alytical practical grammar - Toronto Public Library

I~ dJLL~~
~~

AN
AN ALYTICAL
PRACTICAL
GRAMMAR
OF THE
ENGLISH LANGU1\GE.
REVISED, CORRECTED, AND IMPROVED.
By REV. PETER BULLIONS, D. D.,
LATE PROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES IN THE ALBANY ACADElIlY, AND AUTHOR OF tHB
SERIES OF GRAMMARS, GREEK, LATIN, AND ENGLIBIl, ON TIlE SAME PL.lN, ETC.
EIGHTEENTH EDITION.
LONDON, C. W. :
W. L. CARRY, RICHMOND STREET.
1865.

PREFACE
THIS work is prepnred on a more extended plan than the "Principles
of English Grammar," and ia intended to occupy a higher plnce in the
.. Series of Grammars, Engli~h, Latin, and Greek, on the same plan."
Since that work was first publi.hed, a greater inter~st !Jn~ been taken iu
the subject of educ,ltion generally thau for n long period before. Differ·
ence of opinion, on vari:JIls subjects, hus led to diE'cussion-diEcussicn to
inveE'tigation-and investigation to the discovery and establishment of
truth. As a consequrnce of this, that which was sonnd and stable before
has been confirmed-many points that were doubtful have been settlednew
and improved tlJethods of investigating subjects, and of imparting
instrnction, have been adopted-and the whole subject of education, in
both theory and practice, has been advanced much beyond what it was
at any former period. In this onward progress, the subject of English
grammar haa not been left behind. Teachers in both higher and lower
seminaries have given it their attention-authorities have been compared
-original investigations have been made-views Imve been interchanged,
privately and through the press-ull resulting in the advancement of
this branch of study.
The subject of ANALYSIS, wholly omitted in the former work, is here
introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance with its
importance. Many questions on disputed points have been examined
with much care; and something, it is hoped, has been done to contribute
to their settlement; und when this required more space than was proper
to be taken up in the body of the work, the diecuBsion has been thrown
into the Appendix. A much -gl'eater variety of exercises has be ell introduced
at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To
every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the indllcti ve kind, has been
annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the leal'Der may
be trained to think aDd reason on the subject, and prepllred to profit more
by the exercises that follow.
By adopting the plnn of a running series of numbers to mark the para·
graphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more convenient,
and is employed wherever it wus thought to be profitable.
The Syntax is much fuller than ill the former work; and though the
rules are not different, they ure arranged in a different order, 80 that all
that belongs to one iubject is collected under one head, instead of being

iv
PREFAOE.
scattered ill different places; and the propel' 8ubordinatil)n or parts is
exhibited in a series 0wubordinate rules, wherever it was neeessary. In
this way the whole is rendered more eompact-the number of leading
rules is redueed-and the unity of each subject is better preserved.
In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony,
and adaptation to the practical operations of the school· room, llllve been
particularly attended to. No startling novelties have been introduced;
at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an imprCilJ~'
mmt, it has been made. It was fclt that It work on this subject, of a
highe\' grade, and more suited to the wants of higher eeminaries, and
more advanced students, without detracting from its simplicity and prac·
tical character, was wanted, and the aim has been to supply this want;
whilc, at the eame time, its relation to the series of which it is intended
to form r. part, has not ollly becn preserved, but rcndered more close aOlI
intimate.
With a grateful sense of pa,t k,ndlle~"es, the author now commits the
results of hi~ labor~ to the favorable consideration of 11 candid and enlightened
public, and e~pecially to that of the 1'!acl,ers throughout the
U Ilited States.
PI{EFACE TO REVISED EDITION.
NEW plates for this work having become necessary, the opportunity
thus presented for a thorough revision bas been embraced. In this revision,
the object aimed at has been, not to change, but to improve. For
this end, criticisms and suggestions from various quarters, eSlJeci:uly from
practical teachets, have been duly, and it is hoped profitably considered;
greater precision and clearness of expression, ill some places, have been
studied; errors not formerly noticed have bee!! corrected; numerous
refercnces from one P,1I't to another for illustration by means of the
running paragraph numbf!rs, have beeu inserted; technical terms have
been more fully explained by definition or reference; additions have been
made, where thought necessary, without interfering with the arrangement
or character of the work; several articles have been inserted in the
Appendix, to which proper refereuces are made from the body of the
work; and a larger type has been adopted instead of the smallest size
formerly IIsed. ~o paius have been sp~reJ to I'ender the whole as com.
plete in its details, Rnd as attractive in its appearance as it can be made
without increasing the size or the expense of the work, and to render it a
text-book for Rcademies Rnd schools fitted to relieve both teachers aDd
tbeir pupils from much uunecessary labol' and waste of time" in prosecuting
this branch of learning.
TBOT, N. Y., 1862.

INDEX AND TABLE OF CONTENTS,
GUHIMAR, DeHllitioll and Divisioll of ......................................................... PAGE 9
PART J.-ORTHOHRAPHY.
Letters, Division and Power of ................................. '" .... .•... ............ ... ...•.....•.. 10
Syllables ......................................................................................................... l~
:Spelling, Rules fOl' ....................................................................................... 13-1G
Capitals, l'se of ................................................................................................ 16
P.

6 CONTENTS.
PROIl'OUlI'S, Definition and Division of ...................................................... PAGB 45
Personal, simple, Declension of ................................................... 45, 46
Obse .. vationson .......................... , .................................... 46
Compound .. , ................. , ........ , ... ,................................... 48
Pnl'sing of, and Oral Exercises on .................................... 49
Exerdscs on ........... ... ....... ........ ..... ...... ...... ......... ... ...... 49
COllst .. ncticn of .............................................................. 158
Ro:lativc, Declensioll and Use of ................................................... DO-52
Compound ................. , ..... ,......... .................................... 52
Pal'sing of, and Exercises on .......................................... 53, .';~
Constmction of ............................................................... 161
Jlltt'fl'o:;ative and Responsive of ................................................... M
Parsing of, and Exercises 011............................................. 55
ArljcctivP, Defillition alld Did,ion of .......................................... 55, nG
Possessive of ........................ ................................. ......... .';6
Distributive of ............................................................... 57
Demonstrative of .............................. ....................... ..... 57
Indefinite of .................................................................. 57
Parsin~ of, and Exercise, on ....................................... 5S, 59
COllstmction of.. ............................................................. H2
,"ERDS, Defillition of ........................... ............... ............ ......... ...... .................. 60
Tran·itive and Intransiti\'e.................................................................. 60
Oral and other Exercises on .................. .................. ......... .................. 61
Division of .......................................................................................... ti:.!
Auxilia .. y, Use or-" Shall,"" 'Vill," &c .................................... 62,63,64, G:J
. Exercises on........................................................................ 60
Anomalous Use of .......................................... .............. ...... IjG
Inflection of, Accidents of ................................................ ...... ...... ...... 67
Voice, Active ....................................................................................... oj
Passive .................................................................................... 67
Moods, Division of ............... ............................................. .................. 6~
Indicativo ......... .................................... ......... ......... ...... ......... 69
Potential 70
SlIbjuncti ~~~~~~ ~'. ~:: ::........:..........'.... ::....::..::..: ..::'.:::....::','....... '.'.: '.:::::::'.:'.',:::::: ::: ::: 70
Construction of ......................................................... 185
Imperativo .............................................................................. i L
Infinitive ...........................,.........................,..............,............ 71
Construction of .................................................... Iso-I8.'
Te)lSc~J Di\'i~ion of ... ...... ..................................................................... 7:!
g: !~~ ~:~!~~~~~eM~~~d ........:......,'............::.'::::::..: ..:::..:..::..::..::..::..::..::
.. : ...... : .. ~.2, ;!
Of the Subjuuctive ~Io~d ...................................................... 75-76
Of the Imperative ~lood ......................................................... "
Of tho Infinitivo Mood ......................... :.................................. 77
Construction of ...... ,., ........ , ...................................................... IS';
Connection of 193
I'articiplcs, Division ~i::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: 78
in ing in a passive senso ......... ... ....•....... ... ... ......... ......... ... 78
as a Yerbal Noun
Construction of ................................................... 79
........................................................ 190, 191

CONTENTS,
VERBS, Number aud Person of ............................................................... PAGE 7W
Conjugation of .................................... ................................................ 80
Of the Irregular Verb" to be n.......................................... 82
Of the Regnlar Verb" to love," active Voice ..................... 86
Or:LI Exercises and Exercises on ...... 5~, 89
Negative Form ............................................................... 91
Interrogative Form ......................................................... 92
i' .. u~ .. essive Form ................................................ _ ......... 93
Exercises on...... ... .............................. ......... ... U3
Pa'i~ive ''''oice .................................................................. 91
Observations on, Exercises on ........................ 96
Parsing 0 r ...... ...... ............... ............... .............. .................................. 85
Irre::u1:'..... ............ ........................ ..................... ......... .................. ...... 97
Defectil'e ............................................................................................. 102
Impe .. wnal. ......................................................................................... 103
Exercises ...................................................................................... 103, 10·!
Constl'Uction of ............................................................................. 165-167
AD'I"ERBS, Definition or. ....... ........................................................................... 10,~
Classification of .............. , .............................................................. 105
Fo .. mation and Del"ivation or.. .......................................................... 106
Comparison of ................................................................................. 107
Parsing of, and Exercises Oll. ..................................................... 107,108
Construction of ........................................................................ 19.~-197
PREPOSITIONS, Definition and List of ......................................................... 109,110
Observations on ...................................................................... 110
Pars;'" of, ar,d Exercises on ................................................... III
Construction of .................................................................. 171-177
!l;JERJECTlONS, Definition and List of ............................................................ 112
Parsing ................................................................................. 112
Construction of ............................................................... 203,.204
COXJU.~CTIONS. Definition and Division of ...................................................... 113
Observations on ..................................................................... 113
Parsing of, and Exercises on ............................................. 113, 114
Construction of ..................................................................... 199
Par.ing, Different Kinds of .................................................................. 115
Etymological Method of ......................................................... 115
lIIodelor. .................................................... 116-119
Exercises in ................................................ 120-125
PART lH.-SYNTA.X.
SYNTAX, definitiolls ....................................................................................... 126
SENTENCES, different Kinds of ........................................................................ 126
1. Analysis of .............................................................................. 127
A Simple Sentence, its Parts ...................................................... 127
Subject of ................................................... 129
1I10difications of ........................... 130
Of modifying words ..................... 131
Predicate of ................................................ 132
Modifications of .. , ........................ 133
Compound. Definition of ............................................................ 134
Clausei of, different Kinds ......................................................... 130

CONTENTS.
SBNTllNCE8. Clauses. Connection of ...................................................... PAGE 135
Abridged Proposition~ ................................................ · .............. 137
Analysis. Directions for ............................................................ 138
Models of ..... : ............................................................ 139
Exercises in............................................................... 142
II. Construction of, General Principles .......................................... 143
SYNTAX. ~~t:so~f·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::'144-~U'
BULBS.
I ...... Substantives in Apposition ............................................................ 148
11 ...... Adjective with a Snbstantive ......................................................... 149
Comparatives and SU}Jerlatives .......................................... 151
III ...... Article and its Noun ..................................................................... 154
IV ...... Pronoun and its Antecedent. Special Rules .................................... 158
V...... Relative and its Antecedent.. ........................................... 161
VI ...... The Subject Nominative ............................................................... 163
VII ...... The Nominative. Absolute or Independent, Special Rules ............... 164
VIII ...... 'l'he Verb and its Subject Or Nominative ....................................... 165
Special Rules for ...................................................... 166.167
IX ...... The Predicate Nominative ........................................................... 170
X ...... The Objective J!:overned by Yerbs ................................................... IiI
Special Rules ................................................... 171. 172
Xl ...... The Objective governed by Prepositions .......................................... 1H
. without a governing Word ....................................... 176
XII ...... Prepositions after certain Words ................................................... 177
XIII ...... Possessive governcd by Substantives ............................................. 181
XlV ...... Suhjunctive lIIood ........................................................................ 185
XV ...... Infinitive Mood .......................................................................... 186
Special Rules ................................................... lSi. 188
X~;: ............ ::~:i:::~: Sj~¥~~·s!~~e~:.:.:.:.:.::::.:::::.::.:::::.::::::.::::·:::.:::::::.::::::::.:.:::.:::.:.::~:9~. m
XVIIl ...... Adverbs-Special Rules ................................................... 1115,196. 197
XIX ...... Conjunctions sp~~i~i' R~·ies··::.·.·::.·.·::.·.·.·:.·::.·.·::.·:.·:::::.~::::::::::::::::::::::. 200. m
XX ...... Interjections ................................................................................. 203
~ili~~~~~i~·~~f~~~fi.;~i~:::.:::::.::::::::::::.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: !~i
Parsing, syntactical. Definition of, Model of.. .................................................... 208
Exercises. promiscuous. on Rules of Syntax ................................................ 210-214
Improper Expressions, List of .................................................................. 214. 215
""Ncr""''' ~~~jr;'.:::::::.:::::: .. :::: .. :::.::::.:::::.::::::: ill
FIGURES differe~~eKrn:~~f l~~ed ~n Writing .............................................. 219. ~20
, Of E I ........................................................................ 221
Of R~mo ?gy and Syntax ............................................................... 221
Poetic ~?~~~se·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::·.::::::::·.:::::::::::::::·.:·:.·.·.::·::.·:::::.·::.:i23-~~~
PART IT.-PROSODY.
:::~=;;;~~~:::::.:::::··:!::·:·...L m
~te rse of Grammar in Composition ........................ ::::::::::::::: 236
e aw of LanguagcR~ie~·f~~ ................................................ 2-36
Hints for correct and ele nt W~itii·; .. · .... · .... · .............. · .... · ........ 23S
Th ~ C ·t· ga g ...................................... 238
APl'BNDIX .•••••...• ~~~~ .. ~~ ... ~.~~~~~ .. '.~~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~

GRAMMAR.
1. GRAMMAR i~ both a SCIENCE and an ART.
2. As a SCIENCE, it investigates the principle" of bnguage
in general: as an ART, it teaches the right method
of applying these principles to a particular language, so
as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and
proper manner, according to established usage.
3. ENGLISH GRAMMAR is the art of speaking anel writing
the English language with propriety.
4. Language is ~ither Fpoken or written.
5. The elemeuts of spoken language. are vocal and :utilulate ""~II.J:
(25 aDd 26.)
6. The elements of writleo language, [II'" charade; s or lcttcI"5 wbieL
represent these souDlls.
7. Letters nre formed into syllables nn,1 'Wor'I'; words into sentences;
:md by these, properly uttered or written, o"n C'nl1lmullicate their thlll~llts
to each other.
8. GRAMMAR is divided into foUl' parts; namely, Orthography,
Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.
9. Orthography treats of letters and syllables;' Etymology,
of words; Syntax, of sentences; and Prosody,
of elocution and versification.
• Orthography is properly a part of Grammar. 1\, it beloul's to .. the art or spenk·
in!?; and writing a lanl(lIagc with propriety." Yet a. the whole su\ljed is Irpatrd
more fully in the spellin~-book and dictioll.rr. It hricf synopsis of its principles only
is here Itiven. rather as 3 matter of form, tllan with", \' ew to its being pnrtiou\arly
Rtudied at this stage. 'I'he teacher may t1wrcforc, it ho thinks prope,', pass ove'
PART J. for the present, and begin with P-UlT n.

10 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PART I.
ORTHOGRAPHY.
10. ORTHOGRAPHY treats of letters, and of the mode
of combining them into syllables and words.
11. A letter is a mark, or character, used to represent an elementary
souud of the human voice.
12. There hre Twenty-!ix letters ill the Euglish Alphabet.
13. Letters are either Yowels or Cunsonants.
14. A Vowel is n letter whic!l represents a simple inarticulate sound
(25); nnd, in a word or syllahle, may be sOllnded Illone. The vowels are
a, e, i, 0, U, find w aud y not before a vowel sounded in the same syllable,
fiS in law, I)(ty.
15. A Consunant is a letter which represents an articulate suuud (26) ;
aud. in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connec·
tion with a vuwel. Th" conEonants Ilre b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, I, m, n, p,
q, r, s, t, t', x, z, and wand y before a vowel sounded in the same sylla·
ble, ns in war, youth.
16. A Diphthong is the union of two vowels in one sound. Diphthongs
are of two kinds, proper ani improper.
17. A Proper Diphthong is one in which both the vowels are sounded,
as OU, in out; oi, in oil; ow, ill cow.
18 An Improper Diphthong, or digraph, is one iu which only one of the
vowels is s"undpd, as on in court, ou ill boat.
19. A 1'rtpltthollg i. the union of three vowels in one sound, as eau
in beauty.
THE POWEltS OF LETTIIRS.
20. In IInal),ziug words into their elemeutal'Y sounds;.it is necessary to
distinguish between the J/ollne lOf II letter lind its power.
• 21. Tire 71Ctme of a letter is lh,\t by which it is usually called; as A,
be, se, de. &c.
22. The power of a lettcr i;; the effect which it has, either by itself, or
combined with other lettcl's, ill forming a word or.syllable.
23, Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have the
snme powcr; and certain powers or elements of words Ilre represented by
a combination of two letters.
24. The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are
about forty. and are divided into Vocals, represented by vowels and

---~
ORTHOGRAPHY-LETTERS. 11
diphthongs; and Subvocals and odspirates, represented by consonants, sin·
gle or combined.
25. VOCALS are inarticulate sounds pl'oduc~d by tbe organs of voicl',
with the moulh more or less open, aud with uo change, or but slight
change, of position in the organs of speech.
26. SPBVOC.\LS arc sounds produced by th9 (or;':lIn8 of voice, Ilriiwlrlicrt
01' morlified by certain chdages in the position of the org:1IJ8 of ~peech.
27. ASPIRA'fES are mere whispering sounds withe,ut vocality, but which
,till h!l~e an audible effect in the enunciatiou of words. They ai'" all
articulate exc{'pt h.
23. The e!emental'Y pl'wers of lettel's can nut Le exhib:ted to the c~":'
but must be learned from the living voicc.
29, 1 hl' I\"AliP. of it ,"owel is always oue of its 1,0""1" (except 11.' :\lId y),
amI. if from tl,,· uame of II conGonaut, we take away the vowel sound, wb t
remains is gen.~'a\ly the I'uwcr of that COlJSOllant, excl'pt lL' and y,
30. A full "iew of the €lclllcntury powers of letterR ill the formatir,lI
of wl)"d", is exhibited ill tlte followiflg tabl(·. 1'1 the wol'c1~ :l:lllt'x",j a~
examples, the letter wI",;.., power is indicated is printed in Italic. By
pronouncing the word dis:illdly, and then lea\'in:; out all but the I'0Wl'\'
of th" Hali" letter, and uttering that alune, we hal'(; the pOw~1' uf that
letter.
31. 'l'AnL~ 0/ E/ulltlIt"ry Sound,~ in the English LOil!!:uac;c.
\'OC~\T,S,
A. ale, able.
A. (trt.
A. all.
:A.
IE.
,E.
:1. ire,
iI. m.
at.
me.
met, egg.
10. old.
'0. move. ""Z~.
:0. odd,
U. ttme, '/lse.
:U. IIp.
e. fnIl.
IOn. thmt.
I liJ.
:D.
1 ( ~.
Ir.
L.
,\1.
N.
~G,
R.1f.
ITh.
1\',
i~:.
l
z.
z.
SU B\'oCAL8.
bat, orb.
tio, did.
gone, day.
judge.
Zie.
man.
no.
ring.
rope, far.
this.
1ce,
yes,
zinc.
azure.
ASPIRATES,
l(---j'ix.
H. ""t.
K, keep, book.
P. pen, tOl'.
!:l.
''1'
iTil.
,:-)h,
IOh.
,Who
I
SUIl.
top, bat.
faith.
show.
chide.
Ichen.
• R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound; as, ral, "ouglt: anel' a vowel, II
80ft and liquid sound; as, arm,far.

-
12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
32. Oertain letters in thc English Alphabet have the same power as
others in the preceding table, and may therefore be called Equivalents.
Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are numerous.
33. Of the Subvocals and A spirate~, cigh~ pairs are Correlatif.1es. In
sounding the fil st of any of the~c pairs, the organs of voice'" and speech
are in the same position as in souDding its fellow, but the first, or subvocal,
has vocnlity; the second, or aspirate, has not.
34. TABLE of Equivalents and Correlative8.
EQUIYALE"T,';.
------- ~- ------ -- ---
CORRELATIVES.
S1lbVOCO/8. Aspilotes.
W =11 COl". mel". V. vow. F. fame.
y =i tyrant, s!"tem. G. gone. K. keep.
C hurd =k cat. B. bat. P. pen.
IQ =k liquor. Z. zinc. S. sin.
,
Ie soft =8 fl'Ut.
, D. do. T. top.
iG soft -j gin. I Th. this. Th. thick.
iX =ks Ji " I Z. azure. Sh. show.
I I J. judge. Ch, chide.
35. Thc,{! elementary sounds of the human voie!', sometimes 8imple,
hut more commouly combined, 81'e formed into S1jl/ables nud wOl·d$.
SYLLABLES.
36. A Syllable is a certain vocal or articulate sound,
uttered by one impulse of the voice, and represented by
one or more letters, as,jarm,jal'nl-er, ea-gle, a-e-l'i-al.
37. Every word contains as many syllables as it has dis!.inct vocal
8oum]s, as gram-1IIa-ri-all.
38. A word uf olJe syllabIc is cal!ed Il .Monosyllablc.
39 . .A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable.
40. A word of three syllables is cailed a Trisyllable.
41. A word of mo~e than three syllables is called n Polysyllable.
• The Organs of "oice are those parts (c'llled by physiologists the larynx and it.
appelldao;cs) which are emplo.ved in the production of simple vocal sounds.
The Organs of 8p~ec" are those parts employed to articulate or modify whispering
or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, teeth, and palate.

ORTHOGRAPHY-SYLLABLES. 13
DIVISION OF WORDS I~TO SYLLABLES.
42. The division of words into syllables is called 8yllabication.
GE:a:UAL ltl'LE.
43. Place tog~ther in distinct syllabll's, th .. "" ld{urs which make up
the separate parts or divisions of II word, ns hellrd in its COlTtct pronun·
ciatioll.
44. The only definite rnle, "f much Volllle on thi, -ul,.i"d. are the {ol­
lowing:-
45. Rule 1. Two or mure COllsonants forming but one elementary souud.
are never separated; sllch as, ch, tch, th, sh, IIg, ph, wh, gh silent, or sound·
ing f, lk sounding k, &c.; as, church-es, watch-", /I'or-thy, fish-e8, sing-il/g,
philoso-phy, sigh.ing, co ugh. ing, walk-ing.
46. Rule 2. The terminations, eean, cian, ceou." cious, cial, tiOIl, tiuu .• ,
tial, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided; ag, o-ceall, gra-cious,
na tion, coura-geous, &c.
47. Rule 8. Compound words arc dividcd into theil' simple one,;; as,
rail-road, bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, &c.
48. Rule 4. The terminations of words, wheu tbey form II b) liable, nre
/usually separated from their roots; as, writ-er, teach-es, think-iii£;, cold-er.
old-est.
49. Two separate words combined as one name, arc usually ~eparnted
by a hyphen; as, rail-road, glass-house, bee-hive.
50. In writing, a 'Word of more than one syllable may be diviJedat. the
end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never.
SPELLING.
51. SPELLING is the art of expressing a word by its
proper letters.
52. The Orthograpby of the English language is so anomalous, and in
many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by practioe,
and the use of the spelling·book or dictionary. Tbe follo\"iog lules
ar~ of a general oharacter, though even to these tbere may be a few
exceptions :-

ENGLISH GLAl\II\IAR.
GENEr.AL RULES FOR SPELLING WORDS.
RULl! I.
53. Monosyllables ending with f, 1, or s, preceded by a single vowel,
double the final consonant; as, staff. mill, pass.
54. Exceptions.-Of, if, af', is, has, was, ui" gas, yes, thie, us, thus, pUB.
RULE II.
55. WOlds ending with any consonant except f, I, or 8, do not double
the finalleUcr; as, sit, not, lip, put, that, in.
56. Exceplions.-Adu, LUlln, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, er,', inn, odd, purr.
RCLE III.
57. Words ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before
an ndditioual letter or Ryllablc; ns, spy, spies; happy, happier, happiest;
curry, carrier, ca1Tied; .f..tncy, fanciful.
58. E.rception l.-But y is not chnnged before ing; as, deny, denying.
59.-2. Words eoding in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y unchang­
"tl; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood.
Exception S.-But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said; aud day makeB
daily.
BULE IV.
60. Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, endiJJg with
a single consonant preceded by n ~ingle vowel, double that consonant
before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel; !lS, rob, robber;"
admit, admittance, admitted.
Exception.-But x and h are never doubled.
61. But when n diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the accent is
not on the last sylIaLle, the consonant is not doubled; ns, boil, boiling,
boiler; wool, woolen; fool,foolish; visit, visited.
62. Exception. •.-In about fifty words ending in I with a vowel before
it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, contrary to analogy
and without necessity, double the 1 improperly before an additional
syllable. These are such words as travel, trat'elier, travelling, trat'elied."
63. So also sand p are generally, though improperly, doubled in bias,
worship, and kidnap; ae, biassing, worshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and
mnny writers following him, in these words conform to the general rule •
• The words referred to are the followiug: Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel. carol.
cavil. cbaunel, chisel. counsel, cudgel. disbevel, drivcl, duel, em bowel. enamel. empanel,
equal, gamllol, gravel, !:r .. , d, bandsel, hatchel. imperil, Jewel. kennel, label,
level. libel, marshal, marvel, luud"i, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pIstol, pommel, quarrel,
ravel, revel, rival. rowel. shovel, shrivel, sui vel, tassel. trammol, travel, tunnel,
unravel.

ORTHOGRAPHY-SPET.J.ING. 15
RVLE v.
64. Worus clJllipg with II ,h'op one I befure the termillations less anu ly,
to prevent trcbliug; as, skill, skilles .• ; full, fully; finu some wrilel's, before
ness Bndful; ns, fulness, skilful.
65. But words ending in any other dOllble lette!', preserve the letter
double before less, ly, ness, aud ful; ns, harmlessly, st~tfly, gruffness, d:c.
llt;LIi: VI.
66. Silent e is preserved before tbe termination?, mellt, less, ly, nndful;
as, paleness, peaceful, ab({[emfllt, &c.
67. E:ucptiolls.-Duly, truly, awful, Ilnd gencl'ally, judgment, acknowledgment,
lodgment, nbtidgll1ellt, are except,-d. Argnment from the Latin
argumentulll, is not au eXCl'j,tiol1.
llt;LE YII.
6B. ~'ilent e is omitted before terminations beginuing with a vowcl; as,
slave, slavish; cure, curable; sense, sensible; lodge, lodging; IOl.e, lo·vest.
69. Blame, mOI'c, reprol'e, .

16 ENG LISH GRAMMAR.
CAPITALS.
77. Formerly every noun began with a capital letter, both in writing
anll in printing; but at present only the following words begin with capital
lettel'8:-
1. The first word of every book, chapter, Ictter, note, or of any othel'
piece of writing.
:!. The first wvrd after a period; also after a note of interrogation, or
exclumation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are independent
of each othcr.
But if several interrogutory or exclamatory sentences are so connected,
that the latter sentences depend on the former, all of them, except the
fird, may beg-in with a small letter; as, "How doth the city sit solital'Y,
that was Cllll of people I how are her habitations become as desolate!
holV is she become as a willow!
S. Proper nalll€~, titl·;s of otlice or honor; as, George Washington, General
Lee, Ju1gc Sto"Y, Sir J,Valter Scott, .america, the Ohio, Pratt, Woodford
~- Co., Pearl Strut, RfW York.
4. The pronoun I, and the inteQection 0, are written in capitals.
6. The first word of every line in poetry.
6. The appel!ations of the Deity; as, God, Most l1igh, the .almighty,
the Supreme Being, &c.
7. Adjectives derived from the proper naIDes of places; as, Grecian,
Roman, English, .le.
8. The first word of II direct quotation (1l24), when the qaotation would
form II complete sentence by itself; as, "Alway~ lem"mber this ancient
maxim: 'Know thyself.'''
'Yhen a quotation is not iutroduced in the direct form (1l26), but follows
II comma, the first word must not begin with a capital; as, "Solomon
ob"erves, that' pride goes before destruction.' "
9. Common nouns when personified j as, .. Come, gentle Spring."
10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books; as,
h Euclid's Elements. of Geometry;" ., Goldsmith', Delerted Village."
78. Other words, besides !he preceding, .m~y begin with capitals, when
they are remarkably empbatlCal, or tbe prlUclpal subject of the composi.
tion.

ETYMOLOGY-WORDS. 17
PART I I.
ETYMOLOGY.
79. ETYMOLOGY treats of the different sorts of words,
their various modifications, and their derivation!'.
WORDS.
80. A WORD is an articulate sound used by common
consent as the ",ign of an idea.
81. A few worda consist of vocal or vOlVel s(,unds only, withont articu·
lation; as, I, ah, awe, 011, owe, eye, &c.
82.-1. Words, in respect of their Formation, are
either P1'irnitive or Derivative, Simple or Compound.
83. A Plimith'e word is one that is noL del'i"cd from any other word in
the language i as, boy, just, father.
84. A Derivative word is one that is de\'il'cd from ,'orne other word;
as, boyish, justice, fatherly.
85. A Simple word is one that is not combiued with any other word;
as, man, house, city.
86. A Compound word is one thnt is made lip of two or more simple
words; as, manhood, horseman.
87.-2. 'Vords, in respect of Form, are either Declinable
or Indeclinable.
88. A Declinable word is one which undel'goes certain cbanges of form
or termination, to express the different relations of gellder, number, case,
degree, voice, mood, tense, person; usually termed in Grammar, ACCIDI!NTS i
I1S, man, men; love, loves, loved, &c.
89. In the changes which they nndergo, Nouns and Pronouns are said
to be declined, Verbs, to be inflected or conjugated (473.)
90. Au Indeclinable word is one which undergoes no change of form; liS;
I!ood, some, perhaps.

18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
91.-3. In respect of Signification and Use, words are
divided into different classes, called Parts of Speech. .
92. The principle according to which word~ are classified is their use,
or the part they perform in the expreRsion of thought. Words which are
names of objects are classpd as nouns; those which qualify nouns are
adjectives; those which attribute an action or state to some subject Bl'e
verbs, &c, Hence, when the sallie word i, used for diffaent pUl'posesat
oue time a- a name, at another to qualify a noun, and at another to
expl'es, an action or state -it should, in parsing, be assigned to that class
of words, the office of which it performs for the time: thus, "Before
honor [noun] is humility," .. Honor [verb] thy father and thy mother."
93. PARSING is the art of resolving a sentence into its
elements or parts of speech (574, 575).
94. Parsing is distinguished into Etymological and Syntactical.
95, A wOI'd is parsed Etymologically by sLuting the class of words to
which it belnng~, with its accidents 01' grammatical properties.
96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the relation
in which it stands to other words, and tbe rules according to which they
are combined in phrases and sentences.
97. Thesl' two, though related. are perfectly

ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS. 19
NOUNS.
100. A NouN is the name of any person, place, or
thing; as, John, London, book. Hence,
The names of persons, places, or things, are Nouns.
101. Nouns are of two kinds, Propel' and Common.
102. A Proper Noun is the name applied to an individual
only; as John, London, America, the Ohio.
103. A Common Noun is a name applied to all things
of the same sort; as, man, chair, table, book.
104. REMARKs.-Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals of the
same class from one another. Common nOllns distinguish sorts 01' classes,
and are equally Rp?licable to all things of the same class. Thus, the com·
mon noun boy is equally applicable to all object9 of that class; but the
proper nouns John, Jame8, Robert, &c., are applicable only to partIcular
indit·idual. of a class,
OBSERVATIONS ON NOUNS.
105. When a proper noun is used to denote a whole elMS, it becomes
common, and generally has an article before it; as," The twelve Ca:sars,"
.. He is the Cicero of his age," "A Daniel come to judgment." A Campbell,
i.e., one of the Campbells.
106. Common nouns become proper when perwnified (1041\ 1), and
also when used as proper names; as, Hail, Liberty! The Park.
107. Under common nouns are usually ranked,-
1. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in the
singular number; as, army, people.
2. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities; as, piety, wickedness.
3. Verbal nouns, 01' the names of actions, &e.; as, reading, writing,
sleeping.
4. Diminutive nouns, or nouns derived Crom other nouns, and decoting
R small one of the kind; as, stream, streamlet; leaf, leaflet;
hill, hillock, &e.
108. To the class of nouns belongs everything, whether word, letter,
mark. or character, of which we can thin I" speak, or write, regarded
merely as an object of thought, even when, as sometimes happens, we do
not give it a name. Thus, when we ~ay, "Good" is an adjective, a is a
vowel, b is a consonant, A is a capital, 4 is an even number, t is a fraction,
, is a mark of interrogation, + is the sign of addition, - of subtraction,
= of equality-Good, 0, b, A, 4, t, Y, +, -, -, ure all to be
regarded as nouns.

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
109. REMARK.-A noun is also called a substantive. But tbis term for
convenience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to mean a noun,
n per.onal pronoun, or a phrase used as a noun, and usually called" a Bubs/anti/'e
phrase." Thus, in such a rule as this, "An adjective qualifies the
substantive," .!xc., the word substantive may mean either a nonn, 01' pronoun,
or substantive phrase.
EXERCISES."
1. In the fonowing list, distinguish proper nouns from common, and give
n reason for the distinction ;-
Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, bor~c, bouse,
garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio,
Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun,
moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, J\iars, man, woman, boy,
girl, John, James, l\hry, Susan, mountain, stream, valley.
2. In the following sentence~, point out the nouns. Say why they are
nouns; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus," Table,"
a noun, because the name of a t.hiug; common, b"canse applied to all things
of the sam e sort.
The table and chairs in this room belong to John j the bookcase,
writing·desk, and books, to his brother.-Time and tide
wait for no man.-The largest city in Europe is London j in
America, New York.-'l'he northern states produce wheat,
oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes j while cotton, tobacco,
rice and sugar, are the products of the south.
s. 'Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and my some··
thing respecting each, so as to make a sentence; thus:- -
Summer-summer is the warmest season of the year.
4. Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and why; which
are proper, or common, and why.
ACCIDEXTS of THE NOCN,
no. The accidents of nouns are PerSall, Gender,
Number, and Case.
NOTE.-These accidents belong also to pel'sonal and relative pronouns
(239) .
• The exerdses furnished l!ere, and throughout this work, are intended merely as
a speclme.n of the w.ay III \Vhlcl~ the leadm~ truths ,and facts in Grammar may he
wrought IIIto the mmds 9f PIlPlls, by means or exerCIses properly devised. It is lI'lt
however, eX(lect~d or deSIred that the teaeher .hould limit himself to these. Every
active a.nd mgell!olls teacher .will devis,e slIch new and various methods of exercising
hIS pupIls as theu' a!,:,', capacIty, alld CIrcumstances, and his own judgment and expertence
m~y Sll~g~st, ,as best calculated to dl'aw out tlleir powel'S, and culth'ate in
them a habit of thlUking and reasoumg for them.elves.

ETYIIIOLOGY-NOUNS-PERSON. 21
PERSON.
Ill. PERSON, in Grammar, is the distinction of nonns
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
(120). Hence,
112. There are three persons, called Fint, Second, and Third.
113. A noun is in the first persou, when it denotes the speaker; as, .. I,
Paul, have written it."
114. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or thing
addressed; as, "Thou, God, scest me."-" Hail, Liberty!"
115. A noun iR in the third person, when it denotes the person or thing
spoken of; ae, .. lVashington was brave."-" Truth is mighty."
116. RnrARK.-The third person is used sometimes for the first; R~,
" thy 6ervant became surety for tho lad to my father." Gell. xliv. 32.
Sometimes, particularly in the language of supp:ication, it is used for
the fecond; as, "0 let not the Lurd be angry." Gen. xviii. 30. .. Will
the Lord bless us !"
OBSERVATIONS ON PERSO~.
117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denoting
persons, or things personified; becauile pel'sons only can "peak or be spoken
to. The third person may beh.ng to all nouns, becanse every object,
whether person or thing, may be spoken of.
lIS. A noun can be the subject of a verb (5~5), only in the thil'd person.
A noun in the first 01' second person is never used as the subject of a
verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first 01' second pel'sonal pro·
noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis; and sometimes in the
second person, without a pronoun, as the object addressed.
119. A uoun in the predicate (600), is generally, though not always,
in the third person, e'\'en when the subject is in the first or second; as, "I
am Alpha," &:c., " who is." So with the pronouus I anu thou; a9, " I am
he." ., Thou art the man."
!20. REMARK.-Pr

20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
109. RF.~r.\nK.-A noun is also caIleu a wbstantivc. But this term for
convenience is here usctl in a more comprebensive sense, t{l mean a noun,
n per,onal pronoun, or a phrase used as a n~un, and us~all:r callen ." a 8ubstantil'e
phrase." Thus, in such a rule as tblS, "An adjective qualifies tbe
substantive," &c., the word substantive may mean either a nOlin, or pro·
nOUll, or sub.tantive phrase.
EXERCISES.-
I. In tbe following list, distinguish proper nouns from common, and give
n reason for the distinction :-
Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house,
garden, 'Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio,
Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun,
moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, 1\lar8, man, woman, boy,
girl, John, James, 1\1!lry, Susan, mountain, stream, yalley.
2. In the foIlowing sentcnces, point out the nouns. Say "'hy they are
nouns; tell wbether tbey nre proper or common, nnd why. Thus," Table,"
a noun, because the name of a t.lling; common, b"c:luse applied to all things
of the same surt.
The table and chairs in this room belong to John; the bookcase,
writing·desk, and books, to his brother.-Time and tide
wait for no man.-The largest city in Europe is London; in
America, .New York.-The northern states produce 'wheat,
oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes; while cotton, tobacco,
rice and sugar, are the products of the south.
S. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, anel my some·
thing respeoting eacb, so as to make II sentence; tbus:-
Summer-summer is the warmest season of the year.
4. Tell what words in the sentences so made, are nouns, and wily; which
are proper, or common, and why.
ACCIDENTS OF THE NOn,.
no. The accidents of nouns are Person, Gender,
Number, and Case.
NOTE.-These accidBnts belong also to personal and relative pronouns
(239).
• The exercises furnisbed here, and throughout this \vork, are intended merely as
n specimell of the way iu whicl~ the leading truths and facts in Grammar may be
wrought 1I1to tho mmds ,!f pupils. by means or exer."es properly devised. It is Hilt
however, expectcd or deSired that the teacher shOUld limit himself to these Every
active and ingen!ous teacher .will devise snch new and various methods of e~erc'ising
hiS .puplls ns then' age, capacity, aud clfcumstances, and his own judgment and expencnce
m~y sU~g~st,.as best calculn~ed to draw out their powers, and cultivate in
tbem a habit of thulking and reasolllDg for themselves.

ETYrtIOLOGY-NOUNS-PERSON. .21
PERSON.
111. PERSON, in Grammar, is the distinction of nonns
as used in discourse, to denote the speaker, the person
or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of.
(120). Hence,
112. There are t"ree persons, called First, Second, and Third.
113. A noun is ia the first persou, when it denotes the speaker; as, " I,
Paul, have written it."
114. A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or tbing
addressed; as, "Thou, God, scest me."-" Hail, Liberty!"
115. A ntlun is in the third person, when it uenotes the person or thing
spoken of; as, "lVashington was brave."-" Truth is mighty."
116. REMARK.-The third person is used sometimes for the first; 8S,
" thy servant became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 32.
Sometimes, particularly in the language of supp:ication, it is nsed for
the fecond; as, "0 let not the Lord be angl·Y." Gen. xviii. 30. ., Will
the Lord bless us !"
OBSERVATIONS ON PERSON.
117. The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denoting
persons, or things personified; because persons only can speak or be spoken
to. The third person may beh.ng to all nouns, because every object,
whether person or thing, may be spoken of.
118. A noun can be the subject of a verb (5()5), only in the third person.
A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject of a
verb, but only in apposition (668) with the first 01' second personal pro·
noun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis; and sometimes in the
second person, without a pronoun, as the object addressed.
119. A uoun in the predicate (600), is generally, though not always,
iu the third person, e\'cn when the subject is in the first or second; as, ., I
am .IIlpha," &c., ,; who is." So with the pronouns I and thou; a9, "I am
he." "Thou art the man,"
120. REMARK.-PERSON makes no chant,!c either in the meaning 01' form
of a Boun, but simply denotes the mannel' in which it is used, as above
~tated. MOJ'eovel', as the name of the speaker, or of the person spokpn
to, is seldom expreesed (the pronouns I and thou, we and you, beiDg used
in their stead), it seems to be a useless waRte of t.ime, in parsing, to men·
tion the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second perSOD, which
will not happeu more than once in a thousand times. Much time there
fore will be saved, and no \OS9 sustained, if it be considered as taken for
granted, without stating it, that a noun i~ in the third person, unle~s it be
otherwise mentioDlld,

ENGJ..ISH GRAMMAR.
GENDER.
121. GENDER is the distinction of nonns with regard
to sex. ApPENDIX I.
122. There are three gender~, ltlasculine, Feminine,
and lYellter.
123. Nonns denoting males are Masculine; as, man,
boy.
124. Nouns denoting females are Fem inine; as woman,
girl.
125. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e.,
things without sex, are Nellter; as, house, book, tree.
126. Nouns which denote either males or females, such as parent, neigh.
bar, friend, &c., are sometimes, (or the sake of convenienep, said to be of
the Common Gender, i. e., either masculine or feminine.
127. There are three ways of distinguishing the sex e .•.
1. By different words; as,
lIIa.cul i 'Ie. Feminine. lIIascul inc. Feminine.
Bachel'lr maid Horse mare
Beau belle Husband wife
Boy girl King queen
Brother sister Lord. lady
Buck doe Man woman
Bull cow Master mistress
Drake duck Nephew niece
Earl countess Ram, buck ewe
Father mother SPll daughter
Friar nun Stag hind
Gander goose Uncle aunt
Hart roe \\"izard witch
2. By a difference of termination; a~,
Masculine. Feminine. 1I'1ascu/ille. Pemilline.
Abbot abbess Arbiter arbitress
Actor actress Author authoress
Administrator administratrix Baron baroness
Adulterer adulteress Bridegroom bride
Ambassador ambassadress Benefactor benefactress

ETYMOLOG Y-NOUNS-G ENDER.
23
Masculine.
Count
Deacon
Duke
Elector
Emperor
Enchanter
Executor
Governor
Heir
Hero
Hunter
Host
Jew
Landgrave
Lion
Marquis
Mayor
Patron
3.
Sparrow.
Goat.
Servant.
Child.
Descendants.
FellLinine. lIIasculinr. Ji'cminine.
countess Peer peeress
deaconess Poet poetess
duchess Priest priestess
electress Prince princess
empress Prior prioress
enchantress Prophet prophetess
executrix Protector protectress
governess Shepherd shepherdess
heiress Songster songstress
heroine Sorcerer sorceress
huntress
{sultana, or
Sultan
hostess
taness
jewess Tiger tigress
Iandgravine Traitor traitress
lioness Tutor tutoress
marchioness Viscount viscountess
mayoress Votary yotaress
patroness "'idower widow
By prefixing a distinguishing word; as,
Ma.culine.
A coc/: sparrow.
A he goat.
A ma n serva.nt.
A male child.
JJIaie descendants.
sul-
Feminine.
A h( It sparrow.
A ~ltc goat.
A maid servant.
A fr1lla/" child.
Fer/wle descendants.
OBSERVATIONS ON GENDER.
128. Many masculine nonns have no corresponding feminine; liS, baker,
brewer, &c.: and some feminine DOUDS have no conesponding m:lsculine;
as, laundress, seamstress, &c.
129. Some nouns natuI'ally neuter, IIrc often, by a fi~ure of speech
(1046, I), converted into the ma~culine or feminine; as, when we say
of the sun, .< He is setting;" of the moon, .. She is eclipsed;" or of a
ship, "She aails."
130. REMARK.-This inferior species of personification, peculiar to the
Engli'h langu:lge, is often used with gl'eat bcauty to impart animation
and livelincss to the style, witlJOut rentiering it inflated or passionate.
No certain rul", however, can be given as to the gender as.urned, except
that nouns denoting ol~ects distinguished for 8tr.,ngth 01' b"ldness, are
u8ually regarded a8 masculine, while, on the other hand, tho.e dp.llotiu!( (,b·
jects noted fur softness, beauty, and gracefulness, are cODsidered feminine.

24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
131. In speakingof ani'!1nls whose sex is not ~no.wn ~o us, or not re~ard.
ed, we as~i",n the masculine gender to those dlstmgUlshed for boldness,
fidelit.y, genero

ETYlIIOLOGY-NOUNS-NUlIIDER. 25
NUMBER.
135. N UlIlBER is that property of a noun by which it
expresses one, 01' more than one.
136. Noun" have two numbers, the Singular and the
Plural. The singular denotes one: as, book, tree; the
plural, m01'e than one; as, books, trees.
GEXERAL llULE.
137. The plural is commonly formed by adding s to
the singular; as, book, books.
SPECIAL RULES.
138. RULE I.-Nouns in s, sh, ch soft, z, x, or 0, form
the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, .Misses; brush, brushes;
match, matches; topaz, topazes; fox, foxes; hero, heroes.
139. Exceptions.-Nouns in eo, io, lind yo, have s ouly; as, cameo,
cameos; folio, f9lios; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, contos. Junto,
tyro, grotto, pOl tieo, sulo, halo, quarto, furmerly had s only in the plural;
but now more commouly es under the Rule; as, junto, juntoes, &c. Nouns
in ch sounding k, add s only; as, monarch, monarchs. See also 144.
140. V{henc,'cr s or es will not coalesce with the tinal sy\laole, it adds
a syllable to the wurd; as, age, pI. ages; box, boxes. But where s 01' es
will coalesce, it doe,; not add a syllable; as, book, books; cargo, cargoes.
The swill Dlake an additional syllable only after e final, preceded by g 01'
an s·sounJ; a~, cage, cages; race, ruces; j'ose, roses. E" will coal~sce, and
so not add a syllable, only after 0; as, echo, echoes.
141. RuLI'.: Z.-N ouns in y after a consonant, change
y into ies in the plural; as, lady, ladies. But
Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y,
follow the general rule (137); as, day, days; the Pompeys,
the Tullys, &c.
142. RULE 3.-Nouns inf or fe, changef or fe into
ves in the plural: as, loaf, loaves; life, lives,

26 ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR.
143. Exceptions.-Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, chief, grief; kerchief, hand·
kerchief, mischief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, reproof,
follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in s; a~, muff,
muffs; except staff, plural stal'cs; but its comp"unds are regular; as,jlag'
staff, jlagstaffs; wharf has either wharfs or u-harl'es.
EXERCISES.
1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it;
thus, Fox, plural, foxes. Rule-Nouns in s, sh, ell soft, Z, x, or 0, form
the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly; Nouns in x form thc plural by
adding es.
Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach,
inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife,
story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato,
peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city,
difficulty, distress, wolf.
Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy,
army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto,
nuncio, punt!tilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, Illuff,
cliff, whiff, cuft: ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief.
2. OJ what number is-Book, trees, plant, 8hrub, globes,
planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses,
prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies,
hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher,
valleys, mountain, cameos?
3. Take six of the above worde, and say somctbin" respectinO' each;
first in the singular, and then in the plural. " "
NOUNS IRREGULA.R IN THE PLURAL.
144. Some nouns are irregular in the formation of tbeir plural; sucb
as-
Singular.
Plural.
Singular.
Plural.
Man
men
'.rooth
teeth
Woman
women
Goose
geese
Child
children
Mouse
mice
Foot
feet
Louse
lice
Ox oxen Cow formerly kine
but now regular, cows
145. Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular furm of the plu.
ral, but with different significatiolls; as-

Singular.
Plural.
Brother (one of the same family) brothers
Brother (one of the same society) brethren
Die (a stamp for coining) dies
Die (a Emall cube for gaming) dice
Genius (a man of genius) geniuses
Genius (a kind of spirit) genii
Index (a table of reference) indexes
Index (a &ign in algebra) indices
Pea (as a distinct seed) peas
Pea (as a species of grain) pease
Sow (an individual animal) sows
Sow or swine (the species) swine
Penny (a coin ---) pennies
Penny (a sum or value) pence
146. NOTE.-Though pence is plu1'al, yet such expressions as fourpencc,
stxpence, &c., as the name. of a 6um, or of a coin representiug that sum. is
oftcn regarded as singular, and so capable of a plural; as, " Three four·
pences, 01' two sixpcncis, make a shilling:' .. A new sixpence is heavier
than all old one."
147.-CompounJs eliding inful o1'full, and generally those which have
the important word last, form the plural regularly; as, spoonful, cupful,
coachful, handful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, camcra-obscum, &c.;
plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coachfuls, &e.
148. Compounds in which the principal word stanJs first, pluralize the
first word; ae-
Singular.
Plural.
Commander-in-chief
commanders-ill-chief
Aid -de-camp
aids-de-cam p
Knight-errant
knights-errant
Court· martial
courts-martial
Cousin-german
cousins-german
Father-in-law, kc.
fathers-in-law, kc.
o
£Tl'MOLOGY-NOUNS-NUl\1BER. 27
Man-servant changes both; as, men-servants. So IIlso, women-servants,
knil5hts-tcmplars.
149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word; a"
fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, and not com·
pounds of man, form the plm'al by the general rule; as, Turcoman, Mus­
Bulman, talisman; plural, Turcomans, Mussulmans, &c.
150. Proper Dames, when pluralized, aud other p:ll'td of speech used

28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
DS nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar endings i
as, the .Ill·istot/es, the Sol(Y(ls, the MariustB, the Pompeys, the Ciceros;
the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs; by sixes and ,evens, by fifties;
three fourths, two halves; "His andB aud his Drs ;" "One of the bub is
superfluous."
151. EXCEPTION.-Such words endiug in y after a consonant, follow the
general rule (137), and not tile special rule (141) i 8S, the Livys, the Tully.,
the Henrys-" The whys and the bys."
152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures. are made plural by adding
's; 8S," Dot your i's and cross your t's."-" Y I)UI' s's are not well made."­
"The +'s and -'s are not in liue."-" Four 6's = eight 3's."-" 9's give
place to 0' s."
153. NOTE.-Some good writers form the plural of proper names, &0.
in this way; as, the Marius's, the PompeY's.-the why's amI the wherefore',.
But this is unnecessary. and should be avoided.
154. Word. adopted without change froID foreign languages, generally
retain their original plural. .As a general rule, nouns in um or on, have a
in the plural. Latin nonns in is, in the plural change is into es; Greek
noum in is, change is into ides; Latin nouns in -a change a into t1!; but
Grpck noulls change a into ata in the plural. The following nre the most
common, some of which, however, from common use, have become so much
a part of the English language as to have also the English form of tbc
plural. In the followiug table, thcse are indicltej by the letter n.
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Alumnus alumni Chrysalis chrysalidcs
Alumna alUlnnrn Crisis
crises
.Amanuensis amanuenses Criterion criteria
Analysis analyses Datum data
Animalculum animrucula, R. Desideratum desiderata
.Antithesis antitheses Dimresis dirnreses
.Apex
apices, R . Effluvium effluvia
Appendix appendices, R. Ellipsis ellipses
.Arcanum arcana Emphasis emphases
.Automaton automata, R . Encomium encomia, R .
.Axis
Bandit
Basis
axes
banditti
bases
Ephemeris
Erratum
Focus
ephemerides
errata
foci
Beau
beaux, R. Formula formulre
Calx
calces, R. Fungus fungi, funguses
Cherub cherubim, R. Genius genii (145)

ETy~roLOGY-NOUNS-NUMBER. 29
Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.
Genus genera Nebula nebulre
Gymnasium gymnasia, TI. Oasis oases
Hypothesis hypotheses Parenthesis parentheses
Ignis fatuus ignes fatui Phenomenon phenomena
Index (a pointer) indexes Radius radii
Index (in al~b ra )indices Scholium scholia, R.
Lamina laminre Seraph seraphim, R.
Larva larvre Speculum specula
Magus magi Stamen stamina, R.
Medium media, R. Stimulus stimuli
Memorandum memoranda, R. Stratum strata
Metamorphosis metamorphoses Thesis theses
Miasma miasmata Vertebra vertebrru
Momentum momenta, R. Vertex vertices, R.
Monsieur meSSleurs Virtuoso virtuosi
Mr. (master) messrs. (mast';r~) Vortex vortices, R.
EXERCISES ON NOUNS IRREGULAR IN ~Ul\lBER.
Give the plural of-Man, foot, penny, mouse, ox. child,
woman, brother, goose, tooth ;-sow, die, court-martial, father·
in-law, son-in-law;-cupful, coachful, spoonful; erratum, medium,
radius, genius, lamina, automaton, phenomenon, stratum,
axis, ellipsis, stamen, index, cherub, serllph, &c.
Of what number is-Dice, arcana, fishermell, geese, dormice,
alms, riches, thanks, snuffers, tongs, teeth, woman, child, court·
martial, apparatus, miasma, genii, geniuses, indices, indexes,
mathematics, Matthew, James, John?
OBSERV.ATIONS ON NUMBER.
155. Some nouns nre used in the singular only. Such are the names of
metals, virtues, vices, arts, sciences, abstract qualities, aud things weighed
or measured; as, gold, meeknesB, piety, idleness, intemperance, sculpture,
geometry, wiido'm, flour, milk, &c. Except when different sorts of things
nre expreesed ; as, wines, teas, sugars, liquors, &c.
156. Some nouns are used in the plural only; as, annals, antipodes, ar.
chives, assets, ashes, billiards, bitters, breeches, clothe~, calends, colors (mili·
tary banners), dregs, goods, hysterics, ides, intestmes, literati, lees, lettel-S,
(literature), minutice, manneTf, morals, nones, orgies, pleiads or pleiades,

30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
shambled, tidings, thanks, vespers, vitals, victuals; Also, thiugs consisting
of two part,; as, bellows, drawers, hose, nippers, pincers, pliers, snuffers,
3cissors, "henTS, tongs, &c.
A few wonls usually plural, viz., bowels, embers, entrat/s, lungs, have
sometimes a singular, denotin:; a part or portion of that expressed by the
plural; as, bowel, lung, &c.
157. Some nouns are alike in both Ilumber.; as, deer, sheep, swine,
vel'min; grouse, salmon, tench, trout; apparutu~, hiatus, series, (o?!geries,
species, superficies; head (in the sense of individual), cattle; certain build.
ing materials; as, brick, stone, plank, joist, in mass; olso fish, and sometimes
jowl, denoting the da's. But several of the-e, iu a plural sense,
denoting individuals have the re:;lIlar plural also; ns, salmons, trouts,
.fishes, fowls, &c.
158. The words brace, couple, pair, yoke, dozen, score, gross, hundred,
thousand, nnd some oll,,'r?, "fter a,ljecth-es of number, are either singular
or plural; as, a brace, a· dozen, a hundred; two brace, three dozen, six hundred,
&c. But without an adjective of Dumber, or in other constructions,
and particularly after in, by, &c., in a distributive sense, most of these
words, in the plural, assume a plural form; as, "In braces and dozens."­
"B_v scores and hunJrc./s."-" 'Vorth thousands."
159. 1. The following words, plural in form, are sometimes .ingular,
but most commonly plural in signification, viz.: amends, means, richel,
pains (meauing laborious cffort), odds, alms, wage .. ; and the names of eert
.in scien('e~; a~, mathematics, ethics, optics, acouslia, metaphYSiCS, politics,
pneumatics, hydrostatics, &c.
2. jJleans and amends, referriug to one object, are sillgular; to more than
one, plural. Mean, in the singular form, is now used to signify the middle
between two extremes. .I11ms (lElmesse, Anglo-Saxon) and riches (richesse,
Frenc!!), are really singular, though now used commonly in a plural sense.
Neu:s, formerly singular or plural, is now mostly sillgular. Molasses and
measles, though ending like ~ plmnl, are singular, and so used. Oats is
generally plmal; gallows is both singular nnd plurnl, though a distinct
plural form, gallowses, is also iu use.
160. The following nrc singular in form, but in construction various;
thu~, foot and horse, meaning bodies of troops, and people, meaning persons,
are always construed as plural; cannon, shot, sail, cavalry, infantry,
8S singular or plural. People (also folk), when it signifies a community
or body of persolls, is a collective Iloun in the singular, and sometimes,
though rarely, tnkes a plural form; us, "Many peoples and nations."
Rev. x. 11.

ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS-CASE. 31
THE PLURAL OF PROPER NAMES.
161. Proper names for the most part want the plnral; but-
1. Proper names without a title are used in the plural, when they refer
to a race or family; as, "The Campbells." "the Stuarts j" or to several
persons of the same name; as, "The twelve Ca;sars j" or when they are
used to denote character; as," The Ciceros of tbe age."
2. Proper names with the title of Mrs. prefixed, 01' with any title, pre·
ceded by the numerals, two, three, &c., pluralize the name, and not the
ti tIe; as, " The Mrs. Howards j" .. thCi two Miss fllortons j" "the two MI'.
H~nrys."
3. But when several per.ons of the same name are spoken of individually,
and distinguished by a particular appellation, or when persons of
different names are spoken of together, the title ollly, and not ti,e name
is marle plural; as," Misses Julia and Mary Robinson ;n .. 1I1es91's. George
and Andrew Thomson;" .. Messrs. Pratt, Woodford, & Co."
Thus far, usage and the rule are settled and uniform; but-
4. In other cases, usage is still unsettled. Some writers, perhaps the
majority, pluraEze the title aud not the name; as, "The Misses Brown;"
"the Messrs. Harper." Others, of equal authority, rpgardiIlg the title as
a sort of adjective, or the whole as a compound name, pluralize the name
and not the title; ao, the Miss Browns j" "the 1111'. Harpers." This form
is mor'e common in conversation, and, being lesa stiff and formal, is more
likely to prevail. A few irnp~operl}' pluralize hoth name and title; as,
"The Misses Browns j" "the fllessrs. Harpers,"
6. N am(>s with other titles prefixed, follow the same analogy; as, .. Lords
Wellington anel Lynedoch;" "the lords bishops of Dur ham and St.
David's;" "the geneIals Scott and Taylor."
CASES OF NOUNS.
162. CASE is the state or condition of a noun with
respect to the other words in a sentence. See 164-166.
163. Nouns in English have three cases, the Nominative,
Possessive, and Objective.

32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
164. The Nomina/ire case is used-
1. Whcn a nuun is used simply as the name of an object.
2. When it is used as that of which something is affirmed; as, "John
reads."
3. When it is used as a predicate (600) j as, ., John is a good boy."
4. Whe" it is used absolutely or independent of any oLher word j as,
" 0 .I1bsalom, my son!"
165. The Possessil'c case connects with the name of an object, the idea
of origin, possession, or fitness; as, The sun's rays; John's book j a boy's
cap; men's shoes.
166. The Objective case is used-
1. To denote the object of a transitive verb (317) in the active voice
(368); a_, .. James assists Thomas."
2. To denote the object of a relation expressed by a preposition (538);
as, .. Tlll'y live in London."
3. To denote time, value, weight, or measure, without a governing word
(828) j as," James is ten years old."
GE:iERAL RULES.
167. The nominative and the objective of nouns are
alike.
168. The possessiyc singular is formed by adding an
apostrophe and s to the nominative; as, John's.
169. 'Vhen the plural ends in s, the po>,,-cs,.:iyc is
formcd by adding an apostrophe only; as, ladies'. But
when the plural does not end in s, both the apostrophe
and s are added; as, men's, children's.
DECLEXSIOX OF XOU:-;S.
170. Nouns are thus declincu-
Singular. Plural. Sin"u/ar. Plural.
Nom. Lady ladies 1Ilan men
Poss. Lady's ladies' Man's men's
Obj. Lady Indies :Man men
171. Proper names for the most part wnnt the plural (161).
Singular.
John
John's
John
OI3SERYATIONS ON THE POSSESSIVE.
172. The's in the possess,v'~ case is evidently an abbreviation for the
old Eogli>h termination of the gcniti '\"e in es or is. Thus," The king's
crown" was written, .. The kingis crown:' That s is not an abbreviation

ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS-POSSESSIVE. 33
for his, as some have supposed, is manifest from tbe fact, tbat it is used
where his could not be properly employed; tbus, woman's, men's, children's,
book's, &c.. can not he resolved into woman ~his, men his, children
his, &c.
The apostrophe (') after s in tbe plural, is not a mark of abbreviation,
but is used, in modern times, merely as a sign of the possessive. Its use
in the pi ural is but of recent date.
173. When the nominative singular ends in 8S, or in letters of a similar
sound, tbough to retain the s after the apostrophe is never wrong, yet, as a
matter of taste, it is sometimes omitted in order to avoid barshness, or too
close a succession of If!ssing sounds; as, "For goodness' sake;" c, for con·
science' sake;" so also" Moses' disciples;" .. Jesus' feet."
174. NOTE.-There is considerable diversity of opinion and usage on
this point. Some few insist on retaining s after the apostrophe in every
position; as, .. Xanthus's stock of patience."-L'Estrange. Others drop
the 8 only before a word beginning with an s or an s·sound, as above;
while others drop the s wherever the use of it would produce harshness,
or difficulty of pronunciation. Though in this last, the usage which omits
the s is less prevalent and less accurate than that whi'Jh retains it, yet,
from the sanction it has obtained-ft'om the stiffness and harshness which
retaining the s often occasions-and from the tendency in all sp"ken language
to abbreviation and euphony, it seems destined to prevail against
all arguments to the contrary.
175. RE1CARK.-In written language, the omission of the s occasion9
but little inconvenience; for the apostrophe sufficiently indicates the case,
and the construction will generally indicate the number. In spoken Ian·
guage, however, tbe use of the 8 is more necessary, to avoid obscurity,
especially in proper names. Thus, in spoken language, .. Davy's Surveying,"
aDd "Davies' Surveying," sound preCisely alike, though the names
are different. Hence, to indicate the last name correctly in speaking', it
will be more accurate, though less euphonic, to say, " Davies's Surveying."
Tbus, also, .. Perkins' .Arithmetic," "Spark"' .Analysis," in spoken language,
may be mistaken for" Perkin's .Arithmetic," .. Spark's .Analysis."
In such cases, precision will be secured at the expense of euphony, by
retaining the s, while euphony will be attained, frequently at the expense
of precision, by dropping it.
176. The meaning of the possessive may, in general, be E'xpressed by
the word of with the obj~ctive; thus, for" man's wisdom," ., virtue's reward,"
we may say, .. the wisdom of man," "the reward of , virtue'" This
mode will generally be preferred, when the use of the possessive would
appeal' stiff or awkward; thus, "the length of the day," is better than
"the day's length." In some few words wbich want the possessive plural,
such as father-in-law, court-martial, &(1., this is the only substitute. These
two modes of expression, however, are not always equi valent; thus, .. the
king'. pictnre," means any picture belonging to the king; "a picture of
the king," means a portrait of him, without saying to whom it belongs.
So also, of with the objective, ean not always be represented by the possessive;
as, "A. piece of gold," .. a cord of wood," .. the house of reprBsentativ.,,"
elrc. 3

34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PARSING (93) THE NOUN.
177. A noun is parsed etymologically, by stating its
accidents, or grammatical properties (110), as exemplified
(182).
178. NOTE.-The possessive is easily known by its form. As the nom·
inative and objectivp. of nouns are alike, in parsing nouns in the following
lists, all nouns not in the possessive, may be said to be in the nominative.
The method of distinguishing the nominative and objective will be ex·
plained in ils proper place. ~s pers?n belongs, n,?t to the form, bat to the
relations of the noun, the mention of It may be o~ted for the present.
179. N. B.-In all parsing, much time will be eaved, if the pupil be
accustomed to my every thing necessary to be said, st once, without wait·
ing to have each particnlar drawn from him by a question-to say it in
the shortest possible manner-and also to say the same things always in
the same order. Every teacher will of course select that order which he
prefers. The order here directed may perhaps be acceptable to most
teachers (182).
180. As it makes no difference in the construction of a sentence, whether
a noun be proper or common, there seems to be little or no advantage in
mentioning this distinction in parsing. Some accordingly omit this, as
well as person in parsing, for the sake of brevity-an object worthy of con·
sideration in a large school, where economy of time is important. Or, when
a proper noun occurs, which is comparatively seldom, it may be mentioned,
taking it always fOI" granted that a noun is common when not otherwise
mentioned. This appears to be sufficient for every purpose.
PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.
181. In proceeding to parse the noun, the teacher. if he thinks proper,
may begin by some such inductive process as the following: The class
having gone through the preceding definitions and rules, the teacher may
call on some one to mention the NAME of any thing he sees or happens to
think of; and suppose he mentions the words hOZlse, tree, book, desk,pen,
&c, let these words be .written on the black~lOard: . He may til en call on
a.nother, and !LDother. lD the. sam~ way, ~tlll ,,:ntlDg the names as men.
tlOned. In thiS way the pupils WIll furDl~h a hst of exercises for them.
selves. The teacher may then take the first of these .. house" and write
it by ~tself on the bo~rd, at the left hand, and pr~ceed with some such
q~estlOns as the fO.lloWlDg, the auswers to which, from what has been pre.
vlously learned, Will be obvious, and readily given;-
Is HOUSE the name of any thing ¥
What part of speech is the name of a thing i
Then, what part of speech is House? AnB. ".11 noun."
(After the word house on the board now write the word "noUII.")
What is a noun I-How many kinds of uouns are there'
What is a proper noun ?-what a common noun'
Is the word house proper or common' Ans. COlllmon. Why ,
(Then after the word "noun" write the WOld common as before)
What are the properties or accidents of the noun"
•
What is gender '-How many genders are there r

ETYMOLOGY-NOUNS. 35
What nouns are masculine I-what feminine I-what neuter j
To which of these does the word house belong 1 Ans. Neuter. Why 1
(Then write the word neuter after common, as above.)
What is the next propertv of the noun I
What is number ?-How inany numbers are there 1
What does the singular denote i-the plural?
Does House denote onc 01' more than one 1
Of what number then is House? Ans. Sini;ular.
(Now add as above the word singular.)
What is the next property of a lloun 1
How many cases are there 1 Name them.
Declino House in the· singular: iu the plural.
Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentione,l simply as the
nBme of an object (164, 1.) I
Hou3e being used in this manner here, ill what case is it? Aus. In the
Nominative.
(Then write nominative at the end, as above.)
There will now have been written Oil the black boa rei the following:­
HOUSE, Noun, Common, Ncuter, Singular, Nomill(l/;ve.
The teacher may then ask, as a sort of revie\v, why do you ca 11 house
a noun 1-why, common ?-why, neutcr ?-why. sin~ "/ccr I-why, the nominative
?-requiring a di3tinct answer to c:\ch question. Alul lastly, he
may requit'e the pupil to state these re3sons in on],>r, withont the questions
being asked; thus:-
HOUSE-a Noun, because the name of a thing;
Common, because it belongs to all things (,f the 301 t ;
Neuter, because without sex;
Singular, because it denotes one, plnral, houses;
Nominative, because it is used only as a name (164-1.)
By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs to
the parBing of a noun will becomc so familial', and eo clearly understood,
as to be always easy.
182. In parsing. these accidents may be stated, either in the order
above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, "A common neuter
noun, in the nominative singular." Others prefer, us giving more p!'omineuce
to the accidents, and sufficiently euphonions, to say, "A noun, common,
neuter, in tlte nominatwe singular; -01' omitting the kind of noun,
except when a 'proper Doun occurs, for reasons eta ted (180), to say more
briel'ly, .. A noun, neuter, in the nominatil'e singular." This last method is
the one here recommended, as being brief and sufficiently descriptive.
EXERCISES.
1. State the gender, case, and number of the following Douns, and
always in the same order; thus, "Father. II noun, masculine, in the nominative
singular."
Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats,

36 ENGLISn GRAl'rIM.A.R.
sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's
born, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, grass, t?oth, tongs,
candle, chair, Jane's boots, Hobert's shoe, horse, brIdle.
2. Go over the ~ame list, gi \'ing a reason for everything stated; thus,
.. Father, a noun. because the Ilame (,f an ohject; masculine, because it
denotes a male; nominatil'e, because mentioned simply os the name of an
object (164-1); 8ingular, because it denotes one."
THE .· ... n TICLE.
183. ~\.N .ARTICLE is a word put before a nOUD, to indicate
the manner in 'which it is used (707 &c.)
184. There are two articles, a or an and the.
185. A or an is called the i,ulcfinile article. because it shows tbat its
noun denotes a person or thing mdcfinilely, or without distinction; as,.d
man, i. e. any man, or some man, without stating which one.
186. Jl is used before a consonant; as, a book; also before a vowel, or
diphthong, which combines with its oouncl t~e power of initial y. or w; a!,
a unit, a use, a cu/artY, a ewe, many a one.
187 . .Iln is used before a vowel or silent h; :)', an ac:c, an hour; also
hcfol'e wOI'ds beginning wi:h h sounded, when l11e accent is on the second
"Y liable; as, an heroic actioll, an historical nceount ;-becfLllse h in such
words is but slightly sounded.
188. "ou.-Tbe primary form of this article is .]n lane). The n has
been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony.
139 .• '.1 or an is ';OIll,:li'Il>'S used in the sense of one, each, tt'try; as,
" Six cents a pound;" "t\\'o shillings a yard;" "one dollar a day;" "four
bun(h'ed a year."
190. R~M~RK.-In tbe ~xpressious a hunting, a fishing, a ;oin;. a runnlllg,
a bUlldm;, alld the like; also, in the exprcsoions, now nearlyobsolete
.. "a JVcdncs:]Il!lS," "a ni;hts," .. a pieces," &c., a :s equivalent to at,
to, 1Il, 011, and 18 tLl be reg-arde,l, not us an article, but as a preposition
(548). In tbe Fame sense, it is used as a prefix in snch words as afloat,
ashore, asleep, abed, &c.
191. The is called tbe definite artick becanse it shows tbat its noun is
used definitely, and ref,,}·, to SODle particubr person or thing; as, the man,
i. e., some particular ma? Ilsc~rtained .01' pointed out. See Syntax (707-2).
192. NOTE,-Tbe artICle IS sometimes saill to limit tbe signification of
a noun, 1lI~(1 is thcrcfurc c:llled !l- ., definitive." This is scarcely correct.
A noun With a or an prefixed, IS always used in an individual sense to
denote olle of a cla~s. But this being for the most part sufficiently i~di-

ETYMOLOGY-ARTICLE. 37
eated by the singular number, the use of the article to mark the inuiviullal
is necessary only in the few cases in which the noun, in the singular num·
bel', is used in a generic, as well as individual sense. Thus, the terms man,
woman, oak, &c., without an article, mean the 6p(cic.~; bllt with a or an
prefixed, they mean the individual; as, a man, a lOoman, ah oak. So far
only can a or an properly be said to limit, or perform the part of a defini·
tive. In other respects, it rather shows the want of limitation.
193. In like mauner, the article the communly indicates that its nOllU is
limited. anci refers to some pat ticular person or thiug, but still the article
is not the limiting word.· A noun may be limiteu in a nriety of ways; by
notoriety or eminence, by previous mention, by an adjective, a possessive,
a relative clause, a preposition and its cuse, &c.; but never by tbe article,
except perhaps in the case of previous mention, nnu even that is doubtful.
Thus, when we say, .. The red book," "the boy'.1 book," "the !Jnok !Vhich
we lost," " the book on the table," we perceive that the word book, follow·
ing the, is limited-not., however, by the article, but by the words red, boy'S,
&c. This fact constitutes a specifie difference between tne article and the
adjective: the adjecth·e al!Vays descTibc.~ or limits its noun (195); lite arti·
cle does not, but is only a sort ot inucx, to give previous uotice that the
nonn is used in a particular way.
194. P ARSING.-The article is parsed by stating whether
it is definite or indefinite, and to what noun it belongs;
thus, "A book." A is the indefinite article, and belongs
to book.
EXERCISES.
Is it proper to say-a man, or an man? why?
a apple, or an apple? why?
a house, or au house? why?
a hour, or an hour? why?
a unicorn, or an unicorn? why?
a ewe, or an ewe? why?
1. Prefix t.he indefinite article a or an correctly to the following words.
2. Tell wh:ch words nre nouns, and why-parse them (177)-decline
them.
Chair, table, horse, cart, boek, house, garden, bird, owl, egg,
ear, eye, tree, cow, unit; use, old man, young man, word, hook,
pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, uncle, aunt;­
open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, old bat.
3. In the following, correct such as are wroug, and give a reason (or the
change ;-parse the articles and nouns.
An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, an
wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a ostrich, a
pen-a ugly beast, a useful tree, an humming-bird, an neat
cottage, a upper room, au huge monster.

38
THE ~\DJECTIYE.
195. AN ADJECTIVE is a word used to qualify a substantive
(IOD); as, "A good boy;" "a square box;"
"ten dollar~;" "we found him poor."
196. A noun is qlUdfied by an adjective. when the object named is
thereby JescrilJcd, lill/ited, "1' di.\lingui.hed from other things of the Bame
name. Thi; is done two ways:-
1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by which
the objects nallled are descrillcd or distinguished from others of the same
kind; as, "A red tl,,~;" "an amusing story." Such are common and participi(ll
adjectil'es (~{'~).
2. Others merely limit. without expressing any quality; as," An Amer·
ican book ~IJ "ten dollars ;" "last w€:ek;" H tltis yetlr;" "every day," &c.
~uch are circlt1llstautial, numeral, and definitive adjectives (202).
197. Adjectives, as predicates, may qualify an infinitive mood, or clause
of a sentence used as a substantive; as, "Tv play is p[easallt."-" That the
,.ieh aTC happy is not always Irw."
198. Several adjecti \'C3 sometimes qualify tte same noun; as, .. A
smooth. 1'ound stone."
199. An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of another
adjective, the two formillg a sort of compound acljccti,e; as, .. A briglttTed
color;" "a dark·blue coat;" "a cast-iron ball."
200. 'When otber parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun
or pronoun, they perform the part of an adjective, and ~hould be parsed
as such; thus,
Xoun; as, "\ gold ring; sill'fI' cup, sea water, a slone bridge.
Pronouns; as, A Ite bear; a she wolf.
Adverbs; as, h the child well? for very age; the then killg.
Prepositions; as, The above remark; the under side.
201. On the contrary, adjectiHs without a substantive are sometimes
used as nouns; as, "God rewards the good, and punishes the bad. "-" The
lJirtuou,. are the most happy." AdjectiYCs used in this way are usually
preceded by tltc, and when applied to persolls, arc for the most part con·
Bid cred pI ural.
DIVISlnx OF ADJECTIVES.
202. Adjectil'es are sometimcs t..lividi!d iuto the following~classcs, viz. :
l. Common, which exp"ess quality; as, good, bad, 8weet, &c.
2. Ci rwmstanti.al, '" hich expres.s circumstanccs of time, place, uatiou,
&c.; as, da!!,II. eastern. Engllslt, American. J:c. ' -, -, _ ."_': ..
3. K1tmer~l •. which e:,p~ess numbe~;. as, one. two, tlzTee .. first, sccond, &c.
4. Partzczpaal, .CO~8Ist\Dg of .,partIClplcs: 01' com~?unt..ls of participles
used as adJectives; ~L'. Au amu5wg story; "an unmerited rebuke
i" "to pass unmolested." Some add~

ETYMOLOGY-ADJECTIVES. 39
5. ])efinitive, ,,:hic~ do not .expr~ss an! property of an object, but
merely pOlDt. It out, or limit In vanous ways tbe meaning of tbe
noun. '1'0 this class Lelong such words as this, that, eaclt, every,
8?me, boOt, &c.. Tbese sometimes accompany Ibe noun, and "Ollletimes
refer to It understood, or stand instead of it, after the manner
of pronl)uns, and hence are sometimes called Pronominal adjectives
and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.) ,
203. Tbis classification of adjectives, however, is of but littJoe practical
use, as adjectives of all classes are used in the same way.
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
204. Adjectives expressing number are called Numeral
adjectives. They are of two kinds, Cardinal and
Ordinal.
205. The Cardinal numbers indicate how many j they
are one, two, three, four, &c.
206. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a
number j they are first, second, third, &c. In compound
numbers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, twenty­
FIRST; two hundred and fiftY-THIRD, &c.
207. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, arc often nscd
as nouns, and so have tbe iuflection and construction of nouns; tbus, by
IID08, by Ims, by fifties. For ten's sake, for twent?/s sake. One and one
are two. Two IS an even number. Five IS tbe balf of ten. Three five&
ARE fifteen. Fifteen IS divisible by three. Twice two IS four.* Four 1&
equal to twice two. Three fourths.
208. Adjectives in English are indeclinable.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
209. Common and participial adjectives for the most
part have three forms, called degrees of comparison;
namely, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative .
• In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of multiplyingsuch
a,.q U Twice two are four, twice three are six "-is incorrect. It should be •
.. Twice two is four," &c.; for the word two is used as a singular noun-the name of
a nnmber. The adverb" twice" is not in construction with it, and consequently
does not make it plural. The meanine; is, .. The number two taken twice is equal to
four" For the same reason we should say ... Three times two IS six," because the
meaning is, If Two taken three times is six." If we say, .. Three times one are three."
we make ,. times" the subject of tbe verb. whereas the subject of the verb really Is
•• one," and" times" is in the objective of number (828). 2: 4 : : 6 : 12. sbould be read
u As 2 is to 4. so is G to 12;" not." As two are to fOUf. so are," &c. But when numerals
denoting more than one, are used as adjectives, with a substllntive expresssd or
IInderstood, they must IIlIvc II plural constl'1lction.

'"
ENGUSH GRAM'IfAR.
210. The Positive expresses a quality, simply; a~,
" Gold is heavy."
211. The COllljiarative expresses a quality in a higher
degree in one object than in another, or in
several taken together; as, "Gold is heavier
than silver." "He is wiser than his teachers."
212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object
in the highest degree compared with several
others; as, "Gold is the most precious of the
metals."
213. REMARK.-Thc supetlntive degree, when m1de by prefixing the
:ulverb most, is "ften used to express a very high degree of a quality in an
object, without directly comparing it with othcrs; as, "He is a most distinguished
m~n." Thus used, it is called tlte 8uperlative of eminence, and
commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular; and is without
an article, if the noun is plural. The same thing is expressed by prefixing
the adverb .Jery, exceedingly, &c.; as, c, a ver!! distinguished man j"
"very distillguished men." The superlative of comparison commonly has
tlt~ before it.
RULES FOR OOMPARIEO~.
214. RULE 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the comparative
by adding er to the positive, and the superlative
by adding est,- as, sweet, su'ceter, sweetest.
Words ending in e mute, drop • before er and est; as, large, lal'ger,
iar[Jfst (68.)
215. RULE 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are
commonly prepared by prefixing more and most to the
positive; as, IlWllerOUs, more 1lumerous, most nllmerous.
216. RE~!ARK.-Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, yet
adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er and est;
as, " Our tenderest cares j" " The commonest materials," and some adjectives
of one syllable, as, wise, apt,fit,

ETYMOLOGY-ADJECTIVES. 41
l~s8 and least to the positivI); as, sweet, less sweet, least sweet. This, by way
of distinction, is sometimes called the compari"on of diminution, or comparison
descending.
218. The meaning of the p02itive is sometimes diminished without employing
comparison, by annexing the syllable is"; as, white, whitish;
black, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also
yarious shades, degrees, or modificatious of quality are frequently expressed
by connecting with the adjective such words as rather, 80mewhat,
slightly, a little, too, very, greatly, &c., Rnd, in the comparative and superlative,
by such words fiS much,far, altogether, by far, &c.
219. Such adjectives as, ,uperior, inferior, exterior inttrior, &Ce., though
derived from Latin comparatives, and inyolving the idea of comparison,
are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than such
words as preferable, p!'evious, &c. They have neithcr the form nor the
construction of the comparative (963-2.)
IRREGULAR COMPARISON.
220. The follow ing adjectives are compared irregularly,
viz.
Positive.
Good
Bad, evil, O/' ill
Little
Much 01' many
Late
Near
Far
Forth (obsolete)
Fore
Old
Oomparative,
better
worse
less (somctilllcS lesser)
more
later (i ITcgllla r, lattcr)
nearer
farther
further
former
older 01' elder
Superlative.
best
worst
least
most
latest or last
nearest or ncxt
farthest
furthest
foremost or first
ohlcst 01' elucst
221. Afuch, is applied to things weighed or measured; many, to things
that are numbered; more andm08f, to both. Farther and farthest gencr·
ally denote place or distance; as, " The farther they went, the more iutcr'
eating was the scene; further and furthest refer to quantity or addition;
aB, "I have nothing further to say." Older and oldest are applied to
perBons or things, and refer to age or duration; fl', " Homer is an older
poet than Virgil;n .. The pyramid~ are olde-r thall the pantheon." Elder
and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same
family. and denote priority of birth; as, "An elder brother." Later and
latest have respect to time; latter and last to position or order.
222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to the
comparative, and sometimes to the word from which the comparative is

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
formeil ; as, upper, uppermost, or upmost from up; nether, nelhermo.!t;
inner, i1lnermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hinderuwst, or hindmost,
from hind; ouler, outermost, or utm08t, from Ollt.
ADJECTIVES NOT COMPARED.
223. "·\djectivcs whose signification does not admit of
increase or diminution, can not properly be compared.
These are-
1. ]o.'llmerals; as, one, two; '''ird,jourth, &c.
2. Proper adjectives; as, English, American, Roman.
3. Ailjcctives that denote figure, shape, or material; as, circular, square,
vJooden, &c.
4. Such adjpctivc, as deride posture or position: as, perperldicltlar,
horizontal.
5. Deji nillvcs; as, each, every, all, some, &c.
6. Ailjectives of an absolute or superlative signification; as, true,perj£cl,
universal, chief, extreme, injinite, complete.
224. REMAltK.-Of these last however, comparative and superlati7c
forms are sometimes u,ed, either to give greater force to the expression,
01' wheu the words arc llsed in a sense not strictly absolute or superlative.
The following arc eX!lll1ple.':
Extreme.- u The ext rem est of e\'ils."-Bacon. "The e.rire,,,est verge."
-Shaks. "His extrcmest st,ate."-Spellcer. [SlJ in Greek IrrxaTtf,TaTor.]
Chiej.-" O!ti(!~,.\t of the herdsmen."-Bible. "Ohiifest courtier."­
Shaks. "First and cltirfest."-JIiltolt.
Perfect.-I> HaviDg" more perfect knowled~e of that way," i.e., knowledge
near~r to perfection.-Bibie. ~u." The most perfect society."­
E. Everett. "Less perfect imit.1tiuns."-Macaulay.
lJlore complete, most complete, less complete, are common.
225. PARSIXG.-In parsing an adjective fnlly: 1. State its class. 2.
Compare, if admitting comparison (~09), and if not compared, so state it.
3. Tell its degree of cump:lrison, if compared. 4. The noun which it
qualifies. Do this always in the same order and in the fewest words possible.
EXA)lPLES.
U A wise Bon maketh a glad falher."-" Wisdom is more precious than
rubies." -" The slllg;ar,l is ,oi.er in his own conceit., than seven men that
can renuer a reason."-u Blessed are the pure in ht':I1 t:'
lVise i~ a common adjective, cOllljJared by er and est (214), positive, and
qualifies son (196).
Glad is n common adjective, compared by er and est, positive, and quali.
fies father

ETYMOLOGY-AD.JECTI'VES • 43
.lIfo~e precious is a common adjective, compared by more and most, com·
parative, and qualifies wisdom (705, 4).
n"iser is a common adjective. compared by er and est, comparative, and
qualifies sluggard (196) and (705, 4).
Seven is a nunural adjective, cardinal, not compared, and qualifies men.
Blessed is 1\ participinl adjective, cumpared by more and most, positive,
and qualifies men, undcntood.
Pure is a common adjective, compared by er ant! est, positive, and quali·
fies men, understood.
226. ABUREVIATlON.-This process may be abbreviated without loss, by
omitting the class (202), liS of no u~c in Syntax (5S4), and also omitting
to mention the degree of comparison (209), except the comparative 01'
superlative, taking it for granted, in adjectives compared, that it is in the
positive, unless otherwise stated. Any mention of degree, in IIdjcctives
not compared, would be improper. In this way the preceding adjectiYl's
may be parsed thus,-
IVise is an adjective, compared by eJ' and est, lind qualifies son.
More precious is an adjective, compared by more and most, comparative.
and qualifies wisdom.
n"jsCl' is an adjective, compared by cr and cst, comprrrative, and quali·
fies sluggard.
227. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISES.
What is an adjective 1 The pupil having given the definition (H)5) in
answer, for the pnrpose of illustrating it, a list of nouns rnay again be
formed on the blackboard as directed (lSI); aIHI supposing the list to be
man, horse, apple, house, tree, book, &c., the teacher may take them up,
each in order, and proceed in some such way as the following :-
MAN.-What part of speech is man? Why? Arc all men exactly
alike I If not, mention some things in which they differ. AilS. Sume
are tall; some are short; some old; some young; some learned; some
unlearned; some wise; some foolish, &c.
When you say, " a tall man, a short man, an old mrrn, II young man,"
what is tbe use of tbe words tali, short, 0[,/, &c. i Ans. They are used
to qualify the word" man," by telling what sort of a man is meant( 19(;.1).
What part of speech Rl"e woros used to qualify nouns 1 Then what part
of speech are tall, short, old, young, &c. ~ Prefix an adjective to each of
the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prefix as many adj ec·
tives to each noun separately, as you can think of, to make sense; thus:
HORSE-a large horse, a small horse. a young bOI'se, &c. What pllrt of
speech is large, small, young, &c. ·Wby 1
COMPARATIVE DEGREE.
Are 1111 men equally lall? Ans. No; some men are taller than others.
When you eay, "James is tall~r than John," in what fqrm or degree is
the adjective taller? What does tbe comparative degree express (217) I
Row is the comparative degree formed' When is the comparative formed

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
by annexing cr? When, by prefixing more? What is the ~omparntive
form of tali, sharf, old, young, &c.l What is the comparalIve form of
ltarned, IInlcarned, (ooli,h, virtuous, &c. 1 Put the aujectives prefixed to
nouns in the li,t aiJ

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 45
PRONOUNS.
228. A PRONOUN is a word used instead of a noun;
as, "John is a good boy; he is diligent in his studies."
229. The nouu instead of which a pronoun is used, is called its antece·
dent, because the pronouu refers to it as previously mentioned, or in some
way understood (236).
230. Pronouns of the third person are used in writing and speaking, to
prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the nOlin. Thus, withont
the pronoun, the above example would read, "Jolm is a good boy; John
is diligent in John's studies."
231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun ; a~, " You
aud lmust attend to OUR duty." See '7:;0.
232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Relative,
Interrogative, and Adjective.
233. Personal Pronouns
the person by their form.
Compound.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
are those which distinguish
They arc either Simple or
SDIPLE PERSOXAL PRONOUNS.
234. The simple personal pronouns are I, thou, he, she,
it; with their plurals, we, you, they.
235. Of these, I is of the first person, and denote3 the Bpeaker; thou is
of the second, and denotes the person addressed; he, she, it, are of the
third, and denote the person or thing spoken of (111).
236. The pronouns I and thou denote the 8peaker, and the person addressed,
without previous mention, or even knowledge of their names, the
persons intended being sufficiently indicated by their presence, or some
other circumstance. The pronouns of the third person refer to some person
or thing previously mentioned, or easily understood from the context,
or from the natnre of the sentence.
237. He, she, it, and they, are frequently us~d as general terms in the
beginning of a sentence, equivalent to II the person," &c., without reference
to a noun going before; as," He [the person] that loveth pleasure shall be
a poor man." "How far is it [the distance] to the city?"

46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
238. They is also used in a vague sense for" people," in such expressions
as "They say," [like the French on, or tbe German man].
239. The Accidents of personal pronouns, like nouns
(110), are Person, Gender, Kllmber, and Case. They
are thus declined :-
SrXOlJLAR.
PLURAL.
Nom. Poss. Obj. Nom. Poss. Obj.
1. 111. or F. I mine me \Ye ours us
2. JI. or F. Thou (2·H) thine thee You (:243) yours you
{ ,Must. Re his him They theirs them
n
".
j?('HI" She hers her They theirs them
}I,~('ld. It its it They theirs them
OBSERYATIOXS OX PERSONAL PROXOUXS.
240. In many Grammars, tbe possessive of all the pronouns, except lte
and it, bas two forms, as follows: 1Iy or mine; thy or thine; her or hers ..
ollr or ours .. your "I' yours; Iheir or theirs. According to this nrrnngement,
tbe first form, my, thy, dec., is always used before a noun denoting
the object pUfsesscd; tbe second form, mine, t1line, &c., never before
tbat noun, but only referring- to it as previously mentioned, or evident
from the connection. The possessive ca,e of nouns, is used in both ways.
To this classification there is no importnnt objection; and such as prefer
it may readily adopt it, thougb, for reasons assigned (289), a d'ifferent
classificatioll is bet'e preferred. 1[ine and thine are sometimes used as
possessives for my and thy (293).
241. Some, again, regard my, Ih!/, &c., ns the only form of the possessive
case, and 1IIi1l', thi1le, eYc., not as a possessive case at all, but as a
substitute for the possessive case of the pronoun and tbe noun referred
to together, and that it is in the nominative or objecti,e cose, according
as the noun referred to would be, ill the full expression; thus, .. Your
book is old, mine is new," is equivalent to .. Your book is old, my book is
new." Hence it is inferred, tbat mine is not a possessive case, but a substit'lte
(or ?II!! boole, and the Ilominati,e to is. Tbis, tbough plausible, is
obviously incol'1'ed. If, instead of the pronoun mine, we snbstitute a
noun, that nOUlI will have to be in the lJ

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 47
for my, &c. Thus, we cannot say "ltfine book," but "llfy book ;" but
we can with equal propriety say, "Joh ,,'s book," or "The book is John'8."
See Appendix II., page 2!7.
242. Iu the same manner may be explaiued, the use of the possessive
after transitive verbs in the active voice, and after prepositions; thus,
"James lost his books, and I gave him mine," meaning my books.-" A
picturll of the king's." is a picture of (i. e. from) the king's pictures. So
.. A book of mine," is a book of (from) my books. "A friend of yours,"
is a friend of (from) your friends. It is worthy of notice, that though
this use c,f the possessi ve after of, originally and strictly implies selection,
or a part only, it has insensibly come to be used when no such selection
is, or ever can be, intended. Thus we may say, "That houge of yours,"
•. that farm of yours," without intending to imply that any other houses
01' farms belong to you; and when we say, "That head of yours" selection
is obviously excluded by the sense.
'
243. In royal proclamations, charters, editorial articles, and the like,
where there is no individuall'esponsibility, we is frequently applied to one
person.
244. Tholt is now used only in the solemn style-in addresses to the
Deity, or to some important object in nature,-or to mark special emphasis,-or
in tbe language of contempt. Ye, the plural (,f thou, is @eldolll
used (excep-t 8S the subject of the imperative), and only in the solemn styll'.
It is sometimes used as the objective for you; as, "Y ain pomp and glory
of this world, I hate ye I-Shah.
245. You, the common plural of thou, is now used 8lso to denote one
persoll, but, even when it does so, it always takes a plural verb. This
usage bas become so fixed and uniform, that some eminent grammarians
contend for its being regarded as singular. No a

48 l:NGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. It is used in the same manner after the verb to be, in int(.'rrogati fe
sentences; as, .. Who is it!" ,. What is it?" &c.
4. It is prefixed as an introductory subject to such verbs as to be, to hap.
pen, to become, and the like, referring to an infinitive mood, or eub·
stulltivc phrase, which follows the verb, and is its true suLject; a~,
,. It is an honor for a man to cease from strife; i. e., To cease from
strife is an honor for a man. .. It has been proved, that tlte earth
revolves on its axis;" i. C" It, namely, tit at the eartlt revolves on it.
axis, hus been proved.
6. It is used indefinitely before ccrtain verbs, to denote some cause unknown,-or
general,-or well known, whose action is expressed by
thc verb; us," It rains;" "It snows;" .. It thunders;" .. It is cold ;"
., It is h,.t," &c. Verbs beforc "l>hieh it is thus used. are said to be
impersonal (520).
6. It is eometimes used as a mere expletive; ns, "Come and trip it as
you go."
247. Thc possessives, Iters, itB, ours, yours, theirs, should never be
written Iter's, it's, our's, your's, tlteir's.
248. His and its, before a noun, are possessive pronouns; without a
noun following, they are the possessive case (292). Her, before a noun, is
the possessive pronoun; without a noun, it is the objective ease.
CO:'IPnl:XD PERSONAL PROXOUXS.
249. llf.'lself (om'self), thyself (yourself), himself, herself, itself, with
tileir plurals, oursellJes, yourselves, thEmselves, are called Oompound personal
pronouns, Tiley are used in two cases-the nominative and the
oujeclire. III the nominative they are emphatic, and are added to their
respective personal pronuuns, 01' are used instead of them; as, "I myself
did it," "lno,self shall come." In the objective they are reflexive, showiug
that the agent is also the object of his own act; as, "Judas went and
hanged himself."
250. The simple pronouns, also, are sometimes used in a reflexive sense;
as, .. Thou hast l!ewed thee out a sepulchre, us he that heweth him out a
sepulChre on high."-L'iUlc,
251. Ourself and yourself are used as compounds, corresponding to U'~
and you, appliod to an individual; as, "lie ourself will follow."-Shaks.
" You must do it yourself."
252. The possessive emphatic or reflexive, is made by adding tbe word
own to the possessives my, thy, !tis, her, &e. (295); as, .. God created man
in his own image."

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS.
PARSING.
253. Personal pronouns are parsed nearly like the
substantives for which they stand (182). Thus," I love"
-/ is a pronoun of the first person, masculine or feminine,
in the nominative singular.
As an additional exercise, a reason may be assigned for each statement.
thuB:-
I is 1\ pronoun, because it shnds for a noun or name.
perBonal,-its form determines its person.
first person,-it represenh the speaker.
Ma8culine, or Feminine,-it denotes male 01' female.
Nom;nalive.-Bubject (595) of loue.
Singular,-it denotes but one.
254. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.
What is a pronoun (228)? What is a personal pronoun (233) 1 In the
sentence, .. John is in the garden; he says it is full of trees," for what
noun. or name, does the word he ptand 1 Then what part of speech is he I
Why? For what noun does the word it stand I-then what part of speech
is itt Why' What other words stand instead of nouns? (Writc a list
of them on the blackboa:d.)
Write sentences, each containing one of these pronouns, ond tell for
what noun it stands.
Select the personal pronouns from sentences in any readiDg.les,oD, or
book, and say for what nouns they stand.
EXERCISES.
1. Parse the following list, as directed (253).-1, thou, W(I,
me, us, thine, he, him, she, hers, they, thee, them. its, theirs,
you, her, ours, yours, mine, his, it ;-myself, ourselves, yourself,
himself, themselves.
2. Select the personal pronouns in the following sE'ntences, and parse
them; if of the first or Eecond person, state what they designate; if of the
third, state the nouns for which they stand.
James says he is older than I; but I am taller than he.­
'rhat book i's mine; take it and read it.-Let them do it themselves.-When
you learn the lesson, come to me, and I ... ill
hear you say it.-They will go when we return.-Thou art the
man.-Your knife is sharper than mine; lend it to me, if you
please, till I mend my pen.
3. Write sentences, each of which shall contain n plonoun in the nominative
o8se-in the possessive case-in the objective case.
4

50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
4. Change tbe following sentences, so that the pronoun it shall be
omitted, and the suLject or thing spoken of shall stand first (246-4).
It is pleasant to see the sun. It is criminal to deceive. It
is manifest that you have been deceived. It is said that the
cholera has appeared in England. It is easy to talk.
II. RELATIVE PRONOl'NS.
255. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to, and
connects its clause with, a noun or pronoun before it
called the antecedent (229); as, "The master who
taught us."
256. The antecederJt of a relative may be a noun-a pronoun-an infinitive
mood-a clause of a sentence (636)-or any fact or tbing implied in
it; a~, "A king who is just, makes his people happy;" "He that is wise,
is wise for himself;" "He who reads all will Dot be able to think, witbout
which it is impertinent 10 read; nor to act, without whicl. it is impertinent
to tbink;" ,. 'We are bonnd to obey the Dit'ine law, which we cannot do
without Divine aid;" "The man was said tl' be innocent, wltich be was not."
257. Relative pronouns are of two kinds, Simple and
Compound.
258. The simple relative pronouns are who, which,
that, and 1('lwt. That and what are indeclinable, and
used only in the nominative and objective.
Who is ma~culine or feminine, and which is masculine,
feminine, or neuter. They are declined thus :-
Singular and Plural.
Singular and Plural.
J.Yom. Who
Which
P(JSS. Whose
VillOse
O~j. Whom
Which
259. Who is applied to persons only; as, "The boy
who reads."
260. Which is applied to inferior animals, and things
without life; as, "The dog I('hich barks"-" The book
which was lo~t."
~6~. Thi~ r.elative, as in Latin, sometimes,. for the sake of grealel' per.
SPICUlty, bas Its antecedent repeated after It; as, "I gave him a knife

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 51
with au ivory handle, which knife he still has." This construction, however,
is inelegant, and should be avoided.
262. Which is applied also to collective nouns, expressing collections of
persoos, when the reference is to the collection, and not to the pel'80nS
composing it; as, "The committee which was appointed." Also to names
of persons considered only as a word; as, "Nero, which is only another
name for cruelty."
263. Which has for its possessive whose; as, .. A religion whose origiu
is Divine." Instead of "whose," however, the objective with of before it
is more common; as, " A religion the origin of which is Divine."
264. That is applied to both persons and things; a,,:,
"The boy that reads ;" " the dog that barks;" "the book
that was lost" (748).
265. What is applied to things only, and is never used
but when the antecedent is omitted; as, "This is what'
I wanted:-
266. In this example, properly speaking, what neither includes the antecedent,
nor has it understood, in the ordinary sense of that expression.
If it included the antecedent, then what would be of two case. at the l'amc
time, which, if 110t absIlrd, is an anomaly not to be rl'adily admitted. If
the antect'dent were understood, it could be supplied, and then the sentence
would stand, .. This is the thing what I wanted." But this is not
English. The truth is, what is a simple relative, having. wherever used,
like all other relatives, but one case; but yet it has this peculiarity of
usage, that it always refers to a general antecedent omitted. but easily
supplied by the mind, and to whieh belongs the other case in the construction.
The antecedent referrcd to is always the wvrd "thing" or
"things," or· some general or indefinite term, obvious from the ~ense.
When that antecedent is expressed, the relative following must be which
or that, but never what.
Thus," This is what J wanted," is equivalent to
.. This is that which, or the thing which, I wanted." Hence, though it is
true that what is equivalent in meaning to that which, or the thing which,
yet the error to which this has imperceptibly led. viz., that what is a compound
relative, and includes the antecedent, should be carefully avoi(led.
-See Appendix III. p. 247.
267. The office of the relative is twofold :-
1. It is sometimes merely additive or descriptive. and connects its clause
with the antecedent, for the purpose of further describing, without modifying
it; thus used, it is a mere connective, nearly equivalent to and with
a personal pronoun he, she, it, &c.; as, "Light is a body which moves with
great celerity"=" Light is a body, and it moves with great celerity."

52 ENGLISH GRAl\fMAR.
2. It is more commonly restrictive, and connects its clause with the
antecedent, in order to modify or restrict its meaning. Thus used, the
relative with its clause is equivalent to an adjective; as, "Every thing
which has life is an animal"=" Every livin~ thing is an animal." When
used in this way, the relative can not be resolved into and with a personal
pronoun, for we can not say, "Every thing is an animal, and it has life."
268. 'Illf~ relatives who and which are used in both senses. That is
used in restricti ,e, more commonly than in descriptive clauses.
269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pronoun
(303), equivalent to this or these, and qualifies or limits tbe snbstantive
following it (tJ 16); as, c, Which tbiugs are an al\egory"~" These things are
an al\ egory'"
270. In Englisb, a relative must always be in the same sentence with
itH antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connectiou with it. In Latin,
t8e relative often bas its antecedent in a preceding sentence, and connected
witb it by a conjunctive term. When tbis is the case, it shfluld
be reudered into English by a demoustrative, or personal pronoun. This
difference of idiom should be carefully marked by classical students •• Sec
Lat. Gr., 295.
271. In such sentences as the followin~-" Shun such as are vicious"­
.. Send such as you have"-some grammariaos consider tbe word as a
relative: in tbe first example, as the nominative to are; and in the second,
as the objective, governed by have. Others, more properly, regard it, in
all sucb sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions as elliptical-to
be supplied thus: "Shun such as [those wboJ are vicious."-" Send such
Q$ [Lbose wbicb] you have."-See Appendix IV. 248.
CO"jIPOUND RELA.TII'E PROKOUXS.
272. The relatives who, which, and what, with eva or soever annexed,
are called compound relatives. They are used instead of the simple relative
and a general or indefinite antecedent; aa, " JV!zosoever committeth
sin is the servant of sin;" tbat i3, "Anyone or everyone who committeth
sin," &c. .. TVhalaer is evil sbould be avoided;" tbat is, "Every thing
which is evil," &c,
273. Like the relative what, tbe compound relatives nre used only when
the indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is expressed the
eimple relative who, which, or that, should be used as in tne prec~ing
examples.
274. It is therefore not correct to say, eitber tbat these relatives include
tbe antecedents, and so have two cases, or tbat the antecedent is understootl.
Tbe snme reasoning that is applied to the relative what (266) is
equally applicable to the compound relatives, only it must be remembe:'ed
that the antecedent referred to in these, and to wbich one of the cases
properl'y belongs, is lliways a general or indefinite term.

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 53
275. In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expre@sed,ei.tber
before or after tbe compound relative, for the sake of IZreater empha'18 or
preci,ion; as, "Blessed lS he, whosoever ~hall not be 0f!en~ed i~ me."­
Eng. Bible. "lVhosoever will, let him talie th~ water of hfe. ThIS usage,
however. is now nearly obsolete except with the word whatever; as,
"WhatEver you do, let it be done well."
276. IVhoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whosoever, is now
obsolete.
277. Wnat, whatever, whatsoet'er, whichever, or whichsoever, are often
used befure substantives, as a sort of indefinite adjective; as, "lVhat
money we had was taken away:' "Whatever course you take, act uprightly."
When thus used, the noun is sometimes placed bet wee" what,
which, or whose, and soever; as, "What course soever"-" Into whose house
soet'er ye enter" (856).
PARSING.
278. The relative is parsed by stating its gender,
number, case,
•
and antecedent [the gendpr and number
being always the same as those of the antecedent (742)];
thus :-
"The boy who studies what is useful, will improve."
Who is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and
refers to "boy," as its antecedent.
IVhat is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and
refers to .. thing," or .. that," as its antecedent, omitted: if supplied,
what must be changed into which (266); thus, tbe thin!J
which, or that which.
'j'he pupil may assign reasons for the statements made in parsing, I1B
exemplifi~d (253).
EXERCISES ON THE RELATIVE.
1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column on tbe
left side, nnd write after each its proper relative; tbus, .. The man-who;"
.. Tbe bird-which."
2. In the following sen tenceR, point out the relative, and the antecedent,
or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is aJiditive or
restrictive (267):-
A man who is generous will be honored.-God, by whose
kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, is
eternaJ.-That is the book which I lost.-He who steals my
purse, steals trash.-This is the boy whom we met.-This is
the man that did it.-These are the books that you bought.
The person who does no good, does harm.-The woman who
was hurt, is well.-This is the cat, that killed the rat, that ate
the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built?

54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. III each of the following sentences. point out the compound relative
-mention the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the antecedent
in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the relative
(273):-
'Whoever steals my purse, steals trash.-Whoever does no
good, does harm.-",Vbatever purifies the heart, fortifies it.
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them
also.-1Vhoever sins, will suffer.-I love whoever loves me.
Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do.
4. In the following sentences, wherever it call be done, change the relative
and antecedent for the compound relative:-
Bring with you every thing which you see.-Any one who
told -such a story, has been misinformed.-Any thing that is
worth doing at all, is worth doing well.-Any thing that gives
pain to others, deserves not the name of pleasure.-Every one
who loves pleasure, will be a poor man.
III. INTERROGATIYE PRONO"C"XS.
279. Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions,
are called Interrogative Pronouns; as, "H7w is
there ?"-" JVhich will you take ?"-" JJ7wt did he say?"
280. Who and which are declined like the relatives (~;jS).
281. In questions, who is equivalent to what person; which and !I'hat
have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, th~y belong j or they
refer to one understood, bnt easily supplied: thus, " Who [what person] is
there 1"-" IYhich book will you take ?"-" '''hat [thing] did he say 1"
282. TVh() applies to persons only; which and u-l",t, to pereons or
things.
283. As applied to persons, who inquires for the name; u'hich, fOl' the
individual; what, for the chamcter or occupation; a~, .. Tfrho wrote that
book ("-" IIII'. W ehster."-"Which of them ("'-,'loa" Webster."-" lVhat is
he 1"-" A lexicographer."
284. The same pronouns used responsively, in tbe beginning of a clependent
clau6e (636), or in what is called the indircct question Ii. e. in a
way whi.ch, in .an independent clause, :would be a direct qlle5tioll), ar~ properly
neuher mtcrro",,,IlI'CS nor relatIVes, but a sort of indefinite Pl'OIlOUOS
(306). This will be best illustrated by an example:-
Interrogative.-" TVllo wrote that letter ('
Relative.-" I know the person who wrote that letter;" that is I am
acquainted with him.
I
Indefinite.-" I know who wrote that letter;" that is, I know by whom
that letter was written.

ETYMOLOGY -PRONOUNS. 55
285. It is necessary to these words being regarded 8S indefinites-I.
That they begin a dependent clause; 2. That they do not ask a question;
3. That an antecedent can not be ~upplied without cbanging the een~e;
and 4. That the whole clause be either the suhject of a verb, or the object
of a verb or preposition.
These remarks will apply to all the following
examples: "I kuow who wrote that letter."-" Tell me who wrote that
lelter."-" Do yuu know who wrote that letter 1"-" Nobody knows who
be is."-" Who he is, can not be kuown."-u Did he tell you who he is I"
-" We can not tell which is he."-" I know not what I shall do."-" It
is uncertain to whom that book belongs. "-" Teach me what is truth nnd
what is error."
PARSING.
286. Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and
the indirect questions, are parsed by stating their gender,
number, and case; thus:-
"Who comes 1 I know not who comes."
Who is an interrogative pronoun, masculine or feminine in the nomina·
tive singular.
Wno is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pronoun used respon·
sively), ma~culille or feminine, in the nominative singular.
Rea~ons may be assigned for each statement, as I'xemrlified (253).
EXERCISES.
1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, which, and u;hat are
relatives; in which, interTogatiL'cs; and ill which indefinites.
Who steals my purse, steals trash.-To whom did you give
that book ?-What I do, thou knowest not now.-Who you are,
what you are, or to whom you belong, no one knows.-What
shall I do ?-Who built that house ? -Do you know b.\- whom
that house was built ?-Is that the man who built that hou~c?
Which book is yours ?-Do you know which book is yours?
1 saw a book which was said to be yours.-1 know which book
is yours.-What in me is dark, illumine.-W'hat is crooked,
can not be made straight.-What is wanting, ('an not be nUll1-
bered.-What is wanted ?-1 know what is wanted.
2. Write sentences, eaeh of whICh shall contain one of these prononns
In one or other of these different sense~.
IV. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
287. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS are words used, sometimes
like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like
pronouns, to stand instead of nouns.

56 ENGLISH GRA:'IDIAR.
288. Adjective Pronollns are divided into four classes:
Possessive, Distributive, Demonstrative, and Indefinite.
289. Adjectives mcd as nouns, or with a noun understoo:l, commonly
take th,) article the before them (21)1) ; as, the young; the old; the good,
&c. Adjecti ve pronouns do not.
290. or the adjective pronouns, the Possessives (291) clearly have a
double charncter. As an adjective. thpy qualify a noun, and as a pronouD,
stand iustead of a noun. The Distributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites,
as adjecti \'eg, qualify a noun expl'eBsed or understood, or they stand ill~tead
of a IlOULl, and thus lIlay be rq~:lI'ded sometimes as adjectivee, and some·
times as prolJouTls. Hl'nce they arc classed by some grammarians as ad·
jectives, alld c"lIed pronominal adjectil'es; and by others a~ prvDUllnl,
I1.lId culled adjective pronouns. The latter classitication and name arp.
here prelerred, because they helVe been admitted into the grammar;! of
alm,,,t all languag.·,,; and lJ~cause a change of established nomenclature
is an evil pf '0 sel'iuus a kind, that it should not be incurred unless for
the mo,'t urgent reasons. ::>till, it is a matter of little moment ill itself
which of the,e classifications is adopted. The principal point for the
learner is. to know what words nre adjective pronouns [or pronominal
adjectives], and tbeir characte,' and me; and every teacher may adopt
tLat cla',ificatiou and nnme which he prefers. For the convenience of
such as prefe,' to cnnsidel' them pronominal adjectives, they nre clas~ed
Its ddinitiv~s (20~-5).
POSSESSIVE PROXOVNS.
291. The POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS are such as denote
possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its,-our, your,
their-own.
292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal. and combine
the office of th ... adjective aDd prononn. for they always limit one
noun denoting the ohject pos'essed, und stand instead of anotbel' denotinO'
the p

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 57
295. Own is not nsed as a possessive pronoun by itself, but is add~d to
tbe othp.r possessive pronouns, or to the possessive ca.e of nouns, to rel)der
'he posi'ession expressed by tbem emphatic; a>. "My own book;" "Tbe
boy's own bonk." 'The possessive pronoun, with own following it, may
have its substantive understood; as, "This book is my olen."
DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS.
296. The Distributive pronouns represent objects as
taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither.
297. Each deuotes two or more objects taken separately.
298. El'ery denotes each of more than two objects taken individually,
aud comprehends them all.
299. Either means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes used for
each; as, " On either side of the river."
300. !I'either means not either.
301. Tbe distributives are always of the third person singular, even
when Liley relate b the persons speaking'. or to those spoken to; liS, " Each
of us-each of you-~acll of them-has his fault • ."
DEillONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
302. The Demonstratire pronouns point out objects
definitely. They are this, that, with their plurals, these,
those, (692-694).
303. Yon aud which, before a noun, seem more properly to belong to
this class of words than to any other; as, .. Yon trem bJing coward;"
.. Yvn tall cliff;" .. JVhich thiugs are an allegory" ~ .. These things," &c.
304. Jbl1ller and latier, first and last, with the prefixed-though often
used like that aud this-referriug to words contrasted, arc properly aJjectives
(2 1 )1).
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
305. The Indefinite pronouns designate objects indefinitely.
They are, none, any, all, such, whole, some,
both, one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three
last are declined like nouns.
306. To these may be addeJ no, much, mallY, few, several, and the like;
also, who, which, aud what, used responsively (284).
307. One, del'oting a definite number, is II numeral adjective (205): a~,
" One Illan is 8ufficient." But one, referriDg indefinitely to an individulIl,
is aD iudefinite [Nnoun. Thus used, with it~ nouo following, it is inde-

58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
clinable like the adjective, as, II One man's interest is not to be preferred
to another's." 'Without its noun following, it is either singular or plural,
and is declinable, like the substantive: as, "One is ns gond as another i"
" One's interest is as good as another's;" "He took the old bird, and left
the young ones;" .. One might say." The same remark is applicable to
the indefinite3, other and another.
The expr

ETYMOLOGY-PRONOUNS. 59
EXERCISES ON ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and sentences,
and parse them :-
·Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own fortnne.-':Do
good to all men-injury to none.-All things come
alike to all.-Your own friend, and your father's friend, forsake
not.-This one, or that one, will answer my purpose; both are
good.-Some men love their money more than their honor.­
Everyone of us has his weak points (301).
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES O~ PRONOUNS.
In the following phrases and sentences, poin t ont the pronouns, and parse
them-each as already directed;-
Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is
old, he will not depart from it.-Remember now thy Creator
in the days of thy youth.-He ii:! an object of pity, who can
not respect himself.-Feeble are all thoso pleasures in which
the heart has no share.-You lllay read the lesson yourself.­
John and he lost thelllseives in the woods.-You and he may
divide it between you.-You and ~he and I will divide iOt
among ourselves.
EXERCISES ON ALL THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECII.
In the following sentences, point out the nouns, articlc~, adjectives, and
pronouns, in the order in which they occur, and parse them:-
My son, forget not my law; but let thy heart keep my commandments:
For length of days, and long life, and peace, shall
they add to thee.-Let not mercy and truth forsake thee; bind
them about tby neck, write them upon the table of thy heart.
Honol' the Lord with thy substance, and with the first-fruits of
all thine increase: So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and
thy presses shall burst out with new \Vine.-Happy is the man
that findeth Wisdomo-Length of days is in her right hand,
and in her left hand riches and hOlloro-Her ways are ways of'
pleasantness, and all her paths are peace.-" The sluggard
will not plow by reason of the cold; therefore shall he beg in
harvest, and have nothing."-" TLe hand of the diligent mak.
eth rich."

60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE VERB.
314. ;\ VERB is a word uSf'd to express the act, being,
or state of its subjoct (315); as, "John runs;" "The
boy sleeps;" "Weare )'" "He is loved." Hence-
A word th,lt expre~ses the act, bein~, or stale of a person or thing. ie a
verb. Thu', we say, Tuns is n verb, because it expresses the act of John,
&c.-See Appendix VI. p, 2.50.
315. The slllject of a verb is tbat person or thing. whose act. being, or
state, tbe verb cxpl'es~es. Tbuo, in tbe precedillg example, "rUllS" expresses
the nct of •. John "-" ,lccIIO," the "tate of" boy,"-" are," the
being oc existence of ., u'p," and" is h,\"e"," the !'tate of "he," as the ohject
aded upon (:169). Iu like mannel'. in tbe sf'lIkIICes, "Let him come;"
.. I saw a man cutting wood;" "let" expl'es-es thn act of thou undel"tood,
denoting the person addreosed-" come," the act of ,. him," and" cutting,"
the act of ,. man."
316. Verbs are of two kind", Transitive and Intransitive.
"
317. A TRANSITIVE verb expresse" an act done by one
person or thing to another; as, "J ame" strikes the
table;" "The table is struck by James" (367).
318. An INTRANSITIVE yerb expre:-;scs the being or
state of its subject, or an act not done to another; as,
"I am;" "He sleeps;" "You run."
319. In tbis division, Trnnsiti'l'e (passing over) verbs include all those
wbich express nn act thnt passes m'er from the nctor to nn object; or the
meaning of which has such a reference to an object, as to render the expression
of it nece.sary to complete the sense; n .... He LOVl:S us;" "I
HEAR you;" .. James I:ESEMBLES his brother j" "He HAS a book."
Intrnn,itive verbs iOl!lude all those which are not transitive, whether
they express actioo or not; n~, .. I am;" "You walf..:;" "They run."
320. These two clas",'s of verbs may be thus distinguished:-
1. Transitive verbs in tbe ncti,'c v(lice, reqnire nn object after them to
complete the sense; ns, "James strikes tbe ta.ble ;"-Intransilive verbs do
not reqllire nn object after them, but the sen,e is complete without it; 8S,
"He sits;" " YUII "ide;" " The wied blows;" "The wheel turns."
2. As the object of a transitive active verb is in the ohjective case, any
verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it, them, after it, is transsiti"e.
A Hrb that does not make senRe "ilh one of these words /lfter
it, is intran,itive; thus, strikes is transiti'l'e, because we can say, .. James
• 'fhe dh'isioll of verbs into transitive and intransitive has bas been so generally
!ldopted and approved by the best grammarians, thnt any discussion of the subject
IS now ullnecessary.

ETYMOLOGY-VERBS. 61
strikes me;" sleeps is intransitive, because we cannot say, "James sleeps
me." Hence-
When a verb in the active voice has an object, it is transitive; when it
has not an object, it is intransitive.
3~ In the use of transitive verbs, three things nrc alwny~ implied-the
actor, the act, and the object acted upon: in the use of intransitive verbs
there are only two-the subject, and the being. state, or act ascribed to it.
321. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive-
1. Wben followed by a noun of the same, or similar signification, as an
object; ns, intransitive, " I run;" transitive, " I run a race."
2. By the addition of another word; as, intransitive, " I laugh;" transitive,
" I laugh at."
322. The same verbs are sometimes u3ed in a transitive, Ilnd sometimes
in au intransitive sense. Thus, in tbe sentence, " Charity thinkellt no evil,"
the verb is transitive. In tbe sentence, " Thin!;; on me," it is intransitive.
323. So also verb~, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they
have no object, aud tbe sense inteuded, being merely to denote an exercise,
is complete witbout it. Thug. when we say, .. That boy reads and writes
well "-" reads" and ., writes" are really transi li ve verbs; because, a person
who reads and writes, must read and write something. y,·t, as the
ilense is complete without the object, nothing more being intended than
simply, " That boy is a good reader and writer," the verbs, as here used,
are intransitive.
324. PRELUIIN ARY ORAL EXERCISE.
When we SRy, "John runs," what part of speech is John I-Why'
What is the use of runs in the sentence 1 It tells wbat John does. Is
what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thiug 1 What part
of speech are words lhat express the act of a person or thing ~ Vel'bs.
Then what part of speech is rlm.,?-Why 1 Of what is it that verbs
express the act, being, or state' Of tbeir sn bject. Whose act does run.
express? Then what is John to the verb runs? When you say, .. John
runs," does it mean that he does anything to another 1 What sort of verbs
express an act not done to another 1 What kind of a verb, then, ie runa?
If you sny, "John cuts wood," which worel tells what John does 1 Then
what part of speech is cuts? Is it transitive or intransitive 1-Why 1
EXERCISES-
1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs. and whywbich
are transitive, and why-which are intransitive, Bnd why.
The boy studies grammar.-The girls play.-Grass grows in
the meadows.-The farmer ploughs his field, and sows his

62 ENGLISH GRAMl\IAR.
grain.-Romulus built Home.-The sun shines . .-The winds
blow.-Tbe tree fell.-Bring your books, and prepare your
lessons.-Have you recited ?-Who read last ?-God created
the heavens and the earth.-Columbus discovered America.
2, W rito a list of nouns, or names of persons or of things, in a colbmn
011 the left ,ide of the blackboanl; write after each, a word which tells
something that ~a{'h of tbese doe8; toll wbat part of speech tbat word is,
and wby: if a verb, whether transitive or intransitive, and why.
DIVISION OF VERBS.
325. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular,
Irregular, and Defectice.
326. A REGULAR yerb is one that forms its past tense
(415) in the indicative active, and its past participle
(554) by adding ed to the present; as, present, act; past,
acted; past participle, acted.
N OTE,-Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed; 3S, love, loved, loved,
(68). Bee 494.
327. An IRREGULAR ycrb is one that does not form its
past tense in the indicative active, and its past participle,
by adding ed to the pre~cnt; as, present, write; past,
wrote; past participle, 1crittell. ,
328. A DEFE(,TIYE verb is one in which some of the
parts are wanting. To this clas~ belong chiefly, Au:riliary
and Impersonal verbs.
AUXILIARY VERBS.
329. AUXILIARY (or helping) Yerbs are those by the
help of which other verbs arc inflected. They are, do,
have, be i-shall, will i-may, call, must i-and, except
be, they are used only in the present and the past tense;
thus :~
Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must.
Past. Did, had, should, woultI, might, could,
330. Be, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, beJonO' to
irregular verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parls (354).'"
For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, Bee 4~4, 507,
and 516.

ETYMOLOGY-AUXILIARIES 63
THE USE OF AUXILIARIES.
331. Verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at firet used as
independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the following verb in
the infinitive-the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now is
after such verbs as see, hear, feel, &c. (877); thus, "I can [tol do"-" They
will [to 1 writc"-" We could [to] go," &c. ; and some gramlllarians contend
that they should be so considered still (381).
332. Shall, 1Oill, may, can, and their past tcn"es, should, .,eould. &e., as
auxiliaries. retain the personal {'ndings of the second person singular; thus,
shalt • .,eill, mayst. canst-shouldst. wouldst, mightst, couldsl. But in their
present 1 hey do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular;
thus, we say. he shall, will, may, can-noL he shalls, u'ills, mays, cans. This
will be seen by thei,' use in the iuflection of verbs.
333. Do is used 8S an auxiliur.y in the present tl'll~e, all,1 did in the past,
to render the expre-sion emphatic; as, "I do love"-" I did lo"e." Also
when the verb in these tense' is used interrog-atively, or negatively; as.
"Does he study 1"-" He does not study."-" Did he go 1"-" He did not
go."-Do is used as all aUXiliary in the second person sillgular of the imperaLi
ve; as, "Do thou love."
334. Have is used as an auxiliary in the prcsc1tt·perfect tense, and had
in the past.perfect.
Shall and Will-ShoHI(l and IV0111d.
335, Shall, p,·imarily an,\ strictly. denotes present obligation; and will,
present inclillation, pUl'pose, or voliliuu, from which the futurity of the
act, &0.• is nat.urally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification
is lost sight of, and they are used simply to denote futurity-slill
modified. however, in their U5e, by their primary signification. They are
usually distinguished as follows:-
SHALL and WILL, expressing RESOLUTION, PURPOSE, d:c.
336. lVill denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclinll/ion, of a person,
in reference to his own act.; Rnd shall, his purpose, &c.. in reference to
the acts of olhers over whom be bas authority or power. As the pUl'pOSC
expressed may be that of the speaker, of the penon addressed, or of the
person spoken of, hence will arise the three following forms, viz.:-
FIRST FORM.-Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my purpose
or intention that-I will write-you shall write-he shall
write, Or, without a preceding clause: I will write-you shall
write-he shall write.
SECOND FORM.-Expressin~ the resolution of the person nddres~ed. It
is your purpose, &c., that-I shall write-you will write-he
shall write.
THIRD FORM.-ExprcEsing the rllSolution of the penon Epuken of. It is
his purpose, &c., tbll.t-I shall write-you sllall write-he (bim.
self) will write-he (anotber) shall write.
The second and tllird forms can not be used without a preceding clause.

64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
337. Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolution,
promise, &c., of the aubject of th" verb. Thus:
I will go, } {M.!f resolution, &c.
Thou wilt go, expresses 1'hy resolution, &0.
He will go,
His rosolution, &c.
338. Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expl'essed in a more
positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by will,
becan~e in tbis way, the person, as it were, divests himself of will, and puts
him~elf entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a person may say," I
shall go, though much agdiust my inclination."
For this reason, 8!tall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and
more offensive in a threat, than will.
IlIif'l',·ogatit'ely.
339. In asking questions, these auxiliaries in this sense, are used with
reference to the will of the second per,,,n, to whom a question is always
suppose(1 to be addreased, and hence are used as in the second of the above
forms; thus-
Shall I write I Will you write 1 Shall he write I-Equivalent to-
Is it your purpose that I shall write ?-you will write I-he shall write?
SIJALL and WILL expressing Fl"TURITY.
340. In regard to simple futurity, the use of shrIll and will is directly
the reverse of what it is in the expression of resolution: that is, will takes
the place of shall, and .hall takes the place of will. In other words, when
a person in reference to himself foretells what is future, shall is used i and
in reference to others, will is used, Thus-
FIRST FOUI.-I tbin); that I shall go-that thou wilt go-thnt he will
go. Or, without a preceding clause: I shalt go-thou wilt gohe
will go.
SECOND FORM.-Y ou think that I will go-that you sl,all go-that he
will go.
THIRD FCRM.-He thinks that I 'rill go-that you will go-tbat he (biro"
self) shall go-that he (another) will go.
341. But when the thing foretold is regarded, either as plea,iug. or
repugnant .• sf/all is med wi Ih reference to the fil st person, even when
others are represented as foretelling; as-
You seem to think t that
He seems to fear f
I s/tall recover.
I shall not recover.
Illterrogatit'eiy 1'especiillg the jlltltre.
342. Shall i~ used interrogatively in the first and the second person,
and will in the third; ns. "Shall I arrive in time ?"-" Shalt you be at
home to·morrow 1"-" lI'ili your brotber be thel'e 1"
343. Shall is used, instead of will, after the conjunctions if, provided,
tllOugf" unles3, &c.-the adverbs when, wllile, untIl, after, before, d:c.­
and also after w"o.~oever, or a relative pronoun in a restrictivll clause
(261-2); as, "If they shall enter into my rest"-" When he 8hall ap"

JJ:TYMOLOGY-AUXILIARIES. 65
penr "_" There is nothing covered which .~hallnot ),e reveal,.L1"-" Who·
ever ~hall put away his wife."
344. Should, the past tense of shall, and would, the p""t tense of !cill,
are auxiliaries of the past potential; and, in dependent clauses, are used
in the same manner after a past tense, that shalt and ,,·ill are used after
the present or future. Hence, in the preceding exnmplcs (3:::6 to 338),
if the verb in the preceding clause is put in past time, should will take
the place of shall, and would, the place of !Oill. in the dependent clause;
thus-
FIRST FORM.-It was my purpose that I would write-you should write
-he should wrile.
So al>o in the other forms: and when therc is no dependence on a preceding
clause, these words will be used as in the fi,.,t ["I'm.
JJlay, can, 1nmt-m-ight, "(I'lid-to llf'.
345. jJ[ay denotes present liberty or permission; ,'an, prescnt ability;
and nlllst, present obligation or necessity. They are used as auxiliaries in
the present potential, to exprcss these ideas.
346. JJ[ay sometimes denotes mere possibility; flo, "He may write, perhaps"-"
It may rain to·morrow."
347. JJray, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a wish 01'
prayer; as, "llIay you be happy!"
348. Call, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst; as,
"Thou trees and stoncs can teach."-Davies.
349. JJlight and could expres8, in past ti me, the same ideas generally
that are expressed by may and can in the present. They are used as aux·
iliaries in the past potential.
350. lIlight, beforc the subject, is also IIsed to express a wish; as,
"NigM it but turn out to be no worse than this !"
351. Sometimes, in the English Bible, mig/tt is used for may; as, "These
things I say, that ye might be saved."-John v. 34.
352. Combined with have. these form a new series of compound auxiliaries;
thus, shall have and toill have are auxiliaries of the future-perfect
indicative; may have, can have, and must have, of the present-perfect potential;
and might have, &c., of the past-perfect potential.
353. But though may denotes prcsent liberty, may have does not denote
past liberty, but only the present possibility; thllS, "He 11/fly have
written," means, It is possible that he bas wl'itten, So also, mllst have
does not denote past necessity, but present certainty; thu~, II He must
have writteu," means, There is no donbt he has written; it can not be
otherwise.
354. The verb" to be" in aU its moods and ten~es, is used as an auxiliary
in forming the passive voice; as, ., I am loved;" ., He was loved," &c.
(507). Also, in the progressive form of the active voice; as, "I am writing;"
"He was writing," &c. (506).
355. All these auxiliaries are sometimes used without their verb. to
upress, by ellipsis, the same thing as the full form of the verb, together
5

66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
with its adjuncto, when that is used immediately before, either in the same
or in a different tense; thus, "He writes poetry as well 8S I do;" "I can
write as well as he can;" "If you can not write, I will;" "He will do that
as well as I can;" "James can get his lesson as well as ever I cO'IJld;"
.. He envies me as mnch as I do him."
356. Tl1e verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the substitute of
Rnother verb 0\' pbrase previously used; RS, .. We have not yet found them
all, nor ever shall do."-l>Iilton. "Lucretius wrote on the nature of things
io Latin, as Empedocles had already done in Greek."-Acton.
EXERCISES.
1. Correct the errors in the following sentence~, an:! give a reason for
the correction :-
I will be a loser by that bargain.-1 will be drowned and
nobody shall help me. I will be punished if I do wrong.-You
shaH be punished if you do not reform.-It shall probably rain
to-morrow.-If you shall come I shall come also. I will be
compelled to go home.-1 am resolved that I shall do my duty.
-I purposed that if you would come home, I should pay you
a visit.-1 hope that I will see him.-1 hoped that I would see
him.-You promised that you should write me soon.-He shall
come of his own accord, if encouragement will be given.
2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which are
wrong, aod why:-
It is thought he shall come.-It will be impossible to get
ready in time.-Ye will not come to me.-Ye shall have your
reward.-They should not do as as they ought.-Weare resolved
that we will do our duty.-They are resolved that they
shall do their duty.-1 am determined that you will do your
duty.-1 am sure you will do your duty.
ANO:llALOUS USAGE.
357. Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in a way which
it is di~cult, p~rhaps impossible, to explain in 11 satisfactory maDDer,
I1nd whICh may Justly be regarded as anomalou,. The following are a
few of these:-
358. Had is sometimes .used in poetry for lIJould,. a~, "I had rather,"
.. I had as hef," for, "I would rather," ,. I would as lief."
Sometimes it is used for fOOPlld have; as, "!lIy fortune had
[would have] beeo his. "-Dryden. Sometimes for migltt·
as, "Some men had [might J as well be schoolboys, a~
schoolmasters."
359. Will is sometimes used to express what is customary I1t the preseot
time:; as, "He will sometimes sit whole hours iD the
shade;" "He 'Will read from morning till night."

E'l'YMOLOGY-VERBS--VOICES. 67
360. Would, in like manner, is sometimes used to express wbat was
customary in past time; as, "The old man lOould shake his
years away;" .. He'd sit him down."
361. Would is sometimes uSEd as a principal verb, equivalent to the
present of wish or desire; as, II When I make a feast, I
wcmld my guests should praise it-not the cooks."-" Wheu
I would t when I wisb to] do good, evil is present with me."
Thus used, the subject in the first pel son is sometimes
omitted' as .. Would God it were even "=" I pray God ."
"Would'to God,"=" I pray to God.'" ,
362. lVould, with a negative, used in this wny, is uot merely negative
of a wish or desire, but imp1i€s strong oppo"ition or refusal;
as, " How often would I have gathered thy children-but ye
would not;" "Ye would none of my reproof."
363. Slwuld is used in all persons to denote present duty, and should
have, to denote past duty; 8S, "You slwuld write;" "I
should Ilavf' written ;" " The rich should remember the poor."
It often denotes merely a supposed future eycnt; as, "If
he should promise, he will perform."
It is sometimes used in an indefinite scnse after III at ; as,
" It is surprising that you should SIIY so."
354. Should and would nre sometimes used to express an assertion in a
softened manner; thus, instead of sRying, "I think him
insane"-u It seems to be improper," it is milder to say,
"I should think him ineaue"-" It wcmld seem to be improper."
INFLECTION OF VERBS.
365. The Accidents of verbs are Voices, Moods,
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons (473*).
OF VOICE.
366. VOICE is a particular fornl. of the verb, which
shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken of, to
the action expressed by the verb (494, 507).
367. Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active
and the Passive.
368. The ACTIVE VOICE (-194) represents the subject of
the verb as acting; as, "JAMES strikes the table."
369. 'The PASSIVE VOICE (507) represents the subject
of the verb as acted upon; as, "The TABLE is struck by
James."

68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
In other words, the verb, in the actil"e voice, expresses the act of its
subject ;-in the passive, it expresses the 6tate of its subject, as affected by
the act. In the active voice, the subject of the verb act8-in the passive,
it is acted upon.
370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the active
or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in certain verbs in
the present tense (509). There is tbe Imrne act, the same actor, and the
Eame object acted upon. The difference is only in the form of expression.
By the active voice, we represent tbe subject as acting; by the passive, as
acted upon-Witb the active voice, the actor in the nominative case is the
subject of tbe verb (760); with tbe passive, the actor is in the objective case
after a preposition (818).-ln using the active voice, the ohject acted upon
is in the objective case, governed by the verb (801); in using the passive,
the object is in the nominative case, as tbe subject of the verb.
371. It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the person or
thing doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, by means of
the two voices, exprtss tbe fact in two different ways; thus, "God created
the worl'l;" or, "The world was created by God." Also-
372. When the active voicc is used, we may sometimes omit the object;
thll~, we cun say, "John reads," without saying what he reads (323); and
when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or actor; thus, we can
say, "The letter is written," without stating by whom.
373. Hence, tbe following advantages arise from these two forms of
expression :-
1. We can, by the 'form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the
actor, or to that which is acted upon-to tbe former, by using the active
voice-" Gon created the world "-to the latter, by using the pll.Ssive­
"The WORLD was created Ly God."
2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we
eitber do not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom
the act was done. Thus we can say, "The glass is broken," though we do
not know wbo broke it; 01' if we know, do not wish to tell.
3. By this means, aleo, we ba~e a variety, and of course, a choice of
expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most
perspicuous, convenient, or elegant.
374. Intransitive 'l'Crbs can have no distinction of voice, because they
have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive. Their
form is generally active; os, "I stand;" "I run." A few are used also
in the passive form, but with tho snme sense 8S in the active; RS, .. He ia
come;" .. They are gone ;" equivalent to, "He haa come," "They have
gone."
375. Intransitiye verbs are sometimes rendered transitive, and so capable
of a passive form-
1. By the addition of another word: thus, "I laugh," is intrausitive'
.. 1 lauglt at (him)" is transitive j passive, "He is laughed at (by me)." ,

ETYMOLOGY-VERBS-MOODS. 69
In paning such examples, it is generally better in tbe active voice, to
parse the words. separately-laugh, as lin intrunsiti ve verb, and at a' a
preposition, followed by its object; but in the pussive voice, tbey must be
parsed together as one word-a transitive verb, in the passive voice.
2. Intransitive verbs are transitive. when followed by a nonn of similar
signification as the object; as, intransitive, " I run;" transitive, active" I
run a race;" passive, " A race is run by me."
3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a callsfltive sense;
that is, when they denote the causing of that act or state which the verb
properly expresses; as, " Walk your horse round thc Yllrd."-" The pro·
prietors run a stage·eoach daily." Passively, "Your horse was walked
[made to walk] round the yard."-" A stage·coach i8 Tim [made to run]
daily by the proprietors." Intransitive verbs, used in this way, are called
CAUSATIVES.
4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English,
are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, bnt for which the passive
will not IIlwllys be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field plol/glts
well "-" These lilles read smootbly "-" This fruit tastes Litter "-" Linen
wears better than cotton." The idea here expressed is quite different from
tbat expressed by the passive form: "This field is well ploughed"­
.. These lines are smoothly read." Sometimes, howeyer, the same iclea is
expressed by both forms: tbus, "Wheat sells readily," or, .. is sold readily
at an advanced price." (ExpressioDs of this kind are usually maGe in
French by the reflected verb; thus, .. Ce champ se laboure bien,"-" Ces
Jignes se lilent aisement.") When used in tbis sense, they may properly
be ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are never followed by an objec.
tive case.
MOODS.
376. MOOD is the mode or manner of expressing the
signification of the verb.
377. In English Grammar, the moods are five j namely,
the Indicative, Potential, Subjunctil!e, Imperative, and
Infinitive.
378. The bDICATIVE mood declares the fact expressed
by the verb, simply and without limitation j as, " He is,"
-" He loves,"-" He is lOlled" (494, 507).
379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to its subject the
(lct, being, or ,tale, expressed by the verb, simply and without limitation.

70 ENGLISH GRAMl\fAR.
380. The POTENTIAL mood declares, not the fact expressed
by the verb, but only its possibility, or the liberty,
power, will, or obligation, of the subject 'with respf'ct to
it; as, " The wind may blow "-" \Ve may walk "-" I
can swim "-" He would not stay "-" Children should
obey their parents."
In other words, the potential mood expre,se_, not what the subject
doe&, or is, &c., but what it may, can, must, mig/tt, could, would, or 8hould
do ur be, &-e.
381. The auxiliaries map, can,

ETYMOLOG Y-VERBS-MOODI>. 71
388. The conditionality or contingency, &c., expressed by this mood. is
usually intimated by such conjunctions as if, Iltou91t, lesl, IlllleiJs, 80, &c.,
prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb.
389. The same thing is sometimes expressed without the conjunction,
by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative;
as, "Had I," for" If I had"_u Wel'e Ite." for "If he were"-u Had lIB
gone:'-for .. If Ite !tad gone "-" lVould he but reform," for .; If he would
but reform," &c.
390. Some grammarians consider the subjuDctive present only us an
abbreviated form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and that,
the supplfffient may always be made; thu~." If he s/udN." &c.• thnt is.
"if he shall (or .~/w1tld) studN," &c.-'· Though he [.,hould] conw," &c.
This view is plamible. and may apply to the prl'8ent teuse of the ~ub·
junctive in most cases; but it will not apply to the past subjuDctive of
the verb to be, either as a principal or an auxiliary. For though we
might say, " If I should be," for" If I be," yet we cannot say, "If I
~hould were;" and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive
form seems to be indispensable; &S," Sec thou do it llOt"-" If he do but
try, he will succeed." Still,-
391. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now falling
greatly into disuse. ;fhe tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to
use the indicative or potential in i!s stead, wherever it can be done.
According to rule, the Bubjunctive form is used only when it hus a future
reference; a~, .. If he come [viz., at a future time] he will be welcome."
The same idea is expressed by saying. "If he comes" (406), .. If he shall
come "-or, " If he should come "-and Olle or other of these expressions
is now genernlly preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of
supposition, the present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future
refer9nce or not; liS, .. Though God be high, yet hath he respect to the
lowly."
In all such expressions, ace cording to present usage, the present
indicative would be used; thus, .. Though God is high," &c.
392. The IMPERATIVE mood commands, exhorts, entreats,
or permits; as, "Do this "-" Remember thy
Creator "-" Hear, 0 my people "-" Go thy way" (596).
393. The INFINITIVE mood expresses the meaning of
the verb in a general manner, without any distinction
of person or number; a5, to love.
394. The infinitve is often used us a verbal noun (8M, 867) is the
nominative case, as the subject of a verb; as, " To play is pleasant." Or,
in the objective, as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or
of a preposition; 8S, .. Boys love to pl(/y "-" He is about to go" -" What
went ye out for to see?"
395. The infinitive mood generally has no subject; yet the act, being,
or stq.te, expressed by it, is referabl~ to some word conneete~ with it.
Thus, in the above examples, to play 18 referable to boys; to go 18 the act
of he, &c.-See Appendix VI. p. 250.

ENGJ.\"H GRAMMAR.
396. But wh"j} the infinitive as n subject has its own subject, it is in
tile objective race, introduced by for; as, "For us to lie, is base." But
when the i ,dinitive wi th its subject is the object Gf a transitive verb, that
suh}:et in the objedi I'C cafe needs no connecting word; as, "We believe
him to be sincere." Here, him is the subject of to be, and the wbole
c1ausp," I,im to he ,illcere" =" tbat he is sincere " is tbe object of "believe"
(8i:2).
•
397. The iufiniti \'C' active by an anomaly uot uncommon in other languages,
is sometimes used in a passi,'c sense; a., "Y Ol! are t·) blame"
(to be LJanwd)-" A ilouse to let "-" A road to make "-" Goods made
to sell "-" Knives to :;rinrl," &c.
TE:cISES.
398. TCXSES are certain forms of the verb, which
serve to point ont the distinctions of time.
399. Time iq Ilaturally divided into the past, tbe present, and th~future
The past includes all that goes beforc th e present; the future includes all
th,t comes after the present; and the present, BtI'iclly ~peaking, is the
Jloint in which the past and future meet, and which h'18, itself, no space
or continllance. In grammar, however, the present is not rt'g:u'ded in
this strict senoc, but as extending to a greater or less period of which the
passing instant fOl'n" It part; as, this 111 ament, hour, day, luck, &c. In
each of these, an act, &c., may be expressed, either simply and indefinitely
U9 present, or definitely as completed; and these are expressed by differ~nt
forms of the verb culled tenses. Hence-
400. The tenses in English are six-the Present, the
Prescnt-peljeet, the Past, the Past-pelject, the Future,
and the Future-pclfeet.'"
401. Of these, t.he present filld the past, ill the indicutive mood, und the
pl'po"nt iu the subjunctive, al'e simple tenses, consisting of the verb only;
a~, "I lDl'c "-" I laNd." All the rest are compouud, consistin" of the
auxiliary find the vel b; as, "I hal'e loved." "
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MOOD.
402. Thc PRE:"EXT tense expressc:" what is going on
at the present time; as, " I {oee "-" I am lal'ed."
'" The past tense ill Engli· .. dl dne's Hnt correspond tothe imperfect in Latin Or Gret'l>:
hut ra~hcr to the Greek .Jlorisl. TIH'l'C' is, therefore, no propriety in retaining tli(:
naill(' 111/ jJel'fcct. The Latill ill1jll'rfl'l't t'UITt' .... pnlld:s precisely to the past-pr(Jr/i'('SS;"c
in ElI!.!:Ii~11 (:illl)). ~(f, al-.;u, the pres('nt-pt'l:tt.'ct does not cor!'espontl prccisefr to tho
Latin pn:t; ct, as tll:lt 1" liSP!! in an indefinite sense. like the Greek Aorist and also
in a dr-tinit.e srnse.likc· tho Endlsh jJJ'('sc)1t-pcrfect. The past-perfect co;rc!"ponds
to the [,Il!perfect ill Lotin. 'l'tIC flllll"e and the fllture-perfect in English correspond
to the tenses of the somCllamc ill Latin.-See Latin Grammar, § 4l.

ETYMOJ,OG Y - VERBS-TENSES. 78
403. This teuse is used also to expreEB what is habitual, or always true;
as, "He goes to church ,,_u Virtue is its own reward "-" Vice produces
misery."
404. It is used, iu auimated narration, to express past events with force
and interest, as if they were present j as, .. Cresar leaves Gaul, crosses the
Rubicon, and enters Italy" (11146, 5).
405. It is used sometimes instead of the present-perfect tense, in speak.
in~ "f authors long since dead, when refel'ence is made to their works
whieh still (>xist; as, .. Moses tells UB who were the descendants of Abra·
ham "_u Virgil imitates Homer j" instead of ,. hfU told," ,. has imitated."
406. It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before,
if, as soon as, after, till, and al"o after relatire pronouns, to express the
relative time of a future action, that is, of au action future at the time of
speaking, but which will be p!'esent at the time referred to j as, .. When
he comes, he will be welcome" _u We shall get our I

74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
has created the hcal'ens," because reference is only to the act of God at II
certain past time indicated by the WOI ds, " In the beginning."
412. It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the
future-perfect, to repl'csent an action, &c., as perfect at a future time j as,
" The cock shall not crow, till thou lta,t denied me thrice."
413. Sometimes tbis tcnse is used iu effect to deny the present existence
of tbat of wbich the verb expresses·. tbe completion; as, "I hat'e' been
young "-meaning, this is now finisbed-" I am young no more."
414. This tense corres;lOnds to the Latin perfect definite.
415. The PAST tense expresses what took place in past
time; as, "In the beginning, God created the heavens."
-" God said, Let there be light. "-" The ship sailed
when the mail arrived." See 913.
416. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and,
howevet· near to the present, it does not embrace it; as, "I saw your
friend a moment ago "-" I wrote yesterday."
417. In such expressions ns "I wrote this morning "-" this week "­
" this year," &c., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in
these yet unfinished periods.
418. This tense is used to express what was customary in past time; as.
"She attended church regulnrly all her life."
419. The PAST-PERFECT tense represents an action or
event as completed at or before a certain past time; as,
"I had walked six miles that day"-John had been
busy that week "-" The ship had sailed when the mail
arrived "-that is, the ship sailed before the mail arrived_
See 914, gI5.
420. The sign of the past-perfect is had; second person, hadst. This
tense corre,'pOll(]S to the Lut,in plupelfecl.
421. The Fe'ITRE tense expresses what will take
place in future lilllc; as, "I will see you again, and
your hearts shall 1'Ijoice."
422. The signs of the fnture are shall, will.
423. The FUTURE-PERFE\JT tense intimates that an action
or event will be cOl1lpleted at or before a certain time
yet future; as, " J shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock"
-" He will havefinished his letter before you are ready."
424. The sigDs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have.

ETYMOLOGY-VERB-TENSES. 75
TENSES OF THE POTE';{TIAL ~IOOD.
425. The Potential mood has four lenses-the Present,
the Presmt-perjl'ct, the Past, and the Past-perfect.
426. The Present potential expre-S€B presellt lioui!l. To/nrr, "I' obli·
gation.
427. The signs of the Prpsent arc may, filii, mud.
428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not corre~l'0nd in IHe .. ning
to th

76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
436. The Present subjunctive, in its proper form, according to present
approved usage, has always afuture reference; that is, it denotes a pre·
sent uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed future action (lr
event; thus, U If he write," is equivalent to, "If he should write," or, "If
he shan write."*
437. Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present action
or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjunctively; 'IS, "If
he writes as well as he reads, be will succeed."
438. The PRESENT'PERFECT subjunctive is only the same tense of the
indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as Ii If she have brougltt
up children," &c. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete.
439. The Past snbjunctive is used in two senses-
1. It is used to express a past action or state as conditional or contino
gent; as, U If he wrote that letter he deserves credit, and shonld be reo
warded;" "Ifhe was at home, I did not know it."
2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something present, and im·
plies a denial of the thing supposed; as, ., If I had the money now, I would
pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this way, the verb" fo be" (and
of course the passive voice of transitive verbs) has a separate form in the
singular, but not in the plural, viz, I were, thou wert, he were; for I was,
thou wast, he was; thus, "If my kingdom were of this world, then would
my servants fight," implying, It is not of this world; "0 that thou wert
as my brother," implying, "thou art not."
440. In this way, the Past subjunctive seems to be always used when
the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is placed before
its nominative (389); as, .. Had,t thou been here, my brother had not
[would not have (358)] died."
441. When a supposition, &Ce., respecting something past, is expressed
in this way, the Past-perfect must be used; as, "If I had had the money
yesterday, I would have paid it," implying, I had it not; "0 tbat thou
hadst been as my brother," implying" thou wast not."
442. Though the pas I tense, used in this way, refers to a present act or
state, yet, as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be called the past
tense.
• From this usagE" some gTammarians regard this as an elliptical form of the
fntnre, or of the past potential, in a future sense, the signs shall or should being
omitted; and some have given it as B future. in the conju"ation of the verb, HoweVPf
plausib10 this may appear, from the present prevailing nsag(>, there can be no
donbt that this, so called, elliptical future was formerly considered, and is cven still
used. as a present subjunctive. It is often used when the time is manifestly pre·
sent, and in such a way that neither shall, nor slwuld, nor any similar term, can be
supplied without changino; the sense; and where the Jlresent usage would require
tho present indicative; thus. "Though the Lord be ps, high," &c -Fs. cxxxVlii. G .
.. If thou be [artl the son of God."-Malth. iv. 3,6. 'That which thou sowest is no$
quickened exce»t it die [dies]."-l Cor. XI'. 36- "Whether he be lis] 1\ sinner or not
I know nol."-John ix. 25, &c.
•

ETYMOLOGY-VERB-TENSEs. 77
TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD.
443. The Imperative mood has only the present tense, and that has
respect to the time of the command, exhortation, &c. The doing of the
thing commanded, must, of course, be posterior to the command requiring
it.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MOOD.
444. The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the Present
and the Perfect.'" These do not so properly denote the
time of the action, &c., as its state (446 and 449); as,
" To write "-" To have written."
445. In the other moods, the time expressed by the tenses, is eetimated
from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present; as, "I
wrote" (that is, in a time now past), "I write" (that is, in time now present),
"I shall write" (that is, in time now future). But the infinitive
represents the action or state expressed as present, not, however, always
at the time of speaking, but at the time indicated by the preceding verb,
or some other word in the sentence; as, "He wishes to write"-now-tomorrow-next
week, &c. ; "He wished to write" then (viz., at the time of
wishing, now past)-next day-this day-to-morrow, &c.; "He will wish to
write"-then (viz., at the time of wishing, now future)-next day, &c.
Hence the following definitions :-
446. 1st. The Present infinitive expresses au act or state not finished,
indefinitely, or at any time referred to, expressed or implied; as, "I wish
to write"-" I wished to go"-" Apt to teach."
447. The sign of the present infinitive is, to (549).
448. After the verb to be, the present infinitive is sometimes used to
express a future action or event; as, "He is to go;" "If he were to go,"
&c. (876-3).
449. 2

78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PARTICIPLES.
452. A PARTICIPLE is a word which, as a verb, expresses
an action or state, and, as an adjective, qualifies
. a noun or pronoun; as, "The man came seeing"­
"Having finished our task, we may play." See 494,407.
453. Participles are so called, becfluse they belong partly to the nTb,
and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have signification,
voice, and tense; and they perform the office of the ltltter.
454. Verbs have three participles-the present, the
past, and the perfect; as, loving, loved, having loved, in
the active voice; and being loved, loved, having been
loved, in the passive. See 494, 507.
455. The participles, lakcn by tbemsel'>eB, like the infinitive, do not so
properly denote the time of an nction, as its state; while the time of th",
act, whether progl'essive 01' finished, is indicflted by the verb with which
it is conllected, or by some other word; thus, "I saw him writing yester.
day;" c'I see him writing now jn "I will see him lcriting to·morrow."
In all these cnmples, writing expresses an act present, and still in progre@B
at the time referred to j but with respect to the time of speaking',
the act of writing. expressed in the first example, is past; in the second, it
is present; and In the third, it is future, as indicated by tbe accompanying
verbs, saw, see, will see.
456. The present participle active ends always in ing. In all verbs it
has an acti ve signification, and denotca an action or state as continuing
and progressive; as, "James is building a bouse." In some verbs, it has
also a passive progressive signification: as, "The house is building." Appendix
YIII. p. 25~.
457. This usage, some suppose, has its origin in the use of the verbal
noun after in, to express the same idea j thus. "Forty and six years wag
tbis temple in building;" "And the house when it was in building was
built of stone made really-so thnt there was neither hammer nor axe
heard in the house, while it was in building." In the absence of emphasis,
the in being indistinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be
written, a; ae, " While the ark was a preparing" (1 Pet. iii. ~O), and .finally
to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of prepositions we have in the
expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, &c. Others, again,
suppose that tbis ought to be regarded as an original idiom of the InnguaO'e,
similar to tbe passive use of tbe infinitive active noticed before (3\1'7). Btlt
whether either of these is the tI'ue account of this mutter 01' not, the fact is
certain. It is therefore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though
he may be unable to account for it. The following are examples: "This
new tragedy was acting."-E. Everett. c, An attempt was making."-D.
JVebster. "Tbe fortress was building," &e.-lruing.

ETYMOLOGY-PARTICIPLES. 79
458. The Present participle passive has always a pa~sive signifioation,
but it has the same difference of meaning with respect to the time or state
of the action as the present indicative passive (509).
459. The Past participle has the same form in both voices. In tbe
active voice, it belongs equally to transitive nnd intransitive verbs-has
always an active sense-forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present·perfect
and Past-Ilerfect tenses-and is never found hut thus combined; liS, "hRs
loved," "had loved," &c. In the passive voice it has always a passive
scnse, and, with the verb to be liS an allxiliary, forms the passive voice;
as, " He is loved;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun; as, " A man
loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the active and the
passive participle will be eeen in the following examples, viz.: ACTIVE­
.. He has concealed a dagger under his cloak;" l' ASSIVE-" He has a dagger
concealed under his cloak."
460. The Perfect participle is always compouud (47'1), and represents
an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an
active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense in the passive; as,
ACTIvll:: "Hrlving finished our task, we may play." PASSIVE:" Our ia!;k
having been finished, we may play."
461. The Present participle active, and the Past participle passive,
when separated from tbe idea of time, become adjectives, and are usually
called participial adjectives; as, "An amusing story "-" A bound book"
(202-4).
462. The participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun (107-3), baving
the nominative and tbe objective case, but not the possessive. In this
character, the participle of a transitive verb may still retain the govern·
went of the verb; as, .. In keeping his commandments tbere is a great
reward;" or, it may be divested of it by inserting an article before it, and
the preposition oJ after it; as, "In the keeping of hi~ commandments."
When of follows the participle, the or a (an) should precede it (899). But
of cun not be used before a preposition.
463. So also the Perfect participle; as, "There is satisfaction in having
done well "_H His having done his duty, was, afterward, a source of satisfaction."
NUMBER AND PERSON.
464. Every tense of the verb has two NUMBERS, the Singular and the
Plural, corresponding to the singular and the plural of nouns and pronouns.
Tbe singular asserts of one; the plural, of more than one.
465. In each number, the verb has three PERSONS, called the first,
second aud third. The first asserts of the person speaking; the second, of
the persou "Poken to; lind the third, of the persou or thing spuken of.

80 ENGLISH GRAl\1!IIAR.
466. The subject of the verb, in the first person singular, is always I,
in the plural, 1l'e; in the second per~on singular, thou, in the plural, ye or
you; in the third person, the subject is the name of any person or thing
spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in its stead; also, it may be an
infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, or any thing of which a person
can think or speak (7G::!).
467. In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the eecond
person, because a command, exhortation, &e., can be addressed only to the
person or persons spoken to.
468. In such expreseions as "Let us love,"-"Let him love,"-"Let them
love,"-phrases by which the fir.t and the third person of the imperative
in some languages are rendered-let is the proper imperative, in the
second person, with thou or ye as its subject understood, and love the infill'
itive without the sign (877). Thus," Let [thou] us [to] love," &c.
469. This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no definite
individual is addressed; as, "Let there be light."
470. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a fir.lt and a third
pe, Bon in the imperati ve; ae, "Confide we in ourselves alone"-" With virtue
f,c we armed."-Hunt's Tasso. "And rest we here, Matilda 6aid."-Scott.
"Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm,
And live the rest secure from future harm."-Pope.
"Laugh those that can, lcecp those that may."-Scott.
471. Such expressions as "Hallowed be thy name "-" Thy kingdom
come "_u Be it enacted "-" So be it," 6:c., may be regarded either ad examples
of the third person ill the imperative, or as elliptical for "May," or,
"Let thy name be hallowed "-" Let it be enacted "_u Let it be so," &c.
472. The injinitit'c, because it usually has no subject (872), has neither
number nor person.
COXJUGATION.
473. The CONJUGATION of a verb is the regular combination
and arrangement of its several voices, moods,
tenses, mtmbers, and persons. '"
474. In the active voice, most vel'be have two forms-the Common and
the Prot;ress,,'c, See Appendix VIII., I., 1, p. 252.
is the mskin/'; of tbone cbanges of form which
• INFLECTION properly speakin~,
the verb undergoes JD its several parts; Conjugation is the combining or arran~nll:
of these forms in the several voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, to which
they belong. Both are usually included under the term conjugation.

ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION.
S1
1. The Common form expresses the simple existence of the fact; 8S,
" He speaks "-" She writes" -" They talk."
2. The Progressive form represents an action' as begun, and in progress,
but not completed. It is formed by annexing the, present participle
to the verb" to be," through all its moods and tenses; as, "I alii
writing," &c. (506).
475. Besides these, the~e is in the present and the past indicative, a
third form, called the Emphatic, used to express a fact with emphasis 01'
force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the auxiliary do, in the present
tense, and did, in the past; as, "I do write "-" I did wl'ite:' The
other tenses, and also the progressive form and passiTe voice are rcn

82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
8)OS in Lhe plural, nnd the first and third in the singular, are all alike,
e~cept ill the verb .. to be," in which the form of the singular is different
from that of the plural; thus, singular, was, wast, was-plural, were.
485. The principal parts of the verb are the Present,
indiwtive, the Past indicatil'e, and the Past participle.
In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called
conjugating the verb. Thus :-
Present. Past. Past Participle.
Regular (326), Love, loved, loved.
Irl'c,gular (327), Write, wrote, written.
CONJUGA.TION OF THE IRREGULAR VERB "TO BE."
486. The irrpgular and intransitive vel'b ., to be," is used as a prin.
cipal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and in the progressive
form of the actiye voice. It is thus inflected through all its
mooJs and tenses:-
PRINOIPAL PARTS.
Pr~sent, am. Past, was. Past pal'tit'fpk, been.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I am.+ 1. "Te are.
2. Thou art (244). 2. You are (245).
3. He is. 3. They are.
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSE.
Sign, have.
1. I have been. 1. We have been.
2. Thou hast been. 2. You have been.
3. He has beeD. 3. They have been.
PAST TENSE.
1. I was. 1. 'We were.
2. Thou wast. 2. You were.
3. He was. 3. They were.
• Be and beesf were formerly used in the present indicative: as, "'Ve be true men"
-Bible-for, We are tnle meu.-"U thou beest he."-Milton.-" There be as many
miseries beyond richeij as on this side of thew."- Walton. This uSlIi:e is now oblolete.

ETl'MOLOGY-VERB-CONJUG ATION. 83
PAST'1-'ERFEOT TENSE.
Sign,had.
1. I had been. 1. We had been.
2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been.
3. He had been. 3. They had been.
FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, shall, will.-Inflect with each.
1. I shall be. 1. We shall be.
2. Thou shalt be. 2. You shall be.
3. He shall be. 3. They shall be.
FUTURE· PERFECT TENSE.
Signs, shall have, l('ill have.-Inflect with each.
1. I shall have been. 1. 'We shall have been.
2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been.
3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE.
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I may be. 1. We may be.
2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be.
3. He may be. 3. They may be.
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.
Signs, may hal'c, can have·, or must have.-Inflcel with each.
1. I may have been. 1. '1Ve may have been.
2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have beell.
3. He may have been. 3. They may have been.
PAST TENSE.
Signs, might, could, would, should.-Infiect with each.
1. I might be. 1. 'V c might be.
2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be.
3. He might be. 3. They might be.
PAST·PERFECT TENSE.
Signs, might hal'c, could have, would have, should have.-Illfleel with each.
1. I might have been. 1. \\T e might have been.
2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been.
3. He might h&ve been. 3. They might have been.
• Can have as an alUiliary, is not used in ajfirmative sentences.

84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Singular.
l. If* I be.
2. If thou bE'.
3. If he be.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).
PRESE:-:T TENSE.
PAST TENSE.
Plural.
1. If we be.
2. If you be.
3. If they be.
1. If I were.
1. If we were.
2. If thou wert, VI' were. 2. If you were.
3. If he were.
3. If they were.
Singular.
1. Be, or be thou.
PRESENT TENSE.
To be.
11IlPERATIVE MOOD.
I~FIXITIVE MOOD.
PARTICIPLES.
Plural.
2. Be, or be ye or you.
PERFECT TENSE.
To have been.
PRESE:\T, Being. PAST, Been. PERFECT, Having been.
487. All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the potential mood
are used subjunctively, by placing the conjunction before them, thus:
Present-" If I am," "If thou art," "If he is," &c. (386). Present-perfect
-" If I have been," &c. Past-" If I was," &c.
488. The verb to be, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular future
tense, which often expresses duty, necessity. or purpose; as, "Government
is to be supported" -" Weare to pay our debts "-" If we l

ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGA TION. 85
PARSING.
491. A. verb is parsed by stating its class (transitive or
intransitive) its form (regular or irregular), conjugating
it if irregular' (485), and stating its tense, mood, voice,
person, and number, and also the subject of which it
affirms; thus,
'0 He is."-Is is a verb. intransitivl', irmijular-am, was, been-found
in the present, indicativc, active-third person, singular, acd affirms of its
subject he.
492. Besides stating the scveral properties of the verb, as above, the
teacher may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exer·
cise, to assign a reasou for each statement; thus,-
I< Is-a verb, because it affirms being or existence of " He."
intransitive-it has no object.
irregular-its past tense and P3st participle do not end in ed-am,
WlUI, been.
present-it refers to the present time.
indicative-it declares simply and without limitation.
active-its subject is not acted upou.
third person-its subject is spokeu of.
singular-it asserts of but one, " lIe."
As tbis process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often
be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with it, and
prompt in assigning the reasons as above,
SENTENCES.
493. NOMINATH·E.
1. A sentence is an affirmation and must contain a verb, in tho indica·
tive, potential, 01' subjunctive mood, by which the affirmation is made;
and II subject, of which the verb affit'ms. The subject is !!enerally a noun
or pronoun, in the nominative case; thus. the sentence, .. God is gnod,"
conhins lin IIffirmation. The verb is affirms of the noun God, which is
of course its subject, and in the nominative case.
2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain a
fommand ..,cxlwrtation, &c. The subject is that to w hieh the command is
given (117).
3. Tbe subject of a verb, except in the infiniti ve mood, is always in the
nominative case.
4. When that which is amt'med of a subject in tbe Dominative case, is
something expressed by a noun or pronoun aftet' the verb to be, that noun
or pronoun is IIhvllys in the nominative case, and called the predicatenominative,
or nominative after the verb; as, "Socrates was a philoso-
• In parsin:;, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular,
and it is unnecessary, because its being anuounced to be regular sufficiently ascertains
its principal parts. All irregnlar verbs should be conjugated as in 518. Every
teacher, however, will adopt tbe course which he prefers.

86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
pher." Here philosophel' is in the pl'edieate.nominati ve, and expresses
what the verb" was" affirms of its subject, "Socrates," See 796.
EXERCISES.
1. State the tense, mood, person, and number of the verb ", to be," in the
following examples; thus, ".11m," present, indicative, active, firi!t person
singular.
2. Parse all the w('rda. Thus," .11m," a verb, intransitive, irregularam.
was, beeu-in the present, indicative, active, first person singular;­
(491), aud the pronouns as directed (253).
Am; is; art; I was; we were; they are; you have been;
she had been; he was; we will be; they shall be; we had
been; hast been; hadst been; wast.
We may be; they may have been; he might be; you might
have been; you must be; they should have been; if I be;
thou wert; though he were; if I had been; though I were; if
we could have been; they might be.
Be; to be; do thou be; be ye; to have been; being; been;
baving been; be thou.
CONJUGATIOX OF THE REGULA.R \~ERB "TO LOVE."
494. The re~'ular transitive verb " To love" is inflected
through all its moods and tenses as follows :-
ACTIVE VOICE.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Present, love. Past, loved. Past participle, loved.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE."
Singular.
Plural.
1. I love. 1. '" e love.
2. Thou lovest. 2. YOlllove.
3. He loves (or loveth). 3. They love.
PRESE:'T TENSE.
1. I do love.
2. Thou dost love.
S. He doe' love (01' doth love).
PAST TENSE.
1. I did love.
2. Thou didst love.
3. He did love.
1. We do lovt'.
~. You do lo\'e.
3. They do Jove.
1. We did love.
2. You did Jove.
3. Tbey did love.

ETYl\wtOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 87
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.
Sign, have.
1. I ha.ve loved.
1. We have loved.
2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved.
3. He has loved. 3. They have loved.
PAST TEIISE.
1. I loved. 1. We loved.
2. Thou lovedst. 2. You loved.
3. He loved. 3. They loved.
PAST'PBRFEOT TENSE.
Sign, had.
1. I had loved. 1. We had loved.
2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved.
3. He had loved. 3. They had loved.
FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, .hall, u:ill.-Inflect with each.
1. I shall love. 1. We shall love.
2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love.
3. He shall love. 3. 'fhey shalll()ve.
FUTURE·PERFECT TENSE.
Signs, shall have, will have.-Inflect with each.
1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved.
2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved.
3. He shall have lovad. 3. They shall have loved.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT TENSB.
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I may love. 1. We may love.
2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love.
3. He may love. 3. They may love.
PRESENT'PERFEOT TENSE.
Signs, may have, can have,· mllst have.-Inflect with each.
1. I may ha.ve loved. 1. We may have loved.
2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved.
3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved .
• Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in a!llrmativ8 sentences.

88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PAST TE!'SE.
Signs, mi:;ht, would, could should.-Inflect with each.
1. I might love. 1. We might love.
2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love.
3. He might love. 3. They might love.
I'AST'PERFECT TENSE.
Signs, might have, could have, ,could have, should have.-Inflect with each.
1. I might have lovell. 1. We might have loved.
2. Tholl mightst haye loyed. 2. YU\l might have loved.
3. He might haye loyed. 3. They might have loyed.
Singular.
I. If I love.
2. If thou love.
3. If he love.
Cummnn furm.
Emphafil' form.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).
PllESE:-.'T TENSE (435).
Plural.
1. If we love.
2. If you love.
v. If they love.
DlPERATIVE :lIOOD.
Singular.
2. Love, or love thou.
2. Do thou love.
Pluml.
2. Love, or love ye ur you.
2. Do ye or you love.
I:\FINITII'E 1I100D.
PHESENT, To love.
PERFECT, To have loyed.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESENT, Loving. P MiT, Loved. PERFECT, Having loved.
495. PRELIMINARY ORA.L EXERCISE.
Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus :-
When you say, "John loves learning," which word expresses what
John does? What part of speech are words ,yhich express the act of a
person or thing (314) 1 Then what part of speech is loves? Why'
Whose act does loves express 1 Then what is Joltn to the verb loves
(315) 1 Then John is the ~ubject of loves.
What is it said thnt John loves? Leal·ning. What does John do to
learning? Of what class are verbs which express what one person or
thing dues to another (317)1 Is loves, lhen, transitive or intrausitil'e 1
'l'rllusili ve.
Conjugate love (485). "'hat is its past tense I-its past participle 1
In what do they end 1 Of what form are verbs which have the past tense
nod the past participle ending in ed (326) 1 'l'hen is love regnlar or irregnlar
1 Regular-conjugated, love, loved, loved.

ETYMOLOGY--VERB--CONJUGATION. 89
(Do all verbs form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed?
Let ns try. Is it right to say, "I go;" 'Yould you say, "I goed to church
yesterday 1" What would you say! What are those verbs called which
do not add ed to form the past tense and the past participle (327)? Thcn
is "go" regular or irregulur 1 Why 1)
When you say, "John loves learning," does 101'es express a prescnt, a
past, or a future act 1 When a verb expresses a present act. in what tense
is it (402) I In what tense, then, is loves? Present. Why 1
(What would you say. to express the same act as past 1-as future!
Then what tense is loved ?-willlove?)
When you say. "John loves learning," do you declare a fact simply, or
wilh any limitation? What mood declares an act simply (3~8)1 Then
what mood is loves? Indicative.
In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is acted upon' "That
voice represents the subject as acting (368)! Then what voice is 10l'es!
Is J olm representfd here as speaking, spokm to, or spoken of? What
person represents the subject as spoken of (465) 1 Then what person is
loves? Third person.
Does loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one 1 What
number asserts of one (464)? Then what number is loves? Singula~.
496. The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order, thus:
"Loves"-a verb, transitive, ,'egulO1', conjugated love, loved, loved-found in
the present indicative, active, third person Singular, and cxpresses the act
of "John." This is called l'ARSING, in which the eame order of statement
ehould he observed.
497. This may be exte~ded, by giving the reasons of each statement, as
follows:
"LoVEs"-a verb, bec~use it expresses an act of its subject (314).
transitive, because it expresses an act that passes over from the
actor-John to an object leaming (319).
regular, because its past tense and past participle end in edt
conjugated, love, loved, loved (485). .
present,-it expresses what John does now (402).
indicative,-it expresses the act simply (3'18).
octive,-it represents its subject as acting (368).
third person,-its subject is spoken of (465).
sillgular,-it asserts of only one (464).
EXERCISES, NO. I.
Intlect tbe following irregular verbs in the same mauner as the verb
"to \('ve :"-taking care to use the past participle in the compound
tenses (477).
Present.
Go
Write
Do
Give
Have
Past.
went
wrote
did
gave
had
Past P(lrticip/e.
gone
written
done
given
had

90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES, NO. II.
1. In the following exercise, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and
number, and always in this order, thus: "Loves"-Present, indicative,
active, third person, singular.
2, In the Imperative, omit the tense, and say thu~," Love thou "-Imper·
ative, active, second person, singular.
3. In the Infinitive and Participles, omit the person and number, and
say thus, " 1'0 love"-Present, infinitive, active; "Loving"-Present parti.
ciple, active.
N. B.-The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to show
its person and Dumber. The auxiliaries ( or signs) are not taken separate·
ly, but always with the verb; so that the two words, and sometimes three,
as in the future-perfect indicative, are parsed together as one word; thu~,
" Has loved "-the present· perfect, indicati re, active, third person, singular.
lIe loves.-We have loved.-He lovcd.-They had loved.­
You shall love.-They may have loved.-We might love.­
Love tholl.-To love.-You had gone.-They will go.-To
have gone.-W e will write.-They may write.-They should
go.-He has fallen.-You had given.-W e might have gone.
-James has written.-Robert loves to write.-To write is
useful.-Writing is useful.-Having written.-We gave.-
1'hey have given.-You will give.
EXERCISES, XO. III.
THE OBJECTIVE OASE.
498. A transitive verb, in the nctive voice, tells what its subject does to
some other person 01' thing. That person or thing is the object of the verb,
and is in tbe objective case. Tbus," He lovea UR," loves is a transitive verb,
in tbe active voice, and tells what its subject, he, does to us. Us, then, is
its object, nnu is in the objective case. See also 820.
1. In the following exerci"es, tell which words are verbs, and why;
whether transitive 01' intransitive, and why; what is tbe subject, and why;
:lnll if transitive, what is their object, and wby.
2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and
number; tbus, " Loves "-Verb, transitive, regular-love, loved, loved-in
tbe prescnt, indicative, active, tbird person, singular.
He lo,es us.-I will 10'le him.-Good boys study their lessOlls.-Children
love play.-God created the world.-Remember
thy Creator.-Do good to all men.-Forgive your enemies.­
He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the Lord.-You
should study grammar.-We should read the best books.-Bad
books injure the character. ,Yar makes rogues, and peace
hangs them.-Children, obey your parents.-A good cause
makes a strong nrm.-Show mercy, and thou shalt find it.

ETYl\10LOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 91
EXERCISES, NO. IV.
PAaSING.
In tbe preceding exercises (No. III.) parse each word in order; the
noun, as directed (182); the article, as directed (194); the at.!jective, as
directed (225); the pronouu, as directed (253), and the verb, as directed
(491 or 496). Or, more fully, as an occasional exercise (492 or 497),
tbus ;-
" Loves "-a verb, because it expresses an act, viz., of hc.
tj'(tll~iti('c, because it has an object, 'Its (498).
reg1da,",-its past,tense and past participle end ill fd ;
conjugated, lure, lowl, lo!'cd.
l))'esent, because the act takes place in prese',d time.
indicati ce,-it declares the fact simply.
third pl:l'son,-its subject he is spoke'//. of.
sin~/Hla/',-it asserts of but one.
]l\egati;ve form of the Verb.
499. The verb is made to deny, by placing the word not after the
simple form; as, .. Thou lovest not;" and between tbe auxiliary and
the verb in the compound form; as, " I do not love." When two auxiliaries
are used, it is placed between them; aR, .. I would not have loved."
500. Iu the infinitive and participle~, the negative is put first; 8S,
"Not to love "_u Not loving "-" Not loved:'
501. The simple form is seldom used with the nf'gatil"e. In the present
nnd past tenses, the compound or emphatio forID is more common. The
fullowing synopsis will ehow the maDnel' of using the negati\'e ;-
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT. 1. I do not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c.
PRES-PERF. 1. I have not loved. 2. Thou hast not loved, &c.
PAST. 1. I did not love, 2. Thou didst not love, &c.
PAST-PERF. 1. I had not loved. 2. Thou hadst not loved, &e.
FUTURE. 1. I will not love. 2. Thou wilt not love, &c.
FUT.-PERF. 1. I shall not have 2. Thou shalt not have loved,
loved.
&c.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESENT. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou dost not love, &c.
PRES.-PERF. 1. I may not have ~. Thou mayst not have loved,
loved.
&c.
PAST. 1. I might not love. 2. Thou mightst 110t love, &c.
PAST-PERF. 1. I might not have 2, Thou mightst not have loved,
loved.
&c.

92 ENGLISH GLAMl'lIAR,.
PFE~E:-n.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).
1. If I do not love. 2. Ifthou do not love, &c.
. IMPERATIVE ~'IOOD.
Si1l!jllltlr.
Plural.
2. Love not, or do not thou love. !? Love not, 01' do not ye love.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT. Not to love. PERFECT. Not to have loved.
PARTICIPLE.
PRESENT. Not loving. PAST. Not loved.
PERFECT. Not having loved.
Intcrro!jative form of tlte rcrb.
502. The \'erb is made to ask a question by placing the nominative
01' subject after the simple form; as, "Lovest tbou ?" and between the
auxiliary and the verb in the compound forms; llS, "Do I love 1" When
tbere are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed between them; 85,
"Shall I have loved 1 "
503. The SUbjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and participles, can uot
have the interrogative form.
504. The simple forlD of the yerb is seldom used interrogatively. The
following synopsis will show how the verb is put into the interrogative
forlD .-
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PREsE:>T. 1. Do I love! 2. Dost thou love 1 &c.
PRES.·PERF. 1. Have I loved? 2. Hast thou loved! &c.
PAST. 1. Did I love 1 " Didst thou l,,\'e 1 &c.
PAST· PERF. 1. Had I loyed ? 2. Hadst thon loved? &c.
Fr'Tl'RE. 1. Shall I love 1 2. "'ilt thou love 1 &c.
FeT. ·PERF. 1. f-Ihall Ihave loved 12. 'Yilt thou have loved! &c.
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PRESE:-IT. 1. May I love 1 2. Canst thou love 1 J:c.
PREi'l.·PERF. 1. Maylhaveloved1 2. Canst thou have loved 1 J:c.
PAST. 1. Might I love? 2. Couldst thou love 1 &c.
PAST·PERF. 1. Might I have 2. Couldst thou have loved!
loved?
&c.
505. Interrogative senl.€nces nre made negative by placing the negative
('ithcr before or nfter the nominative; as, "Do I Qot love?" or, "Do not
I love!"

':TYlIIOLOGY-VERBS-CONJUGATION. 93
EXERCISES.
1. Inflect tU l'erb to love in the negative Corm.
2. Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogati va form.
a. Change the exercises (p. 90) into the negative form, and write them
out.
4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into the
interrogative form, and write them out.
Prog1'essive form of the Active Voice.
506. The PROGRESSIVE form of the verb is inflected by prefixing the
verb to be, through all its moods and tenses, to the present participle;
thus-
PRESENT. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, &c.
PRES.-PERF. 1. I have been writing.:? Thou hast been writing, &c.
PA~T. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, &c.
PAST-PERF. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadstbeenwriting,&c.
FUTURE. 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, &c.
FUT. -PERF. 1. I shall or will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been
been writing. writing, &c.
NOTE.-Verbs which in the common form imply continuance, do not
usually admit of the progressive form; thus, .. I am loving" (if proper),
would mean nothing more than" I love." Appendix VIII. I, 2. p. 252.
EXERCISES.
1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive
form :-
He writes.-They read.-Thou teach est.-We have learned.
-He had written.-They go.-You will build.-I ran.-John
has done it.-We taught.-He stands.-He stood.-They will
stand.-They may read.-We can sew.-You should study.
-We might have read.
2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form:­
We are writing.-They were singing.-They have been
riding.-We might be walking.-I may have been sleeping.­
They are coming.-Thou art teaching.-They have been eating.-He
has been moving.-We have been defending.
3. Parse these verbs, in the progressive form; thus, .. We are writing"
_u are writing" is a verb, transitive, irregular-write, wrote, written-in
the present, indicative, active, first person, plural, progressive form.
4. Change the exercises, No.2, into the negative form; thus, "We
are not writing ;"-into the interrogative form; as, "Are we writing 1"­
into the negative-interrogative form; as, II Are we not writing '" or, "Are
Dot we writing lit

94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
PASSIVE VOICE.
507. The PASSIVE voice is inflected by adding the
past participle 10 the verb "to. be," as an auxiliary,
through all its moods and tenses, thus (486):-
PRI:-;CIPAL PARTS.
Present, "\m loyed. Past, 'Yas loved. Past participle, Loved.
JXDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESE:-"I TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I am loved. 1. We are loved.
2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved.
3. He is loved. 3. They are loved.
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSK.
Sign, have.
1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved.
2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved.
3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. I was lovell. 1. We were loved.
2. Thou wast loyed. 2. You were loved.
3. He was loved. 3. They were loved.
PAST,PERFEOT TENSE.
Sign, had.
1. I had been loved. 1. 'Ye had been loved.
2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved.
3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved.
FUTURE TENSE.
Signs, shall, will,-Inflect with each.
1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved.
2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved.
3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved.
FUTURE·PERFEOT TENSE.
Signs, shall have, 1cill have,-Inflect with each.
1. I shall have been loved. 1. 'Ye shall have been loved.
2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved.
3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved.

ETYMOLOGY-VERB-CONJUGATION. 95
POTENTIAL MOOD.
PItESENT TENSE.
Signs, may, can, must.-Inflect with each.
Singular.
Plural.
1. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved.
2. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved.
3. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved.
PRESENT-PERFEOT TENSE.
Signs, may have, can have,· or must have.-Inflect with each.
1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved.
2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved.
3. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved.
PAST TENSE.
Signs, might, could, would, shoulrl.-Infiect with each.
1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved.
2. Thou mighst be loved. 2. You might be loved.
3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved.
PAST'PERFEC'r TENSE.
Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have.-Inflect with each.
1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved.
2. Thou mighst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved.
3. He might have been loved. 3. They might have beel1loved.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487).
PRESENT TENSE.
Singular.
Plural.
1. Ift I be loved. 1. If we be loved.
2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved.
3. If he be loved. 3. If they be loved.
PAST TENSE.
1. If I were loved. L If we were loved.
2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved.
3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singnlar.
Plural.
2. Bo thou loved. 2. Be ye 01' you lo,"o(l.
----
• Oan have as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmati-ve sentences.
t The conjunctions. if, tI.ough, lest. unlelS, &c., do not fontI part of the subjunctive
mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contin;;ency (388). Tbe
pupil may go over the iudicative, as a subjunctive, with one or other of these
j)Onjuuctions prellxed.

96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
PRESENT, To be loved.
PERFECT, To have been loved.
PARTICIPLES.
PRESEXT, Being loved. PAST, Loved. PERFECT, Having beeu loved.
OBSERVATIOKS ON THE PASSIVE VOICE.
508. The passive voioe, in the finite moods, properly affirms of the
subject the receiving of the act performed by t he actor; and in all tenses,
except the present, exprcsses passively the same thing that is expressed
by the same tense in the active voice: thu~, "C,esar ccmquered Gaul," and
"Gaul was ccmqllered by Cresar," express tbe same thing. Hence, the
subject of the verb in the pa8sive voice, is the object of the act, i.e., it is
acted upon by the actor (369).
509. The present-passive has a somewhat different meanin!? in different
verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress-in others, as
now completed. Iu the former, it expresses passively the presellt continuance
of the action, just as the present active does. Thus," James loves
Robert," aud "Robert is loved by James," express precisely the same
thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses not the continuance,
but the reRuit of the act now finbhed, as a predicate of tbe subject; as
"The house is built!" The act of building is here represented not as
continuing, but as completed; and the result of the act expressed by
"built " is predicated of " house."
510. In all such verLs, the idea expressed by the present.passive differs
from that expressed by the present·active; the latter expressing a can·
tinuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in this c1aes of
verbs, can be expressed pas.i..-elyonly when the participle in ing has 1\
passive as well as an active sense (456).
511. There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form
in the active voice, t'xcept where the participle in i'lg is used passively;
as, "The house is building." The form illtroduced within the last fifty
years, and now defended by some grammarians, viz., "The house l! being
built," ought to be regarded only liS a clumsy solecism. On this Bubject,
see 4;)7 and Appendix VIII. p. ~5:!.
EXERCISES ON THE PASSIVE VOIOE.
EXEROISES, NO. r.
Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved, 507.
Prosel/t. Past. Past partidple.
Am commended, was commended, commended.
Am taught, was taught, taught.
Am told, was told, told.
Am placed, was placed, placed.

ETYMOLOGY-"ERBS-IRREGULAR. 97
EXERCISES, NO. II.
1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, and per
son, and always in this order, viz. : "Is loved "-present, indicative, passive
third person, singular.
2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thUB: "Be ye loved," imperntive,
passive, second person, plural.
S. In the infinitive and participles. omit the person and number, and eay
thus: .c To be loved," pr6Ecnt infiniti ve, passive. .C Being loved," present
partici pie, rassi ve,
They are loved; we were loved; thou art loved; it is loved;
she was loved; he has been loved; you have been loved; I have
been loved; thou hadst been loved; we shall be loved; thou
wilt be loved; they will be loved; I shall have been loved; you
will have been loved.
He can be loved; thou mav~t be loved; she must be loved;
they might be loved; ye wouid be loved; they should be loved;
I could be loved; thou mayst have been loved; it may have
been loved; you might have been loved; if I be loved; thou
wert loved; we be loved; they be loved. "Be thou loved; be
ye loved; you be loved. To be loved; loved; having been
loved; to have been loved; being loved.
4. Put the above exercisee, first in the negative form, and then, in the
indicati ve and potential mood, in the interrogative form, as directed (499
and 5(2).
EXERCISES, NO. III.
Change the exercises (page (0) into the passivtl form. Write them out,
and then parse them; thus, c. Weare loved by him," &c. Put each example
in the negative form, and those in the indicative or potential, in the
interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502).
IRREG ULAR VERBS.
512. An IRRi

H8 J.cNGLISH GR ~ ~\"I ,\ ll.
Present.
Awake
Bake
Bear, tu brillfl f(!I'/I,
Be:w, to f(tfr!}
Beat
Begin
Bel1

1!:TYl\IOLOGY-VERBS-IRREGULAR. 99
Prtlent. Past. Past participle.
Dream dreamt dreamt, R.
Drink drank drank, drunk
Drive drove driven
Dwell dwelt, R. dwelt, R.
Eat ate, eat eaten
Fall, be- fell fallen
Feed fed fed
Feel felt felt
Fight fought fought
Find found found
Flee fled fled
Fling flung flung
Fly flew flown
Forbear forbore forborne
Forget forgot forgotten, forgot
Forsake forsook forsaken
Freeze froze frozen
Get, be- for- got, gat gotten, got
Gild gilt, R. gilt, R.
Gird, be- en- girt,R. girt, R.
Give, for- mis- gave given
Go, ~mder- went gone
Grave, en- R. graved graven, graved
Grind ground ground
Grow grew grown
Hang hUllg hung'*
Have had had
Hear heard heard
Heave hove, R. hoven, R.
Hew hewed hewn, R.
Hide hid hidden, hid
Hit hit hit
Hold, be- with- held held, holden
Hurt hurt hurt
Keep kept kept
Kneel knelt, R. knelt, R.
Knit knit, R. knit, knitted
Know knew known
• Hang, to take away life by banging, is resuJar, as, .. The robber was hanged, but
the gown was htfllg up,

100
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Present.
Lade, to load*
Lay
Lead, mis­
Leave
Lend
Let
Lie, to reelille
Light
Lose
Make
Mean
Meet
Mow
Pay, jOC-
Pen, fo ellclo~e
Put
Quit
Read
Rend
Rid
Ride
Ring
I-tisc, a-
Ri\Oe
Run
Saw
Say
See
Seek
Seethe
Sell
Send
Set, be-
Shake
Shape, mis­
Shave
Shear
Past.
laded
laid
led
left
lent
let
lay
lighted, lit
lost
made
meant
met
mowed
paid
pent, R.
put
quit, R.
readt
rent
rid
rode, rid
rang, rung
rose
rived
ran, r,~n
sawed
said
saw
sought
seethed, sod
sold
sent
set
shook
shaped
shaved
sheared
• Lade. to dip, is regular.
Pa$t participlt.
laden
laid
led
left
lent
let
lain, [um
lighted, lit
lost
made
meant
met
mowD, Ro
paid
pent, R.
put
quit, R.
readt
rent
rid
ridden, ,oid
rung
risen
riven, R.
run
sawn, Ro
said
seen
sought
seethed, sodden
sold
sent
set
shaken
shapen, R.
shaven, R.
shorn,
t Pronounced red.

El'Yl\IOLOG~-VERBS-IBBEGULAB.
lOt
Present. Past. Past participle.
Shed shed shed,
Shine shone, R. shone, R.
Shoe shod shod
Shoot shot shot
Show showed shown, R.
Shrink shrunk, shl'allk shrunk
Shred shred shred
Shut shut shut
Sing sang, sung sun" ,.,
Siuk BUnk, sank sunk
Sit sat sat
Slay slew slain
Sleep slept slept
Slide slid slidden, slid
Sling slung, slang slung
Slink slunk slunk
Slit slit slit, slitted
Smitc smote smittcn
Sow, to scatter sowed sown, R.
Speak, be· spoke, spake spoken
Speed sped sped
Spell spelt, R. spelt, R.
Spend, mis- spent spent
Spill spilt, R. spilt, R.
Spin spun, spall spun
Spit, be- spit, spat spit
Split split split
Spread, be- spread spread
Spring sprang, sprung sprung
Stand, with-, &c. stood stood
Steal stole stolen
Stick
Sting
stuck
stung
stuck
stung
Stink stunk or stank stunk
Stride, be- strode, strid stridden, strid
Strike struck struck, str icl:c 10
String strung strung
Strive strove striven
Strew,* be- strewed strewed, strewn
• Strew and iMW are now giving way to ,trow and shew, as they are pronounced.

102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Prcsent. Pa .• t. Past partiCIple_
Strow, be- strowed strowed, strown
Swear swore, swal-r sworn
Sweat sweat, R. sweat, R.
Sweep swept swept
Swell swelled swollen, R.
Swim swam 0)" S1('nm swum
f'wing s,vung swung
Take, uc-, .tc. took taken
Teach, mis- 1"C- taught taught
Tear tore, f(o'e torn
Tell told told
Think, /'c- thought thought
Thrive thrived, throve thriven, R.
Throw threw thrown
Thrust thrust thrust
Tread trod trodden, trod
Wax waxed waxen, R.
Wear wore worn
'Veave wove woven
Weep wept wept
Wet wet, R. wet, R.
Whet whet, R. whet, R.
"'in won won
Wind wound, R. wound
\York wrought, R. wrought, R.
\Yring wrung, R. ""rung
'" rite wrote written
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
514. A DEFECTIVE verb is one in which some of the
parts are wanting. The following list comprises the most
important. They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary :-
Present. Past. Present. Past.
Can could Shall should
May might Will would
l\Iust Wis wist
Ought
Quoth quoth
Wit,
Wot
wot
Im1Jerafil·e-Beware.

ETYlIIOLOGY-VERBS-DEFECTIVE. 103
515. Ought, originally the past tense of owe, is now used to signify
present duty; and must to denote present obligation or nece8sity. When
they rcfci' to past time, a change is made in the infinitive with which they
are joined; tilus, Present- H Theee things ye ought to do;" Past_u These
things ye ought to have doue." (436 and 420).
516. TVtll, as an auxiliary, has wilt, and shall has shalt, in the secoud
[·elson singul"l·. They are both without inBection in the third person
singular. Jnll, as a principal verb, is regular.
517. H'i .. , wist, which signifies to know, to imagine, is now ousolete.
Wit, of the same meaning ancl origin, is now med only in the infinitive,
in the phrase, .. to ]l'ft," that is, .. namely."
518. Beware (properly be and ware, or wary) is now used only in the
imperative, and sometillles after an auxiliary; as, "Beware of him "_
"VV' e should beware."
519. Quoth, to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous language; its
nominative always cOlnes after the verb, aud it has no variatiou for per·
son, number, or tense; as, " Quoth he "-" Quoth they," &c.
To defective "erbs also properly belong-
DIPERSON AL VERBS.
520. Impersonal verbs are those which assert the existence
of some action or state, but refer it to no particular
subject. They are always in the third person
singular, and in English are preceded by the pronoun
it ; as, " It rains "-" It hails "-" It behooves," &c.
521. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinks, methought ;
meseems, 1IIescemed; sometimes used for, .. Tt seems to me "_u It appears to
m.e," &c.
522, The pronoun it preceding the impersonal verb as its Bubject., is the
substitute of some unknown and general, or well·known cause, the action
of which is expressed by the verb, but which can not, or need not, itself
be named (246-5).
EXERCISES.
1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating why
they are called irregular; also, which are transitive, and which are intran·
sitive and why (320-1);-
Take drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catch, bereave,
~m, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, go, feel,

to!
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
forsake, groW', have, hear, hide, keep, kllo,y, lose, pay, ride, ring,
shake, rUll, seek, sell, see, sit, slay, slide, smite, speak, stand,
tell, win, write, weave, tear.
2. Take the first three transitive verbs of the prece,ling list; conjugate
and inflect them through ~,Il their moo,)" nnd tenses in the acth'e and in
the passive voice.
EXERCISES ON THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH.
1. In the following exercises, parse the several words; viz., the nouns
as directed ('~2)-arlic\es as (194)-adjec!jves as (~~5) pronouns as (253)­
and verbs as (491 and 496).
[The words in Italics are prepositions, amI the nouns or pronouns follow·
ing them :Ire in the objective case.j
The wind shakes the trees.-Tbe apples fell to the ground.­
God created all things.-Tbe heavens are the work of his bands.
-Alexander the Great conquered many countries.-The sun
shines.-Tbe fields are covered u'ith ~rain.-The crop~ are
excellent.-The rivers run into the sea.-A good man 1.'ho"s
pity to the poor (201).-The fear of the Lord is the beginning
ofwisdom.-Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth.
-Time flies.-All things come to an end.-A bad man can
not be happy.-Redeem time.-Do good to all men.-Truth
is mighty.
2. Form a list of ten nouns; suy something I'e~pectitlg each: nnd parse
the sentences so forlI!ed, as above.
ADVERBS.
523. An An,ERB is a word joined to a 'l.'erb, an adjective,
or another adverb, to modify it, or to denote some
circumstance respecting it; as, " Ann speaks distinctly;
she is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly."
524. An ndverb is generally equivalent to n modifying phras('. or aujunct
(541) of the word to which it is joined. Til"., in the preceding example,
"distinctly" means, in a distinct manne')'; "remarkably," ill a remarkable
degree. So, "now" menns, at this time; "theil," at that time, &c.
Hence, adverbs and adverbial adjuncts are often used indiscriminately in
modifying vCl'b~, adjectives, and adverbs.

ETYMOLOGY-.\ DVERBS. 105
525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another adverb, it
sometimes also moclifies an acljuDct, a phrase, 01' a eentence; as, "I met
yonr hrother FAR from home "_," He will be here SOON after mid·day"­
.. \Ve shall go HIMEDIATEI.Y after the mail an'ives,"
526. A few adverbs are wmetimes used as adjnncts of nouns and pro·
nouns; as, I only [that is, I, and uo one else] am escaped alone to tell
tbee."-" The women also were present," that is, the women as well as the
others-in additIOn to the others.
The adverbs uscd in this way are such as the following: Chirjly, parti·
cularly, especially, erltirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, partly, also, Wee·
,cisc, too, &c.
527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs, is called an
adverbial phrase; a~, in short, in vain, in general, at most, at least, at all,
on high.
CLASSIFICA TION OF ADVERBS.
528. Adverbs havc becn divided into various classes,
according to their signification. The chief of these are
the following :-
1. Adverbs of ~fA:-;);EIl; as,justly, bravply, s:Jftly, &('.
2. Of PLACE; as, here, there, where-hither, thtnee, &c.
3. Oi TIME; as, noUl, tAen, when, soon, often, never, &c, (929).
4. Of DIRECTIO);; as, upward, downward, forward, &c.
5. Of AFFIR1IATlON; as, yes, verily, eel·tainly, doubtless, &c.
6. Of NEGATION; as, nay, no, not, nowise, &c.
7. Of h'TERROGATION; as, how? why? when? where? whither? &~.
8. Of COMrAIlISO);; as, more, most, less, as, so, thus, &c.
9. or QUA);TITl'; as, much, some, little, enough, sufficiently, &c.
10. Of ORDER; as, first, secondly, thirdly, next, &c.
529. There, commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used a9 an
introductory expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, and some
others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, follows the verb; 3S,
"The~e is no doubt of the fact "-" There came to the beach a poor exile
of Edn "-" Therc appears to he a mistake somewho"p.." Sometimes,
whf'n the subject goes before. it is placed between Ii:., .ubject and the
verb; as, " .A. mistake there is." In nil such cases, there is a mere expletiye.
It adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables to vary the form
of expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise exist.
This will app .. ar by omitting it in any of the preceding examples.
Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a certain
circumstance, or a case supposed; as, "If you will go, thell [that is, in
that case] say SQ.
Now is sometimes user! without reference to time, mHely to indicate
the transition from one sentence to another; as, .. Not this man, but Bar.
abbas. Now Barabbas was n robber."

106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
530. The words, to-day, lo-night, la-morrow, yeslerday, used as adjuncts,
may be called adverbs of time, or they may be regarded as nouns in the
objective cuse, without the governing word (828) or as nouns in any cuse
the construction may require.
531. In comparison, as alld so, in the anteced~nt clause. are usually
reckoned udverbs, because they modify an adjective or another adverb.
The corresponding as and so, sometimes called conjunelions, are properly
adverbs also. because resolvable into all adjunct (5~4); thus, "It is aa high
as henven," tbut is, It is higb in Ihe degree in which heavell is high.-" So
fur as I know," that is, fal' 10 Ihe exlent 10 which I kllOW.
532. So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, phrase'
01' sentence, in order to prevent its repetition; as, "To make men happy,
and keep them so "-" France is highly cultimted-England more so "­
.. James is in good health, John is not so "-" I believed that you would
succeed, nnd I told you so.
533. Therefore,1"herefore, also, sometimes called conjunctions, are more
properly adverbs because used for the adjuncts, for this reas07l, for which
rcason, in addition (524).
COXJUNCTIVE ADYERBS.
534. A C07lju7lctit'e ,l]dverb is one that slands for two adjuncts, one of
which contains a relative pronoun, and the other, its antecedent; thus,
"I will see you when you come." Here, when is equivalent to at the time
at which; the first part, "at the time," modifies" will see," and the second,
" at which," modifies" come." Ag.lin," I know not how it is done." Here,
how is equivalent to the manner in which. The first part, "the manner,"
is the object of "kn,ow," I1nd the second, "in which," is the adjunct of "is
done." In 11 similar WilY, where may be resolved into, the place in which;
whither, into, the I,la"e to which, &c.
These adver·l" perform 11 ooullle office; they modify two different words.
and connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, when, u'herc,
whilr. whither, uhe7lce. TIley are also used io:errogati\'"ely, both directly
aod inoir'ectly. Thus used, they are not conjunctive; as," TVhen [tbat is,
at what time 1 will you "ome?"-" Thou knowest not whence [from what
place] it cometh, and whither [to what placp.] it goeth."
FORMATIOX AXD DERIVATION OF ADVERBS.
535. Aoverbs are either primitive or derivnti\'"e.
1. A few adnrbs are primitive, or derived from no oLher words in the
Ja.nguage, as, yes, no, not, here, there, now, then, &c.
2. Many adverbs of qU:llity or !Lanner are derived from adjectives by
adding ly; aB, diligent, diligently; happy, happily (67); or by changing
Ie into ly; ns, able, ably; simple, silllply. But adverbs are seldom formed
from adjectives in ly, the adjunct being used in preference. 'lhus, we
woulo not say, " He acted manlity/" but" i1l l! manly marmer," or "ltke a
7nan,"

ETYMOLOGY-ADVERBS. 107
3. Many compound adverbs aTt! formed by combining words together,
so as of two or more words forming lin adjunct. to make one compound
term; as, indeed, hereby, thereby, whercn'ith, therefore, wheresoever, nevertheless,
&c.
4. Some nouns and other words are converted into lid verbs by prefixing
a, signifying at, in, on, &c.; as, abed, ashore, aloft, ahead, astern, aground,
apalt, adrift, afresh, alike, asleep, J:c. (190)_
o. Many words lire nseJ sometime. as adverbs, and sometimes a8 other
pa:ts of speech; Ihus-
Much is used-l. As an adverb; as, "lie is much better."
2. As an adjective; liS, ,. In much wisdom is much
grief."
3. As a noun; a9, "'Where much is given, much is required."
.
Yesterday is ueed-l. As an adverb; liS. "He came yesterday" (530).
2. As a noun; !l3," Yesterday is past."
But is used-I. As an aliverb; as, .. Give but one kind word."
2. As a preposition (538); as," None but the brave."
3. As u cunjunctioll (561); RS, ., He is poor, but
honest."
TVhat is used-I. As an interrogative; as," What is that?"
2. As a relative; liS," We speak what we know."
3. As an adverb; as," TVhat [partly] with ODt! thing,
Dnd what [partly] with another, we had enough
to do."
6. CirCutUstlll3ces of time, place, manner, &c., are often expressed by
two or more worus constituting an adverbial phrase (027 and 530); as, at
length, not at all, by no mUlIls, in vain, in order, long ago, by-and-by, all
over, to and fro, forever, &c. Such phrascs may be taken together as onc
word, and parsed as an adverb, or separately, as other words, wher~ it CDn
be done, supplying the ellipsis when neccssary.
CO:\lPARISO~ OF ADVERDS.
536. Adverbs of quality, derived (rom adjectives, and
a few others, admit of comparison like adjectives; as,
nobly, more nobly j
soon, sooner, soonest.
The following are compared irregnlarly; ae-
Pas. Camp. Sup. Pas.
Badly, 0,. ill, worse, worst. Much,
Far, farther, farthest. "Veil,
Little, less, least.
PARSING.
Camp.
more,
better,
Sup.
most.
best.
537. An adverb is parsed by stating what part of
speech-the class to which it belongs- the word which

108 };NGLISH GRAMMAR.
it modifies-its derivation and comparison, if derived
nnll compared. Thus:-
"He speaks fllwntly."-Pluently, an ndverb of maDner, nDd modifies
".peaks ;" derived fromjlucnt, aDd compared more fluently, most fluently.
PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.
WheD we say, .. John I'lm~ rapidly," what part of speech is John?
what is 1'lillS (3H)? What is the usc of the w01'l1 rapidly in that sentence?
What part of specch are those words '\\' hich express the maDner
of doing a thing (!\28-1) 1 What palt of speech, then, is rapidly? Why 1
Can you thilJk of any other "'ords that might be user! to elo:press the
manner in which" John runs? "-" Swiftly, slowly, 1/'ell, ill." What
pUI·t of speech are these words' Suppose yon say, .. John ran yesterday"
_u John runs now "-" John will run soon "-what is the use of the words
yesterday, 11010, soon? ,,'hat are words called which clo:press a circumstance
of timc (528-3)1
£oon? \\. hy!
Then what part of speech arc yesterday, nou',
What otbN words besides the verb do adverbs ruoJify (523) 1 Wben
we ~ay ... John is n Vtry good boy," what word modifies good? What
part of 8pecch is good? Why 1 Then what part of spcech is very?
Why?
If I S.1Y, "John reads exceedingly well," what worrl modifies reads?
AilS. TVell. Then what part of ~pe('ch is lNIl? Why 1 What word tells
U3 how he reads I What word Joes exceedingly modify! Then what part
of speech is it? Why 1
EXEIWISES.
1. T~lI to what class the foliowiDg adverbs b..!ong-whethel' pl'imitive
01' derivative-if not primitive hvw they are formed-comp3rc, if com·
pared :-
J ustIy, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, sufficiently,
thirdly, neal']y, almost, perfectly.
Here, there, any ",here, hither, thither, ye1', no, thence, some­
",here-now, then, to-day, hereafter.
2. Forlll senteuces, eaeh "f which will l',,!,!a:n one of tbe pl'cceJing
auvcrbs. Parse ns Jir~clcu (537).
EXERCISE", ON ADVERBS, IRREGUI,AR VERTIS, ETC.
Parse the following exercises as iu "Geueral Exercises," p. 103, and
(537) :-
Peter wept bitterly.-He ii:l here now.-She went away yes'
tcrday.-They carne to-day.-They will perhaps buy some to.
morrow.-"fe shall know hereafter.-She sang sweetlv.-Great
men are not always wiEe.-]\fary 1'0se up hastily.-·They that

ETYMOLOG Y-PREPOSITIONS. 109
have enough may soundly sleep.-Cain wickedly slew his
brother.-I saw him long ago.-He is a very good man.­
Sooner or later all must die.-You read too little.-They talk
too much.-James acted wisely.-How many lines can you
repeat r-You ran hastily.-He speaks fluently.-Then were
they glad.-He fell fast asleep -She could not hold her head
still.-The ship was driven ashore.-N 0, indeed.-They are
all alike.-Let him that is athirst drink freely. The oftener
you read with attention, the more you will improve.-Will
you be at home when I come ?-James will sit here, while you
stand there.-As for this man, we know not whence he is.
PREPOSITIONS.
538. A PREPOSITION is a word which shows the relation
bt'tween a noun or pronoun following it, and some
other word in the sentence; as, "The love OF money."
-" Come TO me."
539. Of the wonls related, that before the preposition i~ called the
antecedent term of the rclntion, and that wl.ich follows it is called the
subsequent term. TlJis, being govel'lled by the preposition, is ulso called
its regimen, as in the examples above.
540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may be followed by
an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, used as a substantive; as,
"We are about to depart."-" IIonorcd for having done his duty."-" The
crime of being a young man."
541. The preposition and its regimen united are called the adjunct of
the antecedent term; ancl the antecedent term, as related to its adjunct,
may be called the principal. 1t is usually a noun, or pronoun, an adjective,
a verb, or an adverb; as, "The waters of Jordan."-" He with the book in
his band."-" It is good for me."-" Prll!/ for U6."-" He acts consistently
with his principles."
542. The same word not unfrequently has severn! adjlll1cts; a', .. He
WENT from, Boston, by railroad, to 1'.',w York, ill eight hours." Also the
noun or pronoun in the adjunct, may be limited by ove or more adjuncts
-the whole forming a compound adjunct; us, "It is CONSISTENT with the
character of a man of honor." Here," of honor" is the adjunct of man,
.. of a man of honor" is n compound adjunct of charact(r; and the whole,
.. with the character of a man of honor," is a compound adjunct of con·
sistent.
543. The preposition i3 so called because it is usually placed beforo its
regimen, as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the sentence
may be eo inverted that the preposition follows its regimen immediately,
or at Bome distance; a~, .. Where echo walks the steep hills among."­
.. WI/.Om did he speak to r

110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
544. III the natuml order of a sentence, the adjunct follows its pl'inoi.
pal' as, .. He withdrew affa suppa." It is often con'l'enicnt, bowe'l'cl',
to ~rrange the ndjunct first; as, c, ./1f"r supper, he withd,ew 'with his
friend who had cnlled f,,1' him," H~rc the sarue sense can not be gi"en by
placing the adjunct, .. after supper," anywhere eise in the scntcllCE'.
545. LIST OF PREPOSITIONS.
'1'0 be committed accurately to memory.
About Behind From Through
Above Beneath In Throughout
Across Beside Into Till
After Besides N otwithstandingTo
Against Between Of Touching
Along Betwixt Ofl' Toward
Amid I Beyond On Towards
Amidst 5 But Over Under
Among I By Out of Underneath
Amongst 5 . Concerning Past Until
Around Down Pending Unto
At During Regarding Up
Athwart Ere Respecting Upon
Bating Except Round With
Before Excepting Save Within
Below For Since Without
546. Cvneerning-, exeepti1lf;, regarding, respecting, and tOl/eking, were
originally pre8ent participles active, of tl':ln8itive verhs, and as such required
nn objective case after them (801). Tbey may frequently be EO
construed still. During may be regarded as originally the present par·
ticiple active, of nn intransitive verb, baving tbe noun or pronoun in the
nominative case absolute (769); tbu8," During life," mcans life during,
or while life endw·es. Notll'ithstlln

ETY ;o.IOLOG Y - PRli:POSITIONS. 111
549. To, the sign of (h~ infinitive mood. &hould not be regarded as 1\
preposition, but as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the vprh
in that plitt.
550. When a preposition has !lot an object, it becomes nn adverb; as,
"He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out,fall 011, &c.,
up, out, on, should be con,idC1'c(1 IlS parte of the verbs to which th~y nre
joined, rather than as prepositions or advel bs.
551. Several words in the preceding list nre used sometimes as pr('positions
nnd sometimes as other parts of speech; ns, tbus, till, until, after,
before, &c., are frequently ndvel·bil. But alld save, followp.d by the ohjec·
tive case, are used as prepo,it.ions; followed by a nominative, they are
conj unction~. For anu since are also used as conjunctions.
552. All words used a< prepositions are followed by an objective case,
and may by this be distinguished from other words.
r.\USING.
553. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of
speech, and between what words it shows the relation;
thus," The waters of Jordan." O/is a preposition, and
shows the relation between Jordan and waters.
Here Jordan is tbe regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the all·
junct of waters; and waters is the principal tLl which the adjunct IJe1ollgs.
554. PRELDIINARY ORAL EXERCISE.
When I say, .. The book is on the table," what word shows the relation
of book to the table? What part of speech are words that show the rela·
tion between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence? Theu
what part of speech is on? Could the book be in any other relation tQ the
table than on it i It might be off the table, above the table, under the
table, beside the table, &0. Then what part of speech are off, above, under,
beside? Why i When we say, .. They live ill the country," wbat word
shows the relation between country and iit'e? Then what part of speech
is in?
EXERCISES.
In tbe following sentences, point out the preposition, and the words
between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and principal.
In what sentences has the principal more th,m one adjunct I-in what, a
compound adjunct I
He went from Boston.-He went to Wasbington.-He went
from Boston to W ashington.-W e reside in the country.-All
rivers flow into the sea.-He gave his book to me.-He gave
[to] me bis book.-Flowers bloom in Bummer.-In summer
flowers bloom.-He gave part of his dinner to a poor man in
the street.-He was trayeling toward Rome when he met him

112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
at Milan, without a single attendant.-Be kind one to another.
-The love of money is the root of all evil.-Do good to all
men.-Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good.
-For his gallant conduct in rescuing so many from a watery
grave, he was highly honored. ~
2. In the preceding exercises, parse each word in order as directed, p.
103, Rnd Nos. 1'>37 and 553.
INTERJECTIONS.
555. An INTERJECTION is a word used in exclamations,
to express an emotion of the mind; as, "Oh ! what a fall
was there!"
556. The Interjection i~ so called, because it is, as it were, throu'll in
among the words of a sentence, without any grammatical connection with
them. Sometimes it stands at the be~inning of a sentence, sometime. in
the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too
strong to admit of other words being spoken.
A LIST OF INTERJECTIONS.
557. The following is a list of the interjecti

1;:TYlIfOJ.OGY-CONJUNCTIONS.
tIS
CON JU~WTIONS.
561. A CONJUNCTION is a word which connects words,
phrases, or sentences; as, "He (lnd I must go, but you
may stay."-" Of him, (lnd through him, and to him, are
all things."
562. Here, and (,ODnects the word, He and I, aud but COIJIlCcts the sentences,
.. He and I must go," and" you may stay."
563. ConjuDctions sOllletimes bec;in Relltences, even aftet· a full perio,l,
to !how a cOD:'ectioD betwcen sentence; iu the general tenor of disco>ul'St',
See, I\S examples, the first chapter of Genesis,
564. Conjunctions are di vided into two classes: Copulative
and Disjunctive.
565, Copulative conjunctions connect things that are to be considercd
together. They are, amI, both, as, because, for, if, since, that.
566 . .and is the principal copulative, anc! connects what follows as an
addition t'.> that which precedes. The otherd connect what fOllows as II
condition, supposition, cause, motive,

114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
speech, its class, and the words or sentences which it
connects; as, "He and I must go; but you may stay."
.and-a copulative conjunction, and connects the words He and 1.
But-a disjunctive conjunction, and connects the 6entcnces, "He Bnd I
must go," and" you may stay."
573. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE.
When we say, "John and James study," what word connects John nnd
James 1 What class of words connect words or sentences 1 'Yhat part of
speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads and write~," what docs and
connect i What does and connect in the following phrases, "A red and
white rose "-" A red rose and a white rose "-" Well and truly said I"
What coujunction connects the following sentences, .. 'fhe.y are happy,
because they Ilre good"! Here the following facts may be noticed (\146,
.1:c.):-
1. 'Vhen two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same
case, and in the same construction.
2. When two verbs are conuected, they have the same subject; as,
"James reads and writes."
3. When two adjectives are connected, they qualify the Eame noun or
pronoun.
4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word.
6. When conjunctions connect sentences, they do not connect individnal
words in the sentence. Thus," They are happy, because they are
good," the conjunction does not connect they with they, nor are with
are, DOl' happy with good; but, "They are happy," with" they are
good." So also when they connect phrases: .. He spoke to James,
and to me "-" Of him, and througb him, and to him, arc all things."
EXERCISES O~ C'JNJUNCTIONS.
1. In the following sentence~, point out the conjunctions, aud state what
words, or Bentences, or phra~es. they connect. Sometimes the order is so
inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first.
2. Parse the words in their order.
Time and tide wait for no man.-The eyening and the morning
were the first day.-The memory of the just is blessed, but
the name of the wicked shall rot.-If thou taint in the day of
adversity, thy strength is small.-Two and two make four.­
George or John will go.-They will succeed because they are
industrious.-Because they are industrious they will succeed.
Of him, and through him, and to him, are all thiugs.-Though
he slay me, yet will I trust in him.-Of making many hooks
there is no end, and much study is a weariness to th" flesh.­
My SOD, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not.

ETYMOLOGl'-PABSING. 115
PARSING.
574. PARSING is the resolving of a sentence into its
elements or parts of speech.
575. Words may be parsed in two ways: Etymologically
(576), and Syntactically (983).
1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the parts
of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its
uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and derivation,
if derived.
2. Syntactical. parsing adds to the above a statement
of the relation in which the words stand to each other,
and the rules according to which they are com bincd in
phrases and sentences.
3. In the natural order, Etymological parsing should precede "1I1alysu;,
because we can not analyze II sentence before we have learned tbe cliar·
acter of the words it contains; nud .Bnalysis should precede Syntactical
parsir.g. hecnuse, till we know the parts and elements of a sentcnce. we
can Dot understand their relations, nor intellig,·ntly combine them into one
consistent whole. Still, theee are all so intilllntely cunnected and blended
togethel', tbat to do anyone of tbem ill tbe best manner. a knowledge of all
is necessary. As Etymological pnrsiug bas to do only witb the accidents
of words. it matters not wbether the words parsed are unconuected. or in
sentences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical pari'ing, not only must
the words constitute a sentence, hut that also must be both intelligible and
understood; for no one con either analyze or por2e syntactically that which
he does not understand.
ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING.
576. Words are parsed etymologically in the manner
directed under each part of speech, viz.: Nouns (182)
-articles (194)-adjectives (225)-pronouns of different
kinds, viz., personal (253), relative (278), interrogative
(286), adjective (313)-verbs (491 and 496)­
adverbs (537)-prepositions (55~)-interjections (560)
-conjunctions (572).
577. That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercise. is of
much importance, in order to pursue with pleasure and Sllccess the study of
Syntax, and to a correct underetanding of the forms and usages of speech
in the English langunge.

116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
578. A senteuce to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is necessary for
tbe pupil. in the first place, to understand it. When he under8tands a sen·
tencp, and also tbe definition of the differellt parts of speech given in the
grammar he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them
each wor;l belongs; that is, which of the words are .. nalll~s of thing8 " or
nouns; which" qualify the names of things," or, "affirm anything conceruina
them," that is to say, which words are adjectil'es, and which are verbs.
Tbis method will ex\}rcise the Ji,criminating powers of the pupil better,
engage his attention much more, and. on trial, be found much more easy
and certain, than that of consulting his dictionary on every occa~ion-a
plan always !abol:ious, often unsatisfactory, and .which, instead of I.eading
him to exercise hIS own powers, and depend on hiS own resources, will lead
him to habits of slavi"h dependence on tbe authority of others.
579. The following general principles should be remembered, and stead·
ily kl'pt ill view, in parsing every sentence, viz.:-
1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pronoun, expressed or
understood (195, and J 96).
2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing spoken oj, is always
in the nominative (except when the verb is in the infinitive), and said to
be the nominative to the Terb (315 and 762).
8. ETery verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative,
has a nominative or subject, expressed or understood (661, 4).
4. Every verb in the active voice ueed transitively, and every preposition,
is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, or by an infinitive
mood or a clause of a sentence equivalent to it; and every objective
case, except as in (828), is governed by au active trnnsitive verb, or pro·
position (661, 6).
5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends on, or is governed by,
a verb or adjective (865).
580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL l'ARSING.
"The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively examined, affords a
thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent
Hand by which it was created.""
• In parsing nouns, pronouns, and verhs, it is quite unneces~ary to repeat the words
gender, ~llm.beT, ~a5e, t.enlie, mood, voice. Thus, "Father is a noun, masculine gender, in
the nommall\"e cast, smgular number." It is enough, and is both neater and briefer to
say~ "a noun ~nsculine. in the nominative singular.,t So ,vith the ~erb: instead of
S:lYJIlg-, "'Loves IS n verb," &'c.," in the present tense, indicati\'e mood active voice third
perSOIl, singular number:' it is sufficient and better to ~ay ... In the 'pTesent jndic~tive
Active, third person singular!' The conjugatiun of regular verbs al50 (485) "I,rithout any
detriment, may bf? omitted, the form of the principal. parts being sufficiently ascertained
whe~l ~hey are said to be regular (491. note). All thls saves much time, and it is just as
expllcllllS the full (orm often used. For the same reason, and ns fonnerly mentioned
(lOS), the word~ proper nnd common, ad applied .to nouns~ may be omitted i because,
whether a noun IS proper or common, makes no difference In the construction of n St::n ..
tence ; no use .is made o( it, nothing d~pends on it. In like manner, the designation of
person, as applied 10 nouns, may be omItted, except when they are of the first or 6eoond,

ETYMOLOGY-PARSING. 117
Previous to parsing this sentence, the pupil may be Jed to understand
it better, and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attending to 8uch
questions as the following: What is 8poken of in this s~ntellce 1 How
3re plant :lltd animal qualified? What is said of them thus qualified!
How is wonders limited 1 What else is said of plant and animal? Whom
do they oblige I What do tbey oblige us to do I Hew is hand qualified I
What hand 1 cite.
581. Tbese words mny be parsed fully, tbus :-
The •.•.•... DEFINITE ARTICLE, sbewing that plant ond animal al'e defined
or limited.
minutest . ..• An ADJECTIVE, beeall8e it qualifies a nonn, plant, &c.
compared by er and est, or by prefixing more and most.
6uperlative degree-expresses tbe greatest degree of minute·
ness compared with others.
plant . ...... A NOUN-the name of an object.
neuter-is witbout sex.
nominative, becausc tbc subject of affords nnd oblige.
singular-it denotes but one; pluml, plants.
or ......... A DISJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTIOS-conueets plant and animal as
alternates.
animal .•..•. A NCVN--tbe nnme of an object.
neuf€r-consiuered without sex (125)
nominative singular, for reasons above :-(Eee ldanl).
if .......... A CONJUNCTIO::-counects the sentence, "[it is] at/entirely
examined," as a condition, to the s('utence, "affords," &c.
it . ......... A PRONouN-~tandB instead of a nouu, plant or animal.
7leutcT-it denotcs neither male nor femalc.
personal-its form indicates its person.
third pason-it is spoken of.
sit/gular-it denotes but one.
i~ eXlImilled • . A VERB -expresses an act.
transitive-expresses an act done to plant, &c., represented
by it.
regular-its past tense and past participle eud in cd.
present-expresses a present act.
indicative-n.ed subjunctively, and expresses a conditiou.
passive-represents the su~ject as acted upon.
third person-affirms of its subject r-poken of.
singular-affirllls of but one.
atLcntivaZy •• An AD\'EIlB-modifies examined; fOl'llled f,om the adjccti ve
attentive by nddir.g ly; compared t.y prefixing more nnd
most.
afford, . ....• A VERB-it exprcs

118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
regular-its past tense and past participle end in ed.
present-expresses a present act.
indicative-declares simply.
active-represents its subject as acting.
third person-affirms of its subject spoken of.
fingu/ar-nffirms of but one.
a . ...••.... I:-WEFI:-;ITE ARTICLE-showing that .. thousand wonders" is put
indefinitely as oue wbole, that is. one thousand.
thousun,l . ... An AD.JECTlvE-qunlifies u·ollrier.,.
numeral-denotes number.
rIIrdinal-dpnotes how many; not compared.
!I·ondas A Nou:-;-the name of an object.
neuter-without sex.
objective-the object of affords.
plural-denotes more than one.
ul,d ........ COPULATIVE cO:-;JU:-;CTlO:-I-connec!s the succeeding sentence
fiS an addition to the preceding.
obliges . ..... Same as affords.
u, ......... A PERSO:-fAL l'fiONO[;:-;-th" sub,titute of the speaker and
othtl'o', and consequently first person.
masculine orfeminine-may denote males or females.
objective-the object of obliges.
plural-denotes more than one.
to (./,/mire . " A 'EBB-expresses an act.
transitive-hus an object. hund.
regular-its past tense and past participle end in ed.
present-expresses an act present at the time referred to in
tbe preceding verb, obliges.
infinitive-without limitation of perwn or number'.
active-represents the subject referred to (395) fiS acting. It
is the attr.bute of us, or has us for its subject.
und ........ COPULATIVE CO:-fJU:-;CTION-connec!s to adore as an addition to
to admire.
adore . ...... Same as admire. without tI:e sign (880).
that . ....... DEMO:\,STBATIVE ADJECTIVE rRo:\,ouN-used to point out defi.
nitely the word hand.
Omnipotent . . An ADJECTIVE-qualifies hand; Dot compared because it does
not admit of increase.
halid ....... A NOU:-f-Same a5 wondels, exceptsingular-denotes
one. and is the object of admire and adm·e.
by .•••••••. A PREPosITJO:-f-Ehows the relation between 1(·(./S created Ilnu
which.
,,·hich ...... RELATIVE PRONOU:\,-71cu!er, in the objecth-c sil1guhr, refers
to hand fiS its antecedent, ant! is govtlmed by by.
singular-mcans but one.
it ..•....... A PERSONAL PRONOl'N-stands for plant or animal, same as
before.
was created. A vlIRB-expresses an net done by hand, represented by which.

t'ry ~JOr,OG V--PARSING,
It!}
im1lsitive-expresses an act done hy olle person 01' thing to
another.
rRgula,·-its past tense and past participle end in cd.
pasl-exrresses an act now 1'''8t.
indicative-declares simply.
passive-represents its subj .. ct as aete.] upon.
tltird persoll-its subject is spoken ufo
sinqlliar-aflhms of Cone.
ABBREVIATED r.IODEL.
582. The length "f time neces~ary to parse eyen a few words in this
way, renders it impracticable to do it often, though occasionally it may tw
pl'ofitable. The following brief method will answer every purpose:-
Tile . ....... Definite article, Lc-Ionging to planl and animal, anrl showing
them to be limited.
minute .• t . ... Adjective, supctlative degret', qualifying plallt. &c.
pla,d ...... A noun, neuter, in tbe nominative singular. subj,·C't of affords.
or . .....••. A disjunctive conjunction, c"nncding Flant and allimal as
alternates.
animal .•••. A noun, neuter, in thc nominative singulal', subject of afford .•.
if . .....••. A conjunction, connecting the sentences.
it .......•. Third personal pronoun, neutel', in the nominntivc singnlar,
standing for plant or animal, nnd subject of i .., e.rnmined.
is t;:umi,.,d. A verb transitive, I'el;ular, in the present indicative. active,.
expreseing what is done to its slll~ect ii, used for plallt or
a"imal.
attwtivtly .. An adverb, modifying e.wmilled; compal ed by more alld
most.
affords . ...• A verb transitive, regulal" ill the prcpent indicative, activf',
third person singufar, and affirll1s of pla>!' or animal.
a ••....••• , Indefinite nrticle, showing tlloltsalld wOllder~ to be indefinite
thousand . .•. A numeral adjecti ,'e, used to qualify 1llonders.
wOllde" . .... A noun, neuter, in the objecti ve plural, object of offords.
and •.....• A copulative c"njunction; COIlnects the pred:cales offord."
&c., nnd oblifJes.
obliges . ..... A verb transitive, regular. in the present indicative active,
third person singular, and affirms of plallt or animal.
1IS ••••••••• First personal pronoun, masculine 01' feminine, in the "bjrc.
tive plural, object of obliges, and subject of to admire, &c.
10 admire .• . A verb tran.itive, regular, ill the prr,cnt i"finitive, active,
attribute of !lS, or object of oblifJes.
and.. . .... A copUlative conjunction; conoects to a,.'rnire and to adore.
to udore A verb transiti,'c, regular, in the present infinitive, act.ive,
attribute of liS, or object of ob!;geR.

I:2U
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
thai •....... Demonstrative adjective pronoun, definitely pointing out halld.
Omnipott1lt . An adjective, qualifying hand; not compared.
hand ••••••• A uoun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of adore.
by ...•..... A prepositiou, which sbows the relation between was created
and which.
u·hich ••••.. A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, objecti
ve, and g.,ycrned by by.
it . •.•....•• Third personal pronoun, same as before j subject of WIl8 cre·
ated.
;oas Neatcd .• A verb ttan.it.i\·e, regular, in the past indicative, passive,
tbird person singular, and affirms of it.
583. EXERCISES IN PARSING.
1. Two or more acljectives in ~uccessi()n. either with or loit//Out a conj""C'
lion, qualify the same /(·(ml; as,
1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his maRter's interc.t.
~. A dismal, dense, and portcntouo cluud overhangs tbe city. 3. A stea.iy,
sweet, and cheerful t"lllper affords great deligbt to its possessor. 4. He
has bought a fiutl new coat.
:!. lVhen an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally qualifics theUl &01" ;
as,
1. They waited for a fit time :In,\ place. :!. I am delighted with the
sight of green woods and fields. 3. He uisplayed great prudence aud
moderation. 4. He was a man of great wisdom and moderation.
s. lI T hen an adjective comes after a verb intransith'e, it generally quali·
fies the 710minative of that verb; as,
1. JGhn is wise. 2. They wcre temperate. S. The sky is very clear.
4. These riYers are deep and rapid. 5. The apples wiII soon be ripe.
6. We have been attentive to our lessuns. 7. These mountaius are Hl'y
high.
4. lVhatever wOl'ds t"everb" 10 be" serves to unite, rcferri'lg to the Same
thing, must be of the same case; as,
1. Alexand~r is a student. 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 3. Hope
i3 the balm of Ii fe. 4. Content is a grcat blessing, envy a great cllree.
Ii. Knowledge is power. 6. His meat was locusts and wild honey. 7. He
was the life of the company.
NOTE.-It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words
cOlJuected refer to the ~ame thing. This connection is often made by
othr worus tban the verb" to be "c( 605 01' 7(17).
Ii. Nouns alld pronouns. placed tu.qctl,er fOI' the sake of empha.'is. or ex·
planation, alld denoting the same 01)- ct, n.rc said to be in apposition. Im«
always agrte in ca~e; as, ' .

ETYMOLOGY-PARSING, 121
1. Alexander the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apostle Paul.
2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. S. Thomsen, the author
of "The Seasons." is a delightful poet. 4. Tempel"ance, the best preserver
of health, should be the study of all men.
NOTE.-In parsing such seutences as those above, a relative and a verb
may be inserted betwecn the words in apposition. JJfllsclf, thysdj. hilllself,
&c. often stand at a considerabl,) distance from the words with which
th ey agree; as,
5. Thomas degpatched the letter himself. 6. They gathered the flowers
in the garden themselves. 7. Ann saw the transaction herself, aud could
1I0t be mistaken.
6. Myself, thyself, himself. d:c., often form the objectives after activetransiti"e
verbs, of wltich the words they represent are the subjecls or nom inative~.
as,
They are in such cases generally called Reflexive prono!l1i8 (249) ;
1. Ihurt myself. 2. He wronged himself, to oblige us. S. They will
Bupport themselves hy their industry. 4. She endeav,)ured to show hereelfolfto
advantage. 5. We must confine ourselves more to our studies.
u. They hurt themselves by their great anxiety.
7. Adjective., taken as nouns, and used in referellce to persons, are gen.
erallyoj the plural number (201); as,
1. The valiaut never taste of death but onCl'. 2. The virtuous are
generally the most happy. 3. The diligent make most improvement. 4.
The sincere are always esteemed. 5. The inquLitive are generally talIm
tive. 6. The dissipated are much to be pitied.
8. Nouns and pronouns, taken in tlte same connection, must be of tlte
sa1ne case; as,
1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He aDd she were schoolfdlows.
3.:My brother anel he are tolerable grammarialls_ 4. He gave
the book to Juhn and Thomas. 5. I lent my knife and peucil to oue of
the scholars.
9. A relative generally precedes tlte verb tltat governs it; as,
1. He is a friend W/lOni I greatly rnpect. ~. They whom luxury has
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of life. 3. The books which
I bought yesterday, I have not yet received. 4. The trees which he planted
in the spring have all died.
10. lV/ten both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb belollging
to it, tlte Telati,.e is commonly tlte nominative to tlte first verb, and tlte ante.
cel.ellt to tlie second; as,
1. HJ.: who acts wisely DESERVES praise. 2. He who is a straugel' to indns·
tl'Y may possess, but he cannot enjoy. 3. They who are born in high
stations are not always the most happy. 4. The mall who is faithfuU,
attacued VI relig:on m,lY be relied on with confidence.

11. Tlte relative wbat in it8elll'epresellts but one case-tI,e 1!ominat~",;
or objective; but it implie8 a reference to II general antecedent omitted, to
wltici. bel()ngs the other case required by tlte constrllction. When litis antecedent
is trrpressed, which must be 1,sed instead of what (266).
1. This is precisely what was necessary. 2. Wh~t can not be prevented
must be endured. 3. We must not delay till to·morrow what ougbt to be
done today. 4. Choose what is most fit; custom will make it the most
agreeable. 5. Foolish men are more apt to consider what they have lost,
than what they possees. G. What he gained by diligence, he squandered
by extravagance.
12. Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple relative, and a
general or i"definite antecedent, and in parsing may be so resolved; thus,
whoever = nny one who. The Slime is the case "'ill, whatever alld whalso·
ever; whatever ~ everytlling which; as,
1. Whoever tolJ such R. story, must have been misinformed. 2. Who·
ever is not content in poverty, would not be perfectly happy io the midst
of plenty. 3. Whoever passes his time in idleness, can make but little
improvement. 4. Whatever gives paio to others, deserves not the nnme
of pleasure. 5. Whatever is worth doiog at all, is worth doing well.
NOTE.- lVhatevcr is IDOSt frequently useu as what somet!mes i~ (2'77)
simply to qualify a noun i as,
6. Aspire at perfectioo, in whatever slate of life you 1D3Y be placed.
7. I forget what words he uttered. S. By what means shall we obtain
wisdom' 9. By whatever arts we may attract atteotion, we can secure
esteem only by amiable dispositions.
13. 77wugh partic;ples never directly declare, yet tlup always imply
'mnething either dOTle or doi7lg; alld are useJ in reference to some noun or
pronoun; a8,
1. Admired aod applauded, he became vain. 2. Having finished our
le~eolls, we weot to play. 3. Proceediog on his journey, he was seized
with a dangerous malady. 4. Beiog engaged at the time of my call, he
had not a moment to spend with me.
14. TI,e pa.,t patticiple of a few intransitive verbs is sometimes joined to
the verb" to be," which git'es 811eh verbs a passive appearance (374); as,
1. I am come, in compliance with your desire. 2. If such maxims anJ
practices prevail, what has become of deceocy nnd virtue! The old house
is fallen down. 4. John is gone to Londoo.
15. Intlansitive verbs are often followed by pupositions, making what
are sometimes called compound transitive verbs. Tlte verb and preposition
may, in weft cases, be parsed either togetlter or separately in tlte active voice.
In the passive voice, they mU8t be parsed together; as,

L He laughed at such folly. 2. They smiled upon us in such n way as
to inspire courage. 3. He struck at his friend with great violence. 4. He
was much laughed at for such conduct.
16 • .A noun or pronoun is often used with a participle, without being
connected in grammatical construct·ion with any other words of the sentence,
It is tl,m called the nominative absolute, or independent; as,
1. The fatller being dead, the whole estnte came into the hands of the
eldest son. 2. He destroyed, or won to what may wod, his utter loss, nIl
tbis will 50011 fullow. 3. Whose gray top sball tremble, he descending.
1 '1. To the sign of the infinitive, i8 omitted ajter tlte verb .• bid, dare,
need, mak'!, see, hear, feel, and let; and sometimes after perceive, behold,
observe, have, know, &:c., in the active "oice, but is retained after tlte sallle
verbs in the passive; as,
1. Let me look at your portrait. 2. He bade me go with him. 3. I
heard him assert the opinion. 4. I like to see you behave so well. 6.
Let him apply to his books, and then he will make improvement. 6. Let
us make all tbe haste in our power. '1. I saw him ride past at great
speed. S. I have observed some satiriets use the term.
IS. Verb8 connected by cOl/junctio1l8, are usually in tlte 8a111e mood and
ten8e, but in tlte compound tenses, t!le sign i8 often used 10ith the first ollly,
and understood witlt tlte rest; as,
1. He can neither read nor write. 2. He shall no longer tease and vex
me as he has done. 3. He commanded them that they should not depart
from Jerusalem, but wait for the promise of the father. 4. His diligence
should have been commended and rewarded.
19. NOUI18 and pronoun8 are often governed by a preposition understood;
and nouns denotin!} time, value, weight, or measure, are used to Tp.strict
verbs or adjecti'Jes, witllOut a governi,,!} word (S~8); as,
1. He gave [to] me a full nccount of the whole affair. 2. Will you lend
me your knife. 3. It is not time yet to go Iwme. 4. He returned home at
a very inconvenient lenson. 5. He traveled on foot, In,t summer, as far ns
London. 6. He was in Paris last month.
20. The conjunction8 than and as, implying comparison, have tlte same
case .afler throt as bifore them; and /!le latier case ItflS /he same cons/rite·
tion as the former; as,
1. He has more books than my brot/ler (has). ~. j[ary is not so hand·
some u.s her silter (is). 3. They respect him more than (they respect) u.'.
4. James is not so diligent ns Thomas. 5. They Are much greater guiners
than I, by this unexpected event.
21. The clasB of words, or paris of 8peech to which a word belongs, depends
often on its application; as,
1. Calm was the day and the scene delightful. 2. We may expect a

124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
calm after a storm. 3. To prevent pa~Bion is easier than to calm it. 4.
Bettcr is a little with coni cnt, tban a great deal witb anxiety. 5. The gay
fiud dissolute think little of the mi~eries which are stealiug softly after
them. 6. A little attentiou will rectify some errors. 7. Though be is out
of daugel', be is still afraid. 8. He labored to still the tumult. 9. Still
waters are commonly deepest. 10. Damp air is unwholesome. 11. Guilt
often casts a damp OVH our sprightliest hours. 12. Soft bodies damp tbe
sound much more than bard ones.
22. Do, have, and be, are principal verbs when used by themselves, but
auxiliaries when connccted with oilIer verbs; as,
1. He does all iu his power to gain esteem. 2. He did his utmost to
please bis friend. 3. We must do nothing tbat will sully our reputation.
4. She bas a strong claim to our respect. 5. Tbe man who has no sense
of religion is Iittlc to he trusted. 6. He who does the most good hns the
most pleasUl"e. 7. He is at home. 8. They are all well there.
23. A n infinitive, a participle used as a noun, 01' a member of a 6elltenu.
which ma.'! be called a substantive phrase, is ofteTi tlte nominative to a verb,
01' the objeclillc after an active tran8itive Vlrb or preposition (762 and 802);
a.lf,
1. Nominative.-l. To study hard is the best way to improve. 2. To
endure misfortune with resignation is the characteristic of a great mind.
3. To advise the ignorant, relieve the needy. and comfort the distressed,
are duties incumbent on all. 4. John's being from bome occasioned the
deby. 5. His haviog neglected opportunities of improvement, was the
causc of his disgrace.
2. Objectivc.-1. He that knows holV to do good and does it not, is with·
out excuse. :? He will regret his having neglected opportunities of improvement
when it may be too late. 3. He declared that nothing could
give him greater pleasure. 4. Of making maoy books there is 00 end. 5.
You will never repent of having done your dnty.
24. lVl/C11 (j substantive phrase (583, 23) is governed by a ve,b or prepositIon,
t" is regimen does not ailecl the case of i"dividual nouns or pronouns
in t"at phrase, but leaves them subject to tlte i"jl!lence of other words within
the phrase itself.
If the infinitive or participle of the vCI'b "to be," or of a passive verb
of naming, &c., is used in this way without a definite subject, the sub­
~tantive which follows it as a predic!lte is neither the subject of a verb
nor is under the regimen of any wore!; tbus, "His being an expert dancer
does not e?title him to our regard." The phrase, "beinq an expert dancer,"
IS the sub,Ject of the verb, "docs entitle," bllt tqe word "dancert in that

ETYMOLOG Y-PARSING. 12£>
pbrase, is neitber tbe subject of nny verb, nor governed by any word in the
sentence. Of this kind are 01\ Fuch expressions as the following: "It is nn
honor to be the alltlior of such II work."-' '1'0 be 8Urtty for a stranger is
dangerous "-" The atr0ciulH crime of {"oi1l1; a yOUllg man, I sball attempt
neither to pr.lliate nor dl'ny,'·-l'itt. III all such examples, whether the
phrase be the ~ubject of II verb, 01'· the obj,'ct of an active·transitive verb
01' preposition, the noun or pronounJollowillg' the verb" to be," or a passi ve
vel'l" is pruperly in the predicate-nominative (6::; 1 and 799). The words
m "Y be parsed separately, or the whole ph rose may be parsed 08 one word.
L He h",,1 the honor of being a director for life. 2. By being a diligent
student, he soon ncquired eminence in his profession. ~. l\Iony benefits
result to men from being wise aud temperate (men).
25. It qj'ten refers to persons, or to an infinitive coming after: as,
1. It is Joltn that is to blam e. 2. It wa.l I that wrote tbe letter. 3. It
is the duty of all to improve. 4. It is the business of every mau to pre·
pare for death. 5. It was reserved for Newton to discover the law of
gravitation. 6. It is easy to form good resolutions but difficult to put
them in pmctice. 7. It is iocumbent on the young to Inye and honor their
parents.
26. WorJs,:especially in poetry, are ofiO! much transposed; as,
1. Great is Diana of the Ephe,ians. 2. On yourEelf depend fol' aid.
3. Happy the man:wbo puts his trust in his ~I:tker. 4. Of uight tbe glllom
was dark and dense.
5. Or where the gorgeous east, with richest hand,
Showers on her kings barbaric, real'ls aud gold.
6. No hive hast thou of hoarded sweets.
'1. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow.
As additional exercises in parsing, ~he little work entitled" PUOGUESSIVE
EXERCISES in Analysis and Parsing" may now be used, or sentences from
any plain, simple, and accurate composition, such as arc contained in tbe
reading lessons, may be selected. The excrcises under the bead of
., ANJ.LYBIS," page 12, &e., may be used for the same purpose.

PART I I I
SYNTAX.
584. SYNTAX is that part of grammar which treats
of the proper arrangement and connection of words in
a sentence.
DEFINITIONS.
585. A SENTENCE is such an assemblage of words as contains an affirm·
ation, and makes complete sense; as, "Man is mortal" (660).
586. A PHRASE is two or more words l'ightly put together, but not con·
taining an nffirruation or making complete sense; as, "In truth"-"ln a
wOTd"-" To say the least."
587. A SUBSTANTIVE PHRASE is one which, in the construction of a sen·
tence, is equivalent to a noun or substantive, being 1. The subject of a
verb; os, .. To do good is to be happy;" 2. The object of a transitive
verb (320, 1); as, "To do good forget not." 3. The object of a preposi·
tion (540); as, "By pursuing this course he succeeded." 4. The attribute
after a copulative verb (604}; as. II He appears to be doing well."
588. An ADJUNCT is a preposition with its regimen (541) as related to
its principal or antecedent term; as, "The waters of Jordan "_" They
came to Jordan."
589. Sentences are of different kinds, according to the nature of the
tl;ought intended to be expressed. They are-
I. Declaratory, 01' Buch as declllre a thing; as, " God is 1000t."
2. Interrogatory, or such as ask a question; as, "Lov8st thou me'"
3. Imperative, or such as express n command; 8S, "Lazarus come forth,"
4. Exclamatory, or such as contain an exclamation; as, "Behold how he
loved him."
590, All sentences are either simple or compound. See 635. NOTE.
591. A simple sentence cODtnins only n single affirmntion; as, "Life iB
81wrl."

SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 127
592. A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentencetl
connected together j as, "Life, which i8 ShOI'/, should be well improv«l."
593. The simple sentences which make up a compound ecntence, are
called CLAUSES or MEMBERS (635,636).
I. ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES.
The subject of Analysis bere introduced will be found to be an intcrest·
ing and profitable exel ej,e for pupils, and an important preparation for the
OONSTRUCTIO~ OF SENTENCES (660, &c.). After the pupil hns gone through
this portion and become tolerably familiar with it, tbe Analysis of two or
three Eentences daily will be an amusement ratber than a ta8k. He should
begir. of course with sentences of the simplest character, gradually advancing
to those that are more complex. For this purpose, sentences may be
selected from any" Reading book" of easy lessons, or from" Parsing Exer·
cis"s" (583), or from the little work entitled" PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES IN
ANALYSIS AND PARSIlW," adapted to this Grammar. At first, the teacher
may direct the attention of the pupil orally to the order of Analysis by
such questions as thc following: What is a sentence I-Is this senter,ce
[" God i8 good "] simple or compound 1-Why simple 1-What are tbe parts
of a simple sentence (593) 1-What is the sul~ect of a £entence (595) I-or
whom docs this sentence affirm I-Then. what word is tbe subject of this
sentence 1-What is the predicate of a sentence (600) I-What is here
affirmed of the subject .• Gou" I-Then what is the predicate in this eent"nce
I-Of how many parts does tbe predicate consist (601) 1-What are
they! -In this predicate, what word is the attribute 1-What, the cupula I
What is a verb called when used as a copula only (604) ~-Wbat are the
verbs commonly used as copulatives (60,)? Having, in some such way as
tbis, conducted tbe analysis of simple selltences till tbe pupil has become
familiar with it, tbe eame, or a similar procei's may be pursued witb sen·
tences in wbich the subject or the predirate is modified j and so with sen·
teuces having a compound subject (613). or a compound predicate (627);
and then procced to compound sentenc

128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
with (59~) or without a subject (394), a participial nOlln (46~\ R subs/an·
tive phrase (587), or a c[Illtse of a .• entmee (6\);l); ns, "To lze IS ba~e."­
"Ji'or us to lie is base."-"Lying is bnse."-" To do wrollg knowingly is
blse."-" That mC/t should lif is base" (G4o).
597. When the iufiniti I'e with n subject in the objective case (872), is
used as the subject (Of a propositiou, it is introduced by the particle for ;
RS, "For us to lie is basc."
598. Wheu a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb (761) and
its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it ia introduced by the
conjunction that; as, " Tltat mvu should lie is base."
599. When the infinitive or the clause of a sentence as the subject fol·
lows the verb, the pronoun it preceues it, refearing to the subject (246, 2,
4); as, "It is base that men should lie."-"It is base to lie."-" It is base
for us to lie."
600. The predicate is that which is affirmed of the subject; as, .. Truth
is mighty."-" God reigns.'
Notc I.-The word" affirm" here is to be unuerstood as applying to all
kinds of sentences-declaratory, whether affirmative or negative, interroga.
tory, imperative, or ezclamatory (589).
Note 2.-The name of a peri'on or thing addressed forms no part of the
eentence; as, "La,!ant8, come forth."
601. The predicate properly condsts of two parts-the attribute affirmed
of the subject, and the copula by which the affirmation is made.
Thus, in the sentence, I, God is love," "God" is the subject, aud " is love"
is the predicate, in which" lovs" is tbe attribute, and" is" tbe copula.
602. The attribute and copula are often expressed by one word, which,
in that case must always be a verb; as, "The fire burl1s."=" The fire i8
burning."
603. The predicate may be a nOlm or pronoun, an adjective, sometimes
a preposition witlt its case, or an adverb-also an infinitit'c, or clause of a
sentence, connected with the subject by a copula, see examples (6~1 and
622): or it may be a verb, which includes in itself both attribute and
copula (602).
604. When a '\'erb does not complete the predicate, but is used as It
copula

"YNTAS-ANAI.Y~T"·
EXERCISES.
I. In the following, point ullt which are sentence.~, and why-which are
phrases, and why.
2. In the sentences, what is the subject, and why /-What is the predi.
cate, nnd why. Also which predi~at", al'e made by copulati!" verbs, and
which, by attributives. In buth, what is the attribute?
Snow is white.-Ice is cold.-Birds fly.-RosCB blossom­
The tree is tall.-'l'he fields are green.-Grass grows.-To say
nothing.-l\Ian is mortal.-God is immortal.-Home is sweet.
-Sweet is home.-'Who i~ Paul ?-Has he come?-'Will
James go ?-Are you tired ?-At all events.-To be sure.
3. :\Iake sentences of wbich one of the following words shall be the subject,
i. e. affil'm something respeeting each of them.
Trees, birds, horses, a sparrow, the stone, the thunder, the
wind, the clouds, time, he.
4. Analyze each of the sentences thus made, as directed above, No.2.
THE ~UBJECT.
607. 1. The subject of a proposition is either graml/1atical 01' logical.
608. The 9n"'!II1"I;('''/ subject is the person (.1' thing spoken of, unlim
ited hy olher words j as, "Knoll'led!Je is power."
609. The logical subject is the person or thing spoken of, together with
all the words or phraec" by which it is limited or defined: thus.
I n the sentence, "Every man at bis best state is vani ty," the grammati·
~:ll subject is "man j" tbe logical is, "Enery man at his best state."
610. Wben the gralllmatical ~ub.iect hns no limiting wor,ls connected
with it, then the grammatical and the logical eubject arc th" oame j II",
1\ (;C)ll is good."
611. II. The subject of a proposition is eitber simple or compound.
612 A simple subject consists of one subject of thought (f,\l6) j a~,
" Time is money."
613. A compound subject consists of two or more simple subjects, to
which belongs but one predicate j as, "James and John are brothers."­
"You and I are friends."-" Two and three are five."-" Time and tide wait
for no man.'''''
• The .... ulIJcl't is here considered :1'" compoulld, v.hether the predicate can be affir~ed
of each simple sullJect or not. Thu:-:, we can say, "Time waits for no man, and tide
Wall" (or no man;" but we can not say, "'fwo nre five, A.11l11hree arc five." . Still the
pr~cedjllg examples-" Time and tid,..," and •• two and thru"-are equally confilllered as
Gompound subjecIs, because Ihey consist each of more than one sU['J"ct.
~

ISO
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES.
I. 1. In each of the following seutences, poiut out the. grammatical sub·
ject-the logical.
The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom.-Wisdom's
ways are pleasantness: all her paths are peace.-~he love of
money is the root of all evil.-Hu~an knowledge IS progreso
sive.-Righteousness exalteth a natlOn.
II. 1. Iu each of the foliowing senteuces, point out the slt1dect,-the
predicate.
2. State whether the subjects are simple or compound; limited or IIftlimited.
In each, point out the grammatical subject-the logical subject.
Paul aud Silas sang praises to God.-Peter and John went
up into the ternple.-Gold and silver are precious metals.-Locusts
and wild honey were his food.-Socrates and Plato were
Grecian philosophers.-In unity consist the welfare and secu·
rity of society.-Summer and \yinter shall not cease.-Three
and three are six.-John and Jane are a handsome couple_
3. Write predicates to the following compound subjects:-
James and John.-He and she.-You and I.-The rich and
the poor.-Virtue and vic e.-Heat and cold.-France and
Mexico.-The sun and the moon.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE SUBJECT.
614. A grammatical subject, beiug a noun, may be modified, limited, or
described, in various ways; 8S,
1. By a noun in apposition-i. C., a noun auded in the same case for the
sake of explanation (668); as, "l\1ilt"n the poet was blind."
~. By a noun in the possessive case; as, "Aaron's rod budded."
3. By an adjunct (;'41); as, "The works of Xaturl' are beautiful."
4. By an adjectiv~ .wOl·d (that is, an article, * adjecti ve, adj~ctive pronoun,
or parhClple); as, "The hour has ul'l'ived."-"A qood name is
better than riches,"-" Your time is precious." _u Lost time can not
be recovered."
5. By a relative and its clause; as, "He who does no good, docs harm,"
6. By an infinitive moorl; 8S, "A desire 10 learn is praiseworthy."
7. By a clause of 8 sentence (593); as, "The fact that he was a scholar
was manifest,"
8. Each grammatical subj~ct may h;t"c several modifications; as, "Seve.
ral stars (,f lC88 magDltuJe, whICh we had not observed before now
appeared." ,
•. Though, for the reasoll. as~ig~ed (192), th~ arti,ele is not properly a limiting word, yet
R, ,t .hows that the word IS linuted or modified 111 some \\'3\' it is here ranked amollg
the mOlhficn.
'

SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 131
615. A grammatical subject, being a pronoun, is usually modified by a
noun in apposition; as, "I, Paul, would have come :" or by a relative
clause as in No.5 above.
Note.-Pronouns of the third person, and also relative pronouns, refer to
their antecedents together with their modifications; as, "Rebuke a wise
man, and he will love thee."
616. When the grammatical subject is an infinitive, or a participle used
as a noun, it may I:.e modified like the verb in the predicate (630).
EXERCISES.
In the following propositions. point out the grammatical sulJjecL-the
logical-and state how the grammatical subject is modified :-
All men are not wise.-Tall oaks from little acorns grow.­
Milton's" Paradise Lost" is a work of great merit.--W isdom' s
ways are pleasantness.-The love of money is the root of all
evil.-Evil communications corrupt good manners.-The disposition
to do good should be cherished.-The walls of Babylon
were fifteen miles long.-A desire to excel will stimulate to
exertion.-The effort to succeed will be cromled ,vith success.
-All things come alike to all.
Write Eeutences which have the subject mvuified by a noun in app",i.
tion-vr a nouu in the possessive case-or by an adjunct-or by an adjective
word-or by an infinitive mood-or by a clause of a sentcnce.
MODIFICATION OF MODIFYING WORDS.
617. Modifying or limiting words mDy themselves be modified :-
1. A nQun modifying another, may itself be modified ill all the wnya in
which a Doun as a grammatical subject is modified (614).
2. An adjective qualifying a noun rnay itself be mcdified:-
1. By an adjunct; as, "Be not weary in well.doing."
2. By an adverb; as, "Truly virtuous men often endure reproach."
3. By an infinitive; as, "Be swift to hear, and slow to speak."
3. Again, an adverb may be modified :-
1. By an adjunct; as, "Agreeably to Nature."
2. By another adverb; as .• < Yours very sincerely."
618. A modified grammatical subject, regarded us a complex ide,'. r;twy
itself be modified; as, The OLD bla!'k horse is dead.-The FIRST two hnts
are good, the LAST two are bad. Here old,jirst.last,-each modifying sllb·
jects already modified, viz., black horse, two lincs, two (linfs).
EXERCISES.
1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modif) illg r:OQ1S
modified '-tbe adjectives I-the adverbs'

132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusalem.­
Josephus, the Jewish histOJ;ian, relates the destruction of the
temple.-That pictme is a tolerably good copy of the original.
-Pride, that never failing vice of fools, is not easily defined.­
The author of Junius's letters is I:ltill unknown.-Truly great
men are far above worldly pride.
~. In the following sentences, point out the subject and the predicate.
Iu lll(,dified subjects, distinguish the grammatical and logical (608, 609).
To be good is to be happy.-To create creatures liable to
wants, is to render them sU3ceptible of enjoyment.-To heal'
patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great perfections of
conversation.-To speak the truth is but a small part of our
uuty.-It is a difficult thing to be idle (599).-It is a wise provision
of Providence that inferior animals have not the gift of
speech.-It is not intended that any individual should possess
all advuntages.-That any individual should possess all advantages
is not intended.
THE PREDICATE.
619. I. The predicate, like the subject (607), is either grammatical or
logical.
620. The grammatical predicate consists 0' the attribute and copula
(601), !lot modified by other words.
621. The attribute, which, together with the copula, f()I·ms the predi.
cate, may be expressed by n noun or pronoun, an adjective. n participle,
a prepositioo with its regimen, aod sometimes an adverb; as, "James is
11 sc'wlar"-"J~mes islte'·-".Jamcs is diligent"-"James isZearncd"­
.. James is in health "-" John is not 80."
622. The attribute is also exprcssed by an infinitive, or a dependent
clause: as, "To obey is /0 e1Voy."-" The day is to be celebrated."-u The
order is, that we must go."
623. The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words 01'
phrascs that modify it. Thus-
"Nero was cl'Gel to his subjects."-" Was cruel" is the grammatical,
and U was cruel to his subject"," the logical predicate. Again:" The
Greeks took Troy by strata~em."-" Took" is the grammatical, and" took
Troy by stratagem" is the logical predicate.
624. When the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms connect·
ed with it, the grammatical and the logical predicate are the same; as,
.. Life is short."-" The fire burn8."
EXERCISES.
In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. In each,
tell what is the grammaticill predicate, aod what is the logical predicate:

SYNTAX-A.NA.LYSIS. 133
Time flies.-The summer is past.-The fields are covered
with grain.-Great is trutb.-Coll4llbus discovered America.­
America was discovered by Columbus.-A free press is the
beginning of a free government.-All governments should be
founded on love.-It is religion that gives liberty to the world.
62S.-U. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple 01' compound
(611).
626. A simple predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute; a8,
" Life is short."-" Time jlif8."
627. A compound predicate consists of two or nlorc simple predicates
affirmed of one subject; as, "Cresar camc, and saw, amI c01l(Jlured."=
" Truth i8 great ami will prevail."
EXERCISES.
In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate. Stato
whether the predicate 13 8imple 01' compound. Distinguish the grammati·
cal and logical:-
1\Ian is mortal.-Wisdom is the principui thing.-God is
good and merciful.--Honesty is praised and neglected.-The
heart is the best and the worst part of man.-The use of travel
is to widen the sphere of observation, and to euable us to examine
and judge of things for ourselves.-Avurice is a mean
and cowardly vice.-Talent is strength and subtility of mind.
-Genius is mental inspiration and delicacy of feeling.-Talent
is the lion and the serpent-genius is the eagle and the dove.
MODIFICATIONS OF THE PREDICATE.
628. A grammatical predicate may be modified 01' limited in different
ways.
629. When the attribute (601) in the gl':lmmaticni predicute is a nuun,
it is modified-
1. By II noun or pl'onoun, limiting or describing the attriuute; as, "He
is John the Baptist."-" He is my friend."-h lIe is my father's
friend."
o By an adjective or participle, limiting the attribute; as," Solomon
was a wise king."-" It is a bird &il1ging."
630. When the grammatical predicate is an nltrilJUtivc velb (604), it is
modified-
1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the at·
tributive verb i as, .. John reads Homer,"-" I have heard him."
2. By an adverb i as, I, John reads well,"
3. By an adjullct (641); as, "They live in London."
4. By an infinitive; as, "Boys love to play."
5. By a dependent clause; ae, "Plato tuught that Ihe SOld is immorta.l."

ENGLISH GLAMMAR.
631. An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the
verb in tbe predicate (630).
632. 1J.. modifying clause, if a dependent propos:tion, mny be modifleu
In both its subject aud predicate as other propositions.
633. All other modifying words may themselves be modifieu, as similal'
words al'e when modifYlIlg the subject (GLt).
634. Srl'cra) moJifications nre sometimes connected with the same
I'ledic·ltt:'.
EXERCISES.
In tile ful1owin?; sentences, name the subject anJ prcdicate-distinguish
thc grammlltical and the logical predicate-show in what way the grarumatie:t1
predicate is mouified in the logical.
According to some ancient philosophers, the sun quenches
his flames ill the ocean.-Sincerity and truth form the basis of
every \'irtuc.-The coach will leave the city in the morning at
Bunrise.-The Sp:ll'tan youth werc accustomed to go barefoot.
·-The atrocious crime of bein~ a youug man I shall attempt
neither to palliate nor deny.-'l'rustillg in God implies a belief
in him.-ll is pretence was, that the storm prevented his attend­
:mce.-His intention was to destroy the fleet.-Time flies rapidly.-I
confess that I am in fault.-'\Villiam h:103 determilled
tv ·go.-I "ish that he may succeed in his enterprise.-They
said, "Thou hast t:~"ed our lives."
[11 thp preceding exercises, show in which 2fntences, and by 'll'hat words'
the modifiers of the predicate are themselves modified-also, in which the
predicate h.'8 more than one modifier.
CO)lPOUND SENTENCES.
635. A COMPO!:!,;]' sentence consists of two or morc EimpJe sentences or
propositions (592) connected t"6'cthel'; as, "If time is monry, wasl ing it
must bc proJigality,'"
636. The propositions which make up a compounJ sentence are called
Ilumbers or clauses. III the preceding cVlDpounu sentence, the Illembers
nre, ,. Time is money," and, "wasting it must be prodigality."
.. Some gram!f1arians divh.le sentences into 3imple, complex, and compound. AcC'onliug
to 1lu..; di\"isJOIl ('llmplex sentelll'('.:' are those which have olle or mOle ofLheir mt'lIIher:o;
d"pendellt or subordinate; :1lld compound sentences arc those whose members are
nil hl-eUpendent or t:oordinate. The classification seems to be defective iuloO"lCal accu·
ruey inasmuch as every complex ~l'ntence is. ill one view atieast (646), al.~0 ~ompound
anu 13 of course inclucted under that head. The division in th~ text 13 believed to L~
more simple and accurate Ihan Ihe 11Irecfoid division here proposed.

SYNTAX-A NAT,\"5fS, 135
L.~DEPENDENl'
AND DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
637. The clauses of a compound t'entence are either independ6l1t 01'
dependent; sumetimes called co·orJi7late and suoordinale.
63S. An independent clause is one that makes complete sense by itsdf.
639. A dependent clause is one that mal;es complete sense only in connection
with auother clause.
Thus, " 'Ve left when the sun set ;" " We left," is an independent clanse;
it makes scnse by itself; "when the sun set." is a depenuent clause; it
does not make complete seuse unless joined with the other clause.
640. The dependent clause may often stand first; a~, .< When the sun
set, we left."
641. All the clauses of a seutence may be independent; one of them
always must be independent.
642. The clause on which another depends is called the leadin.1 clause;
its subject, the leadillg subject; and its predicate, the leading predicate.
But this leading clause itself may be depen!lent 011 another, which i" a
leadi ng clause to it.
EXERCISES.
Iu the following sentences, state which are ,qimple nnu which are com·
pound. In the compound sentences, point out the members or clauses:-
Ignorance moves our pity, and that modifies our aversion.­
If we have not always time to read, we have always time to
reflect.-The poor if! haied ercn of his own neighbour, but the
rich hath ruany friends.-The eyes of the Lord are in eYl'r,v
place beholding the evil und the good.-Righteousness exalteth
a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people.-Pride goeth before
destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall.-Death and
life are in the power of the tongue.-Though he slay me, yet
will I trust in him.-The slothful man saitb, "There is a lion
in the way."-When the righteous are in authority, the people
rejoice.
In the preceding simple scntences and members, point out the 8ubject
and predicate, with their respective modifications-state what clauses are
independent aud what dependent.
COXNECTION OF CLAUSES.
643. Clauses of the same kind, that is, indepenuent or depent!J:ltIt, aTe
connected by such conjunctions and, OT, nor, but, yet, anu the like; as,
II The harvest is past, the Bummer is ended, and we are not saveu,"

136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
644. In such sentences, the counective is often omitted, and generally.
when the sentence consists of more than two members, it is omitted in all
except the last, as in the above example (643).
645. The memhers of a compound sentence, containillg onc or more
dependent clauses, are usually connccted by relatives, cOlljunct.ion~, 01'
conjunctive adverbs (534); thus,
Relative-" That WHICH can not be cured must be endurerl."
Conjunction-" The miser lives poor, TUAT he may die rich."
COT/jILl/ctive .Adverb-" We shall go WHEN the cars go."
III the first sentence, the relatioe not only stands as the subj('ct of "can
1I(.t be cnTed," but also connects its c1ame with the leadillg clause; that
connects the clauses in the eccund example, and when in the third.
646. When a clause connected by that Can be regarded eithcr as the
,ubject or the object of the vel b in tLe leading clau,;e, it is in c')U"tl'uction
equivalent to a'substantive', and the whole may he I'egar,)ed as a simple
sentence, though in a form really compuund. Thus, in the 8clltcnce,
.. That melt should lie is base," there are two clalL,es c,)unecterl b\' tliat,
constituting, of course, a compound sentence, an,] yet the dependent clause,
.. That men should lie," is really tbe subject of is, and equivalent, to a noun.
Thus viewed, the whole llJay be regs.rded as R simple sentence. So al,o,
when the dependent clause is the olJect of the leadin::; verb; as, " I said
thai ye are gods;" nnd also when either subject or predicate is modified by
a relative clause.
647. The connecting word is sometimes omitted; as, "This is the b(,nk
I lost; I suppose yon found it," for, " This is the book whit'h I lost; I sup·
pose that you found it."
EXERCISES.
In the following compound sentences, state which c"lltain onlv independent
clauseR, and which contain dependent "ne.s-point out the -dependent
clauses, and show on what leading clauses tLey depend-name the connt'ct·
ing words-state which llJay also be l'cgal'ued as simple sentences (6-16)_
The weather was fine and the roads were excelll'nt, but we
wero unfortunate in our companions.-It is said that the Atlantic
is three thousand miles broad.-'While the bridegroom tarried
they all slumbered.-As [is] a bird that wandercth from
her nest, so is ~ man that wandereth from his place.-Beauty
attracts attentIOn, as honor [ attracts] applause.-Talent is
environed with many perils, and beauty [is emironed] with
many weaknesses. -If we aim at nothing, we shall certainly
achieve nothing.-Time is ever advancing, hut leaves behind
it the traces of its flight.-1'his we know, that our future depends
on our present.-Books which save the trouble of thinking
are in great demand.-After the new world had been
discovered, }'erdinand made a decree that no lawyers should

SYNTAX-ANALYSIS. 137
embark thither.-That is best which is most rationnl.-When
I was a child, I thought as a child; but "hen I became a man
I put away childish things.-I will come again and receive you
to myself, that where I am there ye may be also.
In the following sentences, what connecting words nre omitted!
Pay me that thou owest.-It is said he can not pay his debts.
-There is no doubt he is a man of integrity.-I am sure we
can never accolllpli8h this without assistunce.-That is all you
Imow.-All you can find is yours.-Could we have foreseen
this difficulty, "\\"e might have avoided it.-I soon perceived I
had still the power of motion.-The author dreads the critic;
the miser, the thief; and the criminal, the judge.
ABRIDGED rROPOSITIONS.
648. A c"OII"'UlHl sentencE' may sometimes be converted into a simple
Ol1e, by abridging its d('pendent elause.
649. A depcudent clame is frequently Gbridged by omit ling the con·
Ileeling word, and changing the verh of the predicate into a participle or
iufiuitive.
650. 'fhe pa,·tieiplc in the abridged clause will then stand either with
its 8uhstantive in the case absolute (769), or ae a modifier of the leadill~
subject. Thus. Absolule-" When the boys have finished their les50"",
we will play;" abridged, "The boys having finished their lessons. we will
play," As a modifier-" Wben we have finished our lessu113 we will play;"
abridged, .. Hnvi11g finished our lessons we will play." Passively and
absolulely-" \\'I,ell our work is fiuiBhcd we will play;" abridged, '" Our
work being filiifhed, we will play."
651. When the attribute, in the depelldent clause, consists of a noun
0'" pronoun in the liomiuative case after the verb as a copula. it remains
ill th2 same case in the abridged form; thus, II That he is a judge i3 of no
c"llscqucnce; nbritlge:l," His being ajud,qe is of no cOllsequellce."-" I wns
"ot aware that he was a judge ,-" abridged, "I was not aware of his beiug
njudge" (799).
652. The difference Letween these two modes of expression is thi, : In
ti,e full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affirmed,- in
the abritlged form, it is assumed.
653. When the dependent clauoe is the object of the verb in the leadi11g
clauoe, it may often he chanl!:ed for the infinitive with a subject; as,
.. I know tbat be is a scholar;" abridged, " I know hill! to be a scholar."
654. When, in such cases, the suluect of the dependent clause is the
s"me as tbe suldect of tbe principal, it is omitted III the aLridged form;
u., II I wished that I might go ,-" abridged, I wished 10 go."
655. When the subject of thE!' uepen(\ent clause, connected by what,
U,llld, whom, where, when, !tow, and the like, and relating to something yet
futur~, is the same as that of tbe independent one, it is sOjlletimeR

lS8
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
abridged by retaining the connecting word, and omitting the subject be·
fore the infinitive; as," I know not what I shall do;" abridged, " I know
not what to do." In this way are to be analyzed and explained such
phrases as, ., Il'here to go," .. when to read," .. how to do," .. whom to smd."
&c.
656. A depeudeut clauoe may often be abridged by sub.,tituting an
equivalent qualifying word, or au adjunct; as, .. Tbe man w!to is honest
will be respected;" abridged, " The !tonest ma:J. will Le respecten."-­
.. IVhen the sun set we returned; " abridged, "At 81lnset we returned,"
657. ~everal dependcnt clauses may bc varionsly connected with the
same leading clause, and abridged in the same manner as above; aB,
U When they arrived at the station, they were informed that the cars had
passed, an hour before;" abridged, .. Having arrived [or, on arriving]
at the station, they were informed of the cars having passed all hour before."
EXERCISES.
1. Abridge snch propositions iu the preceding exercises as can be
abridged.
2, Extend the followiug abridged simple sentences into compound sentences.
Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for
California.-What to do 1 know not.-N 0 one can tell us where
to go, or how to do.-The IVaI' being at an end, the troops were
disbanded.--At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss
"here to go.-The industrious and capable need fear no want.
-A good name is the richest possession we have "hile living,
and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead.-Of his
having been successful, we have full assurance.-Of Lis being
successful now, there is reason to doubt.
658. DIRECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS.
State whether the sentence is simple 01' compound.
If simple, name the logical subject and the logical predicate.
Name the grammatical subject.
Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical subjrct. is
modifieu in the logical.
Show by what modifying words, if any, each modifying word is motli
fied.
Name the grammatical predicate.
Show by what words or phrases, if any, the grammatical predicate is
modified in the logical.
Show by what modifying words or phmses, if any, each modifying word
Is modified.

SYNTAX-ANALYSIS,
139
If the sentence is compound, mention the members or clauses.
State whethE:r they are independent or dependent.
Show how the members are connected.
Analyze each member as a simple sentence, by showing its snbject, predicate,
&c., as above.
In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary to supply words left out by
ellipsis, and to supply the antecedent to tlJe relative what, nnd to tlJe com·
ponlld relatives, whoever, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever; making also the
change wlJich is necessary iu the relatives themoel \'es, whcn the antecedent
is snpplied (266).
659. MODELS OFAXALYSIS.
1. "God iq good."
This is a simple seutence, becanse it co~tains a single affil'mation (591).
God is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good is
affirmed.
b good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its subject.
b is the verb or copula, lind good is the attribute.
III this selltcnce, the grammatical subject aUlI predicate are tbe sume
us the logical, because tbfY ure not. modificll by other words «(;10 and
G~4).
0,', more briefly, tbus,
The logical subject is God.
The los;ical predicate is is good, iu which is is tbe v(>rb 0" copula, and
good the attJ'ihute.
The grammatical subject amI prec:licate are the samc as the logical.
2. "The sun and moon stood still."
This is a simple sentence, with a compound subject.
The logical subject is The ,.un and moon.
The lc·gical predicate is stood still.
The gl flmmatical subject is sun and moon, compound, alld cOllnected hy
and, both modified by the (614, 4, Note, aud 711).
The grammatical predicate is stood, moc:lified by 8till, an adverb, expressing
manner.
3. "The fear of tbe Lord is the beginning of wist 10m."
This is a simple sentence.
The logical subject is The fear of the Lord.
The logical predicate is i,. lite beginning of wisdom.
The grammatical st;bject isfear. It is limited by the alljunct of the
Lord, and ,hown to be limitcd by the article the (GI4, 4, Note).
The gl'amruatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or
copula, nnd beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of
wi,dom, aud shown to be limited by tILe.
4. "A good ruan does what (= that which) is right, from principle."
This i" a compounc:l sentence, containing oue leadiug and one depcndeut
clause, connected by wlticlt.
Tbe independent clause is A good man doe8 that from principle,

140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The dopcndent clause is which is right, and is restricti"e of tl!(I·t in the
lcauing clause, the antecedent to wlLich, the connecting w('rd.
In the first or leading clanse-
The logical subject is A good man.
Tile logical predicate is docs tl,al from principle.
The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to be
indefinite by a.
The grammatical predicate is docs, modified by its object, that, and the
anjunct fr01ll principle; thai is modified by tile relati ve clause.
In tlie second, or dependent elause-
The l"gical subject is which. It also connecLs its clause with the ante·
cedent that, and restl icts it.
The l",>ical predicate is is rigid, in which is is the vcrh or copula, and
right is the attl illUte.
The grammatical suhject and predicate are the same :

SYNTAX-ANALYSTS. 1.11
6. "Conversation makes a mlln wax wis('\' than himself, and that more
by an b,ol\l"S discourse than by a day's meditation."
This is a compoun,1 sentence, comisting of two iuJependent clauses,
connected by and .. each of them has its owu depeudellt clause.
The first independent clause is GOllvers.,lion make., a man [to] ,vax llriser.
Its depeGdent clause is himself [is]. connected by them.
The secont! independent dall'0 is [he does] that more by an hOlu's di .•-
course. Its dependeut c1a'l,e is [hc does] by a day's 1IIcdil"lioll, conuccte,J
by than.
(The won]s supplie'l nre included in hrackets.)
In the first independent clause-
The logical subject is conversation.
The logical preuicate is makes a man [to] u'ax wiser.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The grammatical pn·uicate is makes, ll1d, man, which
is also the subject of the verb 10 wox (872). It is shown to he uscu
indefinitely by a, ond is (Iualifi,>, I by the predicati ve n,ljecti ve ,ei.,cr.
In the clause dependent on the preccding, and connectecl by Iha,,­
The logical subject is himself (in thc nominative) (24(»).
The logical predicate is is (understood).
The grammatical subject and preclicate nre the ~ame as the logical.
In the second independent proposition connected to the firAt by (111"­
The logical subject is he understood (for alllan).
The logical predicatc is [does] that more by an hour's discouru.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logic,d.
The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is mo,liiied by its
object that, representing the phrase fI'ax wiser Ihfln kilns"f: aI,,, by
the adverb more, and the adjunct by discourse; alltl di,course j" limitcd
by hour's which again is shown to be indefinite I;y the nrticle an.
In the clause depenuent on the preceding, and connected by Ihan­
The logical subject is he (a man) understood,
The logical predicate is [does] by a day's meditation.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logic:ll.
The grammatical predicate is does (lludersto

142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
The first dependent clause is [it is] attentively examined, connected as a
condition by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges.
The second dependent clause is by lchich it was created, connected also
by which to hand in order to describe it.
In the independent clause-
The logical subject is The minutest plant or animal.
The logical predicate is affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to
admire and adore the Omnipotent hand.
The grammatical subject is plant and animal, compound; its parts are
connected as r.lternates by or (569), and both modified by IIdnutest
(704).
The grammatical predicate is affords and oblige~, compound; its parts
flre connected by and. .I1ffords is modified by it.s object, wonders,
wbich is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object, us,
the infinitive to admire and to ado-re, of which us is also the subject,
and tbese infinitin~s are modified by their object, hand, which is quali.
fied and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by which it
was created.
'J'be verbs affords and obliges are modified also by the
conditional clause if [it is] attentively examined.
In tbe first dependent clause-
The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal.
The logical predicate is is attentit·cly examined.
The grammatical subject is it.
The grammatical predicate is is examined; which is modified by the
adverb ~f manner, attentively.
In the second dependent c1ause-
The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal.
The logical predicate is was created by which.
The grammatical subject is the same as the logical.
The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct,
by u'hich, refel'l'ing to hand, its antecedent;
The preceding process of analysis, wbich takes up so much room on
paper, may be accompli,hed orally with great rapidity. L~t this be done
in the following-
EXERCISES.
In the sarno way, analyze tbe follow:ng sentences:-
Knowledge is power.-Truth is the basis of honor: It is the
beginning of virtue: It liveth and conquereth for ever.-Time
is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven.-Tbe heart
and the tongue are the best and the worst parts of man.
Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment.
Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable to the
mind.

SYNTAX-ANALYSIS.
He who is first to condemn, will often be the last to forgive.
True religion give;; order and beauty to the world, and, after
life, a better existence.
A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a great.
er brings us back to it again.
. What we know is nothing, but what we are ignoral'lt of is
Immense.
Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even
so to them.
1\1any men have been obscure in their origin and birth, but
great aud glorious in life and death.
To hear patiently, and to answer precisely, are the great per·
fection~ of conversation.
Books which save the trouble of thinking, and inventions
which sa\'e the labor of working, are in universal demand.
Solon Gompared the people to the sea, and orators and coun·
sellors to the winds; for (he said) that the sea would be calm
and quiet if the winds did not trouble it.
Sume cultivate philosophy in theory, who are imperfect phi.
losophers in practice j as others anvocate religion, who are
nevertheless indifferently religious.
II. COKSTRCCTION OF SENTENCES.
660. \V ORDS are arranged in sentences, according to
certain rules, called the Rules of Syntax (662 and 666).
661. GENERAL l'R1NCll'LEB.
1. In every sentence there must be a verb and its nominative (01' subject),
expressed 01' understood.
2. Every article, aojectiyc, adjective pn'noun, 01' participle, mu,t have
a substantive (IO(). expreEsed or undel'>tood.
3. Every nominative or subjed has its own verb, expressed or undel"
stood.
4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the infiuitive or partici.
pIes) has its own nominative, expressed or understood.
5. Every possessive case is governed by n noun or substantive whose
signification it sel'ves to limit.
6. Every objective case is governed by a transitive verb in the active

144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
voice, or a preposition, or denotes circumstances of lime, value, weight, or
measure (828).
7. The infinitive mood is governed by !l verb, adjecti ve, 0[' noun.
The exceptions to these genel'"l principles will appear nnder the Rules
of Syntax.
PARTS OF SYNTAX.
662. The Rules of Syntax may all be referred to
three hc~cls, viz., Concord or agreement, Government,
and Position.
663. CONCORD is the agreement which one word has
with another in gend·,-!', number, case, or person.
664. GOYERNIIIENT is the power which one word has
in determining the mood, tense, or c~se, of another
word. The word goyerned by another word is called
its regimen.
665. POSITION means the place which a word occupies
in relation to other \yords in a sentence.
666. III the English language, which has but few inflections, the mean·
ing of. a sentence often dep('[]ds milch on the position of the words of wbich
it consists. .
RULES OF SYNTAX.
RULE I.-Substantives denoting the same person or
thing agree in c~se; as,
The river Thames. Cicero tbe orator. Paul the apostle. I myself. I
Paul have WI itten it. I Wisdom dwell with prudence. Napoleon the
third (emperor of that name). Ye mcu of Athens. Queen Mary (667, ,\:c.)
RULE 11.-1. An adjectiyc or participle qualifies the
substantive to which it belongs; as,
A good boy; a new book; and old hat; a rough road; a steep hill; a
lofty mouutain; God is good; an amusing story; a man loved by all.
2. Alljectiycs denoting OIlC, qualify nouns in the singular:
adjectives dcnoting more than one, qualify nouns
in the plural; as,
One man; this book; that house; two men; th~se books; those houses;
th~ sixth day; seven days j several weeks; many sorrows; these people
thIS court (676. &e.)

RULES OF SYNTAX. 145
RULE I1I.-I. The article a or an is put before common
nouns in the singular number, when used indefinitely
j as,
A man; a house; II tree; an acorn; an hour; II history; an historical
fact; a youth; a unit. 186-187 and '107.
2. The article the is put before common nouns either
singular or plural, when used definitely j as,
"The SUD shines."-"The moon rises."-uThe city of New York."­
"The age of improvement."-" The seven stars."-"The twelve Cresars."­
"The most virtuous (men) are the most happy" (707, 2).
RULE IV.-Pronouns agree with the nouns for which
they stand in gender, number, and person; as,
"All that a man hath will he give for his life."-" A tree is known by
its fruit."-" Jane is fond of her books; though she has long lessoDs, she
learns them well."-" The court has finished its busin!'ss."-" The people
elect their rulers" (729, &c.)
RULE V.-:-The relative agrees with its antecedent in
number and person; as,
"The man who speaks."-" The book which was lost."-" The frieuds
whom we love."-" Ye who love mercy."-'·I that speak to yon."-"The
same man that we saw."-"The best tbing you can do" (742, &c.)
RULE VJ.-The subject of a finite verb is put in the
nominative; as,
"I am."-"Thou speakest."-" He l'eads."-" We talk."-" Time flies.'
-" Who did that ?"-" I know who did it."-" Do you know who is to
blame "'_u He is taller than I (am)-than she (is)" ('160, &c.)
RULE. VII.-A substantive whose case depends on no
other word is put in the nominative absolute; as,
"The ship having arrived, all is safe."-" He being alooe, there was no
one to disturb him."-uYour fatbers, wbere are tbe) 1"-"01' I only and
Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working '''-'' 0 Absalom 1 my
son, my son I "_u Plato, thou reasonest well" (768, &0.)
RULE VIII.-A verb agrees with its nominative in
number and person; as,
"I write."-"Thou writest."-" He reads."-" We sell"-" They buy."
-"John and James are brothers."-"Jane or Mary is at home.,,-uThe
army is on its march."-" The people are kind."-u The man 'Who met us!'
_u He that is soon aDgry dealeth foolishly."_u Come (ye) and 8ee."-" Go
thou and do likewise."-" Who art thou i" ('176, &0.)
RULE IX.-The predicate substantive after a verb is
put in the same case as the subject before it; as,
10

146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
" I :un he."-u Y (' are they who justify yom·,elves."-" God is love."­
" W II" do BIen sny that I, the Son of man, alii 1"-" He is a good 01111l."­
.. lie is said to be a good man."-" They )'('pl'esented him to be II gnod
m IU."-"Snying is not doing" (796, &c.)
RULE X.-A transitive verb in the active voice, governs
the objective case; as,
"We love him."-" He loves us."-" '.Yhnm shall I send 1"-" Send me."
_" Honor thy father and mother."-" Them that honor me I will honor."
_" Boys love to play."-" Boys love playing."-" I know that thou fearest
God."-" Jesus I kuow, amI Paul I know; but who art thou 1" (B01. &c.)
RULE XI.-A preposition governs the objective case;
as,
"Of him, nnd through him, and to him, are all things: to whom be glory
for ever."-" To whom much is given, of him much shall be required."­
.. Come with us and we will do (to) thee good."-" Science they do not
pretend to."_" Whom did he speak to ,n (BIB, &c.)
RULE XII. - Certain words and phrases should be followed
by appropriate prepositions; as,
"Confide in,"-" dispose 0f,"-" adapted to,"-" swerve from," &c. (Bi4,
«c.)
RULE XIII.-One substantive governs another in the
possessive, when the latter substantive limits the signification
of the former; as,
"Pompey's pillar." -" Virtue's reward." -
II Locke's essays."-" For
righteon3ness' sakc." _" For con@cience' sake."-" The duke of Wellington's
funeral."-" The secretary of state's office."-" Whose pen is this f"-" It
is John's-it is not mine" (241)-" It came from the stationer's."­
•• Brown, Smith, & Uo.'s warehouse" (839, &c.)
RULE XIV.-The SUbjunctive mood is used in dependent
clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and
futurity, are expressed; as,
"Though he slay me yet will I trust in him."-" If he study he wi1l improvc."-"If
he do but touch the hills they shall smokc."-" See thou do it
not" (857, &c.)
RULE XV.-The infinitive mood is governed by verbs,
nouns, or adjectives j as,
"I desire to learn."-" A desire to learn."-u Anxious to learn."-"To
do good and to communicate, forget not."_U To perform is better than to
promise."-" Fools who came to scoff, remruned to pray."_CI Let us go."­
.f You need not go" (B66, &c.)
RULE XVI.-Participles have the construction of
nouns, adjectives, and verbs; as,

tmLES OF SYNTAX. 117
(NOUN.)_II Saying is not doiog."-" In lhe keepiog of his command·
ments."-" A forsaking of the truth."-" Avoid doing evil." (ADJEOTIVE.)
-" The sword hangs rusting on the wall."-" A bound book."-" The lost
sheep!' (VERB.)-" Having loved his own, he loved them to the eDd."­
" The men stood speechless, heariDg a voice, but seeing no mfLD" (8\)0, &c.)
RULE XVII.-In the use of verbs, and \\-orc.1s that in
point of time relate to each other, the order of time must
be observed; as,
II I have known him many year8."-" I expected he would come" (not
"would have come.")-" I expect he will come."-" It would have been
easy to do it" (not" to have done it." )-" I expected to go " (Dot" to have
gone") (90S, &c.)
RULE XVII I.-Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and
other adverbs j as,
"John speaks distinctly; he is remarkably diligent; nnd rends vel'Y
correctIy."-" Jnlia sings well."-" The clay is far spcnt."-"Time passes
swiftly and imperceptibly."-" Where have you bepn ?"-" Whom did you
see there 1 "-" When will you retul'll! "_" Soon" ([I~~, &c.)
RULE XIX.-Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or
sentences j as,
"You and he must go; but I stay at homc."-" Honor thy father amI
thy mother."-" He or his brother is to blame."-" They can neither read
nor write."-" He is slow, but sure."-" While the earth remainclh, sced·
time and harvest, aDd cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and
night, shall not cease" (~H, &c.)
RULE XX.-Interjections have no grammatical connection
with the other words of a sentence; as,
"0 ye of little faith 1"-" Ah me 1"-" 0 cruel thou 1"-" Envious of
David Garrick 1 Poh 1 poh! Pshaw I pshaw 1" (97(), &c.)
GENERAL RULE.
In every sentence, the words employed, and the order
in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly
and properly to express the idea intended; and, at the
same time, all the parts of a sentence should correspond,
and a regular and dependent construction be
preserved throughout (973).
ELLIPSIS.
RULE I.-An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admi!,
sible, when they can be supplied by the mind with such

48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense; as,
"We walked by faith, not by sight" (977, &c.)
RULE 2.-An ellipsis is not allowable when it would
obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended
with any impropriety (97!), &c.)
SUI3STANTIVES IN APPOSITION.
667. RULE I.-Substantives denoting the same person
01' thing, agree ~'n case (162); as:-
" Cicero the orator."-" I Paul have written it."-" We, the people of
the United States."-" re woods and wilds."_u This was said to us men."
-" The river Thamcs."-" Jane and Eliza, Mary's cousins."-"Tha chief
(If the princes, he who defied the enemy," &c.-" That was related of Dr.
II "est, him who trnDslat,~d Pindar."
668. The word nnn~xed is said to be in apposition with the otber, and
is added to express some attribute, description, o~ appellation, belonging
to it. The "'

SYNTAX-ADJECTIVES. 149
674. A substantive is sometimes conuected with another in a 601 t of ap·
position by the word as, meaning in the condition or. in the capacity of,
thus, "Cicero, us an orator, was bold-us a ~oldil'J", he was timid." But
here-the reverse of the former case (6G9)-the wldantive in apposition
with another in the possessive case, or with a possc what!
III what case do tbey agree 1 Give the rule:-
Religion, the support of adversity, adorns prosperity.­
Byron, the poet, the only son of Captain John Byroll, was
bom in 1788.-Coleridge, a remarkable man, and rich imaginative
poet, was the friend of 'Yorc1sworth.-My brother
,Villiam's estate has been sold .
.. And on the palace floor, a lifeless corsc she lay."
EXERCISEr:; TO BE CORRECTED.
As the nominative and the objective cnee in nOllns arc aliko in EIl::;-lisl"
there is no liability to error under tbis rule, except in the case of prononns.
Please give that book to my brother William, he who standt!
by the window.-The gentleman has arrived, him whom I mentioned
before.-Do you speak so to me, I who have so often
befriended you ?-I speak of Yirgil, he who wrote the .lEneid.
AN ADJECTIYE WITH ~\. SUBSTANTIYE.
676. RULE II.-1. An adjcctiee or ji(/rticiplc qualifies
the subsialltiec to which it belongs (196); as, ,,~\ good
man.
2. Adjectives denoting ONE, qualify nouns in the sin-

150 ENGLlSII GRAMMAR.
gular; adjectives denoting MORE THAN ONE, qualify nouns
in the plural; as, " This man."-" These men."-" Six
feet. "
677. AJjectives denoting one are tlie ordinals first, second, third, &c.
(206), last-this, that-one, each, every, either, neither, much, and its com·
parative lIlore-all, denoting quantity, enough, whole.
678. When any of these is joined to a plural noun, the whole is reo
garded as ons aggregate; as, "The first two weeks "-" Every ten miles"
-" The last four lines "-" The last days of summer," die. But the verb
after such subjects is usually plural.
679. In such expressions, the cardinal number, if small, may precede
the words .first and last, but not the other cardinal! ; as, .. The two first
weeks "-" The four last lines" (705-3), meaning the two weeks at the
beginni7li;, or preceding all the rest-the four lines at the end, or succeeding
all the rest.
680. 'I'wo 01' more adjectives, expressIng qualities that belong to diffelent
objects of the mme name, and that name expressed only with the last,
should have an article before each; as, "The red and the wltite rose "­
that is, two roses, the one red, and the other white. So," The first and
the second page "-" The first and the second verse "-" The Old and the
New World." It has become common, however, even with good writers,
to drop the second article, and change the singular into the plural, to express
the same idca; thus, U The first and second pages "_U The Ii.rst and
second verses," &c. This mode of expression, though incorrect in itself,
is lcss stiff and formal than the other. (See Appendix IX.) When adjectives
denoting one are connected by or, nor, &c., the noun must be singular.
681. Adjectives denoting more than one are the following, viz.-all cardinal
numbers above one; as, two, three, &c.-few, many, with its compara·
tive more-all, denoting number, both, several, and enow. Enow is nearly
obsolete.
682. Adjectives withont s substantive expressed are often used as
nouns; as, "The rich and the poor meet togcther " (201). This is especially
common with all adjective pronouns except the possessive, and the
distributive every; as, "Of books, some are gOOd, some are bad."-" All
things come alike to all" (289.)
683. A,ljectives are sometimes usell indefinitely after an infinitive or
participle, without reference to any particular substantive, to express an
abstract idea; as, "To be good is to be Itappy."-" Being good is better
than being great."
684. 'When an adjective is a predicate (621), it must qualify its substantive
in the subject; as, " God is good, he is also just."_u To do good
to others is profitable to ourselves."-" That men should lie, is basc."
685. An adjective in the predicate sometimes qualifies the subject, not
considered simply as a substanti ve, but as a substantive affected by the
action of the connecting verb, which, in that ca~e, may be regarded as a
strengthened or modified copula (601); as, "That type stands low."­
" Thisfruit tastes bitter."-" The wind blows cold,"_u The door is painted

SYNTAX-ADJECTIVES. 151
grccn."-" John grows tall."-" Milk turns sour."-" Clay bums whitc."­
" Down feels soft."
686. Adjectives thus used are sometimes, though improperly, called
adverbial adjectives. As the adverb is sometimes used improperly instead
of the adjective in such expressions, the distinction should be e"refully
marked. Thus-
The adverb exprcsses the manner of the ael.
The adjective expresses the condition, or state of the subject.
Hence, when the meaning intended can be expressed by the corresponding
adjunct (5,11), the adverb should be used; as, "The' stn'am flows mpidly"
(in a rapid manner). Here the adverb rapidly modifies the verb fioll's.
But when the meaning call be expressed nearly by suhstituting the \'erb
to be or to become as a copula, the adjectil'e should be usc,l; as, "The
stream grows [becomes] rapid." This is furthcr illustrated by the follow·
ing examples, viz. ;-
ADJECTIV ES.
John grows [becomes] old.
She looks [is] cold.
He feels [is] warm.
The eagle flies lis J Itiglt.
The apple tastes l is] sweet.
ADVEaD.:;.
JOhll grows j'apidly [in a rapid manncr.l
She looks coldly [in a cold mannc,'] on him.
He feels warmly [in a warm manlll'!'] the insult.
The eagle flies swiftly [in a swift mauncr.]
JlIary 8iugs "wcetly [in a swect manner.]
687. Adjectivcs should not be used liS adverbs; thus, "mi.,erable poor,"
should be, "miserably poor "-" sings elegant," should be, .. Binga elegantly."
So also, adverbs should not be used as a'ljcctivcs «()25); thus, " He arrived
safely," should be, .. He arrived safe."
688. This here, that there, tit em books, are vulgarisms, fur this, that,
those hooks.
689. An adjective sometimes qualifies an adjective and noun togcther
as one compound term; liS, " A venerable old man "-" The best black tea."
690. Sometimes lin a,ljcctive modifies the~eaning of another adjec,
tive; as, .. red·hot iron "_u a bright·red color."
691. Severlll adjectives frequently qualify the same substauti\'c; liP,
" A large, strong, black horse."
This, that-these, those.
692. Whcn two or morc objects are contrasted, this refcl'3 to the bot
mentioned, that to the first; as, Virtue and vice are opposite qualities;
thai ennobles the mind, this debases it."
693. FJrl/ler amI latter are used in the same way (304). So also, the
one, the otlter, referring to words in the singular or plural (307).
694. When no contrast is expressed, this refel's to a thing near, or just
menti.ned, and that to a thing more rcmote or formerly mentioned.
CONSTRUCTION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
695. When one object is compared with one other of the same class, or
with more than one of a different class, individually, Of in the aggregate,

152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
tbe comparative is used; as,."James is the weal,". of the t~~"_11 He is
taller than his fllther.-" He IS taller than any of IllS brothers.
696. Sometimes however, when two objects of the same class are com·
pared, the superlative is used, being thought to be less stiff and formal;
as, "James is the lIwlkesl of the two."
697. When one object is compared with more than one of the same
class, the superlative is u,e

SYNTAX--ADJECTIVES. 153
8. It has been disputed whether the Ilumerals, two, three, four, &c.,
should be placed before the WOld" first an,1 last, or after them, when used
to indicate the beginning and the end (,f a series. On thi, poiut, with
email nnmber8, usage is ueady c'{nally divided; aud, a8 the matter now
stands, in some cases the (Inc form Beems to be preferable, and in some, the
other. In thi~ COllS!l'uCliolJ, a~ ill Borne oth;rB. which in.volve Il? impr?pri.
ety, euphot,)' and taste Eu'lll to govern. fl,l" much IS certam-Iletther
form can be justly condemned, nil ll:c grvund of either authority 01' propriety.-Sce
A ppendix X. p. 256.
705. An acljcclive is placed (lfler its

154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire.
-The boat glides slUooth over the lake.- (685) Magnesia feels
smoothly.--Open the door widely.--The door is painted greenly.
(688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst
of all.-Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost.
(69~) I, For beast aDd bird;
These to their grassy cuuch, those to thtil' Dests, repair."
" Night's shadows lJeuce, from theDce the lIlorning's shine;
That bright, this dark, til is eartilly, that divine."
(69:!') That very subject which we are now discussing is still
involved in mystery.-This vessel, of which yoa spoke yesterterday,
sailed in the evening.
(698-700) That merchant is the wcalthiest of aa his neighborB.-China
has a greater populatioll than any nation on
earth.-That ship is larger than any of it~ class.-There is
more gold in California than in any part of X orth A merica.­
The birds of Brazil are more beautiful th:lIl any in South America.-Phibdclphia
is the most regulat' of :my city in Europe.
-Israel loved Joseph more than all his children.-Solomon
was wiser than any of the ancient kings.
(701, 702) A morc worthier Illan you can not find.-The
nightingak's voicc is the most s'.Ycetcst in the groyc.-A worseI'
evil ,Yet awaits us.-Tlw rumor h:18 not spread so llniversaIIy
as we sllPposed.-Dnt,y that line Jl1ure perpendicular.-This
figur'e is a mure perfect circle than that is.-IIe is far from
being so pcrfcct a~ hc thinb he is.
THE ~\RTICLE AND ITS NOUN.
707. RULE 111.-1. The article A or AN is put before
common nouns in the singular nwnb, r when used INDEF­
INITELY (185); a>" ".:1 man"- "An apple;" that is,
"any man "-" {(IIY apple" (186, 187).
8. The article THE is put before common nouns, eithe1'
singular or plural, when used DEFINITELY (191); as,
"The sun rises "-" The city of New York."
[See Etymology of the Article 183.J:
708. A common nOUD, in tLc singular number, witilout an article or
limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense; ao, " Nan is mOl'lal ,,_
" Anger is a short madness."

SYNTAX-ARTICLE. 155
709. The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particularize a
species or class, without specifying any individual under it; as, the oak,
the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, horse,
or raven, but the class, so called, in a general sense. Iu such cases, wheththe
noun is used to denote a class or an individual, can be determined
only by the sense, as in the following examples: "The oak produces
acol'DS "-" The oak was struck by lightning."-" The horse is a noble animal
"-"The horse ran away."-"The lion sha\) eat straw like the ox "­
"The lion tore the ox in pieces."-" The night is the time for repose "­
"The night was dark."
710. Every article belongs to a nouu, expressed or understood, except
as in '714 and '115.
711. When several nouns are connected in the same constrnction, the
article is commonly expressed with tbe first, and understood to the rest;
as, "The men, women, and children are expectcd." But when emphasis,
or a different form of the article is required, the article is prefixed; as, "The
men, the women, and the children, are expected "_,, A borse and an aIi9."
712. But when several nouns in the same construction are disjunctively
connected, the article must be repeated; as, "The men, OJ' the women, 01'
the children, are expected."
713. The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun; as, "The
l'ighteous is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before adjectives in
the superlatiTe degree, when comparison is implied (213); as, "Gold is
the most precious of the metals." But when comparison is not implied,
the superlative is either without an article, or has a or an preceding it; as,
".11 most excellent man."
714. The is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adverbs in
the comparative degree; as, ., The higher the mountain, the colder its top"
-" The faster he goes, the sooner he stops." Thue uscd it performs the
function of lin adverb.
715. An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, commonly has tho
article the before it; as, "Alexander the Great "-" Charles the Fifth."
This may be considered as inverted for "The grcat Alexander." "The
fifth Charlcs;" or, by ellipsi~, for" Alexander, the great [conqneror],"
"Charles, the fifth [emperor of the name]."
716 . .11 or an is sometimes put before the IIdjectives few, hundred, thousllnd,
follol\!ed by II plnral noun; as, ".11 few men "-".11 hundred acres "­
".11 thousand miles." In such cases, the adjective lind noun may be considered
as a compound term, expressing one aggregllte, lIud having lhe construction
of a collective noun ('790). 01' the adjective may he regarded as
a collective noun (20'7), and the noun following governed by oj, understood;
as, ".11 few [of] men "-".a hundred [of] acres," &c. This is evidently the
construction of larger numbers; thus, we never say, "A million dollars,"
but, "A million of dollars."
717. When two or more IIdjectives belong to the same noun, the article
of the noun is put with the fir~t adjective, but not with the rest; as, ".11 red
and white rose," that is, one rose, partly nd and partly while. But,
7lB. When two or more adjectives belong each to a dWerenl object of
the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective; as, .. A

156 ENGLISH GRA~!~IAR.
red and white rose "=" A retl rOEe and a white rose," thnt is, two roeea,
one red and the other white.
719. The same remark applies to the demonstrative that; as, "Thnt
great and good man "-" That gr('at nnd that good man."
720. So also when two 01' more epithets follow a noun, if both designate
the same person, tbe article precedes the first only. If they designate dif·
ferent persons, tbe article must precede each; thus, "Johnson, the book·
seller and stationer," menns one man, who is both a bookseller and a sta·
tioner; but, "Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," means two men,
one a bookseller, nnmed Johnson, and the olher a staticner, not named.
721. When two nouns after a word implying comparison, refer to the
same person or thing, the last must want the article; as, "He is a better
soldier tban statesmall." But when thcy refer to different persons, the
last must have the article; as, "lIe is a better soldier than a statesman
[wonld be]."
722. The article a before the adjectivcsfew and little, rendera the mean·
ing po.ritirc; as, "A few men cau do that "-I< He deserves a little credit."
But without the article the meaning iH negath'e; as, "Few men can do
that "-" He deserves little credii."
723. In the translation of the Scriptures, and some other writiuga of
that time, the is often used before which; as, "'fhat worthy name by the
which ye are called "-"The which when 1 had Ec(:n."-Bunyan.
724. The article is generally omitted before proper names, abstract n01lns,
and namcs of l'irtues, vices, arts, sciences, &c., when not restricted, and such
other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to require it;
a~, "Christmas is in December "-"Lo;ic audowthematics are important.
studies "-" Truth is mighty." Still certain proper uames, and names used
in a certain way, have the article prefixed; as, "The .'lIps "-I< The Rhine"
-" The .I1zores "_" The immortal JVashington "-" TIe wao a JOh",OIl, of
thc family of the Johnsolls, in England."
POSITION OF THE .ARTICLE.
725. The article is commonly placed before its nonn; as, ".11 man"­
"The man."
726. If the noun is qualified by an adjective bcfore it, the article pre·
cedes the adjective; ns, ".11 good man."
727. But the article follows the adjectives, all, such, many, what, both;
and nil ndj ectives preceded by ioo, so, as, or how; as, ".!J.ll the men"­
"Such alDan "_" Many a mau "--I< H7wt a mnn "-" Both the men "­
"Too great a man "-1< So great a man "-".I1s great a man "-" How great
a man."
728. When the adjective follows the noun, not as au epithet, the article
remaius before the noun, and the adjective is witbout it; ae, "A man
destitute of principle should not be husted." For an adjective as an epi.
thet, see (715) above.
NOTE.-The use of the article is so ,aried, tbat the best general rule is
to study what the sense requires, both as to its proper u~e and position.

SYNTAX-ARTJCLE. 157
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give II rea·
son for so doing :-
(707-1 and 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a
spring.-A life of the modern soldier is ill represented by heroic
fiction.-Earth existed at first in the state of chaos.-An
age of chivalry is gone.-A.. crolld at the door was so great that
we could not enter.-The large number of men was present.
(708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, arc four
elements of the philosophers.-Reason was given to a man to
control his passions.-A man was made to mourll.-The gold
is corrupting.-The sil,er is a preeious metal.
(709) Horse is a noble animal.-A lion is generous, a cat is
treacherous, a dog is faithful.-A horse-leech cries, "Give,
give," and a grave is never satisfied.-Tho war has means of
destruction more dreadful than a cannon or a sword.
(71~) Neither the man nor boy was to blame.-A man may
be a mechanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and respectedj
but idler or spendthrift can never be either.
(713) We should ever pay attention to graceful and becoming.
-The memory of just is blessed; but the name of wicked shall
rot.-Best men are often those who say Jeast.-James is a man
of the most brilliant talents.-Keep good and throw bad away.
(715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty; Pliny
younger for gentleness and benignity.-l'eter Hermit proposed
his plan for recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin n.-The
father of William Cowper, poet, was chaplain to George II.
(717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed
from the tower.-A beautiful stream flows between the old and
new mansion.-A hot and cold spring were found in the same
neighborhood.-The young and old man seem to be on good
terms.-The first and second book are difficult.-Thomson the
watchmaker and the jeweler made one of the party.
(721) A man may be a better soldier than alogician.-There
is much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a
mastel'.-He is not so good a poet as an historian.
(722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business.-A
little respect should be paid to those who deserve
llone.-Let the damsel abide with us a few days.-Are not my
days a few?-A few men of his age enjoy 80 good health.

158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
A PRONOUN AND ITS ANTECEDENT.
729. RULE IV.-Pronouns agree with the words for
which they stand, in gender, number, and person; as,
" All that a man hath will he give for his life "-" A tree
is known by its fruit."
SPECIAL RULES.
730. RULE l.-JVhrn a pronoun refers to two or more words taken
together, it becomes plural; and, if they are of different persons, prefers
the first person to the second, and the second to the third; as, "He and she
did their duty," "John and you and I will do our duty."
RULE 2.-mien a pronoun refers to two or more words in the singular
taken separately, or to one of them exclusively, it musl be singular; as,".A
clock or a watch moves merely as it is moved."
RULE 3.-But if either of the wOl'ds referred to is plural, the pronoun
must be plural also; as, "Neither he nor they trouble themselves." Dish'i·
butives are always of the third person singular (301).
731. Nouns are taken together when connected by and-8cparately
when connected by 01' or nor, as above; also after each, every, no, though
connected by and; as, "Each book and each paper is in its place."
732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken separately,
they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a singular pronoun,
common gender, except by a clnmsy repetition of pronouns of the corresponding
genders; thus, .. If any man or woman shall violate his or her
pledge, he or she shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such
cases, though sometimes used, is improper; as, "If any man or woman
shall violate their pledge," &c.
733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns or other words, of the com·
mon gender (126), tnken in a general sense, are commonly masculine; as,
".A parent should love his child."-" Every person has his faults."-" No
one should commend ltimscU:" The want of a oingular personal prononn,
common gender, is felt also in tbis construction.
734, A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, ex·
pressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter singular; but when
the noun expresses many as individuals, the prononn should be plural; as,
"The army proceeded on its mnrch."-" The court were divided in their
opinion."
735. A singular noun after the phrase, .. many a," may take a pronoun
in the plural, but never in the same clause; as-
H In Hawick twinkled many a light
Behind him soon they set in Dight."-W. Scott.

SYNTAX-PRONOUNS. 159
736. The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the beginning of 1\
Hfnt"nce, instead of the word person or persons; as, .. IIe who" -" They
who "-also" Those who "-for" 'I he persons who."
737. Pronouns representing nouns personified (12G), take the gender
(,f the noun as a person; as, .. Kight sable goddess, from her chon throne."
But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphorically (1046, S) agree
with them in their literal sense j as, .. Pitt was the pillar which in it.
strength upheld the state."
738. It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the slime
person by pronouns of different numbers j as, "I InLorcd long to make
thep. happ), anl now you reward me by ingratitude." It should be either
" to make you happy," or" thou rewardest," (245).
739. In the usc of pronouns, when it would Le uncertain to which of
two or mOI'e antecedent words (229) II pronoun refers, the ambiguity may
be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by
changing the form of the sentence, thus, .. When we see the beautiful
variety of color in Ihe rainbow, we are Jed to cODsider its cause "-better
" the cause of that variety."
POSITIO~ OF PRONOUNS.
740. The first and the second personal pronoun commonly Btand instead
of nouns implicd, but not expressed. Possessive pronouns, and the pronouns
of the third person, fire commonly placed after their antece'lents
(229) j bnt sometimes this order, especially 10 poetry, is reversed.
741. When words of different persons come together, the usnal order
of nrrangement, in English, is to place the second persoll before the third,
and the first person last; as, " You and he nnd 1 are sent fo1'."-" This
matter concerns you or him or me."
In connection with these rules and obsermtions, see also the observa·
tions on gender (128-134), on number (155-160), and on personal pronouns
(240-252).
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In each sentence, state the antecedent words to which the pronouns refer;
change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the
change:-
(729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions j
if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing.-Extremes
are not in its nature favorable to happiness.­
A man's recollections of the past regulate their anticipations
of the future.-Let every boy answer for themselves.-Each
of us had more than we wanted.-Every one of you should
attend to your own business (301).
(730-1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance.-Both
cold and heat have its extremes.-You and
your friend should take care of themselves.-Y ou and I must
be diligent in your studies.

160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(730-2) John or James will favor us with their company.~
One or other must relinquish their claim.-N either wealth nor
honor confers happiness on their votaries.-(731) Every plant,
and every flower proclaims their Maker's praise.-Eaeh day
lind each hour brings their changes.-Poverty and wealth have
each their own temptatioos.-No thought, no word, no action,
however secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be
good or evil.
t 732) Let every lllan and ever.r womall strive to do their
best.-If any boyar girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit
their pillce.-N 0 lady or gentleman would do a thing 80
unworthy of them.
(733) One should not think too highly of themselves -:\.
teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils.-A
parent's care for her children is not always requited.-Every
one should consider their owu frailties.-Let each esteem
others better than herself.
(734) The assembly held their meetings ill the e"ening,­
The court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise.-The regiment
was greatly reduced in their number.-Society is not always
answerable for the conduct of their members.-The committee
were divided in its opinions.-The public lire informed that its
interests are secured.
(737) The earth is my mother; I will recline on its bosom.
-That freedom, in its fearless flight, lllay here announce its
glorious reign.-Poliey keeps coining truth in its mints, such
truth as it can tolerate. and every die, except its own, it breaks
and casts away.-As time advances, it leaves behind him the
traces of its flight.
(738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man.­
Care for thyself, if you would have others to care for you.-If
thou wert not my superior, I would reprove you.-If thou forget
thy friend, can you expect that your friend will remember
thee?
(739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is
his enemy.-J ohn gave his friend a present which he highly
valued.
(7411) I and my father were invited.-An invitation was
sent to me and George.-You and I and James were to be of
the party; but neither I nor you nor he can go.

TH
SYNTAX-RELATIYE. 161
TIELATI \'E AND ITS ANTECEDEi\T.
742. RrLE Y.-The relative agrees with its antecedent
in number ({mi person; as, "Thou who speakest."­
"The book wI! ich was lost."
[See Etymology, ~55, ,~c.]
743. TI,e numbcr of the relative can be determined only from the
number of the antecedent.
744. Who is applied to persons or thing! per30nijieJ (l~()) j as, "The
man "'''0''-'' The fox who had never ,cen a lion."
745. Which is applied to things and inferior animals-sometimes to
children-to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity-and also to
persons in asking questions.
746. In the tl':lnslation of the Bibl,', whicl! is applied to persons j as,
" Our Father "'hieh art in heaven."
747, WlIiclt applies to a noun Jenoting a person, when the character,
or the name merely as a word, is referred to; as, "He i8 a good writer,
1f,hie" is all he l'rofeEses to be."-" That was the work of Herod, ,c!tiel! is
but another name for cruelty."
748. That, as a relative, is used instead of wl!o or ",!tic!t-
1. After adjectives in the superlative degree-after the words I1ery.
same, and all-often after no, some. aUlI any-and generally in
restrictive clauses (268).
2. When thc antecedent includes both persons lind things; liS, "The
man an,l the !torse that we saw."
:i. After the intrrrogntive who, and often after the personal prononns;
n,. " Who that knew him could think so 1"-" I Ilwl speak in
righteousllc,;s."
Generally when the propriety of It'ho or wh,en is doubtful; as, "The
little child that was placed in the midst."
749. The relatives who or wlticlt and tit at should not be mixed in a
series of relnti ve clau8es baving the snme antecedent. Thus it is improper
to 8ay, "The man tltat met us and whom we saw," It should be, .. who
met us;' or "t!tat wo saw."
750. The relative refers sometimes to} the idea expressed by an adjective,
sometimes to the infillitive. But Ihis construction is rare. See exnmples
(256).
751. Tbe relative in the objective case is often omitted; as, "Here is
the book I promised you." The relative iu the nominative case is hardly
ever omitted except in poetry; as-
I< In this, 't is God-directs, in that, 't is mnn."
752. Tbe antecedent is omitted before what (266). and generally before
tbe compound relatives (273), It is sometimes understood. especially in
poetry j as-
" rHe] wbo Ii vee to nature, rarely can be POOl',"
11

]6~ ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
753. What ehollld not he tiRed for the conjnnction that. Tbus." I can
not helieve but 'IJlIat it is so," should be. "but that it is so." Also the
demonstrative that should not be used fill' tbe l'ebti ve what; n~, "We
speak that we do lmow," betteI'. "what we do know."
puSITION OF THE RELATIVE.
754. The relative is generally placed after its antecedeut.
755. To prevent ambiguity. the relative should be placed as near its
antecedent as possible, and so that tLere can be no uncertainty as to what
word it refers.
756. In most instances. t.he sense will be a sufficient guide in tbis mat·
tel'; thu" "They removed theil' wives and children ill wagons covered
with tbe ,kill" of animals, u.Jtic/t formed their simple habitatioos." Here
tbe sense only can determine to which of the three words wagu1t8, Rkins,
or animals, the relatiye t,-hich refers. But-
757. When the antecedent can not be determined by the SCI/se, it should
be determined by the po~ilion of the relative, which, as a general rule,
should belong to the Bcarest autecedent. Thus-
'Ye walked from the hOllS" to the barn ~ l . l b d b t d"
" 'Ve walked to the barn frOID the house S IC lie I a een erec e .
Here the relative Ichich,!lS determined by its position, refers, in 1he first
sentence, to barn, and iB the second, to hou3e.
758. So also when the antecedents denote the same o\'ject, the oue being
in the subject and the otber, in the predicate, tbe relative takes the
person of the olle Ilext it; a" •., I am the man who commands you" -not
.. command you." If the relative refer to I, the words should be arranged,
" I who command you am the man." Heoce-
759. A relative clause which modifies the subj.ct should not be placed
in the predicate; tbus, "He should not keep a horse that can not ride."
should be, "He that can not ride, should not keep a horse."
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In tbe following sentences, which are the relatives? What is tbe anle.
cedent to which each refers i Correct those which are wrong, and give
the rule, or the reason for the change :-
(744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her.­
This is the friend which Ilove.-(745) That is the vice whom
I hate.-The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity.
-The court who gives currency to such manners should be ex.
emplary.-The nations who have the best rulers are happy.­
Your friend iB one of the committee who was appointed yester.
da!.-The family- 'll"ith 'll"hom I lived has left the city.-(747)
HIB father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired
to be.-If you intend to be a teacher, who you can not be
without learning, you must study.

SYNTAX-NO:.lIlNATIVJ3. 163
(748) It i~ the best situation which cau be got.-That mau
was the first who entered.-This i~ the same horse which ,ye
saw yesterday.-Solomon was thc \'.-i~est king whom the world
ever saw.-The lady and the lapdog, which we salY at the "indow,
have disappeured.-I who speak unto you am hc.-l'; 0
man who respects himself would do so meau an action.
(749) 0 Thou "ho hast preeencd us, and that wilt still preserve
us !-The man "bom "e met to-day, and that was at our
bonse yesterday, is tbe same-O Thou that art, aud ,,-ho wast,
and tbat art to come!
(7.32) I have sent everytbing what YOll ordcred.-;\ll whosoever
came were made "elcome.-E,·erything ,rhabocrt:r ye
would that men should do to you, do ye eH'n so to them.-IIe
whoever steals my purse steals trash.-(753) I can not beliere
but what you hare been sick.-It is not impossiblo but ,,-hat
you are mistaken.
(7':;5) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, 'I ho
had neyer before committed so unjust an action.
(759) He needs no spectacles that can~not seC', 110r boots
that can not walk.-Those must not expect the sympathy of
the diligent, who spend thcir time in idleness.
760. RULE VI.-The subject of a .lillife rcrb is )lut il£
the 1lOminalirc j as, " I am" -" Thou art "-" He is "­
" They are "-" Time flies. "-" The leller j" written."
761. A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or
imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these parts it is limited
by person and number. In the infinitive and participle" it is n(,t so
limited.
762. The Bulljl'ct of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, all
infinitive mood (394). a participle ,,,cd as a noun (462), or a clause ()f a
sentence (636). All these, "hen the subject of the verb, ale rfgarJe·rl as
substantives in the nominative (109 and 867).
763. Every nomina/ire, not absolnle (71)(1), or in apposition (I;GS), or in
the predicate (796), is the subject of n verb, I xl"-esscd or untler:otootl.
764. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative who has
no verb to which it is the nominative, viz.: These evils were caused by
OatiJine, who, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been
exposed to so great dangers." Bctter-" If Oatiline, by whom these evils
were caused, had been punishe(l," &c. Hence-

164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
765. It is improper to use both a noun and its pronoun as the nomina.
tive to the eame verb; thm, .. The king he is just," should be, "The king
is just." Except wheu the compolluJ pronouns are added to the subject
for the sake of ellJpha,is (24~1); as, " The king himse{f has come."
766. The nominati I't" especinlJy in the answer to a question, aud aftel'
than or as, often h,,; the verb Ulldcl'st',od; as, .. TV710 saiLl ao? "-" He
[,niJ a'>j."-"Jnlllcs i:l taller than 1 [nm]; bllt not so tall as you [nre]."
POSITIOX OF 'fIIE SUBJECT.
767. The subject is cOllllllonly plnccd before the verb. But in impera·
tive or i!ltelTngalil'e sel,tcncp~, nnd in sentences inserted for the sake of
eml,I",,;.s or euphony, lhe subject is often placed after the verb; as, "Go
thOll,"-H D,d he g" 1 "-" ~hy you be happy !"-" 'Vere 1 he."-·' Neither
did th,y:'-" SaiJ 1,"-" There was a man," &c,
Untler this rule tber" is liability to crror o';]y in the use of pl'onouns,
DUU in lea"i"g :1 nOllliuative witlJOut its verb.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED,
,rl.i,'h nouns 01' pronouns ill the following sentences are the subject of
a vCI·b! If llot iu the proper case, chauge them, and give the rule, or
reason f!r tbe chaugc?:-
(7GO) IIim allCl me are of the S:llue age.-Snppose you and
Ille goo -Them are exceUent.-'Vbom do you think bas arrived?
-Them that seek wisdom sball find it. - You and us enjoy mnny
privileges.
(7GG) J obn is oldel' than me.-You are as tall as her.­
'Vbo bas a knife? l\Ie.-Who came in? Her and him.­
You can write as well as llle.-That is the boy whom we think
desefl'es the pl'izt'.
(iG;j) Yirtue, however it Illay be neglected for a time, yet
men rrre so constituted as to respect genuine merit.
THE NQ:\IIK~\.TIYE
_\BSOLUTE OTt INDEPENDENT.
7G3. RULli: VII.-A substantit'l' w!wse case depends on
no olher word, is put iii the nominative absolute.
N')TE,-Tbe IWloinative undel' tbis rule, is usually called the nominative
absolute or indcpendent; because, iu Ellglish, tbough always in the form
"f the nominaLi ,'C, ye', it has llO gramlll~tical dependence on any wortl in
ti,e fcntcucc, This OCClll"" in all eXfllllples uncleI' tbe followiDg-
SPECIAL RULES.
769, RULE 1.-.1 subs/anth'c with a participle, whose case depends on no
other word, i< Jlul in the nominative; as," He beiDg gone, only two rewain."

SYNTAX-NO~lINATIYE. 165
770. In tbis construction, tbe substantive is sometimes understood; a" .
.. His conduct, viewing it even favorably, ean not be commended ;" that iii,
"we [a person] viewing it," &~.
771. S',metimes being and '/lwill"! been are omi(t,'J; as.' lIer wbeel
[being] at rest "-" He destroyed or won," &0., tbat is, "He hat'ing bel'll
destroyed or !l'on," &c -" This said," that i", •. This 6rill:;' said."
~72. In this construction, th(' substantive with the participle is med to
express an a'sumecl fact in an abbrevi.,I,',1 form. and is equh':tlenl to a
dependent clause, connected 1,y ,then, while, if, sillce, because . .i:,~. (,;,',(1);
:lS. " He having gone. bis brother returned;" ~ .. Since 01' bccau'c he 1cent,
bis brotber returned."
773. RnE ~.-.l person or thing u'{./rcgs(',/, without a cab or "!ot'ernill!{
/l'ord, ;3 put in the nominath'e; as, ., I r.,'maiu, dear sir, yours truly"­
" Plato, tbou reasonest welL"
774. RuLE 3.-.0 substantitc, unconnected in mCl'e exclamation, is i,ui in
the nominatiL'e; a", "0, the times! 0. the manners! .,
775. RULE 4.-.0 substantive, used by pleonasm (1""11. ~) before fin aifirmation,
i, put ii' the nominalit'l'; 3S, "The boy, ob! where was he 1"­
" Your falhers, where lll'e thl'Y I-the 1""0/'''1'1 ;, du tb"y Ii ve forever ~ ..
U ueler this rule, a mistake can be lll:Hle ouly in the C:lee of pl'Onoulls.
EXERCISES TO BE COJeREOTED.
Puint Ollt the nouu or pronoull ",hoBe case depcll·ls Oil no otl,,'r word
-put it iu the case required by Ih, rule, ali,1 gi\'" the 'lwC'ial rule reo
qui I'ing it.
DIe being absent, the business \\'a8 neglected.-IIn mrtue as
\\'ise proverbs as any bou.", hilll only l'XL"'IJte,L-.\'II eJI.i"yeu
themselves very much, 11~ excepted.- Whom being d,':!,l, we
shall come.
'\\"h",c gray to,p
fOhali tremble, him descending.
The bleating sheep with my complaint, :l:!rce ;
Them parched with heat, and me iullam2·1 by t:,,,c.
lier quick l'dapsing te· bel' former ,lale.
Theil all tlly gifts nnd !:;r!lces we rli'play,
Thee, only thee, dir,'clillg all 0111' way.
THE VERB .\XD ITS NmIlNATIn~.
176. l~uLE '-IlL-A 'verb agrees with its 1lOlllill({tivl'
In 1I11JJ1Uer (lnd persoll; as, "I read," "Thou (crulcst,"
" He reads," " \\' l' read," &c.

166 ENGLISH GRAlIIlIIAR.
[Respectiu,; the nominativc or subject, see (493). This rule, find the
"reeinl rules under it, apply to an iufin;tive mood or clausc of a sentence,
\\,1"'11 the subject uf a ycrb (71;2), aq well as to nouns and pronouns.)
RrCMAnK.-fmpcrsollul verbs (5211) are always h the third person .ingn­
Jar; n~, "It hails," "it rains," &c. Such expr~~sionB as "it appears," " it
seems," "it hl!l'jl~ns," and the like. sometimea called impersonal verbe,
ure reilly personal, h.wing for their subject lin infillitive mood or sub·
stantive phl'll5e fullowing', to whieh "it" preceding refers; liS, .. It appeaTl:
that the !'i,'Ct· is ri"ing."-'· It seems to be so." See 246, 4. So 11180, in
tlte expression asfollows, a~ concerns, as appears, and the like, the vet'b
is not imper"lll."ll; but whether singlllar or plural, refers to a subject
und~r,t,,().l; :10, " The ea:

SYNTAX-NOJ\IINATIVE. 167
"James or John attends "-"Neither James nor John attends "-"John,
and not [bnt not] Jame", attends "-" John, as well as James, attends"­
"Not John, but Jame~ attends."
786. Nouns taken separately, are connected by or, nor, as well as, 0"'/
also, &c. A noun taken so as to exclude others, is connected with them hy
such phrases as and not, bUI not, not, &c. Tn such, the verb agrec~ with
the subject affirmell of, and is understood with the others.
NO'fE.-Sin~ular nouns connected by nor, sometimes ba\,,' a plural verb.
In that case, the verb dellies equally of all, and nor is equivalent to and,
counecting the nouns, and a negative which is tmnsferred tn, and modi ties
the verb; as, "Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Sul'Jll, nor Lycurgus, were
eloquent men."-.iclon.=" Jlloses, and Min"" and Solon, and Lvcurgus,
wero not eloquent men," or, "were none of them eloquent." This construction
has not been generally noticeu, uut it often occurs in the best
writers.
787. But when two or more Euh,t~ntives, taken separately,. are of dif.
fereut numbers, the verb agrees with the 0,,(, next it, aud the plural su!'.
ject is usuullyplaced next the veJ'b; as, ,. Neither the captain nor the
sail"r8 were s:n'cu i" rarely, ., N citLer the sailurs nor the captaill was
Baved."
788. RULE 4.-TVlten substantives, taken separately, are of diOerent persons,
the verb agrees with the one next it; as, "James or I alii in the wrong"
_u Either you or he is mbtaken "-;-" I or thou art to blume."
789. Though sentences are often furme,} according to this rule, yet they
are generally har"h and iuelegant. It is generally better to put the verb
with the first substauti\'e, and re~eat it with the second; or to express the
same idea by urrunging the sentence differently; aB, "James is in the
wrong or I am," or "One of us is in the wron" "-" Either you arc mistaken
or he i. "-" I am t" blame, or thou art." This remark is sometimes applie-aLle
also, when the suhstantives are of the same person, but different
in number, and requiring each a different form of the verb; a8, "Either
the captain or the eailors were to blame;" otherwise, "Either the captain
was to Llame, or the sailors were."
790. RULE 5.-1 . .d collective noun, expressing many, as O~E WHOLE, ha&
a verb in the singular; as, "The company /I'as large."
791.-2. But Ichen a collective noun expresses many, as individuals, the
verb must be plural; as, "My people do not consider."
792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective noun
expresses unity or plurality. It is now considered generally best to use
the plural, wh~e the singular is not manifestly required.
793, A nominative after "many a" has a verb iu the singular; as, uFull
many a flower is born," &c. (735).
794. Two or more verbs connectecj in the same construction as a compound
pre,Jicate (627) have the Bame nominative; a8, .. James reads and
writes "-" James neither reads nor writes."
795. But when verbs are not connected in the same construction, each
verb should have its own nominative. Tbe following sentence is wrong

168 El'iGLISH GRAMMAR.
in this respect; ,( The whole is produced as an illusion of the first class,
an.1 hopes it wil! be found worthy of patronage;" it should be, either" He
produces the whole as an illusion," &c., "and hopes," &c.; or, "The whole
is produced," &c., "and he hopee," &c., or, .. and it is hoped," &c.
For the P"SITIOX of the verb and its subject see (7G7), and also (741).
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
What is a verb in each of the following sentences? What is its sUhject 1
See if they agree. If they do, give the rule aud show how it applies. If
they do not, change the verb so as to agree with its nominative, and give
the rule. Thus, loves should be lOI'e, to agree with I, in the first person,
singular. Rule-" A verb agrees," &c. (':71;).
(776) I loves reading.-A. soft answer turn away wrath.­
We is but of ycsterda.,', and knows nothing.-The days of man
is as grass.-Thou sees Low little has been done.-He dare not
act otherwise.-Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds
of flour.-A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye.-Su
much of ability and merit are seldom found.-A. judicious arrangement
of studies facilitate improvement.-Was you there?
-Circumstances alters cases.-There is sometimcs two or three
of us.-I, who are first, has the best claim.-The derivation of
these words are uncertain.-Much does human pride and folly
require correction.-To do good unto others are the duty of all.
-To be ignorant of such things are now inexcusable.-(482)
She needs not trouble herself.
(777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour.-The horse
was sent forward to engage the enemy.-The foot, in the meantime,
was preparing for an attack.-Fifty sail was seen approaching
the coast.-Two dozen is as many as you can take.
-One pair was spoiled; five pair was in good condition.
(778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains.
-Life and death is in the power of the tongue.-Anger and
impatience is always unreasonable.- Out of the same mouth
proceedeth blessing and cursing.-Idlene15s and ignarance produces
many vires.-Temperance and exercise preserves health.
-Time and tide' waits for no man.-Our welfare and security
consists in unity.-To profess regard and to ac!t differently
marks a base mind.-To be good and to seem good is different
things.-To do good and to shun eril is equally our duty.
(781) That able scholar lind 'critic have died.-Your friend
and patron, who were here yesterday, have called again to-day.
(782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every dt'op of water,
teem with life.-Every man and every woman were B~arched.

."'YNTAX-tior.nNATIVF.. 169
-Each day, and hour, and moment, are to be diligently improved.-No
,"\"ife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares.-;\o
oppressor, no tyrant, triumph there.
(7S.) Either the boy or the girl were present.-Neither precept
nor discipline are so forcible as example.-Our happiness
or J11i~ery depend much upon our own eonduct.-When sickness,
infirmity, or misfortune, affeet us, the sincerity of friendship
is tried.-N either ability nor inclination are wanting.
--.'\ man's being rich, or his being poor, do not afIect Iii"
character for integrity.-To do good or to get good are equally
neglected by the foolish.
(7SG) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost
in the undertnking.-He, and not we, are to blame.-James,
and also hi" brotiJc'I', have embarked for the gold region.­
Boob, not pleasure, occupies his mind.-He, and not they,
are mistaken.
(787) N eitbel' the scholars nor the teacher was present.­
Whether the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no difference.
(788) Either he or I arc willing to go.-Neither thou nor
he art of age.-Y ou or your brother are blamed.-Neither
James nor I has had a letter this week.-Either Robert or his
sons has met with great losses.-Thou, or he, or John, art the
author of that letter.
(700) Stephen's party were entirely broken up.-The meeting
were large and respectable.-The people often rejoices in
that which will prove their ruin.-The British parliament are
composed of lords and commons.-Congress consist of a senate
and house of representatives.-Never were any nation so in fatuated.-The
noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, 0 God !-A
great number of women were present.-The public is rC'spectfully
informed.-The audience ,yas much plellsed.-The council
was not unanimous.-Congress have adjourned.
WLile still the busy world is treading o'er
The paths they trod five thousund years before.
(793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain.-Many
a broken ship have come to land.
(795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came
by mail, is lost.-It was proposed by the president to fit out
an expedition, and has accomplished it.-Our friend brought
two loads to market, and were sold at a good price.

nu
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE, &c.
796. RULE IX.-The predicate substantivc, after a
vcrb, is put in the same case as the subject be/ore it; as­
" It is 1"-" He shall be called John "-" She walks a queen "-" I took
it to be him "-" He seems to be a sc1wlar "-" The opinion is, that he u'i!l
live." Hence-
NOTE.-A. the 8ubject of a verb can he only in the nominative (760).
or objective (872) the predicate 6uLstantive can be only in the nominative
or objective.
797. Any verb may b,' the copula betweeu t.he subject nnd the predicate
8lILstanth'e, except a transitive verb in the active v.)ice. But those most
cOlDlllunly u,~d in this way are the verLs to be, to become, to seem, to appear;
intrallsitive ",,110.; of motion, position, &e, aud passive verbs, denoting to
cl/ll, name, style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, rcckon, &e.
798. The predicate substantive after a verb may be anything that can
ue the SUbject of a verb (7G:;).
799. The infinitive without a subject, or the participle of a copUlative
verb (601) iu a substantil'c clause, has a predicate Bul)stantil"e after it in
the nomi:,a(:ve; as,
" To be a fordgner is a dislldvflnbge."
., lie wa' not known to be a {urci::ner."
"IEs vein; aforeir;ner was not kllOWU."
.. lIe wa, suspected of being a foreigner."
" W l' did not know his being [or, of bis being] (J foreigner.
In all tbese examples, the word fureigner i; the predicate nominative
after to be, 01' being, becau,e these phrases being only abritlgcd dependent
chusrs (051). (be preJie:ote nonn lemailiS iu the same case nfter the clanse
is ai)l'itiiicd as it was befure. 'fhu"," He wa_ ""t known to be a foreigner
"=" It was not known thllt he was II (o}'(if!,ner." A" then, in the latter
furm.J')rcl~·"er is ill the numina(i," untie!' the rule, it remains the same in
the abritic:e,J furm, aud w of tbe uther examples. But when we say. "For
him (0 be a/urci"lIer," 01', .. \\' e did not kr.ow him to be nforeigner" (396),
hilll, in butb examples, i, the subi,'ct of to be, audforeigner is in the object
I I'c', according to tlie rule. '
POSITlON.
800. Tbe usual position of the predicate substantive is after the verb,
as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construction.
But in both the direct and the indirect questioD, and in inverted
selltclIc('S, its place is often differen!; thlls, " WHO is he ?:'-" We know not
WPO h~ ~~ "=:~ 1~ /(~ !t. .~'!L'DL~r'~ "~" He is th! ~ame THAT ht' was "_u The

f'YNTAX-OBJECTIVE. 171
DOG it was that died "-" A MA:i' he was to all the country dear "-" FEET
was I to the lame "-" Far other SCE:>iE is Thrasymen" now:'
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In each of the following sentences, which is the copulative verb!-whnt
is its subject l-what the predicate substantive 1 Correct where it is
wrong, and gi ve the reason for the correction. Thus, me is the predicate
substantive, and ehould be 1, becal!se the subject it is in the nominative.
Rule-" The predicate," &c.
(70G) It is me.-It "'as me who 'Hote the letter, and him
who carried it to the post-office.-I am sure it could not ha,'c
been her.-It is them, you said, who deserve most blame.­
You would probably do the same thing if you were him.-l
understood it to be he.-It may have been -him, but there is no
proof of it.-If I were him, I would go alJroad at once.-1
little thought it had becn him.-It is not me you are in love
with.-Art thou proud yet? Ay, and that I am not thee.
Whom do you think he is?-,\'ho do you think him tQ be?
- ,rhom do men say that I am ?-She is the persoll ,y ho I
understood it to be.-He is the man whom you said it was.­
Let him be whom he may.-Can you tell whom that \Dan ii:l?
-1~ it not him whom you thought it was ?-Thomas lme\\' not
whom it was that called, though quite certain it was not her
who we saw yesterday.-Let the same be she who thou hast
appointed for thy servant 1saac.-He was not the person ,,-!Jom
he affected to be.
THE ()DJECTIVE r:OVER~ED BY VEUBS.
801. RULli: X.-A transitive verb in the (/ctil'e t'oice
goetrll; the objective case; as, "\Ve love hilil."-" He
loves 118. "-" JVhom did they send ?"
802. The infinitive mood, a participle used as a noun, or part of a sentence,
may be the object of a transitive verb, as well as a noun or pronoun;
as, "Boys love to play."-" [ know who is there,"-" I wish that they were
wise."-" You Bee how few have returned."
SPECIAL R GLES.
803. RULE I.-An intransitive verb doe8 n.:'! govern an Objfclit'€ case
(320, 1). Thu8-

172 ENGLISH GRAMlIIAR •
.. Repenting Ii im of his design," should be, II Repenting of his design.' I
Still, a few Illiomalies of this kind are to be fonnd; as, " They laughed him
to scorn."-" Tile manline!'s to look the subject in the face."-" Talked the
night away."
804. RULE 3.-Intransitive t'erbs ill a trallsilivt sense (375) gOI'em the
objecth'e (a,c (321, 1, 2); as, "He runs a race."-" They live a holy life."
805. To this usage may be referred sucb expres!ions in poetry as the
following: "The brooks ran nectar "_H The trees wept gums and balms"
-" Her lips 1Ilu8h deeper sweets," &c.
806. To this rule nlso belongs tbe objective nfter causatit'es (375-3) ;
as, "He runs a stage."-" John walks his horse."-" He works him hard,"
&c. Such expressions, however, as " Grows corn," are inelegant, and should
be avoided.
807. RULE 3.-1ntransilil·e I'erbs to not admit a passive voice, except when
used transitively (375). Thus-
"I am purposed "-" I am perished," should be, "I have purposed
"-" I am perishing." But we can say, "l\fy race is 1'ltn,"
beca1'lse nm is used transitively. Such expressions as "I am H­
sol!'ed"-" He is deceased "-" He is retired from business"-"\Ye
(/re deier?n';'d,r/ to go on," &c., though common, are incorrect. It is
better to say, "I hCll'C resolved "-" He has retired," &c.
808, A transitive verb in the active voice, without nn object, either has
an object understood, 01' is used i!ltransitively (320).
809, RULE 4.-.R transitive verb does not admit a proposition after it;
thus, "I must premise lrilh a few observations."-'· I will not allow oj it."
Omit with and of.
810. RULE 5.-Verbs signifying 10 NAME, CHOOSE, APPOINT, CONSTITu-TE,
and the like, generally gOl'fTn two objectives, t·i:., the DIRECT, denoting the
pPTson or thing acted upon, and the INDIRECT, denoting the result of the act
expressed; as, "They named him John."-"The people elected him president."-"
They made it a book."
811. In sucb sentences, when the verb is in tbe passive voice, the direct
fJ~ject of the actiye form is made the snhject of tbe passive, and the indirect
remains as the predicate nominative after the verb, according to Rule
IX. Tbus." He was named John."-" He was elected president."-" It was
made a book."
812. Besides the direct 01' immediate object in the objective case, some
vel bs have a remote object belwe~n tbe immediate and the verb, governed
by a preposition understood; as, "John gave ME a book." But when the
remote object comes last, the preposition must be expressed; os, "John
gave a book to ME." The verbs thus used are such as dignify to ask, teaeTt,
offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others.
813. These verbs properly talte the immediate object of the nctive

sYNTAX-OBJECTIVE. 173
voice as the subject in ~he passive, and the remote object remains in the
objective after the passive, governed by a preposition expressed or understood;
as," A book was promised me or to me." (811).
814. In loose eompo,ition, however, the r~mote object 'is sometimes
matle the subject, and the immediate object remains in tI,e objective CfI,C
after the passive voice; as, "I was promised a book." The \'Cl'bs ask and
teaclt frequently have this doubl., construction in the p"",i\',', hut in general
the regular construction is better.
Similar to this are certain expressi'"IS sufficiently correct in the active
form, but which arc nn":11alous, and ealJllut he analyze!l in the form usu·
ally but incorrectly given to them in the passive: Thus, .dcti,·c-" They
touk possession of the farm." P""i I'e (illeUl'l'cctl,Y) "The farm was taken
p,,",scs,ion of 1y them."-(correetly) "i'oE,"2si"ll of the farm was taken
by them." This anomaly arises f!'Om inadvcrtently makillC: the object of
the preposition, (farm,) instcad of the object of the ,"erb in the acti,'c
""ice, (po.~6ession,) the subject of the verb in the passive. Such anomalies
are the following: "The circumstance was made lise of." "The ship
was lost sight of."-" The occasion was taken adl'anta~,' of." Eithcr the
regular passive f..Jl'm of expression should be lIsed, 01', if that be awkward,
a t1ifferent form of expression should be chosen.
POSITION.
815. As the nominative and the objective c,,,,, of nOUllS nrc frlikc, the
arrangement of the sentcnce should clearly distinguish the one case from
the other. The nominative generally precedes the vcr!', aud the ohjective
follows it. Thus," Brutus killed Ca)~ar." If one (or both) of these should
be a pronoun, the order may be varied without oll'clllin~ the sensp, an']
sometimes the objective is rendered more emphatic by being placedfiyst;
Il'i, "Him he slew."
816. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, it
precedes both the verb and its nominativc; as, "The man ",hom we ~a\V
i3 t1earl."-" lVhom did you send I"
817. The ohjective should not, if pOo;ihle, be separater! from its verh
by intervening clauses. Thus," We could not discover, for the want 01
proper teets, the quality of the metal." Better." We could not, fijI' want
,,[ Fopel' tests, discover the quality of the metal.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In the following sentences, correct the errors aeeol'ding to the I'ule, an,1
give a reason (or the rhange. Pars,· the sentences corrected, Thus, I
should be me, heeause goverucd hy loves. 1I,'/e, X, .. A transitive verb,"
&c. :-
(801) He loves 1. - He and they we know, but who art thou?
-She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply.-Ye only
have I known.-He who committed the offence thou shouldst
correct, not I who am innocent.-They that honor me I will

174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
h0I101'.-Who do you think I ~:1\y y('~t erday 7-Who did he marry?-.
Sbe \\ ho we u~et at the t:)prings last summer.-'Vho,
having not· Sl'{'n, we love.-'Vho should 1 meet the vther rlay
but 111 \ olJ friend 7-,V ho dost tllOU t:1ke to be such a coward?
( 803) You will have re:1SOl1 enough to repent you of your
foolish cOllduct.-They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the
sllbject.-Go, £lee thee away into the laml of Judea.-Hasten
thee hOllle.-Sit thee dowll and rest thee.
(807) ScnTal pet'SOnR were entered into a conspiracy.­
Fif't,r men are deserted f!'Om tIle army.-I am purposed that I
will not ~in.-IIe i8 almost perished with cold.-I am resolved
to ga.-lie is retired to his room.-The plague was then entirely
ceased.-Is your father returned'? He was not returned
an hour ago.
(809) No country will allow of such a practice.-False accusation
can not dilllil!i~h from his realmerit.-His servants ye
are, to whom ye obey.-lIe ingratiates with some by traducing
other~.-Tbl'y shall not ".-ant for encouragement. \\T e do not
want fot, a11ything.-l'oyet earnestly for the best gifts.
Change the follu\yil'g iuto the regulm' form, and give:l reason for the
change ;-
(813) I was promised a pension.-He was offered a pardon.
-i5he would not accept the situation, though she was ofl'emJ. it.
-1 was paid a dollar for my services.-I was given a book of
great value.-The commissioner was denied access.
(SI i) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so
pO\rerful an inte-rest, bis resolution to maintain his right.-The
troops pursued, ,yithout waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates.
THE OBJECTIYE C(JYERNED BY PREPOSITIO::-;rS.
818. RULE XI.-A preposition gOL'CI"1lS the objecth'('
case; as, "To to/wm much is gi ,-en, of him much shall
lJe required."
819. The object of II preposition is sometimes an infinitive mocu-a
r-articiple wed as a nOlin-part of a sentence-a phrase, or depeT/delit
clauu, as well liS a nonn or pronoun; as, .. He i" ABOUT to depart."­
i, AFTER we came."-" ON l'eceil l illg his diploma."-" Much depends ON who
are his advisers."
820. As II general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect either 8n
active transiti,e verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the
same object. Thu8," I wrote to lind warned him." Better," I wrote to

SYNTAX-OBJECTlYE. 175
him and warned lIim" SO. ''OJ him, and through "illl, nnu lu hi1l1, nre all
things." I\" ot of, and tllI'ough, and lu !ti1l1," cl:('.
821. Tbis general rille is Sf) little regnrcted, evpn hy the besl writer".
that it i" a matter of doubt whether it ~h01J]d any ]ngn retain a plae'.: in
our grammarR. In many inst:lIJcc'. at least, the form of .'pre·eh condemned
by the rule is clearly better in 1'''811('('1 of perspicuity, Lrevity, and
strength, tban that wLich it re""mmcnd", and in such cnbes it should be
mlopted. Iu some cases, a,!;aiu. as in the "I,uvc example, the full form is
belter tban the elliptical. Iu Ihi" maller, everyone must Le guided by
his last" and judgerneut, avoiding equally 0k"llrity and har,bncsB.
822. WheD the prepositions to, Ill,in, st:lDlI before names of placec, the
following nsage should be cm'dully oL,erved, ·";z.:-
I. To-i, used after a v('rb of m"lion toward; ~S, "lie went to Spain:'
But it is omitted before home; ap, "Go ''''11''',''
2, At-is used Lefore names of house,., vi/l":I' s, (,J/f'I/S, anu forri.,!11
cities; as, 'I He l'~~idcs at the ~lan~ioll 11()11:1t':'-'~ At ~a('at~'~::l
Spdll~~."-(j .At Lisbon."
'"
3. In-is used Lefore nUIll(·.' "f cowllfrif,~ and large rilieR; U~, " He
lives in ElI~Jalid "_" in Loudon "-" in New York," Hut at
is used Lcf~re the r.ames of places and lar(,;" cities after the
yell,s 101lCh, arril'~' lnud, anu frequently after the ,'ell> /1) uC;
os, .' ,\V c touel:ed at Liverpool, and, after a .hl"t FPc:!:;",
IUIJ(Icd al New Orleans."-" I was at New YOlk."
·1, In "peaking of one's residence in a ('ity. at is u,,·t! I"·[,,re tI,,· ].."0,
and in Lefore the street .. ao, "Ile 1L"id"3 at No.--."-" He
Ii \'('5 in State street." "'hen hoth are mentioned t"~dLcr, the
preposition is commonly understood hcfore tlie ]::H; a~, .. He
lives at No. --, State street," or "lie livc3 in State slrpet,
~TO. __."
823. The preposition ii frequently unuerstuou as fol:ows :-
I. A preposition expressed with the first 1I0UI) or pronoun of a ,erie',
may be understood to the 1'e,t; as, ,. Be kind to John and Jalll(S
nud j[ary."
2. When the remote object of a ycrb, governed by a prpposition, is
placed between tbe Verb and ils illlmediate o~ject, the prep",i·
tion is often omitted; as, "Give me yuur hand."-u Dring me a
chair."_" Get me a book." {b 1 ~).
3. '1'0 is commonly omilted after lik,', "car, nigl,; as, " Like bis falber."
-" Near a dver," J.:c,; and of freflu"lIlly aftcl' l£ortl'!J au,] 1111'
/IIJrtj, fl.
824. S

176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
be supplied, and each woru purseu separately; as, "In a vain manner. -
" In a secret place," &c.
826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases cnding with a preposition,
ti0vern B noun following, in the objective; us, " j[aufJre hell," that i~, .. in
spite of hell."-Milton.
827. Though worus denoting weiglte, measure, &c., are evidently gov·
erned by a preposition, yet, as it is for the most part understood, it is
bettcr to dispose of such case~ by the following-
SPECIAL RULE.
828. RULE.-Nouns denoting TIME, VALUE, WEIGHT or
MEASURE, are commonly put in the o~jective case, without
(( governing word (165, 3) ; as,
"He was absent six months last year."-"lt cost a shillillfJ."-" It is
not worth a cent."-" It weighs a pound."-" The wall is six feet high,
and two feet thick."
This may be ca,llcu the objective of time, value, weifJlte, &c., us the case
may be.
829. Nouns denoting time1ww 10nfJ are generally without a preposition;
as, "He is ten years old." All nouns denoting time when, in a general or
indefinite way; as," He came last week." But nouns denoting the time
when, definitely or with precision, generally have the preposition ex·
pressed; as, "He came last week, on IVednesday, in the evening."
I'OSITION.
830. Prepositions should be phc('d before the words whiclJ they govem,
alHl us ncar to them us p08oi1le; IJllt never before that as a relative.
831. 1T7wlIl and which are somctimes governed by a preposition at
fome distance after tlJem; this. howevcr, should be avoided ue much as
possible. Thus," Thut is tLe mau whom I gave the letter to." Generally
up.tter thuB-" to whom I guve the Idter."
832. The preposition with its regimen (539) should be placed as ncar
as possible to the word to wLich it is related.
833. Under this rule, there is liability to error only in the use of pro·
nouns and with regard to position (130).
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In each of the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the
word governed by it. Correct the errors, and give n reason for the
change. Parse the sentences when corrected :-
(818) To who will you give that pen r-That is a smaH matter
between you and I.-He came along with James and 1.-

SYNi'AX-PREPOSITIOl\';. 177
He gave the hook to some 011:', 1 know not "lTho.-(8:31) ,\"ho
does it belong to (-The book which 1 read that story in islmt.
(822) 1 h:iye been to Boston.-They live in Saratoga SpriJ]!:~.
- \\r t' toul'hed in Livelj)Qol on our \\a.,· for .x elY T ork-II e
has been to home for Borne da,"s.-lIe lil"es at Hud~oll stred,
in 1\(). 42.-\\C e remained in; village in the vicinity of' London.
(,'::23) Be so gliliu as lend to me .rour grammar.-- Get to him
a hook like that.-Ask of me that question a!:!;uin.-This l"l~
taught to me a lesson \\"hich I will always be mindful of.-Pay
to me what you owe to me.-l shall be pleased to do to him a
kindness.-Will you do to me a favor?
(830) The nature of the undertaking ,,"as SUt·h a~ to render
tbe progre~~ ycry slow of the work.-Beyond this period the
arts can not be traced of civil society.
(.~32) The wrong position of tIle preposition find its regimen ..(ten pru­
Jnces very I",jicrous sentences. TLe foIIowio" are a specimen;-
,Van ted a young man to take care of some hor~es, of a reiigious
turn of mind.-The flillowing \'l'rse~ were wfittL'n by a
young man who has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement.-A
public dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast
beef and plum pudding.-l saw thai the kdtle had been scoured,
witb half an eye.-He rode to town, and drove hrdve cows,
on horseback.-The man was digging a well, with a Roman
Dose.
834. RULE XII.-(,erfain words (/1/(/ phrases should
be followed by ajJpl"oJlria/c prepusitiuJls.
The following list Illay be useful for rderellce ;-
Abhorrence of.
Abonud in, witlt.
Abridgefrom.
Al,sputfrolll.
Access to.
Accommodat" to.
Accord (l1;tlt.
Accuse of.
Acquaiut !Ditl •.
Acquit of.
Apqniesee in.
Adapted to.
Adequate to.
Adhere to,
12
AdjuJge to.
Admonish of.
Address to,
Admission (acees") 10.
Ad,ui,sion (entrance) into.
Advantage over, 0(.
Affiuitv to, with.
A tfeeti~1I1 t;,r.
Agree witlt a peroou; 10 a proposition
from anotber; upon a 1 hing
among themselves.
Agreeable to.
Allude to.
AIter to, alteration i71,

178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Amerce in.
Convict of a crime; in II penalty.
Annex to.
Copy after a person; from a thing.
Analogy to, with.
Currespond (to be consistent) with;
Antipathy to, against.
(answering 01' suitable) to.
Approve of.
Corresponuence wilh.
A rray with, in.
Cured oJ.
Arrive at.
Debar from.
Ascendant over.
Defend (others) from ;-(ourselves)
Ask of a person; for a thing; after against.
what we wish to hear of. Demand of.
Aspire to, after.
Denounce against a person.
Associate with, seldom /0.
Depend, dependent upon, on.
Assent /0.
Deprive of.
Assure of.
Derogate from, derogatory to.
Attain 10.
Derogation/rolli, of.
Averse to,fl'01l1.
Despair of.
Banishfrom, to.
Despoil of.
BeIio::ve in, sometimes on.
Devolve on.
:Bereft of·
Die, perish of II disease; by an in-
Bestow 1, 'lon, on.
strument, or violence; for an·
Betray t; b. person; into a thing. other.
Boast of.
Differ, different from.
Bind to, iii.
Difficulty in.
Blush at.
Diminish from, diminution of.
Borcler upon, on.
Disabled from.
Call 00 a person; at ,a p]"ce. Diagr(·e with a person; /0 a pro-
Cn paci! y for.
Cal eful of, in.
posal.
Disagreeable to.
e.teh at.
DisaJ;>pointed of what we do not get;
Cbange (exchange) for; (alit.:) to, an what does not answer when
into.
got.
Charge on a person; with a thing. Disapprove of.
Compare with, in respect of quality; 1-~;SCOU1'8ge from; discouragement
to, by way of illustration.
to.
Comply, compliance with. Disgust.-. 'd .al, v:ith . .
Composed of. Dispose oJ .' ~Isposed (adJ) 10.
Concede to.
Dispossess oJ.
Concur with a person; in l\ meas- Disqualify f&1'.
ure; to an effect.
Conclescend to.
Dissent from.
Distinct from.
Confer 011, upon.
Divested of.
Confide in.
Divi,\e between two; among ;nore.
Conformahle, conformity to, wit/t.. Eager ill, 011, of, for. a/ler.
Congenial to.
Embark in.
Congratulate "pon, on.
Employ in, on, about.
Consonant to.
Enamoured witlt.
Cumist (to be composed) of; (to be Encroach "pon, on.
cnmprised) i1l.
Endeavor after a thing.
Consistent ,!,illt..
Contrast 1Otth.
Engage in a work; fOT a lime.
Enjoin upon_ .
Conversant with men; ill things; En'trance into.
about and among are less proper. Equal to, with.

SYNTAX-PREPOSITIONS. 179
Eq ui valent 10.
Intrude inlo a place enclosed; upon
Espouse 10.
a person, or a thing not en-
Estimated al.
closed.
Exception/rom, 10.
Inurecllo.
Exclude, exclusion from.
Invested with, i".
Exclusive of.
Lame of.
Expelleclfrom.
Level with.
Expcrt at (before a noun); in (be- Long for, after.
fore an ncti,'c participle). Louk on what is prebellt; for what
Fall ""de>' di-,;mre; from a tree; is absent; after what i8 distant
inlo a pit; 10 work; "pon an )!ade oj.
enemy.
Made mucb oj.
Familial' to, willt; a thing is famil- Marry to.
iar to us-we Kith it. Mortyr for .
.Fawn "pon, all.
Militate again.II.
Followed by. :,Ii:ltru~tful of.
Fond oj.
N etd of.
Fureign to, sometimes from, Obeclient 10.
Foundecl "pall, 011, ill.
Object to, against.
Free/rom.
Othen"lIlCe, ubs€rvatioll of.
Fruitful in. Obtrude UPJII, 01/,
Full of.
Occasion/or.
Glall of something gaiued by our· Offensive, 10.
selves; at something that be- Operate upon, 011.
falls another.
Oppusite, oppu,it.iou to.
(;rattfullo a l,eI'50U; for favors. Partake 0/; participate of, in.
Hankel' afler.
Penetrate ill/o,
Binder frolll.
Pcrse"ere in.
Hold of; as, "Take hold of me." .Pitch upon.
Impose upon.
POOl' in.
Incorporate (active transiti"e) into; Prefer to, over, abore.
(inlrausitive or passin') witlt. Pr

J80
ENGLISH GRAlIllllAR.
Redueo (611bJu~)
case,,) to.
Reil,~ct upon, on.
Reganl for; in reg:ll'tl to.
Rely "pan, on.
Replete witlt.
Reproached for.
Uesemblallce Iv.
Resolve on.
nespeet to; in re,pcd 10, oj.
Restore to.
Rich in.
Rob oj.
Rule over.
Shlll'c in, of.
Sick of.
Significant of.
Similar to.
l:;ink into. beneath.
Skilful (hefore a noun) in;
II participle) aI, in.
Strain out.
Strip of.
under; (in other Submit to.
Sent to.
Swerve fr01l1.
Ta~le oj, means actual cnjoymeut;
-taste jar, mean, capacity ur
genius for.
Tax with (for example, a crime, an
act) ; jar (a purpose, J. state).
Th~nkful JOT.
Think of, on.
Touch at.
Unite (trnnsitive) to; (intmusitive)
with.
1.:" niwn with, to.
esefulfoT.
Value upon, on.
Vest, before the possessor, ;11; before
the possessed, with.
Wait UpCnI. on.
(before Wit"ess of.
Worthy, unworthy of. But nfter the~e,
of is generally omitted.
835. What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as much upon
what folluw>,. as upon what goes before. Thus," To fall from a height "­
.. into a pit "-" in battle "-" to u'ork "-I< upon an enemy."
836. Into is \1se,] only nfter verbs of motion, and implies entrance. In
is used after VCI bs of motion or rest, nnd denotes situ(ltion, but never
entrance; as, " !Ie went 1IIto the c:lrl'iage, nnd rode in it."
837. Boast, appro!'e, and disapprol'e. arc often used without a preposi.
tion following; so also worthy aud unworthy.
838. The same preposition th:tt follows a verb or adjective, usually
follows the noun derived from it, nnd vice versa; as, "Confide ill "­
"Confiden: in "-" Confidence in."
EXERCISES '1'0 BE CORREOTED.
In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the nntecedent
term. If not appropriate, correct, and gi ve the rule :-
This remark is founded "ith trutb.-He was eager of recommending
him to his f'ellow-citizens.-I find great difficulty of
"riting.-E\'ery change is not a change to the better.-Chauged
for a worse shape it can not be.-It is important, in times of
trial, to have a friend to whom you can coufide.-You my rely
in the truth of "hat he ~ays.-J\1any have profited from good
advice, but ha,e not always beeu grateful of it.-I have no occasion
of his services.-Favors are not always bestowed to the
most deserving.-This is very different to that.-Virtue and
vice differ "idely with each other.-Come in the hou8e.-We

SYNT A X-POSSESSIVE. 181
rode into a carriage with four hOl',ics.-The boy fell under It
deep pit.-Such conduct cannot be reconciled to .I'our PI',)!,"'·
~ioll.-G 0, and be reconciled with thy brother.-.\ man had
four sons, and he divided hi" property between them.-I :\In
now engaged with that work.-lIe in~i,h Oll it tklt he is righl.
TnI: PI )~::;E::;SIYE CU\'El~XED BY :-;eDS'rc~XTl \'ES.
839 RULE XIII.-A substantive that l:mits the signi­
./ication oj another, must be pul in (he jJ.·ls,~;('s8iu·? case;
((S, " Virtuc's reward "-" John's books."
840. Th,' suhstantive in the Po'sQ8sive Cl'e limit, the signi:ictli"" "f
11H' other, bv l'ppresenting the thing n:lIn"l !I" l'T,)"ud;II:1 from,l'0'.iv'" rn'y be noy nOlln in any
0:l'I·. or a verbal Ii·.un (4G~), either al.,",~ (·1' with it;; rc'.~ilr",n. or mndifyin.~
word.'!; a.'l, "On (lagle's /"i1lflS.,"_u lIe wa.., 0pp0scd 10 .fohn's ?f'ri/ing,"
-" I nm in favor of a pupil's cnmpns;".7 (("'J"cn!1!1" (S0';}.-" JilL,,',
hll1lill[J dO)·,/Nl himself too milch to sl;,d!! was the C \lI"8 of his si,·1",(·,,,.·'
( 463).
842. Thc noun limited hy the possc'oive i., uften under.,t"",l; as, I, Thi3
IJI)"k is John's [book]." It is always omitt",l aft"r the posse,si,'c ('[\s.~ uf
the personal pronouns; :-U~, "Thi3 Lf)ok i ... 1llillc, thine, ours:' &l~.~ :1nd, in
this con,tructioo, when supplied, the 1'0''''"-i,,, case must b" chan~cJ fur
the poesessive pronoun (241); a.," This is "'!I bOllk, 1/'.'1 buok, vur b,,"k;"
not mine bouk, ,\:c., (292).
843. TI,,, p"",,,,,ive cn.'e, nnd the pl'eposilion of \"ith the ol)jcetiv0, arc
often e'lui\~:dc'nt; as, "j!y father'S house "-" The h"'lS~ of "'!I fathe·r."
j:llt-
844. Somclimcs the ide:. (·xpresscd by of with the ol'i,>ctive, can not
be expl'cesC'l at all by the possc3sive; a3, .. A rill;; or' !/"Id,-q A cnp of
1M/er "-" A piece of land "-" The house of Cr'f"[!"," &c. Sometil1le~,
1l~;lil1, 1hc ideas ~~xpr('ssed arc diffel'ent; thu:'), "The ·Lr)n{'6 day" nlcallS
tile sabbath. ,. Tlw dRy of 'he Lo)Yl," means til,c day "f .i,,·lgment. "~ly
father'S pietul'e," means a picture belonging t" my fatll!'r. .. A picture
of 'fIIy father," means a portl'ait of bim. .. Uo.!', luv~." meal!' only the
Inve ",hieh God feels. "The l"l'e of Gnd," means either tile love which
G.)d feels to us, or tllat which we feel to him.
845. Of, before a pos

182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR,
846, Ev('n when the posseesive case, and of with the ubjective, are
equivalent in meaning, the arrangement and euphony, as well as the perspicuity
of the sentence, will often render the or,e expression preferable to
the other. When this is the case, care should be taken to use th,lt form
:",hich, in the circumstances, is best. Thus," In the name of the army,"
IS better than, "In the army's name;" ":'II Y mother's gold ring," is bet·
tcr than, "The gold ring' of my moth"r.·' A succession of words in eithel'
form is harsh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two;
thus. "JlIy brother's wife's sister "-better-" The sister of my brother's
wife."-" The sickness of the son of the king "-better-" The sickness of
the I.ing's son."
847. When severnl nouns come togetber in tbe possessive case, imply.
ing common possession, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last,
nnd \Iuden,tooll to the rest; as "Jane and Lucy's books," tbat is, books
the common property of Jane and Lucy. nut if common possession is
not implied, or if several words intervene, tbe sign of the pos

BYNTA X-POSSESSIV~. 18~
the sign of the possessive must be aunexed to each; as, I, He took refuge
at the governor's, the king's representatl \'e," that is, "at the governor's
house."
853. The s after the apostrophe is sornrtimes omitted, when the first
word ends; and the following word begino, with an ", or when the me of
it would occasion a disagreeable repetition of s sound.; a~, " For righteonsness'
sake "_u For conscience' ~ake "-" For Je~us' sake "-" At Je.
sus' feet" (173). In other cases, such on,issil>ns would generally be improper;
a'", II James' book "_" Miss' shoes," instead of, "J.lInes's book"­
.1 Mis,'s shoes."
854. A clause of a sentence should uevcr come betwepn the posse,siyc
case aud the word wh:ch it limits; thus, "She bpglln to extol the brmer's
as she called him, excellent understanding," should be, .1 the excelleut
understanding of the fanner, as she called him."
855. A noun limited by the possessive plural, or by two or more nouns
Feverally in the possessive singular, should not be plll"al unless the SCIl.;P
require it. Thus," The men's health [nut healthsJ sdfere.J f"om the climate
"-" John's and William's wife [not wives] are of the same age."
856. The possessive whosesoever is sometimes divided by interposing the
word which it limits; as, "u·hose house .'Ofl'tr." This, in ge,2eral, howeveJ',
is to 1e avoided, and to be admitted only when euphony ad'!'! precision nre
thereby promoted (277).
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substHntive, anu
which is the oue limited-where wrong, correct according to the rule or
observations.
(83!l) Virtues reward.-One mans loss is often another malls
gain.-Mans chief' end is to glori(y God.-My ancestors yirtuc
is "not mine,-A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures
gifts for mans advantage.-On eagles wings.-For Christ
sake.-For ten sake_-Which dictionary do you pl'efer.-'\Vebster,
Walker, or Johnson? -( 172) Asa his heart was perfeet.
-John Thorn pson his book_-Lucy Jones her book.
(841) lie waH averse to the nation imolving itself in wal'_­
?II uch depends on your pu pil com posing frequently.-He being
rich did not make him happy.-l am opposed to him going 011
such an expedition.
(842) That book is James book, and that one is Roberts.­
That knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife.-My
book is old, but your book and Roberts book are new.-Which
is the best book, your book or my book?
(845) That landscape is a picture of my father. The work
you speak of is one of Irving.-Gravitation was a discovery of
Sir Ieaac Newton.-That is a ring of my mother.

184 Jo:NGLISH GRAlII.LHAR.
(846) The world's government is not left to cbance.-Tbe
tree is known by the fruit of it.-The commons' vote was against
the measure, but the 101'(1:;' vote was in its favor.-The weekly
return of the day of the Lord is a blessing to man.-The representatives
house is now in session.-The extent of tbe prerogati
\'e of the king of England is well understood.-J obn's
brotber's wife's mother is sick.-The severity of tbe sickness
of the son of the king caused great alal'm.-Your brothers ser­
"allt'" ~ituation is critical.
(847) William's and Mary's reign.-Cain and Abels sacrifice
,,-ere not the same.-David and Solomon's reign were prosperaus.-John
and 'Villiam'::! wife are cousins.-l\Ien, women, and
childrells ~hoes for salc.-lIe cared for his father and also for
his mother'.,; interest.-The Betsy and Speed wells cargoes were
both SU\'l!ll.
(848) Messrs. Pratt'", Woodford's, & Co.'s bookstore is in
New York.-Thompson's &: Company"; office was on fire.­
.T ack's the ,viant-killer's wonderful exploits.-The bishop's of
London's charge to his clergy.-The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's
palace.-The secretary's of war report.
(850 c';: 851) Call at Smith the bookseller and stationer's.­
The parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's.­
He emulated C!Bsar the greatest general of antiquity's bravery.
-General Taylor, president of the United :)tates, au excellent
mall and brave soldier's residence.
(852) That house is Smith the poor man's frieud.-'Ve spent
an agreeable hour at Wilson, the gowrnor's deputy .--The coach
I:ltopped at Mr. Brown, Henry's father.
(853) James father arrived yesterday.-Cbarles books are
completely spoiled.-King James translators merely revised
former translations.-Eor conscience's sake.-}

SYNTAX-SUBJUNCTIVE. 185
SUBJUXCTIVE MOOD.
857. RULE XIV.-The subjunctive mood is 'Us(d in
dependent clauses, when both contingency or doubt, and
futurity, are expressed j as, "If he continue to study he
will improve."
858. When contingency or doubt only, and not futlll'ity, is implicd, the
indicative is used; as, "If he has money he hCJ" it."
859. Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the conncctives, if,
thoug", unless, eXClpt, whether, &c.; but whetber futurity is implied or lIot,
must be gathel'ed frolU the context. In general, when tbe sellse is the
same, with shall, will, or should prefixed to the vcrb, as witbout it, the suhjune-tive
may be used; otherwise, not. Tbus, in the preccedil,t; example,
.. If he coutinue," and, "If be shall continue," mean the same thint;.
860. lti'Jn is not whether man be a free agent."-Ho/,vn. "If
thi, be an elTor, it is a harmless one." In Done of these can ,,,,,", or will,
,,1' should, be intrvc\uc"d, witbuut changing or destroying the sense. Iu all
"f them, present usage wonld substitute is for be. It will not do, howevet',
rur the grammarian t .. sct IJp a rule, by which establishe,1 and reputable
u';lge is cOIHlemned, though the present t:hte tends alJother way. Still,
there are cases in which this cbange is inadmissible (3~IO).
861. [{,'/ and thai, anncxed to a command, !'equi", the subjlJnctive
lllood; as, .. Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty"-" Take heed that
thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." And sOllletimes wjthout a
cOlllmnnu; as, "They shall bear thee up, le,t thou dash thy foot against a
st"ne."-L I, nut this the fa&t that I havll chosen-that thou brine; the poor
to thy ilJ>Ilse."
862. {{, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, rcquil'CS the
suhjunctive mood; as, "If he do but touch the hHls, they shall emoke."
But when future time is not implied, the indicative is used; as, "If he doc,
but whisper, every word is heard distinctly,"

186 £NGLISH GRAlIll\fAR.
863. Tbe 8ubjunctive mood is used to express a wish or de8ire; aa, '"r
wish I were at home." .. 0, that he were wise!"
864. A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the thing supposed
or d"si ret!, i, expressed hy the past subjuncti ve; as, to If my king·
dom u'ere of this world, then would my servants fight," implying, .. It is
not of this world."-" 0, that tbou wert as my brother!" implying, ,j Thou
art not" (4 :,9-2).
EXERCISES TO DE CORRECTED.
'Yhat verhs in the following sentences, should, according to tbe rule,
be in the subjunctive mood, ond what in the indicative I-correct them
IIccordingly- parse the sentences corrected.
(857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely
be put to death.-W e must go to-morrow, unless it rains.-­
There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good.
-Though the sky be clear, it is cold.-He will maintain his
cause, though he loses his eRtate.-We may get letters, if the
mail arrives in time.-If John be come, why did you not tell
me ?-If it sno,,"s all night, the roads will be impassable.-Ask
John if he know when the legislature meets.-If he know any
thing, he surely knows, that unless he gets better he can not be
remuved.-lf thou be the Son of God, command that these
stones be marle bread.
(861) Take care that the horse does not run away.-See
that thou dost it not.-Let him that standeth take heed lest lIe
falls.-Kiss the Son, lest he is angry.-Reprove not a scorner,
lest he hates thee.
(862) If he is bnt ill health, It will be the cause of great
thankfulness.-lf he does but run, he will soon overtake them.
-If be be but in health, I am content.-O, that be was wise!
-1 wish I was at bome.
(SG4) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.-If it
was not so, I would hal'e told Jou.-If be was a year older, I
would send bim to 8choo1.-,Vas gold more abundant, it would
be of less value.--If he was an imposter, be must have been
detectec1.-If I was be, I would accept the offer.-",Vas I he, I
would accept the offer.
THE INFINITIVE MOOD.
863. RULE XV.-The infinitive mood is governed by
VERBS, NOUNS, or ADJECTIVES; as, "I desire to learn "­
"A desire to learn "-" Anxious to learn."

SYNTAX-INFINITIVE, 187
866. The infinitive is n sort of veroal nOHU, nnd ha~ the const, uctioD of
hoth a verb and a noun.
367. As n !:oun, the infiniti \"e may be, 1. The sunjcel of It ved" (394) "
:t Q , " To play is pleaQnnt." 2. The object of a HIO (8112); a', "Boy" l"I'e
10 pia!]." ~,Thepredicaie ?lominatin' after a copulativp \"frh (7~Is); !Ie,
.' He is t" b" marl ietl." 4. In apposition wilh allotht-r lIC>lln (G70); !l8,
"Spare, spare your fricnus the task, 10 r(ll'!, to nod, to seoJf, condemn."
:i. The object of a preposil:ulI {819); as, .... 11"'1/1 to depa.rt "-" Wh It wellt
ye out for to 'cc 1"
868. At tl,,· same time that tbe infilliti,'e i, u,d as n no:!", it may k11'e
an the modifications of a v(·rb in I'CSP' ct to time, ~·ol'crllmcllt. ('I' adjuncts,
forming, with them, an al,ridl(ed pentcnel\ 01" cla,,,,, or pi"",.,
(t~',3), as, "To f'ee tlte Htn at nddnight is impos,ii,le." H(ol'(', 10 Sl'C is
modified loy its (,hj.. and
the infinitive remains aftcr it,like tbe indirect objcct (811), TllU',. 'lctit'c,
" I de3ircd him to go."-Passive. " He was desired to go."

188 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
875. RULE 4.-The infinitive i·$ used as a predicate nominative after any
verb a, a copula (59'1'); a~, " You are to blame" (397).
876. Wheu used a~ a predicate uominati ve aftet· the verb to be, tbe infinitive
,Ienotcs-
1. All equivalent expression; as, "To obey is to enjoy."
~. Wbat IS possible or obligatory; as, "Gold is to be found in California
"-" The laws are to be observed."
3. What is settled and determined upon, and, of course, future; as,
,'Tbe sbip is to sail to morrow."
877. HULE 5.-1'0, the sign of the infinit;,'e, is 1Iot Ilsed after the verbs
BID, DARE, NEED, MAKE, EEE, HEAR, FEEL, and LET, in the activ6 voice, nor
after LET in the pas.~ive; as, "I saw him do it "-" You need not go "­
" He was let go."
878. To this rule there nre some exceptions. As it relates only to
euphony and usage, to ma'y be inserlerl when harshness will not thereby
be produceu; thus, " Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised."­
McKc71:ie.
879. For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verbs peraive,
behold, observe, have, and know.
880. When several infinitives come tg"ther in the same construction,
the sign to expressed wit.h the first, is sometimes omitted befure those
that follow; thus, ,. It is better to be a king and die, than to live and be
a prince." 'ruis should never be done wben either harsbuess or obscurity
woule! be the result.
881. To, the sign of the infiuiti I'e, shoull never be used for tbe infinitil'e
itself. Thu-," I have not written. and I do not intend to," is a colloquial
vulgarism for, "I have not written, ane! I do not intend to write."
882. RULE 6.-The infinitive is used to expre!s the PURPOSE, END, or,
DESIGN of the preceding act; as, "Some who came to scoff, remained to
pray." Here, to scoff and to pray are not governed by came and remained;
but Rre put without a governing word, to express the end for which they
came and remained.
883. This construction of the intiniti ve is sometimes preceded by the
phrase, " in order;" and formerly was pre('eded by for; as, "What wen t
yc out for to see? " This is now obsolete.
884. RULE 7.-In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so AS, TOO
or TIIA"; as, '. Be so good as to read this lettet' "-" Too old to learn "­
.. Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider this construction as ellipticalo
and tbat the i"finitive depends on a word understood.
885. The infinitive is sometimes used to aS13igll, in an abridged form
the reason of that which goes before; a3, "Base cOlVard that thou art I
to flee! "-' Ungrateful man! to waste my fortune, rob me of my peace! "
&c._ u lIust not one sigb, to reflect on so grave a subject."

SYNTAX-INFINITIVE. 189
886. The infiuitine is sometimes put nb~ollltel.", without n governing
word: R~, "To ~ay the truth, I was in fault."
887. The infinitive is sometimes omitted; as, "I considel' bim [to /'f]
an honest man."
888. The verb '/ave, fullowed by the illfiuitive, sonwtilllcs expre""ol
obligation 01' 1Irce.,,,ily; as, "'Ye h/lVC to do it," t.llIIt j" ""'e must do it."
889. In parsing, the iuliniti Ye, in these sevemi constructiuns, ma'y be
briefly stated thus: "The infinitive as the subject of--"-" as the object
of--"-" as the predicale.nomi,wtive after--"-" The infinitive of
l' Ii "P'J ',(-('! I111 jll' r i.~f)ll-CaUsc-uscd absolutely."
EXERCISES TO BE COnnEOTED.
There is b:1t little liability to err in the use of this 111,,0d, txccpt in its
tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign I".
When there is no rule to author ise the omission, it should be inserted.
(S65) Strive learn.-They obliged him do it.-I" on ought
not walk so fast.-(S69) It is better li\'e on a little thau outlive
a great deal.-It is better to be a king and die than li rt'
and be a prince.-(870) He scorns either to temporize, or
deceive, or be guilty of evasion.
(SiI) You ueed not to be so serious.-I ha\'e seen some
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly.-He bid
me to go home.-The boyf' were all let to go at once.-Let no
man to think too highly of himself.---They all heard him to say
it.-He was heard s:ry it bv evervbody.-Some oue sa,,- them
to pass the house.-'!'hey ~ere seen 'pass the house.-1 have
observed some artistes to use the term.-Dare be wise.-They
were bid come into the house.-(881) Be sure to write yourself,
and tell him to.-1 strive to live as God designed me to.
Point out the use of the infinitive in lhe fullowin!; correct seutenr.ce, anJ
show how it is goverued.
It too often happens that to be abole the reach of want just
places us within the reach of avarice.-It does no good to
preach generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither
sense nor souL-He was born to be great.-To accomplish
these ends, savages resort to cunuing.-'rhey thought to make
themselves rich.-Great desires are difficult to be gratified.­
Some people are difficult to please.-To know ourselves, we
must commence by knowing our own wealmess.-If we have
not always time to read, we have always time to reflect.-To
be or not to be? that is the question.-I do well to be angry.
- Whatsoever thy hand findeth to do, do it with thy might.~
Having food to eat and raiment to put on, be content.

190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
THE PARTICIPLES.
890. RULE XV I.-Participles have the construction
of nouns, adjectives, and verbs (452, ~c.)
891. The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the
subject of a verb (762), or the predicate.nominative after it (798); as,
.. Sayin9 is'not doin9." In the objective case, it may be the object of a
transitive verb (80~), or preposition (819); ns, "Avoid doin9 evil."­
(, There is pleasure in doing good."
892. In a sul)stantive phrase, a noun following the present or perfect
participle (ns well as the infinitive 799) of a copulntiv.e verb (604), is in
the predicate·nominative; as, "His being ao expert dancer "-" The crime
of being a young man," &c.
893. The participle, as an adjeotive, expresses nn attribute, of a noun
or prononn, without affirmation; as, (, The sword hangs rusting on the
wall.
894. The participle, while used as a r:oun or adjective, may be modified
in all respects as the verb (630).
895. To participles used iu theile ways. the rules of syntax for nouns,
arljectives and verbs, mr.y of course be applied.
SPECIAL RULES.
896. RULE 1.-Wilen tlte present or perfect participle is uMd a& a
nOlin, a nOun b'fore it is put in tlte pos8essive caBe (841); RS, "Much
depends on the pupil's composing frequently."-" Joltn's having done so is
evidBnt."
897. But a pronoun, in this construction, must be the possessive pronoun,
and not the posse,s;ve case; as, "~Iuch depends on your compo·
~i og," .xc.; not yours.
898. In mauy ca~es, the nominati ve or the objective before the present
participle DS an adjective, will express nearly the same idea. Thus,
"Much will depend on the pupil'. composing," and" Much will depend
on the pupil composing," mean substantially the same thing. Still, the
?onstruction i~ d.iffercnt: in the first, tbe dependence is on the composing,
~u the second It IS ull tbc p"pil " and though in .these examples Ihe sense
I~ nearly ~he same, yet there arc often examples in which the Bense is
entirely different. Thus," What do you think of my horse', running today?"
implies he has run, and asks, "How do you think he ran? " But
.. What do you think of my !torse 1"llllning to·day I " implies he Itas not run,
and Dsk~, « Do you think be should run i"
899. RULE 2.- lVhen tlte pu,ent participle, used as a noun, !tas an
ARTICLE or ADJRCTn E before it, tile preposition OF follows; as, "By t/.e
observin~ oj

YNTAX-PARTICIPLES. 191
900, In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and ~an
not be modified as a verb, Hence we can not say, "By the observlDg
carefull1/ of these rules ," because the adverb carellllly can not mouify a
noun, But we can ~ay,' c, By the careful observing of," d:c,; because ca?"c­
.lui, being an adjective, can modify a noun. Or we can sa)" "By observlDg
these rules carefully ," &~.; because the and of being both removed observing
can be modified as a verb (922).
901. Both the article anu of may be omitted; but not the one without
the other. By this omission, the participle becomes II participal noun'.ll:nd
catl be mouifieu as the verb (462). Of can not be used "'hen a preposltIou
follows.
902. So here, again, in either of the~e COllStrudions, the sense in mnny
cases will be the same. Thus," By the observing of these rules he be·
came eminent," anu .. By ob:lerving these rules he became eminent," ex·
press the same idea. But, as in thc other case (898), so here, there are
exampl~s in which the sense is entirely different. Thus," He expres8ed
the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher," and "He expressed
the pleasure he had in hearing the philosopher," mean entirely diffCl ent
thiogs, So" At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and" At hearing
the ear, tLey will ohey." The first is sense-the last, nonsense.
III sllch cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the followiog-
903. RULE 3.- When tll~ verbal noun expresses something of which the
noun following denotes the nOER, it should have t he article and tlle preposilion;
as," It was said in the !learing of the witness." But when it e:c.
pres6ts ~ometldng of which the noun following does 110t denote tlte doer, but
the OBJECT, botlt should be omitted; as, "The court spent some time in
hearing the witness."
904. RULE 4,-Tlte past participle, and 1Wt Ihe past tense, 8hould be used
a{ter tIle auxiliaries HAVE and BE; as, "I have written" (not wrole)­
"The letter is u'ritten" (nut wrote.)
905. So, also: the past participle should not be used for the past tense;
3S, " He ran," not run-" I saw," not seen-" I did," not dOlle.
906. Iu many verbs whose present passive expres~e8, not the present
continuance of the act, but of the result of the act in a finished state, the
present participle active has a passive as well a~ an active sellse; and is
used with the auxiliary verb to be, to express the prescnt passive progres­
Ei'l'ely; as, .. The house is bllilding" (not being built). When, ill such
verb., the participle in in!! has not a passive BenBe-or where the use of
it in a pa~si ve sense wonld be ambiguous, a different form of expression
shoulu be used (456, &c.)
907. The participle is sometimes used absolutely, hwing no dependence
on !lDy otbel' word; as, "Properly speaking, there is no such thin" as
chance" (769 and 770).
c
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In the following sentences correct the errors, and give a reason for tbe
change :-

192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
(892). Its being me need make no difference.-We could
not be sure of its being him.-The whole depend on its being
them.
(896) Man rebelling against his l\faker, brought him into
ruin.-Joseph having been sold by his brethren, was overruled
for good.-God upholding all things, is an evidence of his power.
-He being a great man did not make him a happy man.-A
man being poor does not make him miserable.-(S98) What do
you think of my horse running tl)-day? Did he run well ?­
What think you of my horse's running to-day? 'ViII it be safe?
(899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics.
-By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect.-By ob·
taining of wisdom you will command respect.-This was equal
to a rejecting the proposa1.-This was equal to rejecting of the
proposal.-The learning anything well requires application.
-Learning of anything well requires great application.­
Meekness is manifested in suffering of ills patiently-in the suffering
ills patiently-in the suffering of ills patiently.-In the
patient suffering ills-in patient suffering of ills.-Because of
provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them.­
(903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of
sundry papers much time was spent.-The greatest pain is suffered
in the cutting of the skin.
(904) He has broke his cup.-I have drauk enough.-The
tree was shook by the wind.-The tree has fell.-Some one has
took my pen.-I seen the man who done it.-He has began
the work.-Some fell by the way side and was trode down.­
The French language is spoke in every part of Europe.
The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel IVebster. Irving. N. A ~
Review, Cooper, Bancroft, ThomaA Brown, Sir G. M'Kensie, Butler, &c.,
have been changed into modern newspaper English, Restore them, ac·
cording to (906 :-
The fortress was being built.-The spot where this new and
strange tragedy was being acted.-An attempt was being
made in the English parliament.-The magnificent church now
being erected in the city of New Y ork.-While these things
were being transacted in England.-While the ceremony was
being peri'ormed.-Tbe court was then being held.-And still
be being done and never done.-Wheat is being sold at a fair
price.-Gold is being found in great quantities.-A report is
now being prepared.-Goods are now being Bold off at first cost.
-While the necessary movement was being made.

:;l'NTAX-TENSES. 193
CO~NECTION OF TENSE~,
908. RULE XVII.-In the lise of verbs {lnd !Cun/:;
that in point of time relate to each other, the order of
lime must be observed jaB, "I have known him tll6se
many years "-not, "I know him these many year:,,;"
nor, "I knew him these many years."
909. REMARK.-Tbe particular tense necessary to be used must~epend
up"u the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to all cases.
But it may be proper to observe-
910. An observation which is always true must be expressed in tbe
present tense; as, "The stoics believed that· all crimes are equal'" (408).
911. The present-perfect, and not the present tense, shonld be used in
connection with words denoting an extent of time continued to the present;
thus, .. They continue with me now three days, should be, .. have
continued," &c. (40~).
912. The present-perfect tense ought never to be u,ed ill connection with
words which express past time j thus, "I have formerly mentioned his
attachment to study," should be, .. I formerly mentioned," .tc_
913. To express an event simply as past, without relation to any othcr
point of time than the present, or as taking place at a certain past time
1l1cntioned, the past tense is used; as, .. God created the world.'·-" In
the beginning, God created the world." Exercises in (~Il:!) are examples.
914. When we wish to represent an event as past at or before a certain
past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past-perfect tense. Thus,
when we say, "The vessel had arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, at nine
o'clock the arriving of the vessel was past. But when we say, "The
vessel arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, the arri ving of the vessel was
then present.
915. It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event be
PAST at the time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that in
pointing out the time of a past event, two points 01' periods of time are
often mentioned-the one for the purpose of ascertaining tlte other. Thus,
.. We arrived an hour before wnset." Here the past-perfect is not used,
though the arriving is represented as past before a past time mentioned,
,iz., sunset, because sunset i8 not the time referred to, but is mentioned in
order to describe that time; and at the time described, the even!, arriving,
was not PllSt, but present. If in this example we omit the word
.. hour," and merely say "before sunset," the construction will be the same.
This will show that it is correct to say, "Before I went to France I visited
England," because the visiting of England is represented as present, and
not past at the time indicated by the word before. But if the event mentioned
is represented as rast at the time indicated by the word before, lOr
if the sentence is 80 arranged that only one point of paot time is indicated
at which the event referred to is past, the past-perfect must be nsed ;
as, "They had arrived before we sailed."-" They arrived after we had
sailed."-" I !tad visited England when we returned to America."
13

191 ENGLISH GRAMlIJAR.
916. Th0 present anu thc past of the auxiliaries, shall, will, may, can,
should uever Le associated ill the same sentence; and care must be taken
that th" sui ,s'~queut verb be expressed in the same tense with the antece·
dent verb (344); thus, "I may 01' can do it now, if I choose "-" I migllt
or could do it IIOW, if I chose "-" I shall 01' will do it, when I can "-" I
may do it, if I can "-" I once could do it, but I wonld not "-" I would
have done it thCll, Lut I could not." -" I mention it to him, that he may
stop if he choose "-" I mentioned it to him, that he might stop if he
chose'i--" I have mentioned it to him, that he may stop "-" I had mentioned
it to him. that he might stop ,,_u I had mentioned it to him that
he might have stopped had he chosen.
917. In dependent clauses, the past·perfect indicative or potential is
used to express an event antecedent to, b!lt never, contemporary with, or
subsequent to, that expressed by a .erb in the past tense in the leading
clause. Thus, we can say. "I believed he had done it," but not, .. I
hoped he had done it;" because belief may refer to what is past, but hope
always refers to something future. See also the infinitive (920, 921).
918. When should is used instead of ought, to express presmt duty
(363). it may be followed by the present 01' present-perfect; as, "You
should study, that you may become learned."
919. The indicative present is frequently used after the words when,
till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a future action
(-!06); as, .. When he comes, he will be welcome." When placed before
the present-perfect indicative, these words denote the completion of a future
action or event; as, "He will never be better till he ftas felt the pangs
of poverty."
920 . .A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the pre&ent tense (446),
when it expres'es what is contemporary in point of time with its governiug
verb, or 8ltbseqllent to it; as ... He appeared to be a man of letters."
-" The apostles were determined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs
denoting hope, desire, intention, or command, must be followed by the
present illjinitive, and not by the perfect (401).
921. But the perfect infini tive must be used to express what is antecedent
to the time of the governing verb; as, "Romulus is said to have
founded Rome."
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
(9 to) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst.­
The philosopher said that heat always expanded metals.-He
said that truth was immutable.
(911) I know the family more than twenty years.-1 am now
at school six months.-l\1y brother was sick foul' weeks, and is
no better.-He tells lies long enough.-They continue with me
now three days.
(!H2) He has lately lost an only son.-He has been formerly
very ~isorderly.-I have been at London last year, and Been
the kmg last ::mmmer.-I have once or twice told the story to

SYNTAX-ADVERBS. 195
our friend before he went away.-lle has done it yesterday.­
Some one has long ago told the same story.
(914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on
his voyage of discovery.-When we finished our lessons we
went out to play.-He that was dead sat up and began to sl,eak.
-When we had arrived at the palace, we delivered the letters
which we previously procured.-It was a strang"e thing to 1I1e,
for 1 never saw snch a thing before.-\Vhell I came, he was
gone.
(916) I should be obliged to him if he 'woul

1!l6 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAR.
924. Sometimes an adverb modifies a preposition, and sometimes an
adjunct or clause of II sentence (525); as, "He sailed ma,.zy rOllnd the
globe "-" Ju.\t bel010 the ear "-" Verily I say unto you."
SPECIAL RULES.
925. RllLE 1.-A.lvcrbs should not be used a8 adjectives, nor adjectilles
as adverbs (G86, 6~7).
Thus, .. The above [preceding] extract." _u It seems strangely [It range ]."
_u We arrived safely [saft]."-u He writes beautiful [beautifully]."
REMAIIK.-Though it is perhaps never necessary to use au adverb as an
IIdjective; yet, the authority of good writers has 80 far sanctioned the
violation of this rule in certain cases. that remonstrance would be una·
vailing. Thus, such phrases as the following are common, U The above
rule "-" the then ministry ;"-" For very age ;"-" the h.ither side ;"­
"thine often infirmities," and the like. Adverbs 80 used should of course
be reckoned adjectives and parsed as such.
926. The adverb3 Itence, thence, whence, meaning from thi8 place, from
tltat place, from ,,,hiel, pface, properly should not have from before them.
beCAuse it is implied. But the practice of the best writers has so sane·
tioned the lise of it, tbat the onHEsion uf it would now sometimes appear
stiff and affected.
927. After verb, of motion, the adverbs, hither, thither, whither, are
now used only ill solemn ~tyle" In ordinary discourse. here, there, nnd
where, are \l-ed instead of them; as, U We came here "-" They walked
there "-" 1I7,ere did hc go 1"'
928. lVhere should not be used for in which, except the refel"enCe is
to place. Thus," They framed a proteEtation, where [better, in which]
they repeated their former claims."
929. The adverbs now, th.en, when, where, in &uch phrases as till nou',
till then, xincl? when, to where, &c., are sometimes used by good writers as
nouns. This, however, is rare in prose, and should not be imitated. In
poetl"y it is more common (1048).
930. Of this character are the expressions at once, far from hence,
&c., but these are now establiEhed idiolU8, nnd in parsing are regarded a!
"ne word (535-6).
931. There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an introduc·
tory expldi vo; as, "There came to th .. beach" (529).
932. RULE 2.-Two negative8 in tllt same clause are eq1livalmt to an
affirmative, and should not be used lInless affirmation is intended; as, .. I
can not drink no [anp] more," or, U I can drink no more."
REMARK.-But a repetition of the negation by independent negative
words or phrases, or by transferring the word neither to the end of the
clause, usually strengthens the negation; DS, "There is none righteous,
no, not one." _u He will never consent, not he, nut I neitlter."
933. One negative is sometimes connected with another implied in the
negati.ve p~e1h:es, .ai." un, i,,!, il'. i', ir, &c.; as,. U You are not unacquain.
ttd With his mer.te," that IB, '~ You are acquainted," &c. In this way a

SYNTAX-ADVERB~. 197
PI~lislog variety of elpl'e8sion is sometimes produced. But the wurd ollly
with the negative, preserves t.he negation j as, "lIe was not only illiberal,
but even covetous."
934. The adverbs nay, M, yea, yes, often >!and alone as a negative or
ao affirmative answer to a question; as, U Will be go? "-"So "~" He will
not go!'-"Is he at homel"-"l'cs"="He is at home." .I1men is an
affirmative verb, equivalent to "Br it so," or ",1[,11/ it be so."
935. No. before a noun, is an adjecth'e; :l~, "1"0 man." Before an adjective
or adverb in the comparative Jeg"e!', it is an adverb; as, "No taiteI'''
-"1\;0 sooner." In all ot.her cases t.he proper negative is not; as, " He will
Mt come "-" Whether he come or not."
POSITIO~.
936. RULE 3.-.I1dverbs are Jar the most part placed befoTe adjcctives,
afltr a arb ill the single form, and after the first allxililll'Y in the compound
form; as, " lIe is very attentive, behaves wcll, nOll is much esteemed."
937. This rule applies gene, ally to adverbial adjunct phrases as well as
t" adverbs (8~5).
938. This is to be considered ollly as a general rule, to which there nre
many exceptions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the a,herb can be
given, w:lich is not lial)le to exceptiou~. That order is the be,t which conveys
the meauing with most precision. In order to tbb,. the ndl'erh is
p"rH,·times placed before the vet·b, 01' at wme distance artel it.
939. }1"eIJer, often, always, sometimes, generally precelle tbe verb. Not,
with the participle or infinitive, "h"uld generally be placcd hefore it (500).
940. The improper position of the advrrb only often occasions nmbiguity.
This will generally be avoided when it rc·fers to a sentence or
clause, hy placing it at tbe begiuning of that Eentence or clau,"c; when it
refer~ to a predicate, by placing it before the predicated te, m j nnd when it
refers to a su~ject, by placing it aft!'r its name or description; as, "Only
acknowledge thinc iniquity."-" The thoughts of his heart nre only evil."­
"Take nothing for your journey but a staff only." These observations will
generally be applicnble to the words merely, solely, chiefly, first, at lcast,
and perhaps to a few other3.
941. In prose, to, the sign of the infioitive, or rather a part of it, shonld
never be Reparated by placing an adverb irnmeJintely after it. Thus,
" They a,'e accustomed to carefully study their lcswo"," Ehould be "to study
clIrefully," or "carefully to study," .!Lc.
942. Tho r.dl·erb enough is commonly placed aftcr the adjective which
it modifies j H8, "A large enow;h house "-" A home I a('g'e enough for all."
943. El"'f' find never are sometimes improperly confounded j thus, .. Seldom
or el'er," Eh"uhl be "Seldom 0(' nuer," or ., Seldum if evll'." Ever so.
referl'ing to quantity 01' degree, means ill no/Ill I ""././ r degree. Hence
.. Charming never so wisely," should be "ucr so wisely." :':0," EreI' so
much," U ('tlcr so wi5'e," &c.

198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
As all verbs are indeclinable, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in
their position, or in u'oing as adverbs words that are not so, or in using
adverbs where other words are required. Correct the errors in the fol­
lowing:-
(82::;) They boped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war.
-The then emperor wa:! noted for his cruelty.-He was befriended
by tbe then reigning duke.-She walki:l graceful.-He
Bpoke eloquent.-She did that work good.-Our friends arrived
safely.-The boat moves rapid.-His expressions sounded
barshly.-Shc ii:l a remarkable pretty girl.-My foot Blipped,
and I pretty near fell down.
(D26) He departed from thence into 8 desert place.-I will
send thee far from hence to the Gentiles.-From hence! away!
(D27) Where art thou gone ?-c\nd he said unto me, "Come
up bere."-The city is near, oh! let me escape there.-'Vhere
I am, there ye can not come.
(D28) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own
merit.-The condition where I found him was deplorable.-He
went to London last year, since when I have not seen him.
(D32) I can not do no more.-He will never be no taUer.­
He did not say nothing at all.-~ either he nor no one else can
do that.-I have received no information on the subject, neither
from him nor from his friend.-I never did repent for doing
good, nor shall not now.-I can not see to write no more.­
N otbing never can justify ingratitnde.-(935) Be so kind as
to tell me whether he will do it or no.
(D3G) "\Ve should not be overcome totally by present events.
-We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure.-It is impossible
continually to be at work.-N at only he found her em·
played, but pleased and tranquil also.-In the proper disposition
of adverbs, the ear carefully requires to be consulted as well as
the sense.-They seemed to be nearly dressed alike.-(937) I
wished that anyone would hang me a hundred times.
(D3S) The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily,
to assist the government.-He determined to invite
back the king, and to call together his friends.-(939) Having
not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he
failed of success.
(9-10) Theism can only be opposed to polytheisDl.-By greatness,
I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the

di"tinctuc,~ of a whole I'iew.-Only you klH' 1 k110\\,11 01 all
tile nations of th2 carih.-In promot'ing tlil' public goud, lI'l'
only discharge our duty ,-He only read one book, Bot, two.­
lIe read the book only, but did nui keep it.-II e only rcad the
book, but not the letter.-He chiefly spoke of yirtue, not of
vice.-He only reads English, not }'rench.
(!)·H) Scholars bhoulu be taught to carcflllly SCl'utill;ztJ tbo
sCl1limcllts adyanccd ill the books they rend.-T,) make this
sentence pcrpicuous, it \,ill be nCCeSSCll'Y to entirely l'cillodd it.
COXSTRUCTrn", OF CO;'\JGX(,TIONS.
944. RULE XIX. - Conjunctions connect WORDS,
PHRASES, or SENTENCES (561).
945. Word, of the same class, having a similar relation t) anotlJer lIurd
tu which they belong, are connected uy a cOlljunetion. Thus-
1. Nouns or pronouns; as, "James nnd John and I are herr."
2. Atlj "eli ve~; as, "A prudent, brave, nnd honorable man."
3. Y l'rbs; as, "Cresar came and saw and conquered."
1. Adv"rhs, or ndverbs and adjuncts; a8, "lIe won the prize fairly and
honorably," or "fairly and lei/It honor," or" with fairness and witlt
honor."
[,. Prepositions; as, " To and from the city"-II Up and dOll'n the hill."
946. Ycrbs conuectcJ have the same nominative; as, "James reads
and writes."
947. Kouns or pronoulJs conncctell in the nominative case, either as sub·
jects or attriuutes, are related as such to the same verb; as, "John and
J

~oo
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
954. Conjunctions are frequeutly uuderstood between the words or
sentences cODDected; as, "Cresar came, sau', and conquered."-'~ The men,
u'omen aual children were present."-" It is the part of thoee that are great,
to giv~-of those that are poor, to ask."-" LeaI"Ding collects materials;
wisdom applies them."
SPECIAL RULES.
955. RULE I.-Conjunctions connect the same moods and tenses of vel'bs,
and cases of nouns and pronouns; as, "Do good, and Btek peace."-" Honor
thy father and mother."
[This rule applies to the infinitive and participles·l
956. Yerbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are geuerally
also iu the same form (474); as, .. He reads and writes," (not, does write).
957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by II conjunction, but having a
different construction, may be in different moods and tenses; as, ,I I read
that I may learn."
958. When two or more verbs iu the compound tenses, or in the progl'essi
ve 01" emphatic form, or in the passive voicc, are connected, the auxiliary
expressed witb the first, may be understood to the rest; as, "He
can neither Tead nor write."-" Diligence should be commended and rewarded."
Still, however, the repetition of the auxiliary is ofteu more emphatic:
as, "They shall come, and they shall declare his t.ruth."
959. Y erbs of the same mood, tense or form, connected as a compound
predicate (627), have the nominative expres~ed with the fh'st, and understood
to the rest; as, "Cresar came, saw, and conquered." But-
960. When verbs connected are not of the 8ame mood, tense, or form,
and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by but, though, yet, is
intended the nominative is frequently repeated; as, .. He came, but he
would not stay." But still-
961. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accordance
with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are
many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony aad perspicuity;
and when these are preserved without repeating the nominative, it
may be omitted; as, "The two charges had been, and still are, united in
one persoD."-ll'orth British Review.
962. After expressions implying doubt,fear, (;r denial, the conjunction
that is properly used-not lest, but, but that; as, .. I do not doubt that be
is honest."-" I am afraid that he will die."-Also, what should never be
used for that. Thus, I, He will not believe but what I am to blame," should
be, "but that I am to blame."
963. RULE '2,-Certain u'ordsin the antecedent member of a sentence,
·require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one; thus-
1. In clauses or words simply connected-
Both requires and (567); as, "Both he and I came."
Either --- or (5'10); as, "Either he or I will come:'
Neither --- nor (670); 3S, "Neither he 7101' I came."
Whether --- or; n., "lrlttther he or I came."

SYNTAX-CON JUNCTIONS. 201
Though --- yet.: as, Though he slay me, yet will I trust in
him."
Not only --- but also; as, "Not only he but also his brother
goes."
2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison-
The comparative degree requires than; as, "He is taller than I am."
Other requires than; as, .. It is no other than he."
Else than; as, .. What else do you expect than this i"
As
as (expressing equality); as," He is as tall a' I am:'
As
so (expres.ing equality); ae, "As thy ,Jay is, so shall
thy strength be."
So
as (with a negative, el·
lieved," or-

202 ENGLISH GRAlIlMAR.
2. If thi, call llot be done, we lllay complcte the construction of the
first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave the subse·
quent of the second uULlerstood. Thus, .. He was more belved but not
so much admired as Cynthio," is not c'Jrrect, becaus" we can not say ... He
wa" more beloved as Cynthio." It should be, " Hc wag more IJcloved than
CYflthio, but not so much admired."
969. The principle of this rule applies to the nppropriate selection of
words ns well as to their constrllcti",,; thns, .• This doctrine is founded
and rtlsi,teut with the trulh," should be, "founued upon, aUll cousisteut
with," &c.
EXTmCTSES TO BE CORRECTED.
In the following scntences point out the conjunctions, the words or scntCflCCS
connected by them-see whether they correspond, according to the
rules, and if not, correct anu give a reason for the change.
(D55) He reads and ,",rote ,,,ell.-Anger glances into the
breast of a "ise ruan, but will rest only in the bosom of fools.­
If he understand the subject and attends to it, he call Bcarcely
fail of success.-Enjoying health and to live in peace are great
blessings.-Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about
showing it.-Be more anxious about acquiring knowledge than
to show it.
lOU and me are great friends.-This is a small matter between
you and L-J\Iy father and him are very intimate.-He
is t.aIler than me; but I am ohler than him.
(D56) He reads and writeth \"ell.-He reads and does write
well.-He reads and is writing well.-Does he not read and
"rites well ?-Did he not tell thee his fault, and entreated thee
to forgive him ?-Earth hath her solitudes, and so has life.
(958) He can neither read nor can write.-1 will come and
will see you, and will tell you the "hole story.-He should have
written, or should ha\'e :;ent, or should have come himself.
(DGO) Can these persons consent to sllch a proposal, and will
consent to it ?-How distinguished for talents he i~, and how
useful might be.-He might have been happy and now is con­
"inced ofit.-He could command his temper, though would not.
(D62) I do not dellY but he has merit. They "ere afraid
lest you would be off'ended.-'Ye were apprehensive lest some
accident had happelled to him. 'Ve call1lot deny but what he
was ill-treated.-\Ve can not doubt bnt ,,·hat he is wel1.-1 Gan
llot Bee but what he is well.
(D63-1) It is neither cold or hot.-It is so clear as I need
not explain it.-The relations arc so uncertain, as that they reo

SYNTAX-INTER.JEUl'IONS.
2U3
quire much examination.-The one is equally deserving as the
other.-I must be so candid to o,,"n that I have been mistaken.
-He ,,"ould not do it himself nor let me do it.-lIe ,,"as as an­
I;l'y as he could not speak.-So flS thy day" so shall thy strength
be.-Though he slay me so ,,"ill I tru~t in him.-Hc must go
himself or send his servant.-Thm·e is no condition so secure as
can not admit of cklllge.-He i::; not as eminent and a3 much
c~ieemed as he thinks himself to be.
(£lG3-2) He has little more of the scholar besides the ll'lllle.
- Be ready to succor such persons who m'l'll lhy assi,t:1llce.­
They had no sooner risen but they applied thclllsch'es to theil'
::;tudic~.-These savage people seemed to have no other clenll'nt
but ,,"ar.-Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided.
-He gaiued nothing further by his speech, but Gnly to be' commended
for his cloquence.-This is none other but the gate of
Paradise.
(DG7) I always have and I alw"ays shall be of this opinion.­
lIe is bolder but not so ,,"ise as his companion.-Sin(·,'rity i::; as
valuable and even more so than knowledge.-'l'heil' intentions
might and probably ,,"ere good. The re\\ard has already or
will hereafter be given to him.-\\' ill it be ul';;"ll that these
books are as old or even older than tradition-This book is
prcferrable and cheaper than the other. He takes no care nor
iuterest in the matt~r.
INTERJECTIONS.
970. RULE XX.-Interjections hal'(~ no grammati('((/
connection with the other words in a sentence (JSG).
971. After interjections, pronouus of the fi.rst person nre commonly ;u
the ol~ective C30e; those of the second, in the nominati¥c; as, " All me!"
-"0 thouI"
972. In neither of thcs

'20-1
ENGLISH GLAl\IMAl1.
(It the same time, all the parts of the sentence should correspond,
and ({ regular ((lid dependent construction be
P1'1'8r'l'l'cd throughout.
974. TLis may be regardeu as a general rule, applicable to eve,'y case,
and tLercf"re comprchending all the preceding. Though these arc 80 full
nnu minute as to cmbrnce almost Herything belunging to the proper eonstruetioll
of ,pntcnces, yet there will sometimes occur instances of impropriety
iu the use, and arrangement, an,l connection of word~, for the avoidillg
or e"''I'ecting of wLich no velY specific rule can be given.
975. Amoug Lbe evils to be guarded ngainst under this geueml rule,
n,·p the fullol"illg:-
1. J'hc use of words which do not correctly or properly convey the idea
intenuerl, or which convey another with equal propriety.
2. The flrrnngement of words and clauses in such a way that their relath'n
to other words and clauses is doubtful, or difficult to be
perc .. i 7cd.
3, T"" "'p,lratiug of nrljllncts (:>41) from their principals, and placing
them so that they mlly be joined to words to which they do not
I:clong (.~82).
4. Thc sep'lr:1ting of relative clauses imp"operly from their antecellents
(755 and 759)
5. U"ing injlllliciously. or too frequently, the third personal or po,'~e"s'
iv,- 1,,""lOll1l, ,'specially in indirect di~course (1129.)
EXERCISES.
The following "ellt('nce~ are not grammatically incorred, but from SODle
uf th(~ cau:-:(':-> 111cntioned :111(IY(', are obscure, int/rga'ltt, Q'Jnb(quolls, or unintelligible.
Let the pupil point out the error amI COJl'cct it., nnd give a
rca son fur the correction.
The son said to his father that he had sinned against Heaven.
-0\ farmer went to a lawyer, and told him that his bull had
gored his ox.-'l'hc Grceks fearing to be smrounded on all sides
lI'heeled about and halted with the ri,'er on their bacKs.-N or
\\"as Philip wanting to corrupt Demostbenes, as he had most of
thc lr'ading men of (hccce-Parmcnio had sened, with great
fiddity, Philip the father of "\lexaDder, as well as himself, for
",holll he fi ..,t opened the w::Iy into asia.-Belisarius was general
of all the forces under J LIstinian the First, a man of rare
,'alor.-Lysias promi~ed his fat.her never to abandon his friends.
-Carthage was demolished to the ground so that we are unable
il) say where it stood, at this day.-Tbus ended the war with
Antiochll~, twelve years after the sccond Punic war, and two
aftcr it had been begllll.-Clandius was cunonized among the
god~, who scareely deserved tho name of a mUll.

SYNTAX-ELLIPSIS
976. Another class of improprieties arises from the improper onllSSlon
of words, by which the grammatical construction (If a sentence is brokcll
up. As a general rule, the fewer the words are by which w., expr."s Oul'
iJens, the bet: er, proviJeJ the meaning is clearly brought out. This may
often be done without using all the "urus neec;.'ar), to the full grmllmatieal
form of a sentence, and hence, as the tcnJellry always is to abbreviate
~peccb. such words a. can be .pared, aecordin~ to tbe lloage of the
lan;:!;J!;'e, are properly omitted. This omission is called
ELLIPSES (1044-1).
Respecting the ""e of this figure, nothing more udlaile can be laid
down than "hat is contained in the fullowing
SPECIAL RL'LES.
977. RULE I.-An ellipses, or omission of IV mZ" is admissible wlten
tlleY can be 8upplied by the mind with such ecr/ail/ly and re'l

206 ENGJ.ISH GRAMMAR.
7. The vcrb to be, with its su~iect, in dependent clauses, is often omitted
after the connectives, if, though, yet, when, &c.; as, "Study, if [it is]
neglected, becomes irksome."-" Though [he was] poor, he was honest."
(9G5).
8. Tn poetry, verbs which expl'ees address 01' answer, are often omitted;
as, "To him the prince [replicd]." Also, when the words connected
readily indicate what the verb must be, if expressed; as, "I'll hence to
London "-" I'll in "-" AU'(lY, old man I "-Shaks.-" Up, up, Glenarkin I'"
-lV. Scott.
9. The verb is often omitted in the second clause of a sentence after
the auxiliul'Y, when the same verb is used in the first clause; as, "You
have read, but I have not [read]." Also, verbs connected in the same
voice, mood, and tcose, Laving the auxiliary with the first, omit it with
the rest; ns," lIe will be loved and respected for his virtues."
10. ADVEItB.-When nn adverb modifies more words than one, it is
placed only with the last; as, "He spoke nnd acted gracefully."
11. PRIlPOSITloN.-When the same preposition connects two or more
subsequent terms of a relation with one antecedent term, it is usually
omitted before all except the first; ns, " Over the bills and the valleys "­
" Through woods and wilds."
12. CONJUNCTION.-When several words and clauses come together in
the same construction, the conjunction is sometimes omitted entirely,
sometimes between each pair, and sometimes before all except the last;
ns ... He caused the blind to set', the lame to walk, the deaf to hear, the
lepers to be cleansed."-" We ran hither nnd thither, seeking novelty and
change-sympathy and pastime-communion and love,"-" Youth is the
season of joy, of bliss, of strength, and pride."
13. bTERJECTIO:

SYNTAX-ELLIPSIS. 207
EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED.
In the following sentences, omit such words as are not necessary to tbe
sense :-
(977-1) Cicero was :m eloquent man, an able man, a generous
man, anlt he was a truly patriotic man.-Avarice and cunning
may gain an estate, but avarice and ("unnin~ cannot gain
friends.-l venerate him. I rcgpect him, I love hilll, on account
of his virtues.-(Dii -4) lIe has an affectionate brothel' and an
affectionate sister.-(~)7i -G) Genuine virtue supposes our benevolence
to be strengthened and to be confirmed by principle.
-Per"e\'erance in lauuablc pursuits will \"l'\\ ard all our toils,
and will produce effects bey~lld our calcull1tion.-(977-10) \\' c
often commend imprudently, as \\"di as censure imprudently.­
(97i-ll) Cbanges are alnm;t cOIJ8tantiy taken place in men
and in manners, in opinions and in customs, in pri \Ute fortunes
and in public conduct.-(977-1. G. 9.) He is temperate, he is
disinterested, he is bene\·olent.-H e regards the truth, but thou
dost not regard it.-\r e succeeded, but they did not succecd.
In tbe following 8ellten~es. supply tbe words improperly omittcu, and
state why they shoulLi be l"('stul"ecl :-
(9j9) \\r e are natur:l11y inclined to praise who praise us, and
to flatter who flatter us.-\Vho best can suffer best can do.-A
beautiful garden and trees "ll"e1'e sold ....L.lIis honor, intcrest, religion,
were all embarked in tbis undertaking.-l\Iany days and
even weeks pass away unimproved.-The captain had Sl'\'cral
men died in his ship.-lIis conduct is not scandalous, and that
is the best can be said of it.-They enjoy a free constitution
and laws.-That is a property most mell hare, or at least lIlay
attain.-This property had or will be sohl.-You suppose him
younger than I.-It requires few talents to "ll"hich most men
are not born, or at least may not acquire.-lIe may be said to
have saved the life of a citizen, and consequently entitled to
the reward.-The people of this country possess a healthy
climate and soil.-l have purchased a house and orehard.~A
noble spirit disdaineth the malice of fortune; his greatness of
Boul is not to be cast down.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES ON RULES 1 AND 2.
The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns.
There is a God who made and governs the world.-Of whom
hast thou been afraid or feared ?-I deny not but that religion
consists in these things.-1'his sentiment is well expressed by
Plato, but much better by Solomon than him.

208 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAH,
SYNTACTICAL PARSING.
983. SYNTACTICAL PARSING includes etymological, and
adds to it a statement of the relation in which words
"tand to each other, and the rules according to which
they are combined in phrases and sentences.
Before parsing a sentence syntactically, it should ti"st be analyzed, as
directed (658), and exemplified (659).
MODEL OF SY~T.ACTICAL PARSING.
" The minutest plant or animal, if attentively examineu, affords a thousand
wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand by
which it was created."
This sentence contains all the parts of speech cxcept the interjection.
It is !JllrBed etymologically (581 and 5S~), and analyzcd (659-7), which
see. It may now be parsed syntactically, as follows:-
J.'/w ••••.•. is the DEFIXITE AR'rlCLE; it belongs to plant or animal (711),
and shows these words to be limited.-RuLE Ill, 2. "The
article the is put," &c. (707).
minutest ... . is an ADJEOTIVE, compared here by er and est, superlative, and
qualifies plant or animal.-RuLE n., 1." An adjective or
participle," &c., (676).
plant ..... . is a XOL'N, neuter, in the nominative singular, the subject of
affords and obliges.-RuLE VI., " The subject of a finite verb,"
&c. (760).
or •........ is a DISJUNCTn'E CONJUNCTlO:-I, connecting as alternates plant
and animal (569).-RuLE :XI:X. "Conjunctions connect," &c.
(944).
animal •.. . is a NOUN, neuter, in the nominative singular-same as plant
-and connected with it by or.
if ......... is a conjunction; it connects its clause with the preceding as
a condition.-RuLE XIX. "Conjunctions connect," &c. (944).
it .•....... (understood) is a third PERSONAL PRONOUN, neuter, in the
nominative singular; it stands for plant or animal.-RuLE
IV., 2. c, When a pronoun refers," &c. (730); and is the
subject of is examined.-RuLE YI. "The subject of a finite
verb," ('760).
is examined. is a VERB, transitive, regular," in the present indicative, passive,
expressing an act done to its subject it, with which it
agrees.-RuLE VIII. ".!. verb agrees," &c. (776) .
• Oonjueating i, here omilted for brevity, it bci 19 unnecessary, because the verb is
mentloned as regula, un, note).

SYNTAX-PARSING. 209
attentively • . is an AllnRB, deri\"ed from attentive, and compared by more
and most; it modifies is examined.-RuLE XVIII ... Adverbs
modiry, &c. (922).
affords .... . is a VERB, tramitive, regular; in the present indicative, active,
third pel'son singular; agrees with, and affirms of plant or
animal.-rrc·LIi: 3 under RULE YIII. "Two or more substan.
ti ves singular," &c. (70:).
a .....••... is tbe INDEFINITE ARTICLE, Rnll belongs to thousand. It showB
tbat the number is rvganled aR one aggregate (711:).-RuLE
III., 1 "The article a or an," &c. (7117 and 726).
thousand . .. is a NUMERAL ADJECTIVE, cardinal, qualifying wonders.-RuLE
II.,1. "An adjecti\'e or participle," &c. (676).
wonders .•. . is a NOUN, neuter, in the ohjective plural, the object of, and
governed by, affords.-Rl;LE X ... A transitive verb," &c.,
(801).
and • ••••••• is a COPULATIVE CONJUNCTlO~; it connects affords and obliges.
-RULE XIX. "Conjunctions connect," ,te. (944).
obliges ••... is tbe same liS affords. See above.
us . ..•..... is a PERSONAL paO:-'OUN. first person, mascnline or feminine,
in tbe objective plurnl, the object nf, lind governed hy, obliges.
-RULE X. "A transitive verb," &c. (finl). It is at th,' same
time the sul~ect of t'J admire amI to adore.-RULE 3 under
RULE XV. "The infinitive as the subject," &c. (87~ and 873).
to admire .. . is II VERD, transitive, regular, ill the present infinitive, active,
governed by obligcs.-RuLE XV. "The infinitive mood is
governed," &c. (86:;).
and. " ••.•. is a COPULATIVE CO:-'JUNCTION; it connects to admire nnd to
odore.-RuLE XIX ... Conjunctions connect," &c. (944).
to culore ••.. is the same in parsing and c

210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
was created .iq a VERB, transitive, r~gular, in the Jast indica.tive: pasgive,
thil'o pel'son singular; affirms of. lin agrees with It.-RuLlI:
YIII. .. A verb agl'ell~," &c. (7'11;).
In the snme manuer, paroe the other ~entences analyzed (659); and
Ilnlll)'Ze nnd plrse the exercises following them page 143, al)d any correct
seut"IlC~B from any goou aUlhor.
PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES
O~ THE RULES OF SYNTAX, ETC.
~ In the preceding ., Exercises to be corrected," care bns beeD tuken
to Ill.,el t such eX:!Il' pIes Duly as can be cOl'reeted hy the rule, or the ob,
sel'vnti,,"s ulldel' wl,ich they are placed, or hy those which precede them.
In the f"Howing .. Promiscuous Exercises," no palticular arrangement is
observ .. d. Every sentence contains one error. many of them two, and
sOllie of I hem thl ee "I' more. Mnny of the errors, too, are such as art:
oftl'n made. and, on accollnt of our tamilial'it~· ",itb them, are uot so readily
noticed. Others are such as nohody wuuld make. and of course will at
once he detected. These are in'erted, nllt so much to be guarded against,
liS to iJlustl'ate and draw attenlion to the rule which tLey violate, and to
show that others which are not so obviolls, aud which are eometime, c"m·
rnitted, invoh'e the parne error. For example, nobody would say, "Him
wrile'." Sume perhaps might .ay. "Here is the mao whom everybody
8'Y8 i" the writet· of that letter; and yet the error iu both is the same,
anu violates Rule VI. 1n all the~e examples for correction, the ohject
aimed at i, to put the pnpil in possession of the ide" intended to be exprl·",·rI-nnd
tbe exercise for him is to express that irlea grarnmaticlllly,
in tIll' be,! manoer 'I'Ll'r€ can be no danger of imitatillC'; an expression
wbich he i, forewarned is wroog; while it WIll exercise his ju I~meut to
dete'" t, e (:'1'01'. I"st Li~ knowledge of grammar, auu be a profilable exel'­
cise in eomposilion to put the sentence right.
All these exercises Illay fir,t be corrected orally-showing wherein each
is wrong. and why-col'recting Ihe e'Tot'-and giving' a reason fOl'the
cha ge made. They may then be writteu out ill a COl" eele,] state. After
that each sentence may be analyzed as directed (658), aod then parsed
syntactIcally as dil'ected (983).
1.-1. Too great a \'ariety of studies perplex and weakeu the
judgment.-2, I called to see you, but you was not at home.-
3. '1'0 act with caution, but with steadiness and vigor, distinguish
the manll, character.-J, The crown of virtue is peace and
honor.-5. In the human species, tbe inlluenl'e of instinct and
habit are generally assisted by the suggestions of reason.­
ti The train of our ideas are often interrupted.-7. They were
both unfortunale, but neither of them were to blame.
2.-1. We arrived safel.V at our jouruey's end.-2. That is a
matter of no conl:lequence between you and 1.-3. This should
not happen between Buch friends as him and me.-i. Them

SYNTAX-PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES, 211
that seek knowledge will find it.-5. Such are the men whom,
we might suppose, know better.-6. Our welfare and security
COIl~iSt8 in unity .-7. The love of virtue, and devotion to pleasure,
ig opposed to each other.-S. Every leaf, (:\'t!ry twig,
every drop of water, teem with life.-9. No oppressor and no
tyrant triumph there.-lO. All the world is spectators of your
conduct.
H.-I. ::\othing iR more lovelier than virtue.-2. His associates
in wickedness will not fail to mark the alteration of his
conduct.-8. He i:! taller than me, but I am stronger than bim.
-4. 1'1 either riches or beauty furnish solid peal'[' and c()ntent·
ment.-5. The abuse of mercies ripen us for judgmenb.-6.
John, William, and Henry's hats were stulen.-7. A mans
manners frequently infiuerice his fortune.- S. Much depentls
on this rule being observed.-D. Such will ever be the ('ffeet of
youth associating with vicious companions.-lO. Give to en'!')
one their due.-II. It has been fully shown that neithcI' of
them are eorrect.-l~. E\'ery bone, every mu"de, e\'er.'· part
of man, are known to Him which made him.
4.-1. lIo writes tolerably wel1.-2. Three months' notice
are required to be given previous to a pupil's leaving of the
schoo1.-3. That rose smells sweetly.-4:. He employed allother
friend of his father to assert his claim-[whose claim ?]-5.
A soul inspired with the love of truth, will keep all hi:l powers
attentive to the pursuit of it.-G. It is the duty of everyone
to be careful of their reputation.-7. It is remarkable his continual
endeavours to serve us.-S. "rhatever antiquitie~ he
cculd procure, he purchased them at any price.-D I am not
so well as when you was here.-lO. It is three (bys yesterday
since you haye promised that money.-I1. This mode of expression
has been formerly in use.-l::!. He promised long ago,
that he had attended to that matter.-13. Ile was expected to
have arriyed earlier.
5.-1. Twice three are six.-2. t:lix times three are ei!.ihtecn.
-3. As two are to four, so arc six to twelve.-1. l

Q12
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
such a piece of work-three is too few.-16. Three shot was
fired without effect.-17. The fleet consisted of six Bails.-18.
A drove of forty h~ads of cattle passed along.
G.-I. Molasses are thicker than water.-2. The measles are
spreading through the country.-3. Wheat is being sold fur a
dollar a bushel, and oats is in demand.-4. The news by the
last arrival is better than were expected.-5. ,Ye hoped to have
heard from you beforo this.-G. Do you not think he writes
good ?-7. The wind blows coldly from the north, and the snow
lies deeply on the ground.-8. James is as tall if not taller than
I am.-9. He never has and he never will do so well.-lO. He
whoever said so was mistaken.-ll. There are a heroic innocence
as well as a heroic courage.-12. He puts down the
mighty and exaltetl} the humble.-13. Piety toward God, as
well as sobriety and yirtue, are necessary to happiness.
7.-1. Take care who you admit into your friendship.-~. I
always understood it to be he, whom they said wrote that book.
-3. If I was him, I would take more care for the future.-4.
There is two or three of us who have been at Europe last year.
-5. We were in Havre when the revolution broke out at
France.-6. I have been to Boston for a few days, and spent
the time very pleasant.-7. That is the man and the horse
which we met before.-8. George was the most enterprising
young man whom I ever knew.-9. All who were present were
pleased with the entertainment.
8.-L This excellent person was fully resigned either to have
lived or to have died.-2. Between he and I there is some disparity
of years, but none between he and she.-3. To be moderate
in our views, and proceeding temperately in pursuit of
them, is the best way to insure success.-4. Enjoying health,
and to live in peace, are great blessings.-5. Which dictionary
do you prefer, ,Yebster or "\Valker ?-6. Though this event be
strange, it certainly did happen.-If he does but consider the
suhject, he will no doubt change his opinion.-S. Ignorance is
the mother of fear, as well as admiration.-9. Let him be whom
he may, I can not wait for him.-lO. We have no need for his
assistance.-ll. Among every class of people, self-interest
prevails.
9.-1. Many have profited from the misfortunes of others.-
2. :l\Iany ridiculous customs have been brought in UBe during
the hundred last years.-3. Is there no person who you can
Bcnd on that business ?-4. Little attention to business is neces-

SY~TAX-PRO.l\lISCUOUS EXERCISES. 213
O:lry, if you would succeed.-5. A truth is virtue to which we
::;hould pay little regard.-G. Without firmness, nothing that is
g:reat can be undertaken j that is hazardous, accompli~hed.-7.
The people of the United States enjoys a free constitution and
laws.-S. That is a propcrty most men have, or at least may
attain.-9. The pyramids of Egypt stood more than three thousand
years.-l0. It is thought they have been built by the
Egyptian kings.-ll. When the nation complain, the rulers
should listen to their -roice.-12. Whom say the people that
I am?
10.-1. They that honor me, I will honor.-2. He only got
ihe money for a few days.-3. He was mistaken evidently in
his calculations.-·j,. No man is fit for free conversation, for the
inquiry after truth, if' he be exceedingly resened j if' he be
haughty and proud of his knowledge j if he be positi,'e and
dogmatical in his opinions; if he be one who al\\"ay8 afrecb to
outshine all the company; if he be fretful and peevish j if ho
affect ,yit, and is full of puns, or quirks, or quibbles.-G. A
good end does not warrant the using of bad means.-G. A good
end does not warrant using of bad means.-7. Humility neither
~ceks the last place, or the last word.-S. Either wealth or
power may ruin their possessor.-9. Avoid lightness and frivolity;
it is allied to folly.-lO. Do you know who you are
talking to (-11. Art thou the man who hast dared to insult
me ?-12. 0 that the winter was gone!
11'-1. We are often disappointed of things which, beforo
p015ses,ion, promised. much enjoyment.-2. We can fully confide
on none but the truly good.-3. You may rely in that.-4. The
Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their power.-5.
He was accused with acting unfairly, at least in a manner illy
adapted for conciliating regard.-6. There is more business
done ill New York th:m in any city of the United States.-7.
The same laws and the same constitution which belongs to one
citizen of tho United States belongs to all.-S. If there was
better management, there would be greater security.-D. 'rbe
ship Panama is carly expected from Canton in the spring.-
10. Every year, every day, and e\'ery hour, bring their changes.
-11. Whom say ye that I am (
1~.-1. Many a youth ha-re ruined their prospects for life by
one imprudent step.-2. No power wa" ever yet intrusted to
man without liability to abuse.-3. A conceited fool is more
abominable than all fools.-4. 1\1y gra-rity never did no one any

214 ENGLISH GRAl'IIl\lAn.
harm.-5. A constant display of the graces are fatiguing to a
sober mind.-6. These coins of compliment and flattery circulate
everywhere in society: the true is of gold, the base is of
brass.-7. Expectation and reality makes up the sum total of
life.-8. l\fusic, the love of it, and the practice of it, seems to
pervade all creation.-9. All soils are not adapted for cultivation
-10. 'l'he vain abhors the vaill.-I1. The author dreads
the critic, the miser dreads the thief, the criminal dreads the
judge, the horse dreads the whip, the lamb dreads the wolfall
after their kind.-l~. The intellectual and the moral censor
both ha"e the same ends iu "iel\".
13.--1. I was engaged formerly in that busine~s, but I never
shall be again concerned in it.-~. We do those thingl3 frequently
which we repent of afterward.-3. Not to exasperate him, I
only spoke a few words.-4. Shall you attain success without
that preparation, and escape dangers without that precaution
which is required of others ?-5. That picture of your motbel"s
is a vel''' exact resemblance of her.-6. The winter Iw.s not
been as· s:overe a~ we expected it to have been.-7. In ref'­
erence to that transaction, he deser"ed punishment as much or
more than his companions.-8. In such circumstanccs, 110 man,
no woman, no child are safc.-9. Everyone of those ple:lsul'('t-\
that are pursued to excess, cou\'ert themselves into poison.-
10. 'l'hou, Lord, ,vbo h:lth permitted affliction to come upon U",
shall deliver us from it in due time.-ll. The sea appeared to
be more than U.3113lly agitated.-l~. By these attainments arc
the mastel' honored and the scholar encoUl'aged.-13. The temple
c,'Dsisted of one great and several smaller edifices.-14.
Whether he ,,·ill be learned or no, depends on his application.
A LIST OF DIPHOPEH EXPRESSIONS.
SELECTED ClllEFLY FIlOli PICKERING'S VOOABULARY.
Improper.
PT"per.
The alone God. Thct'lone motive. The one God. The only motive.
I an't; you au't; he an't, &c. I am not; you are not; he is not, &c.
~1"y manner of means.
Any means.
He was walking back and forth. --- backward Rnd fOl wal'd.
llis argument was based on this fact. His argument wag fOllUded on thi s
falt.
The mODey was ordered paid. The Illoney was ordered to be paid.
I calculate to lea~e town soon. I intend 10 leave town SOOD.
A. chunk of bread.
A pil:ce of bread.

A. clever bo\flle.
He conducts well.
He i, considerable of a scholar.
His farm was convenient to mine.
He is a decent scholar. writer.
Her si tuation was distressi ng
d'gree.
SYNTA"X-I'UNCTt1ATION. 215
A good house.
lIe conducts himsell well, respecta'
bly.
He if' a pretty good scholar.
His fal'm Was contiguolls to mine,
closp.
He is a p"etty good scholar, wl'iter.
to a --- W:IS extremely

216 ~~NGLISH GRAMMAR,
CO~1MA.
989. The comma is generally used in d,ose parts of a sentence in whieh
a short pause is required, and to mark a connection next in closeness to
that which is unbroken.
SPECIAL RULES.
990. RULE I.-In a short, simple sentence, the comma is not used; as,
,I Hope is ueee,sary in every condition of life."
991. RULE 2.-When the logical subject of a verb is rendered long by
the addition of seTeral adjuncts, or other qualifying words, to the grammatical
su Lject, a comma is usually inserted before the "erb; as, "A
steady and nndivided atteution to one subject, is a sure mark of a superior
mind."
992. RULE S.-In compound sentences, the clauses or members are
usually separated by commas; as, "Crafty men contemn studies, simple
men admit'e them, and wise men use them." But when the clauses are
short, or closely connected, the comma is not used; as, .. ne.elatioll tells
118 how we may attain happiness."
993. RULE 4.-Two words of the same class, connected by a conjunc·
tiou expressed, do not admi t a comma Let ween them; as, "The earth and
the moon are planets."-'· He is a wise and prudent man."-" lIe catcltes
and arrests the hours,-"He acts prude/lily and vigorously." But when
the conjunction is uot expressed, a comma is inserted after each; as,
" Reason, virtue, ansWer one great aim." But, of two adjectives, the lnst
should not he separated by a comma from its noun; as, " He is a plain honest
man :" Nor enn two ndjecti ves be separated from each other by a com­
Illa when used together as a compound adjective j as, "A bright-red color."
994. RULE 5.-More than two word- of the same class connecte,\ by
conjunctions expressed or understood, have a comma after each; as,
" Poetry, music, aDd pAinting, are fine arts." But when the words connected
are adjectives, the last .hould not be separated from its noun by a
comma after it; as, " David was a 1vise, bralle, and prudent king."
995. RULE 6.-Words used in pairs tuke a comllla after each pair; as,
" Anarchy and confusion, poverty and distress, desolation and ruin, are the
consequ

PUNCTUATION.
dull" But when the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, the
comma is not used; as, .. Wisdom is better than rubies."
999. RULE lO.-The adverbs nay, 80, lienee, again, first, secondly, &c.,
when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence,
should be separated from the context by a comma; as, "Nay, but
we will serve the Lord." So also, as and t/&US, introducing an example or
quotation; as, &c.
1000. RULE ll.-A relative with its clauses, explanatory of its antecedpnt,
is usually sepal'Bted from the rest of a sentence; as, "He who disrep-ards
the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or,
.. He TUllst be utterly abandoned, who disregards," &c. But when the
re1atiYe, with its clause, is restrictive (267-2), and the connection so close
that it can not be separated, the comma is not used; liS," Self·denial is
the sacrifice wliich virtue must mllke."
1001. RULE l2.-Tlwt, used liS a conjunction, and preceded by another
. clausc, usually has a comma before it; as, U Be virtuous, that you may be
happy." But when the clanse introduced by that, is the suhject or the
o~ject of the verb in the preceding clauAe, the comma is not inserted; as,
.. Jt is wcll that he should know it."-" I said tltat ye are gods."
1002. RULE 13.-When a verb is understood, a comma must be insert.ed;
A". U Reading makes a full man; conversation, a ready man; and
writing, an exact man."
1003. RULE H.-lVords repeated are separated by ~ comma; as,
.. ~,oly, holy, boly, is the Lord God Almighty."-" No, no, no, it can not
be.
1004. RULE 15.-Inverled sentmces, by throwing two or more words
Ollt of t]'l'ir regular connection, often require a comma; as, "To God, all
things are pos8ible." Not inverted, it would be, "All things are possible
to God."-" His delight was, to assist the distressed." In the natural
onl",', "To ass;st the distressed was his delight."
1005. RULE l6.-A short expression, in the manner of a quotation, is
separated by commas; as, "Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also
th" ve1·b, .

ENGLtsa ntUMMAtl.
tain in themselves 11 complete and independent proposition, but still having
a connection with the other part~.
SPECIAL RULES.
1009. RuLlsillg of Heavcn."-" The orator makes the truth rlain to hiS
hem'ers; he awakeus them; he excites them to action; he shows tbem
their impendiug dangel·."-" Be at peace with many; nevertheless, have
but few counoelJol"."
1010, RULE 2.-IVhen several short sentences. complete in themselve~,
but bavilJ!.(' a sligbt Cllllilection in idea, follow ill succession, tbey ,hould
be spp,uated by a selllic,)lou; lB. "The epic poem recite. the exploits of
a hem; tra"edy rcp"esent8 a di-a,trous Hent; c'Huedy ridicules the vices
nnd f"llies of manl,iod: pastoral poetry descl·ibes rural life; and elegy
displays the tenuel' em"tions of the heart"
lOll, RULE 3.-Wben a sentence comists of several membcrs, an,1
tbe~e members are complex, and sul"livided by commas, the lal'ger divisions
of the S"lItcllce are sometimes separated by a semicolon; as, "As
the desi, ~ of approbation, wh('n it works accol'(ling tu reason, improves
the amiable part of our speei8, in c"erythiu!; that is laudable; so nothing
is more d,'n, uctive t" them, when it i. governed by vanity and folly,"
1012. RULE 4.-When a general term has se,eral othe,'s, as p,u-Licular.t
in appositi"n ulldcl' it" the geneml term is separated from the particularS
by a ""llIicolon, and the purticulars, from each otber hy commas; as,
"ArljPctiv(lo pr41llouns are divided illto fOlH~ classps; p()~~es5iye! dl'mpn3tra.~
ti H', dist rihlltiYe. and indefinit,·:' But if the word namely be illtroduced,
tbe separation i" made hy a cumma ollly,
COLON.
1013. The colon is used to divide a sentence inlo two or more parts,
less connected than tbose which are separated Ly a semicolon, but not 80
indepeudent as to require a period,
SPECI AL RULES,
1014, ReLE I.-A colon i. I1Sl'd wllPn a s .. ntence is complete in itself,
in lJl>lh sense and con-truction, but is [,,\Iowe,l bv some ad,litional remark
or illustratiou, depellliing upon it ill sense, th"uih nuL ill Syntax; as, "A
brutl' nrri ves at a point of perfectiou that he can never pass: in a few
Y"'lI'S he bas all the endowments of whicb he is cnpable,"-" StuJy to ncquirc"
hauit of thinking : nothing is lDore important."
1015. HnE 2.-·Wben several short sentenre" f"lIow in succes;ion, earh
cOlltaining a complete ,"(loe in it,df, uut all bavillg a common dependence
on sOllie wb.cq"en/ claus,,; t1,,',e senttll"'!S are separated from the
subsequ('nt clause by n rolon, aud [,'om each other by a sl'lllicolou; as,
• That Nature is unlimited in her operations; th.lt she has inexhausLible

PUNCTUATION. 219
tesourses in reserve j that knowledge will always be progressive j and that
all future generatiolls will continue to make discoveries: these are alllong
the assertions of philosophers."
1016. RULE a.-Either a c[,lon or !l,emicolon may be used when an example,
a quotation, or a speech, is introduced; 3S, "Always remember thia
ancient maxim; • Know thyself.' "-" The Scripture, give us an amiahle
representation of the Deity in these \\ ords: • God is love.'''
1017. RULE 4.-The insertion 01' omission of a conjunction before the
concluding memb~r of a sentence, frequently detcrmilll's the u,e of the
colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expresse,j before the cou·
cluding member, which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the
colon is used; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as,
"Apply yourself to learning: it will redound to your honor."-" Apply
yourself to learoing; for it will rcrlound to your honor."
PERIOD.
1018. Sentences which are complete in ~ense, and not connected i:1
either meaning or grammatical construction, are separated by a period;
thus, .. Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all lIIeD."
1019. But when sllOrt sentences are conoeeted in meaning, uut not ia
construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010).
1020. Long sentences, if complete, even thou. h grammatically con·
nected by cODjunctions, often insel t a period (563); UIUB, .. He who !

ENG LISH G RAlIIlIIAR.
emotion of any kind; also, in invocations 01' addresses; as, "Eternity I
tllOn plen,ing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it,
01' after the next word; as, "Oh! that he would come." Eut when 0
is used. the note is placed after some intet'vening words; as, "0 my
friends !"
1026. l'arenthesis ( ) includes n clause inserted in the body of a sen·
tence in ol'ller t() some useful or Ilecessary iuformation or remark, but
",hid: may be omitted without injuring' the constrnction of the sentence;
as, .. Know ye n

FIGURES. 221
FIGURES.
1039 A FIGURE, in grammar, is some derivation from
the ordinary form, or construction, or application of word,;
in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety,
or elegance of expression.
1040. There are tbree kinds of Figures; viz., of Etymology, of Syntax,
and of FJ,c/'" it. The first nnd the second refer to tbefoTIU of words, or
to tbeir construction; and tbe last to tbeir appliwtion.
FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY.
1041. A figure of Etymology is a departure from tbe usual or simple
funll of words, merely.
1042. Of these, tbe most important are eight j viz., A-ph((!r-e-sis, Prosthe-sis,
Syn.co·pe, A-poc-o-pe, Par-a-gog-ge, Di-((!r-e-sis, Syn-tEr-e-sis, and.
Tme-sil.
1. AphtETesis is tbe elision of a By liable fl'om the beginning of a word;
as, gainst, 'gan, 'bove, 'neath, for against, began, above, beneath;
2. Prosthesis is the prefixiDg of a syllable to a word; as, adown, agoing,
&c., for dOll.m, /Joinj, ,-te.
3. Syncope is the elisioD of a letter or syllabIc, usually a short one, from
the middle of a word; as, med'cine, sP'Tit, e'en, for medicine, spirit, even,
.1. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a word;
:lS, tho', for though, th' fur the.
G. Paragoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word; ns,
deary, for dea r.
6. DitEl'esis is the division of two concurrent vowels into different syl.
lables, usually marked thus ( .. ) on the second vowel; as, couperate, aerial,
7. Syn((!resis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either orthography
or pronunciation; as, dost, seest, for do est, sei!st, or, loved, learned,
pronounced iu one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed.
8. Tlllesi, is separating the parts of a compound word by an interveninc;
term; as, " J~7wt time soever "-" On which side soever"_" To us
1L'ard."
FIGURES OF SYNTAX.
1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual construction of
words in a ~entence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force.
1044. Of these, tbe most important are Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syllepsis,
Enallage, Hyperbaton.
1. Ellipsis is the omission of a word or words necessary to the full

222 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idea intended
(977). Such words are said to be understood; as, "The men, lVomen, and
children," for" The men, the women, and the children."
:2. Pleonasm is the nsing of more words than are necessary to the full
cunstruction of a sentence, to give greater force 01' emphasis to the expression;
as, "The boy, oh ! where was he."
3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personification, by which we con,
ceiye the sense of words otherwise than tbe words import, and construe
them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, " He
shine5 "-of a ship, .. She sails" (130).
4. EIlIIl/age is the use of one part of speech for another, 01' of one
modification of a word for another; a •. all adjective for an adverb, thus:
"They fall success ice, and successive rise," for successively; tbe use of we
nnd you in the plural, to denote an individual, &c. (2·15); the use of one
case f"r another j as, "than whom," for than who (\166).
5. Hyperbaton is tbe transposition of words and clauses in a sentence,
to give "ariell'. fOI'ce, and vivacity, to the composition; as, "Now come
we to the lasl."-" .!l man he was to all the country dear."-" He wanders
earth around."
FIGURES OF RHETORIC.
1045. A figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary application
of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to the compo·
sition. Th,·sc figures are sometimes called tropes.
1046. Of these, the most important are the following, viz.:-
Personification, Hyperbole, Climax,
Simile, Irony, Exclamation,
Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation,
Allegory, Synecdoche, Paralepsis,
Yision, Antithesis, Apostrophe.
1. Personification, or prosopop(t!ia, is that figure of speech by which
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects j a" " The sea saw it and
fled"
2. A simile expre,ocs the resemblance t.hat one ubject hears to anotber;
a_, ,. He shall be like a tree planted by the ril'ers af wfller."
3. A metnphoT is a simile without the sign (like, or as, &c,) of compari·
son j as, " He shall be a tree planted by," &(1,
4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so connected in
sense as to f"l'm a kind of pal'able or fable. Thus the people of Israel
are repn"ented under the image of a ville: " Thou hast brought a vine out
of Egypt," &c., PS, lxxx. 8-17. Of tbis style are LEsop's FaI:Jies, Bunyan's
.. l'ilgrim's PI'ugl'css," &c.
5. Vision. or imagery, is a figure bv which the ~penker represents pnst
eYeut" or the ohjecls of his imagination. as actually present to his senses'
as, "Cresar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, anll enters Italy."-" Th~
combat thic~ens : on, ye braves I "

POETIC LICENSES. 223
6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less.
better 01' w(>r

221 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"A man he was to all the country deal',
And passing rich with forty pounds a year."
"By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen."
"Shall I receive by gift, what of my own,
When and where likes me best, I can command I'
"Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey."
"The whiles, the vaulted shrine around,
Seraphic wires were heard to sound."
"On tee first friendly bank he throws him down."
"I'll seek the Eolitude he sought,
And stretch me where he lay."
" Not Hector's self should want an equal foe."
2. More ,iolent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than in
prose; as-
" Suffice, to.nigbt, these orders to obey."
" Time is our tedious song should here have enlling."
" :For is thero aught in sleep can charm the wise I"
" 'T is Fancy, in her fiery cal',
Transports me to the thickest war."
" 11'/", never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys."
"Bliss i,; the same in subject as in king,
In ll'ho obtain defence, or who defend."
3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nOUns which
they do not strictly qualify; as-
U The ploughman homeward plods his weary way."
"The tenants of the warbling shade."
" And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds."
4. The rules of grammar are often violated by the poets. A noun and
its pronoun are often used in reference to the enme verb; asu
It ceased, the melancholy sound."
" My banks they are furnished with bees."
5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, the sign of the
infinitive; as-
"To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell;
To slotely trace tbe forest's sbady scenes."
6. A. common poetic license consists in employing or and nor instcad of
either and neither; as-
-----" And first
Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea."
" Kor grief nor fear shall break my rest."
'7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, anll adjectives uRe,1 like
abstract nouns; as-
H The ligb tninge flash a IA1'ger cur\'e,ll

POETIC LICENSES •
.. Still in harmonious inter('onrse, they lived
The rural day, and talked the flowing heart."
.. Meanwhile, whate' er of beautiful or new,
By chance or search, was otfel'ed to his view,
He scanned with curious eye."
8. Greek, Latin, and other foreign idioms, are allowable ia poetry,
though inadmissible in prose; as,-
" He knew to sing, and build the lofty rhyme."
.. Give me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold."
.. There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call,
Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trump of fame."
.. Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed."
----- " Never since created man,
Mt't such embodied force."
1049. Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but deuied to
prose writers; and among other purposes which they obviously serve,
they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by iucrensiug
the boundary of separation set up, especially in our language, b,·tween it
and common prose. Were such licenses not permitted in poetry. the difficultyattendant
upon this species of composition would probably be so
great, that hardly any person would attempt the arduous task of writing
verse.
EXERCISES.
Point out. name, and define, the figures uf Etymology in the folIo Iving
phrases and sentences :-
His courage 'gan fail.-Bend 'gainst thp, steepy hill thy
breast.-'T was mine, 't is his.-Vain tamp'ring has but fostered
his disease.-Enchained he lay, a monster.-What way
soe'er he turned, it met him.-Th' aerial pencil forms the
scene anew.
Point out, nRme, and define, the figures of Syntax in the fullowing sen·
tences:-
The law 1 gave to nature him forbids.-So little mercy shows
who needs so much.-My head is filled with dew, and my.1ocks
with the drops of the night.-Consider the lilies of the field,
how they grow.-He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord.
Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following sen·
tences :-
As thy day is, so shall thy strength be.-Without disciplin~,
the favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild.-Thy name IS
as ointment poured forth.-The Lord God is a Bun aDd shield.
-1 saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted
fir.-At which the universal host sent up a shout that tore
bell's concave.

PA.RT IV.
PROSODY.
1050. PROSODY treats of Elocution and Versificatioll.
ELOCUTION.
1051. ELOCUTION is correct pronunciation, or the proper
management of the voice in reading or speaking.
1052. In order to read and speak with grace and effect, alteution must
be paid to the proper pitch of the voice, the accent and qUill/lily of the
syllables, and to emphasis, pauses, and tones.
1(}53.-1. In the PITCH and management of the voice, it should be
neither too high nor too low; it should be distinct and clear; the utterance
neither too quick nor tuo slow, and neither too varied nor too monotouous.
1054.-2. ACCE"T is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a certain
syllable in a word, as the sy Hable vir- in vir' tue, vir' tuous.
1055.-3. The QUANTITY of a syllable is the r~lative time which is required
tu pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to two short
ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded as long again as pin,
tub, not.
In English versificatiou, an accented syllable is long, an unaccented
one is short.
1056.-4. E~IPHA8IS me:tD8 that greater stress of the voice which we
lay on some palticular word or words, iu order to mark their superior importance
in the sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea intended
by the writer or speaker.
10!J7.-5. PAUSES or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order to enable
the reader or speaker to take breath; and to give the heal'er a distinct
perception of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the whole
discourse (985). For poetic pauses, see (1115-1118).
1058.-6. TONES consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes,
or val'iations of Bouod, which we employ in speaking, to express the dif·
fe~ent sentiments, emotions, or fecliugd, intended .
... * A full cousideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would
be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would require a
volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in
works on elocution-a subject which is, or should be, taken up liS a separate
branch of study.

PROSODY-VERSI FIe A l'ION. 227
VERSJFICATIOX.
1059. VERSIFICATION is the art of arranging wurd~
into poetical lines, or verses.
1060. A rase, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain nUlllber of ac·
ccnted and unaccented syllables, armnge~ according to fixed rules,
1061, A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or YerSC'3 takclJ together,
whether rhyming with each otber or not. A Triplet c(>n,i,!8 of
three lines rhyming together,
1062, A Stan=a is a combination of several verses Ol' lim'8, yaryillg in
number according to the poct's {ancy, nnd constituting a regular divi8inn (of
a poem or song. This is often incorre~tly called a t'ersc.
1063. Rhyme is the similarity of sound in tbe ]att syllables uf two or
more lines arranged in a certain order. Poell'y, the verses of wbich have
this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme.
1064. Blank Verse is the name given to that species of puc!ry whieh
is without rhyme.
FEET.
1065. Feet are the smaller portions into wbich a line is dividc'cl-e:lch
of which consists of two or more syllables, combined nccordil'g' to ncc~llt.
1066. In English versification, an accented Ryllable is accountco. Ion";
an unaccented syllable, fhoTt. In the following examples. a straight line (-)
over a syllable shows that it is accented, and a curved line, nr breve (v).
that it is unaccentp-d.
1067. Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as without aCcent.
often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and are long or ,hort, according
as they are with or withont the accent. Thus-
" To roUse hIm with the spur and rein,
With more than rapture's riiy."
In the ancient languages, each ~yllable has a certain quantity, 10llg nl'
short, independent of accent, for which there are certain definite rnle". In
this they differ widely from the English.
1068. MetTe, or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain nnmlJer of
poetical feet in a verse or line.
1. When a line bas the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called
.aeataleetic.
2. When it is deficient, it is called Cataleelic.
3. When it has a redundant syllable, it i8 callcll HY)Jw"illicciic, or
Hypermeter.
1069. A line cODsisting of ODe foot is called monometer; of two, dime/er ;

228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
of three, trimeter; of four, tetrameter; of five, pentamcier; of six,
hCJ'ameter; of seven, heptameter.
1070. Scanlll:/lg is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is
composed.
1071. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds; four of two
syllables, and four of three, as follows :-
I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES.
1. ~-\.Il Iambus ~ -; as, defend.
2. A Trochee - '"' ; as, noble.
3. A Spondee - -; as, vain man.
4. A Pyrrhic ~ '-' ; as, on :\ (lilll).
II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES.
1. An Anapxst '-' v - ; as, Intercede.
2. A Dactyl - _ v; as, durable.
3. An Amphibrach 1.1 - v; as, abundant.
4 .• t Tribach ~ - '-'; as, (tol)erable.
1072. Of all these, the principal are the Iambns, T"ochee, A 1/(/-
1)(1':;/, and Dactyl.
The other four feet are used chiefly in connection
with these, in order to give variety to the measure.
1073. A T,."chre has the first syllable accented, anl! the last uuaccented;
as, "D/tli!, miisic.
1074. An Iambus has the first syllable unftccented, and the last
accented; as, (idore, di'ji:ml.
1075. A SpollClee has both the words or syllables accented; as,
" i'a"in nl,(fn."
1076. A Pyt'lhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as,
"un a (hill)."
1077. A Duclyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last
unaccented; as, 'l"trtll,!lIs.
107S. An A mphill/'ach has the firilt and the last syllable unaccented,
and the middle one accented; as, cilnti!ntment.
1079. An A naprest has the two first syllables unaccented, and the
last accented; as, lldircede.
1080. A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented; nmn I ldibll.
10Sl. A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which
predominates in it; thus, Iambic, T'l"ochaic, &c.
I. IAMBIC VERSE
1082. An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently
has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, &c., syllables. It has
different metres, iii follows:

PROSODY -
VERSIFICA TION.
229
1. One joot, or Monometer ; as­
'Tis sweet
To meet.
2. Tll:O jeet, or Dimeter ; a.';­
With thee \ we rise,
With thee we reign.
3. Th ru jeet, or T ri !Heier; as­
In pIa I ctlS far I or near,
Or fa I mous, or I obscure.
4. FUll,. jeet, or Tetra1lltta ; as-
How sleep I the brave, I \\]1

230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
vcree. Such is 1Ililtoll's " Paradiso Lo~t," dic. By the admission of trochees
anapoosts, &r., ill certain places, it is capalJle of many varieties.
1088. [(lI"bic Hexamclcr.-A verse of six feet is called .Illexandrine.
1089. Tho Eler;ilfc ,\anza conei ;f", of f .. 'm prntnmcter lines rhyming,
al tp.l'nut...1y ; as-
'The Cllr I few t

PROSODY-VERSIFICA TION.
231
5. Five feef, or Pentameter (Vl'l'Y uncommon) ; as­
In the I dark, and I gloomy I valley,
Satyrs, I by the I brooklet, Iloye to I d,tlly.
6. 8;); jeet, or IJewm.;t€1' ; as-
On a I mountaIn, I stretche,1 be , neath it , h,,;-u'y I willolV,
Lay ii. I shepherd, Bwain, and, viewed the I rolling I l,m',\V,
1094. Each of these may take an nclditionnl long syllable, and so become
hYl'ercatalectic, 01' h!lpennetcr; tllu'l-
1. Tumult I cease,
SInk til I p~~~ce.
2. In the I days of I old,
Fables l,laiuly, told.
3. T:csth,,;, I m(ll'tal~ , toil for Inuught,
Bliss in I vain from' earth is I sought.
4. Idle I after I dinner, , in his I chair,
Sat a I farmer, , rurIdy, I fnt, amI I fail'.
U. Hail to I thee, blithe I spirit! , hird thou I never' /l'at,
That from I hean;l1, or I near it, I pourest I thy full I 1"'«1'1.
6. l'ight and I mornin!?, , were nt I meeting, , (,WI' I Water /100,
('ul:ko hadlsung theirlearliestlgreetinglfaillt audllow they:cncw.
1095. In the la-t two form~, each line is usually di,·ided into two, thus-
5. Hail to I thee, hlithe I spirit!
Bird thou I neyer' wert.
G. ~ight and I morning' were at , medillg,
lh'Cl' I 'Yater /100.
1096. Trochaic \'dse, with an additional long syllable n.t the cud, is
the saUle u, IamLic verse, wanting a short syllnble at the beg-inning.
AN.\P.E:3T1U YEflSE.
1097. A7lopwstic YerEe, cr,nsi,t, chidly of allllji".,/." and, when pmc,
hn.s the ncceut on c,'cry third syllable. It Ii." different metre,. r,s fullows
:-
1. One joot, or Jlo/l.omeia, as­
But too far,
Each proud star.
2. Ttro feci, or dimeter ; as­
Biit hls coil I rage 'gan fiil,
01' no arts I could avail.

232 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
3. Threefeet, or Trimf'lrr; aso
ye woods! , spread your branch , es apace,
To your deep I est recess' es I fly,
I would hide, with the beasts' of the chase,
I would yau I i~h from ev , ery eye.
4. Four fret, or Tdramell'l'; as-
May I gov I ern my pass, ions wIth iib , soliite sway,
And grow wis , er and bet' ter as life, wears away.
1098. Of these. the first is ambiguous, for by placing an accent on the
first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer hypermfter.
1099. The ucond 80metimes admits an additional short Ayllable at the
end; M-
On the road I by the val, ley,
As he wand I ered lament 'lng ;
To the green I of the for I est,
He returned, him repentlng.
1100. The tltird is a very pleasing' measure, and is much u'erl in both
s"lemn and cheerful Buhj£ctB, but it seldom takes an additional "yllable.
1101. The four/It, or tetmmcier, admit, an additional syllahle, which
oftell has a pleasing effect j as-
On the warm I check of youth I smiles and rOB I es are blend ling.
DACTYLIC VERSE.
1102. Dactylic ,erse cOllsists chiefly of dactyls, and has the following
varieties ;-
1. One f""I, or monomeler ; as­
Fearfully,
Tearfully.
2. Twofeet,'or:dimrtcr; as­
Free from sa I W;ty,
Care and anx I iety,
Charms in va riety
Fall to his , sha re.
3. Three fect, or fI'imeter ; as-
WearIng a , way ln h'ls , yuuthfUlness,
Loveliness, I beauty, and I truthfulness.
1103. Each of the~e sometimes takes an aU.ditionallong syl1ahle, and so
becomes liypermtter; 8S-
1. Over a I mead,
PrickIng hIs' steed.
2. Covered with, snow was the , vale,
Sad was the I shriek of the I gale,
When to the , night, woful I wail
Rose to the I skies-to the , skies!

PROSODY-VERSIFICATION.
233
3. Time n has , passed, and the , lady is , pale,
Pale as the , lily that I lolls on the , gale.
1104. By combiDiDg these kind!l, examples of tetrameter, pentamet6r,
nnd even llexameter, nre obtained; but they are seldom used.
1105. A doctylic verse seldom eDds with 0. dactyl; it more commonly
adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the follpwiDg lines:-
Brlghtllst and, best Of the , suns Of the , mOrnIng,
Dawn on our , darkness and ,lend us thine , aid.
1106. The following i8 an example of dactyls and spondees aller.
nately:-
Green III the , wIldwood, profldly the, tiill tree ,looks on the ,
brown plain.
The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter:
Over the, viilley, wUh , speed llke the , WInd, all tM , steeds were
. a-galloptng.
1l07. Con~idering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar
ndaptednees to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that is has
Hot beeu more cultivated.
MIXED VERSES.
1108. Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iambic
"f'rse, for example, sometimes admits otper feet into the line, particularly
at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The followiDg are exam­
I,les of iambic lines With different feet introduced:-
Trochee. I'rl>phet , of plagues, , forev , er bod , ing ill !
Dactyl. Murmuring, , and with, him fiedlthe shadeslof night.
Anctpo:st. Before I all tem , pIes the up , right heart' and pure.
PY1·rhic. Brought death' tnto I the world, and all-our woo
Tlibrach. And thun-ders down' impet-uous to , the plain.
1109. In iambic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted;
and the verse becomes trochaic with an additioDal long syllable.
1110. In trochaic versp, the initial long syllable is sometimes omitted;
nnd t.he line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable.
1111. If the two fhort syllables Bre omitted at the beginniDg of an
mlapre.~tic \ine, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So-
1112. If tbe initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it be·
comes anapreslic with two short syllables added.
1113 A pleasing movement is produced by intermingling iambuses and
anap(r.!tic, :IS in the following lines :-
" I come, I I come! , ye have ciilled , me long;
I come I o'er the moun , talns with lIght I and song!
Ye m~y trace I my. steps , o~er t~1\ wakJ_enIn~ earth,
By the Winds whlCh tell, of the vI I olet's bIrth,
By the prim , rose stars I of the shad I owy grass,
By the green ,leaves op , aning I as I pass."

234 ENGLISH GRAl\IMAR.
1114. In odes and lyric pieces, versea of different kinds and ,Jifferent
metres or measures are often intermingled, after the manner of the ancient
choral oues, with a pleasing effect, "Alexanuet·'s Feast," Collins' "Ode
to the Passions," &c.. are examples.
POETIC PAUSES.
1115. Be"iu03 the usual pauses required to mark the sense in reading,
anu which may be called sentential pauses, indicateu oy the punctuation.
there are other pauses in poetic composition, required by, and nece,sary
to give proper effect to, tbe movement of the line.
1116. These are chiefly the Filial pause and the C(£SltTal pause.
1117. The jinal pause is required at the end of every line of poetry,
even whpre tbere is no Reutential pause. When that is the case, it consiiits
in a brief suspension of the voice, without any change iu its tone or pitcb.
'Vben a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very
ofteu, it takes tbe plnce of, nnd supersedes tbejinal pause.
1118. The c(£wral panse is a snepension of the voice somewhere in the
line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be manifest
when poetry is well I'e~d. It, doe, Hot occur in very ehOl·t lines. In
lines of sOllie length, it generally occurs near the middle; sometimes,
however, neare\' the beginning', and sometimes nearer the end; orten in
the middle of a foot, but never in tbe midule of Il woru. Sometimes,
besiJcs this, a Fort of demic(£sltral pause is required, to give full effect to
the expression. Tbe following lines furuish examples of the C(£SUTlll pause
in different pllrts of the line, aud also of the demint'.,ural pause. The
furmer is marked ( ") nnu the btter ( ');-
" The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet,
Aud harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet."
" The crested basilisk" and speckled snake."
" Aud on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day."
"But not to me returns
Day," or the sweet approach of even or morn."
" No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but all
The multitude of angels" with a shout
Loud" as from nnmbers without numbers," sweet
As from blest yoices" uttering joy."
" \Varms' in the sun," refreshes' in the breeze
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the tr~es .
Lives' through all life," extends' throu .... h all extent
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent> '
EXERCISES.
As exercises ill scnnning, lines or stllnzas from [lny poetical work may
be selected.

COMPOSITION. 235
COMPOSITION.
1119. COMPOSITION is the art of expressing our sentiments
in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds,
Prose and Poetry.
1120. Pro3e compositions are those in which the thoughts are expl'esscd
in the natural order, in common and ordinary language.
1121. Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sellti·
ments are expressed in measured verse. iu loftier and more inverted stvle,
by words and figures B~lected and arranged eo as to please the ear, ;\ud
cuptivate the fallcy.
1122. In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or ;nrlircd.
1123. Direct discoursc is that in which a wl·itel' 0[' speaker delivers his
own sentiments.
1124. Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person rclnte8, in
his own langua!;e, what another speaker 0[' wlitel' said.
1125. In thefiTst, when the speaker referR to himself, he uscs the first
person lor IDe. W hen he refers to the person (II' persons aJdresoed, he
nees the second person tllOlt, you, Joe.
1126. In the second or indirect di,c()ul's(', whether the speaker is reported
as referring to himself, or to those whom he addrest't'8, tLe thiro
person is used in either ca~e; a" he, she, they, &c. An example will best
illustrate the rlistinction. Thus:
1127. DIRECT DISCOl:RSE.
TLen Paul stooo in the midst of ~[ars hill ond said: "Yemen of A thens,
I perceive thnt in all things ye are too supel",titious; for as I pa'8c(1
by and beLeh! your devotions, I found an altar with this inscription: • To
TOE U:-OXNOWN GOD.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, him de·
clare I unto you."
1128. INDIllECT DISCOURSE.
'l'he same, reported iu indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus:­
Then Paul, standing on Mars hill. told the men of Athens, he perceived
that in all things they were too superstitious; for as he passed by and beheld
their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription: .. To THE
UNKNOWN GOD." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly worshipped, him ,Iec1ared
he unto them.
1129. When the reporter, the speaker rcporteu, and the person

236 ENGLISH GRAlIIMAR.
"Then the son went to his father and said to him, [indirect] that he (the
Eon) had sinned against Heaven and in his (his father's) sight."
It will at once be perceived, that, without the words enclosed in brackets,
for explallation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word !t~,
the fallteT or the son was intended; so al80 with respect to the word !

COMPOSITION. 237
1135. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not
be confined to this or that province or district. "Those," to use Camp.
bell's apposite similitude, "who devillte from the Leaten road may be in·
comparably more numcrous than those who travel in it; yet, into whatever
number of by.paths the former may Le divided, there may not Le
found in anyone of these tracks 80 many as travel in the king's highway."
1136. Thirdly, this nsage must be present. It is difficult to fix wilh
any precision what usage may in al! cages be deemed present. It is pcrhaps
in this respect different with different compositions. In general,
words and forms of epeech, which have Leen IODg dismcd, should not be
employer\. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the pl'esent day is not
implicitly to be adopted. Mankind lire fond 0f novelty, and therc is a
fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation,
delight in creating new words, and using new forlns of phraseology.
Now, to adopt cvery new-fangled up,tart at its birth, would argue, not
taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for sin::;ulal'ity and novelty.
But should any of these maintain its ground, nml receive the sanction of
reputable usage, it must in that case be received.
1137. The uoRge, then which gives law to language, and which is generally
denominated good usage, must be r~p"table, 1!alional, and prcaent.
It happens, however, that .. good usage" is not IIlwnys uniform in ber
decisions, and that in unquestionable lIuthorities arc found far different
modes of expression. In such cases, the fullowing CANONS, proposed by
Dr. Campbell, will be of &ervice in enabling to deciJe to wbich phraseol.
ogy the preference ought to be giveu. They are given uearly in tbe worus
of the author ;-
1138. CANON I.-When the usage is di ..ided 119 to Ilny particular worus
or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptiLle of a Ji.tferent
meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the expression
which is strictly univocal should be preferred.
1139. CANON :l.-In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded.
1140. CAliON 3.-When expressions are in other respects equal, that
should be preferred which is most agreeable to tlte ear.
1141. CAliON -i.-When none of tbe preceding rules take place, regard
should be bad to .implicily.
1142. But though no expression or mode of speech can be justified
which is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow, that
every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be retained. In many Buch
cases, custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose province it is,
not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any word or phraseology
which may be either unnecessary or coctrary to analogy, but also to ex·
trude whatever is reprehensible, though iu g~neral use. It. is by this, her
prerogative. that languages are gradually refined and l~proved. In
exercising thi8 authority, she can not pretend to degrade, IDstantly, any
phraseology which she may deem objectionable; but she may, by repeated
remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in
iueh cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down
by the same author ;-

288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
1143. RULlI: I.-All words and phrases,particularlybarsb and not ahso·
lutely nece:;sary, should be dismissed.
1144. RULE 2.-When tbe etymology plainly points to a different sig·
nification from wbat the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its
dismission.
1145. RULE S.-When words become obsolete, or are never used but in
particular phrases, they should be repudiated, as they give the style an
air of vulgarity and cant, when ibis general disuse renders them obscure.
1146. RULE 4.-All words and phrases which, aflalyzed grammntically,
inclulle a solecism, should be dismissed.
1147. RULE: 5.-All expressions which, according to the established
rules of language, eitber bave no meaning, or involve a contradiction, or,
according to the rair construction of the words, convey a meaning different
from the intention of the speaker, should be diemissed.
1148. In ordcr to write any Jangulge with grammatical purity, three
things are required :-
1. That the words be all of tbat language. The violation of this rule is
called a bal'bariwi.
2. That they be cou;lrued and arranged according to the rules of syn·
tax in tbat language. A violation of this rnle is called a ,oleci&m.
3. That tbey be employed in tbat sense whicb usage has annexed to
them. A violation of tbis rule is called impropriety.
1149. A barbarism is an offence against lexicography. The soleci&m is
au offence against the rules of syntax; and the impropriety is an offence
lIlf'linst l~xicography, by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases.
HINTS FOR CORRECT AND ELEGANT WRITING.
1150. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of
words, and partly upon the form and structure of sentences.
I. In so far as respects single words, tbe chief things to be observed ari
purity, propriety, and precision.
PI.TlUTY.
115~. Purity ~onsists.in the rejection.of suoh words and phrases as are
not strictly English, nor 10 accordance With the practice of good writers or
speakers.
1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expreelion' as, "Fraicheur "_
"polite888"-" He repents him of his folly." ,
2. A.void ob~olete and unauthorized words; 1l~1 albeit, ajor,timt instp",
tator I Judgmatical.
•

COMPOSITION. 289
PROPRIETY.
1152. Propriet.y consists in the use of such words as are best adapted
to express our meaning.
1. Avoid low and provincial expressions; as, .. To get into a scrape."
2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical' as "This
morn "-" The cel~,tial orbs:' ' ,
8. A void technical terms. unless you write to those who perfectly under.
Etand them.
4. Do not use the same word too frequently, or in different senses; as
"The king commrnicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to
the secretary, who made it known to the public."-" His own reason might
bave suggested belter reasolls."
5. Supply words that are wanting, Rnd necessary to complete the sense.
Thus, imtead of "This action increased hiS furmer services" say, "This
action increased tbe merit of his former services."
6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His memory shall be
lost on the earth."
'1. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions; as, "I have nn
opaque idea of what you mean."
PRECISION.
1153. Precision rejects superfluous words.
1. Avoid tautology; as," His faitfifalne88 and fiJelity were unequalled."
z. Obsel've the exact meaning of words nccoulltc,1 synonymous. 1 hUB,
instead of "Thougb his actions and intentions \\'tr" g"od, he lost his char.
acter," say, " He lost his reputation."
II. With respcct to sentences, clearness, unil!l, strength, !md a proper
application of the figures of speech, are necessary.
CLEARNESS.
1154. Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words.
1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and explanatory phrases, must be placed
as near as pOEsible to the words whicb they affect, and in such a situation
as the sense requires.
2. In prose, a poetic cullocation must be a voided.
8. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which
they stand.
UlIITY.
1155. Unity retains one predominant object through a '~eDteDce, or a
series of clauses.
1. Separate ioto distinct senteoc€s such clauses as have r.o immediate
connection.

21O
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
2. The priucipal words must, throughout a sente.uce, be the most promi.
neut, and the leading nominative should, if possIble, be the subject of
every clause.
S. Avoid the introduction of parenthe@es, except when a lively remark
may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes
before.
STRENGTll.
1156. Strength gives to every word and every member its due impor.
tance.
1. Avoid tautology, and reject nil @uperfluous words and members. In
the following sentence, the word printed in italics should be omitted:
" Being couscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission."
2. Place the most impurtant words in the situation in which they will
make the strongest impression.
S. A weaker assertion shoulu not follow a stronger; and, when the
sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding
one.
4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other whex:e
eitber resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some resemblance In
the language and construction should be preserved.
6. A senteuce should not be concluded with a preposition, or any incon'
siderable word or phrase, unless it is emphatic.
1157. FIGURES OF SPEECH.
l. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when
it serves to illustrate 01' enforce what is said.
2. Figures of speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not
remote or foreign from the Bubject, and not pursued too far.
3. Literal and figurative language ought never to be blended together.
4. When figurative language is used, the SRme fignre should be preserved
throughout, and diff~rent figures never jumbled together.
TRANSPOSITION.
1158. As a prE'paratory step to the important business of composition,
the pupil, arter he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exercised
with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members
in sentence., so as to try in how mauy different ways the same thought or
sentiment may be expressed. This will give bim a command of lauguage,
and prove, at the Bame time, a source of considerable mental cultivation.
It is often neceFsary to give an entirely new turn to the expression, before
a sentence can be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous.
1159. There are chiefly foul' ways in which the mode of expressing a
thought rna, be varied:-
1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an actiTe
verb; as, "The sun di8loluea the snow "-" The Bnow i. di"olll~d by the
IIun."

COllIPOSITION.
2.Jl
~. By invel';ions or transpositions, which consist in cLalJ"ill" the order
in 'Yhich the"wnn]s s~aud in a sentence; as, " Competet;Jce ~ay be acquired
by J[]dustry -" By J[]dustry competence may be acqUired,"
~. By: changing a? affirmative into a negative, or a negative into [Ill
affirm:ltIH, of an entirely coutrary character; as, ",'irtue promotes happiness
"-" Yirtuc docs not promote miser~."
.1. By either ~ partial or an. ~ntire change of t1~e words employed to
express any sentiment; RS, "DIlIgence and applicatIOn are the best means
of improvement "-" r;uthing promotes improvement like diliO'encc and
apl'licJtion."
b
EXERCISES ON TItAXS!'OSITIOX.
The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of
luxury. I 8m willing to remit all that is past, provided it Clln be dOLle
with safety. A good man has respect tu the feelings of others in all that
he says or does. J:ravely to conteud for a good cause is noble' !'il('ntly
tn Buffer for it is heroic.
'
EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION.
The RomaLl state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of
luxlll')'. In proportion to tht' increase of luxury. the Roman state evidently
declined. The Roman etate, in proportion to the increlEc of luxury
evidently declillcd.
'
EXEItCISl!;S ON VAUIETY OF ExrllESSIOX.
Ilis conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be
moved by false glor~' than not to be moved at all. I shall attend the
mceting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in modesty
as he improHs in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to greatness of
mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability.
EXA~IPLE OF VAnIETY OF EXPRE8SIO~.
His cooeluct was Ie,s praiseworthy than his sister's. Ilis sister's conduct
was more praiseworthy than his. ilis siSler's mode of acting was
entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise
than that of his sister, &c.
1160. Another excrcise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for
composition, consi,ts in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list
of words, witl! directions tlO form from them such sentences n! shnll contain
these words.
EXERCISES IX COMPOSITIO)/.
Construct a number of BuelL sentences as slwll tacT, ,:ontai.n one or 1t~ore
of the following wordB :-Contentment, behaviour, c?nSlderatlO~, elevatIOn,
distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, ~vldence, SOCIal, bereavement,
nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury,
disarm, expatiate, &e.
16

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
LETTERS.
1161. Oue of the 8implest and yet most useful spe('ies ~f COll~position
is letter writing. This species of composition may be practiced elt~er by
way uf real corr~spondence l?etwcen ~hose. pursuing the same studle~, or
it mny cOllsist of letters wrItten to Imog.l~nry con:esponden!s. The followil,g
nre a few topics adapted to composltwn of tbls latter klDd;-
L,tter 1.-Write to a friend at a distance. State to him tbe ohject. of
yOlll' writin:.:. Tell bim wllat studies you are pursuing, and bow you lIke
them. Men"tion bow yourself and friends are. Give an account o~ so~e
of the alteratioos which have been lately made, or nre now maklDg 10
\'001' neighbourbood ; and conclude by expressing your desire either to see
him or henr from him soon.
Letter ~.-Write to a companion an account of a.long walk whicb J:ou
lately had. Tell bim whether you were alone or In company. ':\Iellt~oll
what particular things struck YOIl by the way; and enumerate all the 10-
cidents that occurred of any moment.
Letter 3.-Write to a friend who is suppose!l to have sent you n present
of books. nu,1 thank him for such kinrlness. Tell him the use you intend
to make of them; and inform him to what particular books you are most
pnrtial. Conclude by giving some Rccount of those you have been lately
reading, nnd bow you like them.
Leiter 4.-Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. Describe to
him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and your native
country. Express your regret at losing him. but state your hope that you
will not forget each otbcr when seas roll between you. Request him to
write to you frequently; and advise him to be careful about his health and
uf the society he keeps.
Letter 5.-Write to a friend at a distance, and give him an account of
a sail which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what places you
visited, and state the objects tbat most delighted you. Tell him how long
you were away, wbat 80rt of weathcr you had, and what were your feelings
upon returning home.
Letler 6.-Write to a friend an account of the church you were at last
Sabbath. Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns that were
Bung, and the portions of Scripture that were read. State the text from
whiclI the minister preached; and give your opinion of the different
sermons.
~162. These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon
wh.Jeh the st',ldent who bas acquired a knowledge of grammar may be reqUIred
to wl'lte. The prudent Bnd skilful teacher will be enabled to mul.
tlply and vary them at pleasure to any extent.
REPRODUCTION.
1~63 .. Anot~er method ,?f exercising the minds of pupils in composition,
consIsts 10. readlDg: some SImple BtOry or narrative, till such time as they
~re a?qunlOted WIth the facts, and then directing them to express these
~n theIr own words. A shll further, and perhaps even a simpler method
IB, to take adv~ntage of a young person's having ~iven some account of
w~a~ he has eIther seen, heard, or read, and deBne him to commit to
wnhng what he has stated orally .

COMPOSITION. 24$
THEMES.
1164. The next st(>p in composition is the writing of regular themes.
The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the capacity
of the person who is desired to compose, for, if it is, the whole benefit
resulting from the exercise will be nullified.
1165. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required
to write; or the dissertation that has been written upon sllch a subject.
Some of the simrlest suhjects for themes are those drawn from natural
history, 01' natura philosophy. At all events they should not. in the fil"t
instance, be drawn fl'om subjects of an abstruse and abstra'~t characl€r.
1166. The following may s~l've as specimens in thi~ department ;­
Tllflnc I.-The horse.-1. Describe what sort of animal the horse is.
2. Tell some of the different kinds. S. :Mention the vaJious ways ill
which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State what would be
the consequence of wanting him. O. Mention the treatmellt to which he is
entitled, and the cl'uelty of ill-using such a creature.
Write themes upon the cow, the dog. the slurp. poultry; amI follow lhe
same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse.
Theme 2.-The Bun.-1. Begiu hy stating what the BUll is. 2. Tell all
you know of its size, figure, and distallce from our earth. 3. Mention
the effect it has upon the earth, nnd the benefits we derh'e from it. 4.
State what would be the consequencc if the Bun were extinguished; and
what ou\' feelings ought to be toward the Supreme Being for such au
object.
Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, wattr; and in all,
follow the sume plnD.
Theme S.-Day and night.-I. Tell what you mean by day and night.
2. State whether they are always alike long. and what is the advantage
arising from their length being different at different seasons. 3. Mention
the different purposes to which they are adapted. 4. Say of what the
continued succession of day lind night is fitted to remiud us, alld hnw this
should ) ead us to act.
·Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon mountains, ri"lirs,
and the tirks of tile sea; aud follow a similar plan ill the whole.
Theme 4.-0n composition.-l. Explain what you mean hy this term.
2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by showing how much it
contributes to add to tbe nlue of one's knowledge. S. Mention what is
necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State the means by which
skill in this art is to be obtained.
Theme D.-On company.-l. Explain what you mean by company. 2.
Show how natural it is for mall to seek society. 3. State the danger of
keeping either too much company, 01' of keeplDg bad comllany. 4. Point
out the advantages of good company.
Write themes upon comJersalion, study, impro'Jf1l1ellt of time, cllo·ice of
books, memory. and the different organs of sense, &c.; and in all, follow the
same method as you did in writing on Company.
Theme 6.-Narratives.-Describe the place or scene of the actions
related, the persons concerned in, the time, posture of IIffairs, state of
mind, moti vee, eDds, dze., of the aetora; results.

244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Write themes upon the d;scrnJery of .America, the Frencl, war, the Revoluti01lary
war, tlte battle of Bunker'8 Hill, the French revolution.
Theme 7.-Dissert,ations on remarkable events in sacred or profane
history .. -The place, the origin. the circumstances, results, moral influence,
&c.
Following this or a similar arrangement of parts, write a composition
on: the creation, dcalh of Abcl. tlte deluge, Ihe world after tlte .flood, tlte
tower of Babel, the Israelites in Egypt, their deliverance from it, lite giving
of tlte ialo from ,sinai, the advent of Ihe Jtfessiah-his death-his resurrection,
destruclion of Jerusalem, &c., the siege Of Troy, rist and fall of
Ihe Roman empire, tlte crusades, tlte burning of Moscow, Ihe battle of
lVaterloo, lite clealh of Bonaparte, &c.
TllCme 8.-Give an account of some of the most distinguished chal'­
Rcters in different ages of the world-warriors, statesmen, artists, philosophers,
poets, orators, philanthropists, divines-menticning what is known
respecting their country. parentage, education, character, principles, exploits,
influence on society fo~ good or evil, death.
1167. The following list of Themes is selected from Parker's Exercises
in Composition :-
1. On Attention, 26. On Fortune,
2." Adversity, 27." Fear,
3." Ardor of ]\1ind, 28." Forgi veness,
4." Art, [cal, ~\l." Government
5." Attachment, 10' 30." Grammar
r.." Anger, 31." Greatness, true,
7. u Air, 32." Genius,
8." Benevolence, 33." Habit,
9." Beauty, 34." Honor,
10." Biography, 35." Happiness,
11." Bad Scholar, 36." Humility,
12.

COMPOSITION. 245
88. Life is Short, ()7. Pleasures of Memory,
89. Miseries of Idleness, 98. Exam piG better than Precept,
90. Never too old to Learn, 9(). Misery is wed to Guilt,
91. Public Opinion, 100. Value of Time,
~2. Diligence insul'es Success, 101. Viltue, the way to Happille£~,
93. Idleness destroys Character, In2. No one lives for Ilimself.
94. Contrivance proves Design, 103. Tbou God seest me,
95. Avoid Extremes, 104. Trust not Appearance~,
96. Vbit to an Almshouse, 105. Whatever i~, is RigbL
106. "An honcst man's the noblest work of God."
10'1. Every man the architect of biB own fOl'tune.
108. Man, .. Mysterious link in being's endlcss chain."
109. "A little learning is a dangerous thing."
11 O. How blcssings Lrighten, as they take their tljgh t.
111. Advantages dcrivcd from the invention of the mariner's compaos-of
the telescope-the steam·engine-the art of printing-of gunpowder ..
112. History of v. needle-a cent-a Bible-a" heaver hat.
113. Description of 8 voyage to England-eoa,t of Africa--Coll~f nntinoplo
-South Amerie8-East Indies-China.

APPENDIX.
APPENDIX I.
GleNDER OF NOUNS.
III dlllall"uaO'cs the distinction of nouns with regard to sex, has been
noted. Ev~ry ~ubstantive denotes either. a male or femnle, .01'. that which
is neither the one r.or the other. This accident, or characteristIc of nouns,
is called thcir Gender. In English, all words denotin~ male an!~aI8, are
considered as masculine; aT! those denoting {tmale Ilmmals, femtntne; and
those denoting things neither TIlale nor female, are termed nwler. "In
t.his dislributiulJ," says Crombie, "we follow the orJer of naturE', and o~r
language iq, ill this respect, both simple and animated." Both in Latin
and Greek, many words denoting things without sex, are ranked as maFCU
line or feminine, wilhout any re~arJ to their meaning, but simply on account
of their terminations. In Frer,ch, all nouns are regarded as either
masculine or feminine, which is a still greater departure from the order
anu simplicity of nature, for which the English language on this point is
distinguished.
Some have objected to the desiO'nation of three genders; they think that
as there are but two sexes, it wo;ld be more philosophical aDd accurate to
say there are only two genders; and to regard all words not belonging to
these, as without gender. A little reflection, I think, will show that this
ol~iectiOD has no just founuation, either in philosophy or fact, aDd that the
change it proposes would be no improvement. It has probnbly arisen
from confounding the word gender, which properly signifies a kind, claaa,
or species, (Lat. gCl!1tS, French gtnre), with the word sex, nnd considering
them a~ synonymous. This, howc\"er, is not the case; these words do not
mean the same thing; and they can not be properly applied in the same
way. 'Ve never S:1Y, "the masculine sex, the feminine sex;" nor" the
male gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word
sex can be predicated only of animated beings; the word gender, only of
th~ term by which that being is expressed. The being man, has sex, not
genuer; the 1('ord man, has gender, not sex. Though therefore it is very
absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper to speak of three
genders; that is to say, there are three classes (geoders) of nonnR, distinguished
from one another by their relations to sex. One denotes objects
of the male sex, and is called masculine; another denotes objects of the
female sex, and is called feminine; and the third denotes objects neither
male nor female, for which a n!lme more appropriate than the term neutel'
ueed not be desired .
. The term "Common gellde~'," applie? !O such words as parent, child.
frIend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of word3 which are
neither masculine, nor femininl', 001' neuter, hut i~ uaed for ~onveDience,

.\PPENDIX-PRONUU NS MINE, ETC. --\\' HAT .\ II F LYrI YI. ::: j'l
merely to indicate that snch words sometimes deuote a mule, ~nd sometimes
a female. Instead of "common," those who prefer it, may call such
words" masculine or feminine."
A.PPENDIX II.
TilE PR0:-10UNS MI:-1E, THl:-I!E, ETC.
Some gm.mmarians have given it as their opinion that mille, thinc, our."
yours, their .•, are not pronouns in the pos,esqil'e ease, but thllt they ar~
somethinc: or other in the nominative or objective cae". but never in the
possessive. This is surely a very singular notion. The anomaly whi',h
such nn idea would introduce into our langu[lge, wouh! be a curious olle.
According to this view, these words conI, I l>elullg to no part of speech
hitherto defined. They are not nouns, for they are not the """les of anything-nor
adjective .•, fur they do not qualify noulls. nOt' can e,'cr I", .join,,']
with them-DOl' pronouns, for they never stand ins!",..1 lOf 11 ""till. but
always instead of a pronoun and a possessil'c pronoun t"6"tl,cr, They have
always the sense of the possessive case, and an- always cOIlslrw'.! ju;t as
the possessive case of a noun is, not folluwed Ly a noun; aut! yet t"n
are never in the possessive case. These wurds, stnndiuc: by thelllscl n',.
have no fixed or determinate meaning, and yet in senteuces tL"y mrty
have as many different meanings as there are objects capable (If \",ille;
possessed, Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my '",/,
"'.'/ stick. my g"ll. my-anything you please. AnJ besides this, those of
them which a~e singular in form, according to analogy, may have a l'illnd
verb, and those of them which are plural ma.r have a singular verb; thus,
H John's books are new; mine are old;" agalD, "John's house is built of
stone; ours is built of brick." Such is the result to which this notion
leads us; and if these words are not possesives, but in the nominative or
objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more curious words in the
Engli,h, or in any other language.
APPEN DIX III.
lVhat AS A RELATIVE •
.. Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the relative
what. It is said to be a' compound relative pronoun, including botL
tbe antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which, or the thing
which.' Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examination.
that Mhat is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and include.;
Dothing else. Compare these two sentences :-
.. , I saw whom I wanted to see'­
'" I saw what I wanted to see.'
"If ,,·hat, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing which,
!(.hom, in the former, is eqUivalent to !tim whom, or the person whom.
, lV/tO steals my purse steals trash,' is equivalent to he who, or, the man
who.
"And on the same principle, Wh~D the relative is omitted, the anlecedent
sho'uld be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent.

2·18
ENG LISH GRAMMAR.
Thus, 'I saw the man I wnnted to see.' Here, man should be reprcsented
as equivalent to the own ,,110m. .
.. Tbe cause of tbe error in respect to lI'hal, is, tbat t~e a.ntecedent IS
IlPver exprcssc,\ with it, It is not like the ,:or~ who., whICb IS usell u?th
when tbe antecedent is expressed, and wben It IS omItted. The relative
Ih"t, however, was furmerly used in many cases where ~e u~e what, that
is with tbe antecedent omitted. A few examples of thIS Will help uS,to
,,;certain the nature of what; ',r e speak that we do know.'-ElIgI1slt
Biblc.-' I am that I am.'-liJ.
," Who had been seen imagine mot~ thereby,
That wbylome of Hercules bath been told:-Spcnser.
" 'Escbe\ve that wicked is.'-GOll'fr.
'" T, it po~si1,le he should not know what he is, and be that he is.'-Sltaks.
" 'Gather the sequel by that went beforc.'-Ib.
"In the,e examples, that is a relative, and is exac!ly synonY!li0us with
".hat. " .. one would contend, that that stands for Ibclf and. I~S ante.ce·
dent at the snme time. The anteced~nt is omitted because it IS IDdefimte,
or easily supplied."-Butler's Grammar, p. 48.
These rl'lllm \;s appeal' to me just, and conclnsive on tbis point,
APPENDIX IV.
IS as EVER A REL,\TlVE?
Tl>at the word AS should not be considered a relative in any circum·
stances, I think is plain from tbe following considerations:-
1. It bU3 neither the meaning nor the use of U relative, Its office is
simply to connect things compared, and, together with its antecedent
word, to express the idea of equality, likenes." &c., between them; thus,
"James is as tall as his father."-u Your bat is such as mine,"
~. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronoun before it,
called tbe antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but
is related only to the comparative word, as, Bueh, so, &c., in the preceding
clause. Thus, in the sentence, "As many 3S received him," the second
as relates to the first, and the two convey tbe idea of equality. Again,
"Send such books as you have." Here, as refers not to books, but to sue",
Take away such, and as can not be used.
3. As can never be used as a substitute for another relative pronoun,
nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it.
4. 10 sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has the
same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be ouly [\ con·
junction. Compare tbe following examples: "As many as five men received
a reward."-u As many as received bim,"-" As many a.~ they can
give." In all these, the phrase " as many as" menns, anel is felt to mean
th~ san;re thi~g-equality of number. There .mely, then, caD be no pro~
prlct,Y Ill. callJng the second as a conjunction in the first sentence, flnll a
relatIve In the other two. Tbe same thing will be evident if we chan"e
the antecedent word. Thus," Such books as tbese are useful."-" Slt~"
books as are useful."-" Such books as you can give."

APPENDIX-ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 249
5. If the word as in the preceding sentences nn,l clause'S is a relative
pronoun, for the same reason alleged for this, the word than must be a
relative in those which follow. The construction is precisely the Fame:
II ;'\lore books tha1l were wanted."-" ~Iore books titan are u~eful "­
"More books than you can give:' Kow, if, in the second of these exam·
pIes, titan is not a relative :n the nominative case before are, nor in tbe
third a relative in the obje('ti vc case after can .qive, what need for consid.
ering as a relative in the saDle position, iu the same construction, and for
the saDle purpose, to denote cornparbolJ? There is the same ellipsis in
both, and the same words necessary to be sUI'plied, in the one case, as iu
the uther. Tbus, ":More books than [those which] were wanted,"­
I, '\[ore books than [those which] are useful," &c. So." Such books as
[those which] were wanted."-" '\3 many books as [thosc which] art'
llCcl..."",;:::ary," &~.
APPENDIX V.
ADJECTIVE PRONOUNL
The fourth class of pronouns, sometimes called adj"c! i ve pronoun .•, and
sometimes pronominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into possessive, distributive,
demonstrative, and indefinite. Of tbese, the first or possessit'e are
derived from the persoual, and in meaning are strictly pronouns, being
always the representative or substitute of a noun; but in construction they
are adjectives, and are always joined with a noun, and hence are appropriately
denominated adjective pronouns, i. e. pronouns used adjectivcly. By
some, they are classed with adjective~, and called pronominal adjectives.
In many grammars the possessives my, thy, Itis, her, its, our, yow', tlteir,
are set down as the possessi,e case of the personal pronoun., with mine,
tltin8, Itis. ItcT8, its, o",-s, yoltrs, theirs, making two forms of the pos,esoi\-e
case: thus, my 01' milte, thy or thine, e~c. Which of these methods is
adopted in teaching or studying grammar, is n matter of no practical
moment: some grammarians adopt the one, and some the other, merel ....
as n matter of taste, without any controversy on the subject. The classi·
fication in the text is preferred as being on the whole more simple,
because the possessives my, thy, et.c., like the adjective, can never otand
alone, as the possessive case does, but mllst be supported by a noun following
them; thus, we say, "It is the king's;" "It is Y011rS ;" but we can
not say, "It is your,"-the presencc of a noun being nete- "':c"y to the ]a;t
expression.
This classification is favored by the analogy of other langual;;e:J both
ancient and modern. The possessives my, thy, &c., for example, have pre·
cisely tbe same meaning as the Latin jJfells, mea, meum; or the French
"fon, ma; or the German "fein, (or meiner), meine, mein; or the Auglo.
tlaxon (which is the mother of the English language), "fin, milLt, min;
and they are used in precisely the same way. There scems, therefore, to
be Do good reason for giving them a different classification. Indeed, !he
ouly circumstance which renders it possible to regard them as a possessive
case iu EngliRh, ie, that like the English adjective they are indccliDable.

";NI.7LISH I.7RAlIIlllAR.
Had they beeD dl'clinable, like the Latin or .Frencb, etc., they never could
have been used a~ a possessive case.
The words belonging to the otber three divisions, have been found morc
difficult to arrange in a 8:ltisfactory manner. They seem to occupy a.sort
of middle grou~d between adjectives and pronouns, and fire sometImes
used as the one and sOllletimes as tbe other, witbout the strict and appro·
priate character of pither. They are genera~ly adjectives in co?st.ruction,
having a noun expressed or understood, which they serve to lImIt or reo
Rtrict in various ways. On the other band, wIth few exceptions, tbey arc
~" often used witbout a nOUD, or as its substitute, tbat they are not im·
pl'Opel'ly reffarded as pronouns, though in a eense less strict than the
others; thu:' "Let each esteem others better than themselves."-" Among
men . .'07ne are good, others bad, none perfect." "All things come alike
to aU,"

APPENDIX-DIVISION OF VERBS. 2&1
infinitive expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, without affirming
attributes dying to a person, expressed by the word mo. So when w~
say, .. I see a man walking," the word walking expresses an act of the
person man, though there is properly no affirmation. In like manner,
when I say, " Do this," the v~rb do attribu~es action imperatiYcly to the
perEon addressed, but there IS no affirmation. To speak of .. affirming
Imperatively" is certainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a bet.
tel' expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense.
For these reasons, the definition of a verb which eays it is "a part of
speech which asserts or affirms," appears to me to be defective. It stateR
one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at least does not ;".
eluJe, others. It gives. as the distingui5hing characteristic of a "erb, tbat
which does not belong to it in several of its parts and uscs. It is too r'··
strictive.
The definition formerly given in my" Principles of English Gmlomar,"
is liable to an objection of an opposi te kiud: it is too general, and not
sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, "express nn IIction or Male,"
but there arc other words that do 60 nlso. Nouns such as luve, drsin',
wis!t, !tope, &c., aDd most verbal nouns, such liS eruption,fiction, cullisioll,
d!ff"sion, progreBsion, &e" express action, and many worde, both n0l111~
and adjectives, express a state.
The definition given in the text, though perhaps uot unexceptionable,
occupies a middle place between these extremes, avoids the indcfioitenes",
of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objection than most of
those which have been given.
APPENDIX YII.
DIVISION OF VERns.
The division of verbs into Tranaitive aud Intl'an"itiue is now eo gene·
rally adopted by grammarians, instead of the former division into Active,
Passive, and Neuter; and its propriety and simplicity so obvious, that it
seems now unnecessary to argue the point. Of this division, it is need·
ful only to observe-
1st. It divides all verbs into two classes, Transiti"e nnd Intrausitive,
distinguished by a clear and definite cbaracteristic, derived from tbeir use
in the construction of sentences. To tbe first belong tho~e which are used
transitively, whatever be their meaning or form; and to the second, all
that are used intransitively, wbether they denote action or not (319),
2d. This arrangement and nomenclature leaves the term Acti~e an(1
Pauive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms winch all
transitive verbs assume, called the actil'e and the passive voice.
3d. It dispenses with the term tlmter altogether, as applied to verbs,
and leaves it to bc appropriated in grammar to the desi~nation of gender
only.

252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
APPENDIX VIII.
TilE I'j,ESr;:

APPENDIX-PRESENT INDICATIVE, ETC. '253
act, and as sucb is predicated of tbe subject. Thus." The house is built."
Here it is implied tbat the act of building is completed, and has ceased,
and tbe result, expressed by built, is predicated of the house. In all verbs
of tbis kind, the past participle, after the \'Crb to be, has reference to the
state resulting frem the act .as prcdica~ed of, or .qualifying the subject of
the verb, and not to the act Itself. Stnctly speakIDg, then, the past participle
with the verb to be is not the present tense in the pn,si I'e voice of
verbs thus used j that is, this form does not express passively the doing of
the act. These verbs either have no present passive, or it is made by annexing
the participle in iny, in its passive seme, to the verb to be; a~,
.. The house i, building."
It is supposed by some that" is built," though in the form of the present.
passive, really is a present-perfect; because it represents the act as com.
pleted, and because the perfect·definite, in Latin, is often translated by
this form into English. Due consideration, however, I think will show
that it differs quite as much frem the present·perfect as it does from the
present. To be satisfied of this, compare the following expressions: "This
garment is torn," merely asserts the present Btate of the garment, with no
referencp- to the act hnt what is implied. But when we say, "This garment
haB been torn," the reference is chiefly to thc act as having heen done,
with no reference to the Btate of the garment but what is implied. The
one asserts tbat the garment remains torn, the other does not-it may have
been mended; the latter is the regular passive of the prescut'!Jerfect active,
the former is not. Tbis will perhaps be more clearly perceil'cd by
means of another example: "This house has been painted, but the paint is
.com off." Tbis is good English. But if we say. "This house is painter!,
but the paint i~ worn off," WP. should assert a contradiction.
There is properly no passive form, in English, corresponding to the progrcssive
form in the active voice, except ,,-bere it is maue by tLe particip!e
in ing, in a passive sense; thus, "The house is building "-" The garments
are making "-" Whent is selling," &c. An attempt has been Illade by
some grammarians, of late. to banish such exprcssions from the IRnguage,
thongh they have been used in all time past by the best writer" and to
justify and defend a clumsy solecism, which. has recen.tly been introduced
chiefly through the newspaper press, but which has gained such cUl'I'ency,
and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with
all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as "The
house is being bnilt "_u 'The letter is being written "-" The mine is being
worked ,,_u 'fhe news is being telegraphed," &c. &c.
Respecting this mode of expreesion, it mny be noticed-
1. That it had uo existence in the langnage till within the last fifty
years. This, indeed, woul? not make t~~ expression W!'o~g, were it. otherwise
un~xceptionable, but Its recent orlgm shows that It IS not, as IS pretended,
a neceB,ary form.
2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is founu not to express ~hat
it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as are either
ignorant of its import, or are careless and loose in their us~ of language.
To make this manifest, let it be considered, first, that there IS no progres­
,sive form of the verb to be, and no need of it; hence, there is DO Bu~h

ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
expression in Englis~ as is being. Of co~rse •. the expr~ssion "i&. being
built," for examp~e, IS not a compound of u being and b1tllt~ ~ut of 18 ~nd
being built; tbat IS, of the verb to be OI'd t?e p~esent partlC1ple pa.as.we.
Now, let it be observed that the only verbs III whIch the present partICIple
pa8~i ve expresses a continued action are those mentioned .above as the
first class, in which thc regular ras~ive form expre,ses a contznuance of the
action' as is loved, is desired, &c., and in which of course the form in que~tion
(i~ beinll boi/t) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, "He
is bein'" loved "-" This result is being desired."
In all othcr verb" then, the present participle passive, like the present
tense, in the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, not a continued
action. 01' the continued receiving of an action, but that the action
had ceased, an,l the result only exists in a finished state. Thus, I. Our arrangements
being made. we IlfJparted."-"Tbe house being finished, was
immediately occupied."-" Our work being finished, we may rest," &c. In
all such expre~sions, the prescnt participle passive repre€ents t.he action
flS nolY .finished, and exi"ling only in its usults (509). This fiDlshed act,
then, can not he made ,tt/finished and progressive, by being asserted of a
subject, which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence, it is
manifest that is being built, if it mean anything', can mean nothing more
than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed.
3. For the same reason that is being built, .1:c" is contended for as a pro·
per expre~sion. we should contend also for" Has becn being bnilt "-" Had
been being built "-" Shall h"ve been being built "-" Might have been
being built "-" To be being' built "-"1'0 have been being built "-" Being
being built "-" Baving been beiog built." When all these shall have been
introduced, our langunge will be rich indeed.
-1. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an established
usage of the language, namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the par.
ticiple in ;l1g (457). In refercnce to this it is flippantly asked, .t What

APPENDIX-FIRST AND SECOND, ETC. 255
which S('me late writers adopt in its stead j as, "The books ar!' now being
sold.' "-Goold Brown. .. As to the notion of introducing a new and more
complex pa~sive form of cOIlJugatiou j as, 'The bridge is being built.' 'tho
bridge was being built,' and eo forth, it is ODe of the most absurd and
monstrous innovations ever thought of." "Thc work is now being publi.

256 ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
man "-" A round and square hole "-" A hot a!1d cold spring "-beclIuse
II man can not be old and young at tbe same time; nor II bole round and
square; nor a spring hot lind cold. Hence-
When two or more adjectives express qualitics thllt beloDg. to different
objects of the same Dame, and that name ~xp~essed ollly :Ith the last,
the article should be placed bcfore each adJcctlve. ~hlls, A I:ed and .a
wbite rose" meaDS two roses-oDe red, aDd ODe white. In this ease, It
makes no differeDee whether the qualities expressed by the adjective be
cODsistent or not since tbey belong to different individuals. Thus, we
ClIn say, 'C A young and an old man "-A round and square hole "-" A
hot and a cold spriDg "-that is, ODe man young, lind aDother old, &c.
It is therefore manifest that we can uot properly say, "The first RDd
secoDd page "-" The fifth and sixth verse "-" The Old and New Test:lment
"-because no page can be at ODce /iro/ aDd second-Do verse fifth
and sixth, nDd DO Testameut Old and New. It is equally improper in
priDciple to say, "The first and secoDd pages "-" The fifth aDd sixtb
verses'" because two adjectives can not be joined with R word jointly
which can DOt be joined with it separately. We can not say" The first
pages," nor ., tbe second puges," when we mean but one .first and one
sewwl. Besides, when tbe ellipsis is supplied, it stands .. the .first page
and the second page," and the omission of tbe first Donn can not, ou any
correct priDciple, affect the Dumber of the secorul. In manv cases, too,
tbe use of tbe plural, if it would relieve from the absurditv of u~itiDoo inconsistent
qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambiguity, For
if, to avoid the absurdity of saying c. the old and yOUD .... man" we say
.. the old aDd young men," the lat~er E'xpression may ~ean fifty, or a
hundred, o~ aDY n~mbel' of men, mstead of two:-one youug all.d one
ol~. Notwlths~aDdlDg, bowever, us~ge has prevailed over principle in
th,s a~ well as In other cases; aDd It has become quite common to ~ay
" The first and second verses "-" Tbe Old aDd New Testamentg "_" Th~
hot and cold .8pr~ngs ":-" ';fhe indicative aDd subjuuctive moods," &c.
Wbere no ambIgUity eXists In t~e use of sucb expressions, tbey must be
tolerated. T.be correct expresslOD, however, ID all cases in wbich one is
intended, .is mad~ by repeating t~l,e article with the adjectit'e, arul retaining
the noun tn the slngular; thus, The first and the second verse "_,, Th~
Old and tbe New Testament "-The hot and the cold .prinoo" &c Or'
.. The first verse aDd tbe second," &c. e' . ,
APPENDIX X.
TWO FIRST-THREE LAST, ETC.
The.e:,pressionR, two first, three last, and tbe like, have been 0 osed
and rIdiculed by some, on the ground, a8 they al\eO"e that tl pp b
I fi t d I
. . e , Jere cau c
on y one rs, an olle ast. The objectors eVldeutly have not II
sidered tbeir position; for-
we COD-
1. The terms first and last do Dot necessarily mean oDI on p'
according to Webster, means, .. preceding all others." Tbe t~·o fi;st tr st ,
means the two precediDg all others, and the three last mean tb 'th eD,
succe d· mg a 11 0 th ers-expressloDs " ID w h' lC h' tbere IS surely D tb' s e . b \'ee
ridiculous Qr absurd. 0 mg eIt er

APPENDIX-TWO FIRST, THREE LAST, ETC. 257
2. If we eay, "The first days of summer "-" The first years of our life"
_00 Tbe last daNs of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, theu it is not true
that ther" can be only one fir1t and one last, and so the ground of the
objection fails. If we can say, "The IUBt days of summer," why not the
two last. or the thrle last.
3. The expression objectcd to is nsed by the best authorities in the
language. and has been in use hundreds of years, and therefore, on the
well-known maxim" Usage is the law of lunguage," if it were absurd, it
can not be rejected. The following are exampleB, most of them mentioned
by Mr. WeIls: "The four tit'st acts.'·-Bp. Berkeley.-oo The three
first monarchies_"- lVarbllrton.- oo The two first persons."-Latham's Eng.
Gram.- oo My two IasUetters:'-Addison.-'· The two fit'st lines.'·-Blair,
00 The three first generatiolls,"-E. Everett.- oo The two first yea1'8."­
Ballcrojt.-u The two first days_"-Irving,-oo The two fit'st cantos."­
A. H. Everett.- oo The four first centmies."-Prcscvtt.-" The two last
productioDs."-N, A. Review.- u The four first are-poetical."-CllelVer.
-" The three firet of his longer poems."-Soullley.--" The two last
schools."-Johnson.- u The six first French kings."-,,}[acaulay.
4. This expression is, in some cases, evidently better than the other.
It is probably always so, wh!'n the Dumber characterized as fir"l or last,
COIIstttutes a majority of the whole. WheD we say, "the first four,"
there is evidently a reference to a seeood four, or a last four. But if the
first four cOllstitute a majority of the whole, thet'c remains no second fonr
to justify the l'efere'JcE'. Thus, when we say, "Thc first foul' acts of a
play were well performed," there r~maitls only one to which any olbe.,
reference can be Illade. On the other hand, when a whole is divided iuto
equal portions, each containing a certaiu number, as the I'ecurre-nce of the
cen~us every five years-of the Olympic games every four-of the Sabbath
every seven days-of foUl' lines in each stuuz" of a poem, and the
like-then Ihe expreBsi"n, first four, secolld fou" last fOllr, &~.,
is preferable,
because it implies a reference to otLer pOltiOl\9 of equal extent.
Also, even when there is no such reference, it is often properly \lI!ed,.
especially when the Ilumber is larqe; as, " The first hundred "--=.." The ia~~
thousand," &c.
? Several distinguished scholars and grnmmarians have examiued this
pOtnt, and expressed their views respecting it as follows: .. It ha. been
doubted whether the cardillal should p1'ec(de

.~5S ENGLISH GRAMMAR.