Volume V. No. 1 Spring & Summer 2010 - ichper•sd

Research
The Official Publication of the International
Council for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, Sport, and Dance (ICHPER•SD)
Volume V. No. 1
Spring & Summer 2010

The Mission of the ICHPER•SD Journal of Research
The mission of the journal is to meet the needs of the academic community from both a national and an international
perspective. Thus, academicians and professionals engaged in or studying HPERSD, and related activities, at all levels, are
encouraged to contribute to the professional literature by submitting research-oriented manuscripts that will contribute and
expand the knowledge base of the disciplines within our profession. The ICHPER•SD Journal of Research is exclusively what
is termed a "research journal" and invites data based manuscripts representing cutting edge research.
Manuscript Guidelines for Authors
Articles are invited in the areas of health, physical education, adapted physical education, recreation, dance, sport, human
performance, coaching, sports medicine, and sport management. This journal is international in scope in the sense that authors/
researchers and topics can originate from any part of the world.
All manuscripts must be submitted in English. An original hard copy of the manuscript plus a computer CD (virus free)
containing the article and any tables and/or figures (as separate files, in Microsoft Word®), should be submitted to:
Editor
ICHPER•SD Journal of Research
International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, & Dance (ICHPER·SD)
1900 Association Drive, Reston, Virginia 20191-1598, USA
Phone: (703) 476-3462 Fax: (703) 476-9527 Email: ichper@aahperd.org
Each manuscript must be accompanied by a one-paragraph abstract (100 words or less). The APA (latest edition) format
[Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association] must be used consistently throughout the entire manuscript.
At least one of the authors (if there is more than one) must be (or become) a member of ICHPER•SD. Authors should number
pages and lines throughout the manuscript, including the references. Be sure and double check references for correct spelling of
authors and publication dates as well as to insure that the names in the references and in the body of the manuscript match.
For manuscripts sent from the United States, a large, self-addressed, stamped envelope (9” by 12”) must be included for
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another journal while under review by the ICHPER•SD Journal of Research.
The first page of each manuscript should include only the title of the article. The senior author’s name, affiliation, and
full address (including phone number, fax number and e-mail address) should be provided on a separate cover sheet, along
with identification of co-authors, if any. The manuscripts should be typed double-spaced with a 1½ -inch margin. Generally,
manuscripts should be 20-27 pages in length, plus tables, figures and references, for a total of no more than 35-37 pages.
Manuscripts longer than this will be reviewed, and if accepted, can be published – space permitting. The body of the manuscript
should not contain any information identifying the author(s).
All graphs, tables as well as figures and drawings should be placed on separate pages. Tables should be double-spaced.
Figures and drawings must be professionally prepared and camera ready. Final manuscripts, including all corrections and
revisions, must be submitted on a computer CD in Microsoft Word® as well as one hard copy.
Submitted manuscripts are reviewed by at least three members of the "review board" and by the editor. The evaluation of
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are completed. Once a manuscript has been tentatively accepted, the author should return two hard copies of the revised
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final review, prior to being scheduled for publication.
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Education, Recreation, Sport, & Dance (ICHPER•SD) by signing a copyright release document. At least one of the authors (if
there is more than one) must be a member of ICHPER•SD or become a member before the beginning of the review process.
Form a-7-4-06-06a

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2 ICHPER•SD Officers and Editorial Policy Board
Pedagogy
3 A Descriptive Analysis of Undergraduate PETE Programs in the Central District
Kristen Hetland and Bradford Strand
10 The Web Quest: Its Impact on Developing Teaching Skills of Physical Education Student Teachers
Haythem Abdel Mageed Mohamed and Rasha Nageh Ali Abd El Rheem
16 Podcasting in Physical Education Teacher Education
Michael C. McNeill, Swarup Mukherjee and Gurmit Singh
Physical Education
20 Validating Pedometer-based Physical Activity Time against Accelerometer in
Middle School Physical Education
Zan Gao, Amelia M. Lee, Melinda A. Solmon, Maria Kosma, Russell L. Carson, Tao Zhang,
Elizabeth Domangue, and Delilah Moore
26 Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors: Physical Education in Korean Elementary,
Middle, and High Schools
Jong-Hoon Yu and Jwa K. Kim
33 Differences in Exercise Identity Between Secondary Physical Education Students and Athletes
Gregory J. Soukup, Sr., Timothy W. Henrich, and Heather M. Barton-Wieston
Health
37 Tobacco, the Common Enemy and a Gateway Drug: Policy Implications
Mohammad R. Torabi, Mi Kyung Jun, Carole Nowicke, Barbara Seitz de Martinez, and Ruth Gassman
45 The Health and Wellbeing of Staff Members at a Tertiary Institution in New Zealand
Sonja Dreyer, Lukas I. Dreyer, and Dean M. Rankin
Recreation
54 An Examination of Immunity Statutes Regarding the Liability of Recreational Youth Sport
Organizations for the Pedophilic Actions of Coaches, Administrators, and Officials
Thomas A. Baker III, Daniel P. Connaughton, and James J. Zhang
Sports Marketing
60 A Brand Loyalty Model Utilitizing Team Identification and Customer Satisfaction in the
Licensed Sports Product Industry
Dr. Soonhwan Lee, Dr. Hongbum Shin, Dr. Jung-Jun Park, and Dr. Oh-Ryun Kwon
Coaching
68 Pre-Activity and Post-Activity Stretching Perceptions and Practices in NCAA
Division I Volleyball Programs
Lawrence W. Judge, Kimberly J. Bodey, David Bellar, Adam Bottone, and Elizabeth Wanless
76 The Rules and Review Process
79 Membership Application
International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance
Counsel International pour l'Hygiene, de l'Education Physique, de la Récréation, du Sport, et de la Danse
Consejo Internacional para la Salud, Educación Fisica, Recreación, el Deporte y la Danza
ISSN 1930-4595: ISBN 978-0-
9821604-3-5 0-9821604-3-7: The
ICHPER·SD Journal of Research is
issued biannually by the International
Council for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation, Sport, and Dance
(ICHPER·SD), 1900 Association Drive,
Reston, Virginia 20191-1598, U.S.A.
(Phone: 703-476-3462; Fax: 703-
476-9527; E-mail: ichper@aahperd.
org; Website: www.ichpersd.org). The
annual subscription price of $50.00 is
included in the annual ICHPER·SD
membership dues as a membership
benefit. ICHPER·SD members can
purchase additional copies of the
journal at $15.00. Nonmembers can
purchase copies at $25.00 each.
The ICHPER·SD Journal of Research
is the peer-reviewed official biannual
publication of the International Council
for Health, Physical Education, Recreation,
Sport, and Dance. The journal is
published as a service to members of the
Council and others concerned with our
disciplinary areas. Views and opinions
expressed in the journal or articles
herein are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the publisher.
COPYRIGHT: Entire content copyright
2008 by the International Council for
Health, Physical Education, Recreation,
sport, and Dance. All rights reserved.
INDEXING: Index Coverage has only
recently begun, as we are a fairly new
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•Education Research Complete: Index
and full database
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•Education Full Text (and index)
ADVERTISING: Contact Mrs.
Carmella Gilpin, Administrative
Associate, ICHPER·SD Headquarters
at 1900 Association Drive, Reston,
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volume 5, issue 1 1

International Council for Health, Physical Education, Recreation, Sport, and Dance
(ICHPER•SD)
ICHPER•SD Journal of Research
Volume V, No. 1, Spring & Summer 2010
ICHPER•SD OFFICERS & EDITORIAL POLICY BOARD
Dr. Dong Ja Yang, President & Chair
Dr. Adel Elnashar, Secretary General & Associate Chair
Dr. Mini Murray, Immediate Past President
Dr. Veronica C. Igbanugo, Vice President for Africa
Dr. Frank Chin-Lung Fang, Vice President for Asia
Prof. Kenneth Butcher, Vice President for Caribbean
Dr. Alberto Calderon Garcia, Vice President for Latin America
Dr. Hasan Kasap, Vice President for Europe
Dr. Mosaad S. Ewies, Vice President for Middle East
Dr. Timothy Henrich, Vice President for North America
Prof. Peter Chen, Vice President for Oceania
Dr. Steven Wright, Editor & Executive Assistant to the President
Dr. Yoshiro Hatano, Chair, Finance Committee
Dr. Robert C. Serfass, Chair, Research Committee
Dr. Mohammad R. Torabi, Commissioner, Health Division
Dr. Young Kee Lee, Recreation Division
Dr. Janice D. LaPointe-Crump, Dance Division
Dr. Seung Wook Choi, Representative, ICHPER•SD Regional Journals of Research
EDITOR
Dr. Steven C. Wright
Pedagogy Option Coordinator and Professor of Kinesiology
Department of Kinesiology
College of Health and Human Services
University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824
ASSOCIATE EDITOR
Dr. Michael McNeill
Coordinator for Postgraduate Research, Associate Professor
Physical Education and Sports Sciences
National Institute of Education
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
ASSISTANT EDITOR
Dr. Wenhao Liu
Associate Professor
Department of Physical Education
Slippery Rock University, Pennsylvania
REVIEWERS FOR ICHPER•SD JOURNAL OF RESEARCH
Dr. Isaac Olusola Akindutire, University of Ado-Ekiti, Nigeria
Dr. Garth Babcock, Eastern Washington University
Dr. David Berry, Weber State University
Dr. Robert Case, Old Dominion University
Dr. Brian Culp, Indiana University Purdue University, Indianapolis
Dr. Blanche W. Evans, Indiana State University
Dr. Wendy Frappier, Minnesota State University @ Moorhead
Dr. Ron French, Texas WomenÔs University
Dr. Zan Gao, University of Utah
Dr. Michelle Grenier, University of New Hampshire
Dr. Bryan L. Haddock, California State University
Dr. Tim Henrich, University of the Incarnate Wood
Dr. Julia Ann Hypes, Moorehead State University
Dr. Michael G. Hypes, Moorehead State University
Dr. Lawrence W. Judge, Ball State University
Dr. Susan E. King, University of Kansas
Dr. Richard J. LaRue, University of New England
Dr. Wenhao Liu, Slippery Rock University
Dr. Michael McNeill, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Dr. Millie Naquin, Southeastern Louisiana University
Dr. Yasenka Petersen, Indiana State University
Dr. Greg Reid, McGill University
Dr. Gregory J. Soukup, University of the Incarnate Word
Dr. Kurt Stahura, University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Dr. E. William Vogler, Southern Illinois University @
Edwardsville
Dr. Hal Walker, Elon University
Dr. Wee Eng Hoe, Tunka Abdul Rahman College, Malaysia
2 Journal of Research

A Descriptive Analysis of Undergraduate PETE
Programs in the Central District
by Kristen M. Hetland, Concordia College, Moorhead, MN and
Bradford Strand, North Dakota State University
Abstract
The current study described physical education teacher
education (PETE) programs at institutions located within the
Central District of the United States (CDAAAHPERD). Of the
72 institutions invited to participate, 44 institutions completed
the survey (58% response rate). The purpose of this study was
to describe the general profile/practices of undergraduate PETE
programs and to provide an overview of their similarities and
differences among the colleges and universities located within the
CDAAAHPERD. The 61- item survey included topics related to
basic program information, curricular items incorporated into each
program, and coverage of various areas of course content.
Key Words: Physical Education Teacher Education
Curriculum
Le Masurier and Corbin (2006) stated that the need for quality
physical education is clear, based on the current trends of obesity
and physical inactivity among children and adolescents. They cited
ten reasons why quality physical education is necessary:
1. Regular physical activity helps prevent disease.
2. Regular physical activity promotes lifetime wellness.
3. Quality physical education can help fight obesity.
4. Quality physical education can help promote lifetime physical
fitness.
5. Quality physical education provides unique opportunities for
activity.
6. Quality physical education teaches self-management and
motor skills.
7. Physical activity and physical education promotes learning.
8. Regular physical activity participation makes economic
sense.
9. Physical education is widely endorsed.
10. Quality physical education helps to educate the total child.
Quality K-12 physical education programs depend on a highly
qualified teacher. In early 2002, Congress passed a law called
the No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act (a.k.a. 2001 [Public
Law 107-110, 107 th Congress, January 8, 2002]). This law was
established in an attempt to improve the United States educational
system. Though this law has actually reduced physical education
programs across the United States, it defines the general term
“highly qualified teacher.” The NCLB definition of a highly
qualified teacher is one who has completed a bachelor’s degree,
holds a full state certification, and demonstrates competence in
each content area taught (U.S. Department of Education, Office of
Postsecondary Education [DOE], 2005).
The National Association for Sport and Physical Education
(NASPE) has also helped to define a “highly qualified teacher”
by developing the position paper, What Constitutes a Highly
Qualified Physical Education Teacher (2007a). “Highly qualified
physical education teachers possess the skills and knowledge to
facilitate improved teaching practices, strengthen the quality of
physical education instruction, and empower students to achieve
and maintain healthy, active lifestyles” (p. 1).
Napper-Owen, Marston,Van Volkinburg, Afeman, & Brewer
(2008) described a variety of elements that can define a highly
qualified teacher. The elements fall under one of three categories:
(a) designing and delivering the physical education program, (b)
professional development, and (c) preservice preparation.
Quality physical education is the most effective tool for
providing all children, regardless of, individual differences
and capabilities with skills, attitudes, values, knowledge, and
understanding for lifelong participation in physical activity. In
order to design and deliver a high quality physical education
program, physical educators will (a) utilize the national standards
for physical education in developing program quality, (b) align
assessment to the programs’ standards, instruction, and outcomes,
(c) exhibit those process skills (Dunkin & Biddle, 1974) and, (d)
display dispositions associated with effective teaching (p. 28).
Highly qualified teachers should be able to design K-12 physical
education programs using appropriate infrastructure (opportunity
to learn), meaningful content defined by curriculum, appropriate
instructional practices including good classroom management,
student and program assessment, and evaluation (NASPE, 2007b).
Teachers should also be able to design programs and base lessons
on national standards for K-12 physical education (NASPE, 2004a),
and establish high expectations for learning within psychomotor,
cognitive, and affective domains. They should support student
learning through the creation of an environment that is conducive
to learning and view assessment as an integral component of the
teaching-learning process (NASPE, 2007a).
Highly qualified teachers need to contribute to their schools
outside of their respective classrooms as well. For example, other
important responsibilities that help define a ‘highly qualified
teacher’ are to demonstrate professionalism and ethical behavior
in the learning environment through positive interactions with
students, colleagues, administrators, and community members.
“PETE programs are designed to facilitate preservice teachers’
progress toward being deemed ‘highly qualified’ upon entrance
into the profession” (NASPE, 2007a). PETE programs should be
accredited, based on PETE standards, and the faculty should model
passion, reflection, and dedication (Napper-Owens et al., 2008).
Physical Education Teacher Education programs should provide
preservice teachers with substantial pedagogical and content
knowledge bases; afford many opportunities for preservice
teachers to participate in an array of field experiences where
they can interact with veteran teachers and diverse students
at all grade levels while seeing the application of classroom
principles; and develop, nurture and reinforce specific
professional behaviors that facilitate student learning (NASPE,
volume 5, issue 1 3

Undergraduate PETE Programs
2007a, p.1).
NASPE acknowledges that highly qualified physical education
teachers will be certified to teach by virtue of having completed
an accredited PETE program (NASPE, 2007a). NASPE (2004b)
developed a pledge that can be used as a starting point when
forming one’s own idea of what it means to be highly qualified.
The pledge was developed to create “Positive Physical Education”
and is as follows:
•Establish a positive, safe learning environment for all
students.
•Teach a variety of physical activities that make physical
education class enjoyable.
•Create maximum opportunities for students of all abilities to
be successful.
•Promote student honesty, integrity and good sportsmanship.
•Guide students into becoming skillful and confident movers.
•Facilitate the development and maintenance of physical
fitness.
•Assist students in setting and achieving personal goals.
•Provide specific, constructive feedback to help students master
motor skills.
•Afford opportunities for students to succeed in cooperative
and competitive situations.
•Prepare and encourage students to practice skills and be active
for a lifetime.
The current state of health problems in the world suggests that
there is a need for effective and quality physical education programs
(Bulger, Housner, & Lee, 2008). These programs rely on highly
qualified teachers. Teaching K-12 physical education can be a
very challenging profession; therefore, it is imperative that higher
education institutions provide instruction and experiences that will
prepare preservice teachers to make a successful transition into the
teaching profession (Hill & Brodin, 2004).
The goal of PETE programs should be to produce highly
competent and effective K-12 teachers (Hill & Brodin, 2004).
Tinning (2002) stated that most people would agree that teacher
preparation programs should prepare preservice teachers to fulfill
the purpose that the profession considers to be the most important.
What is that purpose? “Physical education should be devoted to
optimizing the likelihood that people so value physical activity
(sport, leisure activity, fitness, and dance) that they organize their
lives so regular involvement occurs throughout the lifespan”
(Siedentop, 1994, p. 11). To help fulfill this purpose, PETE faculty
must consistently self-assess their programs based on the NASPE
Initial Beginning Physical Education Teachers standards (NASPE,
2008).
An effective way to clarify one’s belief is to compare his/her
philosophical position on curriculum with others (Bahneman,
1996). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to describe the
general profile/practices of undergraduate PETE programs and to
provide an overview of their similarities and differences among
the colleges and universities located within the Central District
(AAHPERD).
Methods
Participants
The survey participants were PETE faculty members who
4 Journal of Research
were considered the point person or program coordinator for
the undergraduate PETE program. These faculty members were
employed by four-year colleges and universities located within
the nine states in the Central District (Colorado, Iowa, Kansas,
Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota,
and Wyoming). PETE faculty were defined as those who teach
physical education teacher preparation courses and were identified
by a knowledgeable person at each specific university or college.
Overall, 72 PETE program coordinators/point persons were
selected as the potential sample for this study. In all, 44 universities
returned usable results, a rate of 58%, and surveys were returned
from all nine states. In an attempt to keep the results accurate, only
one survey was sent to each institution.
Instrument
A 61-item survey was designed to gather information regarding
the participants’ specific institution’s undergraduate PETE
program. The programmatic items included general program
demographics, student enrollment, curricular items, pre-student
teaching opportunities, and the student teaching experience. The
questions were answered in a variety of ways (multiple choice, yes/
no, and a drop down box). The survey was reviewed for readability,
and a pilot study was conducted to verify content validity.
Specific survey questions were determined after a thorough
review of PETE program research conducted by Metzler and
Freedman (1985), Metzler and Tjeerdsma (1998), and Strand
(1992). In addition, three other documents, PETE Standards
(NASPE, 2008), NASPE’s (2007a) position paper on highly
qualified physical education teachers, and an article on what
constitutes a highly qualified physical education teacher (Napper-
Owen et al., 2008) revealed common themes. Some of the
questions for this study were used in previous research and other
questions were developed to represent the common themes.
Procedures
A complete list of United States universities, colleges, and
community colleges including links to each institution’s website
can be found by using the University of Texas at Austin website
(http://www.utexas.edu/world/univ/). From the website, the user
has the option to review the schools according to type of institution
(universities or community colleges), state, or alphabetical list.
This website was used to compile a list of the possible four-year
institutions located within the Central District.
The Central District four-year institutions’ websites were
searched to identify the colleges or universities that offered a
physical education teaching degree. If the websites indicated
that the institution did offer PETE as an undergraduate major, the
specific department’s website was visited in search for names and
e-mail addresses of physical education faculty members. If no
point person or program coordinator for the PETE program could
be found on the website, phone calls were made to the department
head or administrative assistant to obtain the appropriate contact
information. If the website did not indicate whether or not a degree
was offered, follow-up e-mails were written or phone calls were
made to the admissions office.
Data collection took place in the spring of 2009 using
SurveyMonkey©, an on-line survey tool. Surveys were sent to

Undergraduate PETE Programs
PETE faculty members employed by a variety of universities and
colleges located within the American Alliance of Health, Physical
Education, Recreation and Dance’s (AAHPERD) Central District
region. A detailed consent form was provided and potential
participants were asked to read it before they proceeded to a link
to the questionnaire. By clicking on the “Yes” button of the survey,
each person gave his/her informed consent to taking the survey.
The questionnaire guaranteed anonymity. In an attempt to collect
as much usable data as possible, three separate e-mails were sent
(two weeks apart) requesting responses. There were no incentives
provided to the participants. The university Institutional Review
Board (IRB) reviewed and approved the study prior to the data
collection.
Data Analysis
The results from SurveyMonkey© were downloaded into an
Excel file where the data were cleaned and coded to ensure that
all data were accurate. Responses that included missing data and/
or appeared to be inaccurately recorded were deemed unusable;
therefore, they were removed from the data set. The coded Excel
file was then uploaded into the SPSS (version 17.0) statistical
package. Descriptive statistics such as means, percentages, and
frequencies were calculated for each of the variables.
Results
The following findings are descriptive in nature and not intended
to represent all institutions located within the Central District. The
data were organized into the following categories; program profile,
professional activity courses, skill and fitness testing, observation/
field experiences, student teaching, practical teaching experiences,
curriculum content, student professional organization involvement
and advisory boards.
Program Profile
Data indicated that the average physical education program
located within the Central District included 51.8 (SD= 32.05)
total students and graduated 11.68 (SD= 9.065) students per
year. Undergraduate physical education students were required
to complete 122.70 (SD= 13.22) credits to graduate, and were
required to maintain a minimum grade-point-average of 2.59 (2.50
and 2.75 most frequent). Nearly all of the programs (n=39; 89%)
were accredited by NCATE and/or NASPE, and used semesters as
their institution’s measure for coursework (n=43; 97%).
Professional Activity Courses
The participants were first asked to identify whether the
professional activity courses were single or multiple-credit courses.
Responses indicated that 86.4% of the professional activity courses
were offered as multiple-credit courses. Overall, the students were
required to complete an average of 8.93 credits.
Participants were also asked to identify which class format most
closely matched the one used in their professional activity courses.
The format options were categorized by age (elementary, middle
school or high school), type (individual, dual, team, and combative),
or activity (court, net, long/short implement). The most common
format indicated by the participants for the professional activity
courses was a multiple-credit course, categorized by type (45.5%,
n= 20). This was followed by multiple-credit course categorized by
age (20.5%, n=9), single credit course (13.6%, n=6), and multiplecredit
course categorized by activity (6.8%, n=3). Finally, 13.6%
(n=6) of the institutions formatted their activity courses in an
alternative format.
Skill and Fitness Testing
The third edition of the PETE standards (NASPE, 2008)
included a requirement on fitness and skill capabilities; therefore,
participants were asked if the institutions required their students
to pass skill and fitness tests either as a course requirement and/or
a graduation requirement. This survey found that 45.5% (n=20)
of the programs required their students to pass skill tests in their
courses, and 11.8% (n=5) required skill testing as a graduation
requirement. Data indicated that 20.5% (n=9) of the institutions
required students to pass fitness tests in courses and 4.5% (n=2)
required the fitness tests for graduation.
Curricular Issues
Observations/field experiences. Table 1 displays the average
number of K-12 physical education observations/field experiences
hours that PETE students were required to complete during each
respective year of school. The table also shows the average
number of hours completed at each level of education (elementary,
middle school, and high school). The findings showed that the
third year in the program appeared to contain the highest number
of observations with 31.45 total hours. The number of hours
completed at each level of education appeared to be fairly even
between the elementary level (24.73 hours) and the high school
(23.16 hours). Middle school observations averaged about 17.07
total hours.
Table 1. Observations - Hours Per Year
Hours
Range
Year
1 8.14 0-65
2 17.27 0-50
3 31.45 0-65
4/5 27.11 0-65
Education Level
Elementary 24.73 0-65
Middle School 17.07 0-50
High School 23.16 0-65
Student teaching. Student teaching experiences averaged about
14.41 weeks. Participating universities and colleges reported that
their PETE students student teach at each of the three age levels
20.5 % (n= 9) (elementary, middle school, and high school), 77.3%
(n= 34) of the programs placed their student teachers in two age
levels (primary and secondary), and 2.3% (n= 1) of the programs
required their students to student teach at the middle school level
only.
Practical teaching experiences. Practice teaching sessions
(including peer teaching and teaching in the K-12 physical
education class) are a common component of teacher preparation
programs. On average, students had the opportunity to teach to
their peers 12.75 hours (range 0-40). Undergraduate PETE students
volume 5, issue 1 5

Undergraduate PETE Programs
also had the opportunity to teach to K-12 students for about 15.02
hours (range 0-25). Overall, the students averaged 27.77 hours of
practice teaching opportunities prior to student teaching.
Curricular items included. There are a variety of curricular and
technology/equipment options that can be incorporated into PETE
programs. The survey asked participants which of the following
items were incorporated into their respective PETE programs (see
Table 2). The curricular items that were most frequently imbedded
into a program’s curriculum were the physical education national
or state standards (86.4%), curriculum models (79.5%), concepts
of fitness and wellness (75.0%), and the appropriate practices
documents (68.2%). The top three technology items used were
heart-rate monitors (72.7%), pedometers (61.4%), and FitnessGram
(56.8%).
Table 2. Percentage of Institutions that Incorporate
Curriculum Items into PETE Program
Curriculum content. The survey included a question about
curriculum content delivery (see Table 3). Based on the curricular
options listed, participants were asked to indicate how the
curriculum was delivered to the students (separately, infused/
imbedded, separately and infused, or not covered). The most
common curricular content taught in separate courses were exercise
physiology (75%), administration (61.4%), biomechanics (61.4%),
historical perspective (56.8%), adapted (56.8%), exercise science
(50%), and social psychology (50%). Curricular topics covered
separately least often were activities and materials (20.5%), fitness
education (18.2%), assessment (15.9%), technology (13.6%), and
behavior management (4.5%).
6 Journal of Research
% n=
Curricular Items
National PE Standards/State Standards 86.4 38
Curriculum Models 79.5 35
Concepts of Fitness and Wellness 75.0 33
Appropriate Practices (NASPE) 68.2 30
Assessment Series (NASPE) 40.9 18
Physical Best 38.6 17
PE Metrics: Standard 1 34.1 15
SPARK 25.0 11
President’s Council of Fitness and Sport 22.7 10
PECAT 18.2 8
Beyond Activities: Elementary and/or
Secondary 15.9 7
Opportunities to Learn Document 15.9 7
Technology/Equipment
Heart-rate Monitors 72.7 32
Pedometers 61.4 27
FitnessGram 56.8 25
ActivityGram 20.5 9
Climbing Wall 15.9 7
TriFit/MicroFit 15.9 7
Dance, Dance Revolution (DDR) 13.6 6
Sport Wall 4.5 2
HOPSports 2.3 1
Note. N=44
Table 3. Content Taught in PETE Curricucla
Separate Infused Separate Not
Course & Infused Covered
% n= % n= % n= % n=
Adapted 54.5 24 6.8 3 38.6 17 0 0
Act. & Mat. 20.5 9 45.5 20 34.1 15 0 0
Administration 61.4 27 15.9 7 18.2 8 4.5 2
Assessment 15.9 7 40.9 18 43.2 19 0 0
Behavior Mgmt 4.5 2 72.7 32 22.7 10 0 0
Biomechanics 61.4 27 11.4 5 25.0 11 2.3 1
Coaching 63.6 28 4.5 2 20.5 9 11.4 5
Methods 31.8 14 25 11 43.2 19 0 0
Exercise Science 50 22 18.2 8 22.7 10 9.1 4
Exercise Phys. 75 33 2.3 1 20.5 9 2.3 1
Fitness Education 18.2 8 47.7 21 31.8 14 2.3 1
Historical 56.8 25 25 11 15.9 7 2.3 1
Motor Dev. 36.4 16 27.3 12 34.1 15 2.3 1
Motor Learning 45.5 20 11.4 5 40.9 18 2.3 1
Social Psychology 50.0 22 22.7 10 18.2 8 9.1 4
Technology 13.6 6 52.3 23 31.8 14 2.3 1
Note. N=44
The curricular areas that were infused only included behavior
management (72.7%), technology (52.3%), fitness education
(47.7%), activities and materials (45.5%), and assessment (40.9%).
Topics with the lowest percentage infused were administration
(15.9%), motor learning (11.4%), biomechanics (11.4%), adapted
(6.8%), coaching (4.5%), and exercise physiology (2.3%).
The curricular areas that were separate and infused were
assessment (43.2%), curriculum design/methods (43.2%), motor
learning (40.9%), adapted (38.6%), activities and materials
(34.1%), motor development (34.1%), fitness education (31.8%),
and technology (31.8%). The areas that were lowest on the separate
and infused were social psychology (18.2%), administration
(18.2%), and historical perspective (15.9%).
Curricular content areas that were not covered were coaching
(11.4%), exercise science (9.1%), social psychology (9.1%),
and administration (4.5%). Five curricular areas covered by
all respondent’s institutions included adapted, activities and
materials, assessment, behavior management, and curriculum
design/methods.
Student Professional Organization Involvement
Participants were asked to identify whether the students were
required to join a professional organization and whether students
attended a professional conference within the past two years.
Findings indicated that 27.3% (n= 12) of the programs required
their students to join a professional organization and 79.5% (n=35)
gave students the opportunity to attend a conference within the
past two years.
Advisory Boards
An advisory board is a small group of K-12 physical educators
that serves as both a focus group and a liaison between higher
education and the K-12 community. Participants were asked
to indicate whether or not they believed advisory boards were
an important resource for higher education curriculum. The
participants were also asked if they had used an advisory board
within the past five years. Findings indicated that 36.4% (n=16)

Undergraduate PETE Programs
of the institutions believed that advisory boards were important
and 25% (n=11) had used an advisory board within the past five
years.
Discussion
There are a variety of key elements that may be included in
a typical physical education curriculum. The following elements
may be included, but not limited to, professional activity courses,
fitness and skill testing, curricular items, curriculum content,
observations/field experiences/student teaching, practice peer and
K-12 teaching experiences.
Findings from this study indicated that physical education
students, on average, were expected to enroll in nine credits of
professional activity courses. The third edition of the PETE
standards (NASPE, 2008) included a fitness and skill standard. It
may be interesting to note that nearly 46 percent of the programs
required their students to pass skill tests in their courses, and about
12 percent required skill testing as a graduation requirement. In
addition, about 20 percent of the institutions required students to
pass fitness tests in courses and less than five percent required the
fitness tests for graduation. It will be interesting to see how these
numbers change as the updated PETE standards (NASPE, 2008)
become a part of the accreditation process.
Technology is also a new theme imbedded into the PETE
standards (NASPE, 2008). In recent years, there have been
significant advances in the use of technology in physical education.
The most common technology/equipment items mentioned
by the participants were heart-rate monitors, pedometers, and
FitnessGram. Ayers and Housner (2008) claimed that preservice
physical education teachers need to have knowledge of the
pedagogical applications of technology; however, less than 12%
(Liang, Walls, Hicks, Clayton, & Yang, 2006) of PETE students
believed they were fluent. Perhaps the PETE programs should
assess the quality and quantity of technological applications so the
students could feel more confident bringing technology into their
K-12 classes.
It is incumbent upon teacher educators to identify the most
pedagogically relevant knowledge in the academic disciplines
and to provide preservice physical educators with teaching and
learning experiences that demonstrate the connections between the
knowledge from various academic disciplines and its relevance to
professional practice (Bulger, Housner, & Lee, 2008).
“In an ideal world, PETE programs would provide prospective
teachers with subject-matter knowledge related to the physiology,
anatomy, and neuromuscular structures of the body, and an
understanding of how these systems respond and adapt to physical
activity” (Bulger, Housner, & Lee, 2008, p. 44). The data indicated
that most of the programs that participated in the study are, indeed,
covering these topics.
Based on the findings from this study, one could question
the delivery choice of certain curricular items. For example, if
a curricular area was solely “infused” into curriculums (verses
offered in a separate course), would that choice of delivery affect
the preservice teacher’s perception of the importance of the
information? Or, if a topic is taught only in a separate course (and
not infused throughout the curriculum) does that choice of delivery
matter to the students? Ross (1987) believed that universities
and institutions do have a profound effect on the value systems
of students based on the curriculum to which those students are
exposed. So, the question emerges, if certain curricular topics
such as behavior management or assessment are not taught, at
minimum, in a discrete course, are the students less likely to value
those topics? Or if topics are taught earlier in the curriculum, and
not reviewed or infused in higher-level courses, are students less
likely to value those areas?
Some institutions offer courses taught by professors who are not
physical education specialists. In fact, they may be non-teacher
educators and/or influenced little by PETE faculty regarding
both course content and instructional methods (Verner, 1991).
While certain disciplinary specialists may have a more complete
understanding of the involved subject matter and knowledge, they
may lack the ability to apply the essential pedagogical concepts
that will enable preservice physical educators to apply the content
in physical activity promotion settings (Bulger et al., 2008). The
survey indicated that the curriculum content areas most often
taught as separate courses (!60%) were administration, coaching,
biomechanics, and exercise physiology.
“As previously described, PETE programs need to employ
course content, instructional methods, and teaching-learning
environments that enable students to make explicit connections
between the various disciplines and best practices in teaching
physical education” (Bulger et al., 2008).
It is apparent that the capacity of a PETE curriculum to
positively affect the preservice socialization of prospective
physical educators is significantly related to the overall
quality of that curriculum. Strong, individual curricular
components are insufficient to insure curricular quality. All
segments of the curriculum must operate well in a coordinated
manner (Weigand, Bulger, & Mohr, 2004, p. 53).
It appears as though biomechanics and exercise physiology are
not typically being infused into subsequent courses.
The previously mentioned study by Collier and Hebert
(2004) found that K-12 in-service teachers believed that “…
Pre-professional preparation faculty must closely examine the
curricular opportunities afforded pre-professionals with respect to
exposure to lifetime activities, physical and health-related fitness,
behavior management, and classroom organization” (p. 111).
These K-12 teachers were asking for greater emphasis to be place
on the aforementioned curricular areas. The results of the current
study paralleled the request of the K-12 teachers in Collier and
Hebert’s study (2004).
In the current study, results indicated that Central District
preservice teachers typically had the opportunity to teach to their
peers for about 13 hours and teach in actual K-12 settings for
about 15 hours. Overall, the students averaged nearly 28 hours of
teaching opportunities prior to student teaching.
Field experiences are not limited exclusively to student teaching
(Ayers & Housner, 2008); they can happen any time throughout the
PETE program. Observations and field experiences in which the
preservice teacher has the opportunity to observe and participate in
authentic K-12 physical education experiences are crucial to their
preparation. Professionals teaching teacher preparation courses
and in-service teachers believe that it is important to integrate the
preservice teachers into the K-12 system and allow them early
volume 5, issue 1 7

Undergraduate PETE Programs
teaching experiences (O’Sullivan, 1990). Collier and Hebert (2004)
stated that pre-professional programs must specifically analyze
the depth and breadth of opportunities afforded students to work
directly with children in well-supervised practicum settings. “The
opportunity to apply theory to practice and receive appropriate
feedback from faculty, cooperating teachers, peers, and children
allows for individual growth and ultimately, growth within the
profession” (p.111). It is important to note that over the last 20
years, there has been an increase in the amount of time preservice
teachers have spent in K-12 physical education classes (Ayers &
Housner, 2008; Nixon & Vendien, 1985; Tannehill & Zakrajsek,
1988). However, Dodds (1989) believed that simply placing the
student into the K-12 system is not enough and recommended that
field experiences should be progressive, increasingly complex,
sequential, and well timed.
Assuming that the preservice students are imbedded in their
primary pedagogy courses by their third year, it should not
be surprising that the findings showed that the third year in the
program appears to contain the highest number of observations/
field experiences with slightly more than 31 total hours.
A positive note is that 97% of programs had their preservice
students in observations/field experiences at some point during
their preservice preparation. It should be noted that half of the
programs had their students in a practicum experience in their first
year, 86% during the second year, 97% during the third year, and
81% during the final year in the program. In addition, 89% of the
preservice students had the opportunity to teach to K-12 students
prior to student teaching. These numbers appear to be much
higher than those in previous studies; however, if PETE faculty are
authentically preparing preservice teachers, every program should
include some type of practicum experience during each year of
their preservice preparation.
In addition, in-service teachers had the opportunity to share
their anecdotal information on preparing tomorrow’s physical
educators in the Physical Education News (Jeffries, 2008). The
following are some of the comments found on the website.
“Students need authentic experiences such as: site visits to observe
effective teachers, interactions with quality teachers, opportunities
to field test lesson plans, opportunities to learn about and design
differentiated curriculum based on interactions with actual school
age student.” “Young college students are sometimes unsure if
physical education is for them. If you require these students to
help with physical education classes, they will learn quickly if
this is for them or not. Have the students participate with young
students, help demonstrate, help keep control of the classes, etc.”
Even if students start their respective programs with a fairly
good idea of the grade level they would like to teach, exposing
them to all age levels should increase the chance that the students
would consider the possibility of teaching at other age levels as
well. Data showed that the number of hours completed at each
level of education appeared to be balanced between elementary
and high school hours. Middle school field experiences averaged
about five hours less than the hours spent at elementary and high
school levels.
Student-teaching experiences averaged about 14 weeks and
the majority of the institutions placed students at two age levels—
elementary and secondary. An important area to note is that over
8 Journal of Research
20 percent of the programs placed their students at each of the
three age levels (i.e. elementary, middle school, and high school).
A contemporary approach to student teaching was presented
by Wiegand, Bulger, and Mohr (2004). Generally speaking,
student teaching is viewed as the culminating experience, but that
placement in the curriculum may not afford the PETE student the
opportunity to adequately reflect upon the lessons learned during
student teaching with their peers and college supervisor. The
authors suggested two options for improving the traditional student
teaching model. In short, both options would change the order in
which student teaching would occur and they would attempt to
“bridge the gap” between the student teaching experiences and
best practice. The first option would entail adding a capstone class
to follow the student teaching experience. The second involved
dividing the student teaching experience into two parts. The first
part would be designed as a five-week block following the majority
of the pedagogy courses. The second part would be designed as a
capstone experience following all of the student’s coursework.
Harrison and Blakemore (1992) stated that joining and getting
involved in the state and national associations helps preservice
and in-service teachers become true professionals. Professional
development is an important element in keeping in-service teachers
current, aware of trends, and involved in leadership roles (Chen,
2006). Professionals are identified by their socializations into
membership and their organizations (Morocco & Solomon, 1999).
However, research has shown that very few beginning teachers
actually attend these professional development opportunities
(Harrison & Blakemore, 1992).
Another perspective is that K-12 in-service teachers have become
out of touch with the current trends related to physical education
research. Regardless of which perspective is right, there does seem
to be some disconnect between what K-12 physical educators and
college professors believe to be the most effective and achievable
curriculum. A positive recent development is the increased
collaboration of K-12 teachers and teacher preparation professors
(Metzler & Tjeerdsma, 2000; Strand, Anderson, & Reeder, 1996;
Van der Mars as cited in Collier & Hebert, 2004). Two possible
suggestions to minimize this “disconnection” include university/
college professors continually supervising student teachers and
utilizing an advisory board. A survey question relating to advisory
boards showed that only 36% believed that advisory boards were
actually important, and only 25% of PETE programs have used
an advisory board within the last five years. Though these two
suggestions may not completely solve this disconnect, they may
help bridge the gap and improve the communication between the
two groups.
Summary
The study attempted to describe the content of undergraduate
PETE programs based on a general program profile, curricular
items, field experiences, and professional involvement/
development. Overall, the goal was to provide an overview of
many key elements of PETE programs that would allow readers
to compare their program offerings with others in a similar
geographic area. Another goal was to encourage institutions to
assess, and therefore improve the preparation of future physical
education professionals.

Undergraduate PETE Programs
Possible areas of further study include surveying and comparing
other PETE programs internationally. One could also research
one or more specific areas of study (e.g., student teaching and/or
capstone experiences or pedagogical content knowledge for specific
courses) and investigate how institutions relay this information to
preservice teachers.
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volume 5, issue 1 9

The Web Quest: Its Impact on Developing
Teaching Skills of Physical Education Student
Teachers
by Haythem Abdel Mageed Mohamed & Rasha Nageh Ali Abd El
Rheem, Faculty of Physical Education, Minia University, Egypt
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the extent to which
the use of WebQuests would impact the teaching performance of
the physical education (PE) teacher candidates enrolled in Minia
University. Twenty-eight, third-year teacher candidates were
involved in the study (N=28) and were randomly divided into
two groups: a control and experimental (14 teacher candidates
each). A teaching practice observation sheet was used to assess the
teaching performance of the participants. Results indicated that the
experimental group, or the participants who used the WebQuest
to learn the teaching skills, achieved significantly higher levels in
their teaching performance than did the control group, or those
who were instructed using the traditional methods of modeling and
lecturing. A discussion of the possible reasons for this difference
and practical implications of this study on using WebQuests in
teacher preparation programs are included.
Key words: Teacher Preparation Programs
Introduction
The WebQuest model was created as a tool for integrating
Internet use into classroom activities. The WebQest asks young
people to use the Internet to learn about an issue and apply that
knowledge to attitudes and to enhance their own environments
or future orientations (Abbit & Ophus, 2008). The developers
of the WebQuest, Bernie Dodge and Tom March, have written
widely about the technique, suggesting that it is a synthesis of
inquiry methods, cooperative learning, problem-based learning,
constructivism, and technology integration. While each of the
foundational practices has its own body of research, there is limited
research about the WebQuest model itself (Dodge, 1998; March,
2000).
WebQuests were originally created by Dodge in 1995, during
the early stages of widespread Internet access. With the increase
in Internet access in university labs, he began to experiment with
effective ways to integrate technology into classroom instruction.
As Dodge developed activities for pre-service teachers, “he
launched the WebQuest, arguably the most popular approach for
integrating the Web in classroom learning” (Gorghiu, Gorghiul,
González & de la Santa, 2005; Strickland, 2005).
WebQuest came out as one of the buzz terms that emerged in the
last 15 years in multiple fields of education and teacher education
alike as they are used to achieve the best use of learners' time,
knowledge acquisition and integration and extending and refining
knowledge. After working with a WebQuest, learners will have
grappled with a significant amount of new information and made
sense of it. WebQuests help the participants in meeting standards
concentrated on both critical-thinking and analysis skills. Based on
ideas of inquiry and constructivism, WebQuests involve cooperative
learning, with students having to work on projects in groups. In
10 Journal of Research
addition, there is a strong connection between WebQuests and
multimedia techniques, which leads to an important opportunity
for using the Internet in education.
Williams (2004) asserted that WebQests promote good
instructional practice in many ways. They provide structure and
guidance for the students and instructors. WebQuests also help
focus students' attention on the provided resources, rather than
having students search for them. And they are linked to a variety
of positive affective outcomes, such as motivation, increased level
of engagement, positive attitudes, and decreased anxiety.
Many researchers have attempted to define WebQuests but
Dodge, the parent of the WebQuest, made the essential description
of the technique. He defined a WebQuest as "an inquiry-oriented
activity in which some or all of the information that learners
interact with comes from resources on the Internet." Learners
gather information, analyze a body of knowledge, transform it
in some way into new understandings and demonstrate in-depth
understanding of the material by creating a final product that others
can react or respond to (Milson & Downey, 2001; Strickland,
2005).
There are different types of WebQuests, taking the form of
mystery tasks, retelling of a situation, problem solving, or judgment
decisions. All types of WebQuests share the same optimal goal;
they aim at structuring and directing higher-order learning using
computers. In a WebQuest the learner must interact with the new
knowledge to formulate a new hypothesis or to create a new artifact
for which the use of computers is essential (Williams, 2004).
WebQuests also share the same structure as they all follow a
template design of (introduction, task, sources of information,
process, evaluation and conclusion). The introduction describes the
topic and purpose of the WebQuest, provides necessary background
information and catches the readers' attention to draw them into
the quest. The Task explains to the students what they are going to
do in the activity, the final performance or product and the tools to
be used. The Process describes the steps for completing the tasks.
The resources provide the students with the necessary resources
to complete the tasks and websites. The Evaluation describes to
the students how their performance or products will be evaluated
and displays a rubric to measure the product as objectively as
possible. The Conclusion wraps up the activity, summarizing
what the students have accomplished during the WebQuest in a
short paragraph. Additional links or questions can be included to
encourage students to extend their thinking beyond the WebQuest
(Dodge, 2008; Kelly, 2000).
Recently, teacher educators have applied the WebQuest model
with preservice teachers in order to develop technology integration
skills akin to those used in everyday schools. Scaffolding, used to
support the gradual acquisition of knowledge and skills, may help
preservice teachers to better understand the underlying assumptions
and assess the feas ibility of WebQuests for their teaching (Wang
& Hannafin, 2008).

The Web Quest
Purpose of the Study
Traditional teacher preparation programs tend to operate from
a subject base. The aim is to help practitioners to improve subject
knowledge and expertise. Support is offered by a subject adviser
- then practitioners implement the advice and the advisor evaluates
the outcomes. Jarvis (1992) asserted that student teachers need
advanced strategies that move beyond mere practices. Support for
professional development through using the ‘WebQuest technique’
builds on a model of learning, where practitioners are challenged
to find new ways of locating information and of integrating
technology in education.
The purpose of this study was to compare the WebQuest
technique to the traditional techniques used in teacher preparation
institutions in enhancing preservice teachers' teaching skills. The
WebQuest technique was administered to a sample of third-year PE
teacher candidates enrolled in Minia University, Egypt to enhance
their teaching skills.
Methods
Approach to the Problem
The present study utilized a randomized experimental design in
order to examine the hypotheses and research question. Trochim
(2006) asserts that when random assignment is used, the design
is called a randomized experiment or true experiment. Thomas
& Nelson (2001) assert that the experimental design allows the
researcher to gain insight into the methods of instruction, to have
control over the variables and to determine what is best for the
population. The specific approach utilized for this study was the
pre-post two groups design.
The Participants and Research Setting
The population for this study included 28 third-year PE teacher
candidates enrolled in Minia University during the first semester.
Participants in both groups ranged in age from 19 to 20 years old
and they were all males.
Third-year teacher candidates were chosen because they start
their school placement and find it difficult to adapt with their
first encounter with real teaching situations. In the traditional
instructional methods of preparing these teacher candidates,
they watch models, study available materials on the teaching
skills, teach exactly the same way they were taught with limited
improvisations, and wait for feedback. They need to be trained in
a way that allows them to find the knowledge themselves, assess
their own practices, and identify their weaknesses and strengths.
During the experiment period, the PE teacher candidates in
the two groups studied the three major teaching skills (planning,
implementation and evaluation) and how to apply these three
skills in any PE class with all its stages of presentation (warmup,
physical preparation and basic skills). The experimental group
surfed the WebQuest to find information on such skills with the
instructor (the senior researcher, a lecturer within the faculty of
PE, Minia University) monitoring and offering help when needed.
They also went through the five cycles of the WebQuest (See
Procedures, p.7-9). Participants in the control group, on the other
hand, were lectured on these skills by their instructor (the coauthor,
a lecturer at the faculty of PE, Minia University), watched
her modeling the skills, and finally peer-taught a model lesson of
their own preparation.
The experiment lasted for three months from February to
May, 2008, with two lectures a week for each group (a total of 21
sessions). The time assigned for each session was (120 min.) to
simulate the pre-scheduled timetable set by the college regulations.
One session was devoted to the orientation at the beginning of the
program. The other 20 sessions were divided into 5 major cycles
representing the five lessons provided in the WebQuest (each
consisting of 4 successive sessions).
Instrument
To measure teacher candidates' teaching performance,
the investigators adopted a 70-item observation sheet from a
previous study (Azmy & Mohamed, 2006). The teaching practice
observation sheet consists of three main dimensions representing
the three major teaching skills addressed by the researchers (see
Appendix 1); including planning skills (16 items), implementation
skills (46 items), and evaluation skills (8 items).
A three-point scale was used as a coding system for weighing
each statement (1=Never; 2=Sometimes; 3= Always). Giving
'Always' a maximum score of 3 marks, the maximum score of the
first dimension (with a total number of 16 items) was 16 x 3 = 48,
that of the second dimension (with a total number of 46 items) was
46 x 3=138, and that of the third dimension (with a total number
of 8 items) was 8 x 3= 24. A Cronbach's Alpha for reliability was
conducted for each dimension in the sheet. The Cronbach alpha
coefficients for dimensions 1 through 3 were between .93 and .98,
indicating satisfactory levels of reliability.
The Pearson Correlation Formula was also used to determine
the inter-rater reliability of the observation sheet by administering
the observation sheet to a randomly chosen sample of 20 fourth
year PE teacher candidates in the Faculty of Physical Education,
Minia University. The teaching performance of these participants
was videotaped and two lecturers at the same university observed
these videotapes and rated their performance using the observation
sheet. The mean scores obtained by the two observers were
calculated and the correlation coefficient was (0.97) which was
considered acceptable.
Data Analysis
The Teaching Practice Observation Sheet (Azmy & Mohamed,
2006) was administered again to determine the extent to which
participants exhibited a change in the peer-teaching performance
following the intervention period. Posttest scores were obtained for
each participant of the two groups; each participant was videotaped
again while teaching one model PE class in the University sports
hall and the three judges observed these videotapes and rated their
performance. Independent t-tests were used to analyze the extent
to which there were statistically significant differences between
pretest and posttest scores for the addressed two variables. The
effects of the dependent variables were considered statistically
significant at p

The Web Quest
control (14 participants each). They were instructed by the two
researchers; one for the experimental group using the WebQuest
technique, and the other for the control group using the conventional
methods of instruction (e.g. lecturing and modeling). Participants
in the regular classes listened to the instructor's lecture, took notes,
watched the instructor modeling, participated in discussions on the
given teaching skills, and taught a mini-class as an application.
Pretest scores for the observation sheet (Azmy & Mohamed,
2006) were obtained for each participant of the two groups to
identify their level of performance considering the three target
teaching skills before being exposed to the treatment intervention;
each participant was videotaped while teaching one model PE
class in the university sports hall. Three external judges (experts
in PE curriculum and instruction) observed the videotapes, rated
their performance using the observation sheet two times for each
participant (once for the pre-measurement and the other for the post
one), and the average was calculated from the three obtained raw
scores of the judges giving a total of two scores for each participant
(one for the pre and one for the post) to ensure objectivity of the
evaluation process.
The instructor who taught the experimental group utilized a fivecycle
intervention. Before going through the five successive cycles,
he started with an orientation session at the very beginning of the
program in which he provided a brief theoretical background on
the WebQuest. He also explained why they are using the Internet,
how to surf for the WebQuest and when and how to ask for help
from the instructor. A random selection divided the experimental
participants into three sub-groups.
The students then went through the five WebQuest Cycles; in
each cycle, participants were required to choose one lesson from
the WebQuest and prepare a lesson plan to peer-teach at the end of
the cycle. The suggested five lessons incorporated different types
of warm-up, physical preparation and basic skills and participants
who were surfing the WebQuest were required to choose one of
them with all its components for their peer-teaching. Each cycle
consisted of four successive sessions. The task for each group was
changed among cycles switching the three target teaching skills
among the groups giving the PE candidate teachers the opportunity
to choose from among the different exercises that can be employed
in applying these skills. Figure 1 depicts the four sessions of
implementing each WebQuest cycle (Insert Figure 1 here) They
can be briefed as follows:
Session (1)
Session (2)
Teamwork
Session (3)
Exchanging of Information
Session (4)
12 Journal of Research
Session 1: Surfing the WebQuest (120 min)
In the first session of each cycle, participants of the
experimental group used the university lab to surf the Internet
through the WebQuest. They read through the general instructions
on the required mission for each group; each group had to gather
information about one teaching skill from the Internet (planning,
implementation or evaluation). They also read through the
evaluation rubric to identify their level of performance. Then, they
used the available resources to find the required information on the
target skill.
Session 2: Teamwork (120 min)
Teacher candidates teamed up in their sub-groups and shared
the information they retrieved among themselves. They exchanged
and reconstructed the information about the one target skill assigned
for each group and finally came up with an idea on how to present
their assigned skill to the members of the other two groups.
Session 3: Exchanging of Information (120 min)
Members of the three groups sat together in one big circle to
exchange the information they retrieved about the three major
teaching skills. At the end, they chose one lesson from the suggested
ones in the WebQuest to peer-teach in the next session in the sports
hall. They also chose one student from each group to teach (a total
of three students, one for each stage of presentation).
Session 4: Teaching and Feedback (120 min)
In this final session of each cycle, the three chosen teacher
candidates presented their planned lessons (in 90 min.); one student
prepared and arranged the equipment for the class, one taught the
lesson and one did the evaluation stage of presentation. At the end
of this session, a post conference was held with all members (30
min.) in which they all sat in one big circle with the instructor in
the middle. They assessed the teaching performance of their mates
on the basis of the WebQuest's evaluation rubric.
Results
Analysis of the collected data on the participants revealed
improved scores in all domains of the observation sheet. A
paired samples t test revealed a statistically reliable difference
between the mean scores for the experimental group in the preperformance
in the planning, implementation and evaluation skills
(M=21.93; M=65.43; M=12.21) and in the post-performance on
the observation sheet (M=40.79, M=126.64; M=18.79), t=30.92,
p=0.000; t=42.91, p=0.000; t=14.12, p=0.000, respectively (see
Table 1).
Table 1. Differences between the Pre-post Measurements
of the Teaching Practice Observation Sheet for the
Experimental Group
Pre
Post
Teaching
skills Mean SD. Mean SD. t Sig.
Lesson
Planning
21.93 1.21 40.79 1.67 30.92 0.000
Implementation
65.43 3.99 126.64 5.03 42.91 0.000
Evaluation 12.07 1.31 20.71 1.05 18.16 0.000
*P

The Web Quest
Findings on the control group also revealed a statistically
reliable difference between the mean scores in the preperformance
in the planning, implementation and evaluation skills
(M=21.71; M=65.14; M=12.07) and in the post-performance on
the observation sheet (M=37.64, M=114.21; M=20.71), t=27.99,
p=0.000; t=33.40, p=0.000; t=18.16, p=0.000, respectively, (see
Table 2).
Table 2. Differences between the Pre-post Measurements
of the Teaching Practice Observation Sheet for the
Control Group
*P

The Web Quest
solving and creative skills in a manner that assured their direct
involvement both in locating and practicing the intended knowledge.
Thus, learners had the upper hand in controlling their learning
environment, which increased the effectiveness of the teachinglearning
process. The post conference that was held after the actual
teaching of the student teachers also had a positive impact on the
teaching performance of the subjects of the experimental group.
It paved the way for better self, peer, and teacher assessment as
all the participants together with the instructor himself were
given mutual opportunities to give feedback and exchange views
and suggestions for a better presentation of the target lesson. It
also helped in revealing their points of weaknesses and points of
strengths that provided learners with an extra eye to view their
teaching skills, which is rarely found in the traditional methods
of instruction. These findings suggest the effectiveness of the
WebQuest technique in enhancing the teaching performance of PE
teacher candidates.
With the current call for new and effective trends in the field
of teacher preparation programs that is being evidenced across the
Egyptian environment, findings such as the ones in this research
study are very promising to PE instructors who are in constant
search for integrating Internet technology in their instruction to
maximize the learning outcomes of their learners.
Finally, this study supports the notion that the WebQuest can
be effectively employed in teacher preparation programs and can
result in better learning outcomes when it is properly designed,
implemented and monitored.
Practical Implications
This study serves to demonstrate the practicality of incorporating
WebQuests into the teacher preparation programs in the faculties
of physical education. The procedures followed in this study
can be successfully incorporated into the methodology sessions
addressing different teaching skills and sub-skills. The WebQuest
can also be modified according to the nature of each sport presenting
various models of how to: plan for a PE class, manage the class,
and evaluate the outcomes of the students. Additional research
into the WebQuest model is needed. The WebQuest should also
be evaluated in various subject areas with learners of differing age
groups and academic abilities.
References
Abbit, J., & Ophus, J. (2008). What we know about the impact of Web-
Quests: A review of research. AACE Journal, 16(4), 441-456.
Azmi, E., & Mohamed, H. A. (2006, September). The effect of an
educational program using the virtual reality technology on developing
some teaching skills of the student teacher in the department of
teaching, Faculty of Physical Education, Minia University. The
Scientific Journal of Physical & Sports Education, Helwan University,
48, 239-279.
Dodge, B. (1998). WebQuests: A strategy for scaffolding higher level
thinking. Retrieved from http://webquest.sdsu.edu/necc98.htm
Dodge, B. (2008). A webquest about webquests: Middle school/high school
version. Retrieved from: http://webquest.sdsu.edu/webquestwebquesths.html
Gorghiu, G., Gorghiul, L., González, V. R., & de la Santa, A. G. (2005).
WebQuest in the classroom – analysis of its impact. Paper presented
at The International Conference on Multimedia and ICT Education
(from 22nd-24th April, 2009). Lisbon, Portugal. Retrieved from: www.
formatex.org/micte2009/
14 Journal of Research
Hassanien, A. (2006, July). An evaluation of the webquest as a computerbased
learning tool. Research in Post-Compulsory Education, 11 (2),
235 - 250
Jarvis, J. (1992, April). Using diaries for teacher reflection on in-service
course. ELT Journal, 46 (2), 133-143.
Kelly, R. (2000, July/August). Working with WebQuests: Making the web
accessible to students with disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children,
32 (6), 4-13.
March, T. (2000). WebQuests 101. Multimedia Schools, 7 (5), 55-56, 58.
Milson, A. J., & Downey, P. (2001). WebQuest: Using Internet resources
for cooperative inquiry. Social Education, 65(3), 144-146
Strickland, J. (2005). Using webquests to teach content: Comparing
instructional strategies. Contemporary Issues in Technology and
Teacher Education, 5(2), 138-148.
Thomas, J. R. & Nelson, J. K. (2001). Research methods in physical
activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 3-24.
Trochim, W. M.K. (2006). Research methods knowledge base. Web
Center for Social Research Methods. Retrieved from: http://www.
socialresearchmethods.net/kb/destypes.php
Wang, F., & Hannafin, M. J. (2008, March). Integrating WebQuests in
preservice teacher education. Educational Media International, 45(1),
59 – 73.
Williams, F. A. (2004). Voicing diversity: How can I integrate webquests
and moodle into religious education at second level? A Thesis submitted
for the master degree in education. School of Education, DCU.
N
Appendix (1) The Teaching Practice Observation Sheet
Statement
I. Lesson Planning Skills.
1 Lesson objectives are clearly stated.
2 Objectives are behavioral, observable and
measurable.
3 Objectives suit the level of maturity of students.
4 Levels of learning for each area of the lesson
objectives are clear and specific.
5 Place of the lesson is well-equipped in a way
that allows the implementation of the activities
of the lesson.
6 The content (description of the desired
performance and the learning stages) is
formulated in a clear manner that suits students'
age level.
7 Evaluation techniques that assess the achievement
of the objectives are specific.
8 The educational resources used by faculty to
increase the effectiveness of teaching are
mentioned clearly.
9 The alternative tools mentioned suit the designed
activities, students' number and their level.
10 Lesson formations suit the designed activities.
11 The chosen method of teaching is specified in a
manner that suits the educational situation.
12 The educational content of activities (steps) takes
into consideration logic implementation (according
to the logical and psychological organization).
13 The content of the activities suit the instructional time.
14 Activities for students with specific needs are stated in
the lesson.
15 The activities suit the weather.
16 The lesson contains a variety of activities that create
learning situations to develop students' values and
sports culture.
Always
Sometimes
Never

The Web Quest
N
Statement
Always
Sometimes
Never
N
Statement
Always
Sometimes
Never
II. The Implementation Skills
1 Escort students from class to the field.
2 Finishes the administrative work on time so as not to
affect the actual time of other parts of the lesson.
3 Begins the actual performance of the lesson at the
beginning of the period.
4 Follows the regulative methods\Keeps order while
assigning activities.
5 The warm-up activities suit the objectives put for them.
6 Models and performs the skill effectively and precisely
in a way that suits students' age level.
7 The alternative tools used are appropriate for learning
motor skills.
8 The available formation suites the learning style of the
motor skill.
9 Provides students with opportunities to guess.
10 Stands where all students can easily see.
11 Creates opportunities for application to make the most
of his instructional time.
12 Uses equipments appropriately in a way that helps
students learn motor skills effectively.
13 Avoids long pauses during the implementation of the
lesson.
14 Takes into consideration the principles of teaching
motor skills while presenting the target skill.
15 Carries out formations in an aesthetic manner.
16 Smoothly moves among activities without having to
stop as if the lesson is a total unit.
17 Demonstrates mastery in manipulating the aiding
media sets.
18 Specifies an organizational method in distributing
tools among students.
19 Determines the location of students' entry onto the
court to guarantee the principle of security and safety.
20 Moves through and among students during the
implementation of the activities in a way that allows
him to note the performance of each student.
21 Speaks in a clear and expressive manner so that all
students hear him\her.
22 Uses the appropriate reinforcement techniques that
encourage students' performance.
23 Sticks to the prepared lesson plan.
24 Properly uses the whistle when needed.
25 Makes good use of the spaces and gaps in the court
taking into account safety and security factors.
26 Distributes his attention among all students during the
implementation of the lesson.
27 Always there for the students while performing a
difficult skill that might be dangerous for them.
28 Vary his voice pitch according to the learning situation.
29 Demonstrates effective body gestures or facial
expressions to draw the attention of his\her students.
30 Establishes a good rapport and an effective interaction
and communication with the students.
31 Uses proper and well-mannered expressions to
speak with the students.
32 Encourages behaved behaviors of students.
33 Motivates students to participate in the activities of
the lesson.
34 Shows sharpness and firmness in both observing and
managing different learning situations.
35 Provides students with some educational situations
that develop their personal qualities and values.
36 Focuses on the previous educational experiences and
makes use of them in teaching the new intended
educational experiences.
37 Takes into consideration the individual differences
among students during the implementation of the
activities.
38 Employs the surrounding environment for the
implementation of the activities.
39 Uses modern teaching techniques that provide
opportunities for students to self-assess their
performance.
40 Varies his\her teaching techniques to avoid boredom.
41 Capable of demonstrating high self-control towards
the popping up of situations.
42 Utilizes exercises correctly and in accordance with
the rules.
43 Presents the material according to the level of each
learner.
44 Maximizes time-on-task for practicing different skills,
taking into account the performance and rest periods.
45 Creates opportunities for students' innovation and
creativity through the competitive nature of the
activities.
46 Is organized in collecting tools and equipment
immediately after the lesson and before students
leave the court.
III. The Evaluation Skill
47 Uses the appropriate evaluation techniques to
measure the objectives.
48 Uses a variety of evaluation techniques
(e.g. Observation Sheets and Level of performance
records).
49 Discovers individual and group mistakes and
corrects them immediately.
50 Provides opportunities for peer-assessment so that
students evaluate each others' performance.
51 Comprehensive evaluation of the lesson objectives to
include cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.
52 Capable of diagnosing students with learning
difficulties.
53 Keeps reports on his\her students' level of
performance for future diagnosis and assessment.
54 Evaluates each phase of the lesson after finishing
its presentation.
!
volume 5, issue 1 15

Podcasting in Physical Education
Teacher Education
by Mike McNeill, Swarup Mukherjee & Gurmit Singh, National
Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore
Abstract
This paper assesses the role of podcasting in a postgraduate
physical education teacher education (PETE) program. Twice
weekly podcasts reflecting student teachers’ participation in
a games education module were made available shortly after
instruction. Podcasting was used to enhance the social, emotional
and pedagogical dimensions of games for these students. After 12
weeks of instruction, feedback on the intervention was provided
through completion of a short survey. The survey was followed by
a focus group interview involving a randomly selected group of six.
Findings revealed that the majority rated podcasts highly in terms
of being educationally helpful, conceptually enriching, and ‘worth
looking forward to’. Postgraduates also suggested that podcasting
substantially supported preparing for tests and examinations,
strengthened the teacher-student relationship, and had the potential
to develop the physical education (PE) curriculum in schools. The
preliminary results for games learning in PE were promising.
Key words: ICT, pedagogy, game-play
As Information Communication Technology (ICT) takes an
ever increasing role in our everyday lives, educators are challenged
to make this a reality in the pedagogy of the 21st Century. Can
Physical Education (PE) afford to avoid making this leap of faith,
is a question that confronts the profession. While students become
more internet savvy in their day-to-day existence, PE has to grapple
with such technological advances to maintain its relevance in
their lives. How can technological advances be achieved without
compromising the key domains of fitness, performance and sport?
Several internet facilities such as online discussion boards
that involve discourse analysis, assignment drop-boxes, and the
role of urls for selecting appropriate websites are familiar ways
of enhancing Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE).
However, these technologies may not be going far enough!
Although some research on the role of ICT in education has been
published (Abt & Barry, 2007; Campbell, 2005; Lazzari, 2009;
Malan, 2007), a literature search revealed that little has been
conducted in the domain of PE.
Of the many technological resources available, podcasting has
emerged as a teaching and learning tool that is easy to deliver and
has the convenience of access. However, the related literature
suggests some ambiguity about the efficacy of podcasting. On
one hand podcasts were seen as unpopular (Cann, 2007), without
significantly affecting learning (Abt & Barry, 2007; Deal, 2007),
while on the other they were reported to be supportive (Evans, 2007;
Malan, 2007). Evans and Malan claimed that students’ feedback
was more enthusiastic about this medium than traditional methods
and Kutz, Fenwick, and Ellsworth (2007) stated that final grades
improved significantly. As it is common knowledge that students
learn in different ways, the auditory experience of podcasting
offers another avenue for learning (Honey & Mumford, 2006).
Therefore, the purpose of this study was to explore and evaluate
the social, emotional and pedagogical efficacy of podcasting as a
potential enhancement for PE in teacher education.
Podcasting was added on top of all the normal pedagogical
deliverables (such as lesson notes, lesson discussion and debriefing)
in a foundation course called ‘Principles of Games’. The course
promoted an understanding of tactical awareness through a variety
of different game-play experiences for student teachers to translate
into suitable content for pupils in schools. Aspects of curriculum
models such as Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU: Thorpe
& Bunker, 1986), Game Sense (den Duyn, 1997), Games Concept
Approach (GCA: CPDD, 1999), Play-practice (Launder, 2001)
and Sport Education (Siedentop, Hastie & van der Mars, 2004)
were introduced to a new cohort of PE professionals.
Principles of play, as well as creatively designed packages for
invasion clusters, were experienced by the student teachers with the
average child in mind. In the ‘Developmental Hockey’ component,
for example, a range of options from deck hockey (using dusters
and quoits) to puckball (a fusion of ice hockey and floorball played
on an indoor wooden court) and culminating with field hockey
allowed students to experience a much wider range of activity
and game play within a hockey cluster. Similarly, ‘Developmental
Rugby’ explored variants of the code through sogger (a mixture of
rugby and soccer), buntball (a fusion of Speedball with modified
Aussie Rules), and ended with touch rugby. Whereas the ‘hockey’
exposure featured small-sidedness as an important pedagogical
feature, the ‘rugby’ experience used larger numbers, but included
several balls simultaneously in play. Sogger, for example,
began with nine balls (eight soccer and one rugby), and reduced
incrementally to three rugby balls, then one.
A 2009 Nielsen Media Index survey (The Media Group, 2009)
of internet behaviors declared that “Singaporeans are [sic] more
wired up than ever,” especially Generation Y, whose age range
(15-29) covers the majority of the participants involved in this
study. Nielsen reported that 53% of Generation Y participated
in social networking portals, such as podcasts, compared to 20%
of generation X (30-44 years old). This statistic indicated a good
match between the internet behavior of the postgraduates in the
study and the technology being evaluated.
Method
Podcast – the Instrument
A 36-hour foundation course, Principles of Games, was taught
twice a week with a single and a double hour combination of
intensely practical lessons. After each lesson, a podcast was
generated using a script of the salient pedagogical features that
were implemented, discussed or alluded to in class. The script was
enhanced with commentary based on the teacher’s observations of
16 Journal of Research

Podcasting in PETE
individual as well as group performance or critical incidents that
occurred during play. Issues, anomalies and questions that arose in
the post-lesson debrief were also included in the podcast summary
to add a sense of humor, déjà-vu and relevance to the context, as
well as a source of “deepening” (Lazzari, 2009, p. 29).
Delivery
Although the process of publication was somewhat timeconsuming,
this inconvenience was tempered by the knowledge
that the podcasts would become more-or-less a permanent
resource for faculty as well as students. The podcasts, ranging in
time from three minutes, 45 seconds to seven minutes for every
session, were available within a day of the practical and forwarded
to the students’ e-mail accounts. ‘Audacity’ was the software used
to capture the commentary and this was converted into an audiofile
by Posterous.com. This system was relatively smooth, was
easy to use and was proven to deliver very good quality sound. To
attract attention to each podcast a separate group sms (text) was
simultaneously delivered to the students’ cell phones.
Participants
The participants were first year PETE students in a Postgraduate
diploma program. The student cohort was divided into
two equal groups of 20: One group became the experimental
group and the other the control group. Each group had a different
teacher, but both teachers, who had taught this course together
previously, used the same course outline and sequence, materials
and resources. The role of the podcasts was initially explained to
the experimental group simply as an enhancement, in addition to
the normal course materials and tutorials that both groups would
receive. The experimental group participants were requested to
protect the podcast content as a private arrangement.
Survey and Focus-Group Interview
After the end of course test, the experimental group was
subsequently invited to attend a briefing to further describe the
intervention and complete a survey. The survey was administered
by a neutral faculty member, not a part of the cohort instruction or
program administration, nor directly known to the students. The
students were briefed about the purpose of the survey and informed
that it was voluntary (they could withdraw at any time without
penalty) as well as confidential (no names were submitted). All of
the students were able to provide consent (over the age of 21) and
were capable of making this decision without any duress.
After the survey was completed, the same faculty member
randomly selected a group of six (every third member on the
class roster) for a focus group interview. This whole process of
completing the survey and interview was managed in less than
an hour. The survey included 17 questions, many using a fivepoint
Likert scale, with several seeking clarification of the graded
response.
Results and Discussion
Survey Findings
A significant majority of postgraduates (80%) were not
receiving any ICT support in PE beyond this course. No other
course was engaging the students in blogging or podcasting and
only one respondent mentioned access to a website in another
game-related module, reinforcing the paucity of ICT in PETE
practical instruction. Everyone (100%) listened to the podcast
alone, not with friends or in groups, and the majority (70%)
listened to them at home. The other major engagement away from
home was while driving or exercising (25%). When asked about
the convenience aspect of listening to the podcast, there was almost
an even distribution between tuning in ‘the same week’ (45%) and
listening ‘over the weekend’ (55%).
The lowest response on quantity of podcast access was ‘half’
(5%), whereas just over a third (35%) said ‘many’, and the
majority (60%) reported listening to ‘every single one’ of them.
This question produced an M=4.6 on a five-point Likert scale and
resonated with Lazzari’s (2009, p. 33) study which referenced the
commitment and ‘high level of engagement within the podcasting
project’.
The media delivery platform (Audacity) was rated M=4.5 on a
5-point Likert scale: good (10%), very good (30%) and excellent
(60%). The audio quality was similarly rated as M=4.4 (good,
10%; very good, 40%; excellent, 50%).
From a social and emotional perspective, the postgraduates were
asked to rate the podcasts from ‘irritating’ (1) to ‘worth looking
forward to’ (5) and the results indicated that 10% were ‘neutral’
(3) about this question, 60% found them ‘enjoyable’ (4) and 30%
reported that the podcasts were ‘worth looking forward to’ (5:
M=4.2). On a similar scale ranging from ‘awful’ (1) to ‘awesome’
(5), a quarter of the postgraduates (25%) responded about the
content as ‘satisfactory’ (3), half (50%) as ‘really interesting’ (4)
and the remaining quarter as ‘awesome’ (5: M= 4.0).
When asked if the material was educationally helpful: 15%
responded with ‘OK’ (3), 50% with ‘very helpful’ (4), and 40%
as ‘exceptionally helpful’ (5: M= 4.5). The most popular response
from the postgraduates revolved around the aspect of consolidation,
reiteration, and reinforcement. The second most popular response
suggested that the podcasts were important for reflection, as the
lessons were very dynamic with an intense pace that presented
insufficient time to spontaneously internalize everything that was
happening or why! Thirdly, in agreement with Lazzari’s (2009)
finding, the podcasts are perennial and offer convenient access
at anytime and as such were invaluable as resources before
tests or exams. Some stated that the podcasts were beneficial
for visualizing the content as well as for elaborating on the key
teaching/pedagogical inputs: in Lazzari’s words (2009, p. 31) they
had a ‘positive impact on their learning process and reduced their
stress before the exam.” Arising from this, other respondents felt
that the podcasts would be of significant value during a teaching
practicum (TP) as they could act as a constant reminder of what,
how, where and when to enact the principles of game play.
To investigate the impact of podcasting on learning, an
independent t-test was conducted on the grades from both the
experimental as well as the control group. SPSS17 found no
significant difference between the two groups in overall marks (t=
-3.162, df 38, p =.650), or test scores (t= -.963, df38, p =.883),
whereas there was a significant difference in the assignment marks
(t= -5.839, df 38, p=.011). Although the final grade statistic would
suggest agreement with Deal’s (2007) finding of no measurable
improvement, the assignment statistic, which supports Evans
volume 5, issue 1 17

Podcasting in PETE
(2007) finding of grade improvement, may have nothing to relate
to podcasting, but leaves the door open for further investigation of
this effect.
Intermittent anecdotes arising from questions and opinions
expressed during lesson debriefing or from class performances
and/or idiosyncracies observed during class made the podcasts
more personal and alluring. All of the students (100%) reported
that the podcasts accurately represented what they had experienced
and were consequently authentic resources for them.
In relation to a question about learning, where the podcast
contributed to an extension of ‘game-sense’ or ‘increased
understanding’, 5% reported ‘not much’ (2), 10% were ‘neutral’
(3), 45% said ‘a little’ (4) and 40% reported ‘a great deal’ (5: M=
4.2). More than half (60%) reported that the material added a
valuable element of pedagogical content knowledge (M= 4.5) and
65% suggested that the podcasts would be useful to them in the
future as PE teachers (M= 4.6). Finally, as an overall rank of the
podcasting experience on a 10 point scale, the postgraduates gave
podcasting a resounding thumbs up (7=15%; 8=20%; 9=40%;
10=25%: M= 8.75).
As a summary, the postgraduates were asked how the podcasting
procedure could be improved and there were some useful and
interesting comments: 40% said the podcasts were ‘fine as they
were’ and could not be improved, whereas 15% suggested that
‘blogs’ for class discussion could be promoted intermittently, but
not regularly. As the podcast was challenging to digest in one
sitting, it was suggested that making a hard copy of the podcast
notes available would make this experience even more rewarding.
One respondent further suggested that posting on i-tunes would
be “Cooler”, while another suggested that podcasting would be a
tremendous aid for PE examinations in schools.
Focus Group Interview
The Focus Group Interview strongly reinforced the survey
findings. While mindful of a ‘Hawthorne’ (Gillespie, 1991) or
‘Rosenthal’ effect (Rosenthal & Jacobsen, 1968), the group
members were consistently unanimous throughout, except for one
suggestion to ‘cluster’ several podcasts of a similar nature together.
This opinion was over ruled by the others, who commented on the
unique and diverse nature of each lesson, suggesting a danger that
valuable commentary may be overlooked.
Podcasts were helpful for diverse learners as not everyone
rationalized their learning and understanding from the same
perspective, and they contributed significantly to everyone’s
memory bank regardless of disposition. Customization of the
commentary to the class allowed different people to refocus their
principles and values in light of the bigger picture of a games
education, something not always achieved in a conventional
pedagogy. Similarly, tailoring the content added extra meaning
at an individual level as this provided an opportunity to present
comments that were unique to the class being taught. As the content
was not generalized for mass consumption, the podcast became
more personal, was greatly appreciated and constituted part of the
‘worth looking forward to’ dimension.
In view of constraints such as time, the podcast was reportedly
a convenient means of reflection that afforded the opportunity
to reinforce learning through the concepts taught, as well as
18 Journal of Research
the opportunity to expand on them. This served an even more
important function for students who were absent from class or
who were engaged in external training (athletic) development
programs. One group member even stated that s/he became
too reliant on the podcasts to the detriment of the other course
materials. The group was unanimous about the impact of podcasts
for examination revision and how significant they were in this
process. Access ‘while driving’ and ‘when exercising’ were also
mentioned as positive features of the versatility and convenience of
this technology-‘anywhere, anytime’ was the anthem reverberating
around the forum.
The Focus Group interviewees were unanimously of the opinion
that podcasting strengthened the teacher-student relationship and
was therefore indispensible. The group believed podcasting was
an excellent way to interact with students beyond the classroom
and had potential for developing the PE curriculum in schools.
As there was some concern communicated about the access and
availability some pupils might experience, some reservations
about disadvantage were expressed. There was also a question of
managing such a resource when regular PE classes in Singapore
have 40 or more pupils. As each teacher has multiple classes per day,
podcasting will require logistical scrutiny and careful evaluation to
achieve a satisfactory level of feasibility. There might also be a
dissonance in many schools where pupils are not examined in PE,
and the ‘why do we have to think in PE’ brigade would represent
a challenge to be convinced of podcasting’s purpose and value.
Finally, one postgraduate suggested that a compilation of podcasts
and other technological resources in the form of a cd/dvd would
be a wonderful souvenir for a pupil at the end of an academic
year or the end of a school program. This memento would act as
a testament to the experiences acquired, as well as the knowledge
and values espoused, during their PE life in school.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Podcasting was acknowledged by this postgraduate population,
as a significant qualitative success in terms of social, emotional
and pedagogical enhancement. As a technological tool podcasting
provided individual convenience and promoted a strong bond with
the teacher. However, more investigation is necessary to establish
a stronger association to ‘learning’, as this would still appear to
be unclear. Lazzari (2009) used podcasts as a student assessment
tool and this represents a clear extension to the present pedagogy,
taking the form of a regular discourse analysis. Although examining
podcasting for grades is a possible consideration in the future, this
could easily impact on the strong social and emotional dimensions
of engagement that were an outcome of this intervention; and, at
the time of the study direct assessment was not an intended purpose
of its efficacy.
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Technology. !
volume 5, issue 1 19

Validating Pedometer-based Physical Activity
Time against Accelerometer in Middle School
Physical Education
by Zan Gao, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX; Amelia M. Lee,
Melinda A. Solmon, Maria Kosma, Russell L. Carson, Louisiana
State University, Baton Rouge, LA; Tao Zhang, University of North
Texas, Denton, TX; Elizabeth Domangue and Delilah Moore,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to validate physical activity time
in middle school physical education as measured by pedometers in
relation to a criterion measure, namely, students’ accelerometerdetermined
moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA).
Participants were 155 sixth to eighth graders participating in
regularly scheduled physical education classes from a suburban
public school. Physical activity levels were measured by Yamax
pedometers and Actical accelerometers. Descriptive analyses were
conducted to calculate steps per minute (SPM) for pedometers and
time engaged in MVPA (TMVPA) and percentage of time engaged
in MVPA (PMVPA) for accelerometers, respectively. Correlation
analyses yielded that SPM were positively and significantly related
to TMVPA and PMVPA. Additionally, the percentage of agreement
and modified kappa between SPM and PMVPA were .45 and .24,
respectively. In conclusion, pedometer-based SPM is a valid tool
to survey physical activity time against accelerometers.
Key words: moderate to vigorous physical activity, physical
activity levels, steps per minute
The number of children and adolescents in the United States who
are overweight and obese has dramatically increased. Specifically,
the percentage of female children and adolescents who are
overweight has increased dramatically from 13.8% in 1999-2000
to 16.0% in 2003-2004. Similarly, the percentage of male children
and adolescents who are overweight has increased from 14.0% to
18.2% during the same period (Ogden et al., 2006). The increased
levels of overweight and obesity among children and adolescents
are partly related to decreased levels of activity (Levin, McKenzie,
Hussey, Kelder, & Lytle, 2001; Ogden et al., 2006). Children’s
physical activity levels tend to decline during the developmental
years, especially during middle school (Parish & Treasure, 2003).
For example, 61.5% of children aged 9-13 years do not participate
in any organized extracurricular physical activities, and 22.6% of
them do not engage in any free time physical activity (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2003; U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 1996). Although decline
of physical activity in middle school years has been evident,
carefully designed research can assist teachers to develop strategies
that will reverse this trend and create a culture that values physical
activity and realizes its full benefits.
Nearly all adolescents in school settings can participate in
physical activity through physical education programs for health
and wellness (e.g., maintaining healthy body composition) (Levin
20 Journal of Research
et al., 2001; Simons-Morton, O’Hara, Parcel, Baranowski, &
Wilson, 1990; USDHHS, 1996; World Health Organization,
1996). Given that physical activity during adolescence tracks
into adulthood to a certain degree, and the fact that an important
health objective of Healthy People 2010 is to promote students’
active participation in physical education classes to at least 50%
of the class time (USDHHS, 2000), structured physical education
programs represent an important avenue to promote school-based
physical activities of moderate-to-vigorous intensity (Simons-
Morton et al., 1990). Accordingly, effectively delivering physical
education to school children becomes extremely imperative among
physical educators. The ability to accurately measure physical
activity levels in physical education class and classify these levels
would facilitate an evaluation of the effectiveness of structured
physical education programs.
To date, several different instruments for the assessment
of physical activity levels exist. Self-report physical activity
instruments have been scarcely used among children because of
such limitations as high cognitive demanding for children and the
sporadic nature of children’s physical activity. Direct observation is
considered one excellent way to assess children’s physical activity
behavior (Kohl, Fulton, & Caspersen, 2000; Scruggs, Beveridge, &
Clocksin, 2005; Sirard & Pate, 2001). However, direct observation
in physical education settings is cumbersome because it is costly
and it requires high expertise and long measurement time periods
(Scruggs et al., 2005; Sirard & Pate, 2001). Heart rate monitors
have been widely used to measure physical activity in physical
education because of the linear relationship between heart rate and
energy expenditure during steady-state exercise (Stratton, 1996).
However, they are unable to accurately distinguish between light
and moderate-intensity activities and record frequency of activity
within a limited time frame (Hands, Parker, & Larkin, 2006).
The accuracy of heart rate monitors can also be affected by such
environmental factors as temperature, heat, and humidity.
As motion sensors, pedometers and accelerometers are
considered practical, objective, and valid assessments of
physical activity (Sirard & Pate, 2001). These instruments have
advantages such as minimal participant and experimenter burden
for the researchers; being unobtrusive to the subjects; and being
comfortable and acceptable for the subjects to wear. Pedometers
count the number of steps an individual takes by lifting the lever arm
mechanically or electrically or using a piezoelectric strain gauge
(e.g., New Lifestyles NL-1000). Accelerometers are designed to
assess total ambulatory activity levels and thus they provide an
estimate of energy expenditure (Ainsworth, 2000; Bassett, 2000;
Westerterp, 1999). Pedometers are less expensive (approximately
$20-$50) than accelerometers (e.g., approximately $100-$500),
they can measure the number of steps during a designated time
period, record distance, and provide estimated calories. In
comparison, accelerometers can provide very detailed information

Middle School Physical Activity
regarding the intensity (sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous)
of time spent at different intensity levels, and estimated energy
expenditure. In general, these motion sensors can accurately
measure physical activity among children in real world settings
(e.g., physical education). However, they are not efficient to
capture activity levels during such activities as stationary cycling
and weightlifting (Freedson & Miller, 2000; Sirard & Pate, 2001).
Nowadays, the pedometer has been utilized as an activity
surveillance tool in physical education as it holds the most
promise for implementation due to validity, cost, and practicality
(e.g., daily use) (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b). Most recently, Scruggs
and colleagues have established a pedometer steps per minute
(SPM) guideline to quantify students’ time engaged in physical
activity in physical education (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b; Scruggs,
Beveridge, Eisenman, Watson, Schultz, & Ransdell, 2003;
Scruggs, Beveridge, Watson, & Clocksin, 2005). In particular,
these scholars have quantified the minimum SPM values indicating
50% of the lesson time in physical activity. Specifically, Scruggs
and colleagues examined the number of pedometer-based steps
equivalent to one third of the lesson time first through sixth-grade
students engaged in during physical activity and determined 58-
63 SPM was an accurate indicator. Using the lesson time of 42 to
50 minutes, Scruggs et. al. (2007b) also specified a SPM interval
of 82-88 for seventh and eighth graders to comply with the 50%
physical activity recommendation. In their studies, pedometer
SPM and duration recorded physical activity via the System for
Observing Fitness Instruction Time (SOFIT) (McKenzie, Sallis,
& Nader, 1999) have been found to relate strongly, r = .74 to .89.
These empirically derived SPM indices across different grade
levels set scientifically sound application of physical education
physical activity guidelines for the researchers and practitioners
in the field. However, the validity of the pedometer-based physical
activity outputs (e.g., SPM) against criterion measures remains
largely unexplored. Further research in this area of inquiry is
highly warranted.
Researchers have demonstrated that accelerometer-determined
physical activity levels had a higher correlation with VO 2
max
scores than heart rate- or pedometer-determined physical activity
levels among school children (Eston, Rowlands, & Ingledew,
1998; Louie et al., 1999). Accelerometer-determined physical
activity levels have been marginally better correlated with physical
activity scores measured by direct observation than with heart
rate-determined physical activity levels among young children
(Scruggs, Beveridge, & Clocksin, 2005). Furthermore, due to the
intrusiveness of direct observation, unreliability of self-report
measures, the complexity of heart rate analysis, and limited outputs
of the pedometer, accelerometers have gained in popularity and
have been recommended as a valid and practical tool to measure
physical activity levels (Puyau, Adolph, Vohra, Zakeri & Butte,
2004; Sirard & Pate, 2001). Indeed, many researchers consider it
a criterion against which other measures of physical activity can
be validated (Behrens, Hawkins, & Dinger, 2005; Ward, Evenson,
Vaughn, Rodges, & Troiano, 2005). Therefore, in the present
study the Actical accelerometer was used as the criterion measure
because it uses an omnidirectional sensor that may capture some
activities not typically well assessed by accelerometer. Actical
accelerometer contains a cantilevered rectangular piezo-electric
bimorph plate and seismic mass, which is sensitive to movement
in all directions. Its sensitivity allows for detection of sedentary
movements as well as high intensity movements (Puyau et al.,
2004).
To our knowledge, there is a need to examine the validity of the
pedometer-based outputs against criterion measures in the field of
physical activity. However, no data are available which validate
pedometer outputs against accelerometer-determined physical
activity concurrently in measuring children’s MVPA, especially in
middle school physical education settings. Therefore, the purpose
of the present study was to validate one pedometer output, SPM,
as a measure of students’ physical activity using accelerometerdetermined
MVPA as the criterion. SPM was validated against
accelerometer-determined outputs including time engaged in
MVPA (TMVPA) and percentage of time engaged in MVPA
(PMVPA). It was hypothesized that SPM would correlate strongly
with both TMVPA and PMVPA and be a significant and accurate
measure of PMVPA.
Method
The Participants and Setting
The participants were 225 sixth - eighth graders (112 boys,
113 girls) enrolled in one public school in the Southern region of
the United States. The typical class size was 30 to 35 students.
Twenty-five students were randomly selected as participants for
each class. In the present study, each grade level consisted of three
intact classes, including 75 sixth graders, 75 seventh graders, and
75 eighth graders, respectively. The majority of the participants
were from families of middle to high socioeconomic status. The
participants had a 90-minute physical education class taught by
three certified physical education teachers on alternate days. Given
the time allotted for dress change and roll check, approximately 60
minutes was typically devoted to the physical education lesson.
All the teachers had taught for more than 10 years and they shared
the responsibility for the teaching assignments in the three classes
of each grade. Permission to conduct this study was obtained from
the university institutional review board, the school district, the
principal, and the physical education teachers. Additionally, consent
to participate in the study was obtained from all participants and
their parents/guardians prior to the start of the study.
When students arrived in the gym, the physical education
teachers took attendance. Then the students participated in warmup,
activities, and games. Typically, within each lesson component,
students were introduced to the skills to be learned, organized for
practice, and provided feedback when necessary. All classes ended
with a closure to the lesson. The learning activities consisted of
catch/kick ball (n = 66, n = participants), walking/jogging (n =
25), line dance (n = 18), soccer (n = 29), and table tennis (n =
17) during the time of data collection. Classes were held indoors
for catch/kick ball, line dance, and table tennis and outdoors for
walking/jogging and soccer. For the catch/kick ball, table tennis,
and walking/jogging units, no formal instructions were given.
However, in the line dance unit, students spent approximately 10
minutes practicing. Additionally, it is important to note that students
were divided into two or more groups of 8-9 students per squads
based on their sex (single sex groups) after the warm-up in the
soccer unit. For this unit, instructions and basic rules were given
volume 5, issue 1 21

Middle School Physical Activity
by the physical education teachers before the start of this study.
Every 15 minutes, the squads switched side of the playing field. At
the start of each class, the physical education teachers reinforced
the game rules and then allowed the games to commence following
the warm-up activities. As a result, no formal instruction was given
throughout the class.
Measures
This study involved the simultaneous monitoring of physical
activity by two objective instruments: (a) Yamax Digi-Walker SW-
701 (Yamax Inc., Tokyo, Japan); and (b) Actical activity monitor
(Mini-Mitter Co., Inc., Bend, OR). A total of 25 units of each
instrument were used in this study, allowing all the participants
in a class to be monitored simultaneously. Self-report information
on sex, race, grade, age, height, and weight were also obtained to
characterize the study sample.
Pedometer. The Yamax Digi-Walker SW-701 has been shown
to be an accurate pedometer for measuring adolescents’ physical
activity levels in field settings (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b; Scruggs,
et al., 2005). This pedometer can record steps, calculate distance
traveled on the basis of individual stride length, and estimate
caloric expenditure on the basis of total body weight. In this
study, only the step-count data were used. Before the initiation
of data collection, the pedometers were validated. The validation
followed Vincent and Sidman’s recommended procedure (2003).
Specifically, the pedometer was shaken vertically 100 times and
then the error between shaken and recorded steps was examined
for each pedometer. Deviation from the 100 shakes for all
pedometers was less than 5%. The validation demonstrated that
the pedometers could provide accurate step counts. Pedometer step
output was expressed as SPM, which was calculated by dividing
the total number of steps taken in class by the duration of the class
(Scruggs, et al., 2005). The students were advised to reset the
pedometers to zero at the beginning of the warm-up, and turn in
the pedometers at the end of the class.
Accelerometer. The Actical accelerometer is one of the smallest
accelerometers available (28 x 27 x 10 mm, 17 grams with a
watch battery), and is also water resistant. In this study, the Actical
devices were worn at each student’s hip, and recorded physical
activity counts using 15-second epochs. The sampling frequency
for the Actical devices was 32 Hz, and the sensitivity was 0.01
g. The devices collected motions in the frequency range of 0.5-
3.0 Hz. That is, voltage generated by the sensor is amplified and
filtered by analog circuitry. The amplified and filtered voltage
is passed into an analog to digital converter, and this process is
repeated 32 times per second. The resulting one second value is
divided by four, and then is added to an accumulated activity value
for the epoch. Actical devices were programmed and downloaded
by connecting the monitor to a serial port computer interface using
ActiReaders. Once data were downloaded to the corresponding
software, data files were exported into a Microsoft Excel format
(Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA).
Cut points established by Puyau et al. (2004) were applied to
the data: (a) 0-99 counts per min. = sedentary; (b) 100-1499 counts
per min. = light; and (c) ! 1500 counts per min. = moderate to
vigorous physical activity. According to Puyau et al. (2004), optimal
thresholds for classifying counts into sedentary, light, moderate
and vigorous levels of physical activity have been determined
22 Journal of Research
by regression and receiver operating characteristic analysis. Data
were categorized into sedentary, light, moderate, and vigorous
levels based upon the thresholds as follows: (a) sedentary level
was defined as activity energy expenditure (AEE) less than .01
kcal·kg -1·min -1 , encompassing physical activities of minimal body
movements in the sitting or reclined position; (b) light level was
set as AEE larger than .01 kcal·kg -1·min -1 and less than .04 kcal·kg -
1·min -1 , reflecting a low level of exertion in the standing position;
and (c) moderate and vigorous level was set at AEE larger than .04
kcal·kg -1·min -1 , involving medium and high levels of exertion in
the standing position. The Actical cut points were then calculated
based on the AEE cutoffs and the prediction equations.
Most recently, researchers have demonstrated acceptable validity
and reliability of Actical activity monitors when used with children
(Pfeiffer, McIver, Dowda, Almeida, & Pate, 2006; Puyau et al.,
2004). For example, Puyau et al. (2004) validated Actical activity
monitors as measures of children’s (7-18 yrs.) physical activity
using energy expenditure as the criterion measure. They found
that activity counts accounted for the majority of the variability in
activity energy expenditure (as basal metabolic rate) and physical
activity ratio (energy expenditure/basal metabolic rate), with small
contributions of age, sex, weight, and height. Pfeiffer et al. (2006)
also provided strong support for the validation for this monitor by
revealing a high correlation (r = .89) between VO 2
and activity
counts.
Given that longer epochs are unable to detect bursts of high
activity counts (Nilsson, Ekelund, Yngve, & Sjöstrom, 2002)
and the aims of this study, the Actical monitors were set to 15-
second epochs in order to better capture the short bursts of activity
typical of school children (Pfeiffer et al., 2006). In this study,
students’ time engaged in MVPA (TMVPA) was used as the first
outcome variable. The second outcome variable (i.e., percentage
of time engaged in MVPA [PMVPA]) was quantified as the time
students engaged in MVPA divided by the duration of the physical
education class (Arnett & Lutz, 2003). These outcome variables
were retrieved from the Actical outputs directly.
Procedures
Data collection took place during a typical instructional day
for one physical education class. A schedule was coordinated with
the physical education teachers for the data collection so as to not
interrupt instructional time. One accelerometer and one pedometer
were attached to the left side of students’ waistband, before the
beginning of class. Each student was assigned an identification
number which corresponded to the number on his or her waistband.
The waistbands with the attached monitors (accelerometers and
pedometers) were then distributed to students when the teachers
were taking roll. The researchers helped the students wear the
waistbands and verified that they fit closely around their waists.
Then the students reset the pedometers to zero. At the end of
each class, the students were told to return the accelerometers
and pedometers to the start location by placing the waistband on
the floor (i.e., visual cue to stop lesson time). Accelerometer and
pedometer data were collected concurrently by synchronizing
accelerometers. In other words, accelerometer time began with
pedometer reset and concluded with waistband removal. In this
way, all the data from the two objective instruments reflected an
identical time frame.

Middle School Physical Activity
Data Analyses
Means and standard deviations were generated for age,
body mass index (BMI), and physical activity measures (SPM,
TMVPA, and PMVPA). Percentage statistics were calculated
to describe the proportion of participants who achieved and did
not achieve physical activity guideline compliance for SPM and
PMVPA. Pearson product-moment correlations and coefficients of
determination were used to determine the concurrent validity of the
instruments for the total sample. The general cutoffs established
for correlation coefficients were set as follows: above .76 is high,
.51 to .75 is fair, .26 to .50 is moderate, and .25 and below are
weak (Berg & Latin, 1994). Percentage of agreement and modified
kappa (Landis & Koch, 1977) were obtained after dichotomizing
the data for meeting or not meeting 50% of lesson time for SPM
and PMVPA. According to Landis and Koch (1977), modified
kappa value above .61 is substantial, .41 to .60 is moderate, .21
to .40 is fair, and .20 and below are weak. All statistical analyses
were performed using SPSS statistical software, version 13.0
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL).
Results
Univariate outliers were detected by transforming the data to z-
scores. Following a recommendation of Stevens (1992), when the
sample size is relatively large (e.g., n >100), any z value greater
than + 4.00 or less than – 4.00 indicates an unlikely value and this
extreme value should be considered an outlier. If the researcher
determines that the extreme value was correctly entered and that
the subject is simply different from the rest of the sample, then it is
appropriate to drop the case from the analysis (Mertler & Vannatta,
2005). In the present study, nine univariate outliers and 61 missing
data were identified and excluded from the study. Therefore, the
final sample size comprised 155 students (80 boys, 75 girls). The
participants consisted of sixth (28.4%), seventh (34.8%), and
eighth (36.8%) graders ranging in age from 10 to 14 years (M age
= 12.52, SD = 1.02). The majority of the participants, 88.4%, were
Caucasian, 7.7% were African American, 2.6% were Hispanic
American, and 1.3% were Asian American. The average BMI was
19.79 kg·m -2 , with a range of 14.01 kg·m -2 to 32.11 kg·m -2 .
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for the whole sample.
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics among Variables (N = 155)
Minimum Maximum Mean SD
age 10 14 12.48 1.01
Body mass index 14.01 32.11 19.81 3.10
Steps per minute 19.2 104.68 52.99 20.36
Time in MVPA 2.00 57.00 39.96 10.29
Percentage of
time in sedentary .00 61.67 8.86 9.56
Percentage of time
in light intensity .00 58.33 24.25 11.83
Percentage of
time in MVPA 3.34 92.20 66.89 17.02
Notes. SD = Standard Deviation.
MVPA = moderate to vigorous physical activity.
Overall, the students spent 66.89% of the class time engaged
in MVPA as measured via accelerometer. Among them, 85.8% of
the students spent more than 50% of the lesson time in MVPA. In
addition, the physical education classes provided a mean MVPA
for more than 50% of the class time for the students across all
learning activities (i.e., catch/kick ball: 62.99%, walking/jogging:
77.09%, line dance: 59.37%, soccer: 78.84%, and table tennis:
54.63%). In terms of the pedometer SPM, 44.5% of the students
achieved physical activity guideline established by Scruggs
(2007a, 2007b).
The relationship between SPM and PMVPA was significant (p
< .01) and fair (r = .57). The pedometer data shared 32.49% of
variance with PMVPA. Similarly, SPM was positively related to
TMVPA (r = .55, p < .01), accounting for 30.25% of variance with
TMVPA. After dichotomizing the SPM data for meeting or not
meeting 50% of lesson time based on Scruggs’ physical activity
guideline (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b), the percentage of agreement
and modified kappa between SPM and PMVPA were .45 and .24,
respectively.
Discussion
Validating the assessment of the 50% of lesson time in MVPA
recommendation using pedometers in middle school physical
education was the primary purpose of this study. Students’
accelerometer-based MVPA (TMVPA and PMVPA) were used
as a criterion instead of physical activity time measured via
direct observation. Evidence has shown a decline in students’
physical activity levels across the middle school years (Aaron,
Storti, Robertson, Kriska, & LaPorte, 2002; Parish & Treasure,
2003), therefore there is a call for providing adequate schoolbased
structured physical education for all middle school
students (National Association for Sport and Physical Education
[NASPE], 2000; USDHHS, 1996). Middle school students should
accumulate enough physical activity to at least achieve the 50%
physical education class time recommendation. In this study,
85.5% of the students met or exceeded the 50% of the lesson
time engaged in MVPA when the activities were assessed via
accelerometer. Recently, Scruggs (2007b) reported that 68.9%
of middle school students enrolled in physical education met the
50% physical activity recommendation. Accordingly, this result of
this study echoes the recommendations indicating that 50% of the
physical education time should involve MVPA (CDC, 2004; Sallis
& Patrick, 1994) and is consistent with recent research (Arnett &
Lutz, 2003; Scruggs, 2007b).
It is assumed that, if students accumulated more pedometer
steps in class, they would be more physically active. In this
study, the pedometer outcome variables (SPM) were consistently
significantly and positively associated with TMVPA and PMVPA.
That is, those students with higher SPM tended to engage more
in MVPA in class. This finding is in line with recent studies
indicating that pedometer outputs were positively and moderately
related to accelerometer data (Behrens, Hawkins, & Dinger, 2005;
Treuth et al., 2003). In addition, we dichotomized the SPM data
for meeting or not meeting 50% of lesson time according to the
physical activity guideline established by Scruggs (Scruggs,
2007a, 2007b) and found that percentage of agreement and
modified kappa between SPM and PMVPA was good. This
volume 5, issue 1 23

Middle School Physical Activity
finding indicates that the pedometer SPM guideline is valid to
quantify students’ time engaged in MVPA in physical education.
Taken together, the finding supports the notion that a pedometer
is a valid assessment tool to measure school children’s physical
activity levels (Kilanowski, Consalvi, & Epstein, 1999; Rowlands,
Eston, & Ingledew, 1997). Given their low prices and easiness to
use, pedometers have been extensively employed as a valid and
practical tool for physical activity surveillance within the physical
education context (Scruggs, et al., 2005).
In this study, 45.5% of middle school students engaged in
pedometer-determined MVPA for more than 50% of the lesson
time using Scruggs’ guideline (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b). It should
also be noted that correlations between SPM and the criterion
measures (.55 to .57) were slightly lower than those in Scruggs
and colleagues’ studies (.74 to .89). We can speculate two
explanations. First, when interpreting SPM results, Scruggs et al.
(2005) suggested that application be made when physical education
parameters of grade, lesson time, and learning content are similar.
In their studies, 10 minutes of lesson time were used for elementary
students, while 42-50 minutes were used for the middle school
students (Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b; Scruggs et al., 2003; Scruggs, et
al., 2005). However, in the present study 60 minutes of the lesson
time was used which includes warm-up, activities, and games.
Different lesson times might make a significant difference in terms
of MVPA between studies. In addition, the learning content may
also influence students’ MVPA in physical education (Fairclough
& Stratton, 2006). In general, team-based invasion games (i.e.,
soccer and football) usually promote relatively high MVPA levels.
In Scruggs’ studies (2007a, 2007b), a large variety of activities
such as basketball, speedball, archery, interval running, soccer,
flag football, volleyball, ball exploration and routine, dance,
floor hockey, hula-hoop exploration and routine, obstacle course,
paddle birdie, and ultimate ball/Frisbee were utilized as learning
contents for physical education classes. In this study, only five
learning contents (catch/kick ball, walking/jogging, dance, soccer,
and table tennis) were used which might result in different MVPA
for students. Second, the criterion measures for Scruggs and
colleagues’ studies and our study were different. Scruggs et al.
(Scruggs, 2007a, 2007b; Scruggs et al., 2003; Scruggs, et al., 2005)
used direct observation as the criterion measure to assess MVPA.
Although the interrater coefficients have been substantiated in
their studies, the MVPA generated from direct observation was
subjective and sometimes inaccurate. In this study, we used the
Actical accelerometer which can capture MVPA accurately and
reliably. It is plausible that the use of different criterion measures
might cause the different correlations between SPM and the
criterion measures.
In summary, the findings of this study support the supposition
that pedometer-based SPM is a valid tool to survey the 50%
physical activity recommendation in comparison to accelerometerdetermined
MVPA in a middle school physical education setting. As
expected, pedometer outcome variable (SPM) was a good indicator
of school children’s MVPA in class. Because the pedometer is
low cost, objective, and easy for researchers and teachers to use
and implement, physical educators and health promoters can use
pedometers to capture changes in physical activity levels (i.e.,
MVPA) following different interventions in educational practice.
24 Journal of Research
Important study limitations, however, should be identified when
interpreting the results. First, when the nature of physical activity
cannot be captured by the pedometer, additional errors would occur
in the estimation of time engaged in MVPA in physical education.
Therefore, the pedometer SPM recommendations should not
be applied when learning contents are activities that cannot be
measured by pedometer (e.g., swimming, weight lifting, and rock
climbing). Scruggs (2007a) has proposed that there is a need to
develop a physical activity assessment tool which combines
pedometer-assessed physical activity and self-report of activity
content. In this way, the odds of misapplication of pedometer SPM
recommendation in physical education can be decreased. Second,
researchers (e.g., Stratton, 1996; Vincent & Pangrazi, 2002) have
reported that students differ in their physical activity levels in
physical education classes across different gender and age groups.
However, the gender and age differences were not examined in this
study. Future studies might focus on the moderate effects of gender
and age on children’s MVPA in physical education. Additionally,
only one middle school was used in this study. The participants
came from middle to upper-middle class families and their ethnic/
racial background was homogeneous. Future studies need to
recruit a large number of diverse students (in both socioeconomic
status and ethnicity/race) from multiple school sites to increase the
generalizability of the findings.
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volume 5, issue 1 25

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors:
Physical Education in Korean Elementary,
Middle, and High Schools
by Jong-Hoon Yu, Ed.D., Canisius College, Buffalo, NY 14208
& Jwa K. Kim, Ph.D., Middle Tennessee State University,
Murfreesboro, TN
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare and analyze the
differences between elementary, middle, and high school physical
education classes in Korea based on teacher and student behavior
and teacher-student interaction patterns. The subjects who
participated in this study were fifteen certified full-time physical
education teachers at selected schools in Seoul. Teacher and student
behavior and teacher-student interaction patterns were coded using
Cheffers' Adaptation of Flanders' Interaction Analysis System
(CAFIAS). Statistically significant differences in the teacher and
student behaviors among the three school levels were analyzed
using a Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA. Additional multiple comparisons
using the Mann-Whitney U test were employed when significant
differences resulted from the Kruskal-Wallis ANOVA among
the three school levels. This study demonstrated that elementary
school physical education classes exhibited more humanistic
behaviors. In contrast, middle school classes were conducted with
a great deal of teacher input and high school classes had a very
structured atmosphere.
Key Words: systematic observation, descriptive data
Historically, educational trends have followed cyclical patterns
reflecting the changing conditions and demands of society. As
the pendulum of educational values has swung back and forth,
two educational philosophies have emerged within the teaching
profession, both claiming to provide the best education for
students. These are the traditional philosophies and the progressive
philosophies.
These two philosophies approach the educational process from
different perspectives. The traditional perspective represents a
top-down approach to the process of teaching and learning, with
the principal role of the teacher to disseminate knowledge and
control the learning process, while students are expected to acquire
objective knowledge by digesting facts and concepts and searching
for correct answers.
In contrast, the progressive perspective presents a bottom-up
approach in which the teacher's role is primarily to encourage
students to pursue their own educational objectives. In this
model, students are taught to generate their own questions and
answers, express their own ideas and thoughts, and seek out their
own solutions to problems rather than simply receiving them from
teachers.
However, in spite of their differing approaches to the
educational process, traditionalists and progressivists share the
same goal, namely to develop the ability of students to reach their
full potential. In both cases, this goal can only be achieved with
26 Journal of Research
quality teaching by competent teachers. Thus, regardless of the
philosophical approach, teachers play an extremely important role
in helping students achieve the intended educational goals. Since
students must learn in an effective manner in order to acquire
knowledge, teachers must provide effective teaching in order for
students to receive a quality education.
As a result, the study of teaching has become a prominent
area of interest in the field of education. As our profession has
progressed, some educational scholars endeavored to study the
art of teaching in a more analytical way and therefore developed
scientific observational techniques to validate their research
(Hilberg, Waxman, & Tharp, 2004; Ornstein, 1986). The use of
observational systems specifically designed to examine a wide
variety of teacher and student behaviors has profoundly affected
research on teaching and teacher training (Rink, 2006; Schempp,
2003; Senne, 2004). Consequently, the teaching process is no
longer viewed as a nebulous, inexplicable interaction between
the teacher and student, but rather a process that can be planned,
systematically observed, and readily assessed.
Research employing observation techniques in the field of
educational studies as a whole has greatly impacted the research
approach of those specifically studying physical education (Lee,
2003; Tinning, Macdonald, Wright, & Hickey, 2001). Various
systematic observation techniques which enable a more objective
investigation of the teaching and learning process have been
developed for the study of physical education. Continued research
efforts employing systematic observation techniques are needed to
pursue previously unexplored teacher behavior variables (Marco,
Mancini, Wuest, & Schempp, 1996).
Since the mid-1980s, South Korean sports pedagogues have
been actively engaged in the study of teaching, making use of
systematic observation techniques. Their findings have made
an invaluable contribution toward our improved understanding
of the current state of formal physical education in South Korea.
However, despite the remarkable achievements made in the field,
the majority of studies to date have concentrated on examining
teacher effectiveness based largely on the amount of time students
spend on task while in physical education classes (e.g., Chang,
1996; Cho, 2003; Choi, 2000; Choi, 2004; Ji, 2008; Kang, 1989;
Kim, Hwang, & Park, 2002; Kim, 2006; Kim, 2000; Kim, 2001;
Kim & Jeong, 1994; Kim, 2005; Ko, 1988; Kwak, 2006; Lee,
2007; Paek & Lee, 2003; Park, 2007; Park, 2001; Park, 2003; Yoo,
1989; Youn, 1994).
As a result, there is an obvious need to broaden this approach
by studying the complex act of teaching in physical education
settings. This study aimed to expand the current body of knowledge
by observing, describing, comparing, and analyzing teacher and
student behaviors as well as teacher and student interaction patterns
among elementary, middle, and high school physical education
classes in South Korea.
Several studies investigating the differences between physical

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors
education classes at different grade and school levels were done in
the 70s, 80s and 90s. These studies employed a variety of systematic
observation techniques to uncover similarities and differences
across school or grade levels. However, the findings of these
studies were scant, contradictory, and inconclusive. For example,
the studies conducted by Stewart (1977), Morgenegg (1978), and
Lombardo (1979) found that positive teacher behaviors increased
as school or grade level decreased. These results were inconsistent
with those of study conducted by Schempp (1986) who found that
praise or encouragement from the teachers, and acceptance from
the teacher increased as school or grade level increased.
In other studies, Pieron and Hacourt (1979) and Schempp
(1986) found that lecturing from the teachers increased as grade
level increased. However, these findings were contradictory to
those of Anderson and Barrette (1978), Yoon et al. (1996), Cheffers
and Mancini (1978), Lombardo (1979), and Buckett (1983), which
revealed that teacher contribution increased as school or grade
level decreased, and student contribution increased as school or
grade level increased.
Method
Participants
Eleven schools were randomly selected from the five different
school districts in Seoul, South Korea. Of the eleven schools,
fifteen certified full-time elementary (n=5), middle (n=5), and high
(n=5) school physical education teachers volunteered to participate
in the study. All subjects were male teachers, simply because a
significant majority of physical education teachers in South Korea
are male.
In this study, the elementary school classes consisted of one
each of a third, fourth, and fifth grade, and two of sixth grade.
Since physical education in the first and second grades is conducted
alongside music and fine arts as an integrated subject, these grade
levels were not included in the selection of elementary school
physical education classes. Middle school classes were one seventh
grade and two of eighth and ninth grades. High school classes were
one tenth grade and two of eleventh and twelfth grades. Several
activities were shown in both indoor classes and outdoor classes.
For instance, there were two handball, two basketball, one track &
field, one badminton, two gymnastics, one tennis, two volleyball,
one jump rope, and three miscellaneous games.
Instrumentation
Cheffers’ Adaptation of Flanders’ Interaction Analysis System
(CAFIAS) was used as an instrument to identify the dependent
variables in teacher and student behavior as well as teacherstudent
interaction patterns. Cheffers (1972) developed CAFIAS
to allow a clearer and more complete description of direct and
indirect verbal and non-verbal teacher and student behavior as
well as interactions between teachers and students in physical
education classes. The CAFIAS was also employed to analyze
class structure, teaching agencies, and student response behaviors
(Cheffers, Amidon, & Rodgers, 1974). The behaviors classified
by CAFIAS were recorded every three seconds, or whenever the
behaviors changed.
Cheffers (1972) determined the validity of CAFIAS by
comparing "blind" interpretations to "live" interpretation. He
reported a Pearson Product Moment Correlation of .80, which
was converted to a t-ration of 3.5 (p

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors
top cells for the interaction patterns between teachers and students
for each lesson were extracted from the basic 20X20 matrix in
the computer program. Those cells with the highest percentages
indicated primary interaction patterns.
Data Analysis
Statistically significant differences in the teacher and student
behavior between three school levels were analyzed using
a Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA test, at the .05 level of
significance. Additional multiple comparisons using the Mann-
Whitney U test were employed when significant differences
resulted from the Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA test between the
three school levels. The Bonferroni adjusted level of significance
(p

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors
Table 2. Summary of the Kruskal-Wallis one-way ANOVA Test and the Mann-Whitney U Test as Multiple Comparisons
for the Differentiation among the Three School Levels According to 12 CAFIAS Parameters
12 CAFIAS Parameters E M H
M SD M SD M SD H P
1 Teacher Contribution, Verbal 27.82 7.89 32.87 7.11 31.11 7.65 1.04 .59
2 Teacher Contribution, Nonverbal 18.98 7.52 22.63 4.70 20.98 7.54 1.04 .59
3 Total Teacher Contribution 46.81 15.04 55.50 9.16 52.09 14.48 .86 .65
4 Student Contribution, Verbal 19.02 11.25 11.38 3.62 12.61 7.99 1.52 .46
5 Student Contribution, Nonverbal 32.17 4.82 31.97 6.25 33.73 6.30 .62 .73
6 Total Student Contribution 51.18 14.05 43.35 9.17 46.34 14.01 1.04 .59
7 Teacher as Teacher* 100.00 a
.00 95.14 a,b
3.62 96.49 b
3.25 8.24 .01
8 Other Student as Teacher* .00 a
.00 4.86 a,b
3.62 3.51 b
3.25 8.23 .01
9 The Environment as Teacher .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 1.00
10 Class Structure as One Unit 70.20 40.73 51.30 45.34 68.10 34.35 .40 .81
11 Class Structure as Group or as Individual 29.70 40.82 48.65 45.28 31.90 34.35 .68 .70
12 Class Structure with No Teacher Influence .10 .22 .05 .11 .00 .00 1.08 .58
Note . E = elementary school classes (n =5); M = middle school classes (n =5); H = high school classes (n =5); M = mean;
SD = standard deviation. Means with different subscripts differ significantly at the Bonferroni adjusted level of significance,
p

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors
verbal criticism. This suggests high teacher contribution at the
middle school level, meaning that teachers did not allow students
ample time to practice skills in class. Thus, Korean middle school
students seemed to have few opportunities to participate in skills
practice due to increased information giving and direction from
the teacher.
This finding was very similar to the results from study by
Schempp (1986), which found that lecturing from the teachers
increased as grade level increased. Similarly, a study by Pieron and
Hacourt (1979) showed that teacher speech increased with school
level, and student speech increased as school level decreased.
However, this finding did not concur with those of Anderson
and Barrette (1978) and Yoon et al. (1996), where teachers at the
elementary school level spent more time instructing and less time
observing than teachers at the secondary school level. Studies
by Cheffers and Mancini (1978), Lombardo (1979), and Buckett
(1983) also presented results contradictory to those of the current
study, indicating that teacher contribution increased as school or
grade level decreased, and student contribution increased as school
or grade level increased.
Additionally, these Korean elementary school teachers fostered
a humanistic approach emphasizing praise, acceptance of student’s
ideas, and encouragement of student questions. The contribution
exhibited by teachers at the elementary school level included
verbal and nonverbal praising, verbal and nonverbal accepting,
and verbal and nonverbal questioning. The finding is consistent
with previous studies by Stewart (1977), Morgenegg (1978), and
Lombardo (1979), which revealed that positive teacher behaviors
increased as school or grade level decreased. This data contradicts
the findings of Schempp (1986), which showed that praise or
encouragement from the teachers, and acceptance by the teacher
increased as school or grade level increased.
The descriptive data indicated that teacher criticism was
expressed more at the secondary school level. For example,
verbal criticism occurred more often at the high school level while
nonverbal criticism was observed more at the middle school level.
It is assumed that teachers at the Korean middle and high school
levels frequently used verbal and nonverbal criticism in order to
punish and control students. This assumption is supported by
conclusions reached by Kang (1994), who reported that teachers
at the middle school level were more often required to discipline
deviant student behaviors than teachers at the elementary school
level in South Korea.
Students at each school level seemed to be more engaged in
nonverbal than verbal contribution. As a general rule, Korean
school students tended to exhibit nonverbal involvement in physical
education classes. Specifically, students at the elementary school
level showed higher total student contribution than students at the
middle school level, followed by students at the high school level.
The contribution displayed by elementary school students consisted
of predictable verbal and nonverbal responses, analytical verbal
and nonverbal responses, initiated verbal and nonverbal responses,
and confusion. This suggests that the elementary school teachers
allowed students more time to practice skills during lessons.
Notably, students at all school levels generally exhibited a low
level of analytical response in the classes. However, students at
the elementary school level showed higher analytical verbal and
30 Journal of Research
nonverbal responses than students at the middle and high school
levels. According to Cheffers, student analytical responses
frequently occur during game-playing. Many lessons conducted
at the Korean elementary school level consisted of game-playing,
which provided opportunities to experience “broad individual
interpretation leading to much wider cognitive activity, with
individual creativity still remaining within the scope of prediction”
(Corbett, Cheffers, & Sullivan, 2001, p. 383).
Particularly, student confusion occurred more often at the
elementary school level than at the middle and high school levels,
while student silence occurred more at the middle and high school
levels. This was largely due to the fact that Korean elementary
school classes were conducted in a more permissive atmosphere,
and as a result, the students were somewhat more disorderly. On
the other hand, the middle and high school classes were presented
in a more teacher-dominated climate, with the students typically
more passive.
Furthermore, this study revealed that Korean physical education
classes represented a poor educational environment in which
a single teacher was responsible for an average of thirty-eight
students. Because of the large class size, teachers had difficulty
encouraging students to be active in class. At the elementary
school level, teachers more frequently acted as the teaching agency
for the whole class. These findings were identical to the findings
of studies conducted by Cheffers and Mancini (1978), Lombardo
(1979), and Jung (1998) where instruction of the whole class was
found to increase as school or grade level decreased. It is assumed
that teacher instruction of the whole class is more effective for
controlling a large class containing some mischievous elementary
school students, since if games were performed in small groups,
the teacher might be too busy to maintain control of the class.
In contrast, teachers at the Korean middle and high school classes
displayed greater use of other students acting as the teaching agency
in small groups. Students in secondary school are more mature
than elementary school students, making it more appropriate for
skills to be developed in a small group arrangement. Lombardo’s
(1979) study also made this observation by indicating that the
use of other students acting as the teaching agency increased as
grade level increased. This behavior was attributed to the fact that
students commonly led preparatory exercises in the beginning of
the class at the Korean middle and high school levels. Moreover,
the students who could perform well were asked to demonstrate
skills, while the teacher provided concurrent commentary.
Meanwhile, some teachers at the elementary and middle school
levels showed no teacher influence on the class structure in this
study. This might be attributed to the fact that one elementary
school teacher forgot to turn off his cellular phone before teaching,
and appeared perplexed while handling the abrupt ringing of his
cellular phone. Later, the teacher received a suddenly delivered
document, and read and signed the document during the class. It
is common for teachers to deal with urgently delivered documents
and notifications even during class periods in South Korea.
Furthermore, one middle school teacher had his lesson interrupted
by a colleague, who asked him to lend him some badminton
feather shuttlecocks. These episodes indicated that teachers did
have significant influence on their classes due to their incautious
behaviors, careless preparation of equipment, and responsibilities

Patterns of Interactions and Behaviors
dealing with suddenly delivered documents. These episodes
seemed to interfere with the continuity of instruction and led to
ineffective teaching and learning processes. Therefore, school
administrators and teachers need to pay attention to creating an
environment in which teachers are more fully engaged in classes.
The most common teacher and student interaction patterns at
the three school levels predominately involved teachers giving
direction and information, while students were primarily in a
listening and obedient responding mode. Specifically, the teacher
and student interaction patterns at the elementary school level
exhibited dominant student predictable verbal and nonverbal
responses. The middle and high school levels exhibited a similar
command style of interaction. The interaction displayed by the
middle school level combined extended teacher direction, lecture,
and student predictable nonverbal responses, while the high school
level demonstrated a similar pattern as the middle school level, but
required fewer lectures.
In a nutshell, the findings supported the aforementioned results
that students at the Korean elementary school level had more
opportunities to be involved in activities than Korean students
at the middle and high school levels. In contrast, teachers at the
Korean middle and high school levels used more direct teacher
input than teachers at the elementary school level.
Conclusion
The analytic information in the study defined some important
implications nested in the attributes or causes that underlie the
behavior observed at all levels of Korean physical education
classes. Namely, the traditional teaching mode was employed
in classes at all levels and consisted of the teacher distributing
information and giving directions, followed by predictable student
responses, or game-paying activities. Though the traditional mode
of teaching seems to be more effective for classroom control,
safety, and organization, it is less than ideal for students because
it makes them more passive in the learning process, and therefore
leads students to become dependent on the teacher for directions.
As a result, the traditional teaching mode observed prevalently
in Korean physical education classes appears insufficient for the
development of students’ creative and cognitive dimensions.
Moreover, teachers were typically viewed as authority figures
in Korean physical education classes. The role of the teacher
was to command, and the student’s role was to obey respectfully,
with corporal punishment frequently used as an effective means
of discipline. This traditional value is deeply rooted in Korea’s
Confucian culture.
In addition, it was observed that students spent relatively long
periods of time waiting for their turn to practice and participate
because of large class sizes, resulting in wasted time and ineffective
learning.
The analytic data in the study also lead to the following
suggestions related to the aforementioned implications. First,
Korean physical education teachers need to consider how to
provide a more open, friendly, and reciprocal environment, rather
than a hierarchical and military climate, in order to enhance
learning and motivate students. Such an approach will also help to
develop student’s cognitive functions as they participate in physical
activities. Second, a reduction in class size and high teacher-to-
student ratio is needed in Korean physical education classes in
order to promote effective teaching. In this way, teachers may
more easily support students in being active in class and can be
less rigid in their approach to students.
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32 Journal of Research

Differences in Exercise Identity
Between Secondary Physical Education
Students and Athletes
by Gregory J. Soukup, Sr., Timothy W. Henrich, and Heather M.
Barton-Weston, University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio,
Texas
Abstract
Texas (USA) public schools require high school students to take
one year of physical education to graduate. However, students can
meet this requirement by participating on a state sanctioned athletic
team for a year. The Texas Education Agency states the physical
education curriculum should teach affective attitudes and values
that will encourage students to be “physically active and healthy
for a lifetime” (TEA, 2010). Only physical education students are
exposed to this curriculum that specifically incorporates instruction
and knowledge related to physical education and fitness concepts.
The purpose of the study was to determine if significant differences
existed between physical education students and students who
chose to participate in sports regarding exercise identity. Data were
collected from 207 students with 151 in the physical education
group and 56 athletes with the Exercise Identity Scale (EIS)
(Anderson & Cychosz, 1994). Scores on the EIS range from 9 to
63. Higher scores indicate greater exercise identity. The physical
education group had an average EIS score of 32.9 and athletes
had an average score of 45.4. T-test analysis determined athletes
had significantly higher exercise identities than physical education
students at the p < .000 level.
Introduction
Despite the well documented benefits that regular exercise and
physical activity have on the immediate and long term health of
adolescents, the United States Center of Disease Control (CDC)
2008 revealed that only 34.7% of high school students reported
being vigorously active for at least 60 minutes a day for at least 5
days from the previous week. In 2007, 54% of high school students
reported attending physical education; however, only 30% of them
attend daily physical education classes (CDC, 2008). The United
States Department of Health and Human Services recommend
that adolescents should engage in 60 minutes or more of moderate
to vigorous - intensity aerobic physical activity on a daily basis
(USDHHS, 2008). The Youth Risk Behavior Survey 2007 results
determined that 65.3% of adolescents did not meet this minimum
recommendation for physical activity.
Reports by the National Association for Sport and Physical
Education (2002), the Secretary of Health and Human Services
and the Secretary of Education to the President of the United
States (U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000b),
and Healthy People 2010 (U. S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2000a) all identified increasing rates of physical activity
for adolescents as primary goals for improving health and reducing
obesity rates in adolescents. The National Association for Sport
and Physical Education stresses the importance of physical
education and fitness knowledge and defines a physically educated
person as being physically active on a regular basis and knowing
the implications and benefits of involvement in physical activity
and its contribution to a healthy lifestyle (National Association for
Sport and Physical Education, 1992).
Numerous researchers and reports have stressed the importance
that physical education knowledge and activities play in promoting
physical activity in school aged children that will continue into
adulthood (Corbin, 2000; McKenzie & Sallis, 1996; Morrow,
Jackson, & Payne; 1999; National Association for Sport and
Physical Education, 2004; Sallis & Patrick, 1994; U. S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1990; U. S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 1996). Physically active adolescents develop
and maintain higher rates of physical fitness into adulthood (Blair,
1993; Colditz & Mariani, 2000; Lee, Blair, & Jackson, 1999; Pate
et al., 1995; Sallis, 1993), and active adolescents are more likely
to be physically active adults (Telama, Yang, Laakso, & Viikari,
1997). However, many youth are not enrolled in any physical
education classes. In fact, most states in the United States have deemphasized
and reduced the amount of time required that students
spend in secondary physical education classes (Morrow et al.,
1999; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1996; U.
S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2000).
Exercise Identity
Role identities give meaning and importance to past behavior
as well as provide direction to future behavior (Anderson &
Cychosz, 1995; Anderson, Cychosz, & Franke, 1998; Anderson,
Cychosz, & Franke, 2001; Storer, Cychosz, & Anderson, 1997).
Individuals with strong exercise identities validate and reinforce
their identities by exercising, and the validation of the exercise role
identity increases the likelihood that the individual will continue to
adhere to exercise programs in the future. Exercise and the social
interactions that individuals develop through exercise become
important to an exerciser’s role identity (Storer et al., 1997;
Anderson et al., 2001; Anderson et al., 1998). Helping individuals
develop stronger exercise identities will help them adopt and
maintain more physically active lifestyles (Anderson et al., 1998;
Anderson et al., 2001; Cardinal & Cardinal, 1997). Several studies
have demonstrated the association between exercise behavior
and exercise identity (Anderson & Cychosz, 1995; Anderson
et al., 1998; Anderson et al., 2001; Cardinal & Cardinal, 1997;
Gray, Soukup, & Sherals, 2007; Soukup & Clayton, 2008). The
Exercise Identity Scale (EIS) was developed to identify individuals
who would and would not be likely to exercise and be physically
active on a regular basis (Storer et al., 1997; Anderson et al., 1998;
Anderson et al., 2001). The purpose of the study was to determine
if significant differences existed between physical education
students and students who chose to participate in sports regarding
exercise identity.
volume 5, issue 1 33

Differences in Exercise Identity
Method
Participants
A stratified sample of students was drawn from an inner-city
high school in Texas. Data were collected from 207 students with
151 of the participants having completed their physical education
requirements for graduation and 56 of the students having
participated in athletics. The distribution of students by grade
level was 31.1% 10th graders, 31.8% 11th graders and 37.1% 12th
graders. The ethnic diversity of the participants was 8.6% African-
American, 20.5% Asian, 13.9% Hispanic, and 55.6% White. The
sample was 58.3% female and 41.7% male. Participants in the
study ranged in age from 15 to 19 years old.
Instrumentation
The Exercise Identity Scale (EIS) was used to quantify levels
of exercise identity of participants in the study. The EIS was
developed by Anderson and Cychosz (1994) to measure and assess
the extent to which exercise behavior is descriptive of one’s concept
of self (Anderson & Cychosz, 1995). The EIS is comprised of nine
Likert-scaled items.
Each item can range from strongly disagree (1) to strongly
agree (7) with a final score that will range from a low of 9 to a
high score of 63. Higher scores indicate greater exercise identity.
Alpha reliability coefficients for the scale have been reported at .94
to .95 (Anderson et al., 1998; Anderson et al., 2001). One week
test-retest reliability of the scale was reported at .93 (Anderson &
Cychosz, 1994), and was determined by the authors of this article
to be .96. Factor analysis assessment of the EIS determined the
scale to be unidimensional (Anderson & Cychosz, 1994; Anderson
et al., 1998; Anderson et al., 2001) with factor loadings ranging
from .74 to .89 that accounted for 68.4% of the total variance of
the instrument (Anderson et al., 1998).
Data Collection
The researchers received permission for the study from the
university committee for the protection of human subjects.
Permission to collect data from students was obtained from a
very large and diverse inner-city school district in Texas. A
stratified sample of students who had either totally completed
all traditional physical education classes or who all substituted
their physical education graduation requirements by participating
on an athletic team/teams were used for the study. All data was
collected from students in one day by the lead investigator at the
high school. Student and parental consent forms were obtained
from all participants before data were collected. Before data were
collected, the nature of the instrument and the measurements that
would be obtained were explained to all participants. Participants
were informed that all measurements would be confidential, and
that individual results would not be seen by any other students,
personnel, teachers, or administrators. All forms were in English
and no student requested a translation.
Data Analysis
T-test analysis was used to test for differences in exercise identity
rates between students who completed physical education classes
and students who participated on athletic teams. The independent
variable for the study was students who took physical education
34 Journal of Research
and students who participated on athletic teams. The dependent
variable was the exercise identity scores of students determined by
the EIS. The Alpha level for significance was established at the p
< .05 level.
Results
A two-tailed T-test determined that the students that had
substituted their physical education graduation requirement by
participating in athletics had significantly higher exercise identity
rates than the physical education students. The mean score on the
EIS for physical education students was 32.9 and for the athletes
it was 45.4. The difference in exercise identity between physical
education students and the athletes on exercise identity was
significant at the p < .000 level. Means and standard deviations
for the groups are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviation, F Ratio, and P Value for
Significance of EIS Scores for High School Physical
Education Students and Athletes
Group M SD T P
PE 32.9 14.0 5.96 0.000
Athletics 45.4 11.4
p value for significance is .05.
Discussion
This study was conducted to determine if exercise identity rates
would be higher for students who completed traditional physical
education classes at the high school level when compared to students
who substituted their physical education graduation requirement
by participating in athletics. The data analysis determined that
the students who fulfilled their physical education requirement
by participating on athletic teams had significantly higher rates
of exercise identity than students in traditional physical education
classes.
Cognitive Instruction and Exercise Identity
Learning in physical education is through the affective,
cognitive, and psychomotor domains. Students in the physical
education and athletic team groups both received instruction to
improve their psychomotor skills; however, only the students in
physical education received cognitive instruction specifically
designed to improve their knowledge of how lifelong exercise
and physical activity would benefit and improve their long-term
health. Several researchers have emphasized the importance
that health and physical fitness knowledge plays in promoting
healthy and physically active lifestyles in school children that
will carry over into adulthood (Corbin, 2000; McKenzie & Sallis,
1996; Morrow et al.; 1999; Sallis & Patrick, 1994). While the
cognitive domain is an important aspect of instruction in physical
education; many researchers have reported that increased health
and fitness knowledge related to nutrition (Chapman & Toma,
1997), cardiovascular disease (Suminski et al., 1999), sexuality
and sexually transmitted diseases (Johnson, Rozmus, & Edmisson,
1999), smoking (Schofield, Lynagh, & Mishra, 2003), and physical
activity (Morrow et al., 2004) did not result in improved fitness
behaviors. Simply knowing the benefits of how regular exercise

Differences in Exercise Identity
and lifelong physical activity will improve student health did not
seem to be enough on its own to improve the exercise identity of
the students in these studies.
Affective Instruction and Exercise Identity
The results of this study seem to suggest that positive affective
values and attitudes related to and developed through regular
exercise, physical activity, and participation in sport significantly
impacted the exercise identities of the athletes in the study. The
athletes seemed to have developed and internalized stronger
exercise identities through their sport participation than the
students that took physical education. “Knowledge can have little
impact on a person’s behavior if one’s social identity carries the
message that he or she is not the kind of person who engages in
such behavior” (Storer et al., 1997, pp. 266-267).
Sport Team Participation and Exercise Identity
Another factor that could account for the significant differences
in exercise identity rates of the students is that most of the students
that participated in athletics continued participating on their
athletic teams after they finished their graduation requirements for
physical education. The athletes continued to have opportunities
for supervised practices, scrimmages, games, competitions,
conditioning, and training sessions with coaches associated with
their sports before and/or after-school during their sophomore,
junior and senior years in high school. The students who had taken
physical education to fulfill their graduation requirements had no
opportunities available from the school to participate in supervised
after-school physical activities. According to the exercise identity
literature, the on-going participation of the athletes in after-school
physical activity and on school sponsored sports teams would have
continued to strengthen their exercise identities.
Physical Education, After-School Physical Activities and
Intramural Clubs
The researchers recommend that physical education be a
required course in schools for every year and that no other classes
be allowed to substitute for the physical education requirement.
Participation in after-school physical activities and intramural
programs; that are supervised by certified physical educators,
should be made available to all students in an attempt to increase
rates of physical activity and to help develop and reinforce positive
exercise identities in all students. The Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (2000) recommended that supervised after school
activities and programs, like intramurals and physical activity
clubs, need to be developed and implemented on a national
level for all school children. Wechsler, Devereaux, Davis, and
Collins (2000) recommended that all schools should offer quality
intramural programs that feature a diverse selection of competitive
and non-competitive, structured, and unstructured activities that
meet the needs, interests, and abilities of all students. After
school programs would provide students with the opportunity to
be physically active and to engage in regular exercise behaviors
that will improve their exercise identities and motivate them to
be more active on a regular basis. By improving the affective
aspects of physical education, like exercise identity, students will
be motivated to adopt new behaviors that will help them develop
and maintain healthier and more active lifestyles.
Implications
Physical inactivity has contributed to an unprecedented
epidemic of childhood obesity that is currently plaguing the United
States (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2000). Quality
physical education classes taught by licensed physical educators
(NASPE, 2002) should provide a daily minimum of 60 minutes
of moderate to vigorous levels of physical activity for elementary
students (Corbin, Pangrazi, Beighle, Le Masurier, & Morgan,
2004) and 45 minutes to secondary students (NASPE, 2004).
These physical education classes should incorporate curriculums
that help students develop knowledge, attitudes, skills, behaviors,
and confidence to adopt and maintain physically active lifestyles,
while providing opportunities for enjoyable physical activity
(CDC, 2000). To ensure quality instruction, physical education
classes must be limited to the class sizes of other school subjects
(CDC, 2000; NASPE, 2002).
Texas needs to develop standardized assessment instruments
that will accurately measure information on health and physical
education knowledge, attitudes, and fitness levels of all high school
students. Students that are inactive, overweight/obese, have low
rates of fitness knowledge, and low exercise identity rates need to
be identified and evaluated throughout their entire public school
education (K – 12). Curriculums need to be specifically created
that will improve exercise identity and motivate all students to be
more physically active and exercise on a regular basis.
Physical activity instruments like pedometers, heart rate
monitors, and questionnaires like the PDPAR could be used by
physical educators to assess if students are currently achieving
recommended rates of physical activity and exercise to maintain
proper health. Simple body composition assessments like the
body mass index, waist to hip ratio, and percent body fat could be
used to evaluate possible future health risks for students. The EIS
could also be used to assess current and future attitudes of students
towards exercise and physical activity. Recent research has shown
that children as young as three are not active enough and are
developing overly sedentary lifestyles and behaviors (Reilly et al.,
2004). An estimated 10.4% of two to five year-olds, 15.3% of 6
to 11 year-olds, and 15.5% of 12 to 19 year-olds are overweight
(Ogden, Flegal, Carroll, & Johnson, 2002). Among children 6 to
19, 31% are at risk of being overweight (Hedley et al., 2004). By
using these types of assessments together, educators could quickly
and easily identify and intervene with students who are sedentary,
overweight/obese, and have poor exercise identities.
Recommendations for Future Study
Data for this study were collected from a very limited
population. Further data needs to be collected from an expanded
population of participants distributed across the United States
to determine if significant differences in exercise identity exist
between physical education students and athletes at the national
level. Further research is also recommended to determine if
significant differences between physical education students and
athletes regarding exercise identity would persist as they aged and
graduated from high school and were no longer associated with
high school teams and clubs.
volume 5, issue 1 35

Differences in Exercise Identity
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36 Journal of Research

Tobacco, the Common Enemy and a Gateway
Drug: Policy Implications
by Mohammad R. Torabi, Mi Kyung Jun, Carole Nowicke, Barbara
Seitz de Martinez, and Ruth Gassman
Abstract
For the four leading causes of death in the United States (heart
disease, cancer, stroke and chronic respiratory disease), tobacco
use is a common risk factor. Tobacco use is responsible for almost
450,000 deaths per year and impacts the health of every member
of our society. Tobacco is a gateway drug for substance abuse.
That role is critical to revisit and revalidate. From 490 schools, a
total of 175,460 students in grades 6-12 participated in an alcohol,
tobacco and other drug use survey, the descriptive analyses of
the data being stated in a 2007 technical report. The secondary
analyses of the data clearly demonstrated that a dose-response
relationship pattern of association existed between increasing
quantity of cigarette use and the use of alcohol and other drugs.
Additionally, logit analysis revealed that selected demographic and
other variables were statistically significant predictors of the past
month's use of cigarettes. The secondary analyses were replicated
for the 2008 survey, in which 152,732 students responded to the
same questionnaire. Similar results were obtained. Smoking is
a major risk factor to the leading causes of death and sufficient
empirical evidence establishes that tobacco is a gateway drug.
To combat tobacco use, a comprehensive ecological approach,
including tobacco education and cessation, enacting and enforcing
smoke-free policies, and increasing taxes on tobacco products, is
recommended.
Introduction
Mazzone and Arroglio asked, "How many ways can we say that
cigarette smoking is bad for you?" (Mazzone & Arroglio, 2004,
p. 1717), Tobacco use is responsible for almost 450,000 deaths
per year in the U.S. and affects every cell, every organ, and every
aspect of the human body.
Tobacco use is directly involved in neoplasms in many parts of
the body, including the oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, pancreas,
kidney, urinary bladder, cervix and lungs. It is also implicated in
cataracts, periodontal disease, cerebrovascular disease, coronary
heart disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, respiratory
disease, aortic aneurisms and acute myelogenous leukemia (AML)
(The Health Consequences of Smoking, 2004; Stewart, Cardinez,
et al., 2008). While the top four leading causes of mortality in
the U. S. are heart disease, cancer, stroke and chronic respiratory
disease, the number one risk factor for all of those premature
deaths is tobacco use. And, as public health enemy number one,
tobacco use is the most preventable.
Whether it be through exposure to second-hand smoke, direct
smoking or chewing (The Health Consequences of Involuntary
Exposure to Tobacco Smoke, 2006), through environmental
contamination, or increased cost of medical care and lost worker
productivity, tobacco has literally impacted the health and wealth of
every member of our society. Gro Harlem Brundtland, the former
Director General of the World Health Organization (WHO), said,
"Tobacco is one of the greatest emerging health disasters in human
history" (WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008, p.
13). The WHO also states that tobacco "is the only legal consumer
product that can harm everyone exposed to it–and it kills up to
half of those who use it as intended" (WHO report on the global
tobacco epidemic, 2008, p. 8).
Tobacco causes premature deaths, negatively impacts quality of
life and contributes significantly to the exponentially rising costs
for health care. Results from the WHO's Global Youth Surveillance
Survey (GYTS) suggest that the estimated world-wide deaths from
smoking will double from 5 million per year to 10 million per year
by 2020 and that these projected 10 million deaths may even be an
underestimate (Warren et al., 2008, p. 1). The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) estimate that smoking and exposure
to second-hand smoke cost the United States 5.5 million Years
of Potential Life Lost (YPLL) and $92 billion annually in lost
productivity (Armour, Woollery, Malarcher, Pechacek, & Husten,
2005). That amounts to $1.9 billion on average per state for loss
of productivity, and the average smoking attributable cost per state
in 2004 was nearly an additional $1.9 billion or the equivalent of
$5.31 per every pack of cigarettes sold. Whereas the CDC estimate
of annual health care costs at $75 billion, the direct Medicaid costs
from smoking are calculated to be $607 million, or the equivalent
of $1.63 per pack (Sustaining state programs for tobacco control:
Data highlights, 2006). Medicaid costs for smoking-related
coverage comes to $129.90 per capita annually for adults in the
U.S. (Sustaining state programs, 2006). Even if people don't
smoke, they pay the costs in taxes because of smoking's national
economic implications.
Smoking impacts the health of every member of society.
Annually in the U.S., smoking results in the death of 26,000 to
73,000 non-smokers exposed to second-hand smoke (Proposed
Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air
Contaminant, 2005). in addition to the approximately 450,000
smoker deaths (Sustaining state programs, 2006). The leading
cause of premature death in the U.S. is smoking (Sustaining
state programs, 2006). Over 200,000 episodes of asthma, nearly
72,000 pre-term deliveries, nearly 800,000 otitis media visits,
and approximately 46,000 cardiac deaths each year in the U.S.
are attributable to environmental tobacco smoke (Proposed
Identification of Environmental Tobacco Smoke as a Toxic Air
Contaminant, 2005). At current smoking rates, it is estimated
that more than 6.3 million of today's youth, 18 and under, will die
from tobacco-related causes (Sustaining state programs, 2006).
Each death represents more than a statistic. Each person who died
volume 5, issue 1 37

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
was someone's child, parent, sibling, neighbor, teacher, employer,
employee, or loved one.
Tobacco as a Gateway Drug
Denise Kandel and fellow researchers (Kandel, 1975, 2002;
Kandel & Faust, 1975; Kandel & Yamaguchi, 1992) have
popularized study of both the "gateway hypothesis" of drug use
and the notion of "stages of acquisition" of drug use (Kelley,
Denny, & Young, 1999). Kelley, Denny and Young (1999) found
that adolescents who began drug experimentation with alcohol
progressed through "stages" quicker than those who started with
cigarettes and did not "graduate" to other illicit substances. After
studying nicotine dependence in youth, DiFranza (DiFranza, 2007,
2008; DiFranza et al., 2007) reported that those who felt relaxed
upon smoking for the first time and those who sampled tobacco
in a depressed mood were the most susceptible to accelerated
addiction. From a study of youth who started using smokeless
tobacco, Tomar concluded that those youth were more than three
times as likely in four years to smoke tobacco than subjects who
had not started using smokeless tobacco at the time of the initial
survey (Tomar, 2003). This study, and others demonstrate how
adolescents can swiftly become habituated to tobacco, indicating
the need to prevent tobacco experimentation through educational
efforts and programs, such as after-school activities.
Torabi, Bailey, and Madj-Jabbari (1993) provided evidence
that tobacco serves as a gateway drug, another reason for those
educational efforts and programs. To continue the public health
work addressing tobacco and other drug use, it is important to
revisit those 1993 findings that implicated tobacco as a gateway
drug (Torabi, Bailey, & Madj-Jabbari, 1993). This study aims to
answer the following questions:
1. How does drug use, including tobacco, by students in a
Midwestern state compare with national data?
2. What are the relationships between demographic and selected
risk factors with reported use of tobacco and other common drugs,
such as alcohol, marijuana and cocaine?
3. As a gateway drug, does a dose-response relationship exist
between cigarette use and selected other drug use, including
alcohol, marijuana and cocaine?
Methods
Participants
The data were obtained from a statewide cross-sectional survey
of Alcohol, Tobacco and Other Drug Use by Indiana Children and
Adolescents conducted by the Indiana Prevention Resource Center
(IPRC) at Indiana University in 2007 (Gassman et al, 2007).
The survey's sampling frame consisted of all schools in Indiana
that serve grades 6-12. Recruitment materials (i.e., an invitation
letter, a statement on parental consent, an application form and
a stamped return envelope) were sent to all superintendents,
principals and Safe and Drug Free School Coordinators. Obtaining
parental consent for student participation in the survey was each
school's responsibility. To improve the consistency of the survey
administration procedures, a training video and written instruction
were supplied to all school personnel. Schools were directed to
administer the survey to all students in a classroom setting and
inform them that participation was voluntary. When students
38 Journal of Research
completed the survey, they were advised to place their forms
into the envelope provided. Besides gender, age, grade, race and
ethnicity, no other identifying information was collected.
The total student population, grades 6-12, in Indiana during
the academic year 2006-2007 was 558,429. A sample of 175,460
students in grades 6-12 from 490 schools participated in the survey:
40.8% from public schools and 3.2% from non-public schools.
There was no difference between non-participant and participant
schools in terms of urban/rural location ( 2 = 1.20, P = 0.27).
To cross-validate the current findings, the same analyses were
conducted with data collected a year later in the spring of 2008
(Gassman et al., 2008). The same instrument and protocol were
applied. A total of 152,732 students participated in that study. The
socio-demographic characteristics of students in the 2007 and
the 2008 samples were similar (Gassman et al, 2007, 2008). For
example, 49% of the 2007 sample was male, and 49% of the 2008
sample was male.
To address inconsistent and incomplete responses, a protocol
was developed. Students who provided inconsistent response
patterns to items on annual and monthly use of substances
(e.g., those students who reported never using a particular drug
during the past year and who also reported using that same drug
during the past month) and those who provided a pattern of
pharmacologically implausible responses (i.e., a combination of
drugs and frequency of use considered lethal) were excluded. The
final item on the survey asked, "How truthfully have you answered
these questions?" with response options "not truthfully at all"
"somewhat truthfully" and "completely truthfully." Students who
responded "not truthfully at all" were eliminated from the analysis.
A sample of 158,632 from data originally collected, or 90.3%, was
used in this data analyses.
Instrumentation
The survey items were based on national surveys, such as the
Monitoring the Future Survey (Johnston, O'Malley, Bachman, &
Schulenberg, 2006), the National Survey on Drug Use and Health
(formerly called the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse)
(National Survey on Drug Use and Health: National Findings
2006, 2007), and the Youth Risk Behavioral Surveillance System
(Eaton et al., 2006) in order to allow direct comparisons at the
national level. The instrument is comprised of 181 items asking
about socio-demographic characteristics, use of various substances,
risk and protective factors (e.g., perceived risk of harm), perceived
personal safety, violent behavior and gambling behavior. For the
present study, the following variables were extracted:
Monthly Use. The outcome variables were measured by multiple
choice items asking, "How often in the past month (30 days) have
you used. . ." followed by a list of drugs or drug classifications,
such as cigarettes, smokeless tobacco, cigars, alcohol, marijuana,
cocaine and other drugs. The response options were "never," "1-5
times," "6-19 times," "20-40 times," and "more than 40 times."
However, for cigarette use 7 response options were provided:
"none," "a few times," "1 to 5 cigarettes per day," "about one half
pack per day," "about 1 pack per day," "about 1 and a half packs
per day," "and two or more packs per day." Binge alcohol drinking
was asked about separately: "How many times in the last two
weeks have you had five or more alcoholic drinks at a sitting?"

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
The response options were "none," "once," "twice," "3 to 5 times,"
"6 to 9 times," and "10 or more times." For the logit analysis,
responses to having used substances in the past month, as well as
binge drinking responses were coded into dichotomous categories,
0 (no use) and 1 (one time or more).
A similar set of items was asked in reference to the annual use of
other drugs. Responses to the annual and corresponding monthly
use item for each drug were highly correlated (r = 0.89, P < 0.01),
indicating a high level of response consistency.
Perceived Risk of Harm. Seven items measured perceived risk
of harm due to substance usage: "How much do you think people
risk harming themselves (physically or in other ways) if they
smoke one or more packs of cigarettes per day; smoke marijuana
(pot) occasionally; smoke marijuana regularly; use cocaine
occasionally; use cocaine regularly; take one or two drinks of
alcohol (beer, wine, liquor) occasionally; have five or more drinks
once or twice each weekend?" For each item, the response options
ranged from 0 (no risk) to 3 (great risk). Numeric values for all
seven items were averaged for a scale ranging from 0 to 3 with
Cronbach's alpha of .90. For use in the logit regression analyses
the mid-points were used to recode the scores to their original
response categories, 0.00-0.49 (no risk), 0.50-1.49 (slight risk),
1.50-2.49 (moderate risk) and 2.50-3.00 (great risk).
Perceived Peer Disapproval. To measure perceived peer
approval of using substances, 7 more items were used: "How do
you think your close friends feel (or would feel) about you doing
each of the following things? Smoke one or more packs of cigarettes
per day; smoke marijuana (pot) occasionally; smoke marijuana
regularly; use cocaine occasionally; use cocaine regularly; take
one or two drinks of alcohol (beer, wine, liquor) occasionally; and
have five or more drinks once or twice each weekend?" For each
item the response options ranged from 0 (strongly approve) to 4
(strongly disapprove). Numeric values for all seven items were
averaged for a scale from 0 to 4 with Cronbach's alpha of .94. For
use in the logit regression analyses the mid-points were used to
recode the scores to their original response categories: 0.00-0.49
(strongly approve); 0.50-1.49 (approve); 1.50-2.49 (don't know);
2.50-3.49 (disapprove); and 3.50-4.00 (strongly disapprove).
Perceived Parental Disapproval. Seven items were also used to
measure perceived parental approval of using substances: "How
do you think your parents/guardians feel (or would feel) about
you doing each of the following things? Smoke one or more
packs of cigarettes per day; smoke marijuana (pot) occasionally;
smoke marijuana regularly; use cocaine occasionally; use cocaine
regularly; take one or two drinks of alcohol (beer, wine, liquor)
occasionally; have five or more drinks once or twice each
weekend?" For each item the response options ranged from 0
(strongly approve) to 4 (strongly disapprove). Numeric values for
all seven items were averaged for a scale ranging from 0 to 4 with
Cronbach's alpha of .96. For use in the logit regression analysis the
mid-points were used to recode the scores to their original response
categories: 0.00-0.49 (strongly approve); 0.50-1.49 (approve);
1.50-2.49 (don't know); 2.50-3.49 (disapprove); and 3.50-4.00
(strongly disapprove).
Data Analysis
Chi-square analyses (SPSS 15.0) were used to examine sociodemographic
differences between the student sample and the
population. Three separate binomial logit regression analyses
(STATA, version 9) were applied to examine the relationship
between socio-demographic factors, risk factors and cigarette use
with reported use of alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine during the past
month, respectively (categories of no use versus 1 time or more). To
test which factors significantly increase or decrease the probability
of using substances, binomial logit analyses were performed. Logit
models are superior to standard linear models when estimating
binary outcomes because the latter can give erroneous predicted
probabilities due to heteroscedasticity or non-normality of error
terms. Due to the asymmetry or lack of comparability with odds
ratios, logit coefficients are preferred as a measure of strength of
relationship (Garson, 2008). Odds ratios vary from 0.00 to 0.99
for negative relationships, whereas they vary from 1.01 to infinity
for positive relationships. The general form of the binomial logit
p
model is: 1n[ 17 ] = 2
2
where the natural logarithm and p/(1 -
2
p) is the odds ratio. The logit term refers to the natural log of the
odds ratio. B represents the parameter estimate going with X, and
X represents the vector of independent variables (q varies from 1
to n for n independent variables). Finally, predicted probabilities of
using alcohol, marijuana, and cocaine were examined separately
across increasing doses of cigarette use: from none to 1-plus pack
per day.
Results
Table 1 compares the socio-demographic characteristics of
students in the sample with the statewide population. Chi-square
analyses showed that gender, race/ethnicity and grade level varied
significantly between the sample and the population. In many cases
these differences were slight; however, due to the large sample
volume 5, issue 1 39

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
size, they were statistically significant. For example, the sample
contained more females than the state population (51.0% vs. 49.0%)
and more 6 th grade students (15.2% vs. 14.5%). Simultaneously,
modest differences in race/ethnicity suggest caution in generalizing
results for white and black students who were under-represented in
the sample compared to the population.
Figure 1 compares the monthly use of various substances for the
sample of 8 th grade students in Indiana with national counterparts
who were administered the Monitoring the Future Survey in 2007.
Notably higher percentages of students in the Indiana sample used
cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana compared to the nation. Slightly
higher percentages of Indiana students used smokeless tobacco,
cocaine and methamphetamines compared to students nationally.
Generally, similar results were obtained for selected other grades
where comparable data were available at the national level. Due
to space limitations, those figures are not included in this research
article but are available upon request.
Figure 2 illustrates the relationship between percentage of
students in grades 6-12 who smoked progressive dosages of
cigarettes monthly and reported use of different substances (e.g.,
alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, etc.) at least once during the past
month. In the majority of instances, the percentage of respondents
who reported using a drug in the past month increased significantly
as cigarette dosage increased from none to 1 or more packs per
day. Applying chi-square analyses, the findings consistently
demonstrate a linear dose-response relationship between cigarette
usage and use of 12 separate substances (P < 0.01).
Separate binomial logit regression analyses (STATA, version 9)
were used to examine the relationship between gender, race, grade
level, several risk/protective factors and level (dose) of cigarette
smoking with each of 3 different substances–alcohol, marijuana,
or cocaine–reportedly used in the past month. The categories were
never and at least once.
The first set of results in Table 2 show factors associated with
using alcohol in the past month versus no use in the past month. The
odds of reporting alcohol use were 14.6% greater for female than
male adolescents. The odds of drinking alcohol were 10.5% greater
for white than non-white adolescents. As grade level advanced, the
odds of drinking alcohol in the past month increased 26.9%. As
40 Journal of Research
perceived risk of harm rose from no risk to great risk, the odds
of drinking alcohol decreased 25.4%. Likewise, as perceived peer
disapproval rose, the odds of drinking alcohol in the past month
decreased 43.3%. And as perceived parental disapproval grew,
the odds of drinking alcohol in the past month increased 17.5%.
Finally, as cigarette dosage climbed, the odds of drinking alcohol
rose by 106.7%.
The second and third sets of results in Table 2 show factors
associated with reporting marijuana and cocaine use, respectively.
Although the numeric values differ, with few exceptions, the
results are similar to those found for reported use of alcohol.
Gender was an exception, in that the odds of using marijuana
and cocaine were greater for males than for females (3.4% and
36.8%, respectively). In addition, the odds of using marijuana
were 30.1% greater and, for using cocaine, 27.2% greater for nonwhites
compared to whites. The opposite was found for alcohol:
the odds of using alcohol were greater for whites than nonwhites.
Overall, however, the relationships were consistent across
substances. Moreover, as cigarette dosage increased, the odds of
using marijuana and cocaine grew as well, 134.2% and 62.2%,
respectively.
Via percentage, Table 3 shows predicted probabilities of using
alcohol in the past month by gender, race, grade level, perceived
risk of harm and perceived risk of peer disapproval and parental

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
disapproval, according to reported dose of cigarette smoking.
The predicted probability of using alcohol in the past month
rose within gender and race groups for every categorical increase
in reported dose of cigarette smoking. The predicted probability of
using alcohol in the past month when no cigarettes were smoked
ranged from 17% to 19% between gender and race (white, nonwhite)
categories compared to probabilities ranging from 79% to
81% when 1 or more packs a day were smoked. There were small
differences in the predicted probabilities between gender categories.
Females who smoked cigarettes in any amount had from 2% to
4% greater predicted probability of consuming alcohol in the past
month compared to males who smoked the same amount. Smaller
differences were seen in the predicted probabilities between race
categories. White adolescents who smoked cigarettes in any amount
had from a 1% to 3% greater predicted probability of consuming
alcohol in the past month compared to non-whites.
As dose of cigarettes smoked grew within each grade level,
predicted probability of drinking alcohol consistently grew as
well. For instance, 8 th graders who reported no use of cigarettes
had a 16% predicted probability of consuming alcohol. Those who
reported using a few cigarettes had a 28% probability, and those
who smoked 1-plus pack per day had a 77% predicted probability of
drinking alcohol in the past month. As dose of cigarettes increased
within the category of perceived risk of harm, the predicted
probabilities of drinking alcohol in the past month increased. For
instance, adolescents who reported smoking cigarettes a few times
and perceived no risk of harm had a 46% predicted probability of
drinking alcohol. Those who smoked !-packs per day had a 78%,
and those who smoked 1-plus packs per day had an 88% predicted
probability of using alcohol. Likewise, as cigarette dosage grew
within the category of perceived peer disapproval, the predicted
probabilities of drinking alcohol in the past month grew. For
example, adolescents who reported smoking 1-5 cigarettes per
day and perceived strong peer disapproval had a 37% predicted
probability of drinking alcohol, and those who smoked 1-plus pack
per day had a 71% predicted probability of using alcohol.
Although the expected inverse relationship between perceived
parental disapproval and the odds of drinking alcohol in the past
month was not found (Table 2), the familiar dose-response pattern
within categories of perceived parental disapproval was evident.
For instance, adolescents who reported smoking a few times
and perceived strong parent disapproval had a 33% predicted
probability of using alcohol compared to those who smoked 1-
plus pack per day who had an 81% predicted probability of using
alcohol in the past month.
The separate patterns of predicted probabilities for using
marijuana and cocaine in the past month were similar to those
found for alcohol use (not shown). Specifically, the predicted
probabilities of using marijuana (and cocaine) increased in relation
to incremental doses of cigarette use within socio-demographic
(e.g., gender, race) and risk categories. Regardless of gender, race,
grade-level and level of risk factor, this same dose-response pattern
was unequivocal.
The main results of the cross-validation of the 2008 survey of
over 150,000 students were consistent with the original results of
this study. The percentage of students who reported using alcohol,
marijuana, and cocaine in the past month and the predicted
volume 5, issue 1 41

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
probabilities increased significantly as cigarette dosage increased
(P < 0.01).
Discussion
Tobacco use is clearly the most preventable cause of premature
death and suffering, and it contributes significantly to skyrocketing
health care costs in the U.S. and beyond. That is why, in this paper,
tobacco is labeled as everyone's common enemy, regardless of
socio-demographics. As the first section of this article pointed out,
tobacco use affects smokers' and non-smokers' health and wellbeing.
The main purpose of this paper was to answer the three questions
listed in the introduction section. To do this, it was analyzed in 2007
and cross-validated with 2008 data relative to tobacco, alcohol and
other drug use among students' grades 6-12.
With regard to monthly use, the present study found that Indiana
8 th graders used cigarettes, alcohol and marijuana at a notably higher
rate and smokeless tobacco, cocaine and methamphetamines at a
slightly higher rate than 8th graders nationally. The comparison
of other grades in Indiana with their national counterparts
(where comparable data were available) revealed similar results.
Consequently, it is clear that tobacco and other drug use is
prevalent among students all over the country. A Midwestern state
is not immune from this devastating public health problem.
Also, this study revealed that a strong dose-response relationship,
with regard to monthly use of cigarettes and other substances, was
found across all grades surveyed: increased smoking was strongly
associated with increased use of alcohol, smokeless tobacco and
five other drugs. Comparing use versus non-use in the past month,
a strong dose-response relationship was also found across all
grades with alcohol, the odds of having drunk alcohol increasing
by 106.7%. Similarly, past-month use of cigarettes was associated
with increased odds of marijuana and cocaine use (134.2% and
62.2%, respectively). The strength of the dose-response relationship
and patterns of predicted probabilities between increasing monthly
cigarette use and increasing alcohol use (Table 3) were observed
within gender and race (white versus non-white).
The pattern of dose-response between cigarette use and alcohol
use was found to extend also to marijuana and cocaine use. Within
each category of perception for harm and for peer and parental
disapproval, growing cigarette dosage was associated with
predicted probability of increased past-month alcohol use (Table
3): the heavier the level of smoking, the greater the predicted
probability of alcohol use.
Whereas some demographic subgroups were at a higher risk for
drug use than others, even without cigarette smoking, the relationship
between rising cigarette use and use of alcohol, marijuana, and
cocaine occurred across gender, race and risk/protective factors.
Females who smoked cigarettes were slightly more susceptible to
alcohol use. In contrast, males were incrementally more at risk for
cocaine use. Whites who smoked cigarettes were more vulnerable
than nonwhites to alcohol use. At the same time, incremental use
of cigarettes placed nonwhites at a higher risk for marijuana and
cocaine use. Regardless of the adolescent's level of risk/protective
factors, the cigarette dose-dependent relationship existed, which
suggests diminution of smoking contributes to drug use prevention
beyond what is derived through perceived risk of harm, peer
42 Journal of Research
disapproval, and parental disapproval.
Through its confirmation of tobacco's deleterious character and
powerful association of youth cigarette smoking and use of other
drugs, this study has strong implications for policies and other
strategies to address this problem. Given the human and economic
toll exerted by tobacco, this study calls for action on multiple levels
in the form of evidence-based programs, policies and practices to
reduce smoking incidence and prevalence.
Parents constitute perhaps the most important ingredient in
preventing youth tobacco use. Research by NIDA suggests that
parents set clear and reasonable rules and follow up with consistent
and appropriate enforcement and consequences (Family Guide:
Keeping Youth Mentally Health and Drug-Free, 2008). Beyond
parental rule-setting and general oversight of children's behaviors,
such explicit actions as monitoring which movies children view
can provide protective influence, since certain movies glamorizing
tobacco use can negatively influence children (Sargent, Tanski &
Gibson, 2007). Parents need to provide positive role models and
never allow smoking in their home or family car.
Tobacco use affects the entire community and, hence, communitybased
strategies are needed. Evidence-based community strategies
include increasing taxes on cigarettes, interventions to reduce
youth access to tobacco in combination with mobilization efforts,
and counter-marketing campaigns (Sustaining state programs,
2006; Zaza, 2009).
Stubera, Galea, and Link raise another intriguing possibility,
that of increasing stigmatization of smoking lowering its use. They
suggest marketing that stresses the danger of second-hand smoke
and discrimination against smokers in health insurance costs are
two factors that can contribute to that stigmatization (Stubera,
Galea, & Link, 2008). Programs which are shown to work, such
as the combination of school- and community-based prevention
efforts as described by Lohrmann, Alter, Greene, and Younoszai,
should be implemented (Lohrmann, Alter, Green & Younoszai,
2005).
Also, the National Registry of Effective Prevention Programs
and Practices (National Registry, 2008) includes evidence-based
tobacco prevention program and practice strategies, which have
been evaluated for all ages and settings across the lifespan (www.
nrepp.samhsa.gov) and across domains, including schools,
families, communities and workplace. Schools need to employ
smoking bans on and around their campuses, to adopt evidencebased
tobacco prevention curricula and to offer and promote
smoking cessation programs.
Policies that ban or restrict smoking can effectively reduce the
volume of secondhand smoke and exposure to it, as well as decrease
cigarette consumption, including among teens (Sustaining state
programs, 2006; Wakefield, et al 2000). In contrast to industry
predictions, smoking bans in restaurants and bars have not been
found to result in large declines in sales (Alamar, & Glantz,
2004; Bartosch, & Pope, 1999; Huang, De, & McCusker, 2004).
The greater the exposure of children to pro-tobacco messages,
the more open they are to smoking in the future (Seo, Torabi, &
Weaver, 2008). Research shows that communities have the power
to influence the perceptions of youth and adults on smoking norms
by enacting and enforcing a wide variety of strong regulations on
tobacco control (Hamilton, Biener, & Brennan, 2008). 38 The greater

Tobacco, the Common Enemy
the exposure of children to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) in
their homes and family cars, the more likely they are to consider
smoking in their future (Seo, Torabi, & Weaver, 2008). Studies
support restricting smoking in the home as a recommended method
to reduce youth smoking (Wakefield et al., 2000). Communities
should restrict smoking indoors and approve legislation to ban
smoking in cars transporting children.
The findings of the study should be interpreted in light of the
following limitations. Like most other studies on this topic, the
findings of the study are based on students' self-report. Although
this cross-sectional data cannot be used to determine causality,
the association between amount of cigarettes used and the use of
alcohol and other drugs is unequivocal. Although the sample size
was large and differences between the sample and the population
for gender, race/ethnicity and grade level were slight, they were
statistically significant. Caution should be exercised, particularly in
regard to the generalization of results for groups under-represented
in the sample.
Implications
Whether the association of smoking with increased use of other
drugs is a relationship of cause and effect or a manifestation of
a common association with another variable such as high risktaking
or rebelliousness, it remains true that every parent, teacher,
and person who works with youth in our society should recognize
the powerful predictive relationship that exists between cigarette
smoking by children and adolescents and use of alcohol and other
drugs. This is particularly true where use of cigarettes is heavy, for
example, daily smoking or smoking of 1-plus packs per day. This
study clearly provides further evidence that tobacco use serves as a
"gateway drug."
The present study highlights dose-response rates that suggest the
need for further investigation of tobacco as a "gateway drug" that
increases the likelihood of other drug use. The younger a person
begins smoking, the more difficult it is to quit and the greater
the likelihood of addiction and disease (Cancer Trends Progress
Report–2007; DeWit, Offord, & Wong, 1997; Elders, Perry,
Eriksen, & Giovino, 1994; Helping teens stop smoking, 2008).
Given the serious health consequences of smoking on individuals
and on those exposed to their smoking and given the economic
burden that smoking represents, society should aggressively adopt
multiple strategies built around evidence-based policies, programs
and practices, and implement those strategies across multiple
community domains to delay smoking initiation and to reduce its
incidence and prevalence.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Mohammad R. Torabi is Chancellor's professor and Chairperson
in the Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN 47405; E-mail: torabi@indiana.edu. Mi Kyung
Jun is a research associate in the Indiana Prevention Resource
Center, Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN 47405. Carole Nowicke is a reference librarian
in the Indiana Prevention Resource Center, Department of
Applied Health Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN
17405. Barbara Seitz de Martinez is the deputy director in the
Indiana Prevention Resource Center, Department of Applied
Health Science, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47404.
Ruth Gassman is the executive director in the Indiana Prevention
Resource Center, Department of Applied Health Science, Indiana
University, Bloomington, IN 47404.
Author Note: This article is reproduce with permission and
was previously published by the American Journal of Health
Education–January/February 2010, Volume 41, No. 1, 4-13
Author Note: This research was supported by a contract with the
Indiana Family and Social Services Administration, Division of
Mental Health and Addiction, financially supported through HHS/
Substance Abuse Mental Health Services Administration, Center
for Substance Abuse Prevention, Substance Abuse Prevention and
Treatment Block Grant.
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44 Journal of Research

The Health and Wellbeing of Staff Members
at a Tertiary Institution in New Zealand
by Sonja Dreyer, Universal College of Learning, Palmerston North,
New Zealand; Lukas I. Dreyer, Massey University Manawatu,
Palmerston North, New Zealand; Dean M. Rankin, Universal
College of Learning, Palmerston North, New Zealand
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the physical,
psychological and biochemical health status of staff members at a
higher educational institution (Institute of Technology). Relative
large numbers of subjects were identified with hypertension
(18.5%), stress symptoms (32.1%), job stress (36%) and emotional
exhaustion (11.4%). Thirty percent presented with more than three
risk factors, 49% with one or two risk factors while only 21% were
risk free. Cardiovascular fitness showed positive associations with
body fat, body weight, stress, emotional exhaustion and fasting
blood glucose levels. Psychological health correlated significantly
(p"0.05) with measures of coronary risk, health status, body
composition and cardiovascular fitness. Staff assistance programs
focusing on exercise, weight management and job stress could
potentially have a positive impact on overall health of staff at
tertiary institutions.
Key words: Happiness and quality of life
Various researchers from across the globe reflect in scientific
publications on the continuous and disquieting increase in levels
of occupational stress experienced by staff at higher educational
institutions (Dua, 1994; Gillespie, Walsh, Winefields, Dua & Souch,
2001; Houston, Meyer & Paewai, 2006; Tytherleigh, Webb, Cooper
& Ricketts, 2005). Stress might arise from job environmental factors,
like overload, time constraints, lack of promotion, changing job
roles and/or from individual interpretation (cognitive assessment)
of the situation. There is general agreement that chronic job related
stress can impact negatively on psycho-emotional well-being,
physical health, as well as on lifestyle and exercise habits (Lovalla
& Gerin, 2003; Nicholson, Fuhrer & Marmot, 2005; Rosengren et
al., 2004). The impact of occupational stress on the physical and
psychological health of staff at higher educational institutions is as
yet not fully explored. This is surprising as the higher educational
sector has commonly been regarded as a working environment
that has become increasingly more stressful and psychologically
demanding due to multiple triggers for stress-related illnesses
(Kinman, 2001; Winefield & Jarret, 2001). In a national survey of
British working conditions, university lecturers reported the lowest
levels of self-reported psychological health compared to 19 other
occupational groups (Millward-Brown, 1996). In a comprehensive
study by Tytherleigh et al. (2005) examining occupational stress in
higher education institutions, it was concluded that universities no
longer provide the low stress working environment they once did.
Research conducted at a number of academic institutions (United
Kingdom, United States of America, Australia, Netherlands,
New Zealand and South Africa) identified several key stressors
commonly associated with stress among faculty staff. Overload,
time constraints, lack of promotion opportunities, inadequate
recognition, salary, changing job role, inadequate management and/
or participation in management, inadequate resources and funding,
and student interactions were listed as the majors stressors in most
of these studies (Barkhuizen & Rothman, 2008; Taris, Scheurs &
Van Iersel-Van Silfhout, 2001; Tytherleigh et al., 2005; Winefield
& Jarrett, 2001; Winter & Sarros, 2002). Research by Barkhuizen
and Rothman (2008) indicate that the academic environment is
still largely a male dominated occupation and express the opinion
that female academics might therefore experience more stressors
and strains than male academics. Reasons for this may include
the lack of role models, less socialization from women of their
own rank, gender stereotypes and role conflict as they endeavor to
balance roles at work and home. Longer working hours resulting
from trying to balance work and family responsibilities might
make female academics more susceptible to psychological health
and well-being problems (Barkhuizen & Rothman, 2008).
Health is traditionally determined by assessing coronary artery
disease (CAD) risk and includes measures such as: a) family
history, b) body weight, c) smoking status, d) total cholesterol
(TC), e) total cholesterol/high density lipoprotein-ratio (TC/HDLratio),
f) resting blood pressure, g) diabetes, h) gout (which is
defined as elevated uric acid levels associated with pain attacks
in selected joints like the big toe) and i) perceived levels of stress.
Exercise capacity and elevated blood pressure responses during
sub-maximal exercise testing have also been identified as potent
predictors of long-term health (Ashley & Myers, 2003). In addition
certain psycho-emotional constructs (e.g. depression, anxiety)
have emerged lately as significant predictors of long-term health
(Carney, 1998; Lovallo & Gerin, 2003; Nicholson et al. 2005;
Rosengren et al., 2004).
Psychological stress is regarded as a secondary risk factor
for coronary artery disease (CAD) (American College of Sports
Medicine, 2010) but limited information is available regarding the
association, or clustering, of psycho-emotional constructs with
coronary risk and overall health status of staff at higher educational
institutions. Higher education seems to equate with healthier
lifestyles (Ogden, 2004). Kobasa, Maddi, and Courington (1981)
introduced the concept of the hardy personality, or individuals
that seem to flourish on stress, in essence, indicating that an
individual’s appraisal of the situation (stressor) could impact on the
potential health consequences of a stressor like job environment.
It is therefore quite possible that this type of population (highly
educated individuals working at educational institutions) are better
able to manage stress, or that higher probable levels of participation
in physical exercise in this type of population would negate
potentially positive relationships between psychological distress
and markers of morphological, biochemical and physiological
health.
The aims of this study were:
volume 5, issue 1 45

Health and Wellbeing
1) To report the coronary risk and psycho-emotional health,
physical work capacity and morphological profiles of staff
members at a higher educational institution.
2) To determine if female staff members exhibit more
psychological distress and whether that correlates with
inferior or lesser levels of morphological, physiological and
biochemical health.
3) To study the contribution of various psychological constructs
to the variance of coronary risk and health status of staff
members at a higher educational institution.
4) To determine whether the level of cardiovascular fitness
influences (negate or strengthen) the relationships between
selected measurements of psychological, morphological,
biochemical and physiological health.
Method
Subjects
The subjects (n=81 randomly sampled out of 150 volunteers for
the study) were either teaching (44.3% - n=35) or administrative
(56.7% - n= 46) staff members at a higher educational teaching
institution in New Zealand. This institution currently employs
a total of 350 staff members. A total of 14.8% (n=12) of the 81
staff members participating in this study were in either academic
or administrative managerial positions, the remainder (n=69) were
in general administrative positions and/or lecturing staff. Eighty
(80.2%- n=65) percent of the group were females and 19.8%
(n=16) were males. This study reports baseline data of an exercise/
lifestyle intervention study and subject numbers were dictated by
amount required to obtain statistical power with intervention.
Health Status Questionnaires
All subjects completed two health-screening questionnaires
after providing informed consent. Symptomatology of illness was
measured through the Seriousness of Illness Rating Scale (IRS)
(Wyler, Masuda & Holmes, 1967), a self-reported checklist of
126 commonly recognized physical and mental symptoms and
diseases. In the development of this instrument by the Department
of Psychiatry at the Washington University School of Medicine, a
general severity weighting for each disorder was obtained by asking
a large sample of physicians, interns, residents, and lay persons
to rate each of them as to their relative seriousness. The ratings
reflected prognosis, duration, threat to life, degree of disability,
and degree of discomfort. A highly significant mean rank-order
correlation (r=0.947) was found between the medical and the lay
samples, and a system of weightings was accordingly constructed
by essentially placing a list of 126 diseases in a hierarchical rank
order from 1 to 126, with number 1 being the least troublesome
or serious, and number 126 the one with the largest impact on
health and well-being. This seriousness of illness rating scale
has served as a frequent tool in stress and illness studies (Kobasa
et al., 1981; Schroeder & Costa, 1984) and still reflects most of
the common health problems that could potentially force people
to use medication or visit a general practitioner. Modern diseases
like fibromyalgia and chronic fatigue syndrome are not on the list
but are covered by diseases/problems/ symptoms like tiredness,
anxiety, nervousness, depression and a whole range of infectious
problems. The questionnaire was used in this study to complement
46 Journal of Research
other measures of health in order to gain a concrete overall
impression of general health.
Coronary risk was assessed using a Coronary risk index
reflecting the 14 most common or typical risk factors for CAD.
Fourteen risk factors namely a) age, b) family history, c) body
weight, d) exercise, e) tobacco smoking, f) total cholesterol, g)
systolic blood pressure (SBP), h) diastolic blood pressure (DBP),
i) gender, j) perceived stress, k) cardiovascular disease symptoms,
l) personal history of cardiovascular disease, m) diabetes mellitus
and n) gout are included in this index utilising a Likert scale format
based on levels of risk (Bjurstrom & Alexiou, 1978). For example,
females younger than 45, would get a gender risk score of 1, those
older than 45 would get a risk score of 2, while a male would
get a risk score of 4, a bald male a score of 5 and a short bald
stocky male a score of 7. The category score for each of the 14 risk
factors are summed to get an overall risk score for each individual
and the highest probable score that an individual can get with this
Coronary risk index is 114 and the lowest possible score is 5.
Psychological Health
Psychological health was assessed by means of reliable
questionnaires, validated by their respective designers, through
the process of using random controlled samples and by correlating
results with various other accepted and validated questionnaires
measuring similar or opposite psychological constructs. The
Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein,
1983) was included as a measure of general life stress. The PSS
measures the degree to which the subject perceives situations in
her/his life as stressful. The PSS consists of 14 items referring to
the general frequency of feelings or thoughts about stress during
the past month. Items are rated on a 5 - point scale from "never"
to "very often". The items are quite general in nature in order to
assess a global level of perceived stress. Internal reliability has
been shown to range from .84 to .86 across a variety of populations
(Cohen et al., 1983). Emotional exhaustion was measured by
the Psychological Burnout questionnaire (Pines, Aronson &
Kafry, 1981) and Happiness, Well-being and Quality of Life by
the Affectometer 2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983). Job Stress was
determined by a questionnaire designed by Dua (1994), which
specifically measures job stress in the academic environment.
Biochemical Measures
Fasting venous blood samples were taken in the week after
which fitness testing was conducted. Total cholesterol (TC),
Low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C), High density
lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides, glucose and the
total cholesterol/HDL-ratio (TC/HDL-ratio) were assessed using
a registered biochemistry laboratory.
Physiological Variables
The physiological variables included height, weight, body
composition, resting heart rate (RHR), and resting blood pressure
(RBP). Body composition was obtained using the six skinfold
procedure according to the guidelines of the International Society
for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (2001). Resting blood
pressure was taken after subjects had been lying for 5 minutes in
the supine position in a quiet room, and was repeated three times.

Health and Wellbeing
The lowest reading was recorded in cases where the three measures
were within a 4 mmHg range. In cases where differences of larger
than 4 mmHg were found the lower of the two measures that
were within 4 mmHg from each other were used. Resting heart
rate (RHR) was measured after the blood pressure readings, for a
full minute with a stethoscope, and compared with the heart rate
obtained with a polar heart rate monitor. This was repeated (if it
didn’t match 100%) by checking the polar monitor and recounting
heart rate for a full minute until a 100% match was obtained.
All measurements on every subject were completed by the same
person. Pulse Pressure (SBP-DBP) and Mean Arterial Pressure
[DBP+ (PP/3)] were mathematically calculated using systolic
(SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP).
Functional Capacity
Baseline physiological assessments of aerobic fitness were
made using the YMCA cycle ergometer sub maximal test protocol
(ACSM, 2010). The testing protocol was comprised of a 3-minute
warm-up at 25 Watts followed by 3-minute stages with increments
in power output, depending on the subject’s heart rate and blood
pressure exercise response. The aim was that each individual
reached at least 70% of his/her age predicted maximum heart rate
but blood pressure responses were used to determine symptom
maximums on occasions where blood pressure responded poorly
(systolic raising above 230 mmHg or diastolic increasing by more
than 10 mmHg) during the exercise test. Heart rate was recorded
every minute of each stage manually and with a heart rate monitor,
while exercise blood pressure was manually recorded during the
last minute of each stage. Karvonen’s formula (ACSM, 2010) was
used to determine 80% of maximum heart rate (220 - age - RHR
x training percentage + RHR). The ACSM’s (2010) guidelines
were used for early termination of the test. The ACSM (2010)
metabolic and multistage equations were utilized to calculate each
individual’s relative predicted VO 2max
.
Procedure
Following ethics approval (Central Regional Ethics Committee,
New Zealand) the project was advertised using the institutions
website. A request was made for volunteers to join a health promotion
and fitness training program run by the Department of Exercise and
Sport Science. A total of 81 staff members out of 150 volunteers
(from a possible cohort of 350 employees) were randomly selected
for the study. The data in this study represent baseline data (prior
to any lifestyle interventions). Although the population are a selfselected
group it does provide valuable information regarding the
health status of staff at a higher educational institution and on the
interrelationships between baseline physiological, biochemical,
cardiovascular, morphological and psychological variables. Staff
were scheduled for one-hour appointments to perform the fitness
test and complete the questionnaires starting on the first day of the
week. The fitness testing was completed within 5 days (two stations
testing nine people per day). Blood tests were taken between
07h00 and 09h00 on two consecutive week days (Tuesday and
Wednesday) the week after the fitness test was conducted, utilising
a roster system.
An independent t-test was used to assess for statistical differences
between the two genders (male and female) with regard to the
morphological, physiological, biochemical and psychological
variables measured. Statistical analyses were also performed using
correlations, stepwise multiple regression analysis and simple
(one-way) analysis of variance (ANOVA). The Newman-Keuls
post hoc test was used to determine intergroup differences. For
the purpose of the ANOVA the respondents (male and females
separately) were placed in fitness groups based on the VO 2max
group
distribution. Those with VO 2max
scores above the 70th percentile of
the respective gender group distribution curves were placed in the
highly fit groups and those below the 30th percentile in the low
fitness groups. The rest were classified as moderately fit. The exact
VO 2max
fitness grouping cut-off values for males and females can
be found in Table 3 where the results of an ANOVA are reported.
Results
Independent T-test Comparing Gender Groups Regarding
Morphological, Physiological, Biochemical and Psychological
Profiles
Descriptive data (means and standard deviations) for male and
female respondents are reported in Table 1.
Table 1. Independent T-test Comparing Descriptive Data
Of Male and Female Respondents
Males (n=25)
Note: N.S. = Not statistically significant;
Statistical significance at p

Health and Wellbeing
body fat, height, body weight, waist-to-hip ratio, VO 2max
, Physical
work capacity 1701
, total cholesterol, Triglycerides (Trig), HDLcholesterol,
LDL-cholesterol and the TC/HDL-ratio.
Males and females both had mean BMI scores in the overweight
category (BMI – 25.0-29.9) and Waist-to-Hip circumference ratio
scores that could be classified as moderately high for the age
group 40-49 according to the ASCM (2010). The mean percentage
body fat values for both males and females were however within
acceptable ranges (males 13% and females 24% body fat).
Percentage body fat correlated significantly with body weight
(r=0.75), BMI (r=0.76) and WHR (r=0.93).
The VO 2max
(ml.kg.min -1 ) scores of both groups indicated low
levels of cardiorespiratory fitness according to normative data
provided for the age groups 40-49 by the ACSM (2010). Females
presented with borderline LDL-cholesterol levels (>2.60 mmol.l -1 )
while males had elevated mean total cholesterol (>5.2 mmol.l -1 ) and
LDL-cholesterol (>2.60 mmol.l -1 ) levels. Mean HDL-cholesterol
level were lower for males and females than the optimal or desired
level of 1.6 mmol.l -1 (ACSM, 2010).
No significant (p>0.05) differences were found between the two
gender groups using the independent t-test, regarding their general
physical and psychological health profiles. Males had an average
emotional health score that can be classed as moderate burnout
(Pines et al. 1981) while the females had a mean Happiness and
Quality of life score that could be regarded as low according to
normative information provided by Kammann and Flett (1983).
The mean job stress scores can be regarded as medium (1.51-
2.00) for both gender groups according to normative information
provided by Dua (1994).
Staff at Risk Based on Classification Cut-offs
The percentage respondents with abnormal physical,
biochemical and psychological profiles are presented in Table 2.
Total cholesterol’s cut-off to indicate high risk was set at >6.3
mmol.l -1 , HDL-cholesterol at 4.2 mmol.l -1 and triglycerides at >2.3 mmol.l -1 (ACSM, 2010).
Elevated total cholesterol (>6.3 mmol.l -1 ) was prevalent in
8.64% (n=7) of the overall group, while 6.2% (n=5) presented with
elevated triglyceride levels (>2.3 mmol.l -1 ), and 18.52% (n=15)
and 16.05% (n=13) with abnormal resting systolic and diastolic
blood pressure values respectively (see Table 2). Nearly forty
percent (39.5% or n= 32) of the respondents also had a functional
capacity lower than 8 METS.
As indicated (Table 2), 48% (n=38) were categorised as unhappy
and 36% (n=29) reported elevated levels of job stress. Further
analysis indicate that only 21% (n=17) of the overall group were
risk free, while 19% (n=15) exhibited two, and 30% (n=24) three
or more physical, biochemical, morphological or psychological
markers of risk. This indicates that a relatively large percentage
of staff members at this tertiary institution, which volunteered for
this study, may be at risk for CAD and/or exhibit psychological
profiles that could compromise both general health and work
performance.
Results of the ANOVA
Results of a simple (one-way) analysis of variance in which
respondents were grouped into three (3) VO 2max
groups and
48 Journal of Research
Table 2. Percentage Of Respondents With Elevated CAD Risk
And Abnormal Psychological Health Profiles
Total group Males Females
Risk factors (n=81) (n=25) (n=56)
Resting systolic blood pressure (>140 mmHg)
Resting diastolic blood pressure (>90 mmHg)
Percentage body fat (Male >16% & F >26%)
BMI (Obesity class I, II and III)
Waist-Hip ratio (Male >0.94 & Female>0.82)
Functional capacity (< 8.0 Mets)
Physically inactive
Total cholesterol (> 6.3 mmol.l-1)
Triglycerides (> 2.3 mmol.l-1)
Glucose (> 6.0 mmol.l-1)
HDL-cholesterol (< 0.9 mmol.l-1)
LDL-cholesterol (> 4.2 mmol.l-1)
TC/HDL-ratio (> 4.6)
Unhappy (Negative effect < 24)
Emotional exhaustion ( Burnout scores > 4.0)
Stress symptoms (>15)
Job stress (>1.67)
18.52%
16.05%
27.85%
25.90%
23.61%
39.51%
34.57%
8.64%
6.20%
4.94%
1.24%
6.17%
8.64%
48.12%
11.37%
32.10%
36.03%
28%
16%
20%
26%
24%
20%
32%
12%
12%
4.0%
4.0%
28%
24%
60%
12%
20%
40%
14.30%
16.07%
37.50%
26.76%
23.21%
35.71%
35.70%
8.93%
1.79%
5.35%
0.0%
1.79%
1.78%
42.85%
10.71%
42.85%
34.00%
compared regarding morphological, biochemical, physiological
and psychological markers of health and well-being are presented
in Table 3.
As indicated in this table, cardiovascular fitness, or VO 2max
,
showed statistically significant (p"0.05) relationships with a large
number of the dependent variables, with the high fitness groups
presenting with the healthier profiles. Highly fit females presented
with statistically significant (p"0.05) lower resting heart rate
F(2,53)=4.73, body weight F(2,53)=10.68, job stress F(2,53)=4.04,
fasting glucose F(2,53)=4.79 and higher HDL-cholesterol
F(2,53)=2.14 values. Male respondents differed significantly
(p"0.05) regarding stress symptoms F(2,22)=1.57 and emotional
exhaustion F(2,22)=0.64 and in both males and females, the highly
fit groups presented with more favourable (p"0.05) percentage
body fat, physical activity and coronary risk profiles (see F-values
in table 3).
These results are consistent with the scientific literature, namely
that both males and females with higher levels of cardiovascular
fitness present with healthier morphological, biochemical and
physiological profiles. The statistically significant relationships
that cardiovascular fitness shows with psychological constructs like
job stress (females), emotional exhaustion and stress symptoms
(males) are interesting (though not entirely unexpected or out of
line with what is generally reported) and justified further statistical
investigation to explore the relative contribution of psychological
well-being to morphological, biochemical and overall physical
health.
Correlations of Psychological Constructs with Other Risk
Factors
The correlations of the four psychological variables with
the traditional morphological, biochemical and physiological
cardiovascular risk factors as well as with measures of health are
reported in Table 4. Stress symptoms, emotional exhaustion and

Health and Wellbeing
Table 3. Cardiovascular Fitness (VO 2max
) And Morphological, Biochemical, Physiological And Psychological
Well-being As Determined With a One-way ANOVA
VO 2max
groups
Low Fitness (L) Moderate Fitness (M) High Fitness (H) F-value Newman Keuls
F 30.76(n=16) (2, 53) post hoc p"0.05
M 40.10(n=7) (2, 22)
Variable Group Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
Age F 46.4 12.2 38.4 10.1 45.7 8.9 3.66 N.S.
M 41.6 5.2 39.2 5.6 40.8 7.6 0.32 N.S.
RHR F 76.3 11.5 76.3 13.6 66.0 7.8 4.73* H from L & M
M 74.1 12.6 66.7 10.4 62.6 9.9 2.13 N.S.
SBP F 130.6 9.7 125.7 11.9 123.2 9.8 2.04 N.S.
M 135.4 10.1 133.0 12.6 126.3 10.7 1.35 N.S.
DBP F 81.8 10.3 78.3 7.5 76.2 8.9 1.67 N.S.
M 83.4 9.1 75.8 9.9 79.0 8.1 1.41 N.S.
Pulse F 48.9 9.1 47.3 10.6 47.1 8.3 0.18 N.S.
Pressure M 52.0 12.6 57.2 14.0 47.3 12.3 1.28 N.S.
Body F 27.3 6.4 26.4 7.9 18.1 3.9 10.68* H from L & M
Fat (%) M 14.1 2.9 15.4 3.4 10.8 2.6 9.21* H from L & M
Body F 77.8 16.0 76.0 15.2 62.4 5.3 8.90* H from L & M
Weight M 91.7 11.8 93.3 20.8 79.9 8.4 1.90 N.S.
PAI F 32.6 27.7 53.7 36.9 83.6 42.2 8.27* H from L & M
M 16.3 23.1 67.2 48.4 89.1 29.6 7.46* L from M & H
CRI F 28.3 7.4 22.8 6.9 20.4 5.7 5.93* L from M & H
M 29.1 2.5 27.0 5.8 19.9 4.8 8.16* H from L & M
IRS F 237.3 107.1 233.0 162.6 190.6 112.2 0.65 N.S.
M 279.3 252.2 223.9 106.7 199.9 176.4 0.38 N.S.
Stress F 13.4 8.7 13.0 7.0 13.4 7.8 0.02 N.S.
Symptoms M 16.4 6.8 11.4 5.1 8.8 3.8 1.57* H from L & M
Job F 1.40 0.21 1.55 0.28 1.64 0.35 3.04* H from L
Stress M 1.60 0.35 1.56 0.20 1.69 0.23 0.53 N.S.
Emotional F 3.02 .072 2.78 0.65 2.97 0.96 0.52 N.S.
Exhaustion M 3.38 0.58 3.18 0.56 2.93 0.54 0.64* H from L
Happiness F 21.2 10.0 24.8 10.2 20.8 10.7 0.73 N.S.
M 15.8 10.5 18.2 12.5 17.6 9.5 0.09 N.S.
TC F 4.79 0.68 4.91 0.82 5.14 1.36 0.54 N.S.
M 5.78 1.10 5.46 0.71 5.04 0.77 1.44 N.S.
Fasting F 5.01 1.08 4.45 0.51 4.33 0.31 4.79* L from M & H
Glucose M 4.65 0.38 5.22 1.24 4.46 0.38 1.95 N.S.
Trig F 1.90 0.38 1.12 0.36 1.08 0.59 0.05 N.S.
M 1.64 0.78 1.65 1.09 1.42 0.42 0.19 N.S.
LDL-C F 2.64 0.57 2.71 0.73 2.73 1.14 0.04 N.S.
M 3.63 0.95 3.14 0.70 3.07 0.72 1.15 N.S.
HDL-C F 1.65 0.38 1.69 0.34 1.93 0.35 2.14* L from H
M 1.34 0.32 1.40 0.48 1.56 0.13 1.03 N.S.
TC/HDL- F 3.02 0.69 2.98 0.65 2.78 0.79 0.57 N.S.
Ratio M 4.31 0.72 3.88 0.74 3.84 0.76 0.35 N.S.
Note: F=female; N.S.=not statistically significant; M=male; L=low fitness; M=moderate fitness; H=high fitness; *=p"0.05
volume 5, issue 1 49

Health and Wellbeing
the Affectometer2 (happiness and quality of life) had a significant
negative correlation (p"0.05) with the coronary risk index and the
illness rating scale.
Table 4. Correlation Of The Four (4) Psychological Measures
With Markers Of Morphological, Biochemical
And Physiological Health
Health variables
Age in years
Heart rate in rest (RHR)
Systolic blood Pressure (SBP)
Diastolic blood pressure (DBP)
Pulse pressure (PP)
Mean arterial pressure (MAP)
Percentage body fat
Body weight in kg (BW)
Body mass index (BMI)
Waist-to-hip ratio (WHR)
VO 2max
in ml.kg.min-1
Physical work capacity 170
Physical activity index (PAI)
Coronary risk index (CRI)
Illness rating scale (IRS)
Total cholesterol (TC)
Fasting glucose (GLU)
Triglycerides (Trig)
HDL-cholesterol
LDL-cholesterol
TC/HDL-ratio
Note: *= p"0.05
Job stress
-0.05
Psychological variables
0.10
0.04
0.08
0.11
0.04
0.19
0.02
-0.08
-0.09
-0.31*
-0.30*
-0.19
0.17
0.10
0.14
-0.06
0.14
-0.06
0.09
0.09
Stress Emotional Happiness
symptoms exhaustion quality of
life
-0.03
0.15
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.06
0.05
0.04
-0.05
-0.03
-0.17
-0.16
-0.12
0.29*
0.54*
0.16
-0.05
0.15
-0.07
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.16
0.18
0.14
0.07
0.18
0.05
0.14
0.10
0.20
-0.10
-0.07
-0.15
0.42*
0.42*
0.13
0.13
0.01
-0.10
0.09
0.12
-0.01
-0.13
-0.16
-0.07
-0.10
-0.12
-0.12
-0.12
-0.08
-0.25*
0.12
0.12
0.09
-0.26*
-0.32*
-0.04
-0.16
-0.02
0.17
-0.03
-0.11
Results of the Stepwise Multiple Regression Analysis
In order to obtain more specific information on the relative
importance of the psychological variables with regard to overall
health, the contribution of all morphological, biochemical and
physiological risk factors and the four psychological variables to
the variance of the coronary risk index and the illness rating scale
was studied using a stepwise multiple regression analysis. The
results of this analysis are reported in Table 5.
A total of 22 factors, including the four psychological measures
(emotional exhaustion, job stress, stress symptoms and happiness
and quality of life), were used in this stepwise multiple regression
analysis (Table 5).
Ten of the 22 variables were listed as contributors (the
contribution of the rest of the variables were very low and as such
are not listed), and their combined contribution to the variance of
the two health status measures (coronary risk index and the illness
rating scale) was 61.4%. Body mass index (24.9%), emotional
burnout (15.6%), glucose (6.3%), physical activity (4.8%) and
the TC/HDL ratio (2.3%) were the only statistically significant
(p"0.05) contributors. All four of the psychological measures
contributed to the variance of overall health. Emotional exhaustion
50 Journal of Research
Table 5. Contribution Of Risk Factors To The Variance Of
Overall Coronary Risk And Health Status Of Staff
Members At a Tertiary Institution
Contributing
variables R R 2 R 2 -change F-value
Body Mass Index (BMI)
Emotional exhaustion
Glucose
Physical activity Index
Happiness
Job Stress
TC/HDL-ratio
Stress symptoms
Systolic blood pressure
Resting Heart rate
Note: *= p"0.05
was, however, the only psychological variables which contributed
statistically significantly (p"0.05) to the variance of the two health
status measures.
In order to determine if level of fitness would influence the
contribution of the psychological variables to general health, their
contribution to the two health status variables (Coronary risk index
and illness rating scale) were studied in individuals grouped as
low, moderate and highly fit.
As indicated in Table 6, emotional exhaustion was the primary
contributor to the variance of the coronary risk index and illness
rating scale in the stepwise multiple regression analysis performed
on females. This was the case in all three of the fitness groups. The
overall contribution of the psychological constructs to the variance
of the health status (coronary risk index and illness rating scale)
increased from 23.47% in the low fitness group to 54.32% in the
moderate fitness group, but decreased to 24.04% in the high fitness
group. In the moderately fit group, stress symptoms (18.1%) were
also a statistically significant contributor (p"0.05) to the variance
of overall health.
Table 6. Contribution Of Various Psychological Variables To
The Variance Of Overall Coronary Risk And
Health Status Of Females With Low, Moderate
And High Levels Of Cardiovascular Fitness
Fitness grouping Contributing variables R R 2 R 2 - F-value
change
Low fit Emotional exhaustion 0.4694 0.2123 0.2123 10.24*
(VO 2max
30.75) Job Stress 0.4902 0.2404 0.0315 1.493
Note *= p "0.05.
0.499630
0.636654
0.684506
0.718741
0.734081
0.747183
0.762848
0.772049
0.779226
0.783778
0.249631
0.405328
0.468548
0.516589
0.538875
0.558283
0.581936
0.596059
0.607194
0.614308
0.249631
0.155697
0.063221
0.048040
0.022286
0.019409
0.023653
0.014123
0.01135
0.007114
26.28*
20.42*
9.159*
7.553*
3.625
3.251
4.130*
2.517
2.013
0.259
In males, job stress was the only statistically significant (p"0.05)
contributor, and only in those respondents classified as moderately

Health and Wellbeing
fit (Table 7). The psychological variables made no contribution
to the variance of health in the low fitness group, while job stress
and stress symptoms contributed 22.9% (p>0.05) to the variance
of health as measured with the coronary risk index and the Illness
rating scale, in the high fitness group.
Table 7. Contribution Of Various Psychological Variables To
The Variance Of Overall Coronary Risk And
Health Status Of Males With Low, Moderate
And High Levels Of Cardiovascular Fitness
Fitness grouping Contributing variables R R 2 R 2 - F-value
change
Low fit
(VO 2max
40.09) Stress symptoms 0.4791 0.2295 0.0986 1.792
Note *= p "0.05.
Measures of psychological health seem to be as potent a marker/
predictor of health in fit and in unfit individuals. The results of
these analyses therefore indicate that the level of fitness does not
seem to negate the contribution of psychological health to overall
health, as measured with a coronary risk index and the illness
rating scale.
Discussion
There is now overwhelming evidence in the scientific literature
attesting to what many academics have believed for years:
academia is a highly stressful occupation. The work environment
has been implicated in various studies as a causal factor of
impaired work performance, decrease in faculty productivity,
increase in absenteeism, propensity to leave, and higher staff
turnover (Kinman, 2001; Taris et al., 2001). The effect of a
stressful work environment on health and well-being is also well
established (Lovallo & Gerrin, 2003; Nicholson et al. 2005) but
very few studies have investigated the impact (or relationship)
of psychological health variables on markers of morphological,
biochemical and physiological health in academia.
Psychological health among academics is, generally speaking,
relatively poor (Kinman, 2001). Academics in Gillespie et al.’s
(2001) study reported feelings of anxiety, depression, burnout,
anger, irritability and helplessness as a direct consequence of
perceived work related stress. The link between psychological
exhaustion/burnout, depression and suicidal tendencies has been
well established and indications of an epidemiological study on
the contribution of occupation and geography to suicide death in
England and Wales conducted by Kelly, Charlton, and Jenkins
(1995) are that academics are at 50 percent greater risk than the
average worker to commit suicide as a direct consequence of work
environment related distress. A survey carried out for the UKbased
Association of University Teachers (AUT, 2003) found that
93% of its members (representing almost 160,000 academic staff)
suffered from work-related stress and 62% from ‘excessive’ strain,
while approximately 27% reported ‘fairly seriously’ considering a
career change, 46% said their morale had worsened in the past two
years, 72% were dissatisfied with pay and 86% felt their workload
was too heavy (Smithers, 2003). The above-mentioned survey
results are matched by other international studies (Barkhuizen &
Rothman, 2008; Forlin, 2001; Gillespie et al., 2001; Kinman, 2001;
Winefield et al., 2003; Winter & Sarros, 2002). Psychological
stress now appears to be a feature of occupational life of university
staff (Fisher, 1994) and working during evenings and weekends is
commonplace (Kinman, 1998).
In this study 48% of the respondents were unhappy as measured
by the Affectometer2 (Kammann & Flett, 1983). The Affectometer2
consists of 20 items concerning the subject's present life situation.
Each item is rated on a 5 - point scale of agreement/disagreement
regarding questions like “my life is on the right track, my future
looks good, I like myself, I have energy to spare” and so forth. A
lower score reflects a more negative orientation and less satisfaction
with life. In terms of whether a person has, in general, a negative or
positive orientation towards life, these questions are as applicable
today as when the questionnaire was developed. People seem to
be less happy today than after the second world war (Persaud,
1998) but it is debatable whether normative scores established
by Kamannn and Flett, 26 years ago, and calibrated using the
academic gravitated population of Dunedin (same country and
same type of population used in this study) should be rejected
based on the fact that the normative scores are 26 years old. The
focus of the present study is more on the impact of psychological
distress on other measures of health and according to this data about
half of the staff participating in this project were in general fairly
unhappy, while 32% exhibited a high amount of stress symptoms
and 36% presented with job stress. The implication is that this
study population provided enough participants with psychological
distress to examine the relationships of the psychological constructs
with other measures of health.
Our study suggests that relatively large numbers of staff at
this tertiary institution may be at risk of cardiovascular disease,
and that a relationship seems to exist between constructs of
psychological health and markers of morphological, biochemical
and physiological health. Firstly, regarding relative risk for
cardiovascular disease, our results indicate that if optimal or
desirable levels were to be considered, 40.7% of volunteering
staff presented with total cholesterol values above the desirable
level of 1.7 mmol.l -1 ) that could be regarded as
being high. In addition, 50.6% presented with abnormal HDLcholesterol
(2.6 mmol.l -1 ) levels.
In a study by Meyers, Prakash, Froelicher, Partington and Atwood
(2002) it was reported that in both healthy and cardiovascular
disease subjects, the peak exercise capacity achieved was a
stronger predictor of overall mortality than hypertension, smoking,
diabetes, obesity, development of arrhythmias during exercise, or
elevated total cholesterol level. The mortality risk from any cause
in participants whose exercise capacity was less than 5 METS
was roughly double that of subjects whose exercise capacity was
more than 8 METS. In this study 39.51% of the respondents had a
functional capacity lower than 8 METS and 2.47% had a functional
volume 5, issue 1 51

Health and Wellbeing
capacity lower than 5 METS.
Secondly, concerning the interrelationship between the physical,
biochemical and psychological measures it is evident that the level
of cardiovascular fitness does not negate or weaken the contribution
of the psychological constructs to overall health.
Lastly, the psychological constructs correlated negatively
with physical activity and VO 2max
. For example job stress, stress
symptoms and emotional burnout showed correlations of r = -0.31,
r = -0.17 and r = -0.10 with VO 2max
and correlations of r = -0.19,
r = -012 and r = -0.15 with participation in physical activity. This
indicates that psychological health can impact in an indirect manner
on health through its negative effect on lifestyle and exercise habits.
It seems therefore that the work environment impacts negatively
on cardiovascular and overall health in both a direct and indirect
manner. The results of this study support the need for intervention
for these lecturers and administrators, especially in areas of stress
management and mental health.
Conclusions
1. High percentages of staff presented with risk factors for CAD as
well as with unfavourable psychological profiles.
2. Female staff members did not exhibit more psychological
distress and/or worse levels of biochemical and overall health
than their male counterparts. As can be expected females do
present with lower levels of cardiovascular fitness and higher
morphological measurements (percentage body fat and waistto-hip
ratio’s). Normatively speaking, both the male and
female BMI and waist-to-hip ratio averages in this study can be
regarded as moderately high.
3. Reported emotional exhaustion seems to be a significant
contributor to the variance of health in both males and females
at this tertiary institution.
4. The level of cardiovascular fitness improves overall health status
but does not negate the relationship of emotional exhaustion with
health. The overall contribution of the psychological constructs
to the variance of health status stayed the same or increased
in male and female respondents classified as respectively low,
moderately or highly fit.
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1
The physical work capacity 170
is an expression of maximum
exercise capacity in watts divided by body weight at 170 beats
per minute. It is obtained by explorating HR responses during the
three stages of the YMCA Cycle Ergometer test to 170 beats per
minute !
volume 5, issue 1 53

An Examination of Immunity Statutes Regarding
the Liability of Recreational Youth Sport
Organizations for the Pedophilic Actions of
Coaches, Administrators, and Officials
by Thomas A. Baker III, University of Georgia; Daniel P.
Connaughton & James J. Zhang, University of Florida
Abstract
Millions of children in the United States participate in youth
sports. The literature demonstrates that sexual abuse is a problem in
sport. This study examined voluntary immunity statutes for all 50
states and the District of Columbia with the purpose of determining
potential liability for recreational youth sport organizations for the
pedophilic actions of their coaches, administrators, and officials.
Comparisons and differences were drawn between the states
regarding whether voluntary immunity statutes were applicable.
Key words: Statutory protection, sexual abuse
Introduction
Millions of children participate in youth sports. For instance,
in 2008, it is estimated that more than 44 million children played
organized sports and more than 7.3 million adults served as
coaches, administrators, and officials for local, regional, or national
youth sport organizations in the U.S. (National Council of Youth
Sports, 2008). Many of these children are coached by volunteer,
unscreened, adult males (Peterson, 2004). The lack of screening on
the part of many youth sport organizations, the ‘power’ relationship
between adult (coach, administrator, official) and child (youth
sport participant), out-of-town competitions often without parental
supervision, and lack of policies and procedures, combined with
the access that youth sport provides to a large number of children
increase the opportunities for abuse to take place (Brackenridge,
2001; Kirby, Greaves, & Hankivsky, 2000; Nack & Yaeger, 1999;
Zaichkowsky, 2000).
The purpose of this study was to examine volunteer immunity
statutes for all 50 states and the District of Columbia to determine
whether such statutes provide defenses for recreational youth
sport organizations. By examining the law of all 50 states and the
District of Columbia, this study made comparisons between the
states in how volunteer immunity statutes may be applied. Key
legal doctrines, terms, and operational definitions are provided in
Table 1.
It was necessary to conduct an expansive study that included all
50 states and Washington D.C. because negligence is a creation of
state law and the application of negligence theories varies among
the states. Local and regional youth sport organizations (such as
church, park and recreation departments, and municipal programs)
need to understand the law for their specific jurisdiction. However,
national recreational youth sport organizations including but
not limited to Little League Baseball and Softball, Inc., Pony
Baseball/Softball, Inc., U.S. Youth Soccer, American Youth Soccer
Organization, American Youth Football Inc., and Pop Warner
54 Journal of Research
Table 1. Legal Doctrines, Terms, and Operational
Definitions
Term
Tort
Intentional
Tort
Negligence
Scope of
Employment
Respondeat
Superior
Volunteer
Immunity
Recreational
Youth Sport
Organizations
Definition
A tort is a civil wrong for which the law provides a remedy
(Keeton, 1984). A tort can derive from either an intentional
or unintentional act or omission.
A tort committed when the actor desires the consequence, or
the actor knows to a substantial certainty that the consequence
will follow (Restatement (Second) of Torts § 8A, 1965). A
youth sport coach, administrator, or official who sexually abuses
an athlete is subject to civil liability for an intentional tort
because the perpetrator of the tort acted with intent, meaning
that he or she intended to do the tortious act.
The term negligence is given to those unintentional torts
that injure others in person, property or reputation (van der
Smissen, 2007). Negligence can be defined as conduct
involving an unreasonably great risk of causing harm or
damage; conduct that falls below the standard established by
law for the protection of others against unreasonable risk of
harm (Restatement (Second) of Torts § 282, 1965).
The doctrine of respondeat superior is often referred to as
vicarious liability because it serves as a method of holding
one person vicariously liable for the wrongs committed
by another (Keeton, 1984). The phrase respondeat superior
means “let the master answer” (Garner, 2004, p. X).
Perhaps the most critical element of respondeat superior is the
requirement that the employee was acting within the scope of
his employment (Keeton, 1984). Acts committed by the
employee that exceed the scope of employment are considered
ultra vires. Employers are generally not vicariously liable for
the ultra vires actions committed by their employees (Cotten,
2007). However, the definition of scope of employment
has extended to include all acts committed in furtherance of the
employer’s business (Keeton, 1984). Jurisdictions that use a
broader definition of scope of employment provide a greater
opportunity for plaintiffs to recover against recreational youth
sport organizations based on respondeat superior
(Weeber, 1992).
A large number of states have passed volunteer immunity
statutes to protect volunteers from being sued for ordinary
negligence (Hurst & Knight, 2003). These statutes grew out of
a fear that people would stop volunteering and the services
provided by these volunteer-dependant agencies would stop
(Smith, 1999). Some states have gone further with their
coverage and have expanded the statutes to cover gross
negligence and even willful, wanton, and reckless conduct
(Smith, 1999). Congress enacted its own volunteer protection
statute in 1997 when it passed the Federal Volunteer Protection
Act (FVPA) (Biedzynski, 1999).
For the purpose of this paper, recreational youth sport
organizations are youth sport programs that exist outside of an
educational/school setting. Examples of recreational youth sport
organizations include Little League Baseball and Softball, Pop
Warner Little Scholars, and community-based (local and
regional) youth sport programs (church, municipal, park and
recreation department programs, etc.).

Immunity Statutes
Little Scholars, Inc. provide programs in most states and need to
understand the variances that may exist among legal jurisdictions.
It is important for recreational youth sport administrators to
understand volunteer immunity statutes and how they may be
applied so that they can better protect their organizations against
the pedophilic actions of coaches, administrators, and officials
within their programs.
Review of Literature
Children in a coach-player relationship tend to be more
susceptible to sexual assault (Peterson, 2004). Young athletes
often spend considerable amounts of time with their coaches.
Coaches often take on a role similar to that of a parent and children
typically consent to activities they would never undertake under
the guidance of a parental figure (Appenzeller, 2000). Children
also look to coaches as role models, heroes, or even as best friends.
Further, children are often told by their parents from the outset of
their athletic involvement to obey the coach and never argue with
the coach (Peterson, 2004). Coaches often become very significant
figures in the lives of such young athletes, and the power that some
of these coaches acquire within such relationships is robust with
the potential for misuse (Gervis & Dunn, 2004).
Opportunity and Prevalence
Unfortunately, youth sports often provide an excellent hunting
ground for pedophiles. It is estimated that one in three girls and
one in seven boys in the United States are sexually molested
before the age of 18 (Earl-Hubbard, 1996). Unfortunately, these
overwhelming numbers do not even represent the true extent of
sexual abuse because it is estimated that only 10 to 35 percent of
incidents involving sexual exploitation are ever reported (Peterson,
2004). Some pedophiles have admitted to molesting 500-600
children before getting caught. Although no one has ever studied
the number of young athletes who have been molested by their
coaches, experts including the Executive Director of the National
Institute for Child Centered Coaching, Stephen Bavolek, believe
that sexual abuse in sports is prevalent (Deak, 1999) and it is not
a problem that is unique to the United States. By coaching youth
sports, pedophiles are given an opportunity to win over parents
and gain the trust of children. Parents and athletes alike put faith in
their coaches and this faith can easily be exploited by coaches who
are sexual abusers (Deak, 1999). The literature and findings from
studies in Canada (Kirby & Greaves, 1996), the U.S. (Gibbons
& Campbell, 2003; Pike-Masteralexis, 1995; Volkwein, Franke,
Schnell, Sherwood, & Livezey, 1997), the United Kingdom
(Brackenridge, 1997), Denmark (Nielson, 2001), and Australia
(Leahy, Pretty, & Tenenbaum, 2002) demonstrate that sexual abuse
is a problem in sport.
In Canada, the Canadian Hockey League has gone as far as to
label the protection of its athletes from pedophilia “a paramount
concern” (Kirk, 1997). A study conducted in Denmark revealed
that 2% of athletes in that country were the survivors of sexual
abuse within sport and 3% of coaches admitted to being intimately
involved with athletes under the age of 18 (Nielson, 2001). In
2004, a survey titled “Citizens of the European Union and Sport”
polled citizens within all 25 European Union members and found
that 29% of those surveyed believe that sexual abuse of children
is the main negative aspect associated with sport (Eurobarometer,
2004).
In 2007, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) addressed
the problem of sexual abuse when it adopted a consensus
statement titled “Sexual Harassment and Abuse in Sport.” The
IOC adopted the statement with the goal of promoting effective
preventive policy and increasing awareness of sexual harassment
and abuse in sport. Through the consensus statement, the IOC
recommended that all sport organizations should: (a) develop
policies and procedures for the prevention of sexual harassment
and abuse; (b) monitor the implementation of these policies and
procedures; (c) evaluate the impact of these policies in identifying
and reducing sexual harassment and abuse; (d) develop an
education and training program on sexual harassment and abuse in
their sport(s); (e) promote and exemplify equitable, respectful and
ethical leadership; (f) foster strong partnerships with parents in the
prevention of sexual harassment and abuse; and (g) promote and
support scientific research on these issues (IOC, 2007).
Imposition of Civil Liability and Volunteer Immunity Statutes
Nations around the globe have recognized both moral and ethical
justifications for preventative measures aimed at preventing sexual
abuse in youth sport. In addition to these justifications, there is
a legal duty on the part of recreational youth sport organizations
to protect their athletes from foreseeable risks (van der Smissen,
1990). It is possible that a youth sport organization could be found
liable if appropriate protective measures are not in place to prevent,
or at least limit the possibility of sexual harassment or abuse. Even
the best protective measures are not foolproof in removing the
threat posed by pedophiles to recreational youth sport participants
and organizations.
Furthermore, it is possible that a youth sport organization
could be found vicariously liable for the actions of its coaches,
administrators, or officials through the doctrine of respondeat
superior. Under this doctrine, liability can attach to a master if the
servant, while acting on the master’s behalf, harms someone to
whom the master owes a duty of care (Mayer, 2005). Accordingly,
if an employee (servant) acts negligently during the course of
employment, then the employer (master) may be held liable for the
employee’s negligence. Simply put, the negligence of the employee
is imputed to the employer. To be successful in a respondeat
superior claim, the plaintiff must establish that the tortfeasor is
liable in tort, the tortfeasor is employed by the defendant, and the
employee was acting within the scope of employment when the
tortious act was committed (27 American Jurisprudence 2nd § 459,
2005).
Thus, it is important that these organizations understand how
they can defend themselves from the imposition of civil liability for
the actions of others. The Federal Volunteer Protection Act protects
youth sport volunteers from civil liability for their negligent acts;
but the statute does not protect youth sport organizations. The
majority of states also have volunteer immunity statutes and these
statutes vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction in the extent of
the protection provided to volunteers. Many states have statutes
specifically tailored for recreational youth sports and some extend
volume 5, issue 1 55

Immunity Statutes
protection to include recreational youth sport organizations. It
is important that these organizations understand how immunity
statutes work and whether they can be used to guard them against
the imposition of civil liability for the actions of pedophiles who
infiltrate their ranks and abuse their athletes.
A review of the literature revealed a substantial void in research
on this issue. No single study has ever attempted to provide a
comprehensive review examining the issue immunity statutes
for all 50 states and the District of Columbia regarding the civil
liability of recreational youth sport organizations for the pedophilic
actions of coaches, administrators, and officials. Thus, conducting
the current study was deemed necessary.
Method
The purpose of this study was to determine if volunteer
immunity statutes in the United States provide recreational youth
sport organizations with a defense against lawsuits based on the
pedophilic actions of their coaches, administrators, and officials.
A comprehensive literature review was performed to gather
information on the application of volunteer immunity statutes, as
well as their impact on legal cases, which were derived from a
statutory analysis and literature review. Westlaw’s legal database
was used in conducting a keyword search of all 50 states and the
District of Columbia. Keywords utilized in the search included the
following: volunteer, immunity, recreation, sport, protection, and
liability.
The statutory and case law for each jurisdiction was analyzed
and states were put into groups based on whether the law: (a)
expressly extended statutory protection to volunteer organizations,
(b) limited statutory protection to individual volunteers, or (c)
was ambiguous as to whether statutory protection extended to
volunteer organizations. There was a fourth category of states that
did not have volunteer immunity statutes protecting recreational
youth sport organizations. The next step involved analysis of
the law for states with statutes that either expressly protected
volunteer organizations, or were ambiguous as to whether they
covered volunteer organizations. The second round of analysis
was performed to determine if each statute extended its protection
to cover sexual molestation or abuse on the part of coaches,
administrators, or officials.
This study was limited to volunteer youth sport organizations
and did not include interscholastic or intercollegiate sport
organizations. The theories of liability used to pursue claims
against volunteer youth sport organizations, as well as the defenses
available, are not necessarily the same as those that would be used
in an interscholastic or intercollegiate setting. The protocol for
this study was validated by a panel of experts with qualifications
in legal research and/or research methodology. This protocol was
mainly executed by the primary investigator of this study, who
holds a Juris Doctorate and a terminal research degree in Sport
Management, and has expertise in both quantitative and qualitative
research methodologies. The timeframe for this study was May
2006 - December 2009.
Results
States that had volunteer immunity statutes protecting the
organizations as well as the volunteers included the following
56 Journal of Research
states: Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and
Utah. Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, and Utah include
qualifications in their volunteer immunity statutes that limit the
protection in regards to the type of conduct protected by those
statutes. States where volunteer immunity statutes expressly did
not provide protection for the volunteer organizations include:
Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, Colorado, Delaware, District of
Columbia, Florida, Hawaii, Illinois, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri,
Montana, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South
Dakota, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin.
The following states have volunteer immunity statutes that
are ambiguous in regards to whether the protection provided
by the statute covers volunteer organizations, or is limited to
volunteers: Georgia, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Massachusetts,
North Dakota, New Mexico, and Rhode Island. All of these states
include language in their statutes that also limits the conduct
protected by their statutes. The following states did not have
volunteer immunity statutes that protected recreational youth sport
organizations: Alaska, California (does have a statute that exempts
directors of nonprofit organizations), Connecticut, Iowa, Kentucky,
Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, Nevada, New Hampshire, New York,
Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, and Wyoming. For
an overview of state protection provided by volunteer immunity
statutes see Table 2.
In brief, of the 50 states and the District of Columbia, 34 states
(66.7%) had volunteer immunity statutes. Of them, 5 states (9.8%)
specified that the statutes would protect youth sport organizations
and their volunteers, 21 states (41.2%) specified that the statutes
would not protect youth sport organizations and their volunteers,
and 8 states (15.7%) were ambiguous about the protection of youth
sport organizations and their volunteers. The remaining 17 states
(33.3%) did not have volunteer immunity statutes (see Table 2).
Extent of Protection Provided by Volunteer Immunity Statutes
Depending on the jurisdiction, a youth sport organization may
seek the protection of a volunteer immunity statute to guard against
a civil lawsuit alleging sexual molestation or abuse on the part of
coaches, administrators, or officials. This study revealed, however,
that a majority of states either had volunteer immunity statutes that
expressly stated that they only protected volunteers and not the
organizations, or did not have statutes that would protect youth
sport organizations. The states that expressly exclude volunteer
organizations are similar to the Federal Volunteer Immunity Act,
which also limits its protection to volunteers.
States that Provide Protection to Volunteer Organizations
Only Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
and Utah had volunteer immunity statutes that expressly extend
protection from volunteers to the organization. Four out of the
five states offering protection do so with either limitations or
qualifications. For example, in Minnesota volunteers are not
protected from acts committed in a willful and wanton or reckless
manner (Minnesota Statutes Annotated, § 604A.11, 2009).
Volunteers are not protected if they act in violation of federal, local,
or state law. These limitations may also extend to the organization
seeking shelter under the statute and if that is the case, youth
sport organizations would not be protected against cases alleging

Immunity Statutes
Table 2. States and the District of Columbia with and
without Volunteer Immunity Statues
Volunteer Immunity Statues
State With Statues Without
Statues
Organizations Not Providing Ambiguous
Included Protection Protection
Alabama #
Alaska #
Arizona #
Arkansas #
California #
Colorado #
Connecticut #
Delaware #
District of
Columbia #
Florida #
Georgia #
Hawaii #
Idaho #
Illinois #
Indiana #
Iowa #
Kansas #
Kentucky #
Louisiana #
Maine #
Maryland #
Massachusetts #
Michigan #
Minnesota #
Mississippi #
Missouri #
Montana #
Nebraska #
Nevada #
New Hampshire #
New Jersey #
New Mexico #
New York #
North Carolina #
North Dakota #
Ohio #
Oklahoma #
Oregon #
Pennsylvania #
Rhode Island #
South Carolina #
South Dakota #
Tennessee #
Texas #
Utah #
Vermont #
Virginia #
Washington #
West Virginia #
Wisconsin #
Wyoming #
N (%) 5 (9.8%) 21 (41.2%) 8 (15.7%) 17 (33.3%)
sexual molestation or abuse because those actions extend beyond
willful, wanton, or reckless behavior in that they are intentional.
Further, sexual molestation and abuse violate the state’s criminal
code, where it allows plaintiffs to use the doctrine of respondeat
superior against employers for cases alleging sexual molestation
or abuse on the part of employees (Minnesota Statutes Annotated,
§ 604A.11, 2009).
If respondeat superior is the basis for a plaintiff’s claim against
a recreational youth sport organization, the volunteer immunity
statute will probably not afford protection to the organization
because the organization would stand in the shoes of the employee
in that they are vicariously liable for the employee’s actions.
Because the volunteer employee would not be able to use the
volunteer immunity statute for protection, it is unlikely that the
organization would be able to seek protection under the statute.
However, the statute may provide protection for the organization
if the plaintiff sues the recreational youth sport organization for
its own negligence under a negligent hiring/retention/supervision
theory. The statute does provide protection for ordinary negligence;
therefore, the case will turn on whether the organization was
willful, wanton, or reckless in its selection and/or retention of the
pedophilic employee.
Similarly, New Jersey covers the organization from its own
negligence (New Jersey Statutes Annotated 2A: 53A-7, 2000)
yet, the act also expressly excludes protection of volunteers or
agents who commit acts of sexual misconduct. Thus, the statute
leaves open the question as to whether the organization would
remain protected under the act if it negligently hired, retained, or
supervised the employee who committed the sexual misconduct.
Mississippi’s volunteer immunity statute affords protection to
youth sport organizations, but only protects organizations against
claims based on negligence (Mississippi Code Annotated § 95-
9-1, 1988). Pennsylvania’s statute expressly provides protection
for youth sport organizations unless its’ acts or omissions
fall substantially below the standards generally practiced and
accepted for similar organizations (42 Pennsylvania Code Statutes
Annotated § 8332.1, 2007). Due to a lack of case law interpreting
Pennsylvania’s statute, the extent of protection provided under
the statute is unclear as to what conduct falls below the standards
generally practiced and accepted for recreational youth sport
organizations. However, the statute probably does not extend its
protection to include sexual misconduct as an accepted practice
in recreational youth sports. Utah provides organizations with
protection unless the organization reasonably had, or reasonably
should have had notice of the volunteer’s unfitness (Utah Code
Annotated § 78B-4-103, 1953). Thus, a recreational youth sport
organization’s protection in Utah will turn on whether it knew or
should have known that the volunteer was unfit.
States with Statutes that are Ambiguous in Application
The research revealed that eight states are ambiguous as to
whether they extend protection to cover volunteer organizations
as well as the volunteers. Georgia’s volunteer immunity statute
provides a good example of an ambiguous volunteer immunity
statute. Georgia’s statute is titled the “Liability of nonprofit
associations conducting safety or sports programs” (Georgia Code
Annotated, § 51-1-120, 1988). The title of the statute suggests that
it applies to recreational youth sport organizations. However, the
terms of the statute only provide protection for volunteers for a
sports program, with no mention of whether protection extends to
the program itself (Georgia Code Annotated, § 51-1-120(b), 1988).
volume 5, issue 1 57

Immunity Statutes
Seven other states also have statutes that do not expressly include
or exclude volunteer organizations in regards to the protections
that they afford.
Ambiguity in application is not the only common trait found
in these eight statutes. All eight statutes include qualifications
or limitations that probably preclude recreational youth sport
organizations from relying on their protections. Georgia limits
its’ volunteer immunity protection to acts performed in good faith
and within the scope of assigned duties (Georgia Code Annotated,
§ 51-1-120, 1988). In Georgia, sexual misconduct does not fall
within the scope of employment unless it is later ratified by the
employer (Big Brother/Big Sister of Metro Atlanta, Inc. v. Terrell,
1987). Further, it is unlikely that Georgia courts will find good
faith in pedophilic actions. Similarly, North Dakota only protects
acts committed in good faith and expressly excludes willful acts
(North Dakota Century Code § 32-03(a), 2009).
Idaho limits its’ volunteer protection to exclude willful or
wanton activities, but also includes knowing violations of the law.
Sexual misconduct with a minor is a knowing violation of the Idaho
law (Idaho Code § 9-350, 2009). Indiana, Louisiana, and Rhode
Island only protect volunteers for ordinary negligence and exclude
heightened degrees of negligence like willful or wanton acts, or
gross negligence (Indiana Code § 34-30-19-3,1999); Louisiana
Revised Statutes 9:2798, 2009; Rhode Island Annotated § 9-1-48,
1956). These statutes do not expressly preclude intentional acts
(like sexual abuse) from protective coverage, but they do exclude
acts classified as heightened degrees of negligence (like willful or
wanton, and gross negligence). Since these statutes do not protect
acts involving heightened degrees of negligence, it is likely that
they also do not protect acts where the person intends to cause
the harm. Massachusetts’ volunteer immunity statute expressly
excludes intentional acts from protection under the statute
(Massachusetts General Laws Annotated 231 § 85V, 2009).
New Mexico limits its protection to cover only those harms that
are part of the “ordinary give and take common to the particular
sport.” While there are no cases that detail the type of activities
included in the “ordinary give and take common to the particular
sport,” sexual misconduct with minors is not common or accepted
practice in any youth sport in the United States. Thus, it is unlikely
that New Mexico’s volunteer immunity statute affords protection
to recreational youth sport organizations for the pedophilic actions
committed by its volunteers (New Mexico Statutes Annotated §
41-12-1, 1978).
Discussion
The results of this study have implications for local, regional,
and national recreational youth sport organizations in the United
States. Local or regional youth sport organizations can look to the
results to better understand how their specific jurisdiction would
utilize immunity statutes in cases brought against recreational
youth sport organizations for the pedophilic actions of coaches,
administrators, and officials. While this study should not take
the place of legal counsel, it can be used by recreational youth
sport organizations to gain a better understanding of the problem
and the need to develop risk management plans that protect their
organizations from sexual predators and related legal liability.
National youth sport organizations like Little League Baseball
58 Journal of Research
and Softball and Pop Warner Little Scholars provide youth sport
leagues in most states and need to understand the variances that
exist between the legal jurisdictions. It is important for national
youth sport organizations to understand how different jurisdictions
apply these immunity statutes so they can better protect themselves
against the pedophilic actions of coaches, administrators, and
officials within their programs. Thus, the results of this research can
provide recreational youth sport organizations with information on
the protection provided by state volunteer immunity statutes.
Recreational youth sport organizations often rely on volunteers
for coaches, administrators, and officials. Most jurisdictions, as
well as the federal government, provide statutory immunity for
volunteers. However, this study revealed that a vast majority of
volunteer immunity statutes, including the federal statute, provide
no protection for recreational youth sport organizations. Only
Minnesota, Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Utah had
volunteer immunity statutes that extend protection from volunteers
to the organization. The research also revealed that eight states
are ambiguous as to whether they extend volunteer immunity
to include volunteer organizations like recreational youth sport
organizations. There are qualifications on four out of the five
states that expressly provide organizations with protection. All
eight of the states that are ambiguous as to whether they provide
protection to organizations include qualifications and limitations
on the protection they afford. The qualifications and limitations
for each of these 12 statutes likely render their application useless
in cases where a youth sport organization needs to seek statutory
protection against claims of sexual abuse or molestation by one of
the organization’s volunteers. Only Pennsylvania had a statute that
is apparently broad enough to provide protection for recreational
youth sport organizations; yet, organizations should be cautious
in relying on the statute’s protection due to the lack of case law
explaining how courts will interpret the statute in sexual abuse or
molestation cases.
Accordingly, this research revealed that volunteer immunity
statutes do not serve as dependable sources for protection against
the imposition of civil liability for the pedophilic actions of coaches,
administrators and officials. The best defense to the imposition of
liability for the actions of others remains the adoption of reasonable
protective measures (including policies, procedures, background
screening, education, training, and proper supervision) to guard
against the infiltration of youth sport organizations by pedophiles.
Sport/recreation managers and organizations should implement
policies and procedures that have been utilized elsewhere for
identifying and eliminating sexual abuse in sport. Examples
of such include, but are not limited to the Australian Sports
Commission, 2000; European Federation of Sports Psychology,
2002; IOC, 2007; Ontario Ministry of Health and Human Services,
2007; Trocme & Schumaker, 1999; U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2007; and Women’s Sports Foundation, 2007.
Conclusion
By examining immunity statutes for all 50 states and the
District of Columbia, information was derived that can be used to
assist recreational youth sport organizations so that they can better
understand the problem and the possibility that they could be found
liable, for the pedophilic actions of coaches, administrators, and

Immunity Statutes
officials in their jurisdiction. It is important to realize that the law
is constantly changing and prudent sport managers should remain
educated on this topic and the current law in their jurisdiction. This
study does not provide specific legal advice and should not take
the place of legal counsel. Youth sport managers and organizations
should seek the advice of legal counsel when developing related
risk management policies.
This study was merely an initial step on this research topic.
The information gathered from this study can be used as a
foundation for future research. Specifically, information obtained
may be utilized to develop surveys investigating if recreational
youth sport organizations are risking legal exposure through their
actions or inactions in guarding against sexual abuse on the part
of their coaches, administrators, and officials. Additionally, this
study could be replicated in common law jurisdictions such as the
United Kingdom and modified for civil law jurisdictions in other
European countries, or even across the globe. Sexual predators will
continue to target recreational youth sports because they provide
a consistent pool of potential victims. Those who operate these
programs need to understand how to guard against sexual predators
and how to defend themselves from claims brought against them
for the actions of their coaches, administrators, and officials.
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volume 5, issue 1 59

A Brand Loyalty Model Utilitizing Team
Identification and Customer Satisfaction in the
Licensed Sports Product Industry
by Dr. Soonhwan Lee, Indiana University Purdue University
Indianapolis (IUPUI); Dr. Hongbum Shin, Assistant Professor,
Keimyung University, Daegu, S. Korea; Dr. Jung-Jun Park, Pusan
National University, Busan, S. Korea; Dr. Oh-Ryun Kwon, Pusan
National University, Busan, S. Korea
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship
among the attitudinal brand loyalty variables (i.e., cognitive,
affective, and conative components), team identification, and
customer satisfaction by developing a structural equation model,
based on Oliver's (1997) attitudinal brand loyalty model. The
results of this study confirmed the study of brand loyalty stages by
Oliver (1997) involving development of a brand loyalty process.
Results supported the finding that consumers' strong beliefs about
brand quality have increased the degree of "liking". In turn,
results indicate a positive intention or commitment to repurchase a
particular item. Therefore, this study emphasizes the importance
of measuring attitudinal brand loyalty to identify attitudinal brand
loyal customers and better understand their repurchasing intentions
in the sports licensed product industry. Furthermore, this study
showed the significant mediating effect of cognitive and affective
brand loyalty in the relationship between customer satisfaction and
conative brand loyalty.
Key words: Conative Behavior, Purchase Intention
The sales of licensed sports merchandise have become an
increasingly important source of revenue for professional sport
franchises (Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton, 2007). However, the popularity
and demand for sport licensed products decreased during the 1990's
and into the new millennium. Several reasons cited for the decline
included poor variety, relatively lower quality products compared
to branded sport products, the Major League Baseball (MLB) strike
in 1994, and the National Basketball Association (NBA) lockout
in 1998 (Howard & Crompton, 2004; Mullin, Hardy, & Sutton,
2007). However, the Sporting Goods Manufacturers Association
(2008) reported a recent trend demonstrating an increase in the
sales of sports licensed products. For example, retail sales of the
licensed sports merchandise in the U.S. and Canada rose 5.8% in
2006 from 2005 to reach $15.1 billion (SGMA, 2008).
Improved business models, new marketable rookies (e.g.,
LeBron James in NBA, etc.), the popularity of retro fashion trends,
new video games, and more sophisticated marketing techniques
have fueled this growth (Gladden & Funk, 2002; Kwon &
Armstrong, 2004; Matsuoka, Chelladurai, & Harada, 2003; Trail,
Fink, & Anderson, 2003). Previous studies have examined the
objectives and advantages of utilizing licensed products which
include sustaining a consumer franchise, maximizing existing
lines' profitability, penetrating new markets, stimulating positive
attributes of the player, team, or league, and increasing the level of
brand awareness (Quelch, 1985; Shank, 2004).
60 Journal of Research
Investigating the relationship between fans and their
consumption behavior by systematically considering attitudinal
approaches to team identification and fans' purchasing decisions
about licensed sports products is important. The conceptual
theory between sport consumer behavior and team identification
has become well established and now extends to brand loyalty
(Gladden & Funk, 2002). Brand loyalty by sport consumers is a
cornerstone of marketing theories as it provides mutual benefits for
sports fans and the licensed product marketers (Gladden & Funk,
2002; McDonald & Milne, 1997; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004).
Although much of the research in sport marketing has
investigated brand loyalty, little attention has yet been given to the
purchasing of licensed sports products in terms of measurements
and antecedents. In addition, sport marketers should be able to
identify a distinct target market and potentially better address
their wants and needs through measuring attitudinal brand loyalty.
The findings of this study also would be able to identify several
marketing and general management implications. For example,
team identification and attitudinal brand loyalty can be the tools
to measure brand loyalty among sport licensed product customers.
Moreover, sport marketers should be able to assess the attitudes of
their customers toward the sport licensed products and to identify
any needs that should be fulfilled. As a result, the sport licensed
product customer loyalty measurement should be used as an
assessment tool in evaluating customer satisfaction. Therefore,
this study investigates the relationship among team identification,
customer satisfaction, and fans' purchasing behavior by considering
attitudinal approaches. Moreover, it examines the antecedents
of purchasing behavior relating to licensed sports products by
developing a structural equation model based on Oliver's (1997)
attitudinal brand loyalty model. Finally, this study suggests
implications for future research as well as marketing strategies for
licensed sport products.
Research Questions
This research was originated to test the following research
questions:
•What is the way to measure brand loyalty to licensed
products?
•Is there any relationship between team identification and
attitudinal purchasing behavior relating to licensed sport
products?
Team Identification
Team identification is one of the basic psychological orientations
influencing the behavior of sport fans (Kwon & Armstrong, 2002).
The concept of team identification with a particular favorite sport
team has been a critical element in the study of the psychology of
sport fans over the last decade (Kwon & Armstrong, 2002; Wann,
1994; Wann, 1996; Wann, Peterson, Cothran, & Dykes, 1999).
Team identification considers the valence of the unit relationship

Licensed Sports Product Industry
between the fan and the team (Madrigal, 1995). For instance, team
identification has a strong relationship with self-esteem and positive
outlook on life, and has been negatively related to depression and
negative affective experiences (Branscombe & Wann, 1991).
Numerous studies on the concept of team identification have been
linked to various behaviors and phenomena that can be observed
in sport settings. For instance, one such variable has been called
basking in reflected glory (BIRGing) in which sport consumers
seek to enhance their self-esteem by displaying a relationship
between their favorite team performance and themselves (Cialdini,
Borden, Thornes, Walker, Freeman, & Sloan, 1976; Kolbe &
James, 2003; Kwon & Armstrong, 2002; Quick, 2000; Wann &
Branscombe, 1990). BIRGing is one's inclination to "share in
the glory of a successful other with whom they are in some way
associated" (Cialdini et al., 1976, p. 366). It allows people to
build self-esteem through the association of successful others. For
example, individuals would experience greater enjoyment if they
were able to BIRG. Logically, those individuals who experienced
positive confirmation had higher levels of BIRGing behavior and
higher levels of enjoyment (Trail, Fink, & Anderson, 2003).
Customer Satisfaction
Achieving customer satisfaction is a major goal of marketing
efforts. These efforts lead to purchase and/or consumption and in
turn result in post-purchase phenomena such as attitude change,
repeat purchase, and brand loyalty. Customer satisfaction is
defined as a positive outcome from a complex evaluation of a
purchasing and consuming experience of a product and/or service
(Churchill & Surprenant, 1982). The literature on customer
satisfaction theory suggests that consumers use opinions about
a product's anticipated performance to determine whether to
make a purchase (Miller, 1977). The product evaluation process
appears to involve a comparison of expectations about product
performance with perceptions of product performance (Barber
& Venkatramen, 1986; Cardozo, 1965; Swan & Trawick, 1979).
When performance exceeds expectation, positive disconfirmation
occurs, leading to satisfaction. When performance falls short,
negative disconfirmation occurs and leads to dissatisfaction (Olson
& Dover, 1977; Richins & Bloch, 1991). This indicates that
customer satisfaction is based largely on how customers perceive
service and/or product performance relative to their expectations.
This causal sequence has also been supported in the sport context.
Satisfaction with the experience of attending sporting events would
be a significant predictor of the likelihood of attending future events
(Madrigal, 1995). For example, successful team performance and
game outcomes lead to customer satisfaction and stimulate further
consumption, whereas poor team performance and game outcomes
lead to dissatisfaction, which in turn results in less consumption
(Greestein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier, 1989; Matsuoka
et al., 2003).
Attitudinal Brand Loyalty
Numerous researchers have examined the attitudinal aspect
of brand loyalty (Bowen & Shoemaker, 1998; Iwasaki & Havitz,
1998; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; McCleary & Weaver, 1992;
Vallerand & Reid, 1984). According to Oliver (1997), there is a
learning process in consumers' attitudinal purchasing behavior.
Attitudinal brand loyalty is developed in three phases — cognitive,
affective, and conative components. Cognition refers to people's
logical thoughts about the object, including beliefs about facts such
as price and necessity. Affect refers to irrational approaches to
an object such as feelings or emotional responses (Back & Parks,
2003). Quick (2000) found a relationship between the irrational
feeling of team identification and consumption of sport products.
For example, sport fans who identify with a certain team may buy
a championship t-shirt without thinking about price and quality,
when the team wins the championship game. Conative components
include behavioral intentions or willingness to act (Back & Parks,
2003). Bagozzi (1978) stated that the conation dimension is the
active decision to either approach or avoid an object or formulate
some responses.
Attitudinal brand loyalty focuses not only on transactional
strategies, such as frequent-user programs and gifts for repeated
customers, but also on attitudinal variables, such as commitment
and trust. Attitudinal studies have described brand loyalty not
only as the outcome of repeated purchase behavior, but also the
consequence of multidimensional attitudes toward a specific brand
(Back & Parks, 2003; Backman & Crompton, 1991).
In addition, the literature on the relationship between attitudinal
and behavioral aspects of brand loyalty should be addressed to
describe the purchasing behavior of licensed sports products.
Back and Parks (2003) mentioned that many attitudinal factors are
related to consumers' involvement, psychological commitment,
motivation and other cognitive and affective variables that were
based not theoretically, but operationally. On the other hand,
behavioral brand loyalty describes measures that are based on
observation of actual behavior or self-reports of behavior, such
as brand choice sequence, probability of purchase period, and the
proportion of purchases concentrated on a specific brand (Backman
& Crompton, 1991). In addition, numerous researchers have
investigated the relationship between attitudinal and behavioral
intentions of purchasing behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Bentler
& Speckart, 1981; Peter & Olson, 1993). Specifically, Ajzen and
Fishbein (1980) noted a relationship between customers' beliefs
and attitudes and their behavioral intentions. Bentler and Speckart
(1981) found that attitudes have causal priority over behaviors.
Similarly, Peter and Olson (1993) found that a negative change
in attitudes caused many customers to switch to other brands,
indicating that change in attitude is a good predictor of purchasing
behavior.
The Effect of Team Identification on Cognitive Brand Loyalty
Many researchers have examined the relationship between team
identification and the purchasing attitude towards licensed sports
products based on the theory of brand loyalty and/or brand equity
(Gladden & Funk, 2002; Kwon & Armstrong, 2004; Matsuoka
et al., 2003; Trail et al., 2003). As the term team identification
has been adapted from the fields of organizational behavior and
sport fan identification (Dutton, Dukerich, & Harquail, 1994;
Milne & McDonald, 1999), many studies have shown that team
identification is more likely a cognitive perception than affective
perception. Foote (1951) and Kagan (1958) suggest that the term
identification is portrayed only by the cognitive perception of
shared experiences and characteristics, not by resultant behavior.
volume 5, issue 1 61

Licensed Sports Product Industry
For example, the purchasing attitudes of sport consumers who
have a psychological attachment to their favorite teams may stem
from team performance and outcomes, quality of product, variety
of choice, and price.
In addition, Gladden and Milne (1999) stated that professional
sport teams are likely to possess brand equity by virtue of the added
meaning that sport consumers attach to the names and logos of their
favorite teams. They modified the framework to include the entire
team sport setting and examined the hypothesized links among
several antecedent variables (i.e., success, star players, coach, and
competitive forces) and the realization of licensed merchandise
sales. Moreover, several researchers have shown a relationship
between team identification and sport consumer behavior
(Mitrano, 1999; Sutton, McDonald, Milne, & Cimperman, 1997).
Specifically, identification is highly correlated with basking in
reflected glory (BIRGing) behavior (Madrigal, 1995; Sloan, 1989)
and consumption of sport products (Wann & Branscombe, 1993).
The Effect of Customer Satisfaction on Cognitive Brand Loyalty
Numerous researchers have investigated the relationship
between customer satisfaction and attitudinal brand loyalty
(Fornell, Johnson, Anderson, Cha, & Bryant, 1996; Gladden &
Funk, 2002; Greenstein & Marcum, 1981; Hansen & Gauthier,
1989; Kwon & Armstrong, 2002; Matsuoka et al., 2003). Many
consumer behavior researchers (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Fornell
et al., 1996) have also found that customer satisfaction influences
cognitive, affective, and conative components of attitudinal brand
loyalty, including purchase intentions and post-purchase attitudes.
These positive attitudes were found to revise purchasing decisions
toward the product or brand. Other researchers have shown that
customer satisfaction increases the level of positive belief or belief
confidence (Albarracin & Wyer, 2000), reinforces the level of
positive affect (Oliver, 1993), and enhances repurchase intentions
(Yi, 1990).
Customer satisfaction may have a direct effect on experiential
needs. Park, Jaworski, and MacInnis (1986) suggested that
consumers can be satisfied based on their different types of needs:
functional, symbolic, and experiential. Of these different needs,
experiential needs are °ßdesire for products that provide sensory
pleasure, variety, and/or cognitive stimulation°® (Park, Jaworski,
& MacInnis, 1986, p. 136). For example, sport consumers may
purchase their favorite team t-shirt because of its unique design,
color, or logo. They may also purchase any licensed product due to
the enjoyment that is provided to them and/or their family.
The Effect of Cognitive Purchasing Behavior on Affective Brand
Loyalty
The current study examines the influence of cognitive
antecedents thought to be theoretically related to the affective
reactions of BIRGing. Among the studies that explicitly tested
cognition's possible influence on affective purchasing behavior,
Madrigal (1995) explained cognition's effect on affect using
the theory of expectancy disconfirmation. The expectancy
disconfirmation paradigm refers to two processes consisting
of the formation of pre-consumption normative standards (i.e.,
expectations) and the subsequent confirmation or disconfirmation
of those expectations through performance outcomes. The extent
62 Journal of Research
to which outcomes match expectations determines to a large
extent how information is processed and evaluated. For example,
a greater discrepancy between expectancies and outcomes should
lead to greater cognitive processing and increased satisfaction/
dissatisfaction with outcomes (Cohen & Basu, 1987; Hunt, Smith,
& Kernan, 1989; Madrigal, 1995; Oliver, 1980). Trail et al. (2000)
also indicated that disconfirmation would lead directly to an
affective state. They mentioned that self-esteem responses would
mediate the disconfirmation affective-state relationship. It seems
much more logical to suggest that affective purchasing behavior
precedes intended self-esteem behavior. Trail et al. (2000)
noted that affective state predicts the intentions of future sport
consumption behavior. For example, sport consumers are likely
to consume licensed sport products that validate the connection
between their concept of self and the source of their enhanced selfesteem
(Belk, 1988).
The Effect of Affective Brand Loyalty on Conative Brand Loyalty
In using the general components of attitude, attitudinal brand
loyalty should be considered as a sequential process in which
customers become "loyal first in a cognitive sense, then later in an
affective sense, and still later in a conative manner" (Oliver, 1997,
p. 392). For instance, a customer initially becomes cognitively
loyal based on beliefs about the brand attribute only. Then he or she
may become affectively loyal, with pleasurable fulfillment based
on brand performance. Next, he or she may become conatively
loyal, exhibiting a brand-specific commitment.
Although many researchers have studied consequential
relationships with customer satisfaction and attitudinal brand
loyalty, no empirical study has been undertaken in the licensed
sports products business. Hence, this study tested the relationships
among team identification, customer satisfaction, and attitudinal
purchasing behavior of licensed sport products as listed:
H 1
: Team identification has a positive effect on cognitive brand
loyalty of licensed sport products.
H 2
: Customer satisfaction has a positive effect on cognitive
brand loyalty of licensed sport products.
H 3
: Cognitive brand loyalty has a positive effect on affective
brand loyalty of licensed sport products.
H 4
: Affective brand loyalty has a positive effect on conative
brand loyalty of licensed sport products.
Conceptual Model
Figure 1 displays the conceptual model used in this study. It
shows the relationships among team identification and attitudinal
brand loyalty of licensed sports products, as well as the relationship
between cognitive brand loyalty and customer satisfaction, as based
on Oliver's (1997) brand loyalty stage theory. Team identification
and customer satisfaction are treated as an exogenous variable,
whereas attitudinal (cognitive, affective, and conative) brand
loyalty is considered as endogenous variables.
Method
A questionnaire was developed based on a thorough review of
the literature and a pilot study. Manipulation checks from the pilot
study (n=75) were conducted to ensure the reliability and validity
of scales (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Chatterji, 2003; Fornell &

Licensed Sports Product Industry
Results
A reliability test was used to assess the internal homogeneity
among items in this study. As Nunally (1978) suggested, the
coefficient alpha is the most popular measure of reliability
for a multi-item scale. The coefficient alpha estimates for the
variables were as follows: team identification (TI) = .93; customer
satisfaction (CS) = .95; cognitive brand loyalty (CBL) = .86;
affective brand loyalty (ABL) = .82; and conative brand loyalty
(CNBL) = .82. The alpha for all coefficients for the data exceeded
the minimum standard for reliability of 0.7 as recommended by
Nunnally (1978) for basic research. Thus, the results indicated
that these measurements are highly reliable for the measurement
of each construct.
Figure 1. A conceptual model showing relationships among study variables.
Lacker, 1981). In addition, the pilot study was administered to
obtain reliability estimates and to establish the construct validity
of the instrument. An additional goal of the pilot study was to
reduce the number of items to be included in the final instrument
so that data collection would be less time consuming and improve
the consent rate from the survey respondents.
The 5-item, 7-point Likert-type scale, for team identification
(e.g., "It would be difficult to change my belief about my favorite
team.") was modified from Wann & Branscombe (1990). The
3-item, 7-point Likert-type scale, for customer satisfaction (e.g.,
"Overall, I am satisfied with the decision to purchase the licensed
product of my favorite team.") was adapted from Oliver (1980).
Attitudinal brand loyalty was measured by using scales that were
developed by Loken and John (1993), Oliver (1997), and Beatty,
Kahle, and Homer (1988) and included nine items that were 7-
point Likert-type measures (e.g., "The licensed product of my
favorite team provides me superior quality as compared to any
other similar products"; "I intend to continue purchasing my
favorite team's licensed product").
The sample population in this study was composed of baseball
spectators who visited the Triple-A Minor League Baseball stadium
in the northeastern United States. An on-site convenience sampling
method was applied and complimentary tickets were raffled as an
incentive. The questionnaire was distributed to 325 individuals
when they entered into the stadium. Of the 325 distributed
questionnaires, 268 questionnaires were returned. Some of these
responses were eliminated before data coding because they were
returned blank or only partially completed. In addition, the
respondents who did not have any experience in purchasing the
licensed products were excluded. After eliminating the unusable
responses, 201 responses were coded for data analysis, resulting in
a response rate of 62%. Among the respondents, the majority were
male (56%), aged 30 or younger (48%) and Caucasian (87%). The
household income level was normally distributed with a mean of
$37,000.
Construct Validity Test
Construct validity assesses the degree to which a measurement
represents and logically connects, via the underlying theory, the
observed phenomenon to the construct (Fornell & Lacker, 1981).
Following Anderson and Gerbing's (1988) two-step approach, a
measurement model was estimated prior to the structural model.
The results for the measurements of latent variables were very
good ( 2 =228.95, df=114, RMSEA=0.07, CFI=0.98, NNFI=0.98).
All indicator loadings for constructs were significant (p

Licensed Sports Product Industry
Bentler and Bonett's (1980) non-normed fit index (NNFI) were
performed. The results showed a better fit for the five-factor model,
2 (114)=228.95, 2 / df = 2.10, RMSEA = .07, CFI = .98, NNFI
= .98 than the three-factor model, 2 (119)=359.69, 2 / df = 3.10,
RMSEA = .10, CFI = .95, NNFI =.95 with a significant 2 (5) =
149.74, p

Licensed Sports Product Industry
Hypotheses Testing
H 1
: Team identification has a positive effect on cognitive brand
loyalty of licensed sports products.
First, Hypothesis 1 was tested. The relationship between
team identification and cognitive brand loyalty was found to be
significant ( 11
=0.52, t=6.00, p

Licensed Sports Product Industry
other types of sports or geographic locations may have different
strengths of effect on the variables. In addition, the sample
population of this study was not selected randomly. As noted, pure
random sampling is almost impossible in the industry, so including
many different types of sports spectators and geographic segments
would increase external validity. Thus, future studies should
develop a systematic design that better represents the population.
Measuring brand loyalty should be extended to include actual
purchasing behaviors for the future. As Heskett et al. (1997)
stated, only 100% of satisfied customers become truly brand loyal
by having relatively high repurchase rates and strong emotional
attachments with the brand. Including the actual purchasing rates
of the licensed products of the favorite teams would enhance the
quality of the study. In order to develop a more beneficial study,
a longitudinal approach should be considered. By monitoring
the consumers' actual purchasing behaviors and their pre-stated
attitudes over time, the practitioner should be able to identify the
enhancers or barriers between the attitudinal and behavioral brand
loyalties.
Moreover, future studies can include additional variables in the
model to further develop brand loyalty strategies. For instance, by
considering the effect of customers' perceptions of brand image for
their favorite team on their satisfaction and brand loyalty, marketers
should be able to develop selective target market strategies and
enhance the effectiveness of their advertising strategies.
Conclusions
In summary, this study suggests that team identification
enhances the level of customers' experiences of superiority,
positive feelings, and strong commitment toward the brand, and
subsequently greater purchasing frequencies over other brands.
The results of this study also indicate that customer satisfaction
does not guarantee conative brand loyalty. In other words, customer
satisfaction will not automatically increase the repeated purchasing
intention unless customers first build positive beliefs and emotional
attachments with the brand. By using this attitudinal brand loyalty
measurement, sport marketers should be able to identify a distinct
target market and potentially better address their wants and needs.
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volume 5, issue 1 67

Pre-Activity and Post-Activity Stretching
Perceptions and Practices in NCAA Division I
Volleyball Programs
by Lawrence W. Judge, PhD, CSCS 1 , Kimberly J. Bodey, EdD,
CSCS 2 , David Bellar, PhD, CSCS 3 , Adam Bottone, MS 1 , Elizabeth
Wanless, BS 1.
1
School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science,
Ball State University, Muncie, IN
2
Department of Recreation and Sport Management,
Indiana State University, Terre Haute, IN
3
Department of Kinesiology, University of Louisiana-Lafayette,
Lafayette, LA
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine if NCAA Division I
women's volleyball programs were in compliance with suggested
current pre- and post-activity stretching protocols. Questionnaires
were sent to NCAA division I women's volleyball programs in
the United States. Fifty six coaches (23 males & 33 females)
participated in the study. Some results seemed to conflict with
current suggested practices for pre-activity stretching. The results
of this study indicate that certification may not influence how well
research guidelines are followed. Further research is needed to
delineate how these factors affect coaching decisions.
Key words: warm-up, stretching, flexibility
Introduction
To obtain optimal performance collegiate volleyball players
should perform a pre-activity protocol that systematically and
progressively stimulates the musculature athletes will utilize
during training or in competition. The key components are timing,
sequence, and interaction of the training stimuli to allow optimum
adaptive response in pursuit of specific competitive goals (Judge,
2007). Active warm-up, passive warm-up, and stretching are
frequent procedures used by athletes prior to engaging in intense
physical activity. Although the evidence is clear in the sports science
literature; some practitioners continue inappropriate warm-up and
stretching combinations (Beedle, Leydig & Carnucci, 2007). The
study will assess National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
Division I volleyball coaches' certifications and the relationship to
current pre-activity stretching and post-activity stretching practices
and perceived benefits and the gap that may exist between scientific
principles and actual coaching practices.
Literature Review
In a competitive activity like volleyball which requires
explosive strength, training protocols that influence the mechanical
performance of subsequent muscle contractions should be addressed
(Chiu, 2003). The theoretical goal of the pre-activity warm-up and
stretching is to optimize performance and reduce the incidence of
injury through increased muscle temperature, muscle compliance,
and efficiency of physiological responses. A well-designed preactivity
protocol will bring about various physiological changes
that enhance the training activity or competition.
68 Journal of Research
Types of Stretching
Flexibility as a biomotor quality has been extensively researched
during the last several decades. Various approaches to stretching
have been explored by the coaching, scientific, and physiotherapy
communities. Researchers have assessed the athletic benefits of
performing a general "warm-up" prior to activity (Safran, Garrett,
Seaber, Glisson, & Ribbeck, 1988) and attempted to pinpoint what,
if any, type of stretching should be performed before activity to
maximize performance.
There are essentially two forms of stretching employed on a
regular basis among athletes as part of a complete flexibility
procedure; pre-activity stretching (Behm, Button, & Butt, 2001;
Fry, McLellan, Weiss, & Rosato, 2003; Nelson, Jokkonen, &
Arnall, 2005) and post-activity stretching (Hunter & Marshall,
1992; Kerrigan, Xenopoulus-Oddson, Sullivan, Lelas, & Riley,
2003). Static stretching, ballistic stretching, proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation stretching (PNF), and dynamic
stretching are the specific types of stretching predominantly used
by athletes, coaches, and athletic trainers in pre or post activity.
The following section explains each of these types of stretching in
greater detail.
Static Stretching
Static stretching, the most commonly used program among
athletes and coaches, requires the holding of a stretch position with
little or no movement for a length of time (Mann & Whedon, 2001).
When done correctly, the static stretch includes the relaxation and
concurrent elongation of the stretch muscle. If performed properly,
the risk of injury associated with the stretch is reduced (Baechle
& Earle, 2000). Static stretching should not result in excessive
tension on the muscle as this may cause a reduction in the stretch
and injury (Mann & Whedon, 2001).
Several studies have shown that using static stretching as a preactivity
warm-up has either detrimental or no effect on performance.
Static stretching does little to increase the core muscle temperature
(Mann & Whedon, 2001). Nelson, Kokkonen, and Arnall (2005)
found static stretching reduced muscular strength endurance by
28%. Mann and Jones (1999) reported vertical jump performance
decreased 5.6% following static stretching as compared to no
stretching at all. Unick, Kieffer, Cheesman, and Feeney (2005)
found no difference in vertical-jump performance from either static
or ballistic stretching as compared with no stretching. Similarly,
Cramer (2006) found no effect on peak torque of leg extensors
from static stretching.
The current trend shows that static stretching tactics are better
suited following activity, not before it (Anderson, Beauliue,
Cornelius, Dominquez, Prentice, & Wallace, 1984; Egan, Cramer,
Massey, & Marek, 2006; Nelson, & Brandy, 2008; Stone, Ramsey,
O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands, 2006; Swanson, 2008). Research
supports that gains in range of motion can be achieved if static
stretching is performed consistently post-activity as a part of the

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
cool down (Mann & Whedon, 2001).
Ballistic Stretching
Ballistic stretching involves an active muscular effort and uses
a bouncing-type movement in which the end position of the stretch
is not held (Baechle & Earle, 2000). Due to the bouncing-type
movement, many researchers have concluded that ballistic-type
stretching is counterproductive to warm-up exercises because it
leads to a firing of the muscle spindle which initiates the stretch
reflex, leading to a greater potential for injury (Mann & Whedon,
2001). Because the stretch reflex is activated, the muscle is not
allowed to relax which defeats the purpose of stretching (Baechle
& Earle, 2000). Unlike static stretching, ballistic stretching does
have the potential to increase the muscle's core temperature;
however, the efficacy of its use in the athletic arena is in question
(Mann & Whedon, 2001). This ballistic-style of stretching popular
in the 1960s was slowly replaced in the early 1980s with a focus on
proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) Stretching
Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation stretching (PNF)
combines static stretching with isometric contractions of either
the stretched muscle or the muscle's agonist to increase the range
of motion (ROM) attainable during the stretch. PNF stretching
techniques are commonly used in the athletic and clinical
environments to enhance both active and passive range of motion.
PNF is considered the most effective stretching technique when
the aim is to increase the range of motion (Sharman & Cresswell,
2006). Originally developed in the 1950s, PNF stretching was
used as a rehabilitation technique for stroke patients. Today,
athletic trainers and therapists use PNF techniques to increase
range of motion and improve strength although it does not increase
core muscle temperature (Mann & Whedon, 2001). Cornelius
(1984) favored PNF stretching over ballistic stretching citing the
explosive nature of ballistic stretching created a higher risk for
injury and the potential for muscle soreness. While PNF stretching
is a good program for athletes to use for increasing range of motion
and decreasing muscle soreness, it can be a very complicated
procedure and may not be appropriate on the volleyball court
unless the athletes are properly trained to administer the technique
(Mann & Whedon, 2001).
Dynamic Stretching
Dynamic stretching allows for flexibility activity during a
sport-specific movement. It can be argued that to most effectively
prepare strength or power athletes for a specific sport activity
the pre-activity routine should contain exercises that address
the concept of movement pattern specificity. Although similar
to ballistic stretching, dynamic stretching avoids bouncing and
can include movement specific to a sport or movement pattern
(Baechle & Earle, 2000). Dynamic stretching includes continuous
muscle activity to exceed the static range of motion encountered
during the normal full-range-of-motion activities (Yessis, 2006).
This type of pre-activity flexibility is best done prior to the sport
activity as it helps the athlete to prepare for the competition by
allowing him or her to increase sport-specific flexibility and it
increases core muscle temperature (Baechle & Earle, 2000).
Research supports dynamic stretching over other types of preactivity
stretching. Yamaguchi and Ishii (2005) found dynamic
stretching to be better than static stretching or no stretching at
all for leg extension power. In another study, athletes were tested
performing underhand medicine-ball toss, and a five-step jump
test. The results on all the tests were significantly greater when
dynamic stretching was performed prior to the tests than when preactivity
static stretching was performed (Little & Williams, 2006).
Little and Williams (2006) also found agility performance to be
greater following pre-activity dynamic stretching as opposed to
pre-activity static stretching. This research suggests that dynamic
stretching should be included as part of a pre-activity preparation
routine.
Research investigating the usage of pre-activity warm-up and
stretching and post-activity stretching has shown a paradigm
shift from activities such as ballistic-style of stretching to a focus
on static and/or PNF stretching (Anderson, 1980; Anderson,
Beauliue, Cornelius, Dominquez, Prentice, & Wallace, 1984;
Holcomb, 2008; Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands, 2006)
and more recently to dynamic stretching (Little and Williams,
2006). Current research indicates that dynamic stretching should
be used prior to activity (Behm, Button, & Butt, 2001; Ce,
Margonato, Casasco, & Veicsteinas, 2008; Egan, Cramer, Massey,
& Marek, 2006; Fredrick, & Szymanski, 2001; Laroche, Lussier,
& Roy, 2008; Mann, & Jones, 1999; Siatras, Mittas, Maneletzi,
& Vamvakoudis, 2008; Torres, Kraemer, Vingren, Volek, Hatfield,
Spiering, Ho, Fragala, Thomas, Anderson, Hakkinen, and Maresh,
2008; Winchester, Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008;
Yamaguchi, & Ishii, 2005). Evidence indicates that static-style
stretching should be performed following exercise (Anderson,
Beauliue, Cornelius, Dominquez, Prentice, & Wallace, 1984;
Egan, Cramer, Massey, & Marek, 2006; Nelson, & Brandy, 2008;
Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands, 2006; Swanson, 2008).
Researchers continued investigation of the physiological impact
of pre-activity stretching and the effect it can have on performance
has further awakened interest from the coaching community.
The advent of coaches' education and certification programs
for volleyball coaches, strength coaches, and athletic trainers
should give coaches a solid physiological basis for their training
recommendations.
Coaches Certification
The most common type of volleyball specific coaching
certification training is through USA Volleyball (USA Volleyball,
2009). The USA Volleyball Coaching Accreditation Program
(USAV-CAP) provides an opportunity for professional preparation
and advancement for the volleyball coach. The curriculum addresses
the essential topics for the volunteer and the internationally
aspiring coach. The USAV-CAP is a four-level volleyball coaching
education program. Each course level includes a special emphasis
on building the foundation and creation of a well-prepared coach.
The first level, Increased Mastery and Professional Application
of Coaching Theory (IMPACT), is an entry level certification
which provides a general overview of volleyball drill development
and ethical coaching. Next, coaches enroll in the Coaching
Accreditation Program (CAP) which has four levels (i.e., CAP I-
IV). Level I emphasizes teaching the skills of the game. Level
volume 5, issue 1 69

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
II emphasizes organizing and developing team play. Level III
emphasizes taking your team to the next level though advanced
training and conditioning. Level IV is by appointment only and is
usually reserved for those coaches who have coached for official
USA National team or have assisted with a National or Olympic
team.
Division I volleyball programs may also have the added benefit
of working with strength and conditioning coaches. Most strength
coaches and some volleyball coaches are certified through the
National Strength and Conditioning Association (NSCA). The
NSCA Certified Strength and Conditioning Specialist (CSCS)
program was created in 1985 to certify individuals who possess the
knowledge and skills to design and implement safe and effective
strength and conditioning programs (NSCA, 2009). In order to
pass the certification exam individuals must possess knowledge
in the scientific foundations of warm-up, stretching, cool down,
periodization, nutrition and strength and conditioning, and
demonstrate the skills to apply that knowledge. Today, more than
21,000 professionals from a variety of academic and professional
backgrounds hold the CSCS credential (NSCA, 2009). This diverse
group includes strength coaches, sport coaches, athletic trainers,
physical therapists, personal trainers, physicians, chiropractors,
researchers, and educators.
Even with the proliferation of coaches and strength training
professionalsÅf education and certification programs and a greater
emphasis on research in this area it is uncertain if coaches follow
the suggested guidelines. Therefore, the purpose of this study
was to determine if the current pre- and post-activity practices of
college volleyball programs are supported by current research, and
whether or not that is affected by coaching certifications.
Methodology
Sampling Procedure
The purpose of this study was to ascertain coaches' perceptions
and stretching practices conducted in Division I volleyball
programs. To avoid redundancy, only one coach per program, the
head coach, was contacted about the study. The assumption was
the head coach would complete the survey instrument or direct the
staff member responsible for stretching activities to complete the
survey instrument.
Current email addresses for all Division I head volleyball
coaches were obtained from the 2008-2009 NCAA Coaches
Directory. An introductory email explained the purpose of the
study and provided a hyperlink to the institutional review board
approved, web based informed consent and survey instrument.
Data was collected during a four week period in February/March
2009. Early off season was determined to be the best timeframe
to maximize coaches' recall of stretching practices used during
the previous season and coachesÅf participation in the study. A
reminder email was sent to non-respondents two weeks after the
initial email in an effort to increase the overall response rate.
Instrumentation
The survey instrument contained 17 items grouped into four
areas.
Pre-activity stretching practices. Three items were completed
by participants. Respondents indicated the (a) type of pre-activity
70 Journal of Research
group stretching conducted in the warm-up period, (b) whether
athletes performed static stretching following the pre-activity group
stretching but prior to the athletic event, and (c) whether athletes
performed static stretching with assistance of an athletic trainer or
massage therapist following the pre-activity group stretching but
prior to the athletic event.
Post-activity stretching practices. Three items were completed
by participants. Respondents indicated the (a) type of postactivity
group stretching conducted during the cool-down period,
(b) perceived frequency of athletes completing a post-activity
stretching regimen following the athletic event, and (c) perceived
frequency of athletes completing post-activity stretching plus light
jogging following the athletic event.
Perceived benefits of stretching activities. Four items were
completed by participants. Respondents indicated their perception
of whether pre-activity group stretching (a) prevents injury and (b)
improves athletic performance. Similarly, respondents indicated
their perception of whether post-activity group stretching (c)
prevents injury and (d) improves athletic performance.
Demographic information. Five items were completed.
Respondents indicated their (a) title (e.g., head coach, assistant
coach), (b) sex, (c) years of experience, (d) current volleyball
certification(s), and (e) current strength and conditioning
certification(s). Two additional questions related to institution and
conference affiliation were used to make a judgment about sampling
error but were not otherwise included in the data analysis.
Data Analysis
Data analysis was a two step process in this study. Step 1 involved
generation of descriptive statistics for all the variables of interest.
Univariates were used to determine whether Pearson 2 model
assumptions were met. Step 2 involved applying Pearson 2 tests
of independence to the following sets of variables (a) certification
and type of pre-activity group stretching, (b) certification and type
of post-activity group stretching, (c) certification and pre-activity
group stretching — injury prevention benefit, (d) certification and
pre-activity group stretching — improved performance benefit, (e)
certification and post-activity group stretching — injury prevention
benefit, and (f) certification and post-activity group stretching
— improved performance benefit. Alpha was adjusted to .008
with Bonferroni's contrasting procedure to minimize study-wide
Type I error. Cramér's V was calculated to estimate the strength of
relationships.
Results
From the 291 Division I volleyball programs, 56 coaches
returned completed usable surveys. This represents 19.2% of a
finite population. The low response rate may have resulted from
the following factors: (a) spam control software may have sorted
introductory and follow-up emails into a bulk mail folder, (b)
coaches may not have been interested in the topic or may not
have perceived a tangible benefit from study participation, and (c)
coaches may not have had sufficient time to complete the survey
instrument due to the recruiting calendar (e.g., placed on "to
do" list). While the response rate is relatively low by traditional
standards, review of institution and conference affiliation data
suggests the sample is representative of Division I volleyball

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
programs. Nonetheless, caution is warranted as factors may exist
which limit the generalizability of study results.
Demographic Data
In this study, respondents were primarily head coaches
(85.7%), female (58.9%), and possessed an average of 13.8 years
of experience. The head coaches had an average of 14.0 years of
experience compared to 12.0 years of experience for the assistant
coaches. A large number of coaches (44.6%) did not possess a
volleyball coaching certification nor a strength and conditioning
coaching certification.
Table 1. Demographic Profile of Division I Volleyball
Coaches (N=56)
Assistant
Head Coach Coach Missing Total
Gender
Men 19 33.92% 3 5.36% 1 1.79% 23 41.07%
Women 29 51.78% 3 5.36% 1 1.79% 33 58.93%
Experience
Range 2 to 42 yrs 6 to 20 yrs 1 to 10 yrs 1 to 42 yrs
Mean 14.22 (7.57) 12.00 (7.21) 5.50 (6.36) 13.75 (7.58)
Certification
None 23 41.07% 2 3.57% 0 0% 25 44.64%
Impact 4 7.14% 1 1.79% 0 0% 5 8.93%
CAP I 9 16.07% 1 1.79% 1 1.79% 11 19.64%
CAP II 4 7.14% 0 0% 0 0% 4 7.14%
CAP III 6 10.71% 0 0% 0 0% 6 10.71%
CSCS 1 1.79% 2 3.57% 0 0% 3 5.36%
CSCS + Impact 0 0% 0 0% 1 1.79% 1 1.79%
CSCS + CAP I 1 1.79% 0 0% 0 0% 1 1.79%
Total 48 6 2 56
Pre-Activity Stretching Practices
Coaches typically prescribed a combination of static and
dynamic stretching activities (44.0%) or dynamic stretching
activities (42.0%) prior to the athletic event. To a much lesser
extent coaches exclusively utilized static stretching activities
Table 2. Pre-Activity Group Stretching Practices in
Division I Volleyball Programs (N=50)
Type of Pre-Activity Group Stretching
Static &
Certification Static Ballistic PNF Dynamic Dynamic
None 5 10.00% 0 0% 0 0% 9 18.00% 10 20.00%
Impact 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2.0% 3 6.00%
CAP I 2 4.00% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 6 12.00%
CAP II 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 4 8.00% 0 0%
CAP III 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 3 6.00% 2 4.00%
CSCS 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 2 4.00% 1 2.00%
CSCS + Impact 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2.00% 0 0%
CSCS + CAP I 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 1 2.00% 0 0%
Total 7 0 0 21 22
Following Pre-Activity Group Stretching, Coach
Allows:
Self Static 1 2.00% 0 0% 0 0% 2 4.00% 2 4.00%
AT/MT Static 1 2.00% 0 0% 0 0% 5 10.00% 3 6.00%
Self & AT/MT Static 4 8.00% 0 0% 0 0% 4 8.00% 10 20.00%
Static Not Allowed 1 2.00% 0 0% 0 0% 8 16.00% 5 10.00%
Total 7 0 0 *19 *20
*Missing data.
(14.0%). Interestingly, among coaches who incorporated dynamic
stretching into the group warm-up, 57.9% subsequently allowed
athletes to perform static stretching independently and/or with
assistance from the athletic trainer or the massage therapist. The
Pearson 2 test of independence between certification and preactivity
group stretch type was not significant, 2 (2, N=50) =
1.819, p =.403.
Table 3. Certification and Pre-Activity Group Stretch
Type (N=50)
Stretch Type Certified Non-Certified Total
Static 2 5 7
(36.0) (3.4)
Dynamic 12 9 21
(10.9) (10.1)
Static + Dynamic 12 10 22
(11.4) (10.6)
Total 26 24 50
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=50) = 1.819, p = .403
Post-Activity Stretching Practices
Coaches typically used static stretching activities (71.4%)
following the athletic event. To a much lesser extent, coaches used
a combination of static and dynamic stretching activities (22.4%)
and PNF stretching (6.1%). Coaches indicated athletes either
always or almost always completed a stretching regime (54.0%)
or stretching plus jogging regime (44.0%) after an athletic event.
The Pearson 2 test of independence between certification and
pre-activity group stretch type was not significant, 2 (2, N=50)
= 2.947, p = .229.
Table 4. Post-Activity Group Stretching Practices in
Division I Volleyball Programs (N=49)
Type of Post-Activity Group Stretching
Static &
Certification Static Ballistic PNF Dynamic Dynamic
None 17 34.69% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 6 12.24%
Impact 4 8.16% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
CAP I 5 10.20% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 4 8.16%
CAP II 3 6.12% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
CAP III 3 6.12% 0 0% 2 4.08% 0 0% 1 2.04%
CSCS 1 2.04% 0 0% 1 2.04% 0 0% 0 0%
CSCS + Impact 1 2.04% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
CSCS + CAP I 1 2.04% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Total 35 0 3 0 11
Table 5. Coaches Perceived Frequency of Athletes Completing
Post Activity Cool Down Activities (N=50)
Almost
Always Always Sometimes Rarely Never
Stretching Regime:
Head Coach 7 14.00% 18 36.00% 13 26.00% 5 10.00% 2 4.00%
Assistant Coach 0 0% 2 4.00% 2 4.00% 1 2.00% 0 0%
Total 7 20 15 6 2
Stretching & Jogging Regime:
Head Coach 7 14.00% 14 28.00% 12 24.00% 6 12.00% 5 10.00%
Assistant Coach 0 0% 1 2.00% 3 6.00% 1 2.00% 0 0%
Total 7 15 15 7 5
volume 5, issue 1 71

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
Table 6. Certification and Post-Activity Group Stretch
Type (N=49)
Stretch Type Certified Non-Certified Total
Static 18 17 35
(18.6) (16.4)
PNF 3 0 3
(1.6) (1.4)
Static + Dynamic 5 6 11
(5.8) (5.2)
Total 26 23 49
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=49) = 2.947, p = .229
Perceived Benefits of Stretching Activities
The majority of coaches indicated pre-activity group stretching
was beneficial in terms of injury prevention (75.0%) and improved
performance (69.1%). Similarly, coaches indicated post-activity
group stretching was beneficial in terms of injury prevention
(87.3%) and improved performance (69.6%). The Pearson 2 tests
of independence did not reveal significant relationships between
the following pairs of variables: (a) certification and pre-activity
group stretching — injury prevention benefit, 2 (2, N=56) = .602,
p = .438; (b) certification and pre-activity group stretching Çú
improved performance benefit, 2 (2, N=55) = .696, p = .404; (c)
certification and post-activity group stretching — injury prevention
benefit, 2 (2, N=55) = .022, p = .883; and (d) certification and
post-activity group stretching — improved performance benefit,
2 (2, N=56) = 2.291, p = .130.
Table 7. Certification and Pre-Activity Group Stretch -
Injury Prevention Benefit (N=56)
72 Journal of Research
Certified Non-Certified Total
Benefit 22 20 42
(23.3) (18.8)
No Benefit 9 5 15
(7.8) (6.3)
Total 31 25 56
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=56) = .602, p = .438
Table 8. Certification and Pre-Activity Group Stretch -
Performance Benefit (N=55)
Certified Non-Certified Total
Benefit 20 18 38
(21.4) (16.6)
No Benefit 11 6 17
(9.6) (7.7)
Total 31 24 55
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=55) = .696, p = .404
Table 9. Certification and Post-Activity Group Stretch -
Injury Prevention Benefit (N=55)
Certified Non-Certified Total
Benefit 26 22 48
(26.2) (21.8)
No Benefit 4 3 7
(3.8) (3.2)
Total 30 25 55
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=55) = .022, p = .883
Table 10. Certification and Post-Activity Group Stretch -
Performance Benefit (N=56)
Certified Non-Certified Total
Benefit 19 20 39
(21.6) (17.4)
No Benefit 12 5 17
(9.4) (7.6)
Total 31 25 56
Note: Numbers in parenthesis are expected cell frequencies.
2 (2, N=56) = 2.291, p = .130
Discussion
Lack of Certifications
The quality of a sports pre-activity preparation session
depends on the competence of the coach. Coaching education and
certification programs encourage a higher level of competence
among practitioners. Surprisingly, a large number of coaches in
the present study (44.6%) do not possess a volleyball coaching
certification nor a strength and conditioning coaching certification.
This may be due to the fact that coaching education programs have
not found much support on a wide-scale effort and have limited
success reaching their intended audience (Gilbert & Trudel,
1999).
A coach is a critical part to an athlete's sport experience
beginning with the pre-activity stretching protocol. An effective
practice begins with proper physical preparation. Mahoney and
Stattin (2000) found the structure and context of the sport activity
was important in determining whether participation led to positive
or negative outcomes. Strean and Garcia-Bengoechea (2003)
found it was the individual's sport experience that determined
whether participation was viewed as positive or negative. The fact
that coaches can readily be trained to provide such an environment
for athletes (Smith & Smoll, 2002) suggests that coach training
can be an important vehicle for improving the benefits of sport
participation for athletes. Well trained sports coaches are better
equipped to create positive sports experiences, which in turn keep
athletes involved in sports. Sports organizations and National
Governing Bodies (NGB's) should provide and market educational
programs for all coaches. Sport organizations need to continue
to extend the academic base by encouraging and supporting
quality research in coaching; translating the research in practical
applications and transmitting that information to coaches in
accessible ways. Education and certification programs for coaches
need additional marketing efforts to increase participation (Gilbert
& Trudel, 1999).

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
Pre-Activity Stretching Practices
Based on the results of the present study, it is clear that not
all of programs are in compliance with suggested current preactivity
stretching practices. Coaches not consistent with literature
undermine warm-up benefits by allowing athletes to do static
stretching. It has been shown that dynamic flexibility stretching
(not static, PNF, or ballistic-type stretches) should be used
prior to activity (Behm, Button, & Butt, 2001; Ce, Margonato,
Casasco, & Veicsteinas, 2008; Egan, Cramer, Massey, & Marek,
2006; Fredrick, & Szymanski, 2001; Laroche, Lussier, & Roy,
2008; Mann, & Jones, 1999; Siatras, Mittas, Maneletzi, &
Vamvakoudis, 2008; Torres, Kraemer, Vingren, Volek, Hatfield,
Spiering, Ho, Fragala, Thomas, Anderson, Hakkinen, and Maresh,
2008; Winchester, Nelson, Landin, Young, & Schexnayder, 2008;
Yamaguchi, & Ishii, 2005). In contradiction, 100% (50 out of
50) of coaches reported that they used some form of pre-activity
stretching, but only 42% (21 out of the 50) of coaches indicated that
they use dynamic flexibility stretching exclusively. Also of interest
were the coaches that allowed athletes to perform static stretching
independently and/or with assistance from the athletic trainer or the
massage therapist. The other coaches (22 out of 50) marked that
they used dynamic flexibility along with a 'combination' of static,
PNF, or ballistic stretching. With current research not supporting
the use of static, PNF, and ballistic stretches before exercise, the
data presented here demonstrates that while coaches have included
pre-activity stretching in their training program they have not
completely halted the use of the exercises that are not supported
by current research (Judge, Craig, Baudentistal & Bodey, 2009).
It should be noted that while most of the studies reviewed did not
support the use of static stretching pre-exercise (Bazett-Jones,
Gibson, & McBride, 2008; Ce, Margonato, Casasco, & Veicsteinas,
2008; Laroche, Lussier, & Roy, 2008; Siatras, Mittas, Maneletzi,
& Vamvakoudis, 2008; Winchester, Nelson, Landin, Young, &
Schexnayder, 2008), one study did support ballistic stretching
(Woolstenhulme, Griffins, Woolstenhulme, & Parcell, 2006). An
interesting finding of the present study is there were no differences
between those who are certified and those who are not in the preactivity
stretching practices. One would expect certified coaches to
be aware of what is in the literature and comply with the research
recommendations. The knowledge of the certified coaches could
be impacted by the age of their certification and whether or not
the coaches kept up to date with CEU's or self study. This calls to
question the efficacy of certification programs. Research further
examining whether certified coaches are staying up to date with
current research should be conducted in order to either improve the
certification process or change/modify the certification process to
ongoing learning requirements.
Post-Activity Stretching Practices
Current research indicates that athletes should perform staticstyle
stretching following exercise (Anderson, Beauliue, Cornelius,
Dominquez, Prentice, & Wallace, 1984; Egan, Cramer, Massey, &
Marek, 2006; Nelson, & Brandy, 2008; Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant,
Ayers, & Sands, 2006; Swanson, 2008). The results from this
study indicate that 49 of the responders had their athletes perform
post-activity stretching. Of the 49 who did employ post-activity
stretching, 71.4% (35 out of 49) performed static stretching, 8.0%
(4 out of 49) performed PNF stretching, and 20% (10 out of 49)
combined static with dynamic stretching. This indicates that while
the majority of the responders were congruent with research that
suggests post-activity stretching is important, not all follow current
stretching guidelines.
The most interesting finding of the post-stretch data is that
although most coaches are consistent with literature in their postactivity
stretching choice; post-activity stretching and cool down
are not a consistent part of the daily routine. Coaches indicate
athletes either always or almost always completed a stretching
regime (54%) or stretching plus jogging regime (44.9%) after
an athletic event. It can only be speculated why the post activity
stretching and cool down is not completed on a consistent basis.
Perceived Benefits of Stretching Activities
Coaches commonly hold two beliefs concerning stretching.
Acute stretching (part of the warm-up) may increase performance
and will reduce the injury potential and chronic stretching will
increase performance and reduce the injury potential. However,
data exist indicating that these beliefs may not be completely true
(Thacker, et al. 2004). The majority of coaches in the present study
indicated pre-activity group stretching was advantageous in terms
of injury prevention (75.0%) and improved performance (69.1%).
Similarly, coaches indicated post-activity group stretching was
beneficial in terms of injury prevention (87.3%) and improved
performance (69.6%). This indicates that while the majority of
the responders supported stretching as a means to prevent injuries
and improve performance, many coaches may not be aware of the
latest research findings.
Most studies indicate that reduced flexibility shows little
relationship to typical sports injuries. Neither acute (Pope,
2000) nor chronic (Herbert, 2002) stretching appears to effect a
significant reduction in physical activity related injuries. Thacker,
et al. (2004), in an extensive review of the flexibility literature
that included 361 articles dating back into the 1950s, concluded
that there is little relationship between stretching (e.g., increased
ROM) and injury. Thus, there is equivocal evidence that stretching
and enhanced ROM do not result in a lower injury rate.
Most of the performance studies show that pre-activity static
stretching as a part of warm-up reduces maximum strength (force
magnitude) and numerous related variables, such as rate of force
development and power output (Behm, 2001; Godges, 1989; Nelson,
2001; Rosembaum, 1995). Thus, it appears that static stretching as
part of a warm-up can negatively alter force production, power
output, and stretch-shortening cycle characteristics such that
strength and performance, including explosive performances, can
be compromised. Interestingly, among coaches who incorporated
dynamic stretching into the group warm-up, 57.9% of coaches
then allowed athletes to perform static stretching independently
and/or with assistance from the athletic trainer or the massage
therapist. This "extra" stretching may be limiting the explosive
capabilities and may have little or no affect on injury prevention
(Shrier, 1999). Most available data indicates that pre-activity
static stretching can cause acute performance reduction relating
to decreased tissue stiffness or alterations in nervous system
components of the stretch-shortening cycle, such as the myototic
reflex (Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands 2006). These
volume 5, issue 1 73

Stretching Perceptions and Practices
alterations in turn can result in a decreased maximum strength and
explosiveness and inferior performances. The literature dealing
with flexibility suggests that athletes should perform some sort
of 'general' warm-up prior to activity (Ce, Margonato, Casasco,
& Veicsteinas 2008; Hedrick 1992; Laroche, Lussier, & Roy
2008; Mann, & Jones 1999; Ninos 1995; Swanson 2008; Torres,
Kraemer, Vingren, Volek, Hatfield, Spiering, Ho, Fragala, Thomas,
Anderson, Hakkinen, & Maresh 2008; Yamaguchi, & Ishii 2005)
a pre-activity stretch (Fredrick, and Szymanski 2001; Holcomb,
2008; Laroche, Lussier, & Roy 2008; Mann & Jones 1999; Nelson
&Brandy 2008), and post-activity stretching (Anderson, 1984;
Nelson & Brandy 2008; Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands
2006). The majority of the respondents to this survey indicated
that they use the aforementioned 3 step approach in preparing
athletes, but did vary in how closely they followed research
recommendations (Judge, Craig, Baudentistal, & Bodey, 2009).
Implications for Coaches/Coach Educators
When comparing coaching specific certification to pre-activity
flexibility practices, it is clear that not all coaches are in compliance
with suggested pre-activity flexibility recommendations
(Faigenbaum, et al., 2006; Herda, et al., 2008; Kovacs, 2006;
McMillian, et al., 2006; Samuel, et al., 2008; Yessis, 2006). It
is reasonable to say that coaching certification has little impact
(based on results of this study) on pre-activity flexibility protocols.
Out of the 56 respondents, 29 have a volleyball specific coaching
certification (just slightly over 50%). It can be concluded that if
one has a volleyball specific coaching certification, they are not
more likely to omit static stretching from a pre-activity flexibility
than someone who does not have a volleyball specific coaching
certification. Yet 14 of the 29 certified volleyball coaches still
include some form of pre-activity static stretching. It is evident
that some coaches are unwilling or reluctant to part with traditional
methods of static stretching prior to activity (Bandy & Irion, 1994;
Swanson, 2006). It would be of value for volleyball coaches to
partake in a recertification course that includes current research
trends in a way that positively impacts their coaching. A well
educated coach with an understanding of current research will help
athletes be better prepared for competition and maximize their
volleyball performance. Based on these results it is evident that
there exists a need for a program of accreditation for volleyball
coaches. In addition, all coaches should be strongly encouraged
to receive continuing education units (CEU's) so that they stay
current with pre- and post-activity flexibility protocols as well as
other sport specific practices.
Coach Educators must continue to extend the academic base by
pursuing quality research in coaching; translating the research in
practical applications and transmitting that information in accessible
ways. Organizations like the National Council for Accreditation
of Coaching Education (NCACE) must continue facilitating the
development of quality coaching education programs (college
programs as well as online modular programs) and partnering with
other national associations/NGBs to spread consistent messages
about the importance and/value of coaches in developing research
based training program for athletes. Coach Educators need to
get the word out about proper pre- and post-activity stretching
regimens through trade publications, conferences, and trainings.
74 Journal of Research
The results of this study confirm the need for continued efforts
towards coachÅfs certification including continuing education to
remain current with research. Governing bodies (e.g., USAVB) and
certifying organizations (e.g., NSCA) need to form partnerships in
the development of educational resources.
Conclusion
This study indicates that it is important for volleyball coaches
to re-evaluate their own practices, perhaps cross-checking them
with the practices of their peers and stay current with ongoing
research. Although research supports dynamic warm-up/flexibility
over other types of pre-activity protocols (Little & Williams, 2006;
Stone, Ramsey, O'Bryant, Ayers, & Sands, 2006; Yamaguchi, &
Ishii, 2006), it appears that some volleyball coaches are reluctant
to totally discontinue traditional methods like pre-activity static
stretching. As the knowledge base for stretching and warm-up
strategies continues to evolve, coaches should change with them
to ensure their athletes are being properly prepared for training
and competition. The (USAVB) Coach's Education program as it
exists has reached a large number of coaches, but it appears there
is still work to be done. Another interesting question would be
whether or not there is a CEU requirement for certified coaches in
the present USAVP-CAP program. Volleyball coaches at all levels
could benefit from participating in certification programs like the
USA Volleyball (IMPACT, CAP I-IV) and National Strength and
Conditioning Association's (CSCS) programs to keep up to date
with current practices. Sport at all levels is in need of better and
more thorough coaching education programs and certification
processes.
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volume 5, issue 1 75

THE RULES & REVIEW PROCESS
A. Submission of Manuscripts
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at the following address: 1900 Association Drive, Reston, VA 20191-
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author plus one author (i.e. at least 2 authors) must be members.
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submitted material — one original hard copy of the manuscript
and a computer CD, large self-addressed envelope (stamped, for
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copy and one computer CD in the headquarters file.
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original CD – (Microsoft Word®) for its file.
76 Journal of Research

D. Review Process under the Editor-in-Chief
After receiving the manuscripts and materials from ICHPER·SD
headquarters, the Editor-in-Chief determines whether the manuscript
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edition]).
Review of Manuscripts
(a) JR is a peer-reviewed publication; all manuscripts undergo
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makes the final decision on manuscript publication.
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(e) Author(s) are usually advised of the decision on their
manuscripts within 75-90 days.
(f) Normally no more than two and rarely three versions are
permitted before a manuscript is accepted or rejected.
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are expected to know and abide by these guidelines, including
plagiarism, fragmented studies, dual publication, etc.
(b) Author(s) must disclose the potential for a conflict of interest
in their research, which will appear in the journal.
(c) Author(s) indicate whether their manuscript is part of a
larger study and how the current manuscript is distinct from other
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for the editor’s evaluation.
(d) Author(s) should take appropriate steps to obtain the
informed consent of human research participants, regardless of the
country’s regulations under which the research was conducted.
(e) The ICHPER·SD Journal of Research Editorial Policy Board
will review violations of ethical guidelines, and an appropriate
penalty or sanction will be imposed.
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author(s) bear responsibility for proofreading the manuscript and
should, therefore, be extremely thorough.
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within 7 days of the deadline stated in the cover letter provided
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with copyright law (P.L. 94-553) all authors must, whenever
legally possible, assign the copyright of accepted manuscripts
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the Council are protected from misuse of copyrighted materials.
(b) On receipt of legitimate written requests, permission is
granted by ICHPER·SD, through the Chair of the ICHPER·SD
Editorial Policy Board, for use of brief quotations (about 500
words) in published works.
(c) Permission is automatically granted to authors to use their
own articles in other published work.
(d) Permission to reprint entire articles, figures, or tables for
inclusion in publications offered for sale, is granted only on
volume 5, issue 1 77

payment of fee to JR payable to “ICHPER·SD” and receipt of
legitimate written requests. In these instances, the Chair of the
Editorial Policy Board requests that permission be obtained from
the senior author as well.
H. Subscriptions
(a) All ICHPER·SD constituent members (i.e., individual and
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any special JR issues whenever published.
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fee as established by the ICHPER·SD headquarters secretariat with
the approval of the ICHPER·SD Executive Committee.
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IFs) that are in a partnership or are officially and/or directly
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at least 8 weeks in advance to ICHPER·SD headquarters in the
United States.
I. Publication Schedules and Glossary of Terms.
(a) The JR spring/summer issue will be published during the
month of May/June and the fall/winter issue will be published
during the month of November/December. By 2012, JR will
be expanded to a quarterly journal published in March, June,
September, and December. Further, the Journal will be moving to
electronic publication within the next five years.
(b) The ICHPER·SD Journal of Research does not publish a
glossary of terms.
78 Journal of Research

volume 5, issue 1 79

80 Journal of Research