'o~g, were it. otherwise<br />
un~xceptionable, but Its recent orlgm shows that It IS not, as IS pretended,<br />
a neceB,ary form.<br />
2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is founu not to express ~hat<br />
it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as are either<br />
ignorant of its import, or are careless and loose in their us~ of language.<br />
To make this manifest, let it be considered, first, that there IS no progres<br />
,sive form of the verb to be, and no need of it; hence, there is DO Bu~h
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
expression in Englis~ as is being. Of co~rse •. the expr~ssion "i&. being<br />
built," for examp~e, IS not a compound of u being and b1tllt~ ~ut of 18 ~nd<br />
being built; tbat IS, of the verb to be OI'd t?e p~esent partlC1ple pa.as.we.<br />
Now, let it be observed that the only verbs III whIch the present partICIple<br />
pa8~i ve expresses a continued action are those mentioned .above as the<br />
first class, in which thc regular ras~ive form expre,ses a contznuance of the<br />
action' as is loved, is desired, &c., and in which of course the form in que~tion<br />
(i~ beinll boi/t) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, "He<br />
is bein'" loved "-" This result is being desired."<br />
In all othcr verb" then, the present participle passive, like the present<br />
tense, in the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, not a continued<br />
action. 01' the continued receiving of an action, but that the action<br />
had ceased, an,l the result only exists in a finished state. Thus, I. Our arrangements<br />
being made. we IlfJparted."-"Tbe house being finished, was<br />
immediately occupied."-" Our work being finished, we may rest," &c. In<br />
all such expre~sions, the prescnt participle passive repre€ents t.he action<br />
flS nolY .finished, and exi"ling only in its usults (509). This fiDlshed act,<br />
then, can not he made ,tt/finished and progressive, by being asserted of a<br />
subject, which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence, it is<br />
manifest that is being built, if it mean anything', can mean nothing more<br />
than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed.<br />
3. For the same reason that is being built, .1:c" is contended for as a pro·<br />
per expre~sion. we should contend also for" Has becn being bnilt "-" Had<br />
been being built "-" Shall h"ve been being built "-" Might have been<br />
being built "-" To be being' built "-"1'0 have been being built "-" Being<br />
being built "-" Baving been beiog built." When all these shall have been<br />
introduced, our langunge will be rich indeed.<br />
-1. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an established<br />
usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the par.<br />
ticiple in ;l1g (457). In refercnce to this it is flippantly asked, .t What<br />
APPENDIX-FIRST AND SECOND, ETC. 255<br />
which S('me late writers adopt in its stead j as, "The books ar!' now being<br />
sold.' "-Goold Brown. .. As to the notion of introducing a new and more<br />
complex pa~sive form of cOIlJugatiou j as, 'The bridge is being built.' 'tho<br />
bridge was being built,' and eo forth, it is ODe of the most absurd and<br />
monstrous innovations ever thought of." "Thc work is now being publi.
256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />
man "-" A round and square hole "-" A hot a!1d cold spring "-beclIuse<br />
II man can not be old and young at tbe same time; nor II bole round and<br />
square; nor a spring hot lind cold. Hence-<br />
When two or more adjectives express qualitics thllt beloDg. to different<br />
objects of the same Dame, and that name ~xp~essed ollly :Ith the last,<br />
the article should be placed bcfore each adJcctlve. ~hlls, A I:ed and .a<br />
wbite rose" meaDS two roses-oDe red, aDd ODe white. In this ease, It<br />
makes no differeDee whether the qualities expressed by the adjective be<br />
cODsistent or not since tbey belong to different individuals. Thus, we<br />
ClIn say, 'C A young and an old man "-A round and square hole "-" A<br />
hot and a cold spriDg "-that is, ODe man young, lind aDother old, &c.<br />
It is therefore manifest that we can uot properly say, "The first RDd<br />
secoDd page "-" The fifth and sixth verse "-" The Old and New Test:lment<br />
"-because no page can be at ODce /iro/ aDd second-Do verse fifth<br />
and sixth, nDd DO Testameut Old and New. It is equally improper in<br />
priDciple to say, "The first and secoDd pages "-" The fifth aDd sixtb<br />
verses'" because two adjectives can not be joined with R word jointly<br />
which can DOt be joined with it separately. We can not say" The first<br />
pages," nor ., tbe second puges," when we mean but one .first and one<br />
sewwl. Besides, when tbe ellipsis is supplied, it stands .. the .first page<br />
and the second page," and the omission of tbe first Donn can not, ou any<br />
correct priDciple, affect the Dumber of the secorul. In manv cases, too,<br />
tbe use of tbe plural, if it would relieve from the absurditv of u~itiDoo inconsistent<br />
qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambiguity, For<br />
if, to avoid the absurdity of saying c. the old and yOUD .... man" we say<br />
.. the old aDd young men," the lat~er E'xpression may ~ean fifty, or a<br />
hundred, o~ aDY n~mbel' of men, mstead of two:-one youug all.d one<br />
ol~. Notwlths~aDdlDg, bowever, us~ge has prevailed over principle in<br />
th,s a~ well as In other cases; aDd It has become quite common to ~ay<br />
" The first and second verses "-" Tbe Old aDd New Testamentg "_" Th~<br />
hot and cold .8pr~ngs ":-" ';fhe indicative aDd subjuuctive moods," &c.<br />
Wbere no ambIgUity eXists In t~e use of sucb expressions, tbey must be<br />
tolerated. T.be correct expresslOD, however, ID all cases in wbich one is<br />
intended, .is mad~ by repeating t~l,e article with the adjectit'e, arul retaining<br />
the noun tn the slngular; thus, The first and the second verse "_,, Th~<br />
Old and tbe New Testament "-The hot and the cold .prinoo" &c Or'<br />
.. The first verse aDd tbe second," &c. e' . ,<br />
APPENDIX X.<br />
TWO FIRST-THREE LAST, ETC.<br />
The.e:,pressionR, two first, three last, and tbe like, have been 0 osed<br />
and rIdiculed by some, on the ground, a8 they al\eO"e that tl pp b<br />
I fi t d I<br />
. . e , Jere cau c<br />
on y one rs, an olle ast. The objectors eVldeutly have not II<br />
sidered tbeir position; for-<br />
we COD-<br />
1. The terms first and last do Dot necessarily mean oDI on p'<br />
according to Webster, means, .. preceding all others." Tbe t~·o fi;st tr st ,<br />
means the two precediDg all others, and the three last mean tb 'th eD,<br />
succe d· mg a 11 0 th ers-expressloDs " ID w h' lC h' tbere IS surely D tb' s e . b \'ee<br />
ridiculous Qr absurd. 0 mg eIt er
APPENDIX-TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, ETC. 257<br />
2. If we eay, "The first days of summer "-" The first years of our life"<br />
_00 Tbe last daNs of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, theu it is not true<br />
that ther" can be only one fir1t and one last, and so the ground of the<br />
objection fails. If we can say, "The IUBt days of summer," why not the<br />
two last. or the thrle last.<br />
3. The expression objectcd to is nsed by the best authorities in the<br />
language. and has been in use hundreds of years, and therefore, on the<br />
well-known maxim" Usage is the law of lunguage," if it were absurd, it<br />
can not be rejected. The following are exampleB, most of them mentioned<br />
by Mr. WeIls: "The four tit'st acts.'·-Bp. Berkeley.-oo The three<br />
first monarchies_"- lVarbllrton.- oo The two first persons."-Latham's Eng.<br />
Gram.- oo My two IasUetters:'-Addison.-'· The two fit'st lines.'·-Blair,<br />
00 The three first generatiolls,"-E. Everett.- oo The two first yea1'8."<br />
Ballcrojt.-u The two first days_"-Irving,-oo The two fit'st cantos."<br />
A. H. Everett.- oo The four first centmies."-Prcscvtt.-" The two last<br />
productioDs."-N, A. Review.- u The four first are-poetical."-CllelVer.<br />
-" The three firet of his longer poems."-Soullley.--" The two last<br />
schools."-Johnson.- u The six first French kings."-,,}[acaulay.<br />
4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the other.<br />
It is probably always so, wh!'n the Dumber characterized as fir"l or last,<br />
COIIstttutes a majority of the whole. WheD we say, "the first four,"<br />
there is evidently a reference to a seeood four, or a last four. But if the<br />
first four cOllstitute a majority of the whole, thet'c remains no second fonr<br />
to justify the l'efere'JcE'. Thus, when we say, "Thc first foul' acts of a<br />
play were well performed," there r~maitls only one to which any olbe.,<br />
reference can be Illade. On the other hand, when a whole is divided iuto<br />
equal portions, each containing a certaiu number, as the I'ecurre-nce of the<br />
cen~us every five years-of the Olympic games every four-of the Sabbath<br />
every seven days-of foUl' lines in each stuuz" of a poem, and the<br />
like-then Ihe expreBsi"n, first four, secolld fou" last fOllr, &~.,<br />
is preferable,<br />
because it implies a reference to otLer pOltiOl\9 of equal extent.<br />
Also, even when there is no such reference, it is often properly \lI!ed,.<br />
especially when the Ilumber is larqe; as, " The first hundred "--=.." The ia~~<br />
thousand," &c.<br />
? Several distinguished scholars and grnmmarians have examiued this<br />
pOtnt, and expressed their views respecting it as follows: .. It ha. been<br />
doubted whether the cardillal should p1'ec(de
.~5S ENGLISH GRAMMAR.<br />