A comparative study of effectiveness of models of teaching on the ...

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF EFFECTIVENESS OF 

MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE ACHIEVEMENT OF 

X STD. STUDENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES 

A Thesis submitted to the University <strong>of</strong> Mysore 

for the Degree <strong>of</strong> 

Doctor <strong>of</strong> Philosophy in Education 

by 

H.N.Vishwanath 

Lecturer in Education 

Sharada Vilas Teachers College 

Mysore 

Under the guidance <strong>of</strong> 

Dr. A.S. Seetharamu 

Pr<strong>of</strong>essor & Head 

Education Unit 

Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC) 

Bangalore 560 072 

l: 

:-:() .. ~.J 0 p 2. 

,db ,. I _c... l'.:; 

Department <strong>of</strong> Studies in Education 

University <strong>of</strong> Mysore 

Manasagangotri 

Mysore 570 006 

India 

MC!y 2002

CERTIFICATE 

I certify that I have guided and supervised the conduct <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> and 

writing <strong>of</strong> the present thesis entitled "A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 

EFFECTIVENESS OF MODELS OF TEACHING ON THE 

ACHIEVEMENT OF X STANDARD STUDENTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL 

STUDIES" completed by Mr. H. N. Vishwanath, who worked as an 

external candidate on this topic in the Education Unit, Institute for Social 

and Economic Change, Bangalore. 

I also certify that it has not previously formed the basis for the award <strong>of</strong> 

any degree, diploma or associate fellowship <strong>of</strong> the University <strong>of</strong> Mysore or 

<strong>of</strong> the Institute for Social and Economic Change, or any other university or 

institution. 

Date: 

Place: Bangalore 

Si nature <strong>of</strong> the Supervisor 

tlr. A.~. SEETHARAMU 

ProlEssrH lit H.jld, Etluc~'ion Unit 

I SEC Narl1 ~bh~·!i. 

IA~~G.:'~I.c)~E . ~·r ~ (;"7:-. 

Ph: 3:::S:;

DECLARATION 

I do hereby declare that the thesis entitled "A Comparative Study <strong>of</strong> 

Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching on the Achievement <strong>of</strong> X Standard 

Students in Environmental Studies" is the result <strong>of</strong> my own work carried out in 

the Education Unit, Institute for Social and Economic Change (ISEC), Bangalore, 

as an external candidate, under the guidance and supervision <strong>of</strong> Dr. A. S. 

Seetharamu, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor & Head, Education Unit, ISEC, Bangalore. 

I further declare that this research report has not, either wholly or in part, been 

submitted to this or any other university for any degree or diploma. Due 

acknowledgements have been made wherever any information has been used 

as reference from various sources. 

Date: 

Place: Bangalore 

~:;;\5'~? 

(H.N'vISHWANATH)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

With all sincerity and regard, I record my deep indebtedness to Dr. A. S. 

Seetharamu, Pr<strong>of</strong>essor and Head, Education Unit, Institute for Social and Economic 

Change, Bangalore, for having kindly guided and supervised my research work. He 

took immense pains in reading several drafts <strong>of</strong> my thesis and therein improving the 

quality <strong>of</strong> the thesis. But for his continuous guidance, supervision, expertise, concern 

and persistent inspiration and encouragement, this thesis would not have been 

completed successfully. 

I place on record my sincere gratitude and indebtedness to the Director <strong>of</strong> the 

Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore, for providing me the opportunity 

to complete this <strong>study</strong>. 

I thank the principals and managements <strong>of</strong> Dr. T M A Pai College <strong>of</strong> Education, 

Udupi where I worked earlier and Sharada Vilas Teachers College, Mysore where I am 

now working for giving me leave and other facilities for completing this research work. 

I am also thankful to the Dept. <strong>of</strong> Studies in Education, University <strong>of</strong> Mysore, 

Mysore for their encouragement to me. 

I am grateful to all the heads <strong>of</strong> schools, teachers and students <strong>of</strong> three 

experimental high schools selected for the <strong>study</strong> viz., Government P.U. College, 

Kemmannu, Government P.U. College, Hiriyadka and Government High School, Uppur, 

Udupi Taluk for their cooperation during the conduct <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong>. 

I am grateful to Mr. Jayasimha for his statistical assistance, Smt. Radha 

Ramanujam, T. Srinivasa Murthy and T. Amarnath for their help in computerising the 

report neatly. 

My heartfelt thanks are also due to all my colleagues at Dr. T M A Pai College <strong>of</strong> 

Education, Udupi and Sharada Vilas Teachers College, Mysore, parents, wife, relatives 

and friends, for their continuous encouragement and cooperation in completing this 

research work. 

Date: 

Place:Bangalore 

l/~~~;\

CONTENTS 

Certificate 

Declaration 

Acknowledgements 

List <strong>of</strong> Tables 

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION 

Prelude 

Science in the Modern World 

Science as a Component <strong>of</strong> Education 

Science in Environmental Management 

Science Education for the 21 st Century 

Teaching <strong>of</strong> Science 

Teaching <strong>of</strong> Science & Teacher Education & Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

Need for the Study 

Organization <strong>of</strong> the Thesis 

CHAPTER 1/: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

Theory 

Need for Restoring Ecological Balance 

Why is Ecological Balance Disturbed 

Strategies for Restoring Ecological Balance 

i) Legislative Strategies 

ii) Administrative and Managerial Strategies 

iii) Education as a Strategy 

Socio- Economic Factors 

Gender Issues 

Theoretical Understandings Underlying the Study 

CHAPTER 1/1 : REVIEW OF RESEARCH LITERATURE 

Introduction 

Review <strong>of</strong> Studies in the Area <strong>of</strong> Environmental Education (EE) 

Review <strong>of</strong> Studies in the Area <strong>of</strong> Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

Summary <strong>of</strong> the Findings 

Insights from the Review 

General Understandings and Distinctiveness <strong>of</strong> the Study 

Page 

No. 

1 -28 

1 

3 

3 

7 

12 

15 

22 

23 

26 

29 - 63 

29 

31 

32 

35 

35 

38 

42 

57 

59 

60 

64 -111 

64 

65 

81 

102 

106 

109

CHAPTER IV: ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION (EE) AND 112 -161 

MODELS OF TEACHING 

Concept <strong>of</strong> Environmental Education (EE) 112 

Nature and Scope <strong>of</strong> EE 115 

Aims and Objectives <strong>of</strong> EE 117 

Need and Importance <strong>of</strong> EE 120 

Need for Practical Activities in EE 123 

Principles Related to EE and Teaching Environmental Studies 126 

Curriculum <strong>of</strong> EE 127 

Environmental Ethics 135 

Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 139 

Advance Organizer Model <strong>of</strong> Teaching (AOM) 143 

Inquiry Training Model <strong>of</strong> Teaching (ITM) 154 

CHAPTER V: METHODOLOGY 162 - 200 

I ntrod u ction 162 

Statement <strong>of</strong> the Problem 163 

Objectives <strong>of</strong> the Study 163 

Variables in the Study and Their Operational Definitions 167 

Statement <strong>of</strong> Hypotheses 170 

Design <strong>of</strong> the Study 174 

Population, Sample and Sampling Procedure 175 

Construction <strong>of</strong> Tools and Measurement <strong>of</strong> Variables 177 

Collection <strong>of</strong> Data 192 

Plan <strong>of</strong> Analysis and Statistical Techniques Used 195 

Scope <strong>of</strong> the Study 197 

Limitations <strong>of</strong> the Study 199 

CHAPTER VI : ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA 201-323 

I. Comparative Analysis <strong>of</strong> Attainments <strong>of</strong> Students in 201 

Environmental Studies (ES) Exposed to Different Models <strong>of</strong> 

Teaching on Each <strong>of</strong> the Units and in Total ES Using Unit Test 

Scores and Summated Test Scores 

Summary <strong>of</strong> the Findings 249 

II. Comparative Analysis <strong>of</strong> the Attainments <strong>of</strong> Students in Total 256 

ES to Study the Feasibility <strong>of</strong> Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching to Teach 

Various Environmental Concepts to Various Groups <strong>of</strong> Students 

Using Summated Test Scores 

Summary <strong>of</strong> the Findings 278 

III. Comparative Analysis <strong>of</strong> the Attainments <strong>of</strong> Students on 280 

Unit I and V and in Total ES Exposed to Different Models <strong>of</strong> 

Teaching Using 1st and Vth Unit Test Scores 

Summary <strong>of</strong> the Findings 308

List <strong>of</strong> Tables 

Table Descriptions Page 

No. 

No. 

1 Number <strong>of</strong> government high schools in north and south sub- divisions <strong>of</strong> 175 

Udupi taluk (1998) 

2 Number <strong>of</strong> government high schools in rural and urban areas <strong>of</strong> Udupi taluk 176 

( 1998) 

3 The distribution <strong>of</strong> 3 rural government high schools on the basis <strong>of</strong> sub- 176 

divisions and directions 

4 The lessons. number <strong>of</strong> instructional periods allotted to them in IX Std. 178 

Biology textbook and the number <strong>of</strong> multiple choice items selected from 

each lesson 

5 Percentage weightage for instructional objectives as prescribed by KSEEB 179 

for revised syllabu ( from 1994-95) 

6 Number <strong>of</strong> M.C. items constructed to evaluate different Objectives 179 

7 Blue print <strong>of</strong> the distribution <strong>of</strong> M. C items based on the % weightage <strong>of</strong> 180 

objectives and number <strong>of</strong> items to each chapter. 

8 Various specifications <strong>of</strong> different objectives tested in the achievement test. 180 

9 The weightage given to types <strong>of</strong> questions and objectives. 186 

10 Three dimensional blueprint <strong>of</strong> the five unit tests. 187 

11 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way AN OVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 202 

by students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 

12 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 203 

achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students taught through AOM 

and ITM. 

13 Number <strong>of</strong> students. mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 203 

achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM. 

14 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores. standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 204 

achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and NPM. 

15 Summary <strong>of</strong> one way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (I unit test) <strong>of</strong> 205 

students belonging to low, average and high SES groups. 

16 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 205 

by students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools having low, average and high total school 

facilities. 


achievement scores (I unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

and average total school facilities. 


achievement scores (I unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 

average and hJ.9h total school facilities. 


achievement scores (I unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

.~~h total school facilities 

20 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (I unit test) obtained 208 

by students, low, average and high total home facilities


No. 

No. 


achievement scores (I unit test) obtained by boys and girls. 

22 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (II unit test) obtained 210 



achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and ITM. 


achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and NPM. 

26 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (II unit test) <strong>of</strong> 212 




facilities. 


achievement scores (II unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

and averaae total school facilities. 


achievement scores (II unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 

averaqe and hioh total school facilities. 


achievement scores (II unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

and hiqh total school facilities. 


by students with low, average and high total home facilities. 


achievement scores (II unit test) obtained by boys and girls. 

33 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (III unit test) obtained 217 



achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and ITM. 


achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and NPM. 

37 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (III unit test) <strong>of</strong> 219 




facilities. 


achievement scores (III unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

and averaae school facilities. 

II


No. 

No. 


achievement scores (III unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 

average and high total school facilities. 


achievement scores (III unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

and high total school facilities. 




achievement scores (III unit test) obtained by boys and girls. 

44 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained 224 

by_ students, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through 

AOM and ITM. 


achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by students, taught through 

AOM and NPM. 

48 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (Iv unit test) <strong>of</strong> 227 




facilities. 


achievement scores (IV unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 



achievement scores (IV unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 



achievement scores (IV unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 





achievement scores (IV unit test) obtained by boys and girls, 

55 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (V unit test) obtained 231 



achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and ITM. 


achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and NPM. 

59 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> 234 


iii


No. 

No. 


by students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools having low. average and high total school 

facilities. 


achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 



achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 



achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 





achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students with low and average total 

home facilities. 


achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students with average and high total 

home facilities. 


achievement scores (V unit test) <strong>of</strong> students with low and high total home 

facilities 


achievement scores (V unit test) obtained by boys and girls. 

69 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> summation achievement scores (Total ES) 241 

obtained by students taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 


summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and ITM. 


summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through ITM 

and NPM 


summation achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM 

and NPM 

73 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> summation achievement scores obtained 244 

by students belonging to low, average and high SES groups. 



facilities. 


summation achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 

ansJ average school facilities. .. 


summation achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 



summation achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low 


IV


No. 

No. 




summation achievement scores obtained by boys and girls. 

80 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA and t-test <strong>of</strong> achievement scores <strong>of</strong> various 249 

groups in the I unit test in ES. 


groups in the II unit test in ES. 


grou[ls in the III unit test in ES. 


groups in the IV unit test in ES. 


groups in the V unit test in ES. 


groups <strong>of</strong> students in ES in total. 

86 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by low 256 

SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 

87 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> total 257 

achievement scores <strong>of</strong> low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and 

ITM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> low SES students, in ES taught through ITM and 

NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> low SES students, in ES taught through AOM and 

NPM. 

90 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by 259 

average SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> average SES students, in ES taught through AOM 

and ITM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> average SES students, in ES taught through ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> average SES students, in ES taught through AOM 

and NPM. 

94 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by high 262 

SES students in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and 

ITM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> high SES students, in ES taught through ITM and 

NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> high SES students, in ES taught through AOM and 

NPM. 

98 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by 265 

students with low total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and 

NPM. 

v

Table 

No. 

99 

Descriptions 

Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> total 

achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with low total home facilities in ES taught 

through AOM and ITM. 

Page 

No. 

265 

100 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> total 

achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students with low total home facilities, in ES taught 

through ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with low total home facilities in, ES taught 

through AOM and NPM. 

102 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by 

students with average total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM 

and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with average total home facilities in ES 

taught through AOM and ITM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students with average total home facilities, in ES 

taught through ITM and NPM. 

105 Number <strong>of</strong> students. mean scores. standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> total 

achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with average total home facilities in, ES 

1--.....,.-::-=-_t_.'=ta_l1lht through AOM and NPM. 

106 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by 

students with high total home facilities in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and 

NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with high total home facilities in ES taught 

through AOM and ITM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students with high total home facilities, in ES taught 

throu~h ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores <strong>of</strong> students, with high total home facilities in, ES 

taught through AOM and NPM. 

266 

267 

268 

268 

269 

270 

271 

271 

272 

273 

110 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by boys 

in ES, taught through AOM, ITM and NPM. 

273 


achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught through AOM and ITM. 

274 


achievement scores obtained by boys in ES taught throu~h ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores obtained by boys in, ES taught through AOM and 

1----:-:--:----1- 

NPM. 

CC' -C . - - - --. .. - . ----------,---,---:----:--:---:--:--+---=:-=:--1 

114 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA <strong>of</strong> total achievement scores obtained by girls 276 

I---:-:-=--+~in:--.E=-S,,":",_ tea=. ~ t!!J h ro u g.b.. A 0 ~m\11 cc.a'-Cn=-d ccN,-'-P....:M.:..:.:..... ---:--:---:----:---_---:--:-----:--_--;-:-:--:-+--"""""~=-_ 


achievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through AOM and ITM. 


t----:--:-::-_r.a,c,:-h ___ ievement scores obtained by girls in ES taught through ITM and NPM. 


achievement scores obtained by girls in, ES taught through AOM and 

NPM. 

277 

278 

VI


No. 

No. 

118 Summary <strong>of</strong> one-way ANOVA and t-test on achievement scores <strong>of</strong> various 278 

groups <strong>of</strong> students in ES taught through AOM, ITM and NPM 


achievement scores obtained by total sample <strong>of</strong> students, in the I and V unit 

tests in ES. 

120 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation.· and I-value <strong>of</strong> 282 

achievement scores obtained by students, taught through AOM in the I and 

V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students, taught through ITM in the I and 



achievement scores obtained by students, taught through NPM in the I and 


123 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value <strong>of</strong> 284 

achievement scores obtained by low SES students, in the I and V unit tests 

in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by average SES students, in the I and V unit 

tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by high SES students, in the I and V unit 

tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by the students with low home facilities in the 

I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by the students with average home facililies 

in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities in the I 

and V unit tests in ES. 


130 

achievement scores obtained by students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with low total 

school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES. 

------ 

Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 289 

achievement scores obtained by students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with 

average total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students <strong>study</strong>ing in schools with high 

total school facilities in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by boys in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained b)l girls in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


135 

achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through AOM in 

the I and V unit tests in ES. 

--- 


achievement scores obtained by average SES students, taught through 

AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 

vii


No. 

No. 

136 Number <strong>of</strong> students. mean scores, standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 293 

achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through AOM 



achievement scores obtained by students with low home facilities, taught 

through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities, 

taught through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 

139 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores. standard deviation and t-value <strong>of</strong> 295 

achievement scores obtained by students with high home facilities, taught 

through AOM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 

140 Number <strong>of</strong> students, mean scores, standard deviation and I-value <strong>of</strong> 296 

achievement scores obtained by boys. taught through AOM in the I and V 

unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through AOM in the I and V 



achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through ITM in 




ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through ITM in 




through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students with average home facilities, 

taught through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 



through ITM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


149 

achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through ITM in the I and V 

unit tests in ES . 

.--~~. 


achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through ITM in the I and V 



achievement scores obtained by low SES students, taught through NPM in 




NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by high SES students, taught through NPM 


viii


No. 

No. 



through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by students with average. home facilities, 

taught through NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 



throuqh NPM in the I and V unit tests in ES. 


achievement scores obtained by boys, taught through NPM in the I and V 



achievement scores obtained by girls, taught through NPM in the I and V 


158a,b Summary <strong>of</strong> t-tests on achievement scores <strong>of</strong> various groups (total sample, 308 & 

&c primary sub sample, secondary sub sample) in the I and V unit test in ES. 309 

159 Coefficient <strong>of</strong> correlation between achievement <strong>of</strong> students in ES and other 313 

variables. 

160 Cases <strong>of</strong> high achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 315 

161 Cases <strong>of</strong> low achievement when moderator variable SES is considered 316 

162 Cases <strong>of</strong> high achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 316 

163 Cases <strong>of</strong> low achievement when moderator variable TSF is considered 317 

164 Cases <strong>of</strong> high achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 317 

165 Cases <strong>of</strong> low achievement when moderator variable THF is considered 318 

IX

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER 

INTRODUCTION 

I 

Prelude 

Knowledge in the school curriculum is comprised <strong>of</strong> Languages, Mathematics, 

Physical and Natural Sciences as well as Social Studies apart from several cocurricular 

subjects and activities. The perspective <strong>of</strong> looking at this classification 

changed in the last two decades with the physical, natural and social sciences 

being treated as a whole and referred to as Environmental Studies. The physical, 

natural and social universe constitute the environment within which the human 

life has been set. The individual needs to look at the universe in an integral I 

holistic framework <strong>of</strong> life. Taking note <strong>of</strong> this, the Government <strong>of</strong> Karnataka 

reclassified the knowledge in the curriculum into Languages, Mathematics, 

Environmental Studies I and" since 1991. Hence, it is to be noted that physical 

and biological sciences that were transacted in the school curriculum for a long 

time have been now referred to as Environmental Studies- I. 

It is recognized that there is an interface, a strong intertwining and subtle 

relationship between science and society. Science is considered not only as a 

systematized body <strong>of</strong> knowledge but also as a way <strong>of</strong> life; a way <strong>of</strong> examining, 

thinking, acting, reflecting and evaluating life. If science has to be accepted as a 

way <strong>of</strong> life, then there is need for its complete spread in civil society. Basic 

knowledge and understandings <strong>of</strong> phenomenon in the physical and natural 

universe, skills <strong>of</strong> adjustment into the environment around us, scientific temper, 

appreciation <strong>of</strong> the values <strong>of</strong> science for human society and the need for 

peaceful and constructive uses <strong>of</strong> science in everyday life and for purposes <strong>of</strong> 

nation-building should become integral to the personality development <strong>of</strong> 

individuals. These accomplished individuals should function as members <strong>of</strong> 

society and citizens <strong>of</strong> the nation. A love and espousal <strong>of</strong> facts along with 

eschewal <strong>of</strong> prejudices, openness to new ideas and fresh thinking, balance and 

circumspection in arriving at judgments on controversial issues, readiness for 

accepting change should be constituents <strong>of</strong> an accomplished personality. 

Development <strong>of</strong> such qualities is a product <strong>of</strong> the rigours and discipline <strong>of</strong> 

science education. A meaningfully organized science education in schools will 

facilitate the accomplishment <strong>of</strong> these qualities in its products, the outgoing

students. This process will act as catalysis in the process <strong>of</strong> modernization in 

society. 

Indian society today is in the thick <strong>of</strong> a dynamic web <strong>of</strong> modernization. A 

meaningful science education programme can catalyze this process. Person <strong>of</strong> 

the teacher, referring to his/her knowledge and skills in transacting a science 

curriculum, facilities for <strong>teaching</strong> science in schools, overall school environment, 

techniques and tools employed to transact the curriculum/<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, 

balance in emphasis on learning, testing and opportunities for relearning, would 

together contribute to 'meaning' in science education. There are several 

constraints in the organization <strong>of</strong> meaningful science education in schools. Poor 

quality <strong>of</strong> entrants to the <strong>teaching</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ession, sub-optimal facilities for science 

<strong>teaching</strong>, grossly inadequate emphasis on remedial <strong>teaching</strong> are illustrative 

constraints. One <strong>of</strong> the compensatory strategies for these constraints is the 

adoption <strong>of</strong> such <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, which maximize the efficiency and 

<strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong> in schools. Such <strong>models</strong> which take into 

account all the constraints and still work/function in the school set-up are 

required In this context, it is to be noted that there are no standard <strong>models</strong> 

which can be universally applied/used across time and space even while 

disregarding all the constraints. Models are context and constraint-specific. The 

contenUknowledge to be transacted may also be <strong>of</strong> equal significance. Models 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> need to be tried and tested for their content and context specificities. 

Results have to be documented along with the identified caveats for their 

replication. This is also a scientific and systematic way <strong>of</strong> building locally 

relevant, knowledge-friendly, student-friendly, school facilities/environment 

friendly and teacher-friendly <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. Scientifically designed 

research studies are required in this direction. There is also a need to establish 

the contours <strong>of</strong> validity <strong>of</strong> standard <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> in educational literature in 

regard to the content and context <strong>of</strong> school education. The present research 

<strong>study</strong> is an exercise in this direction. 

Efficient and effective, content and context-specific, scientifically validated 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> step up school efficiency and facilitate the production <strong>of</strong> 

personalities among students who would develop skills and faith in science as a 

way <strong>of</strong> life. Science as a way <strong>of</strong> life would facilitate and catalyze the process <strong>of</strong> 

modernization <strong>of</strong> Indian society. This way, a meaningful science education 

2

programme in schools would contribute to nation-building in India. This research 

<strong>study</strong> is designed with this macro-perspective <strong>of</strong> life and society. 

Science in the Modern World 

Great achievements in science and technology and the use <strong>of</strong> scientific 

inventions and discoveries have been promoting well-being <strong>of</strong> the mankind 

through their application in the fields <strong>of</strong> industry, communication, transport, 

education, engineering, agriculture, medicine, etc. This has made science 

indispensable now. Science has, in fact, radically transformed the material 

environment <strong>of</strong> the modern world. It is liberating and enriching the mind and 

enlarging the human spirit. Nothing comparable to the scientific revolution in its 

impact on man's development and outlook has happened since the beginning <strong>of</strong> 

the 20 th century. There is no aspect <strong>of</strong> human life today which has not been 

influenced by science in one way or the other. Science has shrunk the world 

and totally changed the human outlook. 

With the great advancement in both science and technology, the threat to the 

very sustenance <strong>of</strong> environment is also increasing at an alarming rate. This is 

mainly due to improper and illegal applications <strong>of</strong> scientific knowledge motivated 

by selfish needs, greed and lack <strong>of</strong> foresight. Basic understandings <strong>of</strong> the 

nature, personal health and public hygiene, peaceful and dangerous uses <strong>of</strong> 

science, basic skills <strong>of</strong> civic life and an enquiring,· questioning and exploring 

attitude are very much essential for the progress and development <strong>of</strong> a society 

as well as for the healthy growth <strong>of</strong> science and technology. Science education 

has the potential to create the required awareness, understanding and attitude 

which are all the more important in a developing country, like India. 

Science as a Component <strong>of</strong> Education 

Science is not only a systematized body <strong>of</strong> knowledge about physical and 

natural phenomena but also a way <strong>of</strong> life, a way <strong>of</strong> thinking and a way <strong>of</strong> doing 

things. It is to be integrated into the process <strong>of</strong> development and improved 

quality <strong>of</strong> life. This is possible only through a properly planned science 

education. 

In the past, science had to struggle hard and long for its rightful place in the 

school curriculum. Science education, in one or the other form, has a 

recognized place in school education now. The role <strong>of</strong> science education 

3

ecomes critical because science and technology have become the growing 

edges and these are influencing human life and environment in diversified ways. 

Pearson Karl (1924) in his book "Grammar <strong>of</strong> Science", emphasizes the 

importance <strong>of</strong> 'training the mind to an exact and impartial analysis <strong>of</strong> facts, with a 

view to developing sound citizenship and international relations universally. The 

real significance <strong>of</strong> science had not been realized till the beginning <strong>of</strong> the 19 th 

century and that is why science had no place in the school curriculum during the 

earlier periods. 

Many educators, thinkers, committees and commissions at different points <strong>of</strong> 

time emphasized the importance <strong>of</strong> science education. The initiative for 

emphasizing and popularizing science education began during the 15 th century 

by Gilbert (1544-1603), Francis Bacon (1561-1626) followed by Sir Isaac Newton 

(1687), Michael Faraday (1791-1867), The Charter Act (1813), Herbert Spencer 

(1820-1903), Tyndall (1820-1893), T.H.Huxley (1825-1895) and others. They 

stressed the need <strong>of</strong> science education for development <strong>of</strong> society. The 

University Education Commission (1948), The Secondary Education 

Commission (1952-53). The Education Commission (1964-66), NPE (1986) and 

the Committee set up by MHRD (1991) to set out Minimum Levels <strong>of</strong> Learning 

(MLL) have all highlighted the need and importance <strong>of</strong> science education and 

strongly advocated the <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science as a compulsory subject at all levels 

<strong>of</strong> education. 

Man is living In a world today, which is guided by science and technology. 

Science is no longer confined to a few seriously devoted persons. The present 

world requires basic understandings <strong>of</strong> scientific facts and principles. Science 

has now become everyday science for everybody. Teaching <strong>of</strong> science for 

everybody has become an unavoidable part <strong>of</strong> life. Further, science, as a 

subject, has two very important virtues distinctive to it. The <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> science 

involves training in 'scientific method' and develops 'scientific altitude' in 

learners. Along with this, science cultivates disciplinary qualities <strong>of</strong> mind such 

as systematic observation, persistence, patience, concentration <strong>of</strong> mind, logical 

thinking. objective and unbiased judgments, respect for truth, etc., which are 

essential for further exploration and scientific advancements. These qualities 

can be cultivated only through science subjects, which can qualify the learners to 

live as truly efficient citizens in a science-guided society. 

4

The learning <strong>of</strong> science and technology in our schools, colleges and universities 

is necessary to develop new skills. It is also essential for fully comprehending 

the processes <strong>of</strong> society so that they can be altered in accordance with the 

highest code <strong>of</strong> morality, and the enrichment <strong>of</strong> human personality. It is, 

therefore, essential that science should be used to promote the spirit <strong>of</strong> free 

inquiry to promote national wealth, to abolish inequality between nations and 

classes and to test all assumptions in the crucible <strong>of</strong> scientific analysis. 

A well-planned science education programme can be a fruitful effort in 

developing the desired attitudes and shaping the scientific outlook. Recognizing 

the importance <strong>of</strong> science and science education, Nehru (1946) opined that 'it is 

science education alone that can solve the problems like hunger and poverly, 

insanitation and illiteracy, superstitions, vast resource wastage <strong>of</strong> a rich country 

like India inhabited by starving people. Even more than the present, the future 

belongs to science'. The societies <strong>of</strong> the twenty-first century will, quite clearly 

continue to be shaped by science education; also, science education is 

indispensable in helping the societies from where they are now to where they 

aspire to be in the next century. Therefore, the proper and responsible use <strong>of</strong> 

science education is an urgent need <strong>of</strong> all societies especially in a developing 

country like India, in order to achieve the twin goals <strong>of</strong> development and 

improved quality <strong>of</strong> life. This is possible only through a properly planned 

science education. 

Science is now a compulsory subject in every system <strong>of</strong> school education right 

from the elementary stage to various levels <strong>of</strong> education for its value content, 

such as intellectual, practical or utilitarian, cultural, moral, aesthetic and 

disciplinary values. The importance and usefulness <strong>of</strong> science and science 

education has been derived on the basis <strong>of</strong> the contributions <strong>of</strong> science through 

its application to economic growth and development and its role in the creation <strong>of</strong> 

a democratic culture through education. The values <strong>of</strong> science education are 

realized by formulating and executing appropriate science curriculum at different 

levels <strong>of</strong> education. 

Since the middle <strong>of</strong> the 19 th century, there has been a realization <strong>of</strong> the 

importance <strong>of</strong> learning the processes <strong>of</strong> science. In England, Thomas 

H.Huxley, Hooker and John Henslow (1973) held a view that "the unique 

characteristic <strong>of</strong> science as a branch <strong>of</strong> learning, was the method by which 

5

knowledge was acquired. These methods were <strong>of</strong> utmost significance from an 

educational point <strong>of</strong> view than the conclusions reached". The 'process' aspect 

<strong>of</strong> science was considered more significant than its 'product' aspect. Hence, 

science has to be studied in schools not only for its informational benefits but 

also because it trains the powers <strong>of</strong> observation and reasoning. Science is no 

longer treated merely as a body <strong>of</strong> knowledge; it is regarded as a systematic and 

dynamic process <strong>of</strong> life. 

The rapid advancement <strong>of</strong> science and technology and increasing need for 

scientific application have made it all the more important to provide for science 

education in schools. Even the Secondary Education Commission, 1952, had 

recommended that every Secondary School pupil should <strong>study</strong> General Science 

as a compulsory subject, so that h/she gains a basic quantum <strong>of</strong> scientific 

knowledge as a part <strong>of</strong> his/her general education. In addition, provision should 

be made for elective subjects in science for those students who want to pursue 

higher <strong>study</strong>. 

For the first time, the 42"d amendment to the Indian Constitution adopted in 1976 

included several fundamental duties <strong>of</strong> a citizen. This is in contrast to the 

fundamental rights included in the Constitution <strong>of</strong> 1950. One <strong>of</strong> the fundamental 

duties <strong>of</strong> a citizen is to develop 'scientific temper', and the schools are expected 

to develop scientific temper among the students. This also justifies the inclusion 

and need <strong>of</strong> science as a subject in school education. In view <strong>of</strong> the manifold 

values <strong>of</strong> science, especially the utilitarian value, which are indispensable for the 

efficient discharge <strong>of</strong> responsibilities <strong>of</strong> a good citizen in an age <strong>of</strong> science, it has 

been elevated to the status <strong>of</strong> a compulsory subject at all stages <strong>of</strong> schooling. 

With the introduction <strong>of</strong> compulsory and free education for all, science has been 

assigned an important place in the curriculum and has been made one <strong>of</strong> the 

compulsory subjects till the lower secondary stage to make all students realize 

the need <strong>of</strong> science for society. At secondary stage, science is one <strong>of</strong> the core 

subjects. As a whole, science education in secondary schools has been 

fashioned to perform three-dimensional functions, viz. (1) as an integral part <strong>of</strong> 

general education; (2) as a preparatory course to college science; and (3) as 

preparation for vocation. 

6

Science in Environmental Management 

Progress and development have become synonymous with the introduction <strong>of</strong> 

new technologies and products aimed at making life better, safer and more 

viable. But, there have been instances where apparently useful products and 

technologies have turned out to be capable <strong>of</strong> inflicting extremely deleterious 

impact on environment and development in the long run. Many <strong>of</strong> the problems 

related to environment are largely due to lack <strong>of</strong> environment-friendly application 

<strong>of</strong> science and technology which are the best tools and instruments that can 

either be used for constructive or destructive purposes. The ills <strong>of</strong> improper use 

<strong>of</strong> technology have now been well understood in the fields <strong>of</strong> agriculture, 

manufacturing, energy, construction, transport, etc. For example, in modern 

agriculture, indiscriminate use <strong>of</strong> pesticides, insecticides and synthetic fertilizers 

has led to the bio-magnification <strong>of</strong> toxic substances in food chains; in 

manufacturing sector, industries have been producing bio-undegradable 

products in unlimited quantity; radio-active radiations from nuclear reactors and 

nuclear wastes bring about a rise in global temperature and genetic hazards; 

unplanned and unlimited manmade constructions have altered the natural 

ecosystem resulting in natural disasters such as floods, famine, earthquake and 

soil erosions; and increased transportation on land, air and water has led to 

desertification, ozone depletion and marine pollution respectively. The law <strong>of</strong> 

decreasing returns and diminishing utility operate when the depletion <strong>of</strong> natural 

resources and environmental costs are taken into consideration (Swaminathan 

1986). 

Environmental costs generally fall into two categories, i.e., (i) public health 

impacts caused by pollution, and (ii) productivity changes on account <strong>of</strong> increase 

in water supply costs, soil degradation and deforestation including reduced 

density <strong>of</strong> tree cover. A stock <strong>of</strong> natural resources per capita depletes in the 

form <strong>of</strong> reduction <strong>of</strong> rich soil nutrients, fall <strong>of</strong> water table and the growing scarcity 

<strong>of</strong> clean water and air which will have a bearing on the costs associated with 

economic activity which increase sharply. It is in this context that the need for 

cultivating a scientific and rational outlook in people is felt which enables the 

scientists to enlist their appreciation and confidence. 

The constructive and conserving role <strong>of</strong> science in environmental management 

has now been realized through technology based environmental friendly 

7

applications encompassing sCience discipline called 'Eco-technology' which 

takes into account the concerns <strong>of</strong> ecology, equity and employment. Besides, 

eco-technology guides human society with its emphasis on natural environment 

for the benefit <strong>of</strong> both; helps to combine traditional wisdom and techniques with 

modern science and frontier technologies such as Biotechnology, Space 

Technology, renewable energy technologies, management and marketing 

technologies, etc. Eco-technology is the only. available option that can 

guarantee sustainable development (Dash 1999). Sustainable development is a 

process in which the exploitation <strong>of</strong> resources, direction <strong>of</strong> investments, 

orientation <strong>of</strong> technological development and institutional changes are all made 

consistent with future as well as present needs <strong>of</strong> man and nature. The 

constructive application <strong>of</strong> modern science and technology ensures the 

preconditions for sustainable development such as inter-generational equity & 

social justice, economic efficiency and ecological harmony. 

Most countries including India with higher population growth rates have difficulty 

in meeting their needs for food, water, health care, sanitation, shelter, 

employment, energy and productive land, and are destroying their environment 

in the process. Their economic inefficiency also contributes to ecological unsustainability. 

As a matter <strong>of</strong> fact, it is all due to the unchecked population 

growth. In this context, a need for application <strong>of</strong> science and technology for 

environmental conservation is felt. Eco-technological measures can be 

effectively employed to have sustainability. Science has contributed to mankind 

towards developing and using many eco-technological tools and methods in 

various sectors such as energy, population control, transport, agriculture, 

industry, wild life conservation, bio-diversity, food production, renewable and 

nonrenewable resources, communication, etc., which might otherwise carry 

negative effects on the environment. 

Science for Agriculture: The important eco-technological steps in sustainable 

agriculture are watershed management through moisture conservation 

measures, land use based on land capability, sustainable water management, 

wasteland management, afforestation, conservation <strong>of</strong> genetic resources, 

integrated nutrient management, integrated weed management, integrated pest 

management, organic farming, etc. Due to this, the agricultural production gets 

enhanced and there is greater availability <strong>of</strong> fodder, fuel wood, small timbers and 

raw materials for rural industries. Science finds its effective application in 

8

agriculture involving soil management (soil testing, ploughing, seeding, 

manuring); irrigation (sprinkler method, drip irrigation, etc.); crop protection 

(controlling weeds and crop diseases); and crop improvement (hybridization and 

tissue culture). 

Science for Wasteland Development: Science also helps in the development 

<strong>of</strong> wastelands by creating suitable vegetable cover, which not only prevents 

further degradation but also improves the environment. Forest is the source <strong>of</strong> 

five f's (food, fodder, fibre, fuel and forage). Agro-forestry and social forestry 

provide an excellent basis for tree planting to prevent declamation <strong>of</strong> soil and its 

degradation. Agro-forestry integrates agriculture and forestry on the same unit 

<strong>of</strong> land so as to meet the local demands <strong>of</strong> fodder, fuel-wood, timber and food 

grains. Similarly, social forestry aims at growing trees by utilizing unused land 

to meet the demands for fuel, food and timber, to check soil erosion and protects 

the environment for sustainable development. Other degraded lands having 

special disabilities can also be reclaimed through appropriate technologies, so 

that these could be used for bio-mass production, for example, aerial seeding 

technique could be employed for regenerating / re-vegetating difficult and 

inaccessible areas like ravines, hills and mountains, deserts, etc. 

Science and Bio-diversity : Another contribution <strong>of</strong> science towards increasing 

bio-diversity is through biotechnology, which is also an essential tool <strong>of</strong> 

sustainable agricultural development. It employs the following techniques: 

"Tissue Culture", widely used for multiplying valuable plants, testing various 

chemicals for toxicity, for genetic engineering studies and other experimental 

investigations. 

"Genetic Engineering", widely used to boost growth, alter resistance <strong>of</strong> both 

plants and animals to factors such as drugs, heat, cold, salinity, etc. This 

technique has contributed to creating transgenic cows, sheep and goats 

producing human proteins in their blood and milk. Transgenic tomatoes, tobacco 

and wheat endowed with unique traits such as resistance against pests; 

diseases and frost have also been created using this technology. 

"Cloning" is now a standard biotechnological tool for growing superior 

plants/animal species <strong>of</strong> uniform quality in large numbers from parental cells 

taken from good quality plants/animals. 

9

Science and Energy : Science has been playing a major role in exploring 

alternative sources <strong>of</strong> energy. Apart from the conventional and non-renewable 

energy sources like coal and petroleum, energy can also be derived from other 

sources like sun, wind, ocean, etc. In contrast to fossil fuels, the alternative 

sources <strong>of</strong> energy are inexhaustible, renewable, cheap, eco-friendly and are, 

therefore, <strong>of</strong> vital importance in sustainable development. The various types <strong>of</strong> 

energy that have been explored and used are: (a) Photovoltanic energy - 

produced by converting solar light into electric energy through semiconductors; 

(b) solar thermal energy - heating capacity <strong>of</strong> solar radiations that is used in 

generating electricity, also used in desalination, space heating, crop drying, etc; 

(c) wind energy - mechanical energy <strong>of</strong> the wind that is used to generate 

electricity by aerogenerator; (d) bio-mass energy - energy produced by using 

agricultural, forestry and municipal wastes; (e) bio-gas energy - a mixture <strong>of</strong> 

different gases in varied compositions produced by the action <strong>of</strong> anaerobic 

microorganisms on domestic and agricultural wastes; bio-gas saves other types 

<strong>of</strong> fuels and gives required and enriched organic fertilizers; (f) geothermal energy 

- energy produced from underground hot water (sulphur springs) and hot dry 

rocks; and (g) oceanic energy - produced from ocean tides. 

Science-Environment-Industry : Science, by way <strong>of</strong> ecological modernization, 

has helped raising the levels <strong>of</strong> both ecological and economic efficiency by 

increasing the required material and energy effectively in production and 

consumption processes in order to minimize the expense on environmental 

protection while keeping the cost <strong>of</strong> natural resource exploitation within 

acceptable limits. In effect, ecological modernization helps in restructuring <strong>of</strong> 

economy based on eco-technological principles. 

Eg.1. In manufacturing sector - recycling raw materials, substitution <strong>of</strong> 

ecologically harmful products with harmonious products, application <strong>of</strong> 

biotechnology for substitution <strong>of</strong> non-renewable resource base with 

renewable, carrying capacity based planning <strong>of</strong> industrial estates, etc. 

Eg.2. Energy sector - greater use <strong>of</strong> regenerative energy sources, 

decentralization <strong>of</strong> supply, improvement <strong>of</strong> combustion process. 

Eg.3. Construction sectors - use <strong>of</strong> renewable and environmentally compatible 

building materials, land and energy saving designs, etc. 

10

EgA. Transport sector - reduction in the fuel/energy consumption <strong>of</strong> motor 

vehicles, reduction in total number <strong>of</strong> motored kilometers, provision <strong>of</strong> 

efficient public transport system, etc. 

Eg.5. Food sectors - harvesting marine benefits such as sea-foods in an 

agrarian country like India. 

Science for Bio-remediation and Biodegradation: Scientific efforts are on the 

way to develop biodegradable plastics, which will be more environment friendly; 

microbial treatments are being experimented to reduce the metal-toxicity; 

sewage treatment has been effectively done to conserve water for various 

purposes. 

Some other scientific measures which can directly or indirectly lead to 

sustainable development are: 

Remote Sensing : It is an indispensable tool for better monitoring and 

management <strong>of</strong> natural resources. It helps in producing multicolour images and 

maps outlining areas <strong>of</strong> scientific interest such as diseased or pest infected 

crops, forest areas, rich fishing areas in oceans, even underground water and 

mineral reserves, etc. 

Hydroponics: It is the commercial method <strong>of</strong> growing plants without using soil 

by lending them chemical/nutrient solution. The advantages <strong>of</strong> this method are 

it has less impact on environment and unused areas at home can be used. 

In addition to these, environmental management through scientific methods can 

be seen in 

I. animal husbandry (livestock management, animal feeds, shelter/habitat, 

animal health, development <strong>of</strong> new stocks, artificial insemination); 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

post harvest management <strong>of</strong> food (scientific preservation <strong>of</strong> food crops 

and pest controlling); 

detection <strong>of</strong> food adulteration through scientific methods; 

pollution control through scientific methods, viz., neutralizing the toxic 

effluents! pollutants at their origin, sewage treatment, recycling <strong>of</strong> waste, 

etc.); and 

v. population control through improved and reliable methods <strong>of</strong> family 

planning. 

II

In this way, scientific and technological methods based on the principles <strong>of</strong> 

ecology, equity and social justice are appreciated in the current scenario <strong>of</strong> 

population explosion, depleting and degrading natural resources, overexploitation 

<strong>of</strong> natural resources beyond their carrying capacity as well as 

increasing environmental protection costs. These technologies provide a 

balanced and buoyant environment, which is fundamental for continuous 

developmental efforts and quality <strong>of</strong> life. Thus, there is interdependence 

between eco-technology and sustainable development, which should be realized 

and practised in such a manner that it can ensure sustainability. 

Science Education for the 21 st Century 

Since living in the present world invariably warrants, to variable degrees, 

knowledge <strong>of</strong> simple scientific facts and laws, science has become 'everyday 

science' for everybody. Teaching <strong>of</strong> everyday science for everybody has 

become an integral part <strong>of</strong> general education. In this context, one has to think 

<strong>of</strong> the status and nature <strong>of</strong> science education that has been given from the 

recent past to the present day. Can the on-going system <strong>of</strong> science education 

help students <strong>of</strong> future generations to solve the present and unforeseen 

problems that may arise? If not, what changes are required in the present 

pattern <strong>of</strong> science education? These and similar questions need to be 

pondered over 

The impact <strong>of</strong> modern science on society is such that it has necessitated a great 

spread <strong>of</strong> awareness <strong>of</strong> social implications <strong>of</strong> science. Students <strong>of</strong> modern 

world need to understand and appreciate the dependence <strong>of</strong> the modern society 

on science and the changes in the social structure that have been brought about 

by the achievements <strong>of</strong> science and technology. They should not only be able 

to appreciate the modern marvels <strong>of</strong> science but should also understand the 

social use <strong>of</strong> the scientific achievements. This can be justified from the fact that 

modern liberal education has a much wider orientation, and thus, the idea <strong>of</strong> 

developing scientific attitude and appreciation, should be considered as one <strong>of</strong> 

the aims <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science in the years to come. The science teacher should 

teach science in such a way that the pupils realize varied social functions <strong>of</strong> 

science, think, act and contribute to the welfare <strong>of</strong> the future world. They should 

appreciate science as a part <strong>of</strong> modern living and that science should always be 

used only for the benefits <strong>of</strong> the society and not for selfish needs. In this 

12

context, future education - science education in particular - will undergo 

changes that one needs to envIsion. Students <strong>of</strong> the present and future 

generations deal with ideas drawn from all parts <strong>of</strong> the world. Thus, science 

education that is to be provided to him I her should extend beyond the classroom 

to encompass community agencies, industrial processes, research centres, 

natural habitats, and space beyond the earth. Classrooms <strong>of</strong> the future schools 

may consist <strong>of</strong> well equipped laboratories, cubicles for using <strong>teaching</strong> machines, 

space for individual work, conference rooms and rooms in which students can 

prepare aids and materials with the guidance <strong>of</strong> technicians and teachers. The 

<strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> science may be pursued in various places, viz., laboratory, natural 

milieu, social environment, peer group projects, wherein students seek, discover, 

innovate, invent and create ideas, principles and' phenomena through selfefforts. 

Facilities for learning are numerous and varied. The laboratory develops 

children's interest in problems <strong>of</strong> science. It contains well-equipped and childcentered 

experimental set up for students' self-investigation. In processing their 

information, children use individual learning aids such as computers, tape 

recorders, televisions, charts, globe, maps, and other modern gadgets (Caffery 

1967) 

The increased use <strong>of</strong> electronic aids on a massive scale makes possible 

science instruction that is more individualized. It makes it possible for children 

working independently, to practice skills, develop concepts and obtain data for 

experimentation and verification. Instruction is made more heuristic, selfexplorative 

with auto-instructional devices. The role <strong>of</strong> science teacher in the 

present day situation is to facilitate the learners with a balanced mix <strong>of</strong> 

motivation and guidance. The teachers are clinical specialists who guide the 

learning <strong>of</strong> each child individually, basing their guidance on computerized data 

that reveal the child's background, needs, interests, and intellectual maturity. 

Auxiliary personnel help teachers to prepare materials, keep records, maintain 

facilities in the laboratory and supervise tutorial learning (Hendricks 1966). 

Self-education needs to be cultured on a large scale so that new generation 

pupils may live successfully in a world highly loaded with scientific applications. 

Emphasis on the methods and processes <strong>of</strong> science should desist teachers from 

following the path <strong>of</strong> least resistance, that is, taking short-cuts. There is thus 

13

less interference with the vision <strong>of</strong> a more fundamental objective <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

science which is to develop among the vast body <strong>of</strong> pupils the patient, 

systematic observation <strong>of</strong> facts, the design <strong>of</strong> experiments to isolate what is to 

be studied, the formulation <strong>of</strong> hypothesis for subsequent verification, the 

willingness to abandon any hypothesis not substantiated experimentally, and the 

consistent maintenance <strong>of</strong> an attitude <strong>of</strong> detached objectivity in their day-to-day 

thinking (Charles 1959). 

Science education that is <strong>of</strong>fered to the students <strong>of</strong> the twenty first century 

should be properly designed and executed to visualize and achieve the aims and 

objectives <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science extended to the future context. The aim <strong>of</strong> the 

whole course extending from the elementary level to the post-graduate level 

should be to enable the student to acquire scientific knowledge, and in addition, 

come to possess some understanding <strong>of</strong> the methodology <strong>of</strong> science and further, 

in the very process <strong>of</strong> acquiring this understanding, the student should be 

enabled to develop scientific attitude. The terminal goal <strong>of</strong> the entire science 

education programme should be to enable the student to emerge not only as a 

science expert but also a young scientist imbibed with scientific spirit and 

mentality necessary to solve the problems <strong>of</strong> the surrounding environment. 

(Srinivasan, K 1987). In addition to this, other ultimate aims <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science 

that are more emphasized in the future context would be: the new science 

education programmes should enable the pupils to understand the whole world 

better factually - especially the world as it affects them concretely and to help 

pupils investigate ways <strong>of</strong> increasing the range and depth <strong>of</strong> understanding 

natural processes and to relate this understanding to the many puzzling 

complexities <strong>of</strong> industrial society. 

Keeping these aims in view, science education should <strong>of</strong>fer varied direct and 

purposeful learning experiences through which students can identify the 

problems and they also find solutions to them through scientific method. 

(Vaidya, 1996). 

Science education has become an international activity, growing out <strong>of</strong> national 

frontiers. Incidentally, accidentally and intentionally, the contribution <strong>of</strong> this type 

<strong>of</strong> constructive science education strengthens the national economy, creates 

new resources, accelerates vast employment and attempts to build global 

outlook on problems which affect human society. 

14

Perhaps this type <strong>of</strong> futuristic science education eventually changes pupil's 

behaviour and his/her idea <strong>of</strong> his/her role in the world, so that tomorrow's 

citizens grow with inquiring minds and creative spirits ready to face the 

challenges <strong>of</strong> the twenty first century. 

Teaching <strong>of</strong> Science 

Science Teaching Today: Science is basically concerned with the objective 

understanding <strong>of</strong> natural phenomena and through science education one can 

acquire the required knowledge and understanding <strong>of</strong> these phenomena. The 

search for knowledge and understanding about reality can be done through the 

process <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong> which requires certain skills. The knowledge and 

understanding <strong>of</strong> natural phenomena, and the skills developed by <strong>study</strong>ing 

science are applied in life situations. This utility aspect <strong>of</strong> science can be realized 

only through effective <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science in classrooms. 

Teaching <strong>of</strong> science is not just handing out facts and information about science. 

It is much more than that. Besides motivating and presenting things in an 

interesting way, the teacher must be able to create suitable learning experiences 

which reflect an atmosphere for students' self exploration, problem solving, 

inductive reasoning, etc, which are necessary for the development <strong>of</strong> science 

process skills such as observation, identification <strong>of</strong> problem, collection <strong>of</strong> data, 

experimentation and verification, manipulation, recording, analyzing, etc,. To 

achieve this, there are varieties <strong>of</strong> methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> available and the teacher 

has to select such method or methods, which are suitable for the given set <strong>of</strong> 

students in a given context. 

Science <strong>teaching</strong> in Indian classroom contexts is in a very bad shape. Students 

are successfully passing their examinations, without absorbing knowledge about 

the nature <strong>of</strong> scientific enterprise. Teachers fail to build quality into their science 

<strong>teaching</strong>. Innovation and research bent <strong>of</strong> mind are not built into it. In spite <strong>of</strong> 

many efforts which include continued research, experimental trying out <strong>of</strong> varied 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, teacher-training programmes, etc, the broader aspects <strong>of</strong> 

scientific knowledge, namely, the methodology <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science and the kind 

<strong>of</strong> learning outcomes which it is expected to generate seem to have had little 

impact on the minds <strong>of</strong> pupils. It was expected that persons who have had the 

benefit <strong>of</strong> science education would imbibe the spirit and mentality <strong>of</strong> science and 

IS

would considerably contribute to the transformation <strong>of</strong> the tradit40nal outlook in 

the direction <strong>of</strong> a rational attitude towards life and its problems along with the 

development <strong>of</strong> scientific skills. It is indeed disappointing to note that this has 

not happened to any significant extent. It is mainly due to the fact that the 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> employed by the teacher are less effective which 

emphasize more on 'product' aspect <strong>of</strong> science rather than 'process' aspect 

(Vaidya 1996). 

The present-day state <strong>of</strong> affairs in science education and science <strong>teaching</strong> in 

India were generalized in the following way (Vaidya 1974). The situation is not 

reported to be much better today. 

I. Science <strong>teaching</strong> has been and is still oral in character. Demonstration 

ii. 

iii. 

iv. 

lessons are occasionally interspersed. There is very little <strong>of</strong> practical 

work up to the tenth class. At the higher stages, a prescribed list <strong>of</strong> 

experiments is mechanically followed by the teacher in the laboratory, 

which is mostly in the nature <strong>of</strong> verifying knowledge, or working according 

to set the rules which are made explicit before introducing the real 

experiment to students. The element <strong>of</strong> investigation, training in the use 

and practice <strong>of</strong> the scientific method and even mastery <strong>of</strong> the research 

operations (the discovery approach to learning) are conspicuous by their 

absence, even at those places where laboratory facilities and equipments 

are generous. 

The aims and objectives <strong>of</strong> science education at various levels, when 

spelt out in detail, look grand on paper and most <strong>of</strong> them vaporize during 

execution. 

Science <strong>teaching</strong> IS based strictly on the prescribed textbooks. Both 

students and teachers follow them strictly. 

Methods employed for science <strong>teaching</strong> are dull; teacher-centered and 

lack objectivity. 

It is for these reasons that science <strong>teaching</strong> is not considered to be related to the 

immediate environment at all. Consequently, training in scientific method, 

problem solving, creative thinking, and the development <strong>of</strong> scientific skills, 

interests, attitudes and appreciation remain in an utter state <strong>of</strong> neglect. 

16

Another commonly cited defect <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong> is that it is almost totally 

information-based. This makes science education at the lower levels very drab 

and a matter-<strong>of</strong>-fact business which <strong>of</strong>ten bores students. At the higher levels it 

runs through the risk <strong>of</strong> becoming out <strong>of</strong> date before the student reaches 

maturity and takes up any scientific work on his own. Learning becomes highly 

limited. Science, which is an admirable synthesis <strong>of</strong> learning, and production 

activity is becoming a stereotype. The characteristic features <strong>of</strong> science <strong>of</strong> being 

open- ended, <strong>of</strong> welcoming change, and <strong>of</strong> being based on reason, are given 

scant attention. Due to this, science education, instead <strong>of</strong> becoming a liberating 

and intellectually stimulating experience, becomes another kind <strong>of</strong> cut--and-dry 

dogma. The science classroom appears to be a place where children make little 

use <strong>of</strong> their talents and tools because the methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> in vogue are not 

only mechanical in nature but also devoid <strong>of</strong> constructive imagination. Even 

though, science <strong>teaching</strong>, at all levels has changed radically, in both content and 

form in the wake <strong>of</strong> the recent scientific revolution, science teachers from their 

unexamined day-to-day classroom <strong>teaching</strong> have formed firm opinions about 

their wards which is too difficult to change or eradicate. In spite <strong>of</strong> many major 

developments in the pedagogy <strong>of</strong> science which include multi-media approach, 

mass communication instruction, individualized instruction, group-learning, team 

<strong>teaching</strong> many versions <strong>of</strong> scientific method such as inquiry approach, problem 

solving method, brain storming method, heuristic method, inductive method, etc, 

teachers all over the world in India, are employing fixed ways <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science 

in classroom. Even though a number <strong>of</strong> methods are evolved over a period <strong>of</strong> 

time, only some <strong>of</strong> them were rarely practised at school and very few <strong>of</strong> them 

have been employed by teachers for science <strong>teaching</strong> on a large scale. This is 

true especially in the Indian context where schools and classrooms lack 

infrastructure and physical resources required for modern, technical and 

scientific approaches <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong>, overloaded syllabus with less span <strong>of</strong> 

academic schedule and lack <strong>of</strong> initiation, motivation, exposure and innovative 

attitude among science teachers. The commonly used methods by teachers for 

science <strong>teaching</strong> are lecture method, discussion method, lecturer-cumdemonstration 

method, topic method and assignment method. A few additional 

methods that have been used are question-answer method, textbook method 

and reference method. Methods such as project method, laboratory method, 

and heuristic methods are used occasionally in schools with required facilities. 

These methods employed by the teachers are associated with <strong>teaching</strong> aids 

17

such as <strong>models</strong>, charts, specimens, objects and audio-visual aids. Other 

methods and approaches such as programmed instruction, heuristic approach, 

model approach, Simulated Social Skill Training (SSST) are very rarely used 

and, by and large, restricted to experimental tryout or used for demonstration 

and research purposes. 

Focus on Teacher Education: The educational expansion, universalisation <strong>of</strong> 

elementary education, vocationalisation <strong>of</strong> secondary education, higher and 

pr<strong>of</strong>essional education and overall quality <strong>of</strong> education are major challenges 

before the country. Evidently, the quality <strong>of</strong> education is a direct consequence 

and outcome <strong>of</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> teachers and teacher education system. The task 

<strong>of</strong> bringing qualitative change in the institutional efficacy <strong>of</strong> teacher education 

system in itself is a huge and challenging one. The last five decades have 

witnessed several attempts to change, modify and indigenise the inherited 

system <strong>of</strong> teacher education. The system, however, continues to function more 

or less on the same principles, similar content and approaches characterized by 

continuity and unwillingness to change. However, efforts are continued to 

greatly reduce isolation <strong>of</strong> the teacher education system in practical terms and 

liberate teachers and teacher educators from the prescribed traditional 

pedagogical transitional strategies and evaluation principles. A greater 

emphasis has been given towards making teachers more innovative, 

accountable, self-confident, reflective, reverberative and contemplative 

practitioners in classrooms and outside. (Rajput 1998). In spite <strong>of</strong> many efforts 

laid by NCTE and NCERT, teacher education is failing to prepare effective 

science teachers. This is mainly due to the inefficient and improper execution <strong>of</strong> 

training programme with respect to the following aspects. 

Practice-in-Teaching: The practice-in-<strong>teaching</strong> schools or model schools 

associated with/without teacher education institution playa vital role in making 

the pupil-teacher a teacher by providing the needed stage or venue that is model 

in all respects and limit to the practising needs <strong>of</strong> a beginning teacher. The 

Secondary Education Commission Report (1952-1953) stressed the importance 

that should be attached to <strong>teaching</strong> practice in schools. The commission 

reiterated the utility <strong>of</strong> having a demonstration school attached to every teacher 

training institution with all required material and resources for practising 

<strong>teaching</strong>. Teaching abilities are formed during school practice. Practice-in<strong>teaching</strong> 

provides for the exposure <strong>of</strong> the pupil-teacher to <strong>teaching</strong> with all 

18

equired communication skills, planning <strong>of</strong> lessons, varied experiences with 

students, classroom climate, associated senior teachers, head teacher, 

observation and supervision, guidance, feedback and revision with a continued 

scope for improvement. Hence, <strong>teaching</strong> practice is <strong>of</strong> great importance as it 

forms the practical setup for the skill-oriented course such as teacher education. 

The <strong>teaching</strong> inabilities <strong>of</strong> a science teacher may be to some extent, due to any 

<strong>of</strong> the following aspect! aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> practice. 

I. Less duration <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> practice with more number <strong>of</strong> lessons to be 

taught by the pre-service teacher <strong>of</strong>fers less scope for effective feedback, 

revision, preparation to give improved lesson, preparation <strong>of</strong> required 

<strong>teaching</strong> aids and course materials. (Aswathalaxmi 1996). 

ii. Teaching practice sometimes is held at a stretch for about one and a halfmonth 

after giving only one or two model lessons! demonstration, which 

also contributes for no or less improvement. 

III. 

iv. 

In most <strong>of</strong> the cases, the teacher training colleges do not have their own! 

attached demonstration! <strong>teaching</strong> practice schools which are to be model 

schools. Hence, the student teachers are sent to any <strong>of</strong> the nearby 

schools which mayor may not have all the required infrastructure, 

organizational climate, <strong>teaching</strong> aids, resource materials and other 

equipments. 

The pedagogical abilities <strong>of</strong> the teacher trainee may not be developed due 

to less or no influence <strong>of</strong> his! her teacher educator in <strong>teaching</strong> science, 

improper supervision, diagnosis, recording, feedback and suggestions for 

improvement. In most <strong>of</strong> the cases there are very few supervisions either 

by the teacher educator or by the cooperative school teacher! head 

teacher. In some cases, the co-operative school teacher lacks interest and 

concern in pupil- teachers, as it is not or less remunerative. (Pasha 1988) 

and (Ramamurthy 1994). It is also seen that, even though the practice 

<strong>teaching</strong> school has accessories, <strong>teaching</strong> aids or equipments, teacher 

trainees do not have the freedom to access these resources. 

v. Evaluation <strong>of</strong> the performance <strong>of</strong> science teacher trainee during <strong>teaching</strong> 

practice, is usually subjective which may be due to outdated techniques 

and tools, lack <strong>of</strong> interest on the part <strong>of</strong> the teacher educator or cooperative 

schoolteacher and lack <strong>of</strong> time. 

19

Practice-in-<strong>teaching</strong>, the current weakest link <strong>of</strong> teacher education, possesses 

the potentiality <strong>of</strong> converting itself into a strong component, if properly organized. 

The process <strong>of</strong> curriculum transactions needs improvement and enrichment. In 

this framework, pedagogic analysis <strong>of</strong> school <strong>teaching</strong> subjects has been 

thought <strong>of</strong> as an essential component <strong>of</strong> practice-in-<strong>teaching</strong>. Pedagogical 

analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> subjects is sure to refine <strong>teaching</strong> and learning as it 

transforms the teacher's performance and develops competencies not covered 

by the method-cum-content approach. With the background <strong>of</strong> pedagogical 

analysis <strong>of</strong> model demonstration lessons given by the teacher educator, the 

classroom performance is sure to improve, and to a great extent when it is 

supervised in detail by subject specialist. 

Academic Background <strong>of</strong> Science Teachers: In a developing country like 

India, with rapid expansion <strong>of</strong> science, technology and their application along 

with population explosion, there is a great demand for job opportunities. In this 

type <strong>of</strong> competitive context, academic excellence counts to a considerable 

extent. Hence, most <strong>of</strong> the students who are academically sound with a fairly 

good socio-economic background successfully complete their +2 stage <strong>of</strong> 

education and pr<strong>of</strong>essional courses such as medical, engineering or 

management. The rest <strong>of</strong> the students with moderate or less academic 

performance from lower-middle or upper-middle socio-economic background will 

take up degree courses in science, arts and commerce. Again, among them, the 

cream, which performs well, takes up post-graduation in their subjects (science I 

arts I commerce) or takes up jobs The left-out residual sector <strong>of</strong> students then 

opt to take up teacher training and become teachers. Secondary school 

teachers are twice-filtered persons in the educational ladder, once at the +2 

stage and the second time after the +3 stage. Hence" usually the teachertrainees 

have a poor academic background. It cannot be denied that there are 

exceptional cases <strong>of</strong> academically sound students who take to <strong>teaching</strong> 

pr<strong>of</strong>ession by choice. 

Transacting the Curricula: The impact <strong>of</strong> teacher training programmes has 

not been perceptible over the years in terms <strong>of</strong> transacting the curriculum in 

schools through varied and effective methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science. Teachers, by 

and large, use lecture method after training and also during <strong>teaching</strong> practice, 

which is generally not supplemented by using instructional materials. Interactive 

<strong>teaching</strong>, cooperative <strong>teaching</strong> learning, self-discovery approaches and other 

20

scientific methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science are seldom emphasized and used during 

and after the training programme. Teaching by and large is unimaginative and 

the usual methods employed by science teachers become just academic 

exercises and or not related to the immediate natural environment <strong>of</strong> the 

learners. (Rajput, 1998). The prospective science teachers are to be prepared 

so as to enable them to perform successfully in the pre-instructional, instructional 

and post-instructional situations <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. The curriculum transaction through 

effective transactional strategies have to be adjusted with the needs <strong>of</strong> students 

and the locally available resources. 

Preparation and Usage <strong>of</strong> Instructional Aids: Use <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> aids or 

instructional devices such as <strong>models</strong>, charts, objects, specimens etc., always 

enhances the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong>. Teacher trainees need to be 

trained in preparing and using effective <strong>teaching</strong> aids with the locally available 

low cost and no cost, indigenous materials. Teacher training programmes, by 

and large, give less importance to this aspect which is usually due to the apathy 

<strong>of</strong> teacher educators, their inability and inadequate preparation, usage, and 

improvisation <strong>of</strong> simple <strong>teaching</strong> aids by using indigenous materials. Such 

competencies are significant especially in <strong>teaching</strong> science in rural contexts and 

government high schools. 

Teacher Education Institutions- Organizational Defects: Teacher education 

institutions acquire a wider spectrum <strong>of</strong> functions and responsibilities in 

preparing effective science teachers. Even though the country has a large 

number <strong>of</strong> teacher education institutions, most <strong>of</strong> them lack the minimum 

resources. Now, NCTE has laid certain norms that are to be fulfilled in order to 

be given recognition and affiliation to training colleges. In spite <strong>of</strong> that, many 

institutions either lack resources or fail to utilize the available resources in the 

community. (Shrivastava 1997). 

Admission Criteria: It is very disappointing to note that the entry behaviour 

expectation or qualifications prescribed or followed for admission to teacher 

education courses are not appropriate. Student's <strong>teaching</strong> aptitude, pr<strong>of</strong>essional 

commitment, vocational ethics and values are not considered, but only student's 

academic performance at graduation level has been considered for admission. It 

is not correct to assume that good academic achievers also emerge as good 

teachers. Hence, teacher education programmes, in order to prepare effective 

21

sCience teachers, should have well established and resourceful institutions, 

meaningful and purposive curriculum and experiential programmes, most 

appropriate practical activities well in balance with the theoretical aspects, and 

objective evaluation techniques. This enables the pupil teachers to understand 

the nature, purpose and philosophy <strong>of</strong> secondary education; understand the 

psychology <strong>of</strong> pupils and the process <strong>of</strong> socialization; equip them to acquire 

competencies relevant to stage specific pedagogy, curriculum development, it's 

transaction and evaluation; develops skills for guidance and counseling; foster 

creative thinking among their students for reconstruction <strong>of</strong> knowledge; use 

community resources as educational inputs effectively; and more than all, 

develop communication skills necessary for effective <strong>teaching</strong>. Training in 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> may, to some extent, compensate for the inefficiency <strong>of</strong> 

teachers who have entered the pr<strong>of</strong>ession <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> on defective admission 

criteria. 

Teaching <strong>of</strong> Science, Teacher Education and Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

The foregoing review <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science in schools and preparation <strong>of</strong> 

science teachers leaves much to be desired. The ground realities in regard to 

science <strong>teaching</strong> needs large-scale improvement. At the same time, research 

on learning and <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science in schools has been advancing. 

Experimentation and field try-outs have established the value <strong>of</strong> several new 

<strong>models</strong> I methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> which contribute to the efficiency <strong>of</strong> science 

<strong>teaching</strong> and <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> schooling. There is normally a time-gap between 

laboratory I scientific research and its large-scale application and acceptance in 

field condition. Even in regard to science <strong>teaching</strong>, there is reluctance and 

suspicion among science teachers and science method masters in teacher 

education regarding the efficacy I feasibility I efficiency <strong>of</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the new 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science under the given conditions <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong> in 

schools and teacher education programmes. It is in this context that there is a 

need for replication <strong>of</strong> results <strong>of</strong> experimental <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> under diverse 

field conditions <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong> in schools and teacher education 

programmes. It is common knowledge that replication is an important technique 

for establishing validity <strong>of</strong> any new innovation in education including <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong>. With this perspective, a transition will be taken to examine the needs 

for the <strong>study</strong>. 

22

Need for the Study 

Students <strong>of</strong> modern world need to understand and appreciate the dependence <strong>of</strong> 

a modern society on science and changes in the social structure that have been 

brought about by the achievements <strong>of</strong> science and technology. The <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> 

science for better human relations should become a major objective. Students 

may gain scientific knowledge and perhaps desirable scientific attitude, but fail to 

transfer their attitudes and behaviour outside the class. So, it has become 

necessary to bring about changes in the methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science with 

structural and organizational activities in the actual classroom settings. 

Research and experiments are required for innovative practices in classroom 

instruction and to develop a science <strong>of</strong> behaviour applicable for educational 

situations. Many past research studies have revealed the avenues <strong>of</strong> 

programmes that reflect much better ways <strong>of</strong> making teacher-pupil interaction 

effective resulting in enhanced achievement on the part <strong>of</strong> the pupil. 

Teachers occupy a key position in the field <strong>of</strong> education by playing the role <strong>of</strong> 

facilitator for learning by organizing the instructional activities and required 

learning situations. They can't play this significant role effectively if they have 

problem with methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> especially in science education. Therefore, 

for the fruitful improvement <strong>of</strong> education pattern, innovative and effective 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science should be located through research and are to be 

tried out in actual classroom settings. 

The amount and the direction <strong>of</strong> research on <strong>teaching</strong> styles demonstrate 

vigorous changes during the past decades resulting in the development <strong>of</strong> 

generic patterns or styles that have broad utility as well as the possibility <strong>of</strong> 

synthesizing specific patterns effective for particular children in specific setting. 

In spite <strong>of</strong> this continuous effort for searching and implementing innovative 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, the instructional procedures in science are not giving 

maximum expected returns or learning outcomes. This suggests that 

<strong>effectiveness</strong> in educational process depend on the methodologies <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

and learning; instructional strategies used; learning situations provided or 

learning activities organized. More and more research studies are required to 

determine the effective methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. Therefore, it is high time for 

teachers to employ more varied formal or informal but effective methods <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong>, which are supported by research and which can foster learning and 

23

evaluation in the process <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. A teacher needs such instructional 

strategies which are logical, systematically structured and which provide for their 

accomplishment with very few limitations. Models <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> incorporate such 

strategies. 

Models are numerous and they adequately cover the wide range <strong>of</strong> objectives. 

Each model has its own goal, theoretical assumption, principle and major 

concept underlying it. Some <strong>models</strong> are designed for very specific purposes 

while others have general applicability. As a consequence, the researcher felt 

the need for determining the most effective <strong>models</strong> for <strong>teaching</strong> environmental 

concepts in high school classroom settings. It was clearly noted by the 

researcher that even among the few studies done, comparisons had been made 

only with one or two <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> with each other and with the 

conventional method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. 

Several <strong>teaching</strong> methods and strategies are being examined here in terms <strong>of</strong> 

well-known variables. It is, however, observed that there is a great need for more 

detailed and in-depth studies in the same area. Research at this stage is still in 

its infant condition, because research on classroom <strong>teaching</strong> over the past three 

or four decades has brought people only marginally closer to an understanding 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> - learning process. Time is now right to scientifically search for new 

and alternative strategies that can be easily and effectively employed. 

One <strong>of</strong> the fundamental facts, which every educator should know, is that 

progress in <strong>teaching</strong> and learning can be achieved by research, guided by 

proper philosophy <strong>of</strong> education. (Best, W John 1978) states that, "research is 

one method by which one finds the solution to educational problems". Every 

teacher should recognize the important role that research plays in <strong>teaching</strong> and 

learning process. The common assumption that the art <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> is nothing 

better than the process <strong>of</strong> imparting information is gone. 

The main aim <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> is to help the child to respond to his environment in an 

effective way. A sincere analysis <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> and research or experimentation 

in <strong>teaching</strong> provides for refinement in <strong>teaching</strong> or transformation process. The 

necessity for improving science <strong>teaching</strong>, for instance, is strongly reflected by 

lack <strong>of</strong> changes in <strong>teaching</strong> methods over many years. Therefore, it is high time 

24

to adopt innovative methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> that foster transformation and 

evaluation in the process <strong>of</strong> education. 

Education in schools has become narrowed down in focus, rigid and more 

related to textbooks than to the life contexts. Hence, it is time to redefine the 

objectives <strong>of</strong> education according to the present and future needs <strong>of</strong> the 

individual and society. Any improvement in education should essentially reflect 

the changes in the process <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> because the major part <strong>of</strong> formal 

education is carried out in the form <strong>of</strong> classrooms <strong>teaching</strong>. An attempt through 

research is required to examine the compatibility <strong>of</strong> educational practices with 

procedures and techniques <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. 

Research on <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> has been carried out and validated in western 

countries. To what extent do they fit into Indian conditions? There is a need to 

explore the feasibility <strong>of</strong> these <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> for Indian conditions. 

There is a generally shared feeling that science <strong>teaching</strong> in schools has become 

drab, dry and monotonous. It does not stimulate the thinking and generate the 

interests <strong>of</strong> students towards sCience. Students tend to develop negative 

attitudes towards learning <strong>of</strong> sCience. Such a phenomenon leads to low 

enrolment in science at higher levels <strong>of</strong> education leading to a dearth <strong>of</strong> 

scientists who can engage in research and development. Creativity in science 

would be a casualty in future. Hence, interest in science learning should be 

developed at school level itself by adopting a variety <strong>of</strong> strategies I methods I 

<strong>models</strong>. The conditions under which <strong>models</strong> function effectively needs to be 

understood in classroom I school contexts and in real life situations 

Education process does not mean passing on information only but is concerned 

with developing analytical, critical and problem solving abilities as well as the 

creativity <strong>of</strong> an individual. Many research studies in this regard on pupil's 

performance or achievement in learning are available. However, it is very 

significant to note that no <strong>study</strong> has been done to find out the most effective 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> "Environmental Studies" (ES) in relation to given 

performance levels. In fact this prompted the researcher to take up the present 

<strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> comparing the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> various <strong>models</strong> on learning the 

environmental concepts with special reference to environmental curriculum in 

schools. 

25

Organization <strong>of</strong> the Thesis 

The thesis has been organized under seven chapters. 

Chapter I, the introductory chapter, addresses the concerns <strong>of</strong> science asa 

component <strong>of</strong> education, it's role in environmental management, futuristic 

science education, <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science and the need for <strong>study</strong>. 

Chapter II deals with the theoretical understandings. Here, the needs for 

<strong>study</strong>ing sustainable environment and various strategies towards attaining the 

same have been discussed. In addition, issues related to methodology <strong>of</strong> 

science <strong>teaching</strong> and the dynamics <strong>of</strong> achievement <strong>of</strong> students in Environmental 

Studies have been discussed. Theoretical understandings underlying this <strong>study</strong> 

have also been stated. 

Chapter III presents a review <strong>of</strong> related literature. 

main sections, viz., 

It has been divided into two 

1) Review <strong>of</strong> studies in the area <strong>of</strong> Environmental Education (EE); and 

2) Review <strong>of</strong> studies in the area <strong>of</strong> <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. 

Section I has the following five sub-sections, viz., 

I. Studies examining the design, development and validity <strong>of</strong> curriculum and 

instructional materials in EE; 

II. Studies examining the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> methods and approaches on the 

development <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, attitude, behaviour and skills; 

iii. Studies examining the levels <strong>of</strong> environmental awareness, knowledge, 

attitude and behaviour <strong>of</strong> students and teachers; 

IV. Studies examining the evaluation <strong>of</strong> curriculum and instructional materials in 

EE; and 

v. Studies In the area <strong>of</strong> EE that cannot be classified under the above four 

heads. In addition, insights from review and distinctiveness <strong>of</strong> this <strong>study</strong> 

have also been discussed here. 

Chapter IV deals with issues related to EE such as concept, nature, scope, aims 

and objectives, need and importance <strong>of</strong> EE, principles related to EE and 

<strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> Environmental Studies, curriculum for EE, issues related to <strong>models</strong> 

26

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> such as concept, description and classification <strong>of</strong> <strong>models</strong> with a 

detailed description <strong>of</strong> AOM and ITM. 

In Chapter V, the methodology <strong>of</strong> research carried out has been discussed. The 

research problem has been stated along with defining the various variables 

considered in the <strong>study</strong> in terms <strong>of</strong> operational definitions. In addition to this, 

the various objectives and hypotheses <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> have been discussed which 

get classified under the following four sections: 

I. Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> attainments <strong>of</strong> students in environmental 

II. 

III. 

iv. 

studies, exposed to different <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> on each <strong>of</strong> the unit test 

scores and on the summative test scores; 

Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> summated test scores to <strong>study</strong> the feasibility <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to teach various environmental concepts to various 

groups <strong>of</strong> students; 

Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> attainments <strong>of</strong> students in ES, exposed to 

different <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> at the beginning and at the end <strong>of</strong> the 

experiment using I and V unit test scores; and 

Correlation analysis <strong>of</strong> achievement <strong>of</strong> students in ES with their SES, 

home facilities and sex using unit test scores and summative test scores. 

This chapter also deals with the universe <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong>, sample and sampling 

procedure, detailed description on the construction, validation and use <strong>of</strong> various 

tools for the collection <strong>of</strong> data and measurement <strong>of</strong> variables, the procedure <strong>of</strong> 

data collection, plan <strong>of</strong> analysis and statistical techniques employed. 

end, the scope and limitations <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> have also been discussed. 

At the 

Chapter VI deals with the 'Analysis and Interpretation <strong>of</strong> data'. In this chapter, 

keeping in view the various objectives and hypotheses <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong>, the 

quantitative data obtained by the researcher on various variables considered in 

the <strong>study</strong> have been subjected to statistical treatment using statistical techniques 

such as t-test, one-way ANOVA and Coefficient <strong>of</strong> Correlation. Analysis and 

interpretation <strong>of</strong> the results obtained have been described under the following 

five sections: 

I. Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> the utility <strong>of</strong> <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> for <strong>teaching</strong> ES; 

II. 

Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> the feasibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to teach 

various environmental concepts, to various groups <strong>of</strong> students; 

27

III. 

IV. 

Comparative analysis <strong>of</strong> achievement <strong>of</strong> various groups <strong>of</strong> students in ES 

at the beginning and at the end <strong>of</strong> the experiment; 

Correlation analysis <strong>of</strong> achievement <strong>of</strong> students with their SES, home 

facilities and sex; and 

v. Case <strong>study</strong> analysis. 

28

CHAPTER II 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

CHAPTER -II 

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

Theory 

Meaning <strong>of</strong> Theory: One <strong>of</strong> the ultimate goals <strong>of</strong> Science is to integrate and 

systematize facts about the physical I natural universe around us into a 

meaningful pattern or theory. The theory is, however, regarded as tentative and 

not the ultimate truth. It is subject to revision or modification as new phenomena 

are observed 

A scientific theory is a set <strong>of</strong> interrelated constructs or concepts, definitions and 

propositions that present a systematic view <strong>of</strong> phenomena by specifying 

relations among variables, with the purpose <strong>of</strong> explaining and predicting the 

phenomena (Thurber AWalter and Collette T.Alfred: 1964). A scientific theory 

consists <strong>of</strong> tested propositions, which inter-link, various related concepts in a 

systematically organized and logically united base to provide an interpretation <strong>of</strong> 

a particular phenomenon or <strong>of</strong> life processes. It is an empirical statement which 

describes and interprets an association between two or more types <strong>of</strong> events. A 

scientific theory is, by and large, universal in nature because it states the 

condition under which one class <strong>of</strong> phenomena occurs or fails to occur. Hence, 

a theory may be defined as a proposed explanation <strong>of</strong> a set <strong>of</strong> conditions or 

events, unproved, but usually supported by strong evidence. That part <strong>of</strong> 

scientific information, which is made up <strong>of</strong> theories, is constantly changing as 

theories may be modified, discarded, replaced, clarified or accepted as such. 

Theories are produced by a judicious use <strong>of</strong> inductive and deductive reasoning. 

Induction is employed to develop a tentative explanation (hypothesis) <strong>of</strong> a set <strong>of</strong> 

observations. The hypothesis is then assumed to be correct while predictions 

are derived form it deductively. Investigations sometimes prove the predictions 

to be accurate, thus supporting the hypothesis. When exceptions are discovered 

sooner or later; then the hypothesis must be modified inductively to explain the 

exceptions, after which new predictions are deduced. This alternation <strong>of</strong> 

induction and deduction continues throughout the life <strong>of</strong> the theory. During the 

modification process, a theory may get broadened in scope as it is observed to 

apply to more situations than originally expected. 

29

Need for a Theoretical Framework for the Study: Theory serves many 

purposes. It serves as guide, tool and sign-post, as means <strong>of</strong> identifying and 

collecting data, and indicator <strong>of</strong> performance. As a tool, it provides a guiding 

framework for observation, analysis and discovery. As sign-post, it provides 

directions for interpretations <strong>of</strong> specific phenomenon with maximal probability 

and exactitude. Hence, every scientific <strong>study</strong> needs a theoretical framework. 

Theory is <strong>of</strong>ten the fountainhead <strong>of</strong> ideas for empirical research, and sound 

theory is <strong>of</strong> inestimable value in any field. Theories help researchers in many 

ways. They help in: 

formulation <strong>of</strong> concepts I variables; 

identification <strong>of</strong> data I attributes I properties <strong>of</strong> concepts I variables; 

discovery <strong>of</strong> relationships across variables; 

- discovery <strong>of</strong> convergence I divergence across postulates that 

suggest relationships; 

integration <strong>of</strong> insights from relationship; and 

coherence in thinking I writing. 

Scientific theory serves both as a tool for the development <strong>of</strong> science and as a 

product <strong>of</strong> such development. As means, it provides a framework, which guides 

scientists in making observations and discovery. Theory summarizes and puts 

in logical order knowledge within a given field. It also clarifies and provides 

meaning to this summarized knowledge comprising <strong>of</strong> isolated empirical findings. 

As end, theory provides scientists explanations for observed events and 

relationships for specific phenomena with maximum objectivity by explaining the 

nature <strong>of</strong> relationships among variables on the basis <strong>of</strong> which scientific 

speculations and deductions are made. 

In the context <strong>of</strong> this <strong>study</strong>, a theoretical framework needs to explain 

environmental education both from an existential and normative perspective. It 

needs to provide a basis not only to understand how and why environmental 

subjects are taught as they are being taught in the classroom but also provide 

insights and the logic <strong>of</strong> how it is to be treated in school education. In doing so, 

it has to provide an interface between the demands <strong>of</strong> the life processes and the 

implications for the process <strong>of</strong> learning, schooling and education. 

30

Need for Restoring the Balance 

Earth is the only planet known so far to support human life in the solar system. 

This is mainly due to its shape, size, distance from the Sun, presence <strong>of</strong> water in 

all the three forms, viz., solid, liquid and gas, presence <strong>of</strong> atmosphere and 

various types <strong>of</strong> natural resources that are vital to life. Hence, looking at the 

way the environment is getting degraded, it becomes urgent that the earth's 

capacity to sustain and perpetuate life be protected and conserved for all times - 

present as well as future through appropriate and scientifically planned action 

programmes and environment friendly policies to maintain the ecological 

balance. 

Need based civilization which alone can ensure sparing use <strong>of</strong> natural 

resources, and minimum impact on environment has been replaced by greedbased 

civilization resulting in unlimited wants and consumerism without least 

realizing the duty towards posterity to leave the earth in as safe a position as it 

was inherited. It looks as though man thinks that the earth and everything on it 

belongs to him though the truth is, man belongs to the earth, so also the fauna 

and flora. Ostentatious living coupled with 'use and throw' attitude are causing 

a serious drain on natural resources. Before the night falls, before it is too late, 

humanity should realize what is happening and retrace its steps and proceed in 

the right direction at least from the beginning <strong>of</strong> the new millenium (Jois 1986 ). 

The only way to secure happiness in life is by limiting the wants. It is 

incorporated in the first verse <strong>of</strong> Ishavasyopanishad. It reads: "All we find in this 

ephemeral world are created by God. Let us use them only to the minimum 

extent and let us not snatch the wealth belonging to others. "By the Lord (Isa) 

enveloped must this all be - whatever moving thing there is the moving world. 

With this renounced, thou mayest enjoy. Covet not the wealth <strong>of</strong> anyone at all" 

(Radhakrishnan, S. L Moore, Charles A., 1957). 

The Supreme Court <strong>of</strong> India, in its celebrated judgement (1987(2) S.C.C.295) 

dealing with the importance <strong>of</strong> environment, said: "Let us not, however, flatter 

ourselves overmuch on account <strong>of</strong> our human victories over nature. For each 

such victory nature takes its revenge on us. Each victory, it is true, first, brings 

about the expected results, but later it has quite different, unforeseen effects 

which only too <strong>of</strong>ten conceal the first." Two out <strong>of</strong> the ten most important values 

31

within the purview <strong>of</strong> "dharma", according to M.Rama Jois (1986) are "Simple 

life" through sparing use <strong>of</strong> natural resources, and "Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam" - 

a feeling <strong>of</strong> world as one family. 

Due to the continuous interaction among various biotic and abiotic components, 

the environment remains more or less stable. This ability <strong>of</strong> nature to stabilize 

itself is known as the balance <strong>of</strong> nature or ecological balance. Ecological 

balance is also due to reciprocal interactions and inter-relationships that exist 

among four spheres <strong>of</strong> earth viz.: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and 

biosphere. This ecological balance has been disturbed to a considerable extent 

due to human interference through his senseless, selfish and inhuman activities 

which include pollution <strong>of</strong> the natural resources, deforestation, industrialization, 

unchecked population growth (population explosion), loss <strong>of</strong> bio-diversity, 

increased urbanization, etc. The impact <strong>of</strong> science and technology on the 

environment in the post-industrial revolution period has been negative. No 

longer can the earth's ecological ills be treated as separate. The environmental 

damage is now assuming a dangerous proportion throughout the world and a 

growing awareness is discernible to maintain ecological balance. Hence 

humans have a tremendous responsibility to protect and conserve the 

environment, restore the ecological equilibrium and maintain sustainability <strong>of</strong> the 

earth for the future generations. 

Why is Ecological Balance Disturbed? 

Disturbance <strong>of</strong> ecosystem means disturbance <strong>of</strong> ecological balance. Ecological 

balance is a state <strong>of</strong> equilibrium between the populations <strong>of</strong> various species in 

the biosphere and various abiotic components which are interacting constantly in 

their natural conditions. This is also called ecological equilibrium or 

homeostasis and this should not be disturbed. In this state <strong>of</strong> balance, the 

relative numbers <strong>of</strong> organisms in a particular environment remain constant. The 

ecosystems are capable <strong>of</strong> self-regulation to an extent. Homeostasis is a natural 

tendency <strong>of</strong> ecosystems to return to a state <strong>of</strong> equilibrium that leads to the 

stability <strong>of</strong> ecosystems. This ecological balance may be disturbed due to 

undesirable changes in the physical environment or changes in the relative 

numbers <strong>of</strong> organisms in the biosphere. 

32

The interaction <strong>of</strong> humanity with its environment has grown over the last few 

decades with the exploitation <strong>of</strong> nature on an increasingly large scale which 

necessarily has a detrimental effect on the ecological balance. Man has been 

the vital cause for this status <strong>of</strong> environment. Man being a single unit in the vast 

and complex ecosystem is the only organism so totally committed to shaping his 

environment according to his selfish needs rather than adapting himself to the 

natural setting <strong>of</strong> the environment. The problem is that man's propensity to 

make developmental decisions is far more advanced than his ability to 

understand his environment. Environmental problems like pollution, depletion <strong>of</strong> 

natural resources, erosion <strong>of</strong> top soil, deforestation and loss <strong>of</strong> bio-diversity are 

all the results <strong>of</strong> selfish attitude <strong>of</strong> man along with over and misuse <strong>of</strong> limited 

resources by increasing population. Though man is a product <strong>of</strong> mother-nature, 

yet after living in perfect harmony with nature for centuries and centuries, he has 

created a situation <strong>of</strong> persistent conflict with nature which, unfortunately, is now 

leading to as grave a situation as self-destruction. As Mahatma Gandhiji opined 

'The Earth provides enough to satisfy every man's need, but not for every man's 

greed". The shortfall between consumption and production, whether on account 

<strong>of</strong> need or greed <strong>of</strong> humankind, has resulted in undue stress on ecological 

balance. Man depends on all natural resources which are limited in quantity, 

and some <strong>of</strong> them are non-renewable. Due to population explosion, because <strong>of</strong> 

unchecked population growth, the resources are getting depleted at an alarming 

rate, affecting the sensitive interaction among biotic and abiotic factors, 

threatening the very ecological equilibrium. 

The carrying capacity <strong>of</strong> the earth has also been threatened by the ever-growing 

rate <strong>of</strong> population growth and consumption. The carrying capacity <strong>of</strong> an 

ecosystem is the maximum population <strong>of</strong> a given species that the ecosystem can 

hold without being degraded. There is a carrying capacity for the biosphere, for 

each ecosystem and for each habitat at any given time. The ecological balance 

on earth depends on the carrying capacity <strong>of</strong> the earth which has been affected 

by many variables. It varies with environmental conditions such as severe and 

continuous drought, floods, imbalance in the ratio <strong>of</strong> prey and predators, forest 

fires, improper management <strong>of</strong> natural resources, etc. If population increases 

beyond the carrying capacity <strong>of</strong> its habitat, the environment deteriorates and the 

population may decline sharply until a new equilibrium is reached. Proper 

management <strong>of</strong> natural resources do require a committed political regime and 

33

the presence <strong>of</strong> conscIous civil classes. In the absence <strong>of</strong> both, the 

management <strong>of</strong> natural resources tends to cause structural imbalance (Nadkarni 

1989). 

The environmental imbalance is the causal effect <strong>of</strong> the callous indifference <strong>of</strong> 

governance towards the function <strong>of</strong> preservation (Cockburn 1989). It is neither 

simply a process <strong>of</strong> unlimited greed <strong>of</strong> the ambitious man, nor even alone the 

need <strong>of</strong> the social classes, but it is something certainly located in the structural 

relations that exist in a given specific social system and its evolving process 

either or with the exploitative and egalitarian characters. The evolution <strong>of</strong> the 

third world social system has been locked up in a process <strong>of</strong> development, 

where their permanent resource base is put to a constant pressure. In addition 

to this, the ever-increasing demands and aspirations <strong>of</strong> human society create a 

rising demand for goods and services. This imposes undesirable changes on 

the natural ecosystems. Increasing control <strong>of</strong> one's environment <strong>of</strong>ten creates 

conflicts between one's goals and natural processes. This has resulted in a free 

exchange between the natural ecosystem and the socio ecosystem. In order to 

achieve greater yields or for selfish purposes, man deflects the natural flow <strong>of</strong> 

energy, bypasses natural processes, simplifies ecosystems and uses large 

subsidies to maintain delicate artificial equilibria. This increasing and 

unidirectional free exchange has caused the crisis <strong>of</strong> ecological imbalance. In 

other words, the human exploitation <strong>of</strong> natural resources at a greater rate than it 

can be regenerated, and without putting back inputs into the natural ecosystem 

is responsible for ecological imbalance and failure in the establishment <strong>of</strong> geobiological 

balance <strong>of</strong> the ecosystem. The whole ecological system is in the 

danger <strong>of</strong> being disturbed due to indiscriminate exploitation and misuse <strong>of</strong> 

natural resources which have led to scarcities and repercussions <strong>of</strong> a serious 

nature which include major global environmental problems such as acid rain, 

global warming, ozone depletion, loss <strong>of</strong> bio-diversity, pollution <strong>of</strong> natural 

resources and desertification. All these have a direct orland indirect impact on 

human well -being and are certain to affect the ecological balance. This has 

threatened both the earth's carrying capacity and people's coping capacity, and 

it may have serious consequences for future generations. There are limits to 

the changes which can be borne by the biosphere which has enormous but 

nevertheless only a finite capacity <strong>of</strong> endurance. Beyond the tolerance limits, 

the balance <strong>of</strong> nature gets disrupted and can result in such great hazards that 

34

(, It.

Conference, 1972. This Conference reviewed the measures taken to implement 

the 1972 declarations, recognized and emphasized the urgent need for 

intensifying the efforts at the global, regional and national levels to protect and 

improve the environment. 

Then, Earth Summit was held at Rio De Janeiro, Brazil in the year 1992, which 

is also called Rio Summit, in which 170 countries participated and this summit 

proposed major action programmes setting out what nations should do to 

achieve sustainable development in the 21 st century. Chapter 36 <strong>of</strong> the 

agreement document is <strong>of</strong> significance, because it recommends promoting EE 

as an essential part <strong>of</strong> learning within both formal and non formal education 

stream. 

Although international conferences, programmes, projects and agreements may 

not have achieved anything substantial and concrete as resolution <strong>of</strong> these 

programmes are not backed up by financial resources, effective implementation 

machinery and above all, lack <strong>of</strong> faith and cooperation <strong>of</strong> a few nations, their 

educative value cannot be ignored. 

Legal Provisions for Environmental Protection: Indian Constitution is 

perhaps the first Constitution in the world to have incorporated legal provisions 

for environmental protection. The Constitution <strong>of</strong> India in its original form as 

enacted in 1950 had no provisions whatsoever dealing with 'environment', nor 

had it envisaged in its scheme <strong>of</strong> distribution <strong>of</strong> legislative powers, laws relating 

to environmental protection. The Constitution (42"d amendment) Act, 1976, 

Article 51A embodying the fundamental duties <strong>of</strong> the citizen was added to the 

Constitution which states that, "It shall be the duty <strong>of</strong> every citizen to protect and 

improve the natural environment including the forest, lakes, rivers and wild life 

and to have compassion for living creatures" (Bakshi,P.M. 2000). 

Article 48A states that, "the state shall endeavour to protect and improve the 

environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife <strong>of</strong> the country". Apart form 

the constitutional safeguards, there is a contingent <strong>of</strong> about 200 Central and 

State legislations which have a direct or indirect bearing on environment. Some 

<strong>of</strong> the important Acts enacted by Indian Government are as follows: 

36

The Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, elucidates the protection mechanisms <strong>of</strong> 

wildlife, appends 4 schedules enlisting various wild animals that are fully 

protected and not to be killed without the permission <strong>of</strong> concerned authority. 

This Act also empowers the Government to appoint required employees for 

wildlife protection. 

The Water (prevention and control <strong>of</strong> pollution) Act 1974 and The Water 

(prevention and control <strong>of</strong> pollution) Cess Act, 1977: These Acts provide for 

preventing and controlling water pollution, maintaining the wholesomeness <strong>of</strong> 

water <strong>of</strong> all sources, establishing pollution control boards and levying and 

collecting cess from consumers. Besides these Acts, there are number <strong>of</strong> Acts 

dealing with specific aspects <strong>of</strong> water pollution, viz., Shipping Act 1958, 

Factories Act 1948 (amendment 1986), etc. 

Forest Conservation Act, 1980 (amendment 1988) addresses the alarming rate 

<strong>of</strong> deforestation in the country and is enacted to check deforestation and use <strong>of</strong> 

forest land for non forest purposes without prior approval form the central 

government. 

The Air (prevention and control <strong>of</strong> pollution) Act 1981 empowers state 

governments to declare air pollution control area; give instructions for ensuring 

standards <strong>of</strong> emission from automobiles and put certain restriction on industrial 

plants with respect to their emission <strong>of</strong> gaseous effluents. 

The Environment (protection) Act 1986 - an inclusive act, provides for appointing 

analysts to certify industries with regard to polluting the environment and deals 

with rules and penalties in case <strong>of</strong> air pollution. One <strong>of</strong> the most interesting parts 

<strong>of</strong> this Act is section 4. It is very significant to note that, on an advisory opinion, 

the Supreme Court <strong>of</strong> India held that the Central Government must instruct all 

schools to teach environment, wildlife, forest and nature conservation. 

In addition to this, some more important central and state legislations have been 

enlisted below. 

- 1905 Bengal Smoke Nuisance Act 

- 1912 Bombay Smoke Nuisance Act 

- 1917 Mysore Destruction by Insects and Pests Act 

- 1919 Andhra Pradesh Agricultural Pest Act 

- 1923 The Indian Boilers Act 

37

- 1927 The Indian Forest Act 

- 1946 Bihar Wasteland Act 

- 1947 Mines and Minerals Act 

- 1949 Andhra Pradesh Improvement Scheme Act 

- 1951 Industries Act 

- 1953 Orissa River Pollution and Prevention Act 

- 1954 Assam Agricultural Pest And Disease Act 

- 1954 Prevention <strong>of</strong> Food Adulteration Act 

- 1956 River Boards Act 

- 1962 Atomic Energy Act (Radiation protection rules 1971) 

- 1968 The Insecticides Act 

- 1969 Maharashtra Prevention <strong>of</strong> Water Pollution Act 

- 1976 Urban Land Act 

It is to be noted that a government's role in environmental management includes 

laying down policies for the management <strong>of</strong> public resources, making and 

enforcing laws and regulations for the protection <strong>of</strong> environment through 

planning, promoting and coordinating environmental and forestry programmes. 

However, the ability <strong>of</strong> the legal system to uphold and enforce environmental 

laws and regulations depends heavily on public support and on whether the 

prevailing laws and regulations are practical and enforceable (Menon 1990). 

Administrative and Managerial Strategies 

Besides legislative measures, many administrative bodies and departments have 

been established by the Central and State governments to <strong>study</strong> and tackle the 

environmental problems. In addition to this, many action plans and programmes 

have been taken up by both Gov!. and NGOs. Some <strong>of</strong> the important ones are: 

National Committee on Environmental Planning and Coordination (NCEPC) - 

promoting and providing necessary facilities for environmental research through 

Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) and Environmental Research Committee 

(ERC). 

Environmental Information System (ENVIS) - promoting information collection, 

storage, retrieval, exchange and dissemination <strong>of</strong> environmental issues, 

amongst the developing countries. 

38

Department <strong>of</strong> Environment (DOE), integrated in the Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment, 

Forests & Wildlife in 1985 is acting as a nodal agency for environmental 

protection and eco-development and also, it has the administrative responsibility 

<strong>of</strong> pollution monitoring, regulation and conservation <strong>of</strong> the eco-system. 

National Afforestation & Ecodevelopment Board (NAEB) - promoting 

afforestation, ecological restoration and ecodevelopment activities in the country. 

National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) - launching on large scales, 

national wasteland development programmes to deal with the ecological crisis 

caused by land degradation. 

management are: 

Other institutions involved in environmental 

1. Botanical Survey <strong>of</strong> India (BSI) - surveying, identifying and conducting 

research on the plant resources <strong>of</strong> the country. 

2. Central Zoo Authority (CZA) - supporting, monitoring, coordinating and 

managing the zoos in the country. 

3. Forest Survey <strong>of</strong> India (FSI) - periodical survey <strong>of</strong> forest coverage, data 

storing, retrieval and dissemination <strong>of</strong> information concerning forest areas. 

4. G.B. Pant Institute <strong>of</strong> Himalayan Environment and Development - developing 

strategies and technologies; taking up action-oriented research projects in 

Himalayan region. 

5. Indian Council <strong>of</strong> Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) - organizing, 

directing and managing research and education in the field <strong>of</strong> forestry; 

frames overall forestry research policy. 

6. Wildlife Institute <strong>of</strong> India (WII) - conducting research pertaining wildlife. 

7. Centre for Ecological Sciences (CES) - taking research work in Western 

Ghats for conservation. 

8. Centre for Mining Environment (CME) - imparting training to in-service field 

personnel in environmental science and technology for environmental 

management in mining areas and conducting research in the field <strong>of</strong> mining 

environment. 

9. Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History (SACON) - conducting 

research on all aspects <strong>of</strong> ornithology. 

10. Indian Institute <strong>of</strong> Forest Management (IIFM) - imparting education and 

training in forest management. 

39

11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) - 

conducting research aimed at prolonging the life <strong>of</strong> wood and wood products, 

reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests. 

12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and 

water pollution. 

13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE 

activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up actionoriented 

projects. 

14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics 

Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes 

on Environment Economics. 

A few other national organizations and material centres working for the 

environment protection are: 

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. 

Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi. 

Industrial Toxicology Research Institute (ITRC), Lucknow 

Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun. 

Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization (EPCO), Bhopal 

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), and 

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai. 

Some important international organizations working for environment protection 

are: 

1. International Union for Conservation <strong>of</strong> Nature and Natural Resources 

(lUCAN), Switzerland. 

2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris. 

3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 

Paris. 

4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Kenya. 

5. World Watch Institute (WWI), Washington. 

6. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 

7. Food and Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations (FAO), Rome. 

8. International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), Paris. 

9. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland. 

40

11. Indian Plywood Industries Research & Training Institute (IPIRTI) - 

conducting research aimed at prolonging the life <strong>of</strong> wood and wood products, 

reducing wastage to reduce pressure on natural forests. 

12. Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) - preventing and controlling air and 

water pollution. 

13. Centre for Environment Education (CEE) - conducting country-wide EE 

activities including exhibitions, seminars, workshops and takes up actionoriented 

projects. 

14. Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (Ecology Economics 

Unit) - conducting research, training programmes and doctoral programmes 

on Environment Economics. 

A few other national organizations and material centres working for the 

environment protection are: 

Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), New Delhi. 

Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI), New Delhi. 

Industrial Toxicology Research Institute (ITRC), Lucknow 

Forest Research Institute (FRI), Dehra Dun. 

Environmental Planning and Coordination Organization (EPCO), Bhopal 

National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), and 

Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai. 

Some important international organizations working for environment protection 

are: 

1. International Union for Conservation <strong>of</strong> Nature and Natural Resources 

(lUCAN), Switzerland. 

2. Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), Paris. 

3. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), 

Paris. 

4. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Kenya. 

5. World Watch Institute (WWI), Washington. 

6. World Wide Fund for Nature (VVVVF). 

7. Food and Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations (FAO), Rome. 

8. International Council for Scientific Unions (ICSU), Paris. 

9. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland. 

40

10. World Meteorological Organization (WMO), Geneva, Switzerland. 

In addition to these administrative organizations working for environment 

protection, many environmental action programmes, approaches, initiatives and 

environment managerial activities are designed and implemented by Ministry <strong>of</strong> 

Environment & Forests (MOEF) with the coordination <strong>of</strong> more than 2,500 

organizations comprising NGOs, academic institutions, research organizations, 

women and youth organizations, etc., throughout the country. These 

programmes include seminars, workshops, rallies, training courses, public 

meetings, padayathras, exhibitions, essay/ poster/painting competitions, tree 

plantation drives, folk dances, street theatres, etc. A few important action 

programmes implemented by the MOEF are as follows: 

1. Paryavaran Vahini (Environment Brigade) - a people's programme involving 

students, youth and general public in environment preservation activities. 

2. Eco Task Force - a joint venture <strong>of</strong> Ministry <strong>of</strong> Environment & Forests 

(MOE F), Ministry <strong>of</strong> Defence and concerned state governments which 

intends to undertake ecological restoration work in selected environmentally 

degraded areas. 

3. Eco Clubs - school children are actively involved in EE programmes, 

activities and projects throughout the country through a wide network <strong>of</strong> Eco 

Clubs established in many schools. 

4. Ganga Action Plan (GAP) - with the main objective <strong>of</strong> reducing the pollution 

load on the river and to improve its water quality <strong>of</strong> the river Ganga and 

associated rivers, GAP was initiated in 1985 and it has two phases. Under 

GAP - Phase I, pollution abatement works have been taken up in 25 Class I 

towns (population above 1 lakh) along the river Ganga in three states, viz.; 

U.P., Bihar and West Bengal. Under GAP - Phase II, pollution abatement 

works have been extended to other polluted rivers, viz., Yamuna, Gomathi 

and Damodar. 

5. National River Action Plan (NRAP) - working for the pollution abatement <strong>of</strong> 8 

major national rivers in the identified pollution stretches in 12 states. 

6. National Lake Conservation Plan (NLCP) - the main objective <strong>of</strong> the NLCP is 

to check encroachment, siltation, weed infestation, discharge <strong>of</strong> domestic 

sewage, industrial effluents and surface run-<strong>of</strong>f carrying pesticides and 

fertilizers from agricultural fields. 

41

7. In addition to these, a few other action programmes are Environment Audit, 

Environment Impact Assessment, Eco-Mark, Coastal Area Management, etc. 

Education as a Strategy 

Role <strong>of</strong> Education and Schooling in Environment Protection: Education is 

the only effective short- and long-term instrument to bring about any desired 

changes or modification <strong>of</strong> attitude and behaviour <strong>of</strong> individuals towards 

environment. Education can help in preparing individuals who are more aware 

<strong>of</strong> their environment and its problems and are able to understand manenvironment 

relationships from a human point <strong>of</strong> view and act wisely while 

making decisions (Jacobson 1985). This requires bringing education closer to 

the realities and relevance to life, which further helps, in improving man's contact 

with the physical and social environment. Education proceeds both formally and 

informally through schools, private organizations, communication media and 

continuing experiences. No serious or effective modifications or improvement <strong>of</strong> 

attitudes and behaviour <strong>of</strong> man towards environment can occur without broad 

education efforts at all levels and sectors <strong>of</strong> human society. Children need to 

learn ways to perceive environmental problems and opportunities, acquire the 

information for forming and evaluating alternative actions, and develop the 

cultural skills for living according to chosen alternatives. All <strong>of</strong> these demand a 

high and continuous educational input. Both formal and non-formal types <strong>of</strong> 

education can prove effective in developing awareness, attitude and knowledge 

in students with respect to environment. 

Formal Environmental Education: A formal environmental education system is 

one which is structured and targeted on specific student-teacher relationships 

through specified curricula. Two approaches are being used in providing EE at 

schools. One approach is infusing environmental concepts into all existing 

studies which lend themselves to changing man's lifestyle and another approach 

is developing a special EE curriculum for a separate course called 

Environmental Studies (ES). 

The spectrum <strong>of</strong> formal EE falls in four but integrating components such as 

awareness, real life situations, conservation and sustainable development, which 

are matched with the needs <strong>of</strong> students at all levels <strong>of</strong> education. Awareness 

includes making the individual conscious about the physical, social and aesthetic 

42

aspects <strong>of</strong> environment. Real life situations link environment to life. These 

conditions are location-specific with different environmental aspects being 

emphasized in different states, e.g., pollution aspects are emphasized in 

predominantly industrial nations. In contrast to the awareness where attitudes 

are important, in real life situations, the emphasis shifts to practical aspects as 

related to the circumstances around the person concerned; Conservation and 

Sustainable Development refer to the wise and proper utilization <strong>of</strong> natural 

resources by present and future generations without harming environment 

equilibrium. At the primary stage, the emphasis is mostly on building up 

awareness, followed by exposure to real life situations and conservation. This 

prepares the child for understanding the subtleties <strong>of</strong> sustainable development 

(Khoshoo, 1991). From the lower secondary stage onwards, the quantum <strong>of</strong> 

awareness decreases in favour <strong>of</strong> increased knowledge about real life situations, 

conservation and sustainable development. At higher education levels, more 

weightage can be given to knowledge acquisition. From the lower secondary 

stage onwards, the attempt has been to emphasize, in an increasing manner, 

the interconnectedness, inter-relatedness and inter-dependence <strong>of</strong> the life 

support system <strong>of</strong> environment and man. 

Schooling with formal education system provides for ample time and 

opportunities for the children to participate in various activities conducted in and 

out <strong>of</strong> the school environment. The very organizational climate and school 

environment with well established and properly maintained school garden, play 

ground, class room, library, aquarium and overall infrastructure with physical 

resources can develop gradually an aesthetic sense and positive attitude 

towards a clean environment in children. The well-maintained sanitary facilities, 

including toilets and latrines, make the children aware <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> 

maintaining good health and hygiene necessary to become healthy citizens. In 

addition to this, the very environmental attitude <strong>of</strong> head <strong>of</strong> the school and 

teachers as role <strong>models</strong> has a powerful impact on the minds <strong>of</strong> pupils. The 

plasticity <strong>of</strong> mind and dependence <strong>of</strong> students make them gain a positive attitude 

towards environment, develop in them environmental awareness and shape their 

behaviour which is, environmentally desirable and gradually they develop a 

responsible citizenship. 

43

A child's perception <strong>of</strong> the environment develops partly from formal schooling in 

nursery schools, other pre-primary institutions and partly from informal education 

at home. Active consciousness towards the natural environment seems to 

develop in most <strong>of</strong> the children at the age <strong>of</strong> 9 to 10 years. The openness <strong>of</strong> 

mind at this age presents a challenge for teachers curriculum designers, activity 

planners and teacher trainees. Students at the secondary level are usually 

receptive, strongly motivated and are capable <strong>of</strong> assimilating an EE, that is 

value-oriented, community-oriented and concerned with human well- being. 

Teachers can employ new methods and approaches which provide for a great 

deClI <strong>of</strong> learning out <strong>of</strong> doors such as field trips and visits, which provide direct 

and purposeful learning experiences through which children can discover, 

measure, collect, survey, record and learn in a lively, relevant way, using the 

outdoors as a learning resource which is far more potent than the text book. 

A few approaches <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> environmental studies prove to be very effective at 

primary and secondary levels <strong>of</strong> education (Sarabhai 1993) They are: 

1. Providing the children with opportunities to observe the local environmental 

features, problems, changes, etc. 

2. Conducting oral discussions with children about various environmental 

problems <strong>of</strong> local concerns. 

3. Organizing out-<strong>of</strong>-classroom activities for first hand/real/direct purposeful 

expenences. 

4. Undertaking and guiding simple outdoor projects. 

5. Helping the children in adopting the process approach to environmental 

problems. 

6. Providing children with timely topics and questions for which they can find 

the answers by discussing with their parents, elders, friends and by field 

observations. 

Keeping in view the objectives <strong>of</strong> EE, the following activities can be undertaken 

by students in the school. Many <strong>of</strong> these have been suggested by Meena 

Raghunathan (1997). The nature <strong>of</strong> activities should be in accordance with the 

age, the educational level (primary/secondary/ higher), the facilities available in 

the school and community, the capabilities <strong>of</strong> students, available time, funds and 

seasonal changes in the concerned localities. 

44

1. Growing plants 

2. Observation <strong>of</strong> plants and trees with a view to recognizing them 

3. Observation <strong>of</strong> flowers, identification <strong>of</strong> different parts, analyzing their 

structure and role in reproduction 

4. Observation <strong>of</strong> birds and animals with a view to recognizing them 

5. Observing and analyzing animal behaviour 

6. Hearing and imitating the sounds <strong>of</strong> different animals 

7. Observation <strong>of</strong> changes in growing plants and animals by making 

comparisons and measurements. 

8. Building huts and houses in soil blocks with a view to understanding the 

need <strong>of</strong> shelters for animals 

9. Drawing pictures <strong>of</strong> trees, animals, hills, ponds, etc. 

10. Daily recording <strong>of</strong> temperature, humidity to compare and analyze the 

changes in the climate 

11. Reading and writing stories on wildlife, environmental situations and 

problems 

12. Learning, observing and writing the life history <strong>of</strong> frog, butterfly, house fly , 

silk worm, etc. 

13. Observation <strong>of</strong> nesting process/parental care in birds 

14. Visits to museums <strong>of</strong> natural history, sanctuaries, national parks, zoos, 

botanical gardens, forests, coast lines, river belts, industrial areas, hospitals, 

bus stand, railway station, aerodrome, mining areas, ships, temples, 

churches, mosques, fire stations, post <strong>of</strong>fice, firms, historical monuments, 

library, market yards, agricultural land, farms, woodland, sand-dunes, diary, 

poultry, piggary, orchards, radi<strong>of</strong>TV. stations, gram panchayats, power 

stations, water supply stations, sewage disposal centres, etc. 

15. Preparation <strong>of</strong> herbarium, aquarium, terrarium, vivarium, etc. 

16. Showing educational movies on environmental protection, bio-diversity, 

wildlife life protection, detection <strong>of</strong> food adulteration, soil erosion, nuclear 

reactors, pollution and overpopulation hazards, sanitations, sewage 

management, woman education, health education, etc. 

17. Model making 

18. Arts and crafts 

19 Organizing competitions such as essay writing, drama, quiz programmes, 

debates, slogan writings, painting, drawing and composing poems on 

environmental issues. 

4S

20. Collection <strong>of</strong> herbarium, shells, stones, newspaper clippings on 

environmental issues, dropped nests, seeds, bones, specimens, etc. 

21. Survey <strong>of</strong> medicinal plants, forests, agricultural land/farms, sources <strong>of</strong> 

pollution, automobile intensity, sanitation at public places, waste disposal, 

etc. 

22. Demonstrations on water purification methods, stages <strong>of</strong> growth in plants, life 

cycle <strong>of</strong> animals, etc. 

23. Action programmes such as raising school garden, nurseries, fish tanks, 

pond eco-system, cleaning school campus, school beautification, fencing the 

school campus, growing flowering plants, vegetables, medicinal plants in the 

school garden, developing proper drainage system for waste disposal, 

organizing exhibitions on environmental aspects, etc. 

24. Creative expressions through street plays, puppet shows, staging 

environmental drama 

25. Observing special environmental programmes such as World Environment 

Day, Wildlife week, Vanamahotsav, etc. 

26. Formation <strong>of</strong> Eco clubs such as Nature Club, Environmental Science Club, 

Adventure Club, etc. 

27. Destroying weeds in association with NSS, NCC, local organizations like 

Interact Club, Rotaract, Rotary Club, Lions Club, etc. 

Note This list is not exhaustive. It is only indicative 

Non Formal Environmental Education (NFEE): The NFEE system is less 

definitive and structured, and is directed towards the public at large, or particular 

segments <strong>of</strong> general public, or sometimes the entire population <strong>of</strong> a locality. 

NFEE has a major role and responsibility through local and national media, 

voluntary organizations, government agencies, business and industrial 

establishments and NGOs in promoting environmental awareness and attitude in 

public NFEE provides scope for pupils and public participation in social, 

economic and cultural development <strong>of</strong> the community through village club 

activities, exhibitions, public lectures, environmental campaigns, adult education 

programmes, tribal awareness programmes, etc. NFEE proves to be very 

effective in the development <strong>of</strong> environmental awareness through programmes 

on health and hygiene, conservation, environmental friendly lifestyle, economic 

consumption, recycling, etc. Programmes such as Total Literacy Campaigns 

(TLCs) and Community Education Programmes (CEPs) through which people 

46

are conscientised so that they organize and get themselves liberated from the 

clutches <strong>of</strong> ignorance, poverty, illiteracy, ill-health, superstitions, etc., and also 

they can be made aware <strong>of</strong>: dreaded diseases like AIDS, the need for 

environmental sanitation, immunization, population control, women education, 

etc. (Pillai 1995). NFEE is extremely important in creating and enhancing 

environmental awareness and developing environmental literacy in both children 

and adults including illiterates, slum dwellers, industrial workers in both rural and 

urban sectors. Environmental literacy programmes help to create a sense <strong>of</strong> 

duty to care for and manage wisely the natural endowment and productive 

resources over the long range <strong>of</strong> time 

Role <strong>of</strong> Methods <strong>of</strong> Teaching Science 

Teaching is one <strong>of</strong> the oldest activities In the history <strong>of</strong> human civilization. 

Communication about human experience existed in one form or the other, right 

from the days man began to share his experiences with his fellow human beings. 

But the systematic way <strong>of</strong> communicating human experiences began with the 

establishment <strong>of</strong> formal institution such as "school". The act <strong>of</strong> communicating 

human experiences in the formal situation is called "<strong>teaching</strong>", and along with its 

Increasing complexity it has become the subject <strong>of</strong> human inquiry. 

Educationists, philosophers, psychologists, sociologists and scientists have, at 

different periods <strong>of</strong> time, tried their best to understand the nature <strong>of</strong> this human 

activity called <strong>teaching</strong>. Based on their observations and experiences, they 

defined <strong>teaching</strong> In variOUS ways. Following are some <strong>of</strong> the definitions <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong>. 

"Teaching IS any interpersonal influence aimed at changing the ways in 

which other persons can or will behave". (Gage 1964). 

"Teaching is an activity, a unique pr<strong>of</strong>essional, rational and humane activity, 

in which one creatively and imaginatively uses himself and his knowledge to 

promote the learning and the welfare <strong>of</strong> others" (Hough and Duncan 1970). 

"The act <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> leads to reciprocal contacts between the teacher and his 

pupils and the interchange itself is called <strong>teaching</strong>" (Flanders 1972). 

"Teaching is a process by which teacher and students create a shared 

environment including sets <strong>of</strong> values and beliefs which in turn colour their 

view <strong>of</strong> reality"(Joyce and Weil 1985) 

"Teaching is the arrangement <strong>of</strong> contingencies or reinforcement under which 

students learn. They learn even without '<strong>teaching</strong>' in their natural 

47

environments but <strong>teaching</strong> involves arranging <strong>of</strong> special contingencies which 

expedite learning, hastening the appearance <strong>of</strong> behaviour which would 

otherwise be acquired slowly or making sure <strong>of</strong> the appearance <strong>of</strong> behaviour 

which might otherwise never occur' (Skinner 1968) 

Teaching is a process which involves the simultaneous performance <strong>of</strong> the 

following three tasks (Smith 1985a). 

1. Maintaining the classroom environment 

2. Providing learning experiences appropriate to the changing needs <strong>of</strong> 

individual pupils 

3. Implementing those experiences in which the teacher is an active participant 

In its generic sense, '<strong>teaching</strong>' denotes action undertaken with the intention to 

bring about 'learning' ; in conventional sense, the descriptive definition <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong> is, "<strong>teaching</strong> is imparting knowledge and skills" (Smith 1985b). 

An analysis <strong>of</strong> all these definitions on <strong>teaching</strong> leads to draw the following 

conclusions on the concept and nature <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>: 

Teaching pre-supposes an environment where learning can take place. 

Teaching and learning are inter-related processes where <strong>teaching</strong> involves 

various activities, and learning is the benefit derived from them. Teaching is the 

process <strong>of</strong> which learning is the result; the cause which leads to the effect. In 

this way <strong>teaching</strong> is different from mere telling or showing how. Teachinglearning 

situations may be classified according to where they fall on a continuum 

which ranges from thoughtless to thoughtful modes <strong>of</strong> operation. Learnin!; can 

occur at three levels, viz, memory level; understanding level; and reflection 

level. 

Teaching IS an intriguing, important and complex process. 'Because it is 

intriguing, it attracts scientific attention'. 'Because it is important, it merits careful 

research'. 'Because it is complex, research on <strong>teaching</strong> needs many sided 

preparation'. (Gage 1968). 

Need for Right Methods <strong>of</strong> Teaching Science 

Anybody can claim to teach. But everyone who claims so cannot be a good 

teacher. A teacher is called 'good' for his 'good method' <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> and a 

teacher is called 'bad' for his 'bad method' <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. It is rather difficult to 

48

draw a line <strong>of</strong> demarcation between good and bad methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. In fact, 

the best method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> is the one which helps the students to learn 'how to 

learn' and which enables the teacher to achieve the objectives <strong>of</strong> his <strong>teaching</strong> in 

a given time. Thus, 'method' plays a vital role in making both the teacher and his 

<strong>teaching</strong> very effective. This word, 'method' has a Latin origin, which means 

'mode' or 'way'. It means the way <strong>of</strong> delivery <strong>of</strong> knowledge and transmission <strong>of</strong> 

scientific skills by a teacher to his pupils and their comprehension and 

application by the pupils in the process <strong>of</strong> <strong>study</strong>ing and learning science. 

The concept and nature <strong>of</strong> the right method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science is directly related 

to the educative process which essentially consists <strong>of</strong> the 'child' who learns and 

the 'subject matter' that is learned. The process works well through the teacher 

with his/her right method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> whose task is to make the subject matter, a 

part and parcel <strong>of</strong> the child's own experience. A right method would imply an 

orderly way <strong>of</strong> doing something. It is not a casual or chance mode <strong>of</strong> activity. It 

grows out <strong>of</strong> experience, by trial and error, by process <strong>of</strong> repetition <strong>of</strong> activities, 

selection <strong>of</strong> activities and the synthesis <strong>of</strong> desirable ones. A good method is a 

living process <strong>of</strong> thought in pupil's mind by which he/she advances towards a 

purpose along the best and most effective way. The right method does not work 

in isolation <strong>of</strong> the subject matter. It involves the kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> that calls out 

the best <strong>of</strong> child's inner resources and makes finest and best <strong>of</strong> the aggregate 

learning results - knowledge, attitude, habits and skills. The right method does 

not involve the technique <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> instruction alone, much more than 

that, it requires upon the part <strong>of</strong> the teacher, the knowledge <strong>of</strong> child, his/her 

interest, activities, a mastery <strong>of</strong> the subject matter dealt with and an 

understanding <strong>of</strong> the process through which the child incorporates the new 

experiences into his/her own. A 'good' method should have the potential to 

stimulate students for self-learning, for being pro-active, for taking initiatives 

individually and in groups to discover new knowledge, master skills <strong>of</strong> 

observation, documentation, analysis and understanding. It shall motivate them 

to learn and develop in them the love <strong>of</strong> learning. A good method links up the 

teacher and his/her pupils into an organic relationship with constant mutual 

interaction; it impinges not only on the minds <strong>of</strong> the students but on their entire 

personality, their standards <strong>of</strong> work and adjustment, their intellectual and 

emotional equipment, their attitudes and values. (Secondary Education 

Commission 1953). 

49

Good methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> serve the following objectives (Secondary Education 

Commission 1953). 

1. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> aims not only at imparting the knowledge in an 

effective manner, but also at inculcating desirable values, attitudes, habits 

and skills. 

2. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> shall in particular, endeavour to crate in students 

a genuine attachment to work and a desire to do it as efficiently, honestly 

and thoroughly as possible 

3. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> shall shift the emphasis from verbalism and 

memorization to learning towards meaningful learning through purposeful, 

concrete and realistic situations. 

4. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> provides opportunities for students to learn 

actively and to apply practically the knowledge that they have acquired in the 

class room. 

5. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> lays special stress on clear thinking and clear 

expression both in speech and writing on the part <strong>of</strong> both teacher and pupils. 

6. A good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> aims less at imparting the maximum quantum <strong>of</strong> 

knowledge possible and more on training students in the techniques <strong>of</strong> <strong>study</strong> 

and methods <strong>of</strong> acquiring knowledge through personal effort and initiative. 

7. Finally, a good method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> expands the range <strong>of</strong> student's interest to 

enable him to explore his field <strong>of</strong> creativity and thus discover for himself his 

best field <strong>of</strong> specialization. 

There are varied methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. Knowledge and skills are considered as 

the basis <strong>of</strong> classification <strong>of</strong> methods resting on word (narration), object (image) 

and action (motion); thus the three corresponding categories <strong>of</strong> methods are 

oral, observational and practical (Zurve 1967). Every method has something to 

<strong>of</strong>fer and has its own merits and demerits. A given method, which may prove to 

be <strong>of</strong> great value to one teacher may lose much <strong>of</strong> its value when it is used by 

another teacher (Vaidya 1971). Each method is active, valuable in varied 

degree as it makes pupils think and arouse interest in the subject. Methods 

develop in students the abilities <strong>of</strong> comprehension, comparison, generalization 

and deduction. Methods, techniques and approaches to <strong>teaching</strong>, either in 

isolation or in combination, provide ample opportunities to the pupils for realizing 

the process objectives <strong>of</strong> science <strong>teaching</strong>, viz, questioning, hypothesising, 

defining tile problem, researching, planning the experimental design, 

50

experimenting under controlled conditions, observing, discovering, recording, 

organizing, verifying, drawing inference, understanding relationships, interpreting 

data, generalizing, applying knowledge, discussing and commenting in precise 

terms and making operational definitions. 

All methods appear to work equally well when young children are motivated and 

exhibit too much eagerness to learn science. 

The <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> a given 

method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> depends mainly on four aspects, viz., content, nature <strong>of</strong> the 

learner, facilities for <strong>teaching</strong>-learning process and nature <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> 

learning. General experience, however, tells that pupils differ from each other; 

so they learn differently through different methods. 

Individual experience is 

superior to the demonstration method if one considers long-term consequences 

<strong>of</strong> the lesson. Selected <strong>teaching</strong> methods such as problem solving, open-ended 

laboratory experiments, research projects and stimulating discussions can 

promote student creativity in science class. Some methods are more effective 

for developing skills than knowledge. Laboratory method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> promotes 

the development <strong>of</strong> observation and motor skills. 

Those methods and approaches are the best which involve students maximally 

in the lesson; which demand reflection on the part <strong>of</strong> the student; and lastly 

methods which are based upon concrete experiences, examples and individual 

and group discussions. It is believed that developmental approach <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

science dominates over the authoritarian approach because the former tends to 

develop in pupils, the ability to inquire and solve problems, think scientifically and 

acquire scientific attitude (Washton 1967). 

The method selected for a given course is determined by the conditions under 

which the course is taught and by the objectives <strong>of</strong> the course. 

A science 

teacher should use several methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to realise various objectives: 

Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor. The artistry <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science depends 

on how skillfully the teacher blends several <strong>of</strong> the methods into a unified 

<strong>teaching</strong> lesson. 

The nature <strong>of</strong> the lesson, the personality and goals <strong>of</strong> the 

teacher classroom climate and the interests and the needs <strong>of</strong> the students 

, ' 

determine the uilimate selection and utilization <strong>of</strong> appropriate <strong>teaching</strong> method <strong>of</strong> 

science. 

51

The Search for Better Methods <strong>of</strong> Teaching Science - 

Perspective 

A Historical 

The history <strong>of</strong> education shows a long search for a general method which can 

solve the problems <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, a single master-key which unlocks all doors. 

The scientific approach to <strong>teaching</strong> methods began with the Natural method <strong>of</strong> 

Comenius, the Psychological synthesis <strong>of</strong> Pestalozzi, the Intellectual analysis <strong>of</strong> 

Herbart, joyful learning devised by Froebel, play-way proposed by Rousseau, the 

Auto-didactic method <strong>of</strong> Montessori, the Project method <strong>of</strong> Kilpatrick and 

Stevenson, and the Laboratory plan <strong>of</strong> Dalton which are some examples <strong>of</strong> 

efforts to discover a systematic method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> which should be <strong>of</strong> universal 

application. Comenius (1592-1670) stressed five major elements for a scientific 

<strong>teaching</strong> method: (a) it is the world <strong>of</strong> sense and experience and not the work <strong>of</strong> 

a teacher or a book that should be used as a starting point; (b) 'nature' as a 

phenomenon <strong>of</strong> biological and physical world can contribute significantly to the 

educational methods; (c) the content to be taught should be what the pupils are 

ready to take according to their mental age and strength; (d) learning should 

proceed from activity which should be interesting, pleasant and relevant; and (e) 

the teacher should encourage pupils to discover and learn by their own efforts. 

A similar approach was also propounded by J H Pestalozzi (1746 - 1827) who 

emphasized that <strong>teaching</strong> methods should be in accordance with the 

development pattern <strong>of</strong> children's growth. Froebel (1782 - 1852) followed the 

same line and stressed the self-activity <strong>of</strong> the child, taking into account the 

emotional as well as intellectual development <strong>of</strong> the child. J.F.Herbart (1776- 

1841) propounded five instructional activities associated with <strong>teaching</strong> methods: 

(a) preparation, (b) presentation, (c) association, (d) assimilation and (e) 

application. 

Methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> were also influenced by behaviouristic, humanistic, 

cognitive and psychological orientations. The behaviouristic approach to 

instruction believes in the influence <strong>of</strong> environment on the learning behaviour <strong>of</strong> 

the learner. Among the behaviourists, the most important contribution to 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> has been made by Skinner, who stresses on stimulusresponse-reinforcement 

chain as the basis <strong>of</strong> any kind <strong>of</strong> learning. This later 

gave birth to the famous Programmed Instruction. The humanistic approach to 

instruction puts stress on the uniqueness <strong>of</strong> individual learners and the methods 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> depend on the quality <strong>of</strong> the inter-personal relationship that exists 

52

etween the learners and the teacher. But, cognitive psychologists differ from 

these two stands. According to them, mental processes such as thinking, 

reasoning and problem solving form the basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> methods. 

With the introduction <strong>of</strong> the mass media and other technological gadgets into the 

<strong>teaching</strong>-learning processes, methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> have been sanctified by 

educational technology. In this context, several major developments in 

pedagogy were identified, VIZ., mass communication instruction, individualized 

instruction and group learning. Mass communication instruction owes itself to 

the introduction <strong>of</strong> electronics hardware into the <strong>teaching</strong>-learning process. The 

second development is individualized instruction attributed to B.F.Skinner 

through Programmed Learning. Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAl), the most 

recent form <strong>of</strong> individualized instruction, is an extension <strong>of</strong> programmed 

instruction and the personalized system <strong>of</strong> instruction. The third development in 

the area <strong>of</strong> instruction is group-learning methods. These methods became 

popular due to the limited success <strong>of</strong> individualized instruction to develop interpersonal 

skills. Group-learning methods are oriented to develop humanistic 

skills. 

A good deal <strong>of</strong> attention <strong>of</strong> many active educators was directed towards the 

techniques <strong>of</strong> revitalizing class room <strong>teaching</strong> in schools. Considerable efforts 

were made over the decades through seminars, workshops, researches and 

refresher courses to search and try out new and effective methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

(Kothari Commission, 1964-66). But have the teachers been blessed with a 

method <strong>of</strong> 'universal application'? Perhaps not. Educational research has 

been <strong>of</strong>fering new methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to meet the problems <strong>of</strong> children <strong>of</strong> new 

generations who have been unfolding themselves with their individual 

differences. There can be no end for the quest to meet the <strong>teaching</strong> problems 

and to search for new methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

The search for better method is closely related to the need for a continuing 

improvement in <strong>teaching</strong> methods and to meet the growing demands <strong>of</strong> 

continually deepening and diversifying school curricula. This need for improved 

methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> has rightly been pointed out in the report <strong>of</strong> Secondary 

Education Commission (1953): "even the best curriculum and the most perfect 

syllabus remain dead unless quickened into life by the right methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

and the right kind <strong>of</strong> teachers. Sometimes, even an unsatisfactory and 

S3

unimaginative syllabus can be made more interesting and significant by a good 

teacher who does not focus his mind more on the subject matter to be taught or 

the information to be imparted, but on his students - their interest, aptitude and 

responses, employing good methods <strong>of</strong> instruction". Keeping in view, this most 

important fact, both the Secondary Education Commission and Education 

Commission. 1966 have decided in favour <strong>of</strong> dynamic methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. No 

single method can be regarded as the panacea for <strong>teaching</strong> ills and any attempt 

to reduce every kind <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to a single formula measure is sure to be 

defeated at the very threshold. All new methods, in their own different ways, 

emphasize the self-activity <strong>of</strong> the child and the need for basing education on the 

learner's experience. Hence, there is a need for designing, trying, evaluating 

and diffusing <strong>of</strong> new and progressive methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

A Shift from Methods <strong>of</strong> Teaching to Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching - Emergence <strong>of</strong> 

Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

Although methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> have passed through several developments in the 

history <strong>of</strong> pedagogy, teachers all over the world including India, are seen usually 

following fixed ways <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> in the classroom. Attempts to integrate skills by 

Indian researchers into the <strong>teaching</strong>-learning process, to form effective patterns 

for realizing specific instructional objectives, have more or less led to predetermined 

approaches Moreover, following a few fixed ways <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> failed 

to achieve a variety <strong>of</strong> instructional objectives for which <strong>teaching</strong> has been 

designed and performed Pupils have multi-dimensional personalities having 

different learning styles. The common implication <strong>of</strong> both these facts is that 

teachers should use different strategies <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> to match the objectives <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong>, the different learning styles and personalities <strong>of</strong> students. (Passi et al. 

1991 ) 

In the modern era, development <strong>of</strong> a well-balanced personality depends on how 

a child is exposed to a wide variety <strong>of</strong> experiences. To achieve the objectives <strong>of</strong> 

education, viz., to help the pupils grow socially, intellectually and emotionally, 

teachers need a variety <strong>of</strong> approaches. In this regard Bruce Joyce and Marsha 

Weil have searched a variety <strong>of</strong> strategies practised by different working 

. teachers in school contexts all over the world and have discovered a number <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> which together have been observed to be very effective in 

attaining all the objectives <strong>of</strong> education A leaching model is a pattern or plan 

54

whicl/ can be used to shape c!lTriculum or course, to design instructional 

materials and to guide a teael/er's actions. Thus, a model <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> can be 

used to design face - to - face <strong>teaching</strong> in classroom, to shape instructional 

materials including books, films, tapes, computer - mediated programmes and 

curricula and long term courses <strong>of</strong> studies. (Joyce et al 1982). Apart from the 

above uses, it creates the necessary environment which facilitates the <strong>teaching</strong>learning 

process. The core <strong>of</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> is the arrangement <strong>of</strong> 

environment within which the student can interact (Dewey 1933). Thus, a model 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> includes guidelines for designing educational activities and 

environments. It specifies ways <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> and learning that are intended to 

achieve certain kinds <strong>of</strong> goals (Joyce and Weil 1985). It is a step-by-step 

procedure that leads to specific learning outcomes. Models are prescriptive 

<strong>teaching</strong> strategies, designed to accomplish particular instructional goals. Thus, 

a model <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> is designed to achieve a particular set <strong>of</strong> objectives. It is 

not a substitute to any <strong>teaching</strong> skill. Rather, it creates the conducive <strong>teaching</strong>learning 

environment in which teachers teach more effectively by making the act 

<strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> more systematic and efficient. 

There are many powerful <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> designed to bring about particular 

kinds <strong>of</strong> learning and help students become more effective learners. As a 

teacher or teacher educator, one needs to be able to identify various <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong> and to select the ones that he/she can master in order to develop and 

increase his/her own <strong>effectiveness</strong>, To become competent to use these 

<strong>teaching</strong> strategies comfortably and effectively requires much further <strong>study</strong> and 

practice. 

Models constitute a basic repertoire for schooling, i.e., they help in 

accomplishing most <strong>of</strong> the common goals <strong>of</strong> schools. They also represent a 

broad range <strong>of</strong> approaches to education. They have major philosophical and 

psychological orientations towards <strong>teaching</strong> and learning. Models have 

coherent theoretical bases, i.e., they provide rationale that explain why they are 

expected to achieve the goals for which they are designed. They have a long 

history <strong>of</strong> practice behind them, they have been refined through experience so 

that they can be used comfortably and efficiently in class room and other 

'educational settings. Furthermore, they are adaptable, they can be adjusted to 

learning styles <strong>of</strong> students and to the requirements <strong>of</strong> subject matter. Finally 

there is evidence that they work and all <strong>of</strong> them are backed by some amount <strong>of</strong> 

55

formal research that tests their theories and their abilities to gain effects. Some 

<strong>models</strong> have broad applications while others are designed for very specific 

purposes. They range from simple, direct procedures that get immediate results 

to complex strategies that students can acquire only after patient and skillful 

instruction (Lima and Sugandi 1986). 

The various <strong>models</strong> collected and collated by Bruce Joyce and Marsha Weil get 

classified into four families on the basis <strong>of</strong> the objectives for which they are 

designed for their major functions, viz., (a) Information processing <strong>models</strong>, which 

aim at fostering the information processing ability in learners, i.e., these <strong>models</strong> 

help the learners to seek and master information, organize it and test 

hypotheses; (examples; Inductive Thinking Model, Inquiry Training Model, 

Advance Organizer Model, etc.), .(b) Personal <strong>models</strong>, which lay more stress on 

personal development <strong>of</strong> an individual and the development <strong>of</strong> self-hood; they 

emphasize the process by which individuals can establish a productive 

relationship with their environment, construct and organize their unique reality; 

(examples; Non-Directive Teaching, Awareness Training, Synectics, etc.), (c) 

Social interaction <strong>models</strong>, which emphasize the development <strong>of</strong> capabilities for 

inter-personal relationships and social skills among students; (examples; Group 

Investigation, Social Inquiry, Jurisprudential, etc.) and (d) Behaviour 

modification <strong>models</strong>, which emphasize desirable modification in the behaviour <strong>of</strong> 

learners through sequencing meaningful learning tasks and manipulating stimuli, 

response and reinforcement (examples; Contingency Management, Self-control, 

Stress reduction, etc ). 

Need for the Evaluation <strong>of</strong> Methods and Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

There are certain state-<strong>of</strong>-the-art methods which a teacher can try easily for 

achieving varied objectives <strong>of</strong> instruction, viz., Lecture method; Demonstration 

method; Problem solving method; Project method; Historical method; 

Programmed Instruction; Computer Assisted Instruction; Team <strong>teaching</strong>, etc. 

Most <strong>of</strong> them are known to everybody, but it is difficult to teach successfully 

simply by knowing the steps or procedures <strong>of</strong> these methods. The whole 

spectrum <strong>of</strong> methodology <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> has to be undergone experimentally and 

mastered over the years by individual teachers, because the basic function <strong>of</strong> 

. <strong>teaching</strong> methods is not at all to transmit knowledge passively, but to 'excite a 

determination in the child to acquire it for himself' according to his needs. When 

seen cumulatively, day-to-day class room <strong>teaching</strong> must result in the 

56

development <strong>of</strong> sound scientific skills, attitudes, interests and appreciations 

(Vaidya and Rajput 1977). Conditions under which methods/<strong>models</strong> are 

efficient and effective need to be established. Hence, there is a need for 

evaluating the feasibility, compatibility, applicability and <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> different 

strategies, methods and <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. 

Evaluation is a systematic process <strong>of</strong> testing the extent to which the predetermined 

objectives are achieved. In the context <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>, evaluation is 

done to test the attainment <strong>of</strong> pre-set instructional objectives by pupils and to 

test the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> the teacher and method <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> employed by 

him/her. Evaluation is conducive to good instruction when it reveals major types 

<strong>of</strong> inadequate teacher behaviour, improper and illogical sequence <strong>of</strong> learning 

exppriences involved in the method and the contributory causes. Evaluation 

always leads to the improvement <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> or method <strong>of</strong> instruction. Learning 

situations are selected and presented to children to achieve certain objectives. 

After the completion <strong>of</strong> the <strong>teaching</strong> task with a given method or combination <strong>of</strong> 

methods if it is found effective, it is accepted and incorporated. Otherwise, 

attempts are made to find the causal factors and required modification is done. 

A method may be dropped in certain cases when it does not fulfill an objective 

and in its place, other methods may be considered while <strong>teaching</strong> a given topic 

<strong>of</strong> a given subject to a given set <strong>of</strong> pupils within a given time. This continuous 

and critical appraisal <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> methods or <strong>models</strong> ensures improvement <strong>of</strong> 

instruction. Hence, this critical evaluative <strong>study</strong> has been taken up to <strong>study</strong> the 

<strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> Information Processing Models on the achievement <strong>of</strong> 

secondary school children in Environmental Studies. 

Socio-Economic Factors 

It is possible to visualize socio-economic status as an important variable, which 

can influence the achievement <strong>of</strong> a student in environmental studies. An 

educational programme committed to all round development <strong>of</strong> children must 

take into account the personal background <strong>of</strong> children. Children coming to the 

school are from diverse cultural, social and economic backgrounds. Each child 

comes to the school with varying beliefs, customs, experiences and knowledge. 

Lifestyles differ from children to children Thus, the organizational structure <strong>of</strong> 

society, community, family and school are essential ingredients <strong>of</strong> the 

developmental process <strong>of</strong> a child. The urban and rural background, sex, 

57

educational attainments <strong>of</strong> parents, occupation <strong>of</strong> parents, economic status <strong>of</strong> 

parents, type <strong>of</strong> management <strong>of</strong> schools are some <strong>of</strong> the factors which merit 

consideration. 

Children coming from families with high social and economic status will have 

wide ranging facilities, motivation, interaction and guidance which are different 

from those children coming from low social and economic conditions <strong>of</strong> families. 

Their experiences with people, animate and inanimate objects, organizational 

structures, power relationships and actions within the home and outside are 

different. They will have better exposure to mass media and communication 

facilities. All these have a significant impact on the cognitive and affective 

development <strong>of</strong> children. The family has a very important role in the 

development <strong>of</strong> the mental outlook and desirable attitudes <strong>of</strong> the younger ones. 

The child's personal views and convictions are first formed within the home. 

The manner by which family members relate with one another lays the 

foundations <strong>of</strong> self-concept. A child who feels loved, wanted and guided by the 

significant persons in his/her life, will have a better perception <strong>of</strong> himself/herself, 

others and the world, than a child who is neglected. Hence, the socio-economic 

factors are <strong>of</strong> crucial importance in fashioning the personalities <strong>of</strong> children. A 

higher Socio Economic Status (SES) provides the high school students access 

to a number <strong>of</strong> facilities, resources and capabilities, some <strong>of</strong> which are discussed 

below. 

Access to Mass Media: Much <strong>of</strong> the influence <strong>of</strong> SES is through the wider 

range <strong>of</strong> mass media available to students. A high SES child has access to 

television, cine films, documentaries, magazines and periodicals. 

In terms <strong>of</strong> 

quality and quantity, the environmental knowledge acquired through mass media 

by high SES children far exceeds that acquired by the children <strong>of</strong> lower SES 

classes through a drab monotonous curriculum. Cine films have a very powerful 

influence on attitudes and on issues related to environmental conservation, and 

, 

short audiovisual documentaries have been the most vociferous protagonists <strong>of</strong> 

conservation. 

Such audio visuals are also used by the forest department to 

educate the poorer rural folk living near wildlife sanctuaries and forests about the 

value <strong>of</strong> wildlife conservation. 

Interest Range: Since a high SES provides greater access to mass media as 

well as superior learning skills in the areas <strong>of</strong> reading, writing and speaking, the 

58

esult is superior language ability. With this, the range <strong>of</strong> interests also 

increases. Since higher SES children achieve better scores in academic 

subjects, the overall stress felt by the high school adolescent with high SES 

would be far less than the stress felt by the high school student belonging to a 

low SES class. The wider range <strong>of</strong> interests naturally lead the high SES student 

to question, explore and investigate a wider world which may not be directly 

related to his immediate environment. For the high SES student, the 

environmental crisis has wider and deeper implications, than for low SES 

students. The low SES student who is burdened by the pressure <strong>of</strong> academics 

and a greater need to achieve is unlikely to relate to the environmental crisis in a 

meaningful way. 

Range <strong>of</strong> Experience: A wider range <strong>of</strong> interest is naturally the result <strong>of</strong> a 

wider range <strong>of</strong> experience It is the high SES child who frequents national 

parks, sanctuaries, zoos, museums, planetaria, safari parks, nature centres, 

lectures, talks, seminars, airports and space centres. It is the high SES child 

who joins conservation organizations and participates in environmental 

movements organized by the World Wide Fund (WNF), Interact clubs, Rotaract 

Clubs, Rotary clubs, Lions clubs or any other organizations. High SES 

students are more likely to meet conservationists, environmentalists and 

scientists <strong>of</strong> repute. The life experience <strong>of</strong> high SES students is naturally richer, 

and more varied than those <strong>of</strong> low SES students. 

Choice <strong>of</strong> Priorities: A low SES student's list <strong>of</strong> priorities and commitments is 

restricted to his immediate environment, to his own needs and the needs <strong>of</strong> his 

family. 

Environmental commitments may not be found in their list. 

Gender Issues 

Gender bias is a curse <strong>of</strong> any society and the approach and attitude towards the 

girl child is always different from that <strong>of</strong> a boy child. The behaviour expected <strong>of</strong> 

a girl differs from that <strong>of</strong> a boy. The activities and experience <strong>of</strong> a girl is tailored 

to suit the needs <strong>of</strong> the home while that <strong>of</strong> the boy is developed to meet the 

needs <strong>of</strong> the outside world. 

Whyte (1986) observes Bias in text books, and the lack <strong>of</strong> motivating social 

context are two criticisms <strong>of</strong> the way the content <strong>of</strong> science ignores or bypasses 

59

the girl child's interests. Women certainly have a nurturing attitude, which is 

partly encouraged by society. Girls express love for animals, birds and plants 

and this is certainly reinforced by society. On the other hand, their active 

participation in adventurous outdoor activities is discouraged. The tendency is 

to develop attitudes, but inhibit interest and participation. But boys' interest in 

collecting birds' eggs, insects, trekking, maintaining an aquarium at home and 

exploration are actively encouraged. The male child's natural curiosity is never 

suppressed, as it is done for girl child. Perhaps the female child's greater 

rationality leads her to acquire higher levels <strong>of</strong> knowledge which develops more 

favourable attitudes. The male child's greater curiosity might enable him to 

acquire high levels <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, awareness and more 

favourable attitudes. 

Kahle and Lakers (1983) in US, Smail (1985) in England and Parker and 

Rennie (1986) in Australia found that there is a clear documentation that fewer 

girls than boys handle science equipment, perform science experiments, or 

participate in science related and environment related activities. So, it is 

important that teachers give girls the same amount as well as quality <strong>of</strong> attention 

and experiences that they give to boys. Teachers should impress upon girls that 

their expectations from girls is similar to those from boys. Kelly (1985) suggests 

that "schools could playa transformative, rather than a reproductive role, in the 

formation <strong>of</strong> gender identities". EE therefore, can circumvent the traditional 

roles and opportunities which are culturally assigned to boys and girls. 

Thus, schools and teachers must <strong>study</strong> attentively the sentiments, views and 

everyday behaviour <strong>of</strong> their pupils, and provide a well thought-out system <strong>of</strong> 

curricular and co-curricular activities involving the children's individual and 

collective efforts. The teacher must be genuinely interested in the fate <strong>of</strong> every 

pupil, in the pupil's harmonious all-round development. 

Theoretical Understandings Underlying the Study 

After an examination <strong>of</strong> the theoretical undercurrents and an overview with 

respect to the methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> Environmental Studies, the present <strong>study</strong> has 

arrived at a broad theoretical framework, the contents <strong>of</strong> which have been 

presented here. 

60

Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has been supporting life because 

<strong>of</strong> its life supporting environment. But, looking at the way environment is getting 

degraded, it has become the need <strong>of</strong> the hour to save the earth's capacity to 

sustain and perpetuate life with ecological balance forever through appropriate 

and scientifically planned approaches and programmes. Environment is <strong>of</strong> global 

concern today. The natural tendency <strong>of</strong> earth's environment for self - 

stabilization is the ecological balance that has been severely affected due to 

many human created problems such as population explosion, poverty, unending 

exploitation <strong>of</strong> natural resources, pollution, deforestation, loss <strong>of</strong> bio-diversity etc. 

The ecological balance on earth depends on 'the carrying capacity' <strong>of</strong> the earth 

which has also been affected by same variables. The human exploitation <strong>of</strong> 

natural resources is at a greater rate than it can be regenerated. The failure to 

regenerate the inputs and plough them back into the natural ecosystem is 

responsible for ecological imbalance and the concomitant failure in the 

establishment <strong>of</strong> geo-biological balance <strong>of</strong> the ecosystem. This kind <strong>of</strong> 

undesirable system may have serious consequences for future generations. 

Hence, there is an urgent need to restore the ecological equilibrium that is 

necessary for sustainability. 

Several strategies have been emphasized for restoring the ecological balance, 

viz., legislative strategies including international summits and legal provisions for 

environmental protection; administrative and managerial strategies; and 

educational strategies. The role <strong>of</strong> the legal system with more than 200 central 

and state legislations, various national and international organizations and their 

programmes in protecting the environment have been noted. The vital role and 

<strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> formal and non-formal types <strong>of</strong> education need attention. 

Development <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes and 

awareness in individuals is very much essential as they have to live successfully 

on this planet earth without disturbing the sensitive interactions that exist 

between and among biotic and abiotic components <strong>of</strong> the environment which 

would lead towards sustainable development and conservation <strong>of</strong> natural 

resources. Children at primary and secondary levels <strong>of</strong> education are at an age 

when important and desirable attitudes, and awareness can be formed, 

encouraged and nurtured very easily and effectively along with environmental 

knowledge, understandings and skills. Hence, promotion <strong>of</strong> environmental 

61

knowledge, attitudes and awareness among high school students is worthy <strong>of</strong> 

serious and systematic attention. 

Several views have been expressed about providing formal environmental 

education at school. Two approaches are proposed and are being used, viz., 

infusing environmental concepts into all existing disciplines and another is 

developing a special EE curriculum; three essential components are considered 

in an integration <strong>of</strong> the spectrum <strong>of</strong> formal environmental education, viz., 

awareness <strong>of</strong> real life situation, conservation and sustainable development. 

A few approaches for <strong>teaching</strong> Environmental Studies may prove to be very 

effective at primary and secondary levels <strong>of</strong> education. They may be: 

providing the children with opportunities to observe the local environmental 

contexts, problems, changes, etc; 

conducting discussions with children about various environmental problems 

<strong>of</strong> local concerns; 

organizing out <strong>of</strong> classroom activities for first hand/real/direct purposeful 

experiences; 

undertaking and guiding simple outdoor projects; 

helping the children in adopting the process approach to environmental 

problems; and 

providing children with contextual questions, the answers for which they can 

find by discussing with their parents, elders, friends and by field 

observations. 

Various methods, approaches and instructional strategies <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

environmental studies such as project method, problem solving approach, 

inquiry approach, discussion method, survey method, action research, brain 

storming, field trips, excursions, etc., have evolved over the years. It is 

observed that all these methods and approaches have some values for <strong>teaching</strong> 

environmental studies and promotion <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, skill, attitude 

and awareness, depending on the content <strong>of</strong> Environmental Studies. However, 

emphasis is given to the need based and activity oriented strategies in EE 

irrespective <strong>of</strong> methods. Some <strong>of</strong> the well-known <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> incorporate 

need based and activity oriented strategies. In the present <strong>study</strong>, the 

<strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> using <strong>models</strong> in <strong>teaching</strong> Environmental Studies is being tested 

62

along with <strong>study</strong>ing their feasibility In <strong>teaching</strong> environment topics at the 

secondary level. 

Some <strong>of</strong> the other variables that have entered into the discussion <strong>of</strong> the 

dynamics <strong>of</strong> development <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, awareness and attitude 

among children are socio-economic factors, school and home facilities and sex 

<strong>of</strong> children. 

This <strong>study</strong> takes a holistic view <strong>of</strong> all the foregoing undercurrents and overviews 

in EE. It has tried to accommodate the variables entering the dynamics <strong>of</strong> 

promotion <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, skill, attitude and awareness through a 

well organized system <strong>of</strong> EE. The variables have been accorded varying 

degrees <strong>of</strong> importance. Though the following placement <strong>of</strong> variables should not 

be strictly taken as rankings in order <strong>of</strong> importance and degree <strong>of</strong> influence, still 

they suggest the direction <strong>of</strong> thinking in the present research regarding the 

relative importance <strong>of</strong> various variables. 

Sequential strategies <strong>of</strong> classroom transactional processes incorporated in the 

<strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> have been treated as the chief determinants <strong>of</strong> achievements 

<strong>of</strong> students in Environmental Studies. It is followed by the availability <strong>of</strong> library 

and laboratory facilities for EE, co-curricular activities related to EE and all 

physical and human resources that are available both at school and home. 

The relationship between these determinant variables in the promotion <strong>of</strong> 

achievement <strong>of</strong> students in environmental studies is hypothesised to be 

moderated by a number <strong>of</strong> variables which are apparently extraneous to the 

<strong>teaching</strong>-learning <strong>of</strong> Environmental studies in the school. In random order <strong>of</strong> 

importance they are Socio Economic Status (SES) <strong>of</strong> the child therein including 

education, occupation and income <strong>of</strong> the father, sex <strong>of</strong> the student, school and 

home facilities for learning science. 

The <strong>study</strong> is set and carried out with the foregoing theoretical framework. The 

insights derived from the overview on <strong>teaching</strong> and learning Environmental 

Studies in the chapter on "Theoretical understandings" has served as guidelines 

to the researcher in pursuing the present <strong>study</strong>. 

63

CHAPTER III 

REVIEW OF RESEARCH 

LITERATURE

CHAPTER III 

REVIEW OF RESEARCH LITERATURE 

Introduction 

Research extends the frontiers <strong>of</strong> knowledge. A researcher has to become 

familiar with the existing frontiers before s/he launches on a mission to extend 

the same. Review <strong>of</strong> research literature enables the researcher to get 

familiarized with the existing frontiers. A critical. insightful and comprehensive 

review <strong>of</strong> research has many values for the researcher. They are: 

a. Understanding research trends over the years in order to identify the 

thrust areas; 

b. Identifying research issues and concerns that have surfaced time and 

again; 

c. Identifying gaps in research efforts; 

d. Avoiding duplication <strong>of</strong> efforts while appreciating the need for 

replication <strong>of</strong> studies/results; 

e. Identifying converging understandings / insights and diverging / 

controversial/unresolved issues and concerns; 

f. Understanding methodological issues in addressing the problems 

including techniques, tools and analysiS <strong>of</strong> data; and 

g. Guiding the researcher on formulation <strong>of</strong> hypotheses and focusing 

the objectives <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong>. 

To summarize, the review provides the researchers with an opportunity <strong>of</strong> 

gaining insight into the methods, measures, subjects and approaches employed 

by other research workers in the light <strong>of</strong> which significant improvement in his/her 

own research design can be realised. 

Keeping these understandings in view, the researcher has made an attempt to 

review the related research literature <strong>of</strong> the problem in a systematic way. 

The Studies reviewed are broadly grouped under two sections. They are: 

Section I : Review <strong>of</strong> studies in the area <strong>of</strong> Environmental Education (EE) 

Section II : Review <strong>of</strong> studies in the area <strong>of</strong> <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

64

The studies reviewed in the area <strong>of</strong> EE (Section I) get classified under the 

following five Categories: 

1. Studies examining the design, development and validation <strong>of</strong> 

curriculum and instructional materials in EE' , 

2. Studies examining the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> methods and approaches on 

the development <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, attitudes and 

behaviour; 

3. Studies examining the levels <strong>of</strong> environmental awareness, 

knowledge, attitude and behaviour <strong>of</strong> students and teachers' , 

4. Studies examining the Evaluation <strong>of</strong> curriculum and instructional 

materials in EE; and 

5. Studies in the area <strong>of</strong> EE that cannot be classified under the above 

four heads. 

The studies reviewed in the area <strong>of</strong> Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching have been classified 

under the following three categories 

1. Studies on Advance Organiser Model (AOM) only; 

2. Studies on Inquiry Training Model (ITM) only; and 

3. Studies examining the <strong>comparative</strong> efficacy <strong>of</strong> different <strong>models</strong> <strong>of</strong> 

<strong>teaching</strong> and <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> different individual <strong>models</strong> on 

dependent variables considered in this <strong>study</strong>. 

Section I: Review <strong>of</strong> Studies in the area <strong>of</strong> Environmental Education (EE) 

1. Studies Examining the Design, Development and Validation <strong>of</strong> 

Curriculum and/or Instructional Materials in Environmental 

Education. 

Barr et al. (1981) developed a need based curriculum plan in EE, based on the 

needs established by analyzing the results <strong>of</strong> testing 1,412 X grade students 

from 53 public schools in Lousiana for their knowledge and opinions about the 

environment. 

Data were collected from 53 public schools. ANOVA was used to determine if 

there were any significance in the difference among regions <strong>of</strong> the state, 

between sexes between urban and rural communities, and among size <strong>of</strong> 

, 

school. 

65

The results show that the students had limited knowledge most <strong>of</strong> the cognitive 

variables. The overall attitudes and opinions demonstrated that the students 

favoured ideas that did not affect them directly while showing disagreement with 

those issues that would affect them directly. 

The plan suggests a multidisciplinary approach to <strong>teaching</strong> EE. The plan 

developed from the results <strong>of</strong> this <strong>study</strong> shows how various general objectives 

can be integrated into many different traditional subjects. 

Pai, S.J. (1981) prepared and conducted a tryout <strong>of</strong> curriculum in environmental 

studies for college students to help them acquire an awareness <strong>of</strong> environment 

and the interrelationships, interactions and interdependence existing between 

biological and physical aspects <strong>of</strong> the total environment and its allied problems. 

The <strong>study</strong> also intended to help students acquire strong positive attitudes and 

sound ecological values towards the need for better environment and to help 

students develop skills necessary for solving environmental problems and taking 

preventive measures. 

The <strong>study</strong> employed pre-test - post-test, experimental Control Group design. 

The sample consisted <strong>of</strong> 72 students in the experimental and 80 students in the 

Control Group 

The data were collected using the environmental achievement test, unit test, 

environmental attitude inventory and environmental activities inventory. t-Test 

was used to analyse the data. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that, there was significant difference in the performance <strong>of</strong> the 

experimental group as compared with control group on knowledge scores and 

attitude scores. The experimental group gained more than the control group in 

environmental activities inventory, indicating <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> the curriculum. 

Stubbs et al. (1982) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to determine whether educators who 

introduced the current environmental issue <strong>of</strong> acid rain into ongoing curriculum 

were more receptive to change as measured by the Welch Curriculum Attitude 

Survey (WCAS). Other teacher characteristics were examined by the use <strong>of</strong> 

another developed questionnaire in which demographics, methods <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

specific topics and available acid rain materials were included. 

66

The data were collected from 593 Science (Biology and Chemistry) teachers 

through WCAS and questionnaire and were analyzed by statistical techniques 

such as Pearson product-moment correlation tests, t-test and regression 

analysis. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that, the difference, when comparing WCAS scores for 

teachers who introduced acid rain and those who did not, was found to be 

significant. 

This <strong>study</strong> also found that the sex <strong>of</strong> teachers, years <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> experience, 

being a life science teacher and use <strong>of</strong> the combined classroom techniques <strong>of</strong> 

discussion, student reports, library work and films were not important predictors. 

Branch, Clarence (1983) conducted a developmental <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> a local river and 

science related community problems in "Earth and Environmental Science 

Education" with junior high school students. 

This <strong>study</strong> describes how classroom, laboratory and field <strong>study</strong> activities were 

planned and developed for use in an instructional unit on the <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> a local 

stream and science related community problems. It also describes how these 

activities were used in a classroom tryout to determine their relative 

<strong>effectiveness</strong>, compared to conventional method <strong>of</strong> instruction. 

Results indicate that students who received science instruction in the form <strong>of</strong> a 

generalized approach to problem <strong>study</strong>, using teacher developed materials, 

became more positive in their views towards school science and exhibited a 

greater tendency to apply knowledge <strong>of</strong> science to societal issues without 

sacrifice in the acquisition <strong>of</strong> basic knowledge <strong>of</strong> science. 

Lynn, Volk Gertrude (1983) conducted a national survey <strong>of</strong> curricular needs as 

perceived by the pr<strong>of</strong>essional environmental educators in the United States. 

The EE Curriculum Needs Assessment Questionnaire (EECNAQ) was 

developed, validated and used to collect data from 99 environmental educators. 

The EECNAQ elicited perceptions about the desired status <strong>of</strong> EE curricula, the 

current status <strong>of</strong> EE curricula, the need for the curriculum development, the 

anticipated use <strong>of</strong> curricula by teachers and the need for in service teacher 

67

education related to goal oriented curricula. These five major questions were 

posed relative to 15 goals which reflected the Tbilsi objectives and which 

addressed environmental knowledge, issue awareness, issue investigation or 

evaluation skills and citizenship action. 

The findings were: Pr<strong>of</strong>essional environmental educators believe that there 

exists a considerable discrepancy between the desired status and the existing 

status <strong>of</strong> EE. Goal related teacher education appears to be the major need at all 

academic levels with the exception <strong>of</strong> the college levels where in service needs 

are exceeded slightly by the need for goal-oriented curricula; Pr<strong>of</strong>essional 

Environmental educators believe that goal-oriented curricula would be used by 

classroom teachers, although the extent <strong>of</strong> its use relative to discrete goals 

would be varied. 

Pace, Rose Marie (1987) conducted a case <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> urban EE in the 

Intermediate grade curriculum for investigating the content and course. This 

case <strong>study</strong> was an attempt to divulge the presence <strong>of</strong> EE in the intermediate 

grade curriculum, along with the factors influencing it both positively and 

negatively. 

The data were collected through observation, in-depth interviews and artifact 

reviews. The findings reveal that EE did exist both blatantly and subtly in the 

intermediate grade curriculum. In science, exploration <strong>of</strong> plants, animals, 

energy, climate, air and water quality were replete with environmental 

ramifications. In social studies, dependence <strong>of</strong> human cultural development on 

natural environment was given key importance. Environmental themes were 

employed to teach mathematics, languages, reading and art skill. Much music 

was developed around the imitation <strong>of</strong> sounds <strong>of</strong> nature. 

Woods, Amunda Linnette (1993) developed and validated an interdisciplinary EE 

curriculum based on the tropical rain forest. The curriculum also addressed the 

complexity <strong>of</strong> environmental problems by introducing the concept <strong>of</strong> "sustainable 

developments", students investigated a simulated problem where a balance <strong>of</strong> 

alternatives was needed and sustainable development was <strong>of</strong>fered as viable 

option for tropical forest conservation. 

68

The results indicate that the interdisciplinary curriculum unit based on a relevant 

and a popular topic (tropical rain forest) influenced students' attitude towards 

science. When compared to control group, the experimental group showed more 

positive attitude towards science. No gender or interaction effects were evident 

on students' attitude towards science. 

2. Studies Examining the Effectiveness <strong>of</strong> Methods and Approaches 

on the Development <strong>of</strong> Environmental Knowledge, Attitudes and 

Behaviour. 

Hopper, WAF. (1982) conducted an experimental <strong>study</strong> in the use <strong>of</strong> modular 

approach for <strong>teaching</strong> biology for Standard XI to design and develop instructional 

modules on selected units in Morphology. Physiology and Ecology for Higher 

Secondary classes and to find out the relative <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> 3 modular 

approaches involving self learning, peer group learning. and peer group learning 

with teacher intervention with reference to the cognitive objective. 

The <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> the three modular approaches was evaluated through an 

experiment conducted with 156 XI standard students <strong>study</strong>ing in three higher 

secondary schools <strong>of</strong> Madvar. Experimental variables were the three types <strong>of</strong> 

modular approaches and the three modules. Experiment was conducted 

adopting the "Rotation group design". 

Tools used in the <strong>study</strong> included Cognitive Entry Behavior Test; Modular reaction 

opinlonalre developed by investigator; Frymier's Junior index <strong>of</strong> motivation and 

Test <strong>of</strong> general intelligence by Cattell and Cattell. Data were analyzed by using 

Product-Moment Correlation, t-test, ANOVA and Chi-square. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that all the three structured modular approaches <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> 

were effective in terms <strong>of</strong> mean gain cognitive achievement in Morphology, 

Physiology and Ecology. 

However, the self learning approach was more 

effective than the other two modular approaches. 

Deopuria R.P. (1984) conducted a <strong>comparative</strong> <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> science 

through environmental approach and traditional approach in schools <strong>of</strong> Madhya 

Pradesh, also to compare the environmental awareness and attitudes <strong>of</strong> 

students when taught by the above mentioned methods. 

69

The <strong>study</strong> employed a two-group design having the environmental approach for 

the experimental group and the traditional approach for the Control Group. The 

<strong>study</strong> was conducted at three levels: primary, middle and higher secondary. 

The standardized tools used in the <strong>study</strong> were:: 

1. Achievement tests for classes V, VIII, IX, X standard students 

2. Attitude scale for X standard students and attitude scale for teachers 

towards environmental approach. Statistical techniques such as 

Mean, S.D and t-test were employed for testing the hypotheses. 

The <strong>study</strong> revealed that the students <strong>of</strong> experimental group <strong>of</strong> classes V, VIII, IX, 

X obtained higher achievement scores due to <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> science through 

environmental approach and showed greater cognitive gain in knowledge, 

understanding and application <strong>of</strong> science concepts related to EE at primary, 

middle and secondary school levels. 

Lisowski, Marylin (1987) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to find out the effect <strong>of</strong> field based 

learning experiences on students understanding <strong>of</strong> selected ecological concepts. 

The <strong>study</strong> was designed to examine the nature <strong>of</strong> ideas the students had about 

specific scientific concepts and to investigate the modes <strong>of</strong> instruction that would 

effectively help them to gain an accurate understanding <strong>of</strong> their world, 

specifically, students' conceptions <strong>of</strong> selected ecological concepts and the 

influence <strong>of</strong> field instruction strategy on students' understanding and retention <strong>of</strong> 

these concepts were investigated. 

The Student Ecology Assessment (SEA) instrument was developed 2nd used to 

obtain information on students' understanding <strong>of</strong> ecological concepts. 

The experimental groups <strong>of</strong> students evidenced significant gains in post-test total 

scores on the SEA instrument. Results on the retention test also indicate that 

the concepts addressed in the instrument were retained by the students. 

Ramsey, John Michael (1987) conducted a <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effects <strong>of</strong> Issue 

Investigation and Action Training (IIAT) on characteristics associated with 

environmental behaviour <strong>of</strong> 7th grade students. 

A pre-test, post-test method was used with four experimental groups receiving 

IIAT instruction and four Control Groups. 

70

It was found that the IIAT promoted responsible citizenship behaviour. This 

inference was supported by the findings that the specific knowledge, skills and 

belief critical to responsible citizenship behavior were also significantly 

enhanced. 

Euler, Aline (1989) conducted a <strong>comparative</strong> <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> a 

formal versus non-formal EE programme for male and female 6th grade 

students' environmental knowledge and attitudes. 

The sample consisted 267, VI grade male and female students <strong>of</strong> a large school 

<strong>of</strong> New York city. Three groups were formulated - two experimental groups 

were given treatment with formal and informal EE programmes, while the third 

(control) involved no treatment. Pre-test and post-test were administered on all 

the participating students. The tools used were multiple choice environmental 

knowledge kit (EKT) and two attitude scales; the Millward Giuter Outdoor 

Attitude Inventory (MGOAI) and the environmental attitude scales. 

A two-way-ANOVA was used which revealed that the experimental groups 

showed significant gains over the Control Group with respect to knowledge and 

environmental attitude. The experimental group with formal EE had 

significantly higher scores on the environmental knowledge and attitude over 

experimental group with informal EE. 

Hewitt, Patricia Anne (1993) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to know the effects <strong>of</strong> 

institutional games on the development <strong>of</strong> environmentally responsible behaviour 

among 4th, 5th and 6th grade students. 

The students were pre - and post-tested; "some ideas", developed by Robert 

Horvat and Allen Voelkar to measure environmentally responsible behaviour and 

"some students' misconceptions" developed by the researchers to measure 

environmental misconception were used. This <strong>study</strong> shows that playing games 

especially designed to teach certain topics might be successful in improving 

students' environmentally responsible behavior. It also shows that 

misconceptions were not readily dispelled simply by changing the methodology. 

Hicks, William Whitefield (1994) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to know the effects <strong>of</strong> 

environmental action oriented lessons on environmental knowledge, attitude and 

behaviour <strong>of</strong> high school students. This <strong>study</strong> reveals several educational 

71

implications. Action - oriented lessons should be taught for greater period <strong>of</strong> 

time. Education willing to test students' knowledge <strong>of</strong> subject, as diverse as EE, 

should design tests to be specific rather than general in nature. Students taking 

action towards solving environmental problem need these behaviours reinforced 

continuously. Educators can reinforce students' behavior by <strong>teaching</strong> 

environmental action skills, removing barriers such as negative peer pressure 

and inconsistent messages about the state <strong>of</strong> the environment. 

Singh, Ummed (1995) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to develop and try out a video 

instructional package for creating environmental awareness among secondary 

school children in Gujarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. 

developmental-cum-experimental in nature having two stages: 

1. Developing video instructional package 

The <strong>study</strong> was 

2. Try out the developed video instructional package 

The sample consisted <strong>of</strong> 180 students selected from three schools - one each 

from GUJarat, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh <strong>study</strong>ing in VII and VIII Standards 

with Hindi Medium. Purposive sampling technique was used. In order to 

collect data, one video instructional film <strong>of</strong> 45 minutes on "environmental crisis, a 

booklet <strong>of</strong> 20 pages on "environmental pollution - a danger for man's existence", 

four criticism tests, opinionnaire and a rating scale for experts were developed 

by the investigator 

The <strong>study</strong> resulted in the development <strong>of</strong> video instructional package on 

"environmental crisis" for creating environmental awareness among school-going 

children <strong>of</strong> Hindi medium schools; The developed video instruction31 package 

was found significantly effective for the students <strong>of</strong> standards VII and VIII. 

3. Studies Examining the Levels <strong>of</strong> Environmental Awareness, 

Knowledge, Attitudes and Behaviour <strong>of</strong> Students and Teachers. 

Rajput, J.S, A. B. Saxena and V. G Jadhav (1980) conducted a research <strong>study</strong> 

on environmental approach <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> at primary level to <strong>study</strong> the existing 

awareness towards the scientific and social environment in children and to 

identify the available community resources which can be gainfully utilized for 

<strong>teaching</strong>. 

In the first phase, the Madhya Pradesh State curriculum for classes III and IV 

were redesigned to inCUlcate scope for environmental approach <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong>. In 

72

the second phase, an environmental awareness test was developed. The third 

phase was the experimentation phase where the effect <strong>of</strong> implementing the 

redesigned curriculum was assessed on environmental awareness and 

achievement in science. 

In the second phase, the draft test was administered to 140 students from 

grades III and IV, subsequently to 200 children from the same classes but from 

two other schools, and third time to 275 children from other two schools. The 57 

items had a reliability <strong>of</strong> 0.80. For each item, the difficulty index ranged between 

25 percent and 70 percent and a discrimination index was more than 0.40. 

The experiment in third phase was conducted on 197 students from two schools 

in Bhopal. 102 students <strong>of</strong> IV class, 95 students from class III, 57 stUdents from 

class IV and 47 students from class III (2 sections each) were in the 

experimental group and the rest in control group. Mean, S.D and t-test were 

applied for data analysis and hypotheses verification. 

The findings <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> were that only one <strong>of</strong> the 4 groups was significantly 

different on environmental awareness at pre-test stage whereas at the post-test 

stage, the experimental groups were significantly better than the control groups. 

RaJ put and Gupta (1988a) conducted a <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> the environmental awareness 

among children <strong>of</strong> rural and urban schools and non-formal education centres to 

know the components <strong>of</strong> environment in which children from rural and urban 

areas were lacking and the areas in which the stUdents from both the streams 

were well aquatinted and to compare the environmental awareness <strong>of</strong> school 

going children and children <strong>study</strong>ing in non-formal education center. They also 

intended to suggest means for developing environment based curriculum for 

universalization <strong>of</strong> elementary education. 

The sample <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> consisted <strong>of</strong> 115 students among whom 20 were from 

rural schools 35 from urban schools and 60 from non-formal centres. 

, 

An environmental awareness questionnaire was administered on the sample. 

The performance <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> the three groups was compared. Differences 

were tested for significance by t-test. First and the last ten ranking questions for 

each <strong>of</strong> the groups were identified and compared. 

73

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that: 1. The difference between Formal Rural (FR) and Formal 

Urban (FU) on environmental awareness was significant and in favour <strong>of</strong> FR 2. 

Difference between Non Formal Rural (NFR) and FU was also significant on 

environmental awareness and in favour <strong>of</strong> NFR 3. The difference between NFR 

and FR on environmental awareness was not significant. 

Neri, Esmondo Molina (1990) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to investigate the attitude and 

<strong>teaching</strong> perception related to environmental concerns <strong>of</strong> 347 pre-service middle 

and high school teachers <strong>of</strong> 16 selected colleges and universities <strong>of</strong> East 

Tennessee. The specific objectives <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> were; to investigate similarities 

and differences <strong>of</strong> expressed attitudes towards selected environmental concern; 

to determine the degree <strong>of</strong> awareness (or unawareness) to environmental 

issues, problems or solutions; to examine perceived seriousness and readiness 

to teach issues and to examine perceived abilities to get involved with EE. 

An experimental survey questionnaire was constructed, evaluated by a panel <strong>of</strong> 

educators and practitioners and pilot tested at the university <strong>of</strong> Tennessee, 270 

teachers' responses were analysed. 

The data indicates that a majority <strong>of</strong> the pre-service teachers had strong 

opinions; showed concerns and support for environmental quality; attitude and 

familiarity with specific environmental concerns were varied among different 

groups. 

Chin-Chi-Chin (1994) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to investigate knowledge, attitude, 

verbal commitment and actual commitment <strong>of</strong> secondary school students and 

pre and in service teachers in relation to environmental issues in Taiwan. All 

groups were assessed for their awareness <strong>of</strong> current environmental problems in 

both Taiwan and the world. The effects <strong>of</strong> independent variables such as gender, 

grade level, geographic region, subject taught, age, <strong>teaching</strong> experience and 

educational background <strong>of</strong> teachers on their performance regarding 

environmental issues were examined. 

Students in rural junior high schools appear to have the lowest level <strong>of</strong> 

environmental knowledge, environmental attitudes, awareness <strong>of</strong> environmental 

problems and verbal commitment. Older students out - scored younger students 

as expected. Rural teachers possessed less environmental knowledge than 

74

urban teachers. Girls tend to be more aware <strong>of</strong> environmental problems than 

boys. Interestingly, pre services and in-service teachers were not aware <strong>of</strong> 

environmental problems than the senior high school students, but in-service 

teachers expressed more commitment to the environment than all others. 

Fong, Ting-Ya (1994) investigated environmental awareness <strong>of</strong> and action from 

elementary school students and their parents in Taiwan. 

Survey research was employed with descriptive and correlational techniques in 

the data analysis. A questionnaire containing demographic information, 

environmental awareness and environmental actions was also used. The sample 

consisted <strong>of</strong> 521, V grade students and their parents who all agreed strongly that 

everyone should protect this planet. They also strongly indicated that second 

hand smoking was as harmful as direct smoking <strong>of</strong> cigarettes. 

The <strong>study</strong> demonstrated that 237 students from Taipei city and their parents 

scored higher on many environmental awareness items and also that they took 

more action 

This <strong>study</strong> also suggests that parents' 'educational level' made significant 

difference on students' and parents' environmental awareness and 

environmental action. In general, the higher the educational level, the more 

concern they have. This finding is supported by the previous research and 

suggests that education is the means to solve many environmental problems. 

Pael. 0 G (1995) conducted an investigation into the environmental awareness 

and Its enhancement in the secondary school teachers. They also determined 

various aspects <strong>of</strong> EE interwoven in textbooks <strong>of</strong> social studies and science in 

secondary level and implemented an environmental awareness programme 

(EAP) to enhance the environmental awareness <strong>of</strong> secondary school teachers. 

2x2 factorial design was used for the <strong>study</strong>. Environmental awareness was 

measured by using environmental awareness questionnaire with 100 secondary 

school teachers. Analysis <strong>of</strong> variance (ANOVA) was employed in order to <strong>study</strong> 

the main effects viz. treatment, experience and its interaction effects on 

environmental awareness. 

75

The <strong>study</strong> concludes that EAP had its very high effect in raising environmental 

awareness <strong>of</strong> teacher. The experience <strong>of</strong> teacher did not play an important role 

on the environmental awareness. 

Patel, D. Nanubhai (1995) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to investigate the environmental 

awareness <strong>of</strong> secondary students in the context <strong>of</strong> 10 and Sex, and also to 

examine the effect <strong>of</strong> the environmental <strong>study</strong> multimedia package on 

environmental awareness <strong>of</strong> secondary school students. 

Experimental and control groups were equated on intelligence and 

environmental awareness by using Dr. Medhookar Patel's I nteliigence Test 

(NVIT). The control group was taught topics on environment by using traditional 

approach and the experimental group was taught by using multimedia package 

consisting <strong>of</strong> charts, video and reading materials. Coefficient <strong>of</strong> correlation was 

used to find out the relationship between IQ and Environmental awareness and 

t-test was employed for testing the significance <strong>of</strong> mean difference. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that students with high IQ had increased environmental 

awareness; the environmental awareness multimedia package was more 

effective than the traditional lecture method; Girls students were more sensitive 

about the environmental awareness than boys. 

4 Studies Examining the Evaluation <strong>of</strong> Curriculum and Instructional 

Materials in Environmental Education. 

Weiss, Iris, Roshfleld (1975) developed and evaluated a "self instructional EE 

programme" for elementary teachers. A self EE package was developed for 

elementary school teachers and reviewed by a panel <strong>of</strong> experts, field tested and 

revised. The final package contained eight modules dealing with basic concepts 

and principles <strong>of</strong> ecology. 

Each module consisted <strong>of</strong> a cassette recorded, a 

series <strong>of</strong> pictures and suggested activities for students. 

Thirty four volunteer 

teachers were aggregated by the school stratified by grade. taught and randomly 

aSSigned to experimental and control groups. Ali teachers were pre-tested with 

the same instrument and with the test <strong>of</strong> attitude towards the <strong>teaching</strong> <strong>of</strong> 

science. The environmental knowledge and opinion survey was used as a 

student post-test. 

Teachers who were taught with EE package were found to be more 

knowledgeable about the environment than the control group. The self - 

76

instructional package was effective in helping teachers to learn environmental 

concepts and principles at their own pace. 

S C E R T (Andhra Pradesh) (1980) conducted an evaluation <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> text books 

in environmental studies <strong>of</strong> classes III and V based on revised curriculum in 

Science. The objectives <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> were: to compare the old and new science 

curriculum <strong>of</strong> classes III and V with respect to the cognitive load on the students; 

to assess the revised curriculum with respect to instructional objectives attained; 

and to assess each unit <strong>of</strong> the revised curriculum with respect to its emphasis on 

modernity. 

The sample <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> consisted <strong>of</strong> 20 headmasters, 200 teachers and 100 

educated parents <strong>of</strong> students. They were administered a checklist about the 

revised curriculum and the old curriculum in science for classes III and V. 

The checklist covered five areas: 

Relevance to the environment in which the children lived; relevance to the 

educational objectives; relevance to the age level <strong>of</strong> the children; modernity and 

enrichment in knowledge <strong>of</strong> the child; and relevance to the needs <strong>of</strong> children. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that most <strong>of</strong> the headmasters and teachers felt that the old 

curriculum was not relevant to the child's cognitive level as well as needs, but 

contrary to this, parents felt that the old curriculum was easily understandable to 

the children. The headmasters and teachers felt that the new curriculum was 

relevant to the environment in which the children lived, but the parents <strong>of</strong> the 

pupils felt that the new curriculum increased the cognitive load on their child,en. 

The teachers, parents and headmasters opined that the new curriculum was 

more helpful than> the old one in enriching the knowledge <strong>of</strong> the children 

regarding the environment. 

Manuel, NV (1981) analyzed the text books in Environmental Studies <strong>of</strong> 

NCERT and some state systems from the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> components which 

might facilitate or hinder genuine environmental approach. He also analyzed 

some worthwhile EE <strong>models</strong> in India and abroad and other relevant materials 

from the point <strong>of</strong> view <strong>of</strong> developing a functional theory <strong>of</strong> EE. The other 

objective <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> was to identify some typical resources other than text 

books which can be useful for EE and to develop some <strong>models</strong> for EE. 

77

Relevant text books (class III and V) at the national level, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, 

collateral materials from USA, U S S R, U K. France, UNESCO and other 

developed systems were also analyzed. In addition to the analysis and critical 

appraisal, interviews, observation and focused group discussions with teachers, 

non-formal school education workers, administrative <strong>of</strong>ficers were conducted. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that a very few genuine EE type activities, as understood in 

modern developed systems, seemed to be undertaken in the primary schools. 

The effective lead books (text books) at the national level seemed to have some 

worthy aspects such as process approach in science, activisation, some 

directives to observation and visits, stimulating questions with open tables to fill 

in the answers, clear verbal processing, etc., the national level textbooks lacked 

the higher specifications commonly adopted in modern EE procedures and in 

open, multidisciplinary approaches to the environment. The NCERT's curriculum 

framework which had obviously guided the text book gave negative guidelines 

(what EE is not) but distinct positive guidelines were lacking 

Soniat, Lyle Mark (1993) conducted an evaluation <strong>study</strong> <strong>of</strong> the effect <strong>of</strong> 

instructional videos and simulation gaming activities in environmental science 

curriculum on knowledge and attitudes. This <strong>study</strong> evaluated a modular 

environmental service curriculum entitled "Wild Louisiana" which attempts to 

address the shortcomings <strong>of</strong> the predominant curricula. 

Following random selection. teachers were randomly assigned to one <strong>of</strong> the four 

conditions <strong>of</strong> <strong>study</strong>. Group A teachers lectured from their assigned textbooks 

supplemented with the regionally based background information that was 

provided. Group B teachers used the background information and the 

simulation-game activities for infusion into their classes; Group C teachers used 

the background information together with the instructional videos; and Group D 

teachers used the background information, infusing both the activities and videos 

into their class. 

Six hundred Secondary school science students <strong>of</strong> eleven schools in Louisiana 

took part in the 16 week <strong>study</strong>. After the treatment, students were evaluated on 

their environmental knowledge and attitudes using ANCOVA. 

78

The tools used in the <strong>study</strong> included: Louisiana environmental knowledge test to 

measure students' environmental knowledge and the new environmental 

paradigm scale to measure students' environmental attitudes. 

The results <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> suggest that: "Wild Louisiana" infusion materials can be 

more effective in increasing students' environmental knowledge. Students in the 

videos only group and students in the activities with video group had significantly 

higher knowledge scores than that <strong>of</strong> lecture group. 

Wang, Shun-Mei (1993) conducted an evaluation <strong>of</strong> a high school EE 

programme <strong>of</strong> the Tansi river in Taiwan. The Tansui River Education 

Programme (TREP) was designed for secondary students in the Tansui river 

watershed <strong>of</strong> Taiwan and was modeled after the Roughe River water quality and 

community problem solving program in Michigan. 

The experimental design included control and experimental groups, pre-test, 

post-test and questionnaire. A paired t-test and a one way ANOVA with 0.05 

level <strong>of</strong> significance were used to analyse the data. Student and teacher 

evaluations were used to collect information about programme feasibility. The 

<strong>study</strong> reveals that TREP significantly increased participants' knowledge and 

awareness <strong>of</strong> the quality <strong>of</strong> water in the river; TREP significantly increased their 

sense <strong>of</strong> empowerment for saving the river; and TREP significantly increased 

their feelings <strong>of</strong> responsibility for the school environment in terms <strong>of</strong> planning 

and decision making. 

5. Studies in the Area <strong>of</strong> EE that Cannot be Classified Under the Above 

Four Heads 

Central Regional Centre, Jabalpur (1981) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to develop 

instructional materials for students and teachers relevant to local environment 

and to ascertain the local condition and nutrition, health and sanitation <strong>of</strong> the 

experimental area. The <strong>study</strong> also intended to train teachers from selected rural 

and tribal schools with respect to nutrition, health and environmental sanitation. 

The project was carried out in eleven villages with 39 teachers. The teachers 

were to carryout a baseline survey <strong>of</strong> five families, to introduce the message in at 

least 40 families, to check the nutrition, health and sanitation habits <strong>of</strong> each 

family, evaluation <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> the message with remedial suggestions, to 

79

help develop desirable practices in school children, observe behavioral changes 

during school hours and evaluate the progress. 

The <strong>study</strong> reveals that the impact was observable In: awareness <strong>of</strong> the 

cleanliness <strong>of</strong> clothes, hand, feet and cutting <strong>of</strong> nails; the use <strong>of</strong> soap kit and 

waste water in the kitchen garden; the bathing habits; and preparation <strong>of</strong> food. 

Sandiford, and Sham iii Ajgaonkar (1992) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to explore the 

relationship between environmental attitudes, behaviours and future 

perspectives and the influence <strong>of</strong> locus <strong>of</strong> control temporality (i.e., how 

individuals rank past, present and future in directing their behaviour) and 

perceived level and scope <strong>of</strong> knowledge about environmental affairs on attitude, 

behaviour and future perspective. 

Statistical methods employed were Pearson's correlation, cross tabulation, 

cluster analysis, factor analysis, t-test and ANOVA. 

The results suggest that pro-environmental attitudes were linked to proenvironmental 

behaviour and to pro-future perspectives; pro-environmental 

behaviour are linked to pro-future perspectives. Although the inter-relationships 

do not imply casual links, the positive correlation between attitudes, behaviour 

and future perspective suggest that an individual who engages in proenvironmental 

behaviours likely possesses pro-environmental attitudes and was 

future-oriented. The findings also hint at a changing environmental paradigm. 

The most visible shift was the 'positive' attitudes to technology. The new 

environmentalism may be more about saving the earth for humans rather than 

saving the earth from humane. 

Note The researcher could not get detailed or descriptive information about the 

following studies related to EE, but still felt that it was worth mentioning them. 

Ghosh, G.R. and P. K. Khanna (1988) worked with students <strong>of</strong> classes IX to XII 

at Bhopal, collected plants <strong>of</strong> the city and its environs. The <strong>study</strong> reveals that the 

students learn about the habit, habitat and nomenclature more effectively than 

through laboratory <strong>study</strong>, hence, field trips in Ecology and EE were more 

important 

80

RaJPut, J.S. (1988b) studied the <strong>teaching</strong> skills and training strategies for 

implementing the environmental approach at the primary level <strong>of</strong> <strong>teaching</strong> at 

Bhopal. 

Rane, A. J (1989) evaluated the Environmental Study Approach <strong>of</strong> Parisar Asha 

in Municipal Schools in Greater Bombay. The <strong>study</strong> was on Environmental 

Study Approach (ESA) in the case <strong>of</strong> students <strong>of</strong> classes I and II which revealed 

that ESA was very effective at that level. 

Shahanwaj (1990) worked on the environmental awareness and attitudes 

(towards environmental issues) <strong>of</strong> secondary and higher secondary school 

teachers and students at Udaipur He found a very high level <strong>of</strong> awareness 

among the students and teachers <strong>of</strong> urban sector than that <strong>of</strong> rural sector. 

Prahraj, B (1991) explored the level <strong>of</strong> environmental knowledge, attitude and its 

perception among 416 pre-service and 302 in-service secondary school teachers 

In Puri District. The pre-service teachers distinctly had poor knowledge <strong>of</strong> the 

environment, while the in-service teachers moderately knew about it. 

Gopala Krishnan, SaroJini (1992) selected 1,451 students <strong>of</strong> class V from ten 

different primary schools <strong>of</strong> Nilgiri, Chennai and Coimbatore districts and 

exposed them to EE and then put them through an Environmental Education 

Test (EET) and found a very good impact <strong>of</strong> EE. 

Section II: Review <strong>of</strong> Studies in the Area <strong>of</strong> Models <strong>of</strong> Teaching 

1. Studies on AOM Only 

Rodegres, Cathy Allyn (1981) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to find out the effect <strong>of</strong> a 

Comparative Advance Organizer (AO) that has on student expectancy for 

success and achievement. 

The research questions were derived from previous research in the areas, viz., 

1. Instructional strategies which enhance learning (particularly 

<strong>comparative</strong> AO); 

2. Learner motivation and the effect <strong>of</strong> expectancy for success; and 

3. The influence <strong>of</strong> academic self-esteem on school programme. 

81

Specific predictions were made based on past research conducted in these 

areas. This was essentially an exploratory <strong>study</strong> intended to identify these 

effects, beyond enhancement <strong>of</strong> incorporation <strong>of</strong> new information into cognitive 

structure which may result from exposure to an AO. 

While the predictions that the AO group would exhibit greater enhancement <strong>of</strong> 

expectancy for success and achievement than the Control Group were not 

supported, the AO did evidence strong effects. In particular, the AO suppressed 

the positive relationships between esteem and achievement, expectancy for 

success and achievement, and level <strong>of</strong> prior knowledge and achievement which 

were generally found in learning situations. 

Borine, Robesta Carol (1982) conducted a <strong>study</strong> to understand the effects <strong>of</strong> 

advance organizers <strong>of</strong> varying length on the comprehension and retention <strong>of</strong> VII 

Grade students. The purpose <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> was to investigate three institutional 

methods based on Ausubel's concept <strong>of</strong> meaningful verbal learning. 

Specifically, the <strong>effectiveness</strong> <strong>of</strong> 200 word AOs, 20 word AOs, and no AOs were 

investigated using expository passages 

121 VII graders were the subjects <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong>. Based on their scores on the 

reading comprehension sub-test <strong>of</strong> the Stanford Achievement Test, the subjects 

were identified as "at-level" readers if they scored in the 34th to 66th percentile 

range and "above-level" readers if they scored in the 66th to 88th percentile 

range. The dependent variables were the subjects' scores on comprehension 

and delayed retention tests. Subjects were randomly assigned to one <strong>of</strong> three 

treatment conditions: 200 word AOs, 20 word AOs and no AOs. Depending 

upon the treatment, the subjects used an organizer or no organizer followed by 

a 1,500 word expository passage. The subjects were administered a 

comprehension test consisting <strong>of</strong> 20 items. 

The findings <strong>of</strong> the <strong>study</strong> were reported under four categories, VIZ., At-level 

readers on immediate comprehension; Above-level readers on immediate 

comprehension; At-level readers on delayed retention; and Above-level readers 

on delayed retention. In response to the above four categories, it was found that 

. on immediate comprehension the 20 word AO and at-level readers were superior 

to the 200 word AO readers. For above-level readers, there were no facilitative 

effects among the 200 word AO, 20 word AO and no AO readers. Results 

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A comparative study of effectiveness of models of teaching on the ...

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