16.04.2014 Views

A Survey of the Missiological Understanding in Ecumenical Thinking

A Survey of the Missiological Understanding in Ecumenical Thinking

A Survey of the Missiological Understanding in Ecumenical Thinking

SHOW MORE
SHOW LESS

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

YUMPU automatically turns print PDFs into web optimized ePapers that Google loves.

1<br />

A <strong>Survey</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>Missiological</strong> <strong>Understand<strong>in</strong>g</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g<br />

As <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>congruity regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> authorship <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “great commission” looms<br />

large, mission endeavors, irrespective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir varied paradigmatic orientations, consider<br />

Mat<strong>the</strong>an <strong>in</strong>struction <strong>of</strong> mission as a mandate to fulfil. In An Enquiry <strong>in</strong>to Obligations <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> Christians to Use means for <strong>the</strong> Conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “hea<strong>the</strong>n”, a tract written by <strong>the</strong><br />

Missionary ‘veteran’ <strong>of</strong> India, William Carey, which set <strong>in</strong>to motion <strong>the</strong> rapid emergence<br />

<strong>of</strong> missionary movements around <strong>the</strong> world, argued that <strong>the</strong> ‘New Testament command to<br />

preach gospel to every creature was as b<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g upon <strong>the</strong> Christians <strong>of</strong> all times as it was<br />

upon <strong>the</strong> apostles’. 1<br />

The term mission, a Lat<strong>in</strong> derivation for <strong>the</strong> biblical word send<strong>in</strong>g (John 20:27)<br />

has been conceived with different shades <strong>of</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>gs and practices. Paul, who claimed<br />

for himself <strong>the</strong> title apostle, <strong>the</strong> one who was sent to proclaim <strong>the</strong> message and to become<br />

a witness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> hol<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> one who sends, located his ‘apostolate’ as be<strong>in</strong>g a servant<br />

for ‘God’s cosmic-historical plan for <strong>the</strong> redemption <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world’. For <strong>the</strong> early church,<br />

<strong>the</strong> realization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘world embrac<strong>in</strong>g basileia <strong>of</strong> God and Christ’ was <strong>the</strong> essence <strong>of</strong><br />

mission. The <strong>in</strong>vitation to jo<strong>in</strong> this cosmic experience was a responsibility one needs to<br />

take with humility.<br />

However, dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> rapid expansion <strong>of</strong> missionary activities, <strong>the</strong> terms “hea<strong>the</strong>n”<br />

and “conversion”, though, <strong>the</strong>re is a cloud <strong>of</strong> racial and imperialist <strong>in</strong>terest cover<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong>m, express <strong>the</strong> predom<strong>in</strong>ant view <strong>of</strong> mission employed by <strong>the</strong> a majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

agencies and Churches. For example, <strong>the</strong> Papal bull, Propagation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Faith, written<br />

with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> Spanish colonial expansion, stated that mission is to proclaim <strong>the</strong><br />

1


2<br />

gospel to all creatures, to ga<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> ignorant and godless from every corner <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth,<br />

and to lead those <strong>in</strong> deplorable error to <strong>the</strong> flock <strong>of</strong> Christ and to <strong>the</strong> recognition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

shepherd and Lord <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> flock.” 2 Similar views are expressed from <strong>the</strong> ecumenical<br />

ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>gs too. Speak<strong>in</strong>g about <strong>the</strong> Supreme and Determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g Aim <strong>of</strong> missions, Robert E.<br />

Speer stated at <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Mission Conference (1900) that “<strong>the</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> mission is to<br />

make Jesus Christ known to <strong>the</strong> world with a view to <strong>the</strong> salvation <strong>of</strong> men for <strong>the</strong><br />

eternity…” 3<br />

Gustav Warneck, who was hailed as an architect <strong>of</strong> mission studies, provides a<br />

historical overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission activities. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to him <strong>the</strong> different activities<br />

comprises <strong>of</strong> three stages.<br />

The first stage is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals and <strong>the</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> comparatively small<br />

churches. The second is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> organized cooperation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> converts, “<strong>the</strong> upbuild<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

churches, <strong>the</strong> leaven<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people with <strong>the</strong> power <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Gospel and <strong>the</strong> extension <strong>of</strong><br />

Christianity by assimilative <strong>in</strong>corporation”. The third stage is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christianiz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

masses, which for <strong>the</strong> most part takes place <strong>in</strong> connection with means and motives not purely<br />

religious, when political and social movements, with <strong>the</strong> acceptance <strong>of</strong> Christianity on <strong>the</strong> part <strong>of</strong><br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g men and so on. 4<br />

Warneck’s historical categories from <strong>the</strong> Outl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> a History <strong>of</strong> Protest Missions<br />

published <strong>in</strong> 1901 succ<strong>in</strong>ctly describe <strong>the</strong> content <strong>of</strong> missionary activity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> late<br />

N<strong>in</strong>eteenth and early Twentieth centuries, however, are not representative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> later<br />

developments. To categorize <strong>the</strong> varied concepts and methods emerged <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

Christianity, Hans Kung provides a different typology, divid<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />

missions to six major paradigms. 5 He observed that all <strong>the</strong> six epochs <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> history<br />

discloses a dist<strong>in</strong>ctive <strong>the</strong>ological and missionary orientation. Among <strong>the</strong> six typologies,<br />

ecumenical paradigm is a unique subdivision; never<strong>the</strong>less, one may f<strong>in</strong>d that <strong>the</strong><br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission resonated from <strong>the</strong> various ecumenical ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>gs failed to<br />

follow any chronological dist<strong>in</strong>ctiveness; on <strong>the</strong> contrary different paradigms overlaps <strong>in</strong><br />

any given period. Yet, Hans Kung’s <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong>fers <strong>the</strong> best analytical structure to<br />

comprehend <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> concept and practice <strong>of</strong> mission among <strong>the</strong><br />

ecumenical movements.<br />

2


3<br />

The various paradigms however, represent different shades <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> two dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

<strong>the</strong>ological positions; one an attempt to draw human be<strong>in</strong>gs out <strong>of</strong> a s<strong>in</strong>ful world and to<br />

absorb <strong>the</strong>m <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> church, and <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r to accentuate <strong>the</strong> need for social<br />

transformation and redemption <strong>of</strong> history as a demand <strong>of</strong> Christians faith and<br />

commitment. While <strong>the</strong> latter holds that <strong>the</strong> witness to <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> God <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong><br />

engagement for <strong>the</strong> total transformation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> economic, political and social systems and<br />

structures, proponents <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first view emphasizes personal salvation mediated through<br />

an <strong>in</strong>dividual relationship with Christ as <strong>the</strong> core <strong>of</strong> Christian faith. One may be able to<br />

locate both <strong>the</strong>se positions and its vary<strong>in</strong>g degrees <strong>of</strong> shades <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> discussions <strong>of</strong><br />

ecumenical movement to unfold a relevant practice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gospel.<br />

“Let us create <strong>the</strong> world <strong>in</strong> our image and likeness.”<br />

The resound<strong>in</strong>g missionary doctr<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> late N<strong>in</strong>eteenth and early Twentieth<br />

century was <strong>the</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>ound and ambitious call by John Raleigh Mott “to evangelize <strong>the</strong><br />

world <strong>in</strong> this generation.” This challenge is not a self-imposed task for <strong>the</strong> Christians, but<br />

accord<strong>in</strong>g to Mott, “rests securely upon Div<strong>in</strong>e commandment. The Great Commission<br />

<strong>of</strong> Christ given by Him <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Upper Room <strong>in</strong> Jerusalem on <strong>the</strong> night after <strong>the</strong><br />

resurrection, aga<strong>in</strong> a little later on a mounta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Galilee, and yet aga<strong>in</strong>, on <strong>the</strong> Mount <strong>of</strong><br />

Olives, just before <strong>the</strong> ascension clearly expresses our obligation to make Christ known<br />

to all men.” 6 Mott’s hermeneutical read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> events that succeeded crucifixion<br />

motivated not only <strong>the</strong> Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign Missions, a bra<strong>in</strong> child<br />

<strong>of</strong> Mott, but o<strong>the</strong>r mission organizations and churches that had k<strong>in</strong>dled <strong>the</strong> hope <strong>of</strong><br />

experienc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> a unified world religious culture and practice <strong>in</strong>formed by<br />

<strong>the</strong> gospel imperatives. However, <strong>the</strong> qu<strong>in</strong>tessential task <strong>of</strong> that “decisive hour <strong>of</strong><br />

history” was perceived to be <strong>the</strong> effort to create a “common m<strong>in</strong>d” among <strong>the</strong> different<br />

and at times warr<strong>in</strong>g mission agencies and “preparation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m for jo<strong>in</strong>t action”. 7<br />

Though what Mott meant by evangelism was not shared widely, he was not a<br />

loner <strong>in</strong> his dream. Gutav Warnack pleaded <strong>in</strong> 1888 to create a s<strong>in</strong>gle organization<br />

3


4<br />

representative <strong>of</strong> all mission societies and <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>g discussion on comity.<br />

Aga<strong>in</strong>, much prior to Warnack and Mott, and almost a century before <strong>the</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh<br />

conference, William Carey proposed <strong>in</strong> 1806 that a general missionary conference should<br />

be held <strong>in</strong> 1810 at <strong>the</strong> Cape <strong>of</strong> Good Hope <strong>in</strong> order to consolidate <strong>the</strong> missionary energy<br />

for a rapid geographical expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> work. 8 Although Carey was <strong>in</strong>itially apa<strong>the</strong>tic<br />

to any coord<strong>in</strong>ated attempt <strong>in</strong> Mission field, -because, accord<strong>in</strong>g to him, “if<br />

<strong>in</strong>term<strong>in</strong>gled…<strong>the</strong>ir private discords might throw a damp upon <strong>the</strong>ir spirits, and much<br />

retard <strong>the</strong>ir public usefulness” 9 later persuaded o<strong>the</strong>r missionaries to seek collective<br />

efforts for swift results. The change <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong> Carey was <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> ground<br />

realities that he had experienced from his mission field. Such urgency was evident from<br />

<strong>the</strong> argument for a shared understand<strong>in</strong>g and rapprochement between <strong>the</strong> churches and<br />

mission boards, which later resulted <strong>in</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> jo<strong>in</strong>t conferences.<br />

Socio- Political Context <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> Missionary movement<br />

Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh 1910, however, found that <strong>the</strong> historical context was more ready to<br />

accept an immediate and overarch<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>tervention by <strong>the</strong> Christian missions than before<br />

due to several reasons. Among <strong>the</strong> various commission reports to that conference, <strong>the</strong><br />

report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first commission, “Carry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> gospel to all <strong>the</strong> non-Christian world” which<br />

<strong>the</strong> conference chairperson John R. Mott himself chaired, and argued to be ‘<strong>the</strong> most<br />

important commission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conference’ 10 , observed several factors that enabled such an<br />

action. Though most <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> factors listed by <strong>the</strong> commission were manifestations <strong>of</strong> a<br />

biased read<strong>in</strong>g facilitated through <strong>the</strong> lenses <strong>of</strong> western rationality and <strong>the</strong> historical<br />

experience and related consciousness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> missionaries <strong>in</strong> different mission fields, <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs naturally goaded <strong>the</strong> mission strategy and its <strong>the</strong>ology. A majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

missionary enterprise had undertaken with zeal <strong>the</strong> promotion <strong>of</strong> a western scientific<br />

rationality <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> European enlightenment. Such a campaign <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new<br />

rationality aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> traditional wisdom <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> natives was conceived as a civilizational<br />

imperative and thus was carried out with utmost earnestness. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, <strong>the</strong> new<br />

scientific rationality was presented as <strong>the</strong> only panacea for growth and prosperity. The<br />

best example for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> enlightenment agenda with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission mandate was<br />

4


5<br />

evident from <strong>the</strong> prom<strong>in</strong>ence attached to impart<strong>in</strong>g “secular education” and fur<strong>the</strong>rance<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>stitution oriented health care systems at <strong>the</strong> expense <strong>of</strong> primal medical systems <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

people.<br />

However, <strong>the</strong> commission report (Commission I) cited a political reason too for<br />

<strong>the</strong> urgency <strong>in</strong> Christian missions.<br />

One <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most significant and hopeful facts with reference to world evangelization is that <strong>the</strong><br />

vast majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> non-Christian nations and races are under <strong>the</strong> sway, ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong><br />

Christian governments or <strong>of</strong> those not antagonistic to Christian missions. This should greatly<br />

facilitate <strong>the</strong> carry<strong>in</strong>g out <strong>of</strong> a comprehensive campaign to make Christ known. 11<br />

It is not adventitious, <strong>the</strong>refore, that K<strong>in</strong>g George V <strong>of</strong> England and <strong>the</strong> Secretary <strong>of</strong> State<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imperial German Colonial Office sent greet<strong>in</strong>gs to <strong>the</strong> participants <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> open<strong>in</strong>g<br />

session on 14 th June 1910. Former US President Roosevelt was a prospective delegate<br />

but later sent a letter <strong>of</strong> regret to compensate for his absence. In his greet<strong>in</strong>gs, K<strong>in</strong>g<br />

George V observed that <strong>the</strong> ‘dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> knowledge and pr<strong>in</strong>ciples <strong>of</strong><br />

Christianity by Christian methods throughout <strong>the</strong> world’ 12 would usher <strong>the</strong> cause <strong>of</strong> peace<br />

and well be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> all. One may recall <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> Emperor Constant<strong>in</strong>e while he called<br />

for <strong>the</strong> ecumenical assembly <strong>of</strong> Nicea <strong>in</strong> CE 321. “….”<br />

The <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Missionary Conference held <strong>in</strong> New York <strong>in</strong> 1900 was not<br />

apologetic ei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> political climate that was conducive for mission expansion. They<br />

observed that “<strong>the</strong> political and commercial expansion and occupation <strong>of</strong> distant land by<br />

Europe and America had directed <strong>the</strong> thoughts <strong>of</strong> Christendom to distant parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

earth.” 13<br />

In <strong>the</strong> words <strong>of</strong> Stephen Neill, N<strong>in</strong>eteenth Century, an era known for missionary<br />

expansion, ‘was pre-em<strong>in</strong>ently a European century <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world history’, which unlike <strong>the</strong><br />

regular periodization have ‘begun <strong>in</strong> 1789 with <strong>the</strong> outbreak <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> French Revolution<br />

and hav<strong>in</strong>g lasted till 1914, <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> (so called) First World War’. Dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

this period ‘Europe was able to impose its will and its ideas on <strong>the</strong> whole <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>habited<br />

world’. 14 The history <strong>of</strong> colonialism had a deep impact on <strong>the</strong> way proclamation <strong>of</strong><br />

5


6<br />

gospel was carried on. Human civilization embarked on a new mode <strong>of</strong> relationship with<br />

<strong>the</strong> arrival <strong>of</strong> Columbus on <strong>the</strong> shores <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> American islands. His request to <strong>the</strong><br />

Spanish K<strong>in</strong>g was metaphoric. “So Your Highness should resolve to make <strong>the</strong>m<br />

Christians, for I believe that, if you beg<strong>in</strong>, <strong>in</strong> a little while you will achieve <strong>the</strong><br />

conversion to our holy faith <strong>of</strong> great number <strong>of</strong> peoples, with <strong>the</strong> acquisition <strong>of</strong> great<br />

lordships and riches and all <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>in</strong>habitants for Spa<strong>in</strong>. For without doubt <strong>the</strong>re is <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>se lands a very great amount <strong>of</strong> gold." Between 12 October 1492 when he reached <strong>the</strong><br />

first island, and 17 January 1493, <strong>the</strong> day he began his return voyage, Columbus’s diary<br />

mentions <strong>the</strong> magic word ‘gold’ at least 65 times .15. Colonialism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se early years was<br />

characterized by two dist<strong>in</strong>ct stages; first a mercantile period and <strong>the</strong> second phase starts<br />

with <strong>the</strong> Industrial Revolution <strong>in</strong> Europe. Dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> mercantile phase, <strong>the</strong> colonial<br />

agents aimed at (a) establish<strong>in</strong>g trade ports and engage <strong>in</strong> trade to transfer resources to<br />

Europe; (b) create dom<strong>in</strong>ance over <strong>the</strong> natives to change <strong>the</strong> balance <strong>of</strong> power <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> early<br />

market relationship; (c) locate habitable places <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies to promote migration from<br />

Europe; [Consequently, some <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> countries experienced <strong>the</strong> worst forms <strong>of</strong> genocide.]<br />

(d) control <strong>of</strong> labour through varied forms <strong>of</strong> slave trade. Slave labour was needed to<br />

prepare and cultivate <strong>the</strong> vast areas <strong>of</strong> land that <strong>the</strong> Whites captured, to build new cities<br />

and settlements and for <strong>the</strong> transport <strong>of</strong> goods to <strong>the</strong> colonies and back. The slave trade<br />

however was a turn<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> human history, provoked new anthropological<br />

consciousness with regard to <strong>the</strong> relative location and status <strong>of</strong> different races. Philip<br />

Potter quipped that “it was a time <strong>of</strong> White man’s burden.” 16<br />

Equally important was <strong>the</strong> flow <strong>of</strong> economic resources from <strong>the</strong> colonies to <strong>the</strong><br />

colonial centrers. Pr<strong>of</strong>. Enrique Dussel computed that <strong>the</strong> expropriation <strong>of</strong> precious metal<br />

from Lat<strong>in</strong> America by Spa<strong>in</strong> was 7,220 million maravedis (Spanish currency <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> period)<br />

between 1561 and 1570; 13,011 million between 1581 and 1590 and 13,804 million<br />

between 1621 and 1630. 17 The amount <strong>of</strong> gold Spa<strong>in</strong> took away from Lat<strong>in</strong> America <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

first 10-year period was three times more than <strong>the</strong> total accumulated gold reserve for <strong>the</strong><br />

comb<strong>in</strong>ed European nations. The amount <strong>of</strong> gold transferred from a comparatively small<br />

Caribbean prov<strong>in</strong>ce to Spa<strong>in</strong> between 1551 and 1561 was 42,600 kilos. Accumulation <strong>of</strong><br />

silver on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand was greater <strong>in</strong> quantity to <strong>the</strong> extent that <strong>the</strong> collected gold <strong>of</strong> this<br />

6


7<br />

time was only 15% <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> value <strong>of</strong> silver com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>. 18 In a letter from an Indian chief to <strong>the</strong><br />

European governments regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> spiritual and rational foundation for <strong>the</strong> European<br />

claims <strong>of</strong> debt repayment, Mr. Cuautemoc rem<strong>in</strong>ded that between 1503 and 1660 alone<br />

185,000 kilos <strong>of</strong> gold and 16million kilos <strong>of</strong> silver were shipped to san Lucar de Barrameda<br />

from lat<strong>in</strong> America. 19 Such forms <strong>of</strong> robbery were not restricted to one region <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> globe,<br />

but were prevalent throughout <strong>the</strong> world. Exploitation <strong>of</strong> India by <strong>the</strong> British itself speaks<br />

volumes <strong>of</strong> colonial economic plunder. William Digby, a British writer, notes that estimates<br />

had been made accord<strong>in</strong>g to which between Plassey (Clive’s victory over Nawab <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1757, giv<strong>in</strong>g Brita<strong>in</strong> control over Bengal) and Waterloo (victory <strong>of</strong> British over<br />

Napoleon, June 1815)- a period <strong>of</strong> crucial importance for <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> British<br />

capitalism- a sum <strong>of</strong> around £1,000,000,000 worth <strong>of</strong> treasure was taken by Brita<strong>in</strong> from<br />

India. 20 The vastness <strong>of</strong> this amount can be visualized when we realize that even <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>19 th century <strong>the</strong> aggregate capital <strong>of</strong> all companies operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> India<br />

amounted to mere £ 36,000,000. The result was an enormous concentration <strong>of</strong> resources <strong>in</strong><br />

Europe.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troductory statement which gives a rational beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>in</strong>vit<strong>in</strong>g more than 1200<br />

people to Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh for <strong>the</strong> International Missionary Conference alluded to <strong>the</strong> unparalleled<br />

growth <strong>of</strong> resources <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western Hemisphere. It sates:<br />

It is possible today as never before to have a campaign adequate to carry <strong>the</strong> Gospel to all <strong>the</strong> non-<br />

Christian world so far as <strong>the</strong> Christian Church is concerned. Its resources are more than adequate…The<br />

money power <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> hands <strong>of</strong> believ<strong>in</strong>g Christians <strong>of</strong> our generation is enormous. 21<br />

Such flow <strong>of</strong> resources helped Europe to <strong>in</strong>vest vast amounts <strong>of</strong> money for research <strong>in</strong><br />

science and technology. Moreover <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>teraction with relatively advanced productive<br />

systems <strong>in</strong> such countries as Ch<strong>in</strong>a and India 22 provided Europe <strong>the</strong> possibility to develop a<br />

more sophisticated and syn<strong>the</strong>sized technological system. This new stage <strong>of</strong> economic<br />

development, known as Industrial Revolution, however, had devastat<strong>in</strong>g ramifications on<br />

<strong>the</strong> social and economic life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people around <strong>the</strong> globe. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, rapid <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

production and <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> capital <strong>in</strong>tensive mach<strong>in</strong>ery had radically changed<br />

people’s approach to life and nature.<br />

7


8<br />

Theological consciousness and related missionary practices were not exceptions <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> fast chang<strong>in</strong>g perspectives brought out by <strong>the</strong> new <strong>in</strong>dustrial production. People and<br />

nature were turned <strong>in</strong>to commoditable labour and raw materials <strong>in</strong> order to enable<br />

un<strong>in</strong>terrupted function<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> production mach<strong>in</strong>ery. Emmanuel Lev<strong>in</strong>as argues that <strong>the</strong><br />

creation story primarily rem<strong>in</strong>ds us that <strong>the</strong> highest place where God revealed<br />

himself/herself <strong>in</strong> history is <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r person. H<strong>in</strong>duism, however, does not<br />

elim<strong>in</strong>ate nature from <strong>the</strong> category <strong>of</strong> revelation, <strong>in</strong>stead upholds that <strong>the</strong> realties around us,<br />

<strong>the</strong> sand, rock, trees, river, animals, and people are <strong>the</strong> po<strong>in</strong>ters towards <strong>the</strong> Ultimate<br />

Reality. The relationship with people and nature <strong>the</strong>refore regulates one’s relationship with<br />

<strong>the</strong> Div<strong>in</strong>e. But due to <strong>the</strong> dynamics <strong>of</strong> production needs, Industrial Revolution turned<br />

people and nature <strong>in</strong>to commodities. Those who enjoy a different relationship with nature<br />

and people were called by a new term ‘pagan’ and <strong>the</strong>ir mode <strong>of</strong> relationship as<br />

superstitions. For <strong>the</strong> converts this amounts to a total break from <strong>the</strong>ir whole understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g. Christian <strong>the</strong>ology <strong>in</strong>formed by science and technology goaded <strong>the</strong>m to have a<br />

new understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nexus between people-nature and <strong>the</strong> Div<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, science and technology <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Enlightenment era produced a new<br />

confidence based on <strong>the</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry, mach<strong>in</strong>ery, and <strong>the</strong> enormous surplus capital<br />

generated from <strong>the</strong> colonies. This “abound<strong>in</strong>g optimism” was transferred to all areas <strong>of</strong> life<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g missionary work <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> churches and related agencies. Latourette has observed<br />

that <strong>the</strong> echoes <strong>of</strong> this optimism were evident <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh<br />

conference and at times <strong>the</strong> achievements <strong>of</strong> science and technology were lauded as<br />

evidence <strong>of</strong> God’s providence for fur<strong>the</strong>rance <strong>of</strong> mission. Improved means <strong>of</strong><br />

communication and transport enhanced <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> missionaries <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r (o<strong>the</strong>r),<br />

and provided better access to <strong>the</strong> ‘unevangelised world.’ The “marvelous order<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

Providence dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> n<strong>in</strong>eteenth century” as graciously recalled by Mott assisted <strong>the</strong> whole<br />

world to be open to <strong>the</strong> church. F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> commission thus reiterated that “it is an<br />

opportune time”; a “comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> opportunities” awaits us among <strong>the</strong> “primitive and <strong>the</strong><br />

cultured” <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> “world field”; so “open and accessible”.<br />

8


9<br />

However, embrac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> contributions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> new scientific rationality was not<br />

without caution. A Conference statement <strong>in</strong> a masterly way described <strong>the</strong> dangers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

new culture, which swept across <strong>the</strong> world. The draft<strong>in</strong>g committee quotes Pandita<br />

Ramabhai’s letter: “The majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> higher classes are gett<strong>in</strong>g western secular education,<br />

which is underm<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ir faith <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir ancestral religion. They are not gett<strong>in</strong>g anyth<strong>in</strong>g<br />

better to take <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> old religion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir hearts, and are <strong>the</strong>refore without God,<br />

without hope, without Christ, go<strong>in</strong>g down socially and morally, and becom<strong>in</strong>g very<br />

irreligious.” 23 The report fur<strong>the</strong>r laments that “with <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>flux <strong>of</strong> European civilization <strong>in</strong>to<br />

Africa and Asia <strong>the</strong>re seems to have come a flood <strong>of</strong> pernicious <strong>in</strong>fluences, <strong>of</strong> vice, and <strong>of</strong><br />

disease.” 24<br />

Centrality <strong>of</strong> Missions<br />

The Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh conference <strong>in</strong> several ways made a last<strong>in</strong>g impact on <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong><br />

Christianity and on <strong>the</strong> ecumenical movement <strong>in</strong> particular. Among several novel issues<br />

three may <strong>in</strong>vite special significance. The first is <strong>the</strong> role played by <strong>the</strong> conference <strong>in</strong><br />

allud<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> centrality <strong>of</strong> mission for <strong>the</strong> churches. In his open<strong>in</strong>g address <strong>the</strong><br />

Archbishop <strong>of</strong> Canterbury gave this <strong>the</strong>me as a litany for <strong>the</strong> follow<strong>in</strong>g years. “… be<br />

quiet sure it is my s<strong>in</strong>gle thought to-night that <strong>the</strong> place <strong>of</strong> mission <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

Church must be <strong>the</strong> central place, and none o<strong>the</strong>r. That is what matters.” 25 All <strong>the</strong><br />

subsequent conferences reiterated this concern: The Church is <strong>the</strong> Church when <strong>in</strong><br />

Mission. Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh however dealt with this issue <strong>in</strong> a more practical sense. The<br />

statement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conference observed that “for <strong>the</strong> evangelization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, <strong>the</strong> church<br />

at home must lift to a fuller spiritual life and engage effectively <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> task <strong>of</strong><br />

evangeliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> world, and give to <strong>the</strong> people vision, motives, and enthusiasm. The way<br />

towards achiev<strong>in</strong>g it is enlightenment, devotion, and fidelity to its Lord. 26<br />

Never<strong>the</strong>less, <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> grace and bless<strong>in</strong>g was conceived by <strong>the</strong> conference<br />

with<strong>in</strong> a particular cultural and civilizational mould. Gustav Warneck ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed that: “I<br />

understand by missions <strong>the</strong> whole operation <strong>of</strong> Christendom directed towards <strong>the</strong> plant<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and organization <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian church among non-Christians.” 27 This grand<br />

9


10<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission as a responsibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western Christendom was evident <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> hostility and resistance met with by <strong>the</strong> representatives <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “younger churches”,<br />

though fewer <strong>in</strong> number, when <strong>the</strong>y appealed for more freedom and participation. An<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission as expansion <strong>of</strong> Western Christendom was explicit <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

polemic and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> frustration towards an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> Islam <strong>in</strong><br />

Africa, Turkey and certa<strong>in</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> Asia and thus <strong>the</strong> urgency to repeal <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong><br />

Mohammedans from <strong>the</strong> world, was under taken with a zeal. 28<br />

The second major contribution, which certa<strong>in</strong>ly had a last<strong>in</strong>g bear<strong>in</strong>g upon <strong>the</strong><br />

ecumenical movement, was <strong>the</strong> emphasis given for <strong>the</strong> promotion <strong>of</strong> “younger churches.”<br />

The conference debates “made abundantly clear that a lead<strong>in</strong>g purpose <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> missionary<br />

enterprise was to br<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to be<strong>in</strong>g self-govern<strong>in</strong>g, self-support<strong>in</strong>g, and self-propagat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

churches <strong>in</strong> every field.” 29 Members represent<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> so called “younger churches”<br />

[though <strong>the</strong> categories <strong>of</strong> “older” and “younger” churches, 30 rema<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> tact for many<br />

more years] were able to establish <strong>the</strong>ir identity, register <strong>the</strong>ir long<strong>in</strong>g for freedom and<br />

reiterated <strong>the</strong>ir commitment and determ<strong>in</strong>ation to take up <strong>the</strong> responsibility <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission<br />

activities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir respective regions. When doubts and concerns were expressed about<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir ability, Chen Chi Yi <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a told <strong>the</strong> story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “little girl who was seen carry<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a little boy on her back. Someone asked; “I see you have a big burden on you, haven’t<br />

you?” “No,” replied <strong>the</strong> little girl, “that is my bro<strong>the</strong>r” 31 .<br />

Thirdly, social concerns raised at Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh opened a new genre <strong>of</strong> debates <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission. The participants listened to Mr. V.S. Azariah who<br />

prophetically said:<br />

The problem <strong>of</strong> race relationships is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> most serious problems confront<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Church<br />

today. The bridg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> gulf between <strong>the</strong> East and <strong>the</strong> West, and <strong>the</strong> atta<strong>in</strong>ment <strong>of</strong> a greater<br />

unity and common ground <strong>in</strong> Christ as <strong>the</strong> great Unifier <strong>of</strong> mank<strong>in</strong>d, is one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deepest needs <strong>of</strong><br />

our time. 32<br />

Philip Potter observed much later that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> life <strong>of</strong> IMC and later <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> WCC <strong>the</strong><br />

challenge <strong>of</strong> Azariah had a pr<strong>of</strong>ound impact. As a follow up <strong>of</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh conference, J.<br />

H. Oldham, <strong>the</strong> conference secretary, undertook studies on Christianity and race relations<br />

10


11<br />

and contributed immensely to <strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a relevant Christian witness <strong>in</strong> a<br />

divided world.<br />

Greatest <strong>of</strong> all <strong>the</strong> achievements <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> conference, as Stephen Neill has observed,<br />

was <strong>the</strong> br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> first permanent <strong>in</strong>strument <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

Christian cooperation outside <strong>the</strong> Roman Catholic Church 33 . The emergence <strong>of</strong> national<br />

missionary councils and later national Christian councils owes its impetus to <strong>the</strong> efforts<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uation committee set up at Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh.<br />

The Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh Conference, for more than one reason, was historical and provided<br />

a major agenda for ecumenical th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Mission. There were largely four <strong>the</strong>mes that<br />

made a significant impact on <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> Christianity around <strong>the</strong> world. (1) The<br />

progressive shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> nature <strong>of</strong> ‘agency’ <strong>in</strong> mission. There was a<br />

radical shift from mission societies to church-centered approach to missio Dei. (2) <strong>the</strong><br />

relationship with o<strong>the</strong>r religions and cultures. (3) a contribution towards a <strong>the</strong>ology <strong>of</strong><br />

mission and (4) an understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> society. The conference <strong>in</strong>itiated a search to locate<br />

an appropriate Christian approach to societal problems. In later discussions, however,<br />

new th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g has emerged on several o<strong>the</strong>r concerns. Environmental concerns, for<br />

example, is one <strong>of</strong> such pert<strong>in</strong>ent issues that <strong>in</strong>vited attention from churches.<br />

Mission Society to Ecclesio-centered to Missio Dei<br />

Evangelical historians always found <strong>in</strong> William Carey a person who was<br />

<strong>in</strong>strumental for <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a new mission history. More than his evangelistic and<br />

literary contributions <strong>of</strong> Carey <strong>in</strong> Bengal, he was remembered for his <strong>in</strong>itiative to start<br />

mission societies and agencies for reach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> “hea<strong>the</strong>ns”. The function <strong>of</strong> Christian<br />

missions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> plural, as Carey had consciously designed, accelerated <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong><br />

“numbers” which <strong>the</strong> church oriented mission was so far unable to produce. Similar to<br />

<strong>the</strong> gospel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> neo-liberal economic th<strong>in</strong>kers, those who evaluated <strong>the</strong> success <strong>of</strong><br />

mission by count<strong>in</strong>g numbers believe that competition will eventually produce growth<br />

and progress. Indeed <strong>the</strong> colonies witnessed a phenomenal growth <strong>of</strong> ‘Church<br />

11


12<br />

Missionary Society Christians’, ‘London Missionary Society Christians’, ‘Basal Mission<br />

Christians’ and a host <strong>of</strong> similar shades <strong>of</strong> Christians.<br />

Theologically <strong>the</strong> agency-oriented mission holds <strong>the</strong> view that mission activity was<br />

primarily a movement from <strong>the</strong> Christian to non-Christian lands, from civilized to noncivilized<br />

or from children <strong>of</strong> God to children <strong>of</strong> Satan, <strong>the</strong> hea<strong>the</strong>ns. From this<br />

perspective <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r was more an object, not a person, looked upon with ei<strong>the</strong>r sympathy<br />

or contempt. A new <strong>Ecumenical</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g helped to reevaluate Carey’s perspective <strong>of</strong><br />

mission when it attached primacy <strong>of</strong> mission to churches <strong>the</strong>mselves. The attempts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

ecumenical leadership to ga<strong>the</strong>r churches toge<strong>the</strong>r for mission activities had tremendous<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g this shift. Moreover, an <strong>in</strong>creased participation <strong>of</strong> Christians from <strong>the</strong><br />

colonial countries, who had relatively little participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission agencies, prodded<br />

<strong>the</strong> shift <strong>in</strong> orientation towards church from agencies. At <strong>the</strong> Jerusalem conference, this<br />

new orientation was accentuated with <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ological nuance <strong>of</strong> call<strong>in</strong>g churches as<br />

‘God’s community’. Jerusalem also adopted a statement avow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> centrality <strong>of</strong><br />

churches and articulat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> different functions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> church and mission agencies.<br />

This church-centric conception <strong>of</strong> foreign missions make it necessary to revise <strong>the</strong> functions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

“mission” where it is an adm<strong>in</strong>istrative agency so that <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>digenous church will become <strong>the</strong> centre<br />

from which whole missionary enterprise <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> area will be directed. 34<br />

Though critical questions are raised time and aga<strong>in</strong>, mission societies were<br />

<strong>in</strong>strumental <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> Christian churches around <strong>the</strong> world. Their number<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> respective land, yet <strong>the</strong>y had <strong>the</strong> stigma <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g members <strong>of</strong> a foreign<br />

religion and had <strong>the</strong> consciousness <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g a m<strong>in</strong>ority <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir own land. Thus, <strong>the</strong>se<br />

new-formed churches <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies looked for fellowship and encouragement<br />

irrespective <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir denom<strong>in</strong>ational barriers. <strong>Ecumenical</strong> collaboration, <strong>the</strong>refore, has<br />

rapidly set <strong>in</strong>to motion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies. The new enthusiasm <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecumenical<br />

collaboration <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies subsequently provided new issues for debates at <strong>the</strong> mission<br />

conferences s<strong>in</strong>ce Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh.<br />

Towards an ecclesiocentric missiology?<br />

12


13<br />

The immediate ramification <strong>of</strong> ecumenical collaboration <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies was <strong>the</strong><br />

shift <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> agency for mission; from <strong>the</strong> mission society centred<br />

approach to church centred approach <strong>in</strong> mission activities. The considerable attention<br />

received for <strong>the</strong> discussion regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> relationship between younger and older<br />

churches brought a new dimension to locate <strong>the</strong> church <strong>in</strong> mission. “In Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh, major<br />

concern was <strong>the</strong> absence <strong>of</strong> missionary enthusiasm… <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ological question <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

relationship between church and mission was hardly touched.” 35 So far <strong>the</strong> mission<br />

agencies were hailed as <strong>the</strong> “standard bearers” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “Gospel <strong>of</strong> Christ for <strong>the</strong> conquest<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world” and <strong>the</strong> so-called younger churches were considered as “merely<br />

evangelistic agencies, who need benevolent control and guidance, like children not yet<br />

come <strong>of</strong> age.” This ‘pervasive attitude <strong>of</strong> benevolent paternalism’ and <strong>the</strong> treatment <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>m as mere objects with relatively no participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> decision mak<strong>in</strong>g process <strong>of</strong><br />

mission agencies led <strong>the</strong> members <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> “younger churches” to welcome <strong>the</strong><br />

re<strong>in</strong>forcement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> primacy <strong>of</strong> church <strong>in</strong> mission. As part <strong>of</strong> a progressive debate<br />

started from Jerusalem conference, Tambaram decisively placed church as <strong>the</strong> locus <strong>of</strong><br />

missionary debates. At <strong>the</strong> open<strong>in</strong>g session John R Mott rem<strong>in</strong>ded <strong>the</strong> ga<strong>the</strong>r<strong>in</strong>g: “notice,<br />

it is <strong>the</strong> Church which is to be at <strong>the</strong> centre <strong>of</strong> our th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g and resolv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>se creative<br />

days- <strong>the</strong> Div<strong>in</strong>e Society founded by Christ and His apostles to accomplish His will <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

world.” 36 Affirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> universality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church and its potential to unite people<br />

irrespective <strong>of</strong> race, nationality, and economic or gender location, however, was<br />

<strong>in</strong>fluenced by <strong>the</strong> grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies to form native churches.<br />

God-Church-World to God-World-Church<br />

The ecclesio-centric view <strong>of</strong> mission prevailed at <strong>the</strong> Jerusalem and Tambaram<br />

was opened for <strong>in</strong>vestigation at Will<strong>in</strong>gen (1952). Will<strong>in</strong>gen met under a renewed<br />

political optimism <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> decolonization process, <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> new nation<br />

states, victory <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> socialist revolution <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a and <strong>the</strong> new breeze <strong>of</strong> cooperation<br />

under <strong>the</strong> aegis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United Nations. These changes generated new awaken<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> a<br />

sense <strong>of</strong> responsibility and confidence and an urge for peace among <strong>the</strong> people around <strong>the</strong><br />

13


14<br />

world. Emerg<strong>in</strong>g ecclesiological concepts were <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> rapid changes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

political and social world.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> critique <strong>of</strong> a church-centered approach had come from <strong>the</strong> Dutch<br />

<strong>the</strong>ologian J. C. Hoekendijk who argued that church-centrism was untenable and bound<br />

to go astray. Not <strong>the</strong> church but <strong>the</strong> world is <strong>the</strong> scene for <strong>the</strong> proclamation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

K<strong>in</strong>gdom. “<strong>the</strong> church has to be seen as a segment <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world”. What is demanded is a<br />

turn from <strong>the</strong> category <strong>of</strong> God-church-world approach to God-world-church pattern. “It<br />

is <strong>the</strong> world and not <strong>the</strong> church that is <strong>the</strong> focus <strong>of</strong> God’s plan.” In <strong>the</strong> God-Church<br />

world approach, “church was reduced to <strong>the</strong> bare function <strong>of</strong> recruit<strong>in</strong>g agent <strong>of</strong> personal<br />

and f<strong>in</strong>ance” as commented by D. T. Niles. 37 What is required is to recapture <strong>the</strong> essence<br />

<strong>of</strong> gospel <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> contemporary situation.<br />

The Oxford meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Life and Work <strong>in</strong> 1937 made <strong>the</strong> same observation;<br />

“Church is not <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world but for <strong>the</strong> world, a statement that resounds what Bonh<strong>of</strong>fer<br />

commented “The Church is essentially a Church for <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r.” The Church must <strong>the</strong>n be<br />

an <strong>in</strong>strument <strong>of</strong> God’s redemptive action <strong>in</strong> this world…a means <strong>in</strong> Gods hands to<br />

establish shalom <strong>in</strong> this world. “Shalom”, J. C. Hoekendijk argued “ must be<br />

proclaimed, lived and demonstrated <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>tegrated act <strong>of</strong> mission and evangelism <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

world because <strong>the</strong> world constitute <strong>the</strong> ma<strong>in</strong> arena for <strong>the</strong> proclamation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom”.<br />

Hoekendijk critiqued that <strong>the</strong> with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecclesio-centric mission paradigm, <strong>the</strong> whole<br />

surround<strong>in</strong>g world was seen <strong>in</strong> ecclesiastical categories, and thus <strong>the</strong> world was<br />

conceived as a sort <strong>of</strong> ecclesiastical tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ground. This new emphasis called for new<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g related to church and mission and thus <strong>the</strong> conference noted that “<strong>the</strong><br />

prevail<strong>in</strong>g notion <strong>of</strong> ‘church is <strong>the</strong> mission’ ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>s that <strong>the</strong> ‘church as a function <strong>of</strong><br />

mission’ and not ‘mission as a function <strong>of</strong> church”. The Church is thus a movement<br />

between <strong>the</strong> “ought to be” and <strong>the</strong> world, responsible to both and also <strong>in</strong>formed by both.<br />

Therefore “<strong>the</strong> Church is required to identify itself with <strong>the</strong> world, not only <strong>in</strong> its<br />

perplexity and distress, its guilt and sorrow, but also <strong>in</strong> its real acts <strong>of</strong> love and justice <strong>in</strong><br />

acts by which it <strong>of</strong>ten put <strong>the</strong> churches to shame.” 38<br />

14


15<br />

Hoekendijk’s critique posed <strong>the</strong> Church as a pilgrim, an agency carry<strong>in</strong>g history to its<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al realization. Melbourne also reiterated this concern <strong>of</strong> church and mission, <strong>the</strong><br />

Church is not <strong>in</strong> mission but an <strong>in</strong>strument <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom to uphold Christ’s mission <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> world. Therefore church and mission are essentially two different realities, not <strong>the</strong><br />

same. The Orthodox view holds that Church is <strong>the</strong> foretaste <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> penultimate goal <strong>of</strong><br />

faith, an “eschatological community, a pilgrim people, which lives <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ardent<br />

expectation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> return <strong>of</strong> its Lord and bears witness to him (her) before <strong>the</strong> world.” 39<br />

The dialectics between history and <strong>the</strong> Church is <strong>the</strong> condition to practice <strong>the</strong> values <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom. This dialectics demand <strong>the</strong> church to be a witness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

given historical context and transform it as a sacrament <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom. (Melbourne).<br />

Hoekendijk’s attempt to re-def<strong>in</strong>e and locate <strong>the</strong> church is pert<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong> this context. He<br />

writes:<br />

It is true that <strong>the</strong> context K<strong>in</strong>gdom-apostolate-oikoumene does not leave much room for <strong>the</strong><br />

church. Ecclesiology does not fit here. When one desires to speak about God’s deal<strong>in</strong>gs with <strong>the</strong><br />

world, <strong>the</strong> Church can be mentioned only <strong>in</strong> pass<strong>in</strong>g and without strong emphasis. Ecclesiology<br />

cannot be more than a s<strong>in</strong>gle paragraph from Christology (<strong>the</strong> Messianic deal<strong>in</strong>gs with <strong>the</strong> world)<br />

and a few sentences from <strong>the</strong> eschatology (<strong>the</strong> messianic deal<strong>in</strong>gs with <strong>the</strong> World). The church is<br />

only <strong>the</strong> church to <strong>the</strong> extent that she lets herself be used as a part <strong>of</strong> God’s deal<strong>in</strong>gs with <strong>the</strong><br />

oikoumene. For this reason she can only be “ecumenical,” i.e., oriented towards <strong>the</strong> oikoumene<strong>the</strong><br />

whole world. 40<br />

Recall<strong>in</strong>g Bonhoeffer’s idea <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church, Will<strong>in</strong>gen conference qualified Church<br />

not as <strong>in</strong>dividual <strong>in</strong>stitutions or a conglomeration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> different <strong>in</strong>stitutions, but as <strong>the</strong><br />

people <strong>of</strong> God. A movement <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>of</strong> God for <strong>the</strong> world. The Church is <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

world, but not <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world, it is ek-klesia, called out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world and sent back <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong><br />

world.<br />

Missio Dei<br />

Most decisive contribution <strong>of</strong> Will<strong>in</strong>gen, however, was its efforts to br<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong><br />

surface <strong>the</strong> idea missio Dei which opened a new genre <strong>of</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> mission<br />

studies. David Bosch <strong>in</strong> his monumental study, Transform<strong>in</strong>g Mission, observed that <strong>the</strong><br />

idea <strong>of</strong> missio Dei was first reflected <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Karl Barth when he stressed that<br />

15


16<br />

mission is but an activity <strong>of</strong> God him/herself. 41 However, <strong>the</strong> conceptual phrase missio<br />

Dei has its orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> Karl Hartenste<strong>in</strong>’s report <strong>of</strong> Will<strong>in</strong>gen where he def<strong>in</strong>ed mission “as<br />

participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> send<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> son, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> missio Dei, with an <strong>in</strong>clusive aim <strong>of</strong><br />

establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> lordship <strong>of</strong> Christ over <strong>the</strong> whole redeemed creation.” 42<br />

Will<strong>in</strong>gen conference observed that :<br />

The church is not <strong>the</strong> true centre <strong>of</strong> gravity towards which one should direct missionary th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g;<br />

ra<strong>the</strong>r it should be <strong>the</strong> self-revelation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Triune God <strong>in</strong> Jesus Christ. Out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> depth <strong>of</strong> God’s<br />

love for us, <strong>the</strong> Fa<strong>the</strong>r has sent forth his own beloved Son to reconcile all th<strong>in</strong>gs to himself, that<br />

we and all men might, through <strong>the</strong> Holy Spirit, be made one <strong>in</strong> him with <strong>the</strong> Fa<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong> that perfect<br />

love which is <strong>the</strong> very nature <strong>of</strong> God. 43<br />

A change from Church-centredness to missio Dei is mediated by <strong>the</strong> challenges <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> post-colonial structures. 44 Two issues were pert<strong>in</strong>ent dur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> early Fifties around<br />

<strong>the</strong> world. First was <strong>the</strong> new found mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> universalism. The success<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese revolution and <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> agencies such as United Nations, Non-<br />

Alignment movement, and Pan African Conference ushered a new faith <strong>in</strong> universalism. 45<br />

The second impetus was <strong>the</strong> anti-<strong>in</strong>stitutionalism, anti-raj sentiment that evolved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

later part <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> 40’s. The Gandhian concept <strong>of</strong> grama-swaraj, for <strong>in</strong>stance, provided a<br />

necessary ideological framework for a new discourse on <strong>the</strong> nature and function <strong>of</strong> state,<br />

organization <strong>of</strong> power and many o<strong>the</strong>r related issues. The recent discourse on civil<br />

societies are based on <strong>the</strong> anti-<strong>in</strong>stitutionalism that Gandhi expressed <strong>in</strong> his understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> village based system that guarantee <strong>the</strong> decentralization <strong>of</strong> power.<br />

The concept <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> God’ and missio Dei doubtlessly f<strong>in</strong>d a partnership<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> new found enthusiasm <strong>of</strong> universalism and anti-<strong>in</strong>stitutionalism.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> missio Dei, ‘mission is not an activity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church but an<br />

attribute <strong>of</strong> God.’ Allud<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> observation <strong>of</strong> Stephen Neill, David Bosch commented<br />

that missio Dei <strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gular marks <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> missions; <strong>the</strong> age <strong>of</strong> mission has<br />

begun, “Mission, s<strong>in</strong>gular rema<strong>in</strong>s primary, missions <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> plural, constitute a<br />

16


17<br />

derivative.” 46 The primary objective <strong>of</strong> our missionary activity is to turn towards God’s<br />

world with humility and participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> conflict between <strong>the</strong> reign <strong>of</strong> righteousness and<br />

<strong>the</strong> powers <strong>of</strong> death and evil.<br />

The conceptual change to missio Dei was welcomed by Roman Catholics<br />

and <strong>the</strong> churches from <strong>the</strong> Orthodox fraternity for several reasons. For <strong>the</strong>m <strong>the</strong> missio<br />

Dei re<strong>in</strong>force <strong>the</strong> Tr<strong>in</strong>itarian concept and certa<strong>in</strong>ly has <strong>the</strong> potential to <strong>of</strong>fset <strong>the</strong> christomonism<br />

advocated by certa<strong>in</strong> Protestant mission agencies and churches. Tr<strong>in</strong>ity be<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

statement <strong>of</strong> faith, <strong>the</strong> orthodox members <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fraternity are always sensitive to <strong>the</strong><br />

collective expressions <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecumenical bodies on <strong>the</strong>se issues. After <strong>the</strong> San Antonio<br />

Confrence (1989) <strong>the</strong> Orthodox participants wrote a collective letter to WCC to express<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir concerns and to rem<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> authorities that: “faith <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Triune God constitute <strong>the</strong><br />

basis <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Council <strong>of</strong> Churches. The confession <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> holy name <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Fa<strong>the</strong>r,<br />

<strong>the</strong> div<strong>in</strong>ity <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Son and <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Holy Spirit as an hypostasis (person) and<br />

<strong>the</strong>ir unity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> div<strong>in</strong>e essence <strong>of</strong> God is <strong>the</strong> fundamental presupposition <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

participation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Orthodox Churches to <strong>the</strong> World Council <strong>of</strong> Churches.” 47<br />

Be<strong>in</strong>g a liturgical eucharistic family, Orthodox <strong>the</strong>ology iterates <strong>the</strong> cosmic<br />

dimension <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church as card<strong>in</strong>al to its understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission. “When eucharistic<br />

family experience <strong>the</strong> truth” <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> Christ, “<strong>the</strong> necessity to share <strong>the</strong> joy <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> resurrection with all is a natural consequence” That means <strong>the</strong> foundational pr<strong>in</strong>ciple<br />

<strong>of</strong> mission with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Orthodox tradition is to build reconciliation between <strong>the</strong> Church<br />

and <strong>the</strong> Triune God, so that <strong>the</strong> truth <strong>of</strong> Christ shall lead <strong>the</strong> members to <strong>the</strong> witness <strong>of</strong><br />

freedom <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world. The Church’s ‘aim is to embrace and to renew <strong>the</strong> whole world, to<br />

transfigure it <strong>in</strong>to God’s k<strong>in</strong>gdom’. Responsibility towards <strong>the</strong> world <strong>in</strong>vites proximity<br />

with <strong>the</strong> world ‘<strong>in</strong> order to draw <strong>the</strong> world near and to sanctify and to renew <strong>the</strong> world, to<br />

give new content to old ways <strong>of</strong> life.” 48<br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>itarianism, as <strong>the</strong> Orthodox participants argue, is a nuanced explanation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

christological formulations, expressed <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian traditions. At Melbourne,<br />

Metropolitan Osthathios related tr<strong>in</strong>itarianism for a Christian as a social doctr<strong>in</strong>e which<br />

17


18<br />

represents <strong>the</strong> concerns for unity and freedom <strong>in</strong> our divided world. It is a warn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> homogeniz<strong>in</strong>g dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>of</strong> a culture, perspective or system. It also warns<br />

aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> attempts to absolutize and construct normative models out <strong>of</strong> dom<strong>in</strong>ant forms<br />

<strong>of</strong> race, sex, class or nationality. Instead tr<strong>in</strong>itarianism rema<strong>in</strong>s as a humble rem<strong>in</strong>der <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> equality and love with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> corporate existence <strong>of</strong> people and nations.<br />

Tr<strong>in</strong>itarianism thus is a movement from <strong>in</strong>dividual to community, authoritarian<br />

power relation to democratic decentralization. As Dr. K. C. Abraham rem<strong>in</strong>ds, <strong>the</strong><br />

Church lives <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission <strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g communities <strong>of</strong> forgiveness- communities that<br />

enrich and widen <strong>the</strong>ir horizon <strong>of</strong> mutual acceptance and solidarity. 49 A quest for and<br />

construction <strong>of</strong> pluriform communities where <strong>the</strong> multiple identities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people are<br />

recognized and respected is <strong>the</strong> best expression <strong>of</strong> our unity and reconciliation.’ 50<br />

Missio Dei also warrants a new relationship with God’s world and its systems.<br />

Early missionary movements used gospel as a means <strong>of</strong> judgement over o<strong>the</strong>rs, o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

religions cultures, civilizations and systems. This judgment has lead <strong>the</strong> missionary<br />

movement to measure <strong>the</strong> distance from <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r and <strong>the</strong> world as marks <strong>of</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

one’s own credentials. The o<strong>the</strong>r rema<strong>in</strong>ed as a problem because <strong>the</strong> prevail<strong>in</strong>g notion<br />

with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> movement was that; He or She is what, that I'm not; He/She is hea<strong>the</strong>n,<br />

demonic whereas I am <strong>the</strong> absolute. This notion was extended to <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> civilized<br />

and <strong>the</strong> uncivilized. This claim <strong>of</strong> absoluteness and <strong>the</strong> notion <strong>of</strong> uniqueness are<br />

rudimentary features <strong>of</strong> missionary enterprise. But unfortunately, one's absoluteness<br />

could be established only by demoniz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. We identify <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r as demon;<br />

<strong>the</strong>refore conquer<strong>in</strong>g and defeat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> demons is an essential process <strong>in</strong> establish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

absoluteness <strong>of</strong> m<strong>in</strong>e. Social exteriority <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r is fundamental to <strong>the</strong> claims <strong>of</strong> this<br />

religious absolutism. Historically <strong>the</strong>re were many categories for identify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> demons<br />

and absolutes, which <strong>in</strong>cludes, Christians and pagans, `civilized' and <strong>the</strong> `primitive' and<br />

lately believers and non-believers. Religious communalism that shows its ugly face <strong>in</strong><br />

countries like India, Indonesia and many o<strong>the</strong>r places f<strong>in</strong>ds an operational pr<strong>in</strong>ciple <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

conflict between absolutes and <strong>the</strong> demon. Missionary movements for a long time<br />

considered all traditional religions as demonic.<br />

18


19<br />

Demonic is a problem <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> way <strong>of</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g known <strong>the</strong> sav<strong>in</strong>g grace <strong>of</strong> God.<br />

However, Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh, Jerusalem and Will<strong>in</strong>gen extend this list <strong>of</strong> problems and had<br />

<strong>in</strong>cluded emerg<strong>in</strong>g political systems and concepts <strong>in</strong> that <strong>in</strong>ventory. Thus socialism,<br />

secularism, science and technology and early humanist discourse f<strong>in</strong>d a berth <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> list <strong>of</strong><br />

problems.<br />

The social exteriority that constitutes <strong>the</strong> “o<strong>the</strong>rness” was shaken by <strong>the</strong><br />

possibility <strong>of</strong> be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> dialogue, and that is what is <strong>of</strong>fered by <strong>the</strong> mission conferences.<br />

Thus a delightful and mature development that occurred <strong>in</strong> mission approach was <strong>the</strong><br />

radical reth<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g from condemn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r as problem and <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g searches<br />

for ways <strong>of</strong> celebrat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. If turn<strong>in</strong>g to God is what missio Dei<br />

warrants, <strong>the</strong> search for God is a celebration <strong>of</strong> God’s presence <strong>in</strong> religions, cultures and<br />

systems. JPIC convention fur<strong>the</strong>r remarked that God is God <strong>of</strong> life. God’s own mission<br />

as evangelist John tells, is giv<strong>in</strong>g life (Jn. 10:10. 14:6). Celebration <strong>of</strong> life <strong>the</strong>refore, is<br />

<strong>the</strong> celebration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> God, and is <strong>the</strong> testimony <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> creator God, <strong>the</strong> giver<br />

<strong>of</strong> life.<br />

Recognition and acceptance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> legitimate place <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>vites everyone<br />

to be <strong>in</strong> communion, <strong>in</strong> dialogue with <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r. The very fact that society today is or has<br />

become religiously and ideologically pluriform demonstrates <strong>the</strong> existence <strong>of</strong> parallel and<br />

compet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> life and reality. As Hans Ucko argues, “religion does not<br />

end with a relation between an I and a Thou.” 51 It requires a community, a humanity, and<br />

a cosmic reality <strong>in</strong> order to experience <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> God.<br />

Missio Dei is an affirmation <strong>of</strong> God’s creation and moreover is an acceptance <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> plurality <strong>of</strong> existence, such as, race, sex, language, geographical differences, cultures,<br />

faith systems that God has graciously granted. “No life lies outside God’s providence<br />

and love”. (Ariarajah). All nations and people are, <strong>the</strong>refore, with<strong>in</strong> God’s sav<strong>in</strong>g<br />

purpose, and <strong>in</strong> all places and at all times people have responded to God’s presence and<br />

activity <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> world. Salvation history cannot be reduced to <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> religions or to<br />

19


20<br />

<strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> only one people. God loves <strong>the</strong> world...<strong>the</strong> whole creation is <strong>the</strong> object <strong>of</strong><br />

God’s salvation.” 52<br />

My neighbour’s Faith - and M<strong>in</strong>e.<br />

The affirmation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> creator God thus <strong>in</strong>vites all to be <strong>in</strong> relationship with God’s<br />

creations. Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh conference has made references to <strong>the</strong> need <strong>of</strong> a new understand<strong>in</strong>g<br />

and relationship with people <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r faiths and cultures. However, <strong>the</strong> first major war <strong>of</strong><br />

1914 to 1918 <strong>in</strong>tensified <strong>the</strong> search for new ways <strong>of</strong> relat<strong>in</strong>g with “o<strong>the</strong>r” people. This<br />

was <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> deliberation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jerusalem and o<strong>the</strong>r missionary conferences.<br />

Claims <strong>of</strong> moral superiority <strong>of</strong> Christendom over aga<strong>in</strong>st o<strong>the</strong>r religious systems and<br />

traditions were exposed by <strong>the</strong> event <strong>of</strong> war as a cultivated ideological myth <strong>of</strong> colonial<br />

powers and it encouraged people <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies to search for different spiritual roots to<br />

f<strong>in</strong>d mean<strong>in</strong>g for life and existence. The immediate ramification <strong>of</strong> it was <strong>the</strong> resurgence<br />

<strong>of</strong> traditional religious systems and practices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonial nations. The moral crisis<br />

encountered by Christian missions is best expressed <strong>in</strong> a letter written by S. K. Datta to J.<br />

H. Oldham on 6 May 1919, after <strong>the</strong> Jallianwallabagh (Amritsar, Punjab) massacre <strong>of</strong> 13<br />

April 1919. “The o<strong>the</strong>r day an old friend, a H<strong>in</strong>du bookseller <strong>of</strong> Lahore said to ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />

friend, a missionary, ‘Why should you waste your time try<strong>in</strong>g to evangelize us?<br />

Christianity to us means <strong>the</strong> bayonet and <strong>the</strong> mach<strong>in</strong>e gun.’ 53<br />

Along with <strong>the</strong> renewal <strong>of</strong> traditional religious faith and practices, an <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

awareness regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> hegemonic colonial dom<strong>in</strong>ation and its debilitat<strong>in</strong>g effect on <strong>the</strong><br />

economy, social life, politics, self-understand<strong>in</strong>g, and o<strong>the</strong>r areas <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual and<br />

community life had encouraged <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> strong nationalist movements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

colonies. In <strong>the</strong> case <strong>of</strong> India, colonial agricultural policy and <strong>the</strong> tailored de<strong>in</strong>dustrialization<br />

process <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian production system promot<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

British <strong>in</strong>dustries forced <strong>the</strong> victims to resist <strong>the</strong> ideological and cultural foundations <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> west. 54 Emerg<strong>in</strong>g nationalist forcers <strong>the</strong>refore, <strong>in</strong>st<strong>in</strong>ctively led to war with whatever<br />

carried a stamp <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> West.<br />

20


21<br />

Missionary conferences s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> first major war were held <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> shadow <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>se<br />

three developments, viz., <strong>the</strong> debasement <strong>of</strong> moral superiority <strong>of</strong> Christendom, religious<br />

awaken<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r religious traditions, and <strong>the</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> nationalist movements <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

colonies.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> a debased social morality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> West and <strong>the</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

nationalism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> colonies, <strong>the</strong> Stockholm Conference (1925) attempted to provide a<br />

new articulative grammar to <strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission though not radically different from<br />

<strong>the</strong> previous understand<strong>in</strong>g. The conference report observed that “The mission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

church above all is to state pr<strong>in</strong>ciples, and to assert <strong>the</strong> ideal, while leav<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

consciousness and to communities <strong>the</strong> duty <strong>of</strong> apply<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>m with clarity, wisdom and<br />

courage.” 55<br />

Relatively better participation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> members from colonial nations <strong>in</strong>itiated new<br />

debates at Jerusalem. These debates largely po<strong>in</strong>t to <strong>the</strong> frustration <strong>of</strong> and demand for a<br />

more realistic and faithful understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir neighbours <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> missionary th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The Barthian notion <strong>of</strong> discont<strong>in</strong>uity between <strong>the</strong> Gospel and o<strong>the</strong>r cultures<br />

advocates a del<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cultural sett<strong>in</strong>gs from <strong>the</strong>ir roots. Hendrik<br />

Kraemer was successful to articulate <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ology <strong>of</strong> Barth regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> historical<br />

revelation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> liv<strong>in</strong>g God <strong>in</strong> Bible and <strong>the</strong>refore he contended that o<strong>the</strong>r religions are<br />

not fulfillment <strong>of</strong> Christ but <strong>the</strong>y are <strong>in</strong> total darkness. Fur<strong>the</strong>rmore, he argued that it is<br />

not Christianity but <strong>the</strong> Christian Gospel which was to be brought <strong>in</strong>to relationship with<br />

o<strong>the</strong>r religions.<br />

In an attempt to fortify Kraemer’s (Barthian) <strong>the</strong>ological position, less attention<br />

was given to <strong>the</strong> protest made by P. Chenchiah <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Re-th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g group <strong>of</strong> Madras. He<br />

observed that Kraemer’s absolutism discard relativism as s<strong>in</strong>. Absolute is only a<br />

construct <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d and hence <strong>the</strong> absolute is metaphysical while <strong>the</strong> relative is<br />

historical. In Biblical realism <strong>in</strong>carnation is:<br />

21


22<br />

The advent <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>cognito God [Who] touches <strong>the</strong> world as <strong>the</strong> tangent touches <strong>the</strong> circletouch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

without touch<strong>in</strong>g, [and] does not enter <strong>in</strong>to it, tak<strong>in</strong>g his place <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> creation,<br />

but only tears <strong>the</strong> texture <strong>of</strong> history and creates a void. 56<br />

M. M. Thomas commented that Chenchiah’s critique <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> absolute <strong>of</strong> Kraemer’s<br />

<strong>the</strong>ology is <strong>of</strong> extreme importance to comprehend <strong>the</strong> reality <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Div<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> history. ‘It<br />

is <strong>the</strong> demand <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people for a God who becomes a person and cont<strong>in</strong>ues to rema<strong>in</strong> a<br />

person with people. Absolutists on <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r hand are unable to conceive such an<br />

<strong>in</strong>carnation.’ 57<br />

Pr<strong>of</strong>. W. E. Hock<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>fered a new narrative structure to express this concern:<br />

“No one's religion was sound unless it was <strong>in</strong> some sense <strong>the</strong> religion <strong>of</strong> his(her) fa<strong>the</strong>rs<br />

(mo<strong>the</strong>rs)…Worship <strong>of</strong> ancestors was one th<strong>in</strong>g; worship with ancestors was ano<strong>the</strong>r.” 58<br />

Chenchiah made a more passionate plea to have a dialogical relationship with o<strong>the</strong>r<br />

religions, which <strong>of</strong> course set <strong>the</strong> trend <strong>in</strong> later years. After <strong>the</strong> collapse <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian<br />

social morality at <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>stance <strong>of</strong> war, and <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> socialist experiments <strong>in</strong><br />

certa<strong>in</strong> centres <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Western Hemisphere, this challenge was received with more<br />

sympathy. Hock<strong>in</strong>g represented this more practical approach when he responded to <strong>the</strong><br />

fears expressed by some on <strong>the</strong> dangers <strong>of</strong> syncretism. He argued that <strong>the</strong> threat <strong>of</strong><br />

scientific materialism, not syncretism, <strong>in</strong>vites a united and timely response.<br />

The new was brought about by <strong>the</strong> fact that <strong>the</strong>re was a world philosophy which was spread<strong>in</strong>g<br />

itself by no teach<strong>in</strong>g nor missionary effort, but by its own power as an accompaniment <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dustrial civilization. They might call it scientific materialism or naturalism…The universal<br />

spread <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> philosophy required a new alignment <strong>of</strong> religious forces.” 59<br />

Bro<strong>the</strong>rs and Sisters <strong>of</strong> Neighbour<strong>in</strong>g faiths<br />

The classification <strong>of</strong> Christian and non-Christian, which was prevalent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

mission parlance <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission boards and agencies and <strong>in</strong> all <strong>the</strong> previous meet<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />

was under scrut<strong>in</strong>y at Mexico, as an expression <strong>of</strong> a search for new mean<strong>in</strong>g to mission.<br />

22


23<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>the</strong> time <strong>of</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh, <strong>the</strong> relations to o<strong>the</strong>r religions was taken as an<br />

important issue <strong>in</strong> Christian mission and thus several studies has appeared explor<strong>in</strong>g a<br />

relevant Christian attitude to o<strong>the</strong>r faiths. The Jerusalem conference met <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong><br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g secularism and witnessed <strong>the</strong> plea for cooperation with people <strong>of</strong> all faiths to<br />

conta<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> threat <strong>of</strong> secularism. However, <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me <strong>of</strong> dialogue first surfaced <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

ecumenical debates <strong>in</strong> New Delhi as a way <strong>of</strong> speak<strong>in</strong>g about Christian relationship with<br />

people <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r faiths. The Mexico conference has followed it up more vigorously where<br />

‘witness <strong>of</strong> Christians to people <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r faiths’ was a sub-<strong>the</strong>me. This concern was taken<br />

seriously by <strong>the</strong> East Asia conference <strong>of</strong> Churches <strong>in</strong> its meet<strong>in</strong>g at Bangkok, which<br />

<strong>in</strong>corporated much <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Asia on o<strong>the</strong>r religions and later <strong>in</strong> a WCC<br />

consultation <strong>in</strong> Kandy, Sri Lanka.<br />

When <strong>the</strong> euphoria <strong>of</strong> national <strong>in</strong>dependence and nation-build<strong>in</strong>g has captured <strong>the</strong><br />

attention <strong>of</strong> all, irrespective <strong>of</strong> religion, language or race, churches experienced <strong>the</strong><br />

positive potentialities <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ter-religious traffic. 60 . In a lecture at Bangalore <strong>in</strong> 1978, M.<br />

M. Thomas raised new issues com<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>the</strong> Asian religions “whe<strong>the</strong>r we should not<br />

discern an Unknown Christ or Christ-pr<strong>in</strong>ciple at work <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r traditional religious<br />

systems as a whole, or at least <strong>in</strong> parts <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong>m” Ariarajah retells a critical question from<br />

a Sanskrit teacher. ‘The teacher was appalled to know that Christians really believed that<br />

God had revealed Godself only <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> history <strong>of</strong> Israel and <strong>the</strong>n decisively <strong>in</strong> Christ.<br />

What k<strong>in</strong>d <strong>of</strong> a God is it that would leave out so much history and so many millions <strong>of</strong><br />

people, or would be so st<strong>in</strong>gy that he would allow his grace to flow only <strong>in</strong> one place and<br />

only through one person’. 61 To state that Christ and God are not present <strong>in</strong> ano<strong>the</strong>r faith<br />

systems thus is to make God as a tribal god.<br />

Discern<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> presence <strong>of</strong> Christ <strong>in</strong> all systems and movements hence is an<br />

imperative for missions. Thus, at <strong>the</strong> Nairobi assembly M. M. Thomas has proposed that<br />

Christians should promote, <strong>in</strong> a positive sense, “Christ-centred syncretism which grapples<br />

with and evaluates all concepts and attitudes critically <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> Jesus Christ.” 62<br />

23


24<br />

The Vancouver conference stimulated a study project <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> local churches “My<br />

Neighbour’s Faith – and M<strong>in</strong>e: Theological Discoveries through <strong>in</strong>terfaith Dialogue”<br />

aim<strong>in</strong>g at creat<strong>in</strong>g witness<strong>in</strong>g communities <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> local areas.<br />

Theological quest?<br />

Discussions on dialogue, however, opened a host <strong>of</strong> questions with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission<br />

debates. The primary concern was, <strong>of</strong> course, related to <strong>the</strong> fears <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> uniqueness <strong>of</strong><br />

Christ. If we engage <strong>in</strong> dialogue with o<strong>the</strong>r systems <strong>of</strong> faith and accept <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong><br />

revelation <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r cultures and religions what does that mean to <strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

uniqueness?<br />

But for christological questions, Hoekendijk <strong>of</strong>fered a new def<strong>in</strong>ition. Accord<strong>in</strong>g<br />

to him <strong>the</strong> Messianic deal<strong>in</strong>gs with <strong>the</strong> world are not outside <strong>the</strong> mission debates. Who is<br />

Christ? In <strong>the</strong> mission agency-centred paradigm, this question was an ana<strong>the</strong>ma. The<br />

mission conference at Ghana with humility affirmed that mission is Christ’s not ours.<br />

The Church is only a participant <strong>in</strong> Christ’s mission. Therefore to locate Christ, and<br />

his/her mission one has to identify who Christ is. M. M. Thomas pondered over this<br />

issue: “<strong>the</strong> ultimate framework <strong>of</strong> reference for Christian thought is nei<strong>the</strong>r God nor man<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> abstract, nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> metaphysics <strong>of</strong> God nor <strong>the</strong> science <strong>of</strong> man taken <strong>in</strong> isolation,<br />

but Jesus-Christ who is God-Man, or ra<strong>the</strong>r God-for-Man, or to use Karl Barth’s<br />

expression, <strong>the</strong> Humanity <strong>of</strong> God.” 63 Therefore anthropology cannot escape <strong>in</strong> our search<br />

for locat<strong>in</strong>g and identify<strong>in</strong>g Christ. The idea <strong>of</strong> human, as remarked by Moltmann,<br />

‘arouse not as a sociological but as a <strong>the</strong>ological category.’ 64 A <strong>the</strong>ological category but<br />

<strong>in</strong>formed by nuanced sociological <strong>in</strong>quiry.<br />

Evangelism <strong>the</strong>n?<br />

Chritological <strong>in</strong>quiries with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission debates were raised with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> genre <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> understand<strong>in</strong>g and nature <strong>of</strong> evangelism. An important contribution <strong>of</strong> Jerusalem was<br />

24


25<br />

its attempt to chip holes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> fl<strong>in</strong>ty but narrow <strong>in</strong>terpretation <strong>of</strong> mission conceived as an<br />

act <strong>of</strong> mak<strong>in</strong>g known Mr. Jesus Joseph <strong>of</strong> Nazareth and <strong>in</strong>stead <strong>in</strong>vited Christians to seek<br />

for a relevant practice for becom<strong>in</strong>g a witness to <strong>the</strong> Christ <strong>of</strong> history. “The Gospel is <strong>the</strong><br />

source <strong>of</strong> power for social regeneration,…Gospel called for <strong>the</strong> redemption <strong>of</strong> and held<br />

<strong>the</strong> promise <strong>of</strong> redemption for <strong>in</strong>dividual men and women and <strong>the</strong> societies <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong>y<br />

live.” 65 What is a Christ-like attitude <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial relations, labour relations, and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>vestment patterns? What is a Christian response to <strong>the</strong> colonial policy <strong>of</strong> alienat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

land from real farmers for <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> foreigners? A study <strong>in</strong>itiated by Oldham on<br />

Race relations which appeared as a follow-up <strong>of</strong> Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh was more prophetic and<br />

stated that “any oppression <strong>of</strong> (hu)man by (hu)man is a denial <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> teach<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Jesus.”<br />

While <strong>the</strong> mission debates <strong>in</strong> general were ra<strong>the</strong>r <strong>in</strong>different to rais<strong>in</strong>g difficult<br />

christological questions, <strong>the</strong> uniqueness <strong>of</strong> Jerusalem was manifested <strong>in</strong> its openness to<br />

accept <strong>the</strong>m as vital for mission practice. Jerusalem, hence, <strong>in</strong>itiated <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong> a<br />

separate Social and Economic Research and Counsel which may have functioned as an<br />

imputes for <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> URM <strong>in</strong> later years.<br />

Personal Salvation to Larger evangelism<br />

Tambaram witnessed debates on evangelism from different perspectives. While a<br />

section ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed a triumphalistic and crusad<strong>in</strong>g approach to evangelism by reiterat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>the</strong> New York statement <strong>of</strong> 1900 that world peace will never be achieved without world<br />

evangelism; o<strong>the</strong>rs argued to consider evangelism as <strong>the</strong> total mission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> church. A<br />

conference statement referred evangelism as “witness to evangelion <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> whole world,<br />

among all people and nations”. In countries like India, <strong>the</strong> churches were committed to,<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir words, “larger evangelism” which <strong>in</strong>cludes health care activities, education and<br />

social service. The conference statement thus said:<br />

The Gospel <strong>of</strong> Christ carried with it <strong>the</strong> vision and hope <strong>of</strong> social transformation and <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

realization <strong>of</strong> such ends as justice, freedom and peace. A liv<strong>in</strong>g Church cannot dissociate itself<br />

from prophetic and practical activities <strong>in</strong> regards to social questions. The evangelism will always<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude a forward-look<strong>in</strong>g vision. 66<br />

25


26<br />

Larger evangelism, however, is not a new th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g emerged at Tambaram. While<br />

describ<strong>in</strong>g that <strong>the</strong> aim <strong>of</strong> Christian mission is to ‘make known to <strong>the</strong> whole world <strong>the</strong><br />

gracious and sav<strong>in</strong>g act <strong>of</strong> God <strong>in</strong> history’, J. H. Oldham wrote <strong>in</strong> a statement <strong>in</strong> 1920 for<br />

<strong>the</strong> Student Volunteer Conference, that <strong>the</strong> purpose <strong>of</strong> God’s acts is <strong>the</strong> redemption and<br />

richer fulfillment <strong>of</strong> human life. “Christian witness is one not only <strong>of</strong> word but <strong>of</strong> life.<br />

The missionary task thus <strong>in</strong>cludes efforts through <strong>in</strong>dustrial and agricultural tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to<br />

improve <strong>the</strong> economic life <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people where poverty is an obstacle to moral and<br />

spiritual growth as well as medical missions and o<strong>the</strong>r forms <strong>of</strong> philanthropy as a<br />

manifestation <strong>of</strong> Christian love.” 67 The impetus for <strong>the</strong> growth and function <strong>of</strong> Urban<br />

Rural Mission and <strong>the</strong> development programmes <strong>of</strong> various o<strong>the</strong>r ecumenical bodies<br />

largely stems form <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ological position expressed by Oldham and <strong>the</strong> Tambaram<br />

conference.<br />

For Whitby (1947), ‘evangelism means <strong>the</strong> proclamation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> cross to a world<br />

which is baffled by <strong>the</strong> tragedy <strong>of</strong> apparently mean<strong>in</strong>gless suffer<strong>in</strong>g’ and is mak<strong>in</strong>g way<br />

for <strong>the</strong> entry <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> risen Christ <strong>in</strong> every sphere <strong>of</strong> world’s life, which <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong><br />

economic, social and political. Met after <strong>the</strong> destruction <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> horrendous war <strong>of</strong> 1939-<br />

45, a cognizance <strong>of</strong> an unjust and s<strong>in</strong>ful world order was more manifested <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

deliberations <strong>of</strong> Whitby. Evangelism thus was understood as a ‘dialectical recognition <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> presence and <strong>in</strong>completeness <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> God <strong>in</strong> contemporary history and <strong>the</strong><br />

imperatives, which this warrants.’<br />

Tambaram conference issued a call to <strong>the</strong> churches to ‘unite <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> supreme work<br />

<strong>of</strong> world evangelization until <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdoms <strong>of</strong> this world become <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdoms <strong>of</strong> our<br />

Lord. This call for unity was reiterated at Whitby and summoned <strong>the</strong> churches to engage<br />

<strong>in</strong> a ‘partnership <strong>of</strong> obedience’.<br />

Tak<strong>in</strong>g note <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> discussion on evangelism and Christology, <strong>the</strong> Bangkok<br />

meet<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 1973 (Salvation Today) delved <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g and practice <strong>of</strong> Salvation <strong>in</strong><br />

Christian th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g. Based on <strong>the</strong> August<strong>in</strong>ian and medieval pietistic <strong>the</strong>ology and<br />

re<strong>in</strong>forced by enlightenment <strong>in</strong>dividualism, salvation was perceived strictly <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

26


27<br />

purview <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals. A hermenutical read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Great Commission, [though <strong>the</strong><br />

biblical account refer to nations] was read with<strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>dividualist bear<strong>in</strong>gs and thus<br />

conversion and sav<strong>in</strong>g souls rema<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>the</strong> buzz word <strong>in</strong> mission discourse.<br />

The prevalent notion <strong>of</strong> salvation <strong>in</strong> Christian <strong>the</strong>ology was <strong>in</strong>fluenced by an<br />

understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> absolutism and this view was revamped at <strong>the</strong> Oxford Conference <strong>of</strong><br />

Life and Work partly because <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>ological <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> Barth, Niebuhr, and<br />

Brunner. Thus <strong>the</strong> conference was heavy on ethical debates but attempted to deconstruct<br />

<strong>the</strong> liberal notions <strong>of</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uity between history and <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom <strong>of</strong> God. The<br />

conference reiterated <strong>the</strong> <strong>of</strong>t-repeated <strong>the</strong>ological formulations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> time: ‘history is not<br />

redemptive; evil will persist until <strong>the</strong> end; a Christian social order is impossible; Bible<br />

<strong>of</strong>fers no direct solutions for contemporary political and social problems; <strong>the</strong>refore <strong>the</strong><br />

mission mandate for churches and ecumenical bodies is to outl<strong>in</strong>e middle axioms to<br />

enliven faith.’ 68<br />

Bangkok, however, made a significant breakthrough from this traditional view. The<br />

discussion made an earnest search to locate <strong>the</strong> concerns raised at Mexico and Uppsala<br />

with<strong>in</strong> a mission mandate for <strong>the</strong> churches. The choice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>me grew out <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

deliberations at Mexico, which encouraged to unravel <strong>the</strong> “form and content <strong>of</strong> salvation<br />

which Christ <strong>of</strong>fers to men and women <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> secular world”, because this salvation that<br />

Christ brought <strong>of</strong>fers a comprehensive wholeness <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> divided world. Salvation is<br />

newness <strong>of</strong> life, which comprises body and soul, <strong>in</strong>dividual and society, humank<strong>in</strong>d and<br />

<strong>the</strong> “groan<strong>in</strong>g creation”.<br />

In an attempt to delve <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> objective manifestation <strong>of</strong> salvation with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

historical reality, M.M. Thomas, on a read<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Psalm 144, recounted that <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> process<br />

<strong>of</strong> build<strong>in</strong>g a new society, <strong>the</strong> pursuit <strong>of</strong> health and beauty, material abundance, security<br />

from aggression and social justice are <strong>the</strong> essential spiritual qualities.<br />

Human spirituality, one might say, is <strong>the</strong> way <strong>in</strong> which (hu)man, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> freedom <strong>of</strong> his(her) selftranscendence,<br />

seeks a structure <strong>of</strong> ultimate mean<strong>in</strong>g and sacredness with<strong>in</strong> which he(she) can<br />

27


28<br />

fulfil or realize himself(herself) <strong>in</strong> and through his(her) <strong>in</strong>volvement <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> bodily, <strong>the</strong> material,<br />

and <strong>the</strong> social realities and relations <strong>of</strong> his(her) life on earth. 69<br />

The primary concern for Christian mission, MM argued, “is <strong>the</strong> salvation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

human spirituality with peoples’ right choices <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> realm <strong>of</strong> self-transcendence”, not <strong>in</strong><br />

isolation, but “<strong>in</strong> relation to <strong>the</strong> material, social and cultural revolutions <strong>of</strong> our times.”<br />

Reiterat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>mes <strong>of</strong> Uppsala he fur<strong>the</strong>r commented that:<br />

The mission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> church <strong>in</strong> this context is to present with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> creative liberation movements <strong>of</strong><br />

our time which <strong>the</strong> Gospel <strong>of</strong> Christ itself has helped to take shape, and so participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>m as to<br />

be able to communicate <strong>the</strong> genu<strong>in</strong>e gospel, <strong>of</strong> liberation from <strong>the</strong> vicious circle <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong> and<br />

alienation, law and self-righteousness and frustration and death – <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> new realm <strong>of</strong> Christ’s<br />

new humanity where <strong>the</strong>re is forgiveness and reconciliation, grace and justification, and renewal<br />

movements and eternal life. 70<br />

M. M. Thomas <strong>in</strong> his William Carey Memorial Lectures given <strong>in</strong> January 1970,<br />

spoke as salvation as humanization. He said that <strong>the</strong> crucial question raised <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ology <strong>of</strong> mission is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relation between <strong>the</strong> gospel <strong>of</strong> salvation and <strong>the</strong><br />

struggles <strong>of</strong> men (people) everywhere for <strong>the</strong>ir humanity, constitut<strong>in</strong>g as it does <strong>the</strong><br />

contemporary context <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world <strong>in</strong> which <strong>the</strong> gospel has to be communicated. The<br />

question, <strong>in</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r words, is that <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> relation between Mission and Humanization. The<br />

studies on <strong>in</strong>dustrial relations and rural reconstruction promoted by Jerusalem conference<br />

has created a environment for a sympa<strong>the</strong>tic understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> secular humanism as a<br />

dialogue partner for def<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what is meant by salvation <strong>in</strong> an objective historical context.<br />

Bangkok and earlier Uppsala asserted that <strong>the</strong> mission <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church could be realized<br />

only when it encounters <strong>the</strong> revolutionary spirit <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> religions and secular movements<br />

which verbalize people’s search for freedom, dignity and fuller life. Their search for<br />

hol<strong>in</strong>ess is <strong>the</strong> search to rediscover <strong>the</strong> God <strong>of</strong> history or to imitate <strong>the</strong> Jesus <strong>of</strong> Nazareth.<br />

This road <strong>of</strong> imitation needs new experience <strong>of</strong> baptism and <strong>the</strong> Cross; baptism <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

river <strong>of</strong> revolutionary religious (Pieris) expressions and <strong>the</strong> Cross as a perpetual<br />

encounter with <strong>the</strong> systems <strong>of</strong> power. Baptism and Cross thus requires praxiological<br />

28


29<br />

depths, praxis towards <strong>the</strong> collective liberation <strong>of</strong> all, a movement from <strong>in</strong>dividual to <strong>the</strong><br />

collective, and to history. Fr. Sebastian Kappen narrates this concern:<br />

The Hebrew idea <strong>of</strong> collective dest<strong>in</strong>y <strong>of</strong> which Jesus was heir, built on <strong>the</strong> collective experience<br />

<strong>of</strong> slavery <strong>in</strong> Egypt and <strong>the</strong> organized march to <strong>the</strong> promised land. The thrust <strong>of</strong> this experience is<br />

that salvation is not <strong>of</strong> isolated <strong>in</strong>dividuals, but <strong>the</strong> f<strong>in</strong>al reconciliation and regeneration <strong>of</strong><br />

humanity as a whole. The project <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Reign <strong>of</strong> God <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong> emergence <strong>of</strong> a universal<br />

community which will sacrifice nei<strong>the</strong>r <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual to <strong>the</strong> collective nor collectivity to <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual. 71<br />

The Bangkok conference <strong>the</strong>refore requested <strong>the</strong> mission agencies to “actively use<br />

its resources, energies and its freedom <strong>of</strong> action <strong>in</strong> its own country <strong>in</strong> such a way as to<br />

seek consciously to underm<strong>in</strong>e oppression and foster liberation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> oppressive<br />

situation.” That act is a spiritual act, a practice <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>the</strong>osis, a struggle aga<strong>in</strong>st <strong>the</strong> false<br />

spiritualities <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> ‘ungod’ <strong>of</strong> race, nation and class ‘and <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> self righteousness <strong>of</strong><br />

ideals which re<strong>in</strong>force collective structures <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>humanity and oppression.<br />

To be a witness <strong>of</strong> God, by negat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> ungod <strong>in</strong> history and <strong>in</strong> oneself, <strong>the</strong><br />

Church needs to restructure its <strong>in</strong>stitutions to become truthful to its vocation. (Uppsala).<br />

While people everywhere are <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> struggle to “f<strong>in</strong>d mean<strong>in</strong>g, dignity, freedom,<br />

and love, church cannot stand alo<strong>of</strong>” but has been called for a more open and humble<br />

partnership with all who work for <strong>the</strong>se goals. The most significant <strong>the</strong>ological and<br />

missiological statement that started to change <strong>the</strong> genre <strong>of</strong> debates world wide is <strong>the</strong><br />

demand for identification with <strong>the</strong> poor and <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>alized. A criteria for mission<br />

partnership suggest that an evaluation need to be based on whe<strong>the</strong>r – “do <strong>the</strong>y place <strong>the</strong><br />

church alongside <strong>the</strong> poor, <strong>the</strong> defenceless, <strong>the</strong> abused, <strong>the</strong> forgotten, <strong>the</strong> bored.” 72<br />

An expression <strong>of</strong> this new missiological thrust was manifested <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> formation <strong>of</strong><br />

new departments and programmes <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Council, which <strong>in</strong>cludes Program to<br />

Combat Racism and Dialogue with People <strong>of</strong> Liv<strong>in</strong>g Faith. Both <strong>the</strong>se departments<br />

resonate with <strong>the</strong> new th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g that has emerged with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Uppsala assembly.<br />

29


30<br />

The meet<strong>in</strong>gs at Melbourne, San Antonio, Seoul and Canberra reiterated this call<br />

to <strong>the</strong> churches to be <strong>in</strong> solidarity with <strong>the</strong> poor and <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>alized. As <strong>the</strong> title, “Your<br />

K<strong>in</strong>gdom Come” <strong>in</strong>dicates, <strong>the</strong> Melbourne conference <strong>of</strong> Mission and Evangelism<br />

Department <strong>of</strong> WCC <strong>in</strong> 1980 was constituted as a call to prayer, a prayer which disturbs<br />

and confronts, yet a prayer pregnant with <strong>the</strong> potentials for unity and reconciliation. This<br />

prayer needs to be cried out <strong>in</strong> “solidarity with <strong>the</strong> cry <strong>of</strong> millions who are liv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

poverty and <strong>in</strong>justice. The church need to see <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> Jesus <strong>in</strong> those mutilated bodies<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> poor and <strong>the</strong> rejected (Mat. 25). The prayer itself is an announcement <strong>of</strong> hope and<br />

an expression <strong>of</strong> our commitment to liberate those who are <strong>in</strong> captivity.<br />

Therefore <strong>the</strong> central thrust <strong>of</strong> this prayer is our urge for participation <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

redemptive mission <strong>of</strong> God, which was not to add several ethical pr<strong>in</strong>ciples or to clarify<br />

various aspects <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Biblical narratives, but to regenerate “all th<strong>in</strong>gs”; “to rise up <strong>the</strong><br />

fallen, to make <strong>in</strong>corruptible and to glorify <strong>the</strong> condemned, to deify human nature.” 73 The<br />

prayer resound to <strong>the</strong> urge for a “faithful evangelism that aims at <strong>the</strong> transformation and<br />

permeation <strong>of</strong> societies from with<strong>in</strong> and looks to <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom as <strong>the</strong> recapitulation <strong>of</strong> all<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> Jesus Christ” Emilio Castro related this prayer to evangelism and mission:<br />

We are under <strong>the</strong> command that this gospel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom should be proclaimed to <strong>the</strong> ends <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> earth. We also believe that <strong>the</strong> promise <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>gdom belongs to <strong>the</strong> poor <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth. Who<br />

are we to deprive <strong>the</strong> masses <strong>of</strong> people <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> world <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> knowledge <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> preference, which<br />

God has for <strong>the</strong>m? The Gospel <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> k<strong>in</strong>g belongs to those to whom it is addressed. It belongs to<br />

those who are outside <strong>the</strong> Church. 74<br />

Solidarity with <strong>the</strong> ones <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> marg<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>the</strong> rejected, is <strong>the</strong> essence <strong>of</strong> mission.<br />

The world convocation on Justice, Peace and Integrity <strong>of</strong> Creation at Seoul powerfully<br />

articulated this concern. “God’s love seeks, <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> first place, <strong>the</strong> weak, <strong>the</strong> poor and <strong>the</strong><br />

oppressed. God never forgets <strong>the</strong> victims <strong>of</strong> human violence. We will experience God’s<br />

presence and love as we identify with those who suffer and as we participate <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong>ir<br />

struggle aga<strong>in</strong>st oppressive powers which dehumanize people and destroy <strong>the</strong> face <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

earth. The anger and rebellion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> oppressed are a sign <strong>of</strong> hope for a more human<br />

future.” 75<br />

30


31<br />

Creation Yearn<strong>in</strong>g for Redemption<br />

The rapid growth <strong>of</strong> science and technology and its postulation <strong>of</strong> represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />

truth, objectivity was perceived as a serious challenge to Christian mission at Jerusalem<br />

conference. The scientific rationality, <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> political idea <strong>of</strong> secularism,<br />

attempted to wean away <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>of</strong> religious dogmas, which functioned so far as <strong>the</strong><br />

locus <strong>of</strong> people’s consciousness. Secularism and scientific rationality thus <strong>in</strong>vited serious<br />

debates <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> mission parlours <strong>of</strong> Christianity. Moreover, <strong>in</strong>dustrialization and <strong>the</strong><br />

growth <strong>of</strong> urban centres have created new hardships and challenges to people. Thus <strong>the</strong><br />

Jerusalem conference has urged <strong>the</strong> churches to address <strong>the</strong> issue with diligence. It also<br />

appealed to <strong>the</strong> churches to adopt a “comprehensive approach” and to get <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong><br />

rural reconstruction and to help f<strong>in</strong>d solutions to <strong>in</strong>dustrial problems.<br />

Mexico witnessed a qualitative shift <strong>in</strong> mission orientation with<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> context <strong>of</strong> a<br />

mission conference. It <strong>in</strong>itiated a new search for be<strong>in</strong>g wholistic <strong>in</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g and mission<br />

mandates. The conference reflected upon environmental issues, without realiz<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

with<strong>in</strong> a couple <strong>of</strong> decade <strong>the</strong> issue <strong>of</strong> environment and ecology challenges <strong>the</strong> very<br />

foundation <strong>of</strong> our do<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong>ology and mission.<br />

The Christian missions cannot escape from <strong>the</strong> past, when <strong>the</strong>ir <strong>the</strong>ology provided <strong>the</strong><br />

necessary legitimization for <strong>the</strong> depletion <strong>of</strong> nature. They promoted, as <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong>ological understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> dualism, a distance from nature as <strong>the</strong> evidence for one’s<br />

faith <strong>in</strong> God. Those who ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed an organic relationship with nature were called<br />

hea<strong>the</strong>ns and <strong>the</strong>ir world view and perspective <strong>of</strong> life was condemned as animism, an<br />

ana<strong>the</strong>ma for <strong>the</strong> real God. Nature thus <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian term<strong>in</strong>ology was described as a<br />

spiritless body, to be raped without any feel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> guilt for <strong>the</strong> plantation-oriented<br />

agriculturists [some missionaries were also <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> plantations, William Carey, for<br />

example, was an <strong>in</strong>digo planter] and <strong>the</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustrial capitalism.<br />

The observation <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Mexico conference thus was <strong>of</strong> significance. A conference<br />

statement observed that: The grow<strong>in</strong>g dom<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> man over nature is <strong>the</strong> gift <strong>of</strong> God<br />

31


32<br />

but it is also to be exercised <strong>in</strong> responsibility to Him…We affirm that this world is God’s<br />

world.” 76 Though Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh and Jerusalem have expressed concern regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong><br />

emergence <strong>of</strong> an all-pervasive technological culture, that critique was not related with<br />

environmental issues. The 1979 <strong>the</strong> Church and Society conference convened at <strong>the</strong><br />

MIT, Boston, made significant <strong>in</strong>roads <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> th<strong>in</strong>k<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> mission <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> ecumenical<br />

fraternity. Attempts were made to provide new <strong>the</strong>ological articulation to express <strong>the</strong><br />

concerns <strong>of</strong> ecology, environment and susta<strong>in</strong>able life. Charles Birch <strong>in</strong> his eight <strong>the</strong>ses<br />

on Nature, Humanity and God urged that <strong>the</strong> churches should ‘discover a vision <strong>of</strong> reality<br />

to bridge <strong>the</strong> chasm between vision and its realization.’ In his <strong>the</strong>ses, he observed that<br />

<strong>the</strong> scientific- technological rationality is bent on <strong>the</strong> mastery over nature; universe <strong>in</strong> this<br />

view is conceived as contrivance; and Christian <strong>the</strong>ology, unfortunately, accommodated<br />

itself uncomfortably to <strong>the</strong> mechanistic cosmology <strong>of</strong> science, thus detach<strong>in</strong>g still fur<strong>the</strong>r<br />

from nature and humanity, and God. Acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> unity <strong>of</strong> creation, that is <strong>the</strong><br />

oneness <strong>of</strong> nature, humanity and God <strong>in</strong>vites urgent attention from all concerned.’ 77<br />

Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Paul, it is required from Christians to make visible <strong>the</strong> great promise <strong>of</strong><br />

eschatological freedom for <strong>the</strong> non-human creation. 78 That <strong>in</strong>volves <strong>the</strong> creation <strong>of</strong><br />

mutuality between people and nature.<br />

An earnest challenge to <strong>the</strong> anthropocentric understand<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> redemption was raised<br />

prom<strong>in</strong>ently at Canberra. Churches were urged to seek new mission paradigms that will<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude <strong>the</strong> regeneration <strong>of</strong> all <strong>of</strong> God’s creation, which <strong>in</strong>cludes <strong>the</strong> sand, and rock,<br />

animals and <strong>the</strong> whole earth. Larry Rasmussen describes <strong>the</strong> new orientation that <strong>the</strong><br />

church and <strong>the</strong>ology ought to follow:<br />

A democratic global consciousness rooted <strong>in</strong> au<strong>the</strong>ntic local communities, is <strong>of</strong> course ano<strong>the</strong>r<br />

way to express <strong>the</strong> ancient ecumenical vision itself. The church <strong>in</strong> every place is <strong>the</strong> Church<br />

Universal and <strong>the</strong> Church Universal is legitimately represented <strong>in</strong> each place. Yet what churches<br />

face as <strong>the</strong> grave issues at <strong>the</strong> end <strong>of</strong> this century and <strong>the</strong> beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> next is itself <strong>the</strong> same<br />

that all o<strong>the</strong>r communities face: <strong>the</strong> compell<strong>in</strong>g need to understand “<strong>the</strong> organism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> earth” as<br />

“<strong>the</strong> all-determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g factor” that is presently endangered; <strong>the</strong> need to understand that earth, nature<br />

and society toge<strong>the</strong>r – is a community itself, and one without an exist; <strong>the</strong> need to understand faith<br />

now as fidelity to earth <strong>in</strong> accord with creation’s <strong>in</strong>tegrity as God-given 79<br />

32


33<br />

Debate should cont<strong>in</strong>ue.<br />

A call for <strong>the</strong> development <strong>of</strong> a new type <strong>of</strong> missionary approach, not devoid <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> old style, was raised by a participant at Will<strong>in</strong>gen which received considerable<br />

attention <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> later days <strong>of</strong> mission practice. Accord<strong>in</strong>g to Max Warren “we need to<br />

envisage men and women <strong>of</strong> scientific tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g who will be ready to give <strong>the</strong>ir service <strong>in</strong><br />

development schemes…will go not merely as those whose Christian convictions are<br />

marg<strong>in</strong>al to <strong>the</strong>ir work…ra<strong>the</strong>r with a vocation consciously and deliberately to seek to<br />

work out a dist<strong>in</strong>ctive and purified technology <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> light <strong>of</strong> Christian <strong>in</strong>sights.” 80<br />

Although Warren’s concern was ra<strong>the</strong>r practical <strong>in</strong> essence, his observation marked a<br />

radical shift <strong>in</strong> traditional mission orientation; his challenge amounts to an <strong>in</strong>vitation to<br />

create new technological and scientific propositions <strong>in</strong>formed by <strong>the</strong> nuance <strong>of</strong> faith.<br />

This challenge was not heard fully to this day, although, by 1960 IMC appo<strong>in</strong>ted a<br />

secretary to delve <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong> possibility <strong>of</strong> turn<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> development ideology and practice as<br />

a promise for missions.<br />

Warren’s observation is pert<strong>in</strong>ent <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> present context. Does our faith <strong>in</strong>forms<br />

<strong>the</strong> economic relationship? Does our faith prove to be compatible with <strong>the</strong> claims and<br />

demands <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> market? How do we redef<strong>in</strong>e <strong>the</strong> concept <strong>of</strong> mission when <strong>the</strong> market<br />

assumes <strong>the</strong> role <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> church? When market div<strong>in</strong>ized money and monitized <strong>the</strong> div<strong>in</strong>e<br />

what does it mean to be a witness?<br />

When <strong>the</strong> practice <strong>of</strong> faith fails us, poetic <strong>in</strong>tuition comes to wake us up from our<br />

slumber. A prayer from Atharvaveda, perhaps, may be rem<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g us <strong>the</strong> mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

mission:<br />

Supreme Lord, let <strong>the</strong>re be peace <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> sky and<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> atmosphere, peace <strong>in</strong> plant world and <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

forest; let cosmic powers be peaceful:<br />

Let Brahma be peaceful: let <strong>the</strong>re be undiluted<br />

and fulfill<strong>in</strong>g peace everywhere.<br />

1 Wiiliam Carey, An Enquiry <strong>in</strong>to Obligations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christians to Use means for <strong>the</strong> Conversion <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

hea<strong>the</strong>n <strong>in</strong> Francis m. DuBose, Classics <strong>of</strong> Christian Missions (Nashville, Broadman Press, 1979) p.24-29.<br />

2 Karl Muller, Mission Theology: An Introduction (Ne<strong>the</strong>rlands: Stely Press, 1987) p. 30.<br />

33


34<br />

3 <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Missionary Conference, New York 1900. Report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> …Vol.1, (New York: American Tract<br />

Society, p.77.<br />

4 Keith Clements, Faith on <strong>the</strong> Frontier: A Life <strong>of</strong> J. H. Oldham (Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh: T&T Clark, 1999) 59-60p.<br />

5 The Six subdivisions are: The apostolic paradigm <strong>of</strong> primitive Christianity, The Hellenistic paradigm <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>the</strong> patristic period, <strong>the</strong> medieval Roman Catholic paradigm, The Protestant reformation paradigm, <strong>the</strong><br />

modern enlightenment paradigm, and <strong>the</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g ecumenical paradigm. See David Bosch Transform<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Mission: paradigm Shifts <strong>in</strong> Theology <strong>of</strong> Mission (New York: Orbis, 1991) p. 181-182<br />

6 John R. Mott, “The Obligation to Evangelize <strong>the</strong> World” repr<strong>in</strong>ted <strong>in</strong> Francis M. DuBose, Classics <strong>of</strong><br />

Christian Missions (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1979) p. 320-321.<br />

7 Kenneth Scott Latourette, “<strong>Ecumenical</strong> Bear<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Missionary Movement and <strong>the</strong> International<br />

Missionary Council” <strong>in</strong> Ruth Rouse and Stephen C. Neill ed., A History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Movement:<br />

1517-1948 (London: SPCK, 1967) p. 358<br />

8 Stephen Neill, A History <strong>of</strong> Christian Missions (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Pengu<strong>in</strong> Books, 1964) p.<br />

252.<br />

9 Ruth Rose “Voluntary Movements and <strong>the</strong> Chang<strong>in</strong>g <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Climate.” In Ruth Rose and Neill<br />

(eds.) A History..,1967, p. 311-312<br />

10 Clements, 1999, p. 80.<br />

11 World Missionary Conference, 1910, report <strong>of</strong> Commission I, Carry<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> Gospel to all <strong>the</strong> Non-<br />

Christian World (Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh: Oliphant, Anderson & Ferrier) p. 6<br />

12 Harry Sawyerr, “The First World Missionary Conference: Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh 1910” International Review <strong>of</strong><br />

Mission Vol. LXVII, No. 267, July 1978.<br />

13 <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Missionary Conference: New York, 1900. Report.. p.10<br />

14 Neill, 1964 p. 243.<br />

15 Pierre Vilar, A History <strong>of</strong> Gold and Money: 1450 to 1920 (London: Verso, 1991) p.64<br />

16 Philip Potter, “From Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh to Melbourne”, <strong>in</strong> Gerald H. Anderson ed., Witness<strong>in</strong>g to <strong>the</strong> K<strong>in</strong>gdom:<br />

Melbourne and Beyond (New York: Orbis, 1982) p. 13.<br />

17 Enrique Dussel, A History <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church <strong>in</strong> Lat<strong>in</strong> America: Colonialism to Liberation, Grand Rapids:<br />

William B. Eerdmans Publish<strong>in</strong>g Company, 1981, p. 5.<br />

18 Vilar, 1991, p.67.<br />

19 Guaicaipuro Cuautemoc The real foreign debt, Third World Resurgence No. 90/91, February/March<br />

1998.<br />

20 William Digby, Prosperous British India London, 1901<br />

21 Report <strong>of</strong> Commission I p. 10<br />

22 Vera Anstey The Economic Development <strong>of</strong> India London, 1929, p.5.<br />

23 Report <strong>of</strong> Commission I. p. 30-31<br />

24 ibid. p. 22.<br />

25 Report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Conference vol. 9.<br />

26 Report <strong>of</strong> Commission I p. 350<br />

27 Clements, p. 59<br />

28 Report <strong>of</strong> Commission I p. 207. Also refer <strong>the</strong> letter written by Dr. Ew<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Lahore <strong>in</strong> Report I p. 19.<br />

29 Latourette p. 358<br />

30 A protest aga<strong>in</strong>st this form <strong>of</strong> categorization was raised by Ms. Sarah Chakko, <strong>the</strong> first woman <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

WCC presidium. When she was <strong>in</strong>vited to participate <strong>the</strong> first WCC assembly as a representative <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong><br />

“younger churches” she questioned <strong>the</strong> wisdom <strong>of</strong> such classification.<br />

31 Sawyerr, 1978 p. 261.<br />

32 Quoted by Potter, 1982, p. 24<br />

33 Neill p. 544<br />

34 IMC Jerusalem Report, The Relation between <strong>the</strong> Younger and <strong>the</strong> Older Churches, p. 209<br />

35 Bosch, p. 369<br />

36 Quoted by Evert J. Schoonhoven, IRM July 78, p. 302.<br />

37 D. T. Niles Upon <strong>the</strong> Earth (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1962) p.34<br />

38 Norman Goodall (ed.), Missions under <strong>the</strong> Cross (London: IMC, 1953) p.191.<br />

39 Limouris 1994, p. 79.<br />

40 J. C. Hoekendijk, The Church Inside Out, (London: SCM Press, 1964) p. 38.<br />

41 Bosch, p. 389.<br />

34


35<br />

42 Rodger C. Bassham, “Seek<strong>in</strong>g a deeper Theological Mean<strong>in</strong>g for Mission” <strong>in</strong> IRM, July 1978, p. 332.<br />

43 Tom Stransky “Missio Dei” <strong>in</strong> Dictionary <strong>of</strong>.. (1991) p. 688<br />

44 The term post-colonial def<strong>in</strong>itely is a misnomer. The emerg<strong>in</strong>g globalization has unequivocally proved<br />

that colonialism has never ended.<br />

45 The Raj also practiced a truncated universalism. Empire, which was successful <strong>in</strong> defeat<strong>in</strong>g sun from its<br />

attempt to take rest <strong>of</strong> course, represented a universalism; Africans where taken to <strong>the</strong> new land, Indians<br />

where transported to <strong>the</strong> Caribbean, South Africa and to <strong>the</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r distant lands, textile made <strong>in</strong> Manchester<br />

was available <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> villages <strong>of</strong> Andhra Pradesh, and many o<strong>the</strong>r visible forms <strong>of</strong> universalism. But <strong>the</strong><br />

universalism <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> empire however was <strong>of</strong>fered <strong>the</strong> opposite <strong>of</strong> what represented unity and freedom.<br />

46 Bosch, 1991 p.391<br />

47 Limouris , 1994, p. 158<br />

It should be recalled that <strong>the</strong> proposal for a united body for <strong>the</strong> worldwide churches was first proposed by<br />

Metropolitan Doro<strong>the</strong>os <strong>of</strong> Brussa <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Church <strong>of</strong> Constant<strong>in</strong>ople <strong>in</strong> January 1919. The proposal was to<br />

create a League <strong>of</strong> Churches on <strong>the</strong> l<strong>in</strong>es <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> League <strong>of</strong> Nations set up at <strong>the</strong> <strong>in</strong>itiative <strong>of</strong> President<br />

Wilson <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> United States. The League <strong>of</strong> Churches, Archbishop expected, shall create a sense <strong>of</strong><br />

ko<strong>in</strong>onia among <strong>the</strong> churches to thwart <strong>the</strong> dangers that threaten <strong>the</strong> very foundations <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christian faith<br />

and <strong>the</strong> essence <strong>of</strong> Christian life and society. The collapse <strong>of</strong> Russian and Ottoman empires, <strong>the</strong> two<br />

powers that provided limited but necessary freedom and protection for <strong>the</strong> churches was <strong>the</strong> immediate<br />

reference for this statement. However, Visser ‘t Ho<strong>of</strong>t remarked that <strong>the</strong> dangers <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> missiological<br />

assumptions and practices <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Protestant churches were felt as an <strong>in</strong>vasion <strong>in</strong>to <strong>the</strong>ir space by <strong>the</strong><br />

Orthodox churches and that was one <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> major reasons beh<strong>in</strong>d <strong>the</strong> proposal for sett<strong>in</strong>g up a League <strong>of</strong><br />

Churches. The Encyclical <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Archbishop propos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>the</strong> set up <strong>of</strong> a League <strong>of</strong> Churches remarked:<br />

“So many troubles and suffer<strong>in</strong>gs are caused by o<strong>the</strong>r Christians and great hatred and enmity are<br />

aroused, with such <strong>in</strong>significant results, by this tendency <strong>of</strong> some to proselytize and entice <strong>the</strong><br />

followers <strong>of</strong> o<strong>the</strong>r Christian confessions” [See W. A. Visser ‘t Ho<strong>of</strong>t, The Genesis and Formation<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> World Council <strong>of</strong> Churches ((Geneva: WCC, 1982) p. 5<br />

Visser ‘t Ho<strong>of</strong>t fur<strong>the</strong>r observed that “<strong>the</strong> Orthodox churches had been deeply hurt by <strong>the</strong> sheep-steal<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>in</strong><br />

which a number <strong>of</strong> Western churches and missions were engaged. To treat Orthodox Christians as pagans<br />

who should be converted seemed to <strong>the</strong> Eastern churches as a denial <strong>of</strong> Christian solidarity. The proposed<br />

League should create such l<strong>in</strong>ks between <strong>the</strong> churches that proselytism would become unth<strong>in</strong>kable.<br />

48 Limouris, 1994, p.141<br />

49 K. C. Abraham, Liberative Solidarity (Tiruvalla: CSS, 1996) 56-67.<br />

50 M. P. Joseph Mission and Solidarity (Bombay: BUILD, 1995) p. 19.<br />

51 Hans Ucko, “Interfaith Dialogue-Ethical Consideration Towards build<strong>in</strong>g New Communities.” In Daniel<br />

Chetti and M. P. Joseph (eds.) Ethical Issues <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> Struggles for Justice (Tiruvalla: CSS, 1998) p. 17.<br />

52 Ariarajah, 1993, p. 111-112.<br />

53<br />

Clements, p.189-190<br />

54 Ed<strong>in</strong>burgh conference has already taken note <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> challenges <strong>of</strong> emerg<strong>in</strong>g nationalism to <strong>the</strong> missionary<br />

enterprise. Conference report states: “In India false patriotism is prejudic<strong>in</strong>g many <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> people aga<strong>in</strong>st<br />

Christ. The swedeshi movement, notably <strong>in</strong> Bengal, is particularly dangerous <strong>in</strong> <strong>the</strong> village because <strong>of</strong> its<br />

tendency to stir up hatred <strong>of</strong> Christ and <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Christians.” Report I, p. 34.<br />

However, it should be noted that among all o<strong>the</strong>r prov<strong>in</strong>ces <strong>in</strong> India, Bengal paid <strong>the</strong> most devastat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

price for accept<strong>in</strong>g colonial dom<strong>in</strong>ation. R.P Dutt writes about <strong>the</strong> colonial policy <strong>of</strong> land revenue<br />

imposition on <strong>the</strong> farmers <strong>in</strong> rural Bengal.<br />

In <strong>the</strong> last year <strong>of</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> last Indian ruler <strong>of</strong> Bengal, <strong>in</strong> 1764-65, <strong>the</strong> land revenue<br />

realized was British pounds 817, 000. In <strong>the</strong> first year <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Company’s (East India Company)<br />

adm<strong>in</strong>istration <strong>in</strong> 1765-6, <strong>the</strong> land revenue realized <strong>in</strong> Bengal was British pounds 1,470,000. By<br />

1771-2 it was 2,341,000 and by 75-6 it was 2,818,000. When Lord Cornwallis fixed <strong>the</strong><br />

Permanent Settlement <strong>in</strong> 1793, he fixed at pounds 3,400,000 per year. R. Palm Dutt, India Today<br />

(London: Victor Gollancz, 1940) p. 114.<br />

35


36<br />

The immediate result <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> imposition <strong>of</strong> this exorbitant land revenue was <strong>the</strong> frequent recurrence <strong>of</strong><br />

Bengal fam<strong>in</strong>e that took thousands <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>nocent lives.<br />

55 Ans. J. Van der Bent, “<strong>Ecumenical</strong> Conferences” entry <strong>in</strong> Dictionary <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Movement<br />

(Geneva: WCC, 1991) p. 325.<br />

56 See M. M. Thomas, The Acknowledge Christ <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Indian Renaissance (Madras: CLS, 1970), p. 165<br />

57 ibid. p. 165<br />

58 The Christian Life and Message <strong>in</strong> relation to Non-Christian Systems; Report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Jerusalem meet<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> IMC, 1928 (London: OUP, 1928) p. 370<br />

59 ibid. p. 369.<br />

60 M.M. Thomas “Christ-centered Syncretism” Preman Niles Varieties <strong>of</strong> Witness (S<strong>in</strong>gapore: CCA, 1980)<br />

p. 13-14<br />

61 Wesley Ariarajah, “The Challenge <strong>of</strong> Religious Plurality” <strong>in</strong> K. C. Abraham, New Horizons <strong>in</strong><br />

Ecumenism (Bangalore: BTESSC, 1993), p. 116.<br />

62 Report <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> Moderator, WCC, Nairobi Assembly.<br />

63 M. M. Thomas, Salvation and Humanization, (Madras: CLS, 1971), p. 7<br />

64 ibid., p. 12<br />

65 Jerald D. Gort, “Jerusalem 1928” IRM July 1978, p. 287.<br />

66 Report p. 42.<br />

67 Clements p. 252<br />

68 Van der Bent, 1991, p. 327.<br />

69 M. M. Thomas “Mean<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Salvation Today”, IRM, April 1973.<br />

70 Ibid.<br />

71 Sebastian Kappen, “Jesus and <strong>the</strong> Cultural revolution: An Asian perspective” <strong>in</strong> Jesus <strong>of</strong> Our Times:<br />

Towards a Spirituality <strong>of</strong> Social Action. (Manila: FABC, 1986) p. 67.<br />

72 Norman Goodall, The Uppsala Report 1968 (Geneva: WCC, 1968) p. 32.<br />

73 Your K<strong>in</strong>gdom Come (Geneva:WCC, 1980) p. 238<br />

74 ibid. p. 33.<br />

75 Preman Niles, Between <strong>the</strong> Flood and <strong>the</strong> Ra<strong>in</strong>bow (Geneva: WCC, 1992) p. 166.<br />

76 Bishop Anastasios, “Mexico City 1963: Old W<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong>to Fresh W<strong>in</strong>esk<strong>in</strong>s”, IRM, July 1978, p. 360.<br />

77 Charles Birch “Nature Humanity and God <strong>in</strong> Ecological Perspective” <strong>in</strong> Roger Sh<strong>in</strong>n (ed.) Faith and<br />

Science <strong>in</strong> an Unjust World (Geneva: WCC, 1980)p.62.<br />

78 Gerhard Liedke “Solidarity <strong>in</strong> Conflict” ibid., p. 79.<br />

79 Larry L. Rasmussen, “Theology and Earth” <strong>in</strong> Chetti and Joseph , 1998, 104-105.<br />

80 Quoted by Lesslie Newbig<strong>in</strong>, “Mission to Six Cont<strong>in</strong>ents” <strong>in</strong> Harold E. Fey (ed), The <strong>Ecumenical</strong><br />

Advance: A Story <strong>of</strong> <strong>the</strong> <strong>Ecumenical</strong> Movement 1948-1968. (London: SPCK, 1970) p.179<br />

36

Hooray! Your file is uploaded and ready to be published.

Saved successfully!

Ooh no, something went wrong!