Tidal_PAD_V1_Sec4.pdf - Snohomish County PUD

Section 4 

Existing Environment 

This section describes the existing environment in Puget Sound and the vicinity of each of the 

District’s seven preliminary permit areas. In keeping with FERC’s requirements for PAD 

content, the section is organized into the following major subsections: 

• Description of Basin 

• Geology and Soils 

• Water Resources 

• Fish and Aquatic Resources 

• Wildlife and Botanical Resources 

• Wetland, Riparian and Littoral Habitats 

• Species Protected Under the Endangered Species Act 

• Recreation and Land Use 

• Aesthetic Resources 

• Cultural Resources 

• Socioeconomic Resources 

• Tribal Resources 

For each resource area, the existing, relevant, and reasonably available information gathered 

during PAD preparation is summarized. In most instances, an overview of the resource in Puget 

Sound is provided, followed by site-specific detail as available for each of the District’s permit 

areas. Information on potential resource impacts, in addition to a preliminary list of studies 

potentially required to assess such impacts, is provided separately in Section 5. 

4-1 January 31, 2008

Snohomish County PUD –Pre-Application Document 

4 – Description of Existing Environment 

4.1 Description of Basin 

Cradled by the Cascade Mountains and the Olympic Peninsula, and open to the Pacific Ocean 

through the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Puget Sound is the centerpiece of one of the largest estuarine 

basins in the world, encompassing more than 41,500 km 2 in western Washington State. Its 

waters are delimited to the north by Vancouver Island and the Canadian border, and occupy 

approximately 8,300 km 2 (Taylor 2000). Abutting and binding this expanse are more than 3,700 

kilometers of complex inland coastline that contain several distinct regions within the basin, 

including: the Main Basin region, which contains the Admiralty Inlet, Agate Passage, and Rich 

Passage project areas; the North Puget Sound region, which contains the Spieden Channel, 

Guemes Channel, and the San Juan Channel project areas; the Whidbey Basin region, which 

contains the Deception Pass project area; the South Puget Sound region; and the Hood Canal 

region (Gustafson et al. 2000; Taylor 2000). 

The basin’s climate is largely a function of its geographic location and the orientation of nearby 

mountain ranges. Offshore westerly winds bring cloudy skies, mild temperatures, high humidity 

(approximately 76 percent through most of the year), and large amounts of precipitation to the 

region (DON 2000, 2006; Greenland 1998). Temperatures across the Sound typically range 

from 1-5°C (34-41°F) with infrequent light snowfall during the winter months to 15-27°C 

(59-81°F) during the summer (DON 2000, 2006). Within the basin, seasonal winds are generally 

from the north or northwest during spring and summer and from the south or southwest during 

the winter and fall (DON 2000, 2006). Although their strength is typically weak year-round, 

with velocities of approximately 4.5 m/s, winds can be occasionally quite strong during the 

winter and fall, reaching speeds of 18-25 m/s as the Aleutian low-pressure system directs intense 

Pacific storms into the coastal northwest (DON 2006). This general climate scheme is 

compounded by the influence of both El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Pacific Decadal 

Oscillation (PDO) events. Warmer sea surface temperatures, increased rainfall, and enhanced 

westerly and southerly winds occur during El Nino events and the longer-term positive phases of 

the PDO (Airamé et al. 2003; Conlan and Service 2000; DON 2006; Donguy et al. 1982; Mantua 

2002). During La Nina events and negative phases of the PDO, cooler sea surface temperatures, 

4-2 January 31, 2008



reduced rainfall, and increased offshore flow of winds and waters prevail (Airamé et al. 2003; 

DON 2006; Mantua 2002). 

Located on the western edge of the North American Plate and adjacent to the Cascadia 

subduction zone, Puget Sound is bound to the south and east by post-orogenic volcanic cover, 

folded and uplifted Mesozoic deposits and massive batholiths. The tectonic processes that gave 

rise to these structures are a constant feature in the geodynamics of the basin and are similarly 

responsible for the earthquakes which have occurred within its confines (DON 2006; Kennett 

1982). Eight of the ten most severe events recorded in western Washington have taken place in 

Puget Sound, making it the most seismically active region in Washington State (DON 2006; City 

of Seattle 2007). 

Throughout the Quaternary, the Pacific Northwest has been repeatedly subjected to continental 

and alpine glaciation (DON 2006; NOAA and WSDE 1999). Now, in the absence of large ice 

cover, the basin is undergoing post-glacial rebound whereby the North American Plate is 

attempting to reach isostatic equilibrium. Consequently, the region as a whole is lifting up at a 

rate of between 0.1 to several millimeters per year. It is also the advance and retreat of ice sheets 

and Piedmont glaciers during the most recent ice age at the end of the Pleistocene that carved 

and scoured out Puget Sound from the lowlands (Gustafson 2000; NOAA and WSDE 1999; 

Taylor 2000). A fjord-like estuary, the Sound is characterized by deep channels, distinct 

oceanographic basins, narrow marine terraces, and discrete littoral zones with a depth that ranges 

from an average of 62.5 m at mean low tide (MLT) to a maximum of over 390 meters. 

Catastrophic sculpting events such as floods, severe winter storms, and earthquakes serve to 

impart additional dynamism to both the Sound’s intricate bathymetry and to its shoreline 

morphology. Coastal landforms include: bluff-backed barrier and pocket beaches; open inlets; 

barrier estuaries and lagoons; closed lagoons and marshes; river-dominated, wave-dominated, 

tidally-dominated and fan-type deltas; and plunging rocky shores and rocky platforms (Fung and 

Davis 2005). Exposed bedrock, gravel, and sand, relicts of the glacial scouring and weathering 

associated with the basin’s formation, dominate the substrate of moderate- to high-energy 

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shorelines and channels, while mud and mixed fine sediments derived from biogenic processes 

and the discharge of numerous rivers blanket the seafloors of the deeper benthos and 

the sheltered near-shore environments (DON 2006; EPRI 2007; Gustafson 2000; Palsson 

et al. 2003). 

As the drainage endpoint for a watershed of more than 33,000 km 2 , and incorporating an average 

of 3.4 trillion liters of fresh water into its volume each day, Puget Sound is a marine body that is 

further characterized by estuarine properties (Gelfenbaum et al. 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000). 

Salinities within the basin range from 5 to 42 ppt, while water exported from the Sound through 

the Strait of Juan de Fuca average 31 ppt (DON 2000, 2006). Stratification of the water column 

is typical of an estuary, with denser, saltier, inflowing waters of oceanic origin overlain by 

fresher waters derived from the basin flowing seaward (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000; 

NOAA and WSDE 1997; Taylor 2000). Stratification can be weak due to intense tidal mixing 

but generally tends to increase from west to east and varies seasonally, with upwelling occurring 

at sill structures, specifically those adjacent to the Tacoma Narrows (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 

2000). Sea surface temperatures average 10-12°C (50-54°F) but can occasionally be as low as 

3°C (37°F) during the winter and as high as 23°C (73°F) in enclosed areas during the summer 

(DON 2000, 2006). The thermocline is typically found between 2 and 20 m of water depth 

(DON 2006; Dunne et al., 2002). 

In addition, Puget Sound is subject to a complex current regime, driven primarily by tidal 

oscillation and to a lesser extent by freshwater flux and wind (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 

2000). The large tidal exchanges that occur basin-wide generate significant flow velocities that 

range from typical values of 25-80 cm/s to more than 400 cm/sec in restricted channels. These 

exchanges reduce the flushing rate of nutrients and result in consistently elevated levels of 

nitrates, phosphates and other bio-essential compounds (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000). 

4-4 January 31, 2008



4.2 Geology and Soils 

4.2.1 Introduction 

The District’s seven permit areas lie in the Puget Sound and San Juan Islands area of Washington 

State. Puget Sound is a large estuary, shaped by glacial activity during the last glacial period, 

approximately 20,000 years ago, and lies between the volcanic Cascade Range to the east, and 

the Olympic Range to the west (USGS 2002). Figure 3-1 shows the locations of all of the 

project sites. 

This section presents regional geologic and soils information, followed by site-specific 

information and maps of site soils, and geology at the seven project sites. The site maps in 

Appendix C present topography and bathymetry of the potential project areas. 

4.2.2 Regional Geology 

4.2.2.1 Geologic History and Volcanic, Seismic, and Glacial Activity 

The Puget Sound and San Juan Islands area of Washington State is a unique geologic location, 

and is composed primarily of thick deposits of sedimentary rock derived from a long history of 

glaciation (USGS 2006). Tectonic and volcanic stresses have significantly shaped the area, 

driven by the northeastward subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate and the northward migration of 

the Pacific plate along the San Andreas Fault to the south (Finlayson 2006). The Juan de Fuca 

plate is a small remnant of the larger Farallon plate, which has been subducted under the North 

American plate (Finlayson 2006). 

The faulting and volcanism of the Cascadia subduction zone in western Washington State cause 

the area to be prone to both volcanic and seismic activity (Bourgeois 2001). Mount Rainier is 

the dominant site of volcanic activity in the area’s recent geologic history (Swanson et al. 1989). 

Stratigraphic investigations show Quaternary volcanic andesite deposits, tephras, lava flows, and 

4-5 January 31, 2008



lahars, originating from the now-4,300-meter-high mountain within the past approximately 0.85 

million years (Swanson et al. 1989). A number of more-recent volcanic events have occurred 

during the Holocene era, within the past 10,000 years, since the retreat of the Cordilleran ice 

sheet. 

Seismic activity occurs in the region in three different zones: subduction zone earthquakes 

where the North American plate and the Juan de Fuca plate make contact; deep earthquakes, 

where the subducted portions of oceanic plate slip into the upper mantle; and shallow quakes, 

which occur on faults within the North American continental area (USGS 2006b). The largest of 

these quakes are subduction quakes; magnitudes of earthquakes in the Cascadia subuction zone 

can exceed 9.0 on the Richter scale (USGS 2006b). Deep zone or Benioff zone earthquakes may 

be as large as magnitude 7.5, but are generally more dispersed, and are not accompanied by 

aftershocks (USGS 2006). Shallow quakes generally have somewhat smaller magnitudes, but 

their proximity to the surface and to urban areas as well as the potential to trigger liquefaction 

events or mass-wasting can make shallow earthquakes just as devastating as deeper earthquakes 

(USGS 2006b). Figure 4-1 shows the major surface faults of the Puget Sound area, which 

cause shallow, crustal earthquakes. Table 4-1 summarizes which potential project sites contain 

known faults. 

The Seattle fault is the only crustal fault in the area that has been verified to be recently active, 

and has been responsible for a number of crustal earthquakes within the past 14,000 years 

(Johnson 1999). It has not, however, been the source of the 20 th -century earthquakes in the 

Seattle area; the 1949 and 1965 earthquakes originated in the Benioff zone (USGS 2006). The 

North Whidbey Island and South Whidbey Island faults are currently being studied, but no recent 

activity has proven them to be currently or recently active. Geologic investigations indicate that 

seismic events associated with the Seattle fault have caused liquefaction and ground subsidence 

in the past and that the potential for liquefaction still exists (Johnson et al. 2006). 

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Figure 4-1. The tectonics of northwestern Washington and the extent of the Cordilleran Ice sheet 

(James et al. 2006) 

To the west of Puget Sound lies the Olympic subduction complex. Subduction of the Juan de 

Fuca plate has formed the modern Olympic Range through uplift, folding, and metamorphosis of 

the Cascadia subduction zone accretionary wedge, where surface material of the oceanic Farallon 

plate has accumulated during subduction (USGS 2004). The Olympic Range is the northern 

continuation of the mountains generally referred to as the Coast Ranges of the west coast of 

North America. The various Coast Ranges originated from a number of orogenic events; the 

Olympic Range uplift is separate from that which created the Coastal Range of Oregon to the 

south (USGS 2002). To the north of the Sound lies Vancouver Island, which is composed of the 

Insular Ranges, also a “Coast Range” albeit of a different geologic origin (USGS 2002). 

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To the north, between Puget Sound and the Strait of Georgia lies the San Juan archipelago. Two 

of the potential project sites are adjacent to San Juan Island; two others are located in the eastern 

San Juan Islands to the north and south of Fidalgo Island. The archipelago between the mainland 

and Vancouver Island (Canada) originated as an oceanic island arc. Over the course of the 

Farallon plate subduction, the islands accreted into a compact archipelago (Dawes 2001). Within 

more recent geologic history, glacial forces also left their marks on the San Juan Islands, carving 

valleys, coves, and scouring the land surface. 

Puget Sound was formed during the Fraser glaciation, a period spanning about 10,000 years 

(USGS 2002). Approximately 20,000 years ago, the glaciation was at its maximum extent, and 

the Cordilleran ice sheet blanketed Puget Sound and Vancouver Island with over 1.5 km of ice, 

covering everything between the Olympic and Cascade mountains (James et al. 2006). 

Figure 4-1 shows the current tectonic setting of Puget Sound and the maximum extent of the 

Cordilleran ice sheet. The advance and retreat of glaciers formed the characteristic glacial 

landforms of Puget Sound’s shoreline and seabed and carved the fjords of the areas rimming the 

basin, many of which are now above water. During glaciation, the weight of the ice sheet 

depressed the earth’s crust; upon retreat of the glacier, the decrease in lithostatic pressure 

allowe d isostatic rebound of the crust and land surfaces rise during the process known as postrebound. 

Recent measurements show that the post-glacial rebound has essentially ended, 

glacial 

and the Puget Sound area is rising at a rate of less than 1 mm/year (James et al. 2006). 

Analysis of high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) reveals five distinct morphological 

units and their relationships to the Pleistocene glaciation in Puget Sound (Finlayson 2006): 

1. 

The oldest of the morphologic units includes the cores of the Olympic and Cascade 

Mountains and the Olympic Range’s basaltic, Eocene Crescent formation. The peaks of 

the ranges remained well above the ice sheet and do not include glaciation features shown 

in the topography of the lower elevations. 

2. The second major morphological unit is the surface layers of the lowland fill. 

Streamlined hills left by the glacier show the distinct east-to-southwest limitations in the 

topography. 

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3. The third major morphological unit is associated with the channels of Puget Sound itself. 

Massive sub-glacial water flows carved the channels of the Sound, resulting in overdeepened 

basins with shallow sills. 

4. The fourth geomorphic unit is associated with modern erosion processes that have 

reworked the topography since ice retreat. These small-stream delta deposits have 

accumulated in lobes at the base of steep trough walls from sediment eroded from the 

coastal bluffs. 

5. The fifth geomorphic unit is the Holocene terrace on which the beaches in Puget Sound 

are formed. This narrow, wave-cut shelf typifies the morphology of Puget Sound 

beaches, which occupy Holocene benches cut into the sheer walls of the glacially-formed 

marine basins (Finlayson 2006). 

The terrestrial geology around all seven potential sites is dominated by Fraser-age glacial till and 

glacial outwash. Unfortunately, no analogous comprehensive data are available for sub-marine 

geology at the potential project sites (USGS 2007). Regionally, some of the deeper 

unconsolidated deposits pose a liquefaction risk when subjected to significant seismic activity 

(Crawford et al. 2001). There are known to be small pockets of unconsolidated deposits on 

Whidbey Island near the Admiralty Inlet site (USGS 2006; WSDE 2007). According to a seabed 

geology survey completed for the Agate Pass bridge, Agate Pass is the site of some moderately 

unconsolidated sediments, although they overlie a hard stratum on the west side of the channel 

(Polagye et al. 2007). No unconsolidated deposits have been recorded in or around Rich 

Passage. No information is available on specific unconsolidated deposits at the San Juan 

Channel, Spieden Channel, Guemes Channel, or Deception Pass sites, although generally, 

unconsolidated deposits in the area occur primarily in alluvial valleys on the mainland (USGS 

2006). 

The formation and bursting of a massive proglacial lake also contributed to the landscape of 

Puget Sound. The lake, formed by glacial melt-waters, swelled to 37 m above the current Sound 

(James 2006). When the lake drained, it carved a large valley and distributed giant slabs of ice 

carrying mud, sand, and gravel over most of Puget Sound (James 2006). These deposits, known 

4-9 January 31, 2008



as a glaciomarine drift, still form an important part of the surficial geology of the Sound, as do 

the lacustrine sediment deposits from the proglacial lakes themselves (Easterbrook 1999). 

The final retreat of the glaciers left behind deeply gouged channels, river valleys, fjords, northsouth 

oriented passages, and bays. Over the past 10,000 years, weathering, fluvial and eolian 

processes and wave erosion have reworked glacial sediment to form beaches, bluffs, rocky 

intertidal zones, marshes and tidal flats in Puget Sound (WSDE 2007). 

Snowmelt and glacial-melt waters still feed a number of the rivers flowing into the Sound. 

Fourteen major rivers flow into Puget Sound: the Nooksack, Samish, Skagit, Stillaguamish, 

Snohomish, Cedar, Green/Duwamish, Puyallup, Nisqually, Deschutes, Skokomish, Dosewallips, 

Dungeness, and the Elwha rivers (Puget Sound Partnership 2007). These rivers continue to 

deposit sediments into the Sound, some of which are remnant glacial tills or drifts from the 

interior of Washington and British Columbia. The strong daily currents within the Sound 

distribute these fluvial sediments over large areas of the basin and carry them far beyond the 

extent of the river deltas (Puget Sound Partnership 2007). 

At their mouths, these rivers are characterized by variable topography and diverse vegetation. In 

their deltaic regions, they variously form tidal marshes, often dominated by eelgrass, or tidal 

(mud) flats, or they flow into rockier intertidal zones (DON 2006). These near-shore habitats are 

present all around Puget Sound, depending on the geometry of the different areas. The height of 

tides in 

Puget Sound also varies with the geometry of the inlet or location. Tides in the Port 

Townsend area of the northern Sound average around 2.4 m, while tides toward the southern end 

of the Sound, near Olympia, average 4.3 m (Puget Sound Partnership 2007). 

4.2.2.2 Landslides and Tsunamis 

Although normal tidal action is currently the primary shoreline-shaping force in Puget Sound, it 

is not the only type of wave erosion present; tsunamis have also played a part in forming the 

Sound. The largest known Holocene tsunami event occurred about 1,100 years ago, when the 

Puget Sound area experienced a large seismic event accompanied by a northward-moving 

4-10 January 31, 2008



tsunami (Bourgeois 2001). Recent research in the Puget Sound area indicated substantial tidalmarsh 

subsidence followed the seismic event and tsunami. Areas that had been freshwater 

mar sh, 

and even coastal uplands outside the tidal zone, subsequently sank to become saltwater 

marsh, or were submerged entirely (USGS 2007). The most recent major tsunami event occurred 

around the year 1700, and there is still the potential for large seismic events and associated 

tsunamis to occur today (Bourgeois 2001). 

4.2.3 

Soils and Marine Substrate 

Potential project site surface materials can be grouped into two classes: terrestrial soils, and 

marine or channel-bottom substrates. Typically derived from glacial deposits, these materials 

have been shaped primarily by glaciation (Cogger 2007). Soil depth varies around Puget Sound 

and the San Juan Islands; in some locations the soil is very deep, while in other locations, such as 

some parts of the San Juan Islands, very shallow soils are underlain by bedrock (USFWS 2007; 

WSDNR 2005). Most of the area’ s soils are classified as mesic, and are thus of moderate 

moisture content given the climate. Soils maps are presented in Appendix D. 

In general, Puget Sound and San Juan Islands soils can be classified into the following groups 

(Cogger 2007): 

• Glacial till: These soils were carried and deposited by retreating glacial ice, and are 

characterized by thick, dense, clayey deposits of poorly-sorted sediment. 

• Glacial outwash: Unlike glacial till, these deposits were carried and deposited by water 

in glacial-melt rivers or Jökulhlaup (glacial outbursts) from proglacial lakes formed by 

melting glaciers. Deposits are well-sorted, generally layered in size, and include rounded 

grains of sand, gravel and rocks. 

• Lacustrine: These soils originated from inflow to glacial lakes, and include very fine silt 

and clay deposits. 

• Volcanic soils: These soils tend to be of low density, contain tephra or deposited ash, 

and have a high capacity for water. Many volcanic soils in Puget Sound include tephra 

from the Mt. Mazama eruption (present-day Crater Lake) around 6,800 years ago. 

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• Lahar soils: Deposited by volcanically-induced mud and debris flows called lahars, 

these soils include mixed particle sizes, much like glacial till soils, and can be dominated 

by sticky, fine mud. 

• Alluvial: While these soils may have similar glacial-parentage, the sandy and loamy 

soils deposited by modern rivers are distinct from other Puget Sound soils in their 

suitability for agriculture. The soils are not rocky, and drain quickly. 

Coastal erosion and mass-wasting occur on much of the Puget Sound shoreline, as with any 

marine shoreline (WSDE 2007; DON 2006). Table 4-1 notes the potential for or known 

existence of terrestrial mass-wasting near each of the seven potential project sites, according to 

the Washington Department of Ecology Coastal Zone Atlas of slope stability maps (WSDE 

2007). Several of the potential project sites also include sand or gravel beaches, which are 

dynamic erosional features where erosion is ongoing; Table 4-1 also denotes sites with these 

features (DON 2006). 

Vegetation and robust marine riparian ecosystems help anchor soils and minimize slope stability 

problems. Puget Sound lies primarily in the coastal Western Hemlock Zone; this zone is 

dominated by western hemlock, western red cedar, and Douglas and grand fir trees. Some pine 

forests, oak groves, prairies, swamp and bog, deciduous forests are also present in the Puget 

Sound area (Brennan 2007). Most of the potential grid interconnection sites will likely have 

been urbanized or disturbed, increasing the likelihood for preexisting large substations or high- 

voltage lines being present for grid-interconnection. A number of the sites also include sand 

beach areas with minimal vegetation. 

Marine substrates are not subject to the same pedogenic forces as terrestrial soils, but share some 

of the origins and grain-size characteristics. Due to seismically-induced subsidence, some of the 

now-inundated near-shore areas have terrestrial soil profiles, albeit submerged. Some of these 

areas include what are sometimes deemed “drowned forests”, where terrestrial vegetation 

remnants are still present in tidal or salt marsh areas (USGS 2007). Daily tidal inflow and 

outflow in Puget Sound distributes the glacial till, outwash, and new alluvial sediment across 

large areas of the Sound. It is understood that in some locations turbidity, eddies, and strong 

4-12 January 31, 2008



currents have stripped some channels in the sound of any deep sediment deposition, leaving 

bedrock and only a thin layer of larger gravels and cobbles (Polagye et al. 2007). Table 4-1 

below describes the primary, or overall, bottom composition known for the seven project sites. 

Marine sediment composition of the sites may vary across each site, however; existing data do 

not provide detail on bottom substrate on a fine scale. 

Little information is available on the submarine mass-wasting potential of the project areas, but 

geologic history indicates that Puget Sound is prone to submarine landslides. Marine slope failures 

occur when shear stresses acting down-slope exceed the sediment shear strength. Submarine masswasting 

can be triggered by earthquakes, storm waves, extreme tidal excursions, artesian pressures, 

construction, and vibrations, or may occur somewhat spontaneously under the normal forces of 

gravity (Finlayson 2007). Some of the site bathymetry reveals very steep areas around the project 

sites, generally near the deepest parts of the channel. Depending on the substrate, these areas may 

be the most prone to submarine landslides, either spontaneously occurring or seismically induced. 

Potential project sites with steep areas are indicted in Table 4-1. 

Marine vegetation may help sediment cohesion and create more stable submarine slopes. 

Eelgrass, surfgrass, kelp forest, sargassum, and macroalgae are all present across large areas of 

Puget Sound (DON 2006). More information on the extent and types of terrestrial and marine 

vegetation is provided in Section 4.5, regarding wildlife and botanical resources. 

4.2.4 Site-Specific Information 

Table 4-1 contains a summary of the geology and soils characteristics of the seven potential 

project sites. Geologic and soils maps showing more site detail are included in Appendix E. The 

following section provides more detail regarding the potential Admiralty Inlet test-installation 

site. 

4.2.4.1 Admiralty Inlet 

The Pleistocene glacial activity that formed most of Puget Sound also carved Admiralty Inlet. 

The inlet runs between Whidbey Island to the northeast, and the mainland Olympic peninsula to 

4-13 January 31, 2008



the southwest. Admiralty Inlet is somewhat shallow relative to the rest of Puget Sound; a 

shallow sill, approximately 60 m deep at its deepest, separates Puget Sound from the Strait of 

Juan de Fuca. To the southeast of the sill, the channel deepens to over 100 m. 

The geology around the site is dominated by Fraser-era glacial till, with smaller areas of Fraser- 

glacial drift and outwash on Whidbey Island. Soils around the Admiralty Inlet site are 

era 

closely related to the geologic depositions, and consist mostly of loamy-skeletal, fine-mixed, 

sandy-mixed, and mixed-mesic soils from the glacial till material. 

The South Whidbey Island fault runs northwest to southeast within the potential project area, but 

is understood to terminate south of the shallow-sill portion of the inlet. The land around the inlet 

is a source of some mineral resources, primarily sand and gravel. 

The channel substrate is estimated to be gravel near the channel center, a mixture of sand and 

gravel toward the shores, and a mixture of more sand than gravel to the west between Point 

Wilson and Marrowstone Point. Toward the southern portion of the Inlet, near Bush Point, the 

channel bottom has small sand dunes, which migrate northward with the current (Polagye et al. 

2007). A survey of the inlet’s seabed in the 1970s indicated exposed bedrock or bedrock 

covered by thin layer of sediments, although USGS publications show more than a hundred 

meters of sediment overlying bedrock (Polagye et al. 2007). 

The potential for marine landslides at the site is not well studied, although the inlet has a very 

steep portion just east of its deepest point. Terrestrial mass-wasting, however, has been better 

documented. Figures 4-2 through 4-4, from the Washington Department of Ecology Coastal 

Zone Atlas of slope stability maps (WSDE 2007), include the three areas of potential electricalgrid 

interconnection for the Admiralty Inlet site. Figure 4-2 shows the Fort Casey area, the 

northern of the two potential grid connection sites on Whidbey Island; Figure 4-3 shows the 

Admiralty Head area on Whidbey Island; and Figure 4-4 shows the Port Townsend site. Each of 

the above sites exhibits some historical or existing slope instability. 

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Figure 4-2. 

Northern Admiralty Inlet (Whidbey Island, Fort Casey) potential grid-connection 

site; slope stability (WSDE 2007) 

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Figure 4-3. 

Eastern Admiralty Inlet (Whidbey Island, Admiralty Head) potential grid-connection 

site; slope stability (WSDE 2007) 

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Figure 4-4. Western Admir alty Inlet (Port Townsen d) potential gr id-connection site; slope 

stability (WSDE 2007) 

4-17 Janua ry 31, 2008

Snohomish County PUD – Pre-Application Document 


Table 4-1. Terrestria l an d marine geological and soils characteris tics of the potential Puget Sound tidal project sites 

Site 

Name Characteristic 

Primary 

topography, geology 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Spieden 

Channel 

Guemes 

Channel 

San Juan 

Channel 

Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

Rich 

Passage 

shallow sill 60 m 

deep at main 

channel, 

deepens to east 

to 70-120+ m 

30 m in center at 

shallowest, 

deepens to 100+ 

m away from 

narrowest pt 

under 10m at 

center, deepens 

to 30m away 

from narrowest 

pt 

shallow on 

edges, 30 m in 

center at 

shallowest, 

deepens to 90+ 

m away from 

narrowest pt 

center under 15 

m 

10 m, uniform 

depth 

10 m, deepening 

to 30 m to the 

east 

Fraser-age 

glacial till, 

glacial 

outwash, 

glacial 

lacustine 

metasedimen 

tary, 

sedimentary 

(Spieden 

Island), 

Fraser glacial 

till 

Fraser-age 

glacial till, 

intrusives 


till, glacial 

drift, 


till, glacial 

drift,metasedi 

mentary, 

volcanic/volc 

aniclastic 


till, glacial 

outwash 


till, glacial 

outwash, 

alluvium (sm 

amts) 

(DON 2006, WSDE 2007, DNR 2000, DNR 2005) 

Terrestrial Geology and Characteristics 

Marine Characteristics 

Primary 

soils 

loamyskeletal, 

fine 

mixed, sandy 

mixed, mixed 

mesic 

coarse 

loamy, coase 

loamy over 

sand, fine 

mixed 

loamyskeletal, 

fine 

mixed, 

loamy-mixed 

coasrseloamy, 

coarse-loamy 

over sand 

sandy 

skeletal, 

loamy 

skeletal, 

medial 

skeletal 

coarse loam, 

skeletal 

mixed, loamy 

skeletal, 

mixed medial 

medial, 

coarse-loamy 

Nearby 

mineral 

resources? 

sand & 

gravel, rock, 

geothermal 

Shoreline 

steepness or 

instability 

yes; old and new 

slides in vicinity of 

Port Townsend 

potential grid 

connection, 

unstable slopes at 

northern Whidbey 

Isl. Connection 

site 

Erodible 

shoreline? 

(i.e., sand 

beaches) 

yes 

none no S. shore of 

Spieden 

island 

Bottom 

composition 

Sha llow sand 

and gravel; 

finer toward 

channel sides 

rock, gravel & 

sand 

Bottom 

habitat 

gravel and 

sand, sand 

beach, 

gravel beach 

rocky 

intertidal 

none yes yes mixed, gravel gravel and 

sand, sand 

beach 

none no yes mud, sand & 

gravel 

rocky 

intertidal, 

gravel and 

sand beach 

rock, sand & 

gravel 

yes; steep, mostly 

bedrock but some 

narrow areas of 

minimal 

(small rocky 

beaches) 

mixed, bedrock rocky 

inte rtidal and 

har bottom 

instability and old 

slides 

none 

none 

yes, including 

recent slides 

toward S. end of 

site on Kitshap 

peninsula 

yes, primarily 

small areas on 

Kitshap peninsula 

yes 

yes 

mud, mixed gravel and 

sand, sand 

beach 

mud, mixed gravel and 

sand, sand 

beach 

Submerged 

steep 

areas? 

on east side 

of deepest 

part of 

channel 

south side of 

deepest 

channel part 

Faults? 

yes 

yes 

Primary 

vegetation 

Kelp, 

sargassum 

Kelp 

no no Sargassum, 

mixed 

macroalgae 

Nearshore 

vegetation: 

surfgrass, 

eelgrass? 

surfgrass, 

eelgrass 

eelgrass 

eelgrass 

no yes Kelp surfgrass, 

eelgrass 

no (all 

shallow) 

no (all 

shallow) 

at very 

southwest 

corner 

yes 

no 

yes 

Kelp 

sargassum 

sargassum 

surfgrass, 

eelgrass 

eelgrass 

eelgrass 

4-18 January 31, 2008

Snohomish County PUD – Pre-Application Document 


4.3 Water Resources 

Puget Sound is the second-largest estuary in the United States, where salt water from the Pacific 

Ocean is mixed with fresh water draining from the surrounding watershed. More than 10,000 

rivers and streams drain into Puget Sound (Puget Sound Action Team 2000a). The entire drainage 

basin has been estimated to have more than 33,000 km 2 of watershed and 8,000 km 2 of marine 

waters environment (Gelfenbaum et al. 2006). 

This section summarizes the existing water resources, both quantity and quality, and applicable 

water quality standards in the project area. 

4.3.1 Wind, Tide and Current Characteristics 

Puget Sound is bordered to the west and east by the Olympic and Cascade mountain ranges, 

respectively. This topography generally channels winds in a north/south direction, although wind 

conditions across the Sound can vary depending on local effects. Winds are strongest in the winter 

and early spring, when sustained winds of 10 to 17 m/s (20-33 knots) from the south are common 

and gale winds (17.5 to 21 m/s; 34-47 knots) occur. From late spring through early fall, winds are 

lighter, with speeds of 4 to 7.7 m/s (8-15 knots) in the afternoons (NOAA 2007a). 

Each day, approximately 6.1 km 3 of water flows in and out of Puget Sound. Tides in Puget Sound 

generally follow a semi-diurnal cycle over a 25-hour period, w ith two high and t wo low tides that 

tend to be different in range and timing. The average daily tidal variation is 2.4 m in northern areas 

of the Sound and 4.3 m in southern areas of the Sound. However, geographic variation in the 

shape and depth of the Sound influences local tida l patterns. 

Currents 

within the Sound are primarily driven by tides and the inputs from surface water sources, 

although the speed and direction of winds can also be influential. Generally, current velocities in 

the Sound range from 0.3 to 1.0 m/s (0.5-2.0 knots), although 1.5 m/s (3.0 knots) is normal in some 

regions (Gilmore et al. 1996). Narrow channels tend to have stronger currents due to the restricted 

4-19 January 31, 2008


4 – Existing Environment 

flow area. As an example, the Deception Pass channel has current velocities ranging from 3.6 to 

4.1 m/s (7.0-8.0 knots). 

The following is a description of the general current velocities within or near the seven project 

sites. Information on current velocities is limited for most sites due to the paucity of gauges 

located within the confines of each project area. Due to the nature of hydrokinetic energy projects, 

tidal cycle channel power and monthly average channel power is considered a substitute for the 

PAD requirements that the applicant provide monthly duration curves and stream flow data to 

determine the project’s dependable capacity. 


Admiralty Inlet is the major connection between Pug et Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, with 

Deception Pass being a minor connection. Strong currents occur within the site because the 

relatively narrow and shallow channel reduces the cross-sectional area (213,000 to 317,000 m 2 ) 

and regulates flow. Currents in the main portion of the inlet are effectively bi-directional, with a 

typical velocity of 2.6 m/s. This finding is consistent with previously reported current velocities of 

2.2 m/s (NOAA 2007a). Outside of the deep channel, current velocities are reduced due to the 

shallow depths and eddies. 

Table 4-2. Northern Admiralty Inlet site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

1.3 km NE 

of Pt. 

Wilson 

2.3 km NE 

of Pt. 

Wilson 

1.8 km NW 

of Pt. 

Wilson 

0.8 km W 

of Adm. 

Head 

2.6 km NE 

of Marrow. 

Point 

Channel Width (m) 4680 4680 4680 3240 4260 

Average Depth (MLLW reference) 54 66 59 64 71 

Deepest Point (m) 90 114 91 81 122 

Average Cross-sectional Area (m 2 ) 259,000 317,000 283,000 213,000 310,000 

Maximum Surface Current (m/s) 2.6 3.5 2.6 2.6 2.6 

4-20 January 31, 2008



4.3.1.2 Spieden Channel 

Spieden Channel lies between Spieden and San Juan Islands. The 3.5 km channel narrows from 

west to east, with a minimum width of just less than 1,000 meters (Polagye et al. 2007). The 

reduced cross-sectional area at the eastern end of Spieden Channel produces the greatest current 

velocities, which have been estimated at 2.7 m/s. However, this estimate is based on gauges 

located to the west of the narrowest point in the channel and therefore may underestimate the true 

velocities within the narrowest point of the channel. The Coast Pilot (NOAA 2007) reports that 

severe rip and eddy currents occur when flood currents meet. 

Table 4-3. Spieden Channel site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Channel Width 

1260 m 

Average Depth (MLLW reference) 

69 m 

Deepest Point 

126 m 

Average Cross-sectional Area 88,220 m 2 

Maximum Surface Current 

2.7 m/s 

4.3.1.3 Guemes Channel 

Guemes Channel separates Guemes and Fidalgo islands and is approximately five kilometers long. 

Channel width decreases as it approaches its middle, reaching its narrowest point (1000 m) at the 

approximate midway point (Polagye et al. 2007). The Coast Pilot (NOAA 2007) states that 

current velocities in the channel can exceed 2.6 m/s (5 knots). However, a NOAA station 

positioned at the western end of the channel reported a maximum velocity of 2.1 m/s (NOAA 

2007a). Polagye et al. (2007) used the NOAA station data and the change in cross-sectional area 

to calculate a maximum velocity of 3.5 m/s. 

Table 4-4. Guemes Channel site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Western 

Entrance 

Estimated 

Station 

Channel Width (m) 

2340 1140 

Average Depth (m; MLLW reference) 

12 14 

Deepest Point (m) 

18 24 

Average Cross-sectional Area (m 2 ) 30,800 

17,800 

Maximum Surface Current (m/s) 2.0 3.5 

4-21 January 31, 2008



4.3.1.4 San Juan Channel 

San Juan Channel is one of the three primary passageways from the Strait of Juan de Fuca to the 

Strait of Georgia. The channel is 21 km long and constricts overall from north to south, reaching 

its narrowest point (1200 m) at the approximate midway point (Polagye et al. 2007). 

The 

maximum surface current velocity has been calculated to be 2.6 m/s, based on data obtained from a 

nearby station (NOAA 2007a). The Coast Pilot (NOAA 2007) reports severe rip and eddy currents 

occur in the southern portion of the San Juan Channel. 

Table 4-5. San Juan Channel site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Channel Width 


Deepest Point 

Average Cross-sectional Area 


1200 m 

63 m 

135 m 

76,450 m 

2.6 m/s 

2 

4.3.1.5 Deception Pass 

Approximately 3.2 km in length, Deception Pass separates Whidbey and Fidalgo islands. The 

channel becomes increasingly narrow as it approaches its middle, reaching a minimum width of 

approximately 350 m south of Pass Island (Polagye et al. 2007). The decreased cross-sectional 

area causes an increase in velocity by a factor of five compared to the eastern and western portions 

of the channel and produces strong eddies along the shoreline. Current velocities within the pass 

have been reported in excess of 4.4 m/s (8 knots) (NOAA 2007a). 

Table 4-6. Deception site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Channel Width 

150 m 


30 m 

Deepest Point 

40 m 



4.4 m/s 

4-22 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-5. Absolute velocity (in color) and flow direction (as arrows), for ebb (University of 

Washington 2007) 

4.3.1.6 Agate Passage 

Agate Passage is an approximately 1.6-km-long channel that separates Bainbridge Island from the 

Kitsap Peninsula. Decreasing cross-sectional area causes current velocities to be greatest at the 

southern end of the channel, with an estimated maximum surface current of 3.5 m/s. 

Table 4-7. Agate Passage site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Channel Width 

240 m 


6.0 m 

Deepest Point 

8.8 m 

Average Cross-sectional Area 1920 m 2 


3.5 m/s 

4-23 January 31, 2008



4.3.1.7 Rich Passage 

The five-kilometer-long Rich Passage separates the southern end of Bainbridge Island from the 

Kitsap Peninsula. The channel bends at its western end and the resulting decrease in crosssectional 

area produces the highest current velocities in that area of Rich Passage (Polagye et al. 

2007). The Coast Pilot (NOAA 2007) states that the maximum average velocity in that area is 1.2 

m/s (2.4 knots) during flow and 1.5 m/s (3.1 knots) during ebb conditions, with ferry pilots 

reporting ebb currents of 3 m/s (6 knots) in the area. Polagye et al. (2007) estimated that the 

maximum velocity within the study area would be 2.9 meters per second. 

Table 4-8. Rich Passage site parameters (Polagye et al. 2007) 

Site 

Channel Width 

630 m 


15.0 m 

Deepest Point 

25.5 m 



2.9 m/s 

4.3.2 Water Quality 

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated Puget Sound as an Estuary of 

National Significance in 1988. The beauty, biological richness and economic opportunities 

associated with Puget Sound contribute to the appeal of the region, which attracts new residents 

and visitors from all over the world each year. However, there are indications that the increase in 

human disturbance threatens the health of the Sound. These indicators include the loss or 

impairment of habitat, historic and current toxic contamination of sediment and organisms, and 

diminished populations of certain species. 

In response to these concerns, a number of governmental programs have been established related 

to restoring the water quality of Puget Sound. The EPA’s Region 10 cooperates with the Canadian 

government on the Puget Sound Georgia Basin Ecosystem Project, which monitors certain key 

indicators, including transboundary air quality, and organizes an annual conference to share 

information on progress and emerging challenges. The USGS maintains a Puget Sound Basin 

4-24 January 31, 2008



study unit under the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) Program, which collects and 

analyzes surface- and ground-water quality data (USGS 2006). In 2007, the state of Washington 

established the Puget Sound Partnership to direct long-term efforts to protect and restore the 

Sound. This agency replaced the Puget Sound Action Team, which in turn replaced the Puget 

Sound Water Quality Authority in 1996 (Puget Sound Action Team 2000b). 

The newly developed Puget Sound Partnership is a state agency created to lead and coordinate 

efforts to protect and restore Puget Sound and will be an important component of coordinating 

tidal project development. The Partnership includes a citizen-based Leadership Council, an 

Ecosystem Coordination Board, a Science Panel and an Executive Director to lead activities. The 

Partnership works collaboratively with all levels of the government, tribes, businesses and citizen 

groups to achieve its mission. Its primary objectives are to develop an action plan for restoring the 

Puget Sound by 2020, oversee the implementation of the action plan and ensure accountability for 

spent funds, promote public awareness and engagement, and employ the Science Panel to define 

data gaps and recommend research (Puget Sound Action T eam 2000b) 

. 

4.3.2.1 Water Quality Standards 

In 1972, Congress passed the Clean Water Act and designated the EPA as the federal agency 

responsible for implementing and enforcing the law. The law requires implem 

entation of water 

quality standards in each state that protect surface waters for beneficial uses (e.g., recreation, 

agriculture, domestic and industrial uses). The Washington State Department of Ecology (WSDE) 

is responsible for developing water quality standards for the state of Washington. In 2003, the 

WSDE completed a significant revision of these standards, although aspects related to temperature 

criteria were not approved by the EPA at that time. Revised rules were implemented in December 

of 2006 that addressed the issues identified by the EPA. 

The Washington water quality standards establish an existing and/or designated use for every body 

of water in the State. Each use has its own set of associated criteria that are designed to ensure that 

all waterbodies are used as intended (Washington State Legislature 2006a). Table 4-9 presents the 

designated uses for waters within the project areas. “Aquatic Life Uses” refers to the character and 

4-25 January 31, 2008



integrity of fish (including salmonid) migration, rearing and spawning; clam, oyster, mussel, and 

other shellfish rearing and spawning; and crustacean (e.g., crab, shrimp, crayfish etc.) rearing and 

spawning. “Shellfish Harvest” is related to whether harvesting for shellfish (clam, oyster, and 

mussel) is expected. All of the sites are designated as areas of primary contact recreation, where 

activities potentially involve total body immersion and/or incidental water exposure. Such 

activities include but are not limited to swimming, canoeing, kayaking, and SCUBA diving. Other 

uses include fishing (both for salmonids and other species), shellfish harvesting, commerce and 

navigation, boating, the viewing of aesthetic features such as landscapes, and the provision of 

wildlife habitat. 

Table 4-9. 

Use designations for project sites 

Aquatic Life 

Uses 

Shellfish 

Harvest 

Recreational 

Uses 

O ther Uses 

ct 

Prim ar y Cont a 

ry 

Seconda 

Contact 

Admiralty Inlet Extraordinary NA 

Spieden Channel Extraordinary NA 

Guemes Channel Excellent N A 

San Juan Channel Extraordinary NA 

t 

a 

life Habit 

Wild 

g 

vestin 

Har 

tion 

viga 

Com/Na 

ting 

Boa 

tics 

e 

Aesth 

Deception Pass 

(west of Highway 20) 


(east of Highway 20) 

Extraordinary NA 

Excellent NA 

Agate Passage Extraordinary NA 

Rich Passage Extraordinary NA 

Source: Chapter 173-201A-612 WAC 

The state of Washington has established water quality criteria for each of the designated uses. 

Table 4 -10 outlines the requirements for the two “aquatic life” categories found within the project 

area . To protect shellfish harvesting and primary contact recreational activities, fecal coliform 

organism levels must not exceed a geometric mean value of 14 colonies/100 mL, and not have 

4-26 January 31, 2008



more 

than 10 percent of all samples (or any single sample when less than ten sample points exist) 

obtained for calculating the geometric mean value exceeding 43 colonies/100 m (Washington State 

Legislature 2006b). Aesthetic qualities must not be impaired by the presence of materials or their 

effects, excluding those of natural origin, which offend the senses of sight, smell, touch, or taste. 

In addition, established limits have been set on the discharge of toxic, radioactive and other 

contamination in order to protect water uses, biota, and the public health. 

Table 4-10. 

Criteria for aquatic life uses 

Extraordinary Quality 

Excellent Quality 

Aquatic Life Temperature: 1-day 

maximum temperature (1-DMax) due to 

human activities 

Aquatic Life Dissolved Oxygen Criteria: 

Lowest 1-Day Minimum 

13°C (55.4°F) 16°C (60.8°F) 

7.0 mg/L 6.0 mg/L 

Turbidity must not exceed: Turbidity must not exceed: 

Aquatic Life Turbidity Criteria 

Aquatic Life pH Criteria 

(Washington State Legislature 2006b) 

• 5 NTU over background when 

the background is 50 NTU or 

less; or 

• A 10 percent increase in 

turbidity when the background 

turbidity is more than 50 NTU. 

pH must be within the range of 

7.0 to 8.5 with a human-caused 

variation within the above range 

of less than 0.2 units. 

• 5 NTU over background when 

the background is 50 NTU or 

less; or 

• A 10 percent increase in 

turbidity when the background 

turbidity is more than 50 NTU 

pH must be within the range of 

7.0 to 8.5 with a human-caused 

variation within the above range 

of less than 0.5 units. 

4.3.2.2 

Water Quality Data 

The Puget Sound Assessment and Monitoring Program (PSAMP) serves as the organizing entity 

for the monitoring and assessment activities of local, state and federal agencies. The following 

state, local and federal agencies and other organizations are involved in directing and 

implementing the PSAMP: 

• Puget Sound Partnership (a Washington State agency) 

• Washington State Department of Ecology (sediments, marine and fresh water) 

4-27 January 31, 2008



• Washington State Department of Fish and Wildlife (fish contaminants, fish abundance and 

marine birds and mammals) 

• Washington State Department of Health (shellfish growing areas publications) 

• Washington State Department of Natural Resources (nearshore habitat) 

• King County Department of Natural Resources (marine water, sediment and shellfish) 

• National Marine Fisheries Service (fish health) 

• U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 

• U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Established in 1988, the PSAMP is one of the nation’s longest-running marine monitoring 

programs (Puget Sound Action Team 2000b). 

Approximately every two years, the PSAMP releases a report entitled the Puget Sound Update, 

which summarizes the findings of research and monitoring efforts. The latest Update (PSAT 

2007a) included the following key findings related to water quality in Puget Sound: 

• Overall dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations in Puget Sound appear to be continuing a 

downward trend. 

• Analysis of sediment samples collected from 1997 to 2003 indicate that approximately 

1 percent of Puget Sound sediments are highly degraded, 31 percent are of intermediate 

quality, and 68 percent are of high quality. The 1 percent of highly degraded sediments is 

located primarily in urban bays. 

• Chinook salmon sampled from Puget Sound in 2005 had three to five times the 

polycholorinated biphenyl (PCB) levels of Chinook from Alaska, British Columbia, and 

Oregon. 

• Flame retardants or polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) occurred in 16 percent of the 

samples from 10 Puget Sound sampling sites in 2005. Scientists estimate that PBDE levels 

4-28 January 31, 2008



are doubling every four years in marine mammals, including harbor seals and orcas, and 

will surpass PCB levels in these species by 2020. 

• Pre-spawn mortality occurred in 25 to 90 percent of female coho salmon returning to urban 

streams between 2002 and 2005, suggesting that contaminants from stormwater were 

posing a threat. 

• The most recent water quality assessment lists 76 water bodies in Puget Sound with fecal 

coliform problems, although data suggests that there has been an overall decline in this 

contaminant from 2001 to 2005. 

• Twenty percent of the 428 recreational beaches in 12 Puget Sound counties are threatened 

by fecal pollution, while 5 percent of these beaches are closed because of biotoxins. 

• In 2003, a short-lived pseudo-nitzschia bloom occurred near Port Townsend and in 2005 

blooms occurred in four northern Puget Sound locations (Sequim Bay, Port Townsend, 

Holmes Harbor and Penn Cove). All four areas were closed to shellfish harvest. 

Concurrent with the release of the Update document, the Puget Sound Action Team produces a 

State of the Sound report. This study traces more than two dozen environmental indicators, 

providing a rating on both their current condition on a scale from one to five (with one being the 

worst) and their overall trend (positive or negative). The findings related to water quality 

(includ ing the condition rating) in the most recent report (PSAT 2007b) are as follows: 

• Marine water quality (rating = 2, negative trend): Out of 39 monitoring sites, eight were 

rated as highest concern and ten were rated as high concern. 

• Marine and fresh water health (rating = 2, negative trend): In 2004, approximately 1,474 

fresh and marine water bodies in the Puget Sound Basin were deemed to be “impaired”. 

Fifty-nine percent were found to be impaired as a result of toxic contamination, pathogens, 

low dissolved oxygen, or high temperatures. 

• Toxics in sediments (rating = 2, no trend): In a study of 2360 km 2 of submerged lands, 

about 1 percent were found to have high levels of toxic contaminants while another 31 

percent were moderately contaminated. 

4-29 January 31, 2008



• Toxics in Chinook and coho salmon (rating = 2, negative trend): PCB levels in salmon 

are remaining stable but rising PBDE levels in seals suggest that PBDE levels in salmon 

are also increasing. 

• Toxics in mussels (rating = 2, positive trend): Mussel Watch data collected from 1984 

shows that Puget Sound mussels exceed national averages for PAHs, i.e., polyaromatic 

hydrocarbons (100 – 1,000 percent), PCBs (60 percent) and mercury (20 percent). There 

have been declines in the levels of PCB and PAH concentrations reported. 

• Toxics in harbor seals (rating = 2, negative trend): Harbor seal pups in south Puget 

Sound are seven times more contaminated with PCBs than those in Georgia Basin. Over 

the last twenty years PBDE levels have risen from less than 50 parts per billion in fatty 

tissue to more than 1,000 parts per billion in harbor seals within south Puget Sound. 

• Liver disease in English sole (rating = 2, no trend): While there is an increased risk of 

developing liver disease in parts of the Sound, overall there has been a general decrease. 

• Safe swimming beaches (rating = 4, no trend): During the summer of 2005, 24 of 65 

Puget Sound beaches violated water quality standards for bacteria, a 12 percent decrease 

from 2004. 

• Safe, edible shellfish (rating = 3, no trend): Between 1995 and 2005, improved water 

quality reduced harvest restrictions on 51.1 km 2 , while 21.1 km 2 were downgraded due to 

pollution and a high number of areas were classified as “threatened.” 

The report concluded that, while there were positive signs, the overall trend was one of decline. 

The primary threat was determined to be the pace of growth, which resulted in more impervious 

surfaces with increased urban runoff, loss of habitat and the introduction of contaminants in the air 

and water (PSAT 2007b) 

The WSDE is currently responsible for marine water quality monitoring in Puget Sound. 

Monitoring sites are located throughout the water body as depicted in Figure 4-6. Parameters 

monitored include profiles of temperature, salinity, density, dissolved oxygen, light transmission, 

pH, as well as discrete samples at various depths for fecal coliform bacteria, chlorophyll a, 

4-30 January 31, 2008



phaeopigment, nitrate, nitrite, ammonium, orthophosphate, silicate and Secchi disk depth. 

Generally samples were taken at depths of 0, 10, and 30 meters. 

Figure 4-6. 

Source: WSDE 2007a 

Marine water-monitoring stations in greater Puget Sound 

4-31 January 31, 2008



The WSDE provides public access to data collected from 1990 to present on their website. The 

following is a synthesis of available water quality data for each of the project areas. Data is 

limited for most sites, however, due to a paucity of monitoring locations within the project areas 

themselves. Also included in this section is data from the state of Washington’s 303(d) report for 

2004 to the EPA (WSDE 2004). 

Admiralty Inlet 

Two monitoring stations are located within Admiralty Inlet, the largest of the seven potential 

project areas. Admiralty Inlet (ADM001) is located to the west of Bush Point, in the center portion 

of the channel. The observed pattern of stratification or layering of waters due to density was 

classified as moderate-infrequent. Dissolved oxygen (DO) levels are generally higher than those 

reported at the outside of Admiralty Inlet (ADM002), which is due to the mixing and aeration that 

occurs as water flows over the sill at the entrance to the Inlet (WSDE 2007a). 

The second site within this project area is the Port Townsend Harbor (PTH005). The observed 

pattern of stratification or layering of waters due to density was classified as moderate-infrequent. 

Low levels of dissolved oxygen (< 5 mg/L) have been reported at this site, generally at depths of 

6.0 m or deeper. This area commonly has upwellings that can bring anaerobic water from deep 

waters to the surface lowering dissolved oxygen levels (City of Port Townsend 2007). Shallow 

euphotic zones, most likely due to algal blooms, have been reported at this site from late spring 

through early fall. 

Chimacum Creek enters Port Townsend bay just south of Kala Point. This waterway is listed on 

the 2004 303(d) report due to an elevated temperature regime (WSDE 2004). 

4-32 January 31, 2008



Spieden Channel 

There are no monitoring stations located either within the Spieden Channel project area or in close 

enough proximity to serve as a surrogate. However, the largely undeveloped nature of the 

surrounding landscape and lack of any industrial uses in the nearby area suggests that water quality 

may not be impaired. 

Guemes Channel 

There are no monitoring stations located either within the Guemes Channel project area or in close 

enough proximity to serve as a surrogate. However, the 303(d) report for 2004 lists 

Guemes Channel as impaired due to the presence of contaminated sediments (WSDE 2004). 

Parameters of concern for the project area include: hexachlorobutadiene, 4-methylphenol, 

2-methyphenol, phenol, pentachlorophenol, benzyl alcohol, benzoic acid, 2,4-dimethylphenol, 

1,2,4-triclorobenzene, and 1,2-dischlorobenzne (WSDE 2004). 

San Juan Channel 

There are no monitoring stations located either within the San Juan Channel permit area or in close 

enough proximity to serve as a surrogate. However, the largely undeveloped nature of the 

surrounding landscape and lack of any industrial uses in the nearby area suggests that water quality 

may not be impaired. 


There is one monitoring station in the vicinity of the Deception Pass permit area, Fidalgo 

Bay (FID001), which is located to north of the eastern entrance to the passage. Available 

biological monitoring data at the WSDE’s biological monitoring website 

(http://www.ecy.wa.gov/apps/eap/marinewq/mwdataset.asp) does not indicate any water quality 

issues at this site in terms of exceeding of the state of Washington’s water quality standards. In 

addition, these waters are not on the 303(d) list for 2004 (WSDE 2004). 

4-33 January 31, 2008



Agate Passage 

There is one monitoring station in the vicinity of the Agate Passage project area, Port Madison 

(PMA001), which is located near the northern entrance to the passage. Available biological 

monitoring data for this site does not indicate any water quality issues at this site in terms of 

exceeding of the state of Washington’s water quality standards. In 2004, the state of Washington 

reclassified sediments at the site from Category 5 (listed on the state’s 303(d) report) to a 4(b) 

designation due to the presence of a cleanup plan in place that will result in the attainment of water 

quality standards within a reasonable time (EPA 2005). The pollutants of concern are benzyl 

alcohol, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadienne, silver, mercury, 

1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,4-dichlorobenzene, 2-methylphenol, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, and 

2,4-dimethylphenol. The 2004 303(d) report lists an unnamed water body that discharges into the 

Agate Passage project area as impaired due to elevated fecal coliform levels (WSDE 2004). 

Rich Passage 

There are no monitoring stations located within the Rich Passage project area, nor are there any 

located in close-enough proximity to serve as a surrogate. The state of Washington reclassified the 

sediments in this waterbody from the “Contaminated Sediment” Category 5 to the 4(b) designation 

due to the presence of a cleanup plan in place that will result in the attainment of water 

quality standards within a reasonable time (EPA 2005). The pollutants of concern are benzyl 

alcohol, hexachlorobenzene, hexachlorobutadienne, silver, mercury, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 

1,4-dichlorobenzene, 2-methylphenol, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, and 2,4-dimethylphenol. The 303(d) 

report lists Beaver Creek, which discharges into the Rich Passage project area, as an impaired 

waterbody due to elevated fecal coliform levels in the water (WSDE 2004). 

4.3.3 

Water Rights 

Water rights are assigned legal authorizations to use a pre-defined volume of water for a 

designated use. In the state of Washington, as is the case in most western states, water rights are 

based largely on “first in time, first in right.” This principle means that a senior right cannot be 

4-34 January 31, 2008



impaired by a junior right. WSDE has jurisdiction over the water rights program, including the 

trackin g of rights and issuing of new certificates (WSDE 2007d). No water right certification is 

required for this project as water will not be diverted or withdrawn. 

4.3.4 

Water Discharge Permits 

The WSDE is delegated by the EPA as the state water pollution control agency, responsible for 

implementing all federal and state water pollution control laws and regulations. Wastewater 

discharge is regulated primarily by National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) 

permits, which stipulate specific limits and conditions of allowable discharge. A wastewater 

discharge permit is required for disposal of waste material into “waters of the state,” which include 

rivers, lakes, streams, and all underground waters and aquifers. A wastewater discharge permit is 

also required for certain industrial users that discharge industrial waste into sanitary sewer systems 

(WSDE 2004a). 

The following is a listing and description of facilities within the project areas that are regulated 

by the WSDE. The location of the facilities was determined using databases made 

publicly available on the WSDE’s Geographic Information System website 

(ww w. 

ecy.wa.gov/services/gis) and EPA’s EnvironMapper application for the Envirofacts 

database (www.epa.gov/enviro/emef). 

4.3.4.1 


• Fleet Marine Inc (NPDES Permit WAG031003): This facility provides marine services 

including boat repair, long-term boat storage, working-boat storage, and boat haul-out. 

Readily available state and EPA records do not provide any information about the 

permit limitations for this facility, although the EPA database suggests it is related to 

excavation work. 

• Port Townsend Port Washington (State Permit WAG031006): This facility provides boat 

repair and maintenance services. The general permit allows for wastewater discharges 

4-35 January 31, 2008



from an industrial facility, although readily available state records do not provide any 

information about the permit limitations for this facility. 

• Port Townsend Shipwrights (State Permit WAG031004): This facility provides boat repair 

and maintenance services. The general permit allows for wastewater discharges from an 

industrial facility, although readily available state records do not provide any information 

about the permit limitations for this facility. 

• Port Townsend Foundry (State Permit WAG031002): This facility provides boat repair 




• Grant Seran (State Permit WAG031041): This facility provides boat repair and 

maintenance services. The general permit allows for wastewater discharges from an 



• Baird Boat Co (State Permit WAG031007): This facility provides boat repair and 

maintenance services. The general permit allows for wastewater discharges from an 



• Integrated Marine Systems (State Permit WAG031005): This facility provides boat repair 




• New Day Fisheries Inc (NPDES Permit WA0042048): The facility is a processor of 

seafood (primarily shrimp, crab and salmon) located on a site leased from Port Townsend. 

While historically this facility discharged its waste to the local sewage treatment plant, it 

now discharges its effluent at least 0.8 km offshore using a vessel. The current permit for 

the facility includes limitations on biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended 

solids (TSS), pH, fecal coliform bacteria, and total residual chlorine. 

4-36 January 31, 2008



• Fort Flagler State Park STP (State Permit WA0037282): This facility has a water 

discharge permit to discharge to a minor municipal facility. Readily available state records 

do not provide any information about the permit limitations for this facility. 

• WPNSTA Seal Beach Detachment Port Hadlock (NPDES Permit WA0021997): This 

facility is licensed as 

a sewage-treatment facility. The current permit for the facility 

includes limitations on five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), total suspended 

solids (TSS), pH, and fecal coliform bacteria. 

• Boundary Industries H Street Gravel (State Permit WAG503339): This facility is engaged 

in sand and gravel operations. It has a general water discharge permit, although readily 

available state records do not provide any information about the limitations imposed by the 

permit. 

• Island County PW Lagoon Point Pit (State Permit WAG503011): This facility has a 

general water discharge permit. Readily available state records do not provide any 

information about the permit limitations for this facility, although the WSDE database 

suggests it is related to discharges from a sand and gravel operation. 

• Rempel Bros Concrete Greenbank Inc. (State Permit WAG503224): This facility has a 

general water discharge permit. Readily available state records do not provide any 

information about the permit limitations for this facility, although the WSDE database 

suggests it is related to discharges from a gravel operation. 

• Marrowstone Field Station (NPDES Permit WA0025879): This facility is a field station 

for the Western Fisheries Research Center, which conducts research and provides technical 

assistance related to fish health, fish, ecology, and aquatic systems. Readily available state 

and EPA records do not provide any information about the permit limitations for this 

facility, although the EPA database suggests it is related to discharges from fish hatchery 

and preserve activities. 

• Port Townsend Paper (NPDES Permit WA0000922): This facility produces pulp and 

paper for mills, converters, and retailers. The current permit for the facility includes 

limitations on temperature, five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), pH, total 

suspended solids (TSS), fecal coliform bacteria and total residual chlorine. 

4-37 January 31, 2008



4.3.4.2 Spieden Channel 

There are no WSDE-issued water quality discharge permits within the project area. 

4.3.4.3 Guemes Channel 

• Metropolitan Stevedore Co. P2 A (NPDES Permit WAR003430): Metropolitan Stevedore 

is in charge of the export of bulk cargoes at the Port of Anacortes. Operations at Port Dock 

Number 2 include the handling of petroleum coke delivered from a local Texaco refinery. 

The current permit for the facility includes limitations on turbidity, pH, and oil and grease. 

• Dakota Creek Industries (NPDES Permit WA-0031141): This shipbuilding and repair 

facility discharges into drydock outfall 2, which is located in Guemes Channel. Wastes 

generated by shipyard activities include spent abrasive grits and wash water from pressure 

cleaning boats, spent solvents, antifreeze, oils and points, and various cleaners and anticorrosive 

compounds. Wastewater is run through three settling ponds and the resultant 

sludge is sent to the Anacortes Wastewater Treatment Facility for treatment. 

• Anacortes WWTP (NPDES Permit WA-002025-7): The city of Anacortes Waste Water 

Treatment Plant discharges disinfected secondary effluent into the Guemes Channel. The 

current permit for the facility includes limitations on five-day biochemical oxygen demand 

(BOD5), dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, toxics, total suspended solids (TSS), pH, 

fecal coliform bacteria, and total residual chlorine. 

• Trident Seafood (State Permit ST-7397): This permit allows pretreated process 

wastewater from the facility’s bread and batter operation to discharge into the City of 

Anacortes Wastewater Treatment Plant. Readily available state records do not provide any 


• Lovrics Sea Craft (NPDES Permit WAG30090): Lovrics is marine repair facility located 

on the Guemes Channel, along the south shore. Readily available State and EPA records 

do not provide any information about the permit limitations for this facility, although the 

EPA database suggests it is related to excavation work. 

4-38 January 31, 2008



4.3.4.4 


The re are no WSDE-issued water quality discharge permits within the project area. 

4.3.4.5 


• Marine Services and Assist (NPDES Permit WAG030083): Located in Cornet Bay, this 

facility provides repairs to and rentals of marine vessels, as well as salvage and towing 

support. Readily available state and EPA records do not provide any information about the 

permit limitations for this facility, although the EPA database suggests it is related to 

excavation work. 

• EQ Harbor Service Inc (NPDES Permit WAG030093): This boatyard provides service 

and sales for marine vessels. Readily available state and EPA records do not provide any 


4.3.4.6 

Agate Passage 

• Suquamish Sewage Treatment Plant (NPDES Permit WA-0023256): The primary source 

of wastewater to the Suquamish Treatment Plant was domestic sewage from residential and 

light commercial activities in the town of Suquamish, and the new Clearwater Hotel and 

Resort Casino. The treatment plant effluent is discharged into Port Madison Bay, Puget 

Sound. The effluent is discharged approximately 700 m offshore at a depth of 13 m below 

mean low water. The current permit for the facility includes limitations on five-day 

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ), dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, toxics, total 

suspended solids (TSS), pH, fecal coliform bacteria, and total residual chlorine. 

4.3.4.7 Rich Passage 

• Kitsap Sewer Dist 7 (NPDES Permit WA-003031): Located at the southern tip of 

Bainbridge Island, this wastewater treatment plant uses extended aeration activated sludge 

technology for secondary treatment. The plant discharges the effluent from this process 

into Rich Passage. The outfall pipe extends 270 m from shore to a discharge depth of 18 m 

below mean lower low water. The current permit for the facility includes limitations on 

4-39 January 31, 2008



five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), dissolved oxygen, temperature, turbidity, 

toxics, total suspended solids (TSS), pH, fecal coliform bacteria, and total residual chlorine. 

• American Gold Seafoods Fort Ward (NPDES Permit WA-003153); American Gold 

Seafoods Clam Bay (NPDES Permit WA-003152; American Gold Seafoods Orchard 

Rock (NPDES Permit WA-003154): These three permits relate to marine salmon net-pen 

facilities, where salmon are raised for eventual harvest and market sale. Each site has a 

pollution prevention plan in place that outlines the best management practices for cleaning 

the associated nets. Wastes from these facilities may contain fish feed, organic fish waste, 

disease control medications (administrated through feed), and marine fouling organisms 

displaced during the maintenance of the nets. The current permits for the facilities include 

limitations on disease control medications, nutrients, settleable solids, turbidity, 

biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), total suspended solids (TSS), pH, fecal coliform 

bacteria, and oil and grease. 

• Fleet and Industrial Supply Center Puget Sound (NPDES Permit WA-0002780): This 

facility is one of seven Fleet and Industrial Supply Centers operated by the Naval Supply 

Systems Command and has a particular expertise in providing support to the TRIDENT 

program and to the nuclear propulsion repair activity at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard. As 

this site is a military installation, descriptive information is restricted. The current permit 

for the facility includes limitations on pH, total suspended solids (TSS), zinc, total organic 

carbon (TOC), and oil and grease. 

4.4 Fish and Aquatic Resources 

4.4.1 Overview of Coastal Habitat and Associated Species 

Set against the rugged geology and tectonic history of the Pacific Northwest, and defined by a host 

of complex environmental features, Puget Sound is one of the most diverse and productive coastal 

ecosystems in the world. It supports a wide range of habitats that are home to thousands of floral 

and invertebrate species, as well as more than 200 species of fish, 100 species of marine birds, and 

nine species of marine mammal (Gustafson et al. 2000; Palsson et al. 1997). 

4-40 January 31, 2008



Generally constrained by a number of unique parameters, habitat can be defined as the sum total of 

environmental conditions associ ated with a spe cific place or area norm ally occupied by a particular 

organism (DON 2006; Proctor et al. 1980; Williams et al. 2003). However, as multiple species 

frequently share similar environmental preferenc es and tolerances (e.g. substrate type, nutrient 

availability, exposure to light, air, and agitation), it is not uncommon for numerous organisms to 

inhabit the same environment simultaneously and to thrive under the same conditions. 

Consequently, habitat can often be more broadly defined and better understood as the preferred 

environment of a community or population of organisms. Habitat type, therefore, may be 

considered as referring to an overarching environmental setting, readily distinguishable from 

others on the basis of its general physical and geological character. As such, a given habitat type 

will likely comprise numerous more narrowly defined species specific habitats that, as a group, 

exhibit overwhelming similarities and only limited or subtle variability – for example, the tidal flat 

or rocky inter-tidal habitat. Moreover, when the presence of a single species, o r an assemblage of 

species, represents an essential feature of anothe r organism’s habitat, or when that presence 

significantly alters the environmental conditions of an area, then the shared habitat may be 

conveniently referred to by its keystone species as a biogenic habi tat – for example, the eelgrass 

meadow and the kelp forest (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000). 

Given these considerations, the major coastal habitats of Puget Sound include salt marshes, tidal 

flats, beaches, rocky inter-tidal habitats, eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hard-bottom and soft substrate 

benthic habitats, coral communities, sponge reefs, and open-neritic environments (DON 2006; 

Proctor et al. 1980; Williams et al. 2003). Tables 4-11 and 4-12 provide a summary of the habitats 

associated with each of the project areas. 

4-41 January 31, 2008



Table 4-11. Littoral habitats within permit sites 

Site Salt Marsh Tidal Flat Beach Rocky Inter-tidal 


X 

Spieden Channel Adjacent X 


X 

San Juan Channel Adjacent X 

Deception Pass X X 

Agate Pass 

X 

Rich Pass 

X 

Table 4-12. Sub-littoral habitats within permit sites 

Site 

Eelgrass 

Bed 

Kelp Forest Hard-bottom Soft Substrate Coral 

Admiralty Inlet X X X X 

Spieden Channel X X X X 

Guemes Channel X X X 

San Juan Channel X X X X 

Deception Pass X X X X 

Agate Pass X X 

Rich Pass X X 

Sources: DON 2006; EPRI, 2007; Friends of the San Juans, 2007; Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992. 

Sponge 

Reef 

4.4.1.1 The Littoral Habitats 

Found between the highest reaches of tidal splash and the lowest stand of tidal retreat, the habitats 

of the littoral zone are, per square area, among the most productive environments in the world. 

They provide crucial feeding, nesting, spawning, and nursery grounds as well as shelter and refuge 

for countless invertebrate, fish, avian, and mammal species (DON 2006). They form the transition 

between terrestrial and marine systems, and in many instances, they serve to improve water 

quality and to mitigate both flood damage and shoreline erosion (DON 2006; Phillips and Meñez 

1988; WSDNR 2007b, c). In Puget Sound, these habitats are associated with the 3,700 km of 

inland coastline that circumscribe the basin and are influenced daily by a tidal rise and fall that 

varies on average from 2.4 m at the northern end of the Sound to 4.6 m at the southern end 

(Gustafson et al. 2000). 

4-42 January 31, 2008



Salt Marshes 

Found primarily along the margins of Hood Canal, the southwestern reaches of Puget Sound, and 

the eastern peripheries of both Skagit and Padilla Bays to the north, salt marshes represent a 

significant portion of the sub-aerial and inter-tidal wetlands that cover more than 176 km 2 (DON 

2006; Fung and Davis 2005). These and similar wetlands across the Pacific Northwest provide, at 

one life stage or another, essential habitat for more than 315 species of wildlife, including one- 

of Washington State’s threatened or endangered species and one-half of the commercially 

third 

harvested fish and shellfish species during some stage of life (DON 2006; Lane and 

Taylor 1997). 

Bound by water on one side and land on the other, these habitats possess both marine and 

te rrestrial features. And like all littoral habitats, salt marshes exhibit strong vertical zonation with 

respect to the composition of their various floral and faunal communities. This distribution is 

based primar ily on where each community is loc ated relative to the tidal range (i.e. upper – 

including th e splash zone – middle, or lower inter-t idal). For salt marshes, diversity within zones 

tends to increase landward, or towards the upper zones. The salt mar sh habitats of Puget Sound 

ar e generally characterized by the p resence of six dominant floral species including salt grass 

(Distichlis spicata) and pickleweed (Salicornia virginica) in th e mid- to lower inter-tidal zones, 

and Lyngby sedge (Carex lyngbyei), tufted hairg rass (Deschampsia caespitosa), Reed canary grass 

(Phalaris arundinacea) and seaside arrowgrass (Triglochin maritima) in the upper 

inter-tidal zone (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993; Lane and Taylor 1997; Thom et al. 2002; 

Williams et al. 2003). 

Faunal species associated with salt marsh habitats include small anemones (Nematostella 

vectensis), snails (Ovatella myosotis, Assiminea californica, Littorina sitkana, Algamorda 

newcombiana), amphipods (Traskorchestia traskiana), crabs (Hemigrapsus spp.), and 

pseudoscorpions (Halobisium occidentale) (Kozloff 1993; Williams et al. 2003). 

4-43 January 31, 2008



Tidal Flats 

Encompassing some 246 km 2 , tidal flats comprise one of the major habitats present in Puget Sound 

(Gustafson et al. 2000). Typically broad, flat, and intersected by channels and creeks, these unique 

environments are submerged daily during high tide, and the nutrient-rich detritus with which they 

are associated supports an abundance of faunal species that in turn forms the food base for regional 

populations of both fish and birds (see Table 4-13). 

Table 4-13. Select faunal species associated with tidal flats 

Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name 

Sand Dollar Dendraster excentricus Butter Clam Saxidomus giganteus 

Moon Snail Polinices lewisii Jackknife Clam Solen sicarius 

Channeled Basket-whelk Nassarius fossatus Soft-shelled Clam Mya arenaria 

Lean Basket-whelk Nassarius mendicus Oyster Ostrea lurida 

Burrowing Sea Cucumber Leptosynapta clarki Japanese Oyster Crassostrea gigas 

Sand Clam Macoma secta Horse Mussel Modiolus modiolus 

Staghorn Sculpin Leptocottus armatus Sea anemone Anthopleura artemisia 

Sand Sole Psettichthys melanostictus Bamboo Worm Axiothella rubrocincta 

Bent-nosed Clam Macoma nasuta Terebellid Polychaete Pista pacifica 

Horse Clam Tresus spp. Lugworm Abarenicola spp. 

Geoduck Panopea generosa Tongue Worm Saccoglossus spp. 

Heart Cockle Clinocardium nuttallii Ghost Shrimp Callianassa californiensis 

Littleneck Clam Protothaca spp. Blue Mud Shrimp Upogebia pugettensis 

Manila Clam Tapes japonica Goby Clevelandia ios 

Sources: Kozloff 1993; Proctor et al., 1980. 

The diversity and productivity of tidal flats are to a large extent based on their sediment 

composition, and therefore also on the physical characteristics of the environments in which they 

are found. Flats formed in regions of moderate to high current and wave energy tend to be 

composed primarily of sand-sized sediment particles and possess only a minimal complement of 

organic material (1 to 2 percent by content) (DON 2006). These sand flats, typically no more than 

one kilometer wide, are characterized by low biological diversity and productivity and are 

generally inhabited by limited populations of cockles (Clinocardium nuttalli), white-sand clams 

(Macoma secta), and bent-nosed clams (Macoma nasuta) (DON 2006; Proctor et al. 1980). 

4-44 January 31, 2008



Flats formed in regions of low current and wave energy, on the other hand, tend to be composed of 

finer clay and silt-sized sediment particles and possess a substantially higher load of organic matter 

(DON 2006; Williams et al. 2003). The small size of these particles allows for the sediment bed to 

become highly compacted, thereby fostering the emergence of anaerobic conditions and the 

proliferation of microbial communities (Williams et al. 2003). Commonly called mudflats, these 

environments are stable, richly organic and productive. 

In addition to supporting the same faunal populations that are found in sand flats, mud flats are 

also home to a number of other invertebrates, including polychaete worms and soft-shell clams 

(Mya arenaria), as well as to several species of fish that inhabit the area during high tide 

(Proctor et al. 1980; Williams et al. 2003). Moreover, the broad expanses of this fertile 

environment, which usually exceed five kilometers in width, frequently serve as essential refuge 

and secondary habitat for migratory water birds (DON 2006). 

As a result of the current velocities and water column turbidity associated with mudflats, eelgrass 

and other emergent vegetation are prevented from becoming established in this environment (DON 

2006). Consequently, algae dominate the floral assemblages of this littoral habitat and provide a 

crucial source of food for avian and invertebrate species (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993). 

In Puget Sound, tidal flats are found primarily in Skagit, Padilla, and Samish Bays, and to a much 

lesser extent in the southern extremities of the basin (DON 2006). 

Beaches 

Beach habitats extend from the low water margin to the upper edge of the splash zone. Composed 

primarily of unconsolidated material, their morphology is often subject to change with sediment 

being continuously added and removed through the deposition and erosion effected by local winds 

and waves (Airamé et al. 2003). However, as much of Puget Sound’s shoreline is protected from 

heavy surf and swell by limited fetch and the dampening of numerous islands and promontories, 

many of the basin’s beaches are also low energy environments. They typically exhibit little 

vertical relief and are frequently dominated by sand-sized grains of sediment coupled with a 

4-45 January 31, 2008



substantially greater complement of organic material than is found in the more exposed beaches of 

Washington’s outer coast (DON 2006). 

Like salt marsh habitats, beaches exhibit distinct community zonation based on the degree of tidal 

inundation. The upper inter-tidal beach is a somewhat hostile area, as it is only submerged for 

brief periods and often exposed to a wide range of temperatures. Moreover, sources of food in this 

region are scarce and unreliable (DON 2006). As a result, few species venture to inhabit this 

section of the habitat, although, for a variety of pinnipeds and birds, it offers a suitable 

environment for breeding. The middle inter-tidal beach, on the other hand, is alternately 

submerged and exposed for moderate periods of time, and is populated by highly mobile species 

such as isopods, crabs, and polychaetes (see Table 4-14) (DON 2006). Below this portion of the 

habitat are the lower inter-tidal beach and the surf zone – regions that are only exposed for short 

spans of time during the lowest tides, and where organisms are often subject to regular physical 

agitation (Airamé et al. 2003; Proctor et al. 2006). Here, faunal assemblages are primarily 

comprised of species that are capable of burying into the sediment for protection (see 

Table 4-14). 

In Puget Sound, beach habitats are associated with essentially the entire coastline, except around 

the San Juan archipelago (Williams et al. 2003). Sandy beach is the dominant beach in Hood 

Canal, the southern reaches of the basin, northern Bellingham Bay, Birch Bay, and Boundary Bay, 

while gravelly sand lines the remainder of the basin, except the western half of the Strait of Juan de 

Fuca, which is characterized by gravel beach (DON 2006). 

Table 4-14. Select faunal species associated with beach habitats 

Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name 

Razor Clam Siliqua patula Beach Hopper/Sand Flea Traskorchestia spp. 

Pismo Clam Tivela stultorum Beach Hopper/Sand Flea Megalorchestia spp. 

Purple Olive Snail Olivella biplicata/O. baetica Rove Beetle Staphylinidae 

Predacious Polychaete 

Nephtys spp. 

Goose Barnacle 

Lepas spp. 

Shrimp Crangon spp. Blood Worm Euzonus mucronatus 

Opossum Shrimp Archaeomysis grebnitzkii Isopod Excirolana spp. 

Amphipod Haustorridae/Phoxocephalidae Mole Crab Emirita analoga 

Source: Kozloff 1993. 

4-46 January 31, 2008



Rocky Inter-Tidal Habitats 

Perhaps the most extreme of all nearshore environments, the rocky inter-tidal habitat is continually 

subjected to moderate and high-energy surf, waves, and currents. It is this exposure to constant 

and severe weatherin g and erosion (City of Port Townsend 2007), coupled with frequently near 

vertical orientations and steep submarine slopes, that results in the removal of fine sediment, the 

exposure of rock faces, and the formation of an impenetrable and irregular surficial environment 

(Airamé e t al. 2003) . Organisms that dwell in these regions must be able to withstand not only 

harsh physical agitation, but also tidal inundation, exposure to air, wide temperature ranges, 

occasional to prolonged desiccation, and fierce competition (DON 2006). Like beach habitats, the 

rocky intertidal environment displays tidal zonation in the distribution of resident organisms, and 

also as with beach habitats, diversity tends to increase with depth as conditions become more 

stable and less hostil e (Airamé et al. 2003). Typical inhabitants include various sea anemones, sea 

stars, brittle stars, barnacles, and mussels, with surfgrass (Phyllospadix spp.), nearshore kelp 

(Nereocystis spp.), and other macroalgae dominating the floral assemblages (Proctor et al. 1980; 

DON 2006). Table 4-15 presents a summary of the faunal species commonly associated with 

rocky inter-tidal habitats in Puget Sound. 

In Puget Sound, this habitat is largely confined to the shores of the San Juan archipelago and 

Deception Pass (DON 2006). 

Table 4-15. Select faunal species associated with rocky inter-tidal habitats 

Common Name 

Scientific Name 

Mite 

Periwinkle 

Limpet 

Barnacle 

Isopod 

Snail 

Hermit Crab 

Sculpin 

Mussel 

Neomolgus spp. 

Littorina spp. 

Collisella, Notoacmea, Acmea, Diodora spp. 

Cthamalus, Balanus, Endocladia, Semibalanus, Pollicipes spp. 

Ligia, Idotea, Gnorimosphaeroma spp. 

Nucella, Searlesia, Calliostoma, Margarites, Lirularia, Homalopoma, Fusitriton, Amphissa, 

Bittium, Ceratostoma, Ocenebra, Petaloconchus, Trichotropis spp. 

Pagurus, Discorsopagurus spp. 

Oligocottus, Clincottus, Ascelichthys, Artedius spp. 

Myrtilus spp. 

4-47 January 31, 2008



Common Name 

Sea Cucumber 

Polychaete 

Chiton 

Crab 

Sea Star 

Sea Anemone 

Sponge 

Sea Slug 

Hydroid 

Coral 

Brittle Star 

Sea Urchin 

Brachiopod 

Abalone 

Scallop 

Rock Oyster 

Octopus 

Shrimp 

Clingfish 

Blenny Eels 



Cucumaria, Stichopus, Eupentacta, Psolus spp. 

Nereis, Serpula, Spirorbis, Eudistylia, Thelepus, Cirratulus, Dodecaceria spp. 

Katharina, Lepidochitona, Cryptochiton, Tonicella, Lepidozona, Mopalia spp. 

Hemigrapsus, Petrolisthes, Lophopanopeus, Cancer, Pugettia, Oregonia, Scyra, 

Telmessus, Hapalogaster, Cryptolithodes spp. 

Pisaster, Evasterias, Orthasterias, Dermasterias, Solaster, Leptasterias, Henricia, 

Pycnopodia spp. 

Anthopleura, Urticina, Metridium, Epiactis, Aulactinia, Cnidopus spp. 

Haliclona, Halichondria, Ophlitaspongia, Cliona spp. 

Rostanga, Doridella, Corambe, Eubranchus, Phidiana, Aeolidia, Archidoris 

Onchidoris, Triopha, Laila, Cadlina, Dirona, Janolus spp. 

Obelia, Sarsia, Tubularia, Aglaophenia, Abietinaria spp. 

Balanophyllia spp. 

Ophiopholis, Amphipholis spp. 

Strongylocentrotus spp. 

Terebratalia spp. 

Haliotis spp. 

Pecten, Chlamys, Hinnites spp. 

Pododesmus spp. 

Octopus spp. 

Heptacarpus spp. 

Gobiesox spp. 

Anoplarchus, Apodichthys spp. 

4.4.1.2 The Sub-Littoral Habitats 

Between the lowest spring tide line and the deepest recesses of the basin more than 390 m below, 

in an environment continuously enveloped by water, the benthic life of Puget Sound thrives. At 

times carpeting the seafloor and at other times only scattered across it, the organisms that inhabit 

the region’s benthos are diverse, representing nearly every phyla, and include plants, algae, 

invertebrates and ground fish all well adapted to their unique existence. Like those of the littoral 

habitats, the species that occupy the sub-littoral environment also exhibit vertical zonation, but 

here distribution is based primarily on the availability of light, wave action, type of substrate, and 

temperature (DON 2006). In the photic zone, flora is nearly ubiquitous, with numerous species 

serving as shelter, substrate, and an essential food source for grazing invertebrates and fish. Their 

4-48 January 31, 2008



presence and productivity forms the foundation for countless complex food webs and the entire 

shallow near-shore ecosystem. As depth increases, however, light intensity diminishes, as does the 

ability for plants and algae to survive (DON 2006). Eventually, insufficient light exists to support 

photosynthesis, and where floral food sources are absent, faunal communities must obtain the 

energy and the nutrition necessary for life by active predation of other benthic animals, the 

scavenging of organic falls, or by filter feeding. 

Yet even where it is dark and cold, where diversity and population density are reduced, organisms 

exist and communities succeed. Reflecting the variable light conditions and substrate types that 

describe the basin’s benthos, the sub-littoral environment of Puget Sound is comprised of several 

distinct major habitats, which are addressed below. 

Eelgrass Beds 

Eelgrass (Zostera marina) is one of approximately 60 species of submerged vascular plant, 

commonly referred to as seagrass, found in shallow subtidal depths world-wide (DON 2006; 

Thayer et al. 1984). The extensive underwater meadows formed by these plants are not only 

among the most productive habitats in the world, but they also stabilize sediment and promote its 

deposition, thereby preventing coastline erosion, by slowing currents and waves (DON 2006). 

They play a significant role in nutrient cycling and carbon sequestration and improve water quality 

by filtering sediment and sediment-borne pollutants (DON 2006). Collectively, seagrasses are also 

an important element in the promotion of sustainable fisheries, and the conservation of marine 

mammals, sea turtles, waterfowl, and benthic invertebrates (DON 2006). 

Eelgrass beds are associated with soft sediments and small-grained unconsolidated substrates and 

can be found in depths ranging from the intertidal to 10 m below sea level (Airamé et al. 2003; 

DON 2006; Proctor et al. 1980; Williams et al. 2003). They provide important nursery and 

spawning grounds and an essential food resource for numerous fish and invertebrates, including 

Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi), juvenile chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) and amphipods, and 

they therefore also serve as an important foraging territory for larger predators such as the Great 

Blue Heron (DON 2006; Proctor et al. 1980; City of Port Townsend 2007; Williams et al. 2003). 

4-49 January 31, 2008



Table 4-16 presents a summary of the faunal species commonly associated with eelgrass beds in 

Puget Sound. 

In Puget Sound, eelgrass beds are common throughout the subtidal zone, with the exception of the 

southwest corners of the Sound, the entrance to Admiralty Inlet, the southern edge of the San Juan 

archipelago, and the western half of the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Together with kelp forests, they 

cover almost 1000 km 2 (DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000). Local distributions of eelgrass beds at 

each project site are described in Section 4.4.1.4. 

Table 4-16. Select faunal species associated with eelgrass beds 

Common Name 

Hydroid 

Jellyfish 

Sea Anemone 

Snail 

Nudibranch/Sea Slug 

Clam 

Sea Star 

Burrowing Sea Cucumber 

Isopod 

Crab 

Barnacle 

Polychaete 

Rough Piddock 



Obelia dichotoma. 

Gonionemus vertens 

Epiactis prolifera 

Lacuna, Alia spp. 

Melibe, Phidiana, Aeolidia, Phyllaplysia spp. 

Transenella, Gemma, Macoma, Petricola spp. 

Leptasterias, Pisaster, Amphiodia spp. 

Leptosynapta spp. 

Idotea spp. 

Cancer, Pugettia, Telmessus spp. 

Balanus glandula 

Polydora proboscidea 

Zirfaea pilsbryi 

Kelp Forests 

Perhaps the mo st visible benthic flora in Puget Sound, kelp comprises several species of brown 

macroalgae 

and can be fo und growing in depths of up to 60 m in both protected and high energy 

environments (DON 2006). Typically associated with hard or rocky low-relief substrates, kelp 

frequently forms complex, vertically structured forest-like habitats (Don 2006; Proctor et al. 1980). 

These algal stands possess a canopy composed of two species, bull kelp ( Nereocystis luetkeana), 

which is dominant in exposed regions, and giant kelp (Macrocystsis pyrifera) which is more 

prevalent in sheltered lower energy environments; an understory formed by several 

species, 

including walking kelp ( Pterygophora californica), drilly kelp (Alaria marginata), laminariales 

4-50 January 31, 2008



(Laminaria saccharina and L. setchellii), and feather boa kelp (Egregia menziesii); a turf layer 

consisting of filamentous and thallose red algae; and a crustose layer made up of encrusting 

(Lithophyllum spp.) and articulated corallines (e.g., Calliarthron spp. and Bossiella spp.) algae 

(Airamé et al. 2003; DON 2006; Proctor et al. 1980; Williams et al. 2003). 

Extensive, p roductive and elaborate, kelp forests constitute one of Puget Sound’s largest and most 

vibrant habitats. They provide shelter and refuge, foraging grounds and nursery areas to 

innumerable species, from the microscopic to the massive, from invertebrate to mammal (Williams 

et al. 2003). Permanent and temporary inhabitants are similar to other rocky substrate habitats (i.e. 

rocky inter-tidal habitat and hard-bottom benthic habitat) and include, among others, sea urchins, 

sea stars, crabs, mollusks, polychaete worms, and rockfish (see Table 4-17) (DON 2006; Kozloff 

1993). 

In Puget Sound, kelp forests are found along the margins of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the San 

Juan archipelago, Deception Pass, the entrance to and north eastern shore of Admiralty Inlet, the 

eastern coastline of the main basin – from Seattle to Edmonds, and the Tacoma Narrows 

(DON 2006). Local distributions of kelp and other marine macroalgae at each project site are 

described in Section 4.4.1.4. 

Table 4-17. Selected faunal species associated with kelp forests 

Common Name 

Flatworm 

Limpet 

Barnacle 

Snail 

Hermit Crab 

Sculpin 

Sea Cucumber 

Polychaete 

Chiton 

Crab 

Sea Star 

Kaburakai, Freemania, Notoplana spp. 

Acmea, Diodora spp. 

Balanus, Semibalanus spp. 


Calliostoma, Margarites, Lirularia, Homalopoma, Fusitriton, Amphissa, Bittium, 

Ceratostoma, Ocenebra, Petaloconchus, Trichotropis spp. 

Pagurus spp. 



Serpula, Spirorbis, Eudistylia, Thelepus, Cirratulus, Dodecaceria spp. 

Katharina, Cryptochiton, Tonicella, Lepidozona, Mopalia spp. 

Cancer, Pugettia, Oregonia, Scyra, Telmessus, Hapalogaster, Cryptolithodes 

spp. 

Pisaster, Evasterias, Orthasterias, Dermasterias, Solaster, Leptasterias, 

Henricia, Pycnopodia spp. 

4-51 January 31, 2008



Common Name 


Sea Anemone Anthopleura, Urticina, Metridium, Epiactis, Aulactinia, Cnidopus spp. 

Sponge 

Sea Slug 

Hydroid 

Coral 

Brittle Star 

Sea Urchin 

Brachiopod 

Abalone 

Scallop 

Rock Oyster 

Octopus 

Shrimp 

Clingfish 

Blenny Eels 










Haliotis spp. 



Octopus spp. 


Gobiesox spp. 


Hard-Bottom Benthic Habitat 

Bedrock, boulders, and larger-grained unconsolidated substrates such as cobble and cobble-gravel 

m ixtures form the foundation for some of Puget Sound’s most diverse habitats. These hard 

substrates provide attachment sites not only for kelp but also for numerous other floral species, 

such as surfgrass (Phyllospadix scouleri / Phyllospadix torreyi), algal wrack (Fucus spp.), 

sargassum (Sargassum muticum), and southern sea palm (Eisenia arborea) (DON 2006). These 

s pecies in turn provide important habitat outside of the kelp forest for a wide variety of fish, 

p articularly groundfish, and countless invertebrates including sponges, bryozoans, coelenterates, 

echinoderms, annelids, arthropods, and mollusks (see Table 4-18) (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993). 

Moreover, the frequently broken and irregular topography of these substrates themselves provides 

places of shelter and refuge for many organisms (e.g., octopuses), and attachment surfaces for 

sessile species. 

4-52 January 31, 2008



Table 4-18. Select faunal species associated with hard-bottom benthic habitats 

Common Name 

Flatworm 

Limpet 

Barnacle 

Snail 

Hermit Crab 

Sculpin 

Sea Cucumber 

Polychaete Worm 

Chiton 

Crab 

Sea Star 

Sea Anemones 

Sponge 

Sea Slug 

Hydroid 

Coral 

Brittle Star 

Sea Urchin 

Brachiopod 

Abalone 

Scallop 

Rock Oyster 

Octopus 

Shrimp 

Clingfish 

Blenny Eel 


Kaburakai, Freemania, Notoplana spp. 

Acmea, Diodora spp. 

Balanus, Semibalanus spp. 


Calliostoma, Margarites, Lirularia, Homalopoma, Fusitriton, Amphissa, Bittium, 

Ceratostoma, Ocenebra, Petaloconchus, Trichotropis spp. 

Pagurus spp. 



Serpula, Spirorbis, Eudistylia, Thelepus, Cirratulus, Dodecaceria spp. 

Katharina, Cryptochiton, Tonicella, Lepidozona, Mopalia spp. 

Cancer, Pugettia, Oregonia, Scyra, Telmessus, Hapalogaster, Cryptolithodes spp. 

Pisaster, Evasterias, Orthasterias, Dermasterias, Solaster, Leptasterias, Henricia, 

Pycnopodia spp. 

Anthopleura, Urticina, Metridium, Epiactis, Aulactinia, Cnidopus spp. 









Haliotis spp. 



Octopus spp. 


Gobiesox spp. 


Generally found in shallower regions near shore, hard-bottom habitats typically occur where 

current and wave energy is sufficient to remove fine and unconsolidated sediment from overlaying 

strata. Consequently, at greater depths, where currents are generally very weak to non-existent, 

4-53 January 31, 2008



these habitats are very uncommon, with only 3 percent of the seafloor below kelp depth being 

composed of them. 

In Puget Sound, hard-bottom habitats occur primarily around the San Juan archipelago, along the 

margins of the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Deception Pass, at the entrance to Admirality Inlet and 

bordering the Tacoma Narrows, all of which are identified with kelp forests (DON 2006). Hardbottom 

habitats, however, are also found lining Hood Canal and the southwest region of the Sound 

where they support large stands of sargassum (DON 2006). Below kelp depth, in the aphotic zone, 

they are found near Deception Pass and southwest of the San Juan archipelago (DON 2006). 

Moreover, with the addition of numerous artificial and man-made features to the seafloor of Puget 

Sound, the range and area of hard substrate benthic habitats have also been expanded. Quarry 

rock, automobiles, railroad ca rs, aircraft, home appliances, discarded construction materials, tires, 

prefabricated concrete structu res, and more than 600 shipwrecks all offer sites of attachment for 

floral communities and therefore all support faunal assemblages similar to those associated with 

the naturally occurring hard substrates (DON 2006; Gibbs 1957). 

Soft Substrate Benthic Habitats 

Soft and small-grained unconsolidated substrates such as gravel, sand, mud, organic matter, and 

combinations thereof characterize the most of the seafloor, particularly the deeper benthos, both worldwide 

and within Puget Sound. Due to their size, these sediments are subject to focusing and 

winnowing even under weak currents and wave action. As a result, soft substrate benthic habitats can 

be often highly dynamic, especially nearshore where the continual migration and movement of 

substrate may be a defining feature. Furthermore, these commonly loose sediments offer little 

purchase and infrequent attachment sites for flora in the photic zone. Consequently, the relatively few 

floral species associated with these habitats are typically restricted to low energy or sheltered 

environments, with the exception of crustose species (DON 2006). Floral residents of these habitats 

include both red (Rhodophyta) and green (Chlorophyta) turf algae, eelgrass, sea lettuce (Ulva spp.), 

and occasionally sargassum (Sargassum muticum) (DON 2006). With limited flora available for food 

and shelter, faunal assemblages in these regions are not as diverse nor as abundant as those associated 

with hard substrates; nevertheless, they are composed of representatives from a number of phyla and 

include isopods, adult Dungeness crabs (Cancer magister), several species of shrimp, echinoderms 

4-54 January 31, 2008



(e.g. Molpadia intermedia, Brisaster latifrons), polychaete worms (e.g. Cossura spp., Levinsenia 

gracilis, Sigambra tentaculata), and bivalves (Macoma nasuta / Macoma yoldiformis), as well as a 

number of cultivated species such as Pacific oysters (Crassostrea gigas) and geoducks (Panope 

abrupta) (see Table 4-19) (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993). 

Table 4-19. Select faunal species associated with soft substrate benthic habitats 

Isopod 

Hydrozoan 

Flat Worm 

Common Name 

Ribbon Worm 

Polychaete Worm 

Sea Snail 

Sea Slug 

Bivalve (Clams, Oysters) 

Sea Cucumber 

Sea Star 

Brittle Star 

Amphipod 

Shrimp 

Crab 


Paramunnidae, Idoteidae, Sphaeromatidae, Limnoriidae 

Corymorphidae, Virgulariidae, Actiniidae, Edwardsiidae, Halcampidae 

Kaburakia, Notoplana spp. 

Tubulanidae, Lineidae, Amphiporidae, Tetrastemmatidae 

Polynoidae, Sigalionidae, Phyllodocidae, Hesionidae, Pilargidae, Syllidae, 

Nereididae, Nephtyidae, Goniadidae, Onuphidae, Lumbrineridae, 

Dorvilleidae, Orbiniidae, Paraonidae, Spionidae, Capitellidae, Maldanidae, 

Ampharetidae, Terebellidae, Trichobranchidae, Sabellidae 

Lacunidae, Littorinidae, Rissoidae, Cerithiidae, Trochidae, Columbellidae, 

Diaphanidae, Cylichnidae, Pyramidellidae 

Chaetoderma spp. 

Panope, Crassostrea, Mya, Axinopsida, Psephidiai, Macoma, Yoldia, Mytilus, 

Clinocardium, Tellina, Cardiomya, Pandora, Megacrenella spp. 

Molpadia spp. 

Schizasteridae, Luidiidae, Asteriidae 

Amphiuridae, Amphiodia, Amphipholis, Amphiura spp. 

Isaeidae, Ischyroceridae, Eusiridae, Corophiidae, Aoridae, Ampeliscidae, 

Lysianassidae, Phoxocephalidae, Caprellidae, Oedicerotidae 

Callianassidae, Crangonidae, Hippolytidae, Pasiphaeidae 

Cancridae, Pinnotheridae, Xanthidae, Majidae, Paguridae 

Sources: Laetz, 1998; Llansó, 1998; NOAA and WSDE, 1999. 

Below the photic zone, wave and current energy is low, but due to the absence of light, the growth 

of flora is prohibited and the faunal density of soft substrate habitats is further reduced. However, 

due to the sheer size of these habitats, they dwarf any other single environment in terms of total 

biomass. 

In Puget Sound, soft substrate habitats are found along much of the coastline where they are 

primarily identified with eelgrass beds, but they are also found in sheltered embayments such as 

Skagit and Padilla Bays, and they dominate almost all of the deeper benthos below the photic zone 

(DON 2006). 

4-55 January 31, 2008



Coral Communities and Sponge Reefs 

Amid the vast swathes of soft substrate that stretch out across the aphotic seafloor and adjacent to 

the occasional rocky or hard outcropping, the sub-littoral benthos of Puget Sound is punctuated by 

two additional habitats that are as diverse as they are unique: deep-sea coral communities and 

sponge reefs. 

Typically found below the photic zone, reef-forming deep-sea corals derive sustenance from the 

falling detritus of overhead waters and in turn serve as the foundation for an oasis of life in a dark 

and otherwise sparsely populated world. Deep-sea coral communities are composed of both 

sessile and motile species. Sponges, polychaete worms, crabs, lobsters, clams, snails, octopuses, 

sea stars, sea urchins, brittle stars, feather stars, bryozoans, and fish all inhabit the complex 

habitats formed by deep-sea corals (Freiwald et al. 2004). In Puget Sound, the dominant habitatare 

found in Sequim Bay, the 

forming coral family is the Stylasteriidae, or the hydrocorals. They 

Commencement Bay region, and around Friday Harbor west of Bowen Island (Etnoyer and 

Morgan 2003). 

In addition to possessing deep-sea coral comm unities, Puget Sound is also home to three spongereef 

complexes. Capitalizing on the rich silica content of regional waters, the hexactinellid 

sponges of the Pacific Northwest are globally unique in their reef-building ability (DON 2006). 

After death, their siliceous skeletons remain intact and provide a suitable substrate for the next 

generation’s grow th, resulting in the construction of a viable reef structure that can reach up to 

21 m in height and extend for tens of kilometers (DON 2006). In northern Puget Sound, at N. 

McCall Bank, S. McCall Bank, and Fraser Ridge, two glass sponge species, the chalice or vas 

sponge (Heterochone calyx) and the cloud sponge (Aphrocallistes vastus), are responsible for more 

than 117,000 m 2 of reef constructed below the photic zone in 90 to 210 m of water depth (Conway 

et al. 2005; DON 2006). Like the deep-sea coral structures, these sponge reefs provide habitat for 

numerous fish and invertebrate species. 

4-56 January 31, 2008



Fish Species Associated with the Sub-Littoral Benthos 

While the sub-littoral environments of Puget Sound support thousands of invertebrate and floral 

species, the basin’ s benthos also provides esse ntial habitat for many species of fish, particularly 

groundfish. These nektonic macrofauna often cross and occupy multiple environments and habitat 

types in search of food, shelter, potential mates, and spawning grounds. Consequently, although 

general fish types are commonly identified wit h specific habitats (e.g. flatfish with soft-substrate 

habitats, rockfish with hard-bottom or kelp- forest habitats etc. ), it is convenient, given the 

somewhat flexible or plastic range of these organisms, to enumerate groundfish species on the 

basis of their association with the sub-littoral benthos in general rather than with each specific 

habitat. Table 4-20 below lists some of the major fish species of Puget Sound that are associated 

with the sub-littoral benthos. 

Table 4-20. Select groundfish associated with the sub-littoral benthos 

Common Name 

Flatfish 

Arrowtooth Flounder 

Butter Sole 

Curlfin Sole 

Dover Sole 

English Sole 

Flathead Sole 

Petrale Sole 

Rex Sole 

Rock Sole 

Sand Sole 

Starry Flounder 

Pacific Sanddab 

Rockfish 

Black Rockfish 

Blue Rockfish 

Bocaccio 

Brown Rockfish 

Canary Rockfish 

China Rockfish 

Copper Rockfish 

Atheresthes stomias 

Isopsetta isopleis 


Pleuronichthys decurrens 

Microstomus pacificus 

Parophrys vetulus 

Hippoglossoides elassodon 

Eopsetta jordani 

Glyptocephalus zachirus 

Lepidopsetta polyxstra/L. bilineata 

Psettichthys melanostictus 

Platichthys stellatus 

Citharichthys sordidus 

Sebastes melanops 

Sebastes mystinus 

Sebastes paucispinis 

Sebastes auriculatus 

Sebastes pinniger 

Sebastes nebulosus 

Sebastes caurinus 

4-57 January 31, 2008



Common Name Scientific Name 

Darkblotched Rockfish 

Greenstriped Rockfish 

Pacific Ocean Perch 

Quillback Rockfish 

Redbanded Rockfish 

Redstripe Rockfish 

Rosethorn Rockfish 

Rosy Rockfish 

Rougheye Rockfish 

Sharpchin Rockfish 

Silvergray Rockfish 

Splitnose Rockfish 

Stripetail Rockfish 

Tiger Rockfish 

Vermillon Rockfish 

Widow Rockfish 

Yelloweye Rockfish 

Yellowtail Rockfish 

Thornyhead 

Shortspine Thornyhead 

Roundfish 

Sebastes crameri 

Sebastes elongates 

Sebastes alutus 

Sebastes maliger 

Sebastes babcocki 

Sebastes proriger 

Sebastes helvomaculatus 

Sebastes rosaceus 

Sebastes aleutianus 

Sebastes zacentrus 

Sebastes brevispinis 

Sebastes diploproa 

Sebastes saxicola 

Sebastes nigrocinctus 

Sebastes miniatus 

Sebastes entomelas 

Sebastes ruberrimus 

Sebastes flavidus 

Sebastolobus alascanus 

Cabezon Scorpaeni chthys marmoratus 

Kelp Greenling 

Lingcod 

Pacific Cod 

Pacific Hake 

Sablefish 

Skates/Sharks/Chimeras 

Big Skate 

California Skate 

Longnose Skate 

Spiny Dogfish 

Spotted Ratfish 

Sources: DON 2006; Gu stafson et al. 2000. 

Hexagrammos decagrammus 

Opiodon elongates 

Gadus macrocephalus 

Merluccius productus 

Anoplopoma fimbria 

Raja binoculata 

Raja inornata 

Raja rhina 

Squalus acanthias 

Hydrolagus colliei 

4-58 January 31, 2008



4.4.1.3 The Neritic Environment and Associated Macrofauna 

Bound by the shoreline and cradled by the seafloor, the neritic waters of Puget Sound occupy an 

immense three-dimensio nal space. This vast environment not only serves as a natural buffer, 

maintaini ng the health of the basin’s coastal habitats, but it also supports several important 

fisheries (DON 2006). It is home to a wide variety of organisms, both planktonic and nektonic, 

ranging from diatoms and copepods to herring and sea lions (see Table 4-21) (DON 2006; 

Gustafson et al. 2000). Without substrate available for attachment, primary productivity in this 

environment is accomplished largely by phytoplankton, and to a very small extent also by detached 

and floating macroalgae, such as sargassum. Although much too small to provide shelter or refuge 

for faunal organisms, phytoplankton are an essential food source for zooplankton and form the first 

fundamental link in countless food webs. They form the foundation of the entire open-water 

ecosystem. From zooplankton to slightly larger secondary consumers and schooling fish species to 

gray whales and orcas, the carbon fixation effected by phytoplankton is manifest at all levels in the 

hierarchy of the neritic environment. 

Table 4-21. Select species associated with the neritic environment 

Common Name 

Zooplankton 

Copepod 

Krill 

Salmonids 

Chinook Salmon 

Coho Salmon 

Chum Salmon 

Pink Salmon 

Sockeye Salmon 

Anadromous Steelhead 

Cutthroat Trout 

Forage Fish 

Pacific Herring 

Surf Smelt 

Pacific Sand Lance 

Northern Anchovy 

Pacific Sardine 

Longfin Smelt 

Pacific Mackerel 


Pseudocalanus, Corycaeus, Acartia, Oithona spp. 

Euphausia, Nematocelis, Nyctiphanes, Thysanoessa spp. 

Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 

Oncorhynchus kisutch 

Oncorhynchus keta 

Oncorhynchus gorbuscha 

Oncorhynchus nerka 

Oncorhynchus mykiss 

Oncorhynchus clarki clarki 

Clupea harengus 

Hypomesus pretiosus 

Ammodytes hexapterus 

Engraulis mordax mordax 

Sardinops sagax 

Spirinchus thaleichthys 

Scomber japonicus 

4-59 January 31, 2008



Common Name Scientific Name 

Marine Mammals 

Harbor Seal 

Phoca vitulina 

California Sea Lion Zalophus californianus 

Steller Sea Lion 

Eumetopias jubatus 

Northern Elephant Seal Mirounga angustirostris 

Harbor Porpoise 

Phocoena phocoena 

Dall’s Porpoise 

Phocoenoides dalli 

Killer Whale 

Orcinus orca 

Gray Whale 

Eschrichtius robustus 

Minke Whale 

Balaenoptera acutorostrata 

Source: DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000. 

While the distribution and dispersal of planktonic species is dependant on regional and local 

currents, the nektonic organisms of the neritic environment are typically highly mobile species. 

Frequently they are migratory or transient fauna, but equally as often they are resident species that 

travel great distances within the basin in pursuit of prey or food. Like the groundfish, the neritic 

nekton possess ranges that frequently cross general habitat boundaries, such that their specific 

habitat includes or encompasses multiple environments and habitat types depending on the activity 

undertaken. This is particularly true for larger organisms such as marine mammals. 

4.4.1.4 The Coastal Habitats Associated with the Seven Permit Areas 

While each of the sites considered by the District for tidal energy conversion is unique with respect 

to its geological and physical setting and habitat composition, they do share a couple of defining 

features. First, tidal current and exchange, by necessity, are relatively higher at these sites than 

elsewhere in the basin. Consequently, they are all at least moderate-energy environments, 

suggesting that fine sediments, such as silts, mud and other finer-grained elements will be absent, 

and habitats founded on those sediments (e.g., salt marshes, tidal flats) will therefore also likely be 

either few in number or absent altogether. Second, due to the elevated energy requirements and 

the technology available for tidal energy conversion projects, these sites are all situated in shallow 

to intermediate-depth waters, generally less than 100 meters. As such, all are located either 

entirely or mostly within the photic zone, and will therefore contain floral and phytoplankton 

species, primary producers, throughout their entire volume. 

4-60 January 31, 2008




This site has an average depth of 60/90 m and a maximum depth of 90/130 m in the northern and 

southern portions respectively (EPRI 2007). The littoral region of this site is characterized by sand 

and gravel beach habitat. The shoreline displays some armoring that can be dominated with riprap 

in some areas (City of Port Townsend 2007). The sub-littoral environment, due to a seabed 

composed of cobbles, gravel, sand and possibly bedrock, comprises of both hard-bottom and soft 

substrate benthic habitats (EPRI 2007; Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992). Along the margins 

of the northern entrance, the nearshore habitats are dominated by surfgrass and perhaps eelgrass, 

and by kelp forest (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992; City of Port Townsend 2007). Eastward, eelgrass 

habitat exists within the site along both northern and southern shores (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). 

The site is also within the normal range of both minke and grey whales, as well as harbor and 

Dall’s porpoises (PSWQA 1987). Southern resident killer whales are intermittently present within 

the site, with the number of sightings increasing slightly during fall and winter, especially in 

September when the pods take advantage of the chum and Chinook salmon runs (NOAA/NWFS 

2006a, b). The site also possesses a small region of Pacific herring spawning grounds which 

occupy part of the southwestern shoreline of the inlet (PSWQA 1987). 


This site has an average depth of 70 m and a maximum depth of 125 m (EPRI 2007). The littoral 

region of this site is characterized by rocky intertidal habitat, although a small area of adjacent salt 

marsh habitat can be found to the south of the western entrance of the channel (DON 2006; EPRI 

2007). Due to a seabed composed largely of gravel and perhaps cobblet, the sub-littoral 

environment includes hard-bottom and soft-substrate benthic habitats as well as kelp-forest habitat 

(DON 2006; EPRI 2007; Gustafson et al. 2000). Eelgrass is found in extensive meadows adjacent 

to the western entrance of the site, and may also exist within the confines of the site as patchy beds 

along the southern shore near the western entrance (DON 2006; Friends of the San Juans 2007; 

PSWQA 1992). The site is also within the normal range of minke whales, as well as harbor and 

Dall’s porpoises and within the summer core area for the southern resident killer whale population 

(PSWQA 1987; NOAA/NMFS 2006a, b). It also encompasses several seal and sea lion haul-out 

4-61 January 31, 2008



sites and may possess potential spawning grounds for surf smelt and Pacific sand lance (PSWQA 

1987; Friends of the San Juans 2004a,b). 



region of this site is characterized by beach habitat, while the sub-littoral environment, with a 

seabed largely composed of rocky sediments, comprises both hard-bottom and soft-substrate 

benthic habitats, dominated nearshore by sargassum and by eelgrass beds (DON 2006; EPRI 2007; 

PSWQA 1992). The site is also within the normal range of harbor porpoises and within the 

summer core area for the southern resident killer whale population (PSWQA 1987; NOAA/NMFS 

2006a, b). 



region of this site is characterized by rocky intertidal habitat, while the sub-littoral environment, 

with a seabed composed largely of gravel, comprises hard-bottom and soft-substrate benthic 

habitats, dominated nearshore by surfgrass, kelp forest habitat, and eelgrass (DON 2006; EPRI 

2007; Friends of the San Juans 2007; Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992). Eelgrass beds can be 

further found adjacent to the channel’s northern entrance, while a small area of salt marsh exists 

west of the channel’s southern entrance (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). The site is located within the 

normal range of minke whales, as well as both harbor and Dall’s porpoises and within the summer 

core area for the southern resident killer whale population (PSWQA 1987; NOAA/NMFS 

2006a,b). It also encompasses three pinniped haul-out sites, and a small spawning beach used by 

two species of forage fish, the surf smelt and Pacific sand lance (PSWQA 1987; Friends of the San 

Juans 2004a, b). 

4-62 January 31, 2008





region of this site is characterized by rocky intertidal habitat to the west and sandy gravel beach 

habitat to the east (DON 2006). The sub-littoral environment is similarly divided with a seabed 

composed primarily of bedrock to the west, which supports both hard-bottom benthic habitats and 

kelp forest, and a seabed composed of bedrock, gravel and sand to the east, which supports 

eelgrass beds as well as hard-bottom and soft-substrate benthic habitats (DON 2006; EPRI 2007; 

Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992). The site is also adjacent to, and may be within, the normal 

range of harbor porpoises and the summer core area for the southern resident killer whale 

population (PSWQA 1987; NOAA/NMFS 2006a,b). 

Agate Passage 


region of this site is characterized by sand and gravel beach habitat, while the sub-littoral 

environment, with a seabed composed of gravel and clay, comprises both eelgrass habitat and softsubstrate 

benthic habitat, the latter being dominated nearshore by sargassum (DON 2006, EPRI 

2007; Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992; Williams et al. 2003). Southern resident killer whales 

are rare within the site, but a small number of sightings have occurred at both entrances to the Pass 

(NOAA/NMFS 2006a, b). The site also encompasses pacific herring spawning grounds along its 

southern shore (PSWQA 1987; Williams et al. 2003). 

Rich Passage 


region of this site is characterized by sand and gravel beach habitat, while the sub-littoral 

environment, with a seabed composed of gravel and sand, comprises both eelgrass habitat and softsubstrate 

benthic habitat (DON 2006; EPRI 2007; Gustafson et al. 2000; PSWQA 1992). The 

latter is dominated nearshore by sargassum (DON 2006); EPRI 2007). Southern resident killer 

4-63 January 31, 2008



whales may be found within the site during fall and winter, and a significant number of sightings 

have occurred adjacent to the entrances of the Pass (NOAA/NMFS 2006a,b). 

4.4.2 Salmonids 

Puget Sound provides a diverse array of habitats extending through hundreds of kilometers of 

protected waterways and nearshore refuges. The productive waters provide shelter and a migration 

corridor and for growing juvenile fish as well as pelagic foraging grounds for adults. The habitat 

requirements for salmon vary both by species and by lifestage. As a whole, salmon share an 

anadromous life history—spawning in freshwater streams. Fry emerge from gravel redds and 

subsequently migrate to the marine environment. In saline waters, salmon initially inhabit 

estuaries, nearshore habitats and eelgrass. As young salmonids grow, they generally move towards 

deeper pelagic areas and feed on nekton. Upon reaching sexual maturity, salmonids generally 

return to their natal streams to spawn and complete their lifecycle. 

There are a total of eight unique salmonid species that reside within the Sound. These species 

include: bull trout, Chinook, chum, steelhead, coho, pink, cutthroat, and sockeye. Bull trout, 

Puget Sound Chinook salmon, steelhead and chum salmon are ESA-listed species that are federally 

protected (DON 2006). Federally protected species are addressed in Section 4.7, which discusses 

rare, threatened and endangered species. The remaining species that are not federally protected are 

addressed below and include: coho, pink, cutthroat, and sockeye. 

4.4.2.1 Coho Salmon 

Coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch) have a large oceanic range and can be found throughout Puget 

Sound (PFMC 2000). Their range extends through the San Juan Islands and British Columbia 

(NOAA 1995a). Coho salmon generally exhibit a three-year life cycle (PFMC 2000). Adults begin 

the freshwater migration in late summer and fall, spawn by mid-winter and then die. Eggs spawned 

into gravel redds will incubate between one and a half and four months before hatching as alevins 

(i.e., larval salmon; NOAA 1995a). Coho differ from other anadromous salmonids by staying for an 

extended period in freshwater streams after emergence from redds. Coho may be over two years old 

before leaving streams to migrate to the ocean; however, freshwater residence generally doesn’t 

4-64 January 31, 2008



exceed 15 months (NOAA 1995a). Upon entering an estuary, a smaller subset of coho may never 

venture into oceanic waters. These smaller “jacks” return early to spawn, foregoing extended ocean 

rearing (PFMC 2000). Most maturing coho eventually migrate into the ocean to feed and grow large. 

Adults typically remain for two years in the ocean before returning to their natal streams as threeyear-olds 

(NOAA 1995a). 

While the coho salmon is not listed as threatened or endangered, it was categorized as a species of 

concern in July 1995 (NOAA 1995a). Puget Sound coho salmon are heavily supported through 

artificial propagation. Production and release of smolts tallies several million annually. 

Challenges associated with identifying natural production in comparison to hatchery fish have 

made species assessment and listing challenging (NOAA 1995a). Escapement data had little 

clarification as to whether individual fish were of wild or hatchery origin. Available data that was 

assessed show mixed population trends, with strong declines from the 1930s to 1970s and no 

significant declines in the 1980s (Bledsoe et al. 1989). 

Coho’s extended residence in freshwater makes them highly susceptible to alterations in 

freshwater habitat. Consequently, it is the alteration and degradation of freshwater habitat due to 

development and timber harvest that represents the primary factor contributing to the depletion and 

decline of wild populations. Point and non-point source run-off and commercial pollution were 

identified as the primary marine factors associated with depleted populations, while fish disease 

resulting from concentrations of contaminants within Puget Sound sediment represented another 

more local factor (NOAA 1995a). Contaminant levels in Puget Sound sediment are among the 

highest in the nation (NOAA 1995a). The decision to list coho as a species of concern rather than 

as threatened was largely due to the artificial propagation programs that have not accurately 

documented differences in wild and hatchery coho. This lack of information did not provide 

sufficient support to display a significant downward trend in natural populations and resulted in 

only a species-of-concern listing (NOAA 1995a). 

4-65 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-7. Coho salmon stream habitat for Puget Sound (Streamnet 2005) 

4.4.2.2 Pink Salmon 

Pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbushcha) are relatively unique within the salmon family, 

displaying several life history traits that distinguish them from other salmonid species (NOAA 

1995b). For example, juveniles display schooling behavior, adults are smaller overall, and strong 

sexual dimorphism is common. Pink salmon range on the West Coast from southern Puget Sound 

to Alaska. Sizeable populations of pink salmon spawn in both large and small river systems during 

late summer and fall. Approximately 70 percent of spawning occurs in northern Puget Sound 

4-66 January 31, 2008



(WDF et al. 1993 via 60fr1928). Juvenile pink salmon migrate rapidly downstream in schools, 

residing in estuaries from several weeks to a few months and then enter the ocean environment. 

Ocean residence is from twelve to sixteen months (Heard 1991). Maturing at two years of age, 

pink salmon display a unique and rigid age structure (Turner and Bilton 1968). This structure 

results in two broodlines that include both even and odd-year populations. Odd-year pink salmon 

are commonly found in the southern range of the species, while even-year salmon are densely 

populated in the northern range towards Alaska (Heard 1991). 

Odd-year pink salmon are found throughout the Sound and are genetically isolated from 

populations north of the Johnstone Strait region of British Columbia (NOAA 1995b). In their 

1995 review, NMFS found that odd-year pink salmon evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) 

appeared to be healthy with an overall abundance close to historic levels. Furthermore, NMFS did 

not identify any factors that may threaten the near-term survival of genetically important 

populations such as the Nisqually and Nooksack runs (NOAA 1995b). 

Only a single population of even-year pink salmon occurs in the United States south of Alaska 

(NOAA 1995b). The Snohomish River serves as the natal stream. While the size of the 

population is relatively small, it is stable and gradually increasing. Moreover genetic differences 

between the Snohomish River population and other runs in southern British Columbia have not 

been found to be significant. 

WDFW estimated the 2007 run of pink salmon would be an estimated 3.3 million, an increase 

of 1.3 million from the relatively large runs of 2005. Most pink salmon are wild fish. WDFW 

projected the 2007 population would include less than 6,000 area hatchery fish. The biggest 

runs were projected to return to the Green, Puyallup and Snohomish rivers during the summer. 

The reasoning for this was that the Green and Puyallup Rivers did not flood during spawning 

season and the fish were doing well in the Pacific Ocean (Allen 2007). 

4-67 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-8. Pink salmon stream habitat for Puget Sound (Streamnet 2005) 

4.4.2.3 Coastal Cutthroat Trout 

Puget Sound provides habitat for the anadromous cutthroat trout (Oncorhynchus clarki clarki)— 

one of four potential life-history forms displayed by cutthroat trout. Cutthroat have a single 

anadromous sea-run and three freshwater life-history forms that include fluvial (riverine), 

adfluvial (lacustrine), and resident (stream headwaters). Only the anadromous form exists within 

Puget Sound. 

Anadromous, or sea-run, cutthroat trout generally spawn from January through April in freshwater 

streams throughout the Puget Sound basin. After six to seven weeks, the fry emerge from their 

4-68 January 31, 2008



gravel nests. They remain in freshwater for an additional two to four years until, during one 

spring, they migrate to a marine environment (WDFW 2000a; Giger 1972). Upon reaching coastal 

waters, cutthroat will generally remain in estuaries and nearshore areas. There have been reports 

of cutthroat being found kilometers offshore, but this is generally uncommon (WDFW 2000; 

Pearcy 1997). 

After feeding for several months in marine waters, most cutthroat return to their natal stream to 

overwinter and spawn (WDFW 2000a). Notably in Puget Sound, two entry times—early and 

late—are seen. Larger river systems see fish returning from August through October (i.e., early), 

and smaller streams see return from December through February (i.e., late) (WDFW 2000a). 

These returns are timed so that sufficient stream flows are available to facilitate migration. This is 

particularly important in smaller streams. 

Anecdotal reports identified a relatively high abundance of coastal cutthroat trout in northern Puget 

Sound but only a low abundance of trout in the streams of the basin’s southwestern region (NOAA 

1999). There are also some additional reports indicating that juvenile coastal cutthroat trout are 

relatively well distributed in the Skagit and Stillaguamish river basins and along the Strait of Juan 

de Fuca. 

The current status of cutthroat trout is being debated. In April of 2000, the once shared 

management of cutthroat was primarily designated to FWS. The Umpqua River ESU remains 

under NMFS management. There are no federal protection measures currently applied to the 

species; however, mixed reports and feelings expressed by the Biological Resource Team (BRT) 

have led to the request for additional information. A majority of the BRT has stated that they 

believe that the coastal cutthroat population of Puget Sound is not presently, nor within the near 

future, in danger of becoming extinct (Good et al. 2005). With the change of management by 

NMFS to FWS, the remaining portion of the review conducted by the BRT will be completed 

by FWS. 

4-69 January 31, 2008



4.4.2.4 Sockeye Salmon 

There are a total of six sockeye salmon ESU’s residing within the Puget Sound. These populations 

include: Ozette Lake, Baker River, Okanogan River, Quinalt Lake, Lake Pleasant and Lake 

Wenatchee ESUs (Good et al. 2005). The Ozette Lake ESU located on the Olympic Peninsula is 

federally listed as threatened and is ESA-protected (Good et al. 2005). 

Sockeye salmon exhibit a variety of life-history patterns. River, lake and sea-type life history 

strategies result in a wide range of sockeye spawning grounds including lakes, streams, rocky 

lakeshores, and beaches (DON 2006). The vast majority of sockeye salmon spawn either in the 

inlet or outlet streams of lakes or in the lakes themselves (Sandercock 1991). Depending upon 

available habitat and evolved life-history strategy, juvenile sockeye may remain within lake 

systems or the slow segments of rivers for one to three years and may also spend as many as four 

years in the ocean. 

Smolt migration typically occurs between sunset and sunrise. Migration generally begins in late 

April and extends through early July, with southern stocks migrating earliest (Emmett et al. 1991). 

Some sockeye salmon smolts undergo a complicated migration to reach the lake system outlet 

(Johnson and Groot 1963). Once in the ocean, sockeye salmon feed on copepods, euphausiids, 

amphipods, crustacean larvae, fish larvae, squid, and pteropods (Emmett et al. 1991). Increase in 

length is typically greatest in the first year of ocean life, whereas increase in weight is greater 

during the second year. Northward migration of juveniles to the Gulf of Alaska occurs in a band 

relatively close to shore, and offshore movement of juveniles occurs in late autumn or winter. 

Sockeye prefer cooler ocean conditions than other Pacific salmon species (Burgner 1991). 

Populations of sockeye salmon have a genetic disposition to specific migratory patterns in the 

ocean (Burgner 1991). Ocean distribution of sockeye salmon has been studied using various 

methodologies (Margolis et al. 1966, French et al. 1976, Forrester 1987); season, temperature, 

salinity, age, size, and prey distribution can all affect sockeye salmon movements in pelagic 

marine waters. Research suggests that sockeye salmon juveniles travel northward from 

Washington and British Columbia to the Gulf of Alaska. During migration sockeye remain in a 

4-70 January 31, 2008



migratory band relatively close to the coast (Har tt 1980). Once in the Gulf of Alaska, offshore 

movement of juveniles is thought to take place in late autumn or winter. 

Populations of sockeye salmon from British Columbia and Washington use the area east and south 

of Kodiak Island in concert with Alaskan stocks, but tend to be distributed further south than the 

latter (French et al. 1976, Burgner 1991). There are no data nor reports that are able to distinguish 

between the general ocean distribution of Washington, Oregon, and British Columbia sockeye 

salmon or of individual stocks from these regions. 

4.4.2.5 Site-Specific Discussion of Salmonids in Washington 

Salmon repetitiously return to their natal stream and spawn, but repeated use of specific marine 

locations is less predictable. Hinke et al. (2005a) assessed tracking and archival tag data collected 

on 15 adult salmonids to determine what specific areas and physical parameters of the California 

and Oregon coast best suit Chinook salmon. They found that salmon can travel over 160 km, to 

depths of over 76 m, and in water temperatures ranging from 8°C to 12°C (46-53°F). They 

identified that water temperature was a limiting factor to habitat selection; however, habitat use 

varied within that range based upon seasonal changes in food resources. Deeper water was used in 

the winter and during warm conditions, while shallower nearshore areas were used during younger 

lifestages and also when the waters themselves were highly productive (i.e., food resources) 

(Hinke et al. 2005b). The repeated use of a habitat was not entirely reliable for predicting the 

presence of salmon, and they concluded that the exact locations of salmon were driven by the tides 

and currents that affect the range of water temperature and location of nekton (Hinke et al. 2005a). 

Due to these life-history characteristics and the lack of specific marine site dependence by salmon, 

analyses and predictions of salmon presence within project areas is relatively limited. Upon this 

basis, discussion of salmonid presence within project areas will be based upon proximity to 

freshwater habitat (i.e., natal streams or rivers), angling reports, and any descriptions of marine 

habitat supporting the needs of salmonids. 

4-71 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-9. Sockeye salmon stream habitat for Puget Sound (Streamnet 2005) 

4-72 January 31, 2008



Salmonids in Admiralty Inlet 

A large population of coho resides in the Hood Canal and surrounding freshwater streams 

(NOAA, 1995). Coho spend a large portion of their rearing in freshwater, but do venture into 

marine waters for significant periods of time (DON 2006). The proximity of Admiralty Inlet 

to the Hood Canal and the surrounding freshwater streams suggests that coho are likely found 

in and around the inlet. In addition, Chimacum Creek supports coho and flows directly into 

Admiralty Inlet. During the fall, anglers fish for coho in Useless Bay and at Indian Point, 

which is along the southern end of Admiralty Inlet (Keizer and Nelson 2007). 

Freshwater habitat for sockeye salmon is along the western portion of the Sound within Lake 

Washington, Snohomish River, and Stillaguamish River. Sockeye are documented to travel to 

Alaska, but remain near the shoreline during that travel (DON 2006). Admiralty Inlet likely 

provides a migratory corridor leading towards Rosario Strait, as juvenile sockeye move along the 

shoreline north. 

Coastal cutthroat trout are well distributed in the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Hood Canal. Both of 

these areas are proximal to the permit area; however, cutthroat trout tend to remain near their natal 

streams, residing mostly in estuarine waters. There is a strong potential for cutthroat to forage or 

reside intermittently in Admiralty Inlet. The predominant use of nearshore estuarine areas 

suggests that the inlet is not a commonly used grazing area. 

Odd-year pink salmon are common throughout the Sound and are likely to be found within the 

Admiralty Inlet project area. Strong projections for 2007 population abundance suggest an 

increased potential for odd-year pink salmon to be found in the inlet in the near term, while evento 

be found within the project area as they primarily occur in more 

year pink salmon are less likely 

northern waters. 

4-73 January 31, 2008



Salmonids in Spieden and San Juan Channel 

Both the San Juan Channel and the Spieden Channel lie within the range of the Puget Sound coho 

ESU, and as the two project areas are also in proximity to each other, they display similar salmonspecific 

site characteristics. There are no significant freshwater streams nearby that sustain coho, 

and only Cascade Creek, a coastal stream near Rosario Point on Orcas Island, has been 

documented as supporting coho populations (SPSS 2007). The project areas appear to be used by 

coho primarily for foraging, and in the past anglers would congregate at a site south of the San 

Juan Channel called ‘salmon bank’ (Keizer and Nelson 2007). Notably, this site supported large 

schools of coho in both nearshore and offshore waters. Recent angling in the western portion of 

the site has been closed, due to regulations, and may result in an increased potential for coho to be 

present in the San Juan Channel. 

Although a review of the existing literature did not identify any specific sightings of either 

cutthroat trout or sockeye salmon in the Spieden Channel or San Juan Channel project areas, both 

species are documented to occur generally within the San Juan Islands (SPSS 2007). Cutthroat 

exploit select portions of the small coastal streams located throughout the islands, while sockeye 

are known to prey upon the nekton found within the islands’ nearshore habitat (Good et al. 2005). 

However, there have been no specific sightings of either salmonid in the Spieden or San Juan 

project areas. 

Pink salmon do not appear to occupy the San Juan Islands area (SSPS 2007). Their preferred habitat is 

not located within the island complex, although some pelagic foraging may overlap into the San Juan 

Islands by odd-year populations that reside in the Samish River, but documentation of any such 

occurrences has not been identified. 

Salmonids in Guemes Channel 

Freshwater coho habitat exists in several areas surrounding the channel. The nearby Sammamish 

River is a moderate-sized stream providing habitat for a notable run of coho. Runs from the Skagit 

River may also pass through Guemes Channel after migrating through Deception Pass. 

4-74 January 31, 2008



Guemes Channel is located within the distribution range of both odd- and even-year pink salmon. 

Even-year salmon reside in and around the Snohomish River and individuals may venture north 

into the project area, although documented sightings of even-year pink salmon in Guemes Channel 

have not been not identified (NOAA 1996b). Odd-year salmon are more abundant and widespread 

(NOOA 1996). Populations are concentrated in the lower Puget Sound, but due to high projections 

for the current odd-year population, it may be more likely to see odd-year pink salmon in the 

project area than even-year salmon (Allen, 2007; NOAA, 1996b). 

Populations of cutthroat trout reside near Guemes Channel in the Nooksack, Skagit and Snohomish 

Rivers. Cutthroat typically spend only a small amount of time in pelagic ocean waters and 

generally occupy nearshore marine habitats or estuarine waters. During the marine rearing phase 

of development, juvenile and adult cutthroat may venture into Guemes Chanel to forage. No 

documents identified during PAD information gathering identified Guemes Channel as notable 

cutthroat habitat. 

During their northward migration to Alaska, sockeye salmon moving out of the Skagit River pass 

through Deception Pass and Rosario Strait. During this nearshore transit, sockeye may temporarily 

move inshore or stray and into Guemes Channel. Spatially, Guemes does not appear to pose a 

migration bottleneck or lie directly within a northward migration route. 

Salmonids in Deception Pass 

There are runs of coho, pink, cutthroat (trout) and sockeye salmon that reside in Skagit River. 

Deception Pass provides a migratory corridor from Skagit River to Rosario Strait, and it is likely 

that juveniles of each of the salmonid species may hold in nearshore areas around Deception Pass 

before migrating to Rosario Strait or the open ocean. The nearshore habitat surrounding Deception 

Pass provides near to long-term habitat for these salmonids. Furthermore, all salmonids migrating 

to Rosario Strait will travel through Deception Pass. 

4-75 January 31, 2008



Salmonids in Agate and Rich Passages 

Agate and Rich Passages both display similar habitat characteristics for salmonids and are located 

close to Lake Washington and the Duwamish River—notable areas for sockeye and coho 

production (Good et al., 2005; SSPS, 2007). In addition, the Duwamish River also supports a run 

of odd-year pink salmon (NOAA, 1996). The passages are surrounded by small coastal freshwater 

streams that are used by coho for spawning, and coho populations produced in Port Orchard waters 

are likely to pass through either Agate or Rich Passage upon entry into the primary Puget Sound 

channel (SSPS 2007). Coho species may hold in and around Agate or Rich Passage before 

entering into the Sound, creating the possibility for species to be present year around. In addition, 

the sheltered waters of Port Orchard may also provide foraging areas for juvenile and adult 

sockeye and pink salmon (NOAA 1996b; Williams et al. 2003). 

The freshwater streams and rivers adjacent to Agate and Rich Passages also provide habitat for 

coastal cutthroat trout. Notable nearby rivers include the Cedar, White, Puyallup, and Nisqually. 

These freshwater bodies support anadromous cutthroat that move into the proximal nearshore 

marine habitats. During the m arine rearing phase, it is likely that a small number of cutthroat may 

move into either Agate or Rich Passage to feed along the adjacent shorelines. Cutthroat may be 

present year around, but neither project area was identified as primary marine rearing habitat for 

cutthroat trout (Williams et al. 2003). 

4.4.3 Non-Salmonid Fish 

The following section addresses important fish guilds within Puget Sound. It is expected that at 

least a portion of each fish guild will be present in all project areas. Salmonids are addressed 

separately in Section 4.4.2, due to life histo ry complexity and overall importance to numerous 

parties. ESA-listed species are covered sepa rately in Section 4.7. The species that are addressed 

within this section include demersal fish, pelagic schooling fish, anadromous fish (other than 

salmonids), and sharks, skates and rays (elasmobranchs). 

4-76 January 31, 2008



4.4.3.1 Demersal Fish 

Groundfish are an important species fo r both commercial and recreational harvest in the Pacific 

Northwest. They are managed by the Pacific Fisheries Management Council (PFMC) and their 

harvest is closely monitored to ensure overharvesting does not occur. Section 4.4.5 addresses the 

essential fish habitat (EFF) designated for groundfish by PFMC and includes additional life history 

information. It is estimated that 75 of the 82 groundfish species managed by PMFC occupy the 

Puget Sound area at least once during their life cycle (DON 2006). Moreover, WDFW estimates 

that over 80 species of groundfish occur within the basin altogether, of which 21 are additionally 

managed by WDFW including: spi ny dogfish, skates, spotted ratfish, Pacific cod, walleye pollock, 

Pacific whiting (hake), rockfish, sablefish, greenlings, lingcod, sculpins, wolf-eel, surfperches, 

Pacific halibut, Dover sole, English sole, starry flounder, rock sole, sand sole, other bottomfishes, 

and unclassified m arine fishes (Palsson et al. 1998). These species were selected based upon 

commercial, recreational, and ecological importance. Table 4-22 below presents a list of important 

groundfish species found in Puget Sound. 

Table 4-22. Important species of bottomfish in Puget Sound 

Common Name 

Spiny dogfish 

Skates 

Big skate 

Longnose skate 

Spotted ratfish 

Pacific cod 

Walleye pollock 

Pacific whiting (hake) 

Plainfin midshipman 

Rockfish 

Brown rockfish 

Copper rockfish 

Greenstriped rockfish 

Widow rockfish 

Yellowtail rockfish 

Quillback rockfish 

Black rockfish 

Blue rockfish 

China rockfish 

Tiger rockfish 

Bocaccio 

Canary rockfish 

Redstripe rockfish 

Yelloweye rockfish 

Sablefish 


Squalus acanthias 

Raja rhina 

Raja binoculata 

Hydrolagus colliei 

Gadus macrocephalus 

Theragra chalcogramma 

Merluccius productus 

Porichthys notatus 

Sebastes auriculatus 

Sebastes caurinus 

Sebastes elongatus 

Sebastes entomelas 

Sebastes flavidus 

Sebastes maliger 

Sebastes melanops 

Sebastes mystinus 

Sebastes nebulosus 

Sebastes nigrocinctus 

Sebastes paucispinis 

Sebastes pinniger 

Sebastes proriger 

Sebastes ruberrimus 

Anoplopoma fimbria 

4-77 January 31, 2008



Common Name 

Greenlings 

Kelp greenling 

Whitespotted greenling 

Lingcod 

Sculpins 

Cabezon 

Great sculpin 

Buffalo sculpin 

Pacific staghorn sculpin 

Wolfeel 

Surfperches 

Striped seaperch 

Pile perch 

Flatfishes 

Pacific sanddab 

Pacific halibut 

Butter sole 

Rock sole 

Dover sole 

English sole 

Starry flounder 

Sand sole 


Hexagrammos decagrammus 

Hexagrammos stelleri 

Ophiodon elongatus 

Scorpaenichthys marmoratus 

Myoxocephalus polyacanthocephalus 

Enophrys bison 

Leptocottus armatus 

Anarrichthys ocellatus 

Embiotoca lateralis 

Rhacochilus vacca 

Citharichthys sordidus 

Hippoglossus stenolepis 

Isopsetta isolepis 

Lepidopsetta bilineata 

Microstomus pacficus 

Parophrys vetulus 

Platichthys stellatus 

Psettichthys melanostictus 

Source: http://artedi.fish.washington.edu/FishKey/taxon.html 

The diverse species incorporated within the general grouping of ‘groundfish’ exhibit a wide range 

of life histories, and habitat use within the group is, as a result, also quite variable. Rockfish are 

the most diverse group regarding habitat use and can be found in nearshore areas as well as deeper 

shelf waters. Habitat use also changes by life-cycle stage with dispersed eggs and larvae 

frequently occupying large areas, and adults often being tightly associated with sand, gravel, or 

exposed rocky areas (PFMC 2003). Currents also determine species location. 

The California Current and counter current play a major role in determining habitat use 

(PFMC 2003). 

The reliance upon groundfish for recreational and commercial harvest is high, and within the 

Sound, the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the San Juan Islands are common fishing locations due to 

their rocky shelf habitats (Palsson et al. 1998). Commercial ships use numerous methods to collect 

fish including bottom trawls, pelagic trawls, dogfish set nets, set lines, drag seines, and bottomfish 

pots (Palsson et al. 1998). Anglers use hook and line from piers, private vessels and charter boats 

(Palsson et al. 1998). Additional pressure is placed on bottomfish due to bycatch, as anglers 

fishing for other species may accidentally capture bottomfish. During retrieval at the water’s 

4-78 January 31, 2008



surface, the rupturing of their airbladders can result in an unintended increase in the mortality of 

managed species. 

Overharvest has left the groundfish populations near an all-time low. In the past, commercial 

catch has reached as much as 12,250 metric tons in one year, but now it is reduced to nearly just 

2270 metric tons per year. Black rockfish and shortspine thornyhead are two commonly 

overfished species (Palsson et al. 1998). However, increased regulation and new methods of 

reducing bycatch mortality are slowly increasing numbers within depleted populations. 

Groundfish reproduce slowly, so recovery efforts will need to be sustained over long periods of 

time to create a notable recovery (Palsson et al. 1998). 

4.4.3.2 Pelagic Schooling Fish 

Pelagic fish are an important base component of marine food chains and serve as prey for 

numerous predatory species. Pelagic fish are found near the top of the water column and feed on 

small invertebrate species. Most pelagic fish are found in the warmer waters of California, but 

several important species are found within Puget Sound including northern anchovy, Pacific 

sardine, and Pacific mackerel. The abundance of each species can fluctuate greatly, varying 

considerably from year to year. 

While not sizeable, a fishery for Pacific sardine, northern anchovy, jack mackerel, and chub 

mackerel exists on a year-round basis (DON 2006). Consistent with native distribution, the 

schooling pelagic fishery is largest in California but greatly reduced in Oregon and Washington. 

In Washington, Pacific sardine is managed under Emerging Commercial Fishery provisions as an 

experimental fishery (DON 2006). Sardine take generally occurs within 65 km (35 nautical miles) 

of the shore (DON 2006). Northern anchovy is also a smaller fishery with some recent years not 

registering any landings at all, although catches in 2003 were reported to be as much as 214 metric 

tons. Similarly, jack mackerel has ranged from no landings to 11.5 metric tons in 2002. 

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The current status of the pelagic species is good. Pacific sardine and mackerel are increasing in 

abundance. Northern anchovy and jack mackerel are not identified as overfished and are not 

listed as warranting additional monitoring or concern (PFMC 2005a). 

4.4.3.3 Anadromous Fish 

Anadromous fish are those species that live their adult life in the ocean but reproduce in fresh 

water. Hatched young eventually make their way downstream into marine waters to feed and grow 

to maturity. Upon reaching maturity the adult fish return to their natal streams to reproduce, and 

the cycle repeats itself. Salmon are the most well known species, and because of their commercial 

and cultural value these fish are discussed in detail in section 4.4.2. Other notable anadromous 

species within Puget Sound include green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris), white sturgeon 

(Acipenser transmontanus), river lamprey (Lampetra ayresii) and Pacific lamprey (Lampetra 

tridentate). 

The Pacific and river lamprey undergo dramatic morphological changes to develop from a blind 

freshwater filter-feeding larvae to a parasitic marine adult. Some Native American tribes have 

placed cultural value in lamprey and harvest adults for food and other unique purposes. Both 

species are listed in Washington State as species of concern. Both can also be found in large 

streams and rivers, such as the Skagit River (USFWS 2007a), while Pacific lamprey have an 

additional oceanic distribution that generally parallels their host, which is generally salmon or 

another large pelagic fish. Lamprey can be fairly common in Puget Sound (UOW 2007). 

Green and white sturgeon are large-bodied, cryptic, bottom-dwel ling species that migrate long 

distances from Californ ia (Beamesderfer et al. 2007). Little is known regarding the purpose of 

these long migrations, but this species can be found in deep water along the Oregon coastline and 

within larger tributaries. Populations of sturgeon are relatively low and observations of sturgeon 

are rare (Beamesder fer et al. 2007). Sturgeon have a soft-lipped mouth that allows them to 

carefully find and consume copepods and other invertebrates in sandy substrate. Sturgeon provide 

a recreational and chartere d fishery. Green sturgeon are not commonly consumed (their meat is 

oily) and are primarily bycatch to anglers fishing for the more-palatable white sturgeon. While not 

4-80 January 31, 2008



common, green and white sturgeon are noted to occur in the Puget Sound and Hood Canal 

(PFMC 1996). 

4.4.3.4 Sharks, Skates, and Rays (Elasmobranchs) 

Comprising sharks, skates and rays, elasmobranchs are fish with a cartilaginous rather than bony 

skeleton. Puget Sound provides shelter for a number of such species including ten sharks, one ray 

and five skates (see Table 4-23). Skates and rays spend much of their time either skimming along 

sandy sea floors or buried in the sand (Hosie 1997). There are six species of sharks and skates that 

are harvested to varying degrees along the Washington coastline (DON 2006); these species 

include the leopard shark, soupfin shark, spiny dogfish, big skate, California skate, and longnose 

skate (DON 2006). Only the spiny dogfish, big skate and longnose skate were documented within 

Puget Sound (DON 2006). 

Elasmobranchs provide a small and limited commercial fishery to foreign markets. And while 

soupfin and leopard sharks constitute only a minor portion of this fishery, the spiny dogfish is 

more abundant and important with Washington State, making up 91 percent of exports over the 

last 10 years (DON 2006). Skate harvest is also important as an export to foreign markets. 

Although, declines have been recently noted in the California skate fishery, Washington’s 

populations and catch have remained relatively stable. 

Table 4-23. Sharks, skates and rays found within Puget Sound and associated habitat 

Common Name 


Occurrence In 

Puget Sound 

Orienation or 

Habitat Usage Type 

Brown Cat Shark Apristurus brunneus Common demersal, deep water 

Blue Shark Prionace glauca Rare Epipelagic 

Common Thresher Alopias vulpinus Rare Pelagic 

Basking Shark Cetorhinus maximus Rare Pelagic 

Salmon Shark Lamna ditropis Infrequent Pelagic 

Sixgill Shark Hexanchus griseus Infrequent Deepwater 

Sevengill Shark Notorynchus cepedianus Infrequent Deepwater 

Spiny Dogfish Squalus acanthias Common Widespread 

Sleeper Shark Somniosus pacificus Rare Deepwater 

4-81 January 31, 2008



Common Name 


Occurrence In 

Puget Sound 

Orienation or 

Habitat Usage Type 

Pacific Angel Shark Squatina californica Rare demersal, shallow water 

Pacific Electric Ray Torpedo californica Infrequent Demersal 

Sandpaper Skate Bathyraja kincaidi Common Demersal 

Big Skate Raja binoculata 

Common Demersal 

California Skate 

Raja inornata 

Common Demersal 

Longnose Skate Raja rhina Common Demersal 

Starry Skate Raja stellulata Common Demersal 

Source: DON 2006 

4.4.4 Invertebrates 

Through out the oceans and ma rine environments of the world, from the surface waters to the 

seafloor, invertebrates dominate the faunal asse mblage of nearly every habitat. They are 

comprised of countless planktonic, nektonic, and benthic species and range from primary 

consumers to apex predators. As grazers, filter-feeders and scavengers, invertebrates play an 

essential role in the decomposition of biotic matter, the cycling of nutrients and the mobilization of 

organic carbon. They facilitate the transfer of energy from the autotrophic domain to the 

heterotrophic domain, and form a critical food base for larger invertebrates as well as for myriad 

fish, birds and mammals. 

With its d iverse coastal environment and numerous nearshore habitats, Puget Sound is home to 

representative species from every invertebrate phylum (see Table 4-24). Across the basin, these 

organisms inhabit a vertical range of more than 400 m, from the upper littoral zone to the deepest 

subtidal depression. They can be found suspended in the water column, clinging to the blades of 

algae, crawling over rocky substrates, and buried within the sediment. They provide important 

fodder not only for migratory birds and juvenile fi sh that venture into the shallows to forage, but 

also for groundfish populations that stalk the benthic environments in search of prey. Similarly, 

schools of pelagic fish and a number of marine mammals are also dependant on invertebrates, as 

they rely on the presence of zooplankton communities to sustain their transit through the Sound. 

Consequently, invertebrates are vital to the biological health of Puget Sound as well as to the 

success of several fisheries-dependant economies. Selected marine invertebrates that are known to 

4-82 January 31, 2008



occur in Puget Sound are 

below. 

listed in Table 4-24; those of commercial importance are described 

Table 4-24. Select invertebrates found in Puget Sound 

Phylum Common Representatives Habitat Present 

Porifera Sponges Rocky inter-tidal habitats, kelp forests, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats, coral communities, sponge reefs 

Coelenterata (Cnidaria) Corals, jellyfish, sea 

anemones, hydroids 

Salt marshes, tidal flats, rocky inter-tidal habitats, 

eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hard-bottom benthic 

habitats, soft substrate benthic habitats, coral 

communities, sponge reefs, neritic environments 

Ctenophora Comb jellies Neritic environments 

Platyhelmentes Flatworms Beaches, eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats, soft substrate benthic habitats 

Nemertea Ribbon worms Salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, eelgrass beds, 

kelp forests, hard-bottom benthic habitats, soft 

substrate benthic habitats 

Rotifera Rotifers Neritic Environments 

Gastrotricha Gastrotriches Hard-bottom benthic habitats, soft substrate benthic 

habitats 

Nematomorpha Horsehair worms Salt marshes, beaches, neritic environments 

Nematoda 

Round worms and thread 

worms 

Salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats, soft substrate benthic habitats 

Acanthocephala Spiny-headed worms Parasitic - salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, rocky 

inter-tidal habitats, eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hardbottom 

benthic habitats, soft substrate benthic 

habitats, coral communities, sponge reefs, neritic 

environments 

Bryozoa Bryozoans Rocky inter-tidal habitats, kelp forests, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats, coral communities, sponge reefs 

Tardigrada Water bears Salt marshes, tidal flats, rocky inter-tidal habitats, 

eelgrass beds, hard-bottom benthic habitats, soft 

substrate benthic habitats 

Brachiopoda Brachiopods Rocky inter-tidal habitats, kelp forests, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats 

Mollusca 

Chitons, snails, limpets, 

bivalves, octopuses, squid, 

nudibranchs (sea slugs) 

Salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, rocky inter-tidal 

habitats, eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hard-bottom 

benthic habitats, soft substrate benthic habitats, coral 

communities, sponge reefs 

Annelida Polychaete worms Salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, rocky inter-tidal 




Sipunculoidea Peanut worms Kelp forests, hard-bottom benthic habitats 

Arthropoda 

Shrimp, crabs, barnacles, 

isopods, amphipods, krill, 

copepods, caprellids 

Chaetognatha Arrow worms Neritic environments 

Echinodermata 

Sea stars, brittle stars, sea 

urchins, sand dollars, sea 

cucumbers 

Salt marshes, tidal flats, beaches, rocky inter-tidal 



communities, sponge reefs, neritic environments 

Salt marshes, tidal flats, rocky inter-tidal habitats, 

eelgrass beds, kelp forests, hard-bottom benthic 

habitats, soft substrate benthic habitats, coral 


Hemichordata Acorn worms, tongue worms Salt marshes, tidal flats 

Sources: DON 2006; Gustafson et al. 2000; Kozloff 1993; Laetz, 1998; Llansó, 1998; NOAA and WSDE, 

1999; Proctor et al., 1980; PSWQA 1992. 

4-83 January 31, 2008



4.4.4.1 Dungeness Crab 

Dungeness crab are broadly dispersed subtidally and favor a sandy or muddy seafloor (SCOD 

2007). They are an important component of sandy-bottom communities and are located on the 

surface of the sand as well as buried beneath it (ODFW 2006b). They are tolerant of salinity 

changes and can be found in both marine and estuarine environments. Dungeness crabs are 

endemic to the North Pacific and range from central California to the Gulf of Alaska. Scavenging 

the sandy ocean floor for organisms that are partly or completely buried, their foraging behavior is 

well adapted to the surrounding habitat. Dungeness crabs are carnivores, with a diet that can 

include shrimp, mussels, small crabs, clams, and worms (SCOD 2007). Their persistence and 

annual abundance are driven by meteorological and biological conditions (ODFW 2006b). 

Dungeness crab (Cancer magister) is the most commercially important crab species along the 

West Coast (ODFW 2001; DON 2006). It is a recruitment-based fishery that is subject to both 

commercial and recreational harvest, with take being restricted by size, sex and season. 

Dungeness crabs are found from the shallow intertidal habitat to depths of approximately 170 m in 

areas with moderate to strong currents (Emmett et al. 1991; DON 2006). The crab’s affinity for 

areas of strong current may concentrate several populations within range of the project sites. 

Within Admiralty Inlet, crabs are known to occur in Killuit Harbor, Port Townsend and Oak Bay. 

Dungeness crab are also concentrated in Deception Pass, Guemes Inlet, and Agate Passage. Crabs 

were not identified, however, in Spieden Channel, San Juan Channel or Rich Passage (PSEP 

1992). 

4.4.4.2 Pink Shrimp 

Pink shrimp spawn from March into early April (Pacific Marine Fishery Council [PFMC] 2004a, 

2004b) and represent an important commercial fishery that begins on April 1 (ODFW 2005). 

Although estimates of pink shrimp abundance are not available for the West Coast, over 70 percent 

of the commercial catch occurs along the northern Oregon Coast (ODFW 2006a; PFMC 2004). 

Concentrated populations are found in water depths over 90 m (ODFW 2005). Population 

abundance appears to be driven almost entirely by environmental conditions and predator 

abundance (Pacific whiting), which cause natural fluctuations in recruitment (i.e., addition of 

4-84 January 31, 2008



young shrimp to the fishable population), rather than by fishing pressure (PFMC 2004; Collier and 

Hannah 2001). Heavy fishing pressure can, however, still reduce the stock size of recruited shrimp. 

Pink shrimp are found within the San Juan Channel (PSEP 1992), and suitable habitat was 

identified near Deception Pass in Skagit Bay and near Admiralty Inlet in Discovery Bay (PSEP 

1992). Shrimp were not documented in Spieden Channel, Guemes Channel, Agate Passage or 

Rich Passage (PSEP 1992). 

4.4.4.3 Sea Urchins and Cucumbers 

Sea urchins and cucumbers are two commercially important invertebrate species that reside in the 

rocky intertidal zone. These species are harvested for export to foreign markets. Along the West 

Coast, annual harvest for sea urchins has averaged 7,416 metric tons (92 percent occurring in 

California) and 500 metric tons for sea cucumbers (60 percent occurring in Washington). Of 

important note, sea cucumber harvest is only legally done by SCUBA divers, making populated 

areas also important dive sites. 

Sea urchins and cucumbers can be found throughout the Sound, with most of the populations being 

concentrated in nearshore areas rather than open water. Sea urchins are found along the northern 

shore of Quimper Peninsula in Admiralty Inlet, the shores of Spieden Channel, the shores of San 

Juan Channel, the western side of Guemes Channel and within Deception Pass (PSEP 1992). 

Urchins were not documented in Rich or Agate passages (PSEP 1992). Sea cucumbers were found 

along the shores of Admiralty Inlet, Spieden Channel, San Juan Channel, within Guemes Channel, 

and within Deception Pass (PSEP 1992). Sea urchins were not documented in Agate or Rich 

Passages (PSEP 1992). 

4-85 January 31, 2008



4.4.4.4 Shellfish 

Shellfish are commonly represented by clams and oysters. There are numerous species of shellfish 

within Puget Sound, but those of particular commercial importance within Washington include: 

Pacific razor clam (Siliqua patula), geoduck (Panopea abrupta), Manila clam (Veneruplis 

philippinarum) and Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas). Shellfish harvest within Puget Sound is an 

important fishery to a number of private, commercial and tribal entities. As a result, harvest is 

closely managed to reduce the potential for overfishing (DON 2006). 

Shellfish are present throughout the Sound, but the particular ranges of individual species varies by 

life-his tory requirements. The Pacific razor clam is found on flat or sloping sandy beaches with 

heavy to moderate surf (Moore 2001b). Notable harvest of razor clams occurs in Long Beach, 

Twin Harbors, Copalis Beach, Mocrocks, and Kalaloch (DON 2006). Geoducks are found in the 

muddy substrates of bays or sloughs, from the lower intertidal zone to depths of 100 meters. 

Manila clams are also found in the intertidal zone, but only to a depth of 10 meters. They can be 

fou nd in mud, sand, gravel or mixed substrate. The Pacific oyster is similarly found in the lower 

intertidal zone to depths of 7 m, and is associated with mud or mixed mud-sand substrate (DON 

2006). Table 4-25 below identifies species presence based upon project area. Both Agate and 

Rich passages present suitable habitat for shellfish and species are expected to be present. Data 

confirming their presence was not identified. 

Table 4-25. Identified shellfish range (PSWQA 1987; PSEP 1992; Williams et al. 2003) 

Shellfish 

Project Area Clams Geoducks Oysters Scallops Abalone 

Admiralty Inlet X X X X X 

Spieden Channel X X X 

Guemes Island 

San Juan Channel X X 


X 

Agate Passage X X 

Rich Passage X X 

4-86 January 31, 2008



Washin gton Department of Fish and Wildlife (WDFW) datasets include its Marine Resources 

database, which contains digital records of marine invertebrate distributions at each permit site. 

Appendix E provides mapping of mollusk, echinoderm and arthropod distributions in the vicinity 

of eac h of the District’s permit areas; the results are summarized below. The data are current as of 

December 2007; because the data are frequently updated, WDFW recommends using data requests 

no older than six months in evaluating proposed activities (WDFW 2006). 

The mapped distribution of mollusk, echinoderm and arthropods varies by project area. Species 

wit hin Admiralty Inlet and Spieden Channel include: 

• northern abalone, 

• hardshell intertidal and subtidal clams, 

• subtidal geoduck clams, 

• oyster beds, 

• Pandalid shrimp, 

• Dungeness crab, and 

• Red Sea urchin. 

Species within San Juan Channel include: 


• h ardshell intertidal clams, 

• Pandalid shrimp, and 


Species within Guemes Channel and Deception Pass include: 


• hardshell intertidal clams, 

• Pandalid shrimp, 

• Dungeness crab, and 

4-87 January 31, 2008




Species within Agate Passage include: 

• hardshell intertidal and subtidal clams, 

• subtidal geoduck clams, and 

• Dungeness crab. 

Species within Rich Passage include: 

• hardshell intertidal clams, 

• harshell subtidal clams, and 

• subtidal geoduck clams. 

4.4.4.5 Krill 

Krill are small euphasiid invertebrates found throughout Puget Sound. These zooplankton are 

harvested for commercial uses such as aquarium food and can provide a notable economic 

resource. They are also an important base component of the ecological food chain for numerous 

marine species. Euphausia pacifica is one of the most dominant species found in the Sound. 

Curren tly, harvest of krill in U.S. waters is prohibited. Krill are expected to be present within all 

project areas (DON 2006). 

4.4.5 Essential Fish Habitat 

Section 305(b)(2) of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act requires 

federal agencies to consult with the Secretary of Commerce regarding all actions or proposed 

actions that are authorized, funded, or undertaken by the agency that may adversely affect essential 

fish habitat (EFH). 

4-88 January 31, 2008



EFH is defined as (NOAA 2007): 

…those waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth 

to maturity” (Magnuson-Stevens Act, 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq). For the purpose of 

interpreting the definition of essential fish habitat: Waters include aquatic areas and 

their associated physical, chemical, and biological properties that are used by fish and 

may include aquatic areas historically used by fish where appropriate; substrate includes 

sediment, hard bottom, structures underlying the waters, and associated biological 

communities; necessary means the habitat required to support a sustainable fishery and 

the managed species’ contribution to a healthy ecosystem; and spawning, breeding, 

feeding, or growth to maturity covers a species’ full life cycle (EFH Interim Final Rule, 

62 FR 66531). 

EFH is determined by identifying the spatial habitat and habitat characteristics that are required for 

each federally managed fish species. This is accomplished through a cooperative effort by NOAA 

Fisheries, regional fishery management councils, and federal and state agencies. These 

descriptions provide the basis for assessing development activities in marine areas. Within the 

project area, four general fish categories were identified: 

• highly migratory species 

• pacific groundfish 

• salmonids 

• pelagic species. 

EFH identifies certain limiting habitat characteristics that are required for select notable species to 

persist. The absence of EFH for a species grouping within an area does not represent the absence 

of those species, but the absences of key habitat characteristics that would better support those 

species. Table 4-26 summarizes the key parameters defining EFH for the four fish categories. 

Following the table is a more detailed discussion of EFH specific to each of the four fish 

categories. 

4-89 January 31, 2008



Table 4-26. Description 

area. 

of the requirements of each EFH category and presence within the project 

EFH Category General Definition Project Areas Containing EFH 

Highly migratory species Found in contiguous waters exceeding None 

180 m of depth along the continental 

shelf 

Pacific groundfish 

From the mean higher high water line to All projects 

the boundary of the Exclusive Economic 

Zone 

Salmonids 

From nearshore rearing areas to the All projects 

Exclusive Economic Zone 

Pelagic species 

All marine waters to the Exclusive 

Economic Zone with water 

All projects except the San Juan Channel 

and Spieden Channel during the months 

temperatures between 10°C to 26°C of May through December (may change 

during warm winters) 

4.4.5.1 Highly Migratory Species in Washington Waters 

Highly migratory species (HMS) include fish that travel great distances globally. They are found 

not only within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ; the zone extending out to 370 km or 200 

nautical miles from shore), but also within the open waters of the high seas (PFMC 2003) and 

other areas beyond the jurisdiction of U.S.-managed fisheries. To effectively manage this 

expansive area, cooperation is required by numerous international groups that have influence over 

the regulation of HMS. Fish managed as HMS include tuna (albacore, bigeye, yellowfin, skipjack, 

and northern bluefin), billfish (striped marlin), shark (bigeye thresher, blue, common thresher, 

shortfin mako and pelagic thresher), dorado (dolphinfish) and broadbill swordfish (PFMC 2005a). 

Highly migratory species generally share similar life histories, each involving pelagic 

reproduction, development and migration (PFMC 2003). The preference for open water and 

offshore habitat means that it is less common for most HMS to reside in the nearshore 

waters where project sites are located; however, some species do move inshore. Generally, HMS 

are found in the warm southerly waters close to Mexico and southern California (PFMC 2005), but 

some species do venture north, with higher concentrations being found as ocean temperatures rise. 

4-90 January 31, 2008



Albacore Tuna Fishery 

Albacore tuna represent an important HMS fishery in the Pacific Northwest. In 1981, the 

U.S./Canada Albacore Treaty established an agreement between Canada and the U.S that allows 

both U.S. and Canadian vessels to fish for albacore in each country’s waters 22 km (12 nautical 

miles) seaward from shore. There is also additional regulation allowing for each country to share 

seaports for services and equipment (PFMC 2005a). 

Albacore harvest is generally conducted by trawlers with live bait in offshore open water. Other 

capture methods involve the use of handlines, longlines, drift gillnets, and purse seines. 

Participants can also include charter and recreational anglers (PFMC 2005a). Along the West 

Coast, albacore are primarily harvested from July through September. The West Coast albacore 

fishery has steadily increased in landings from 1995 through 2004 (Figure 4-10). Recent warming 

of ocean waters has shifted the concentrations of landings from California to Oregon and 

Washington (PFMC 2005a). In 2004, commercial landings of albacore in Washington State 

amounted to 8,309 metric tons—over half of the almost 15,000 metric ton total between California, 

Oregon and Washington. However, the fishing areas do not occur in or near any of the permit sites. 

Figure 4-10. Annual landings of albacore tuna for California, Oregon and Washington between 1995 

to 2004. Adapted from PFMC 2005a. 

4-91 January 31, 2008



Other Highly Migratory Fisheries 

The two remaining HMS species with essential fish habitat in Washington do not support a 

substantial fishery. Bluefin tuna are harvested around the Southern California Bight. Harvest has 

dramatically ranged from 4,687 metric tons in 1996 to 9.7 metric tons in 2002 (PFMC 2005a). 

Blue shark supports a limited surface longline fishery that is based out of Oregon and managed by 

the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife. Landings are generally under 10 metric tons 

annually (NMFS-NWR 2004). 

Site-Specific Summary for Highly Migratory Fish in Washington 

For highly migratory fish along the Washington Coast, EFH for three species of shark and tuna 

were found. EFH for albacore tuna and northern bluefin tuna does exist near Puget Sound where 

waters exceed 180 m of depth (see Appendix H Table 1); however, all of the project areas are 

shallower than 180 m of depth (see Table 4-27). Therefore, no EFH exists for HMS in any of the 

project areas. The lack of EFH within the Puget Sound area does not preclude the presence of the 

species, but signifies that the integral habitat necessary for reproduction, rearing or foraging was 

not found. 

Table 4-27. Project area specific maximum water depth in meters, feet and fathoms (Polagye et al. 

(2007) 

Site 

Maximum Depth 

Meters Feet Fathoms 

Admiralty Inl et 124 406.7 67.8 

Spieden Channel 126 413.3 68.9 

Guemes Chan nel 24 78.7 13.1 

San Juan Channe l 135 442.8 73.8 

Deception Pass 40 131.2 21.9 

Agate Passage 8.8 28.9 4.8 

Rich Passage 25.5 83.6 13.9 

EFH does not overlap with any of the project areas due to insufficient depth. Furthermore, the 

project areas are not in open pelagic water, but are located in calm and protected environments 

4-92 January 31, 2008



within Puget Sound. Pelagic species may therefore pass through the project areas, but the project 

areas do not represent essential fish habitat. 

4.4.5.2 Pacific Groundfish 

Pacific groundfish comprise a large number of species that are resident along the coast of the 

Pacific Northwest and within the protected waters of Puget Sound. Habitat use varies both by 

species and by life-cycle stage. In 1998, the Pacific Marine Fisheries Council (PFMC 2005b) 

reviewed 82 demersal species including 12 flatfish, 52 rockfish, 2 thornyheads, 

1 scorpionfish, 8 groundfish, and 7 skates, sharks and chimaeras. From this review, the PFMC 

identified over 400 distinct EFHs (PFMC 2005b). This led to the definition of a new, broader, 

more-encompassing EFH boundary that included “…all waters from the mean higher high water 

line, and the upriver extent of saltwater intrusion in river mouths, along the coasts of Washington, 

Oregon, and California seaward to the boundary of the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone” (PFMC 

2005b). This cited boundary covers all the permit sites. 

Table 4-28. Species captured by either sport catch or trawling within or proximal to project areas 

Site Species Season 


Rockfish 

Lingcod 

All year 

April-December 

Pacific halibut 

April-October 

Spieden Channel Rockfish; lingcod May-October 


Rock sole; sand sole 

starry flounder; Pacific cod; rockfish 

January-April 

May-October 

San Juan Channel Rockfish; lingcod May-October 


Agate Passage 

Rich Passage 

Rockfish 

Lingcod 

Pacific cod 

Rockfish 

Pacific cod 

Rockfish 

All year 

April-December 

December-April 

All year 

December-April 

All year 

Since this boundary was very broad and encompassing, the commission additionally defined 

highly important habitat more narrowly by species and by life-cycle stage. To address the 

relatively large number of species, data created by the PFMC (2005b) that shows habitat correlated 

4-93 January 31, 2008



with the needs of specific groundfish species were reviewed. The data was created using a GIS 

model that weighted the existing physical habitat’s intrinsic potential for use by certain species. 

This information indicates that preferable habitat exists for many groundfish within the project 

areas and that these habitats would likely fulfill the needs of the groundfish species during some 

portion of their development. The table does not indicate actual presence or absence. Appendix H 

Table 2 lists the species of groundfish for which the probability of habitat suitability during one or 

more life-cycle stages in Puget Sound is 0.4 or higher and summarizes their range and habitat 

needs. The 0.4 rating reflects an environmental setting that meets 40 percent of the physical 

habitat criteria (i.e., depth, substrate, etc.) necessary to support a specific species and life-cycle 

stage. Additional supporting data that identifies species collected by sport angling and trawling is 

presented in Table 4-28 above. 

Site-Specific Summary of Pacific Groundfish in Washington Waters 

All project areas are part of designated essential fish habitat, and fishing records confirm that 

select species are present within the specific project areas; this is documented in Table 4-28. 

Appendix H Table 2 indicates that habitat displaying a suitability rating greater than 0.4 exists for 

select species and life-cycle stages within each project area. The table does not necessarily 

preclude or ensure the presence of the noted species, but it suggests that there is an increased 

potential for those species to be present based upon the nature of existing habitat. 

4.4.5.3 Salmon 

The PFMC listed that EFH existed for Chinook, coho and pink salmon in Puget Sound. Other 

species, including sockeye, steelhead, chum and cutthroat trout, are not managed by the PFMC as 

incidental catches of these species in PFMC-managed ocean waters are rare (PFMC 1999). 

Therefore, all references to salmonid essential fish habitat pertain to the PFMC-managed species, 

namely Chinook, coho and pink salmon. These 

salmonids are anadromous, spawning in 

freshwater and migrating to the ocean as juveniles to rear. Duri ng this latter oceanic stage of 

development, the salmon use both littoral and pelagic habitats (PFMC 2000). Although some 

salmonids use nearshore littoral habitats as juveniles and subsequently move into deeper water as 

they mature, research has shown that there is no actual significant preference for the littoral 

4-94 January 31, 2008



habitats by juveniles (PFMC 2000). Larger juveniles and adult salmonids are primarily found in 

pelagic waters feeding on zooplankton, schooling fish and squid (PF MC 2000). A more detailed 

description of salm onid life history is addressed in Secti 

on 4.4.2. 

The specific habitat range of salmonids varies with water temperature, prey availability and current 

(PFMC 2000). The PFMC commented on developing specific E FH for salmonids and is quoted as 

saying, “Determina tion of a specific or uniform westw ard boundary within the EEZ which covers the 

distribution of essen tial marine habitat is difficult and would contain considerable uncertainty.” As a 

result, the council adopted a broader, more-encompassing boundary. 

Generally, salmonids concentrate near shelf habitat where food resources and appropriate water 

temperature can be found (PFMC 2000). Table 4-29 summarizes the listed salmonids by their natal 

streams and shows the extent of freshwater rearing habitat within the Puget Sound basin. From these 

streams, salmonids move into the marine waters of the Sound to feed and further develop. The 

developed boundary was required to include, “…those waters and substrates necessary for salmon 

production to support a long-term sustainable salmon fishery…” (PFMC 1999). To satisfy this 

requirement, the PFMC defined the marine extent of salmonid habitat as, “…the nearshore and tidal 

submerged environments within state territorial waters out to the full extent of the exclusive economic 

zone (EEZ) offshore of Washington…” (PFMC 1999). Figure 4-11 shows the project sites relative to 

the EEZ boundary. 

Table 4-29. PFMC-managed salmonids listed by their natal streams in Puget Sound 

Stream Name 

Salmonids 

Chinook Coho Pink 

Fraser (Whatcom) 

X 

Strait of Georgia X X X 

San Juan Islands X X 

Nooksack River X X X 

Upper Skagit X X X 

Sauk River X X X 

Lower Skagit River X X X 

Stillaguamish River X X X 

Skykomish River X X X 

Puget Sound X X 

4-95 January 31, 2008



Stream Name 

Salmonids 

Chinook Coho Pink 

Snoqualmie River X X X 

Snohomish River X X X 

Lake Washington X X 

Duwamish River X X 

Puyallup River X X X 

Nisqually River X X X 

Deschutes River X X 

Skokomish River X X 

Hood Canal X X X 

Figure 4-11. Project area in relation to the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) boundary (DON 2006) 

4-96 January 31, 2008



4.4.5.4 Site-Specific Summary for Salmonids 


Admiralty Inlet lies proximal to the Hood Canal, which is a glacial fjord located between Puget 

Sound and the Olympic Peninsula. The canal is the drainage endpoint for numerous freshwater 

streams and provides marine habitat for Chinook, coho and pink salmon, which are the primary 

species with EFH designations addressed by the PFMC. Connecting Hood Canal with the Strait of 

Juan de Fuca, Admiralty Inlet is used by salmon residing in the nearby canal. Consequently, 

Admiralty Inlet constitutes essential fish habitat for Hood Canal salmonids and as well as for other 

populations inhabiting Puget Sound. 


Although it is relatively distant from salmonid natal streams, Spieden Channel lies within the EFH 

boundary for the Pacific species listed by PFMC. It is situated between San Juan Island and 

Spieden Island, and foraging salmon venture into the Channel to feed on pelagic nekton. While it 

is ulikely that Spieden Channel represents an important migratory corridor, it is likely used for 

foraging. 


Guemes Channel is situated between Guemes and Fidalgo islands and lies within the EFH 

boundary for salmonids. It represents one of two paths available for salmonids migrating to the 

Samish River, and may also be used by salmonids migrating to the Nooksack River; however, 

there are several other larger channels for Nooksack salmonids to use. Chinook, coho and pink 

salmon may all pass through the channel on their way to their natal streams. 


The San Juan Channel lies within the EFH boundary. Bordered by San Juan Island and Lopez 

Island, it is relatively distant from freshwater habitats and all Pacific salmonid natal streams. 

4-97 January 31, 2008



However, foraging salmon may venture into San Juan Channel to feed on pelagic nekton, and 

although the remote location of the Channel suggests that it is not a major migratory corridor, the 

Channel likely provides important refuge and foraging habitat. 


Deception Pass lies between Fidalgo and Whidbey islands and is part of the defined EFH for 

salmonids. The moderately sized channel is approximately 150 m wide and provides the primary 

migratory pathway to the Skagit River. The Skagit River is the largest watershed in Puget Sound 

and provides a natal stream to all salmonid species found within the basin including six of the 

region’s threatened species. Deception Pass represents a migratory corridor for Puget Sound 

salmonids. 

Agate Passage 

Agate Passage lies between Bainbridge Island and the Kitsap Peninsula, where it is geographically 

recessed from the primary channel of Puget Sound’s main basin. As the entire Sound is designated 

as EFH, Agate Passage also represents EFH, although it is moderately secluded location likely 

reduces the use of the channel by migrating salmonids. Nonetheless, the Passage is located in 

proximity to the Lake Washington watershed where both Chinook and coho spawn. Chinook or 

coho may, therefore, be present within the channel, and it is not unlikely that a small number of 

salmon may forage within the channel or stray into the channel while migrating to natal streams. 

Even so, Agate Passage is not likely to represent a primary migration corridor. 

Rich Passage 

Rich Passage also lies between Bainbridge Island and the Kitsap Peninsula and falls within the 

broad Puget Sound EFH. South of Rich Passage is a notable Chinook salmon angling location 

(Keizer and Nelson 2007). The Passage is also located near the Lake Washington watershed 

where both Chinook and coho spawn. Chinook or coho may be present within the channel, and it 

is not unlikely that a small number of salmon may stray into the channel while migrating to 

natal streams. 

4-98 January 31, 2008



4.4.5.5 Coastal Pelagic Species 

Coastal pelagic species (CPS) occurring in offshore waters along the Washington Coast include 

five species: northern anchovy (Engraulis mordax), Pacific sardine (Sardinosp sagax), Pacific 

mackerel (Scomber japonicus), jack mackerel (Trachurus symmetricus), and market squid (Loligo 

opalescens) (PFMC 2003). CPS are important because they represent the base forage fish of the 

food web. The availability of forage or coastal pelagic fish to other predatory species can greatly 

affect species population numbers. 

All of these species share notably similar life-history characteristics, except for market squid 

which are more widespread. The geographic range of these species varies widely over time in 

response to the temperature of the mixed upper layer of the ocean (PFMC 2003). They are 

generally found in waters with temperatures that range between 10°C to 26°C (50-78°F) (PFMC 

2003). Geographically, the EFH boundary for these species is defined to be all marine and 

estuarine waters from the coastline of Washington offshore to the limits of the EEZ and above the 

thermocline where sea surface temperatures range between 10°C to 26°C (50-78°F). Based upon 

these criteria, sardine and mackerels are seasonally more abundant in the Washington-to-Alaska 

region during the summer and warm-water years (e.g., El Niño) than during the winter and coldwater 

years (PFMC 2003). Furthermore, desirable sea surface temperatures and habitat boundaries 

extend farther north during the summer than during the winter. Regardless, sea surface 

temperatures and habitat use vary seasonally and from year to year, with variation being most 

pronounced during the summer (PFMC 2003). For this reason jack mackerel—which prefer 

warmer water temperatures—do not spawn or rear in northern waters (adult lifestages may exist, 

Appendix H, Table 3). 

The northern anchovy is a pelagic spawner that does not rely upon shorelines for successful 

reproduction, the majority of which occurs near the California and Mexico border (Bargmann 

1998). Current anchovy production is a shadow of historic records; however, the northern sardine 

is making a comeback in the Pacific Northwest. Bargmann (1998) indicated that while sardine 

abundance has increased in the northwest, the status of local reproduction was yet to be 

determined. 

4-99 January 31, 2008



Site-Specific Summary for Coastal Pelagic Fish in Washington Waters 

EFH is defined for all CPS as extending from the shoreline to the EEZ boundary; however, this 

definition is contingent upon the water temperature ranging from 10°C to 25.5°C (50-78°F). All 

project areas are spatially included within the EFH boundaries for CPS, but any site may be 

excluded temporarily, or seasonally, from the EFH designation if its waters become too cool. 

Based upon 11-year mean water temperature data, ranging from above the San Juan Islands to 

below Rich Passage, all areas would be within the temperature range and considered EFH from 

May through December—except the San Juan Islands, which only falls within the requisite 

temperature range from May through November ( see Figure 4-13) (WDFW, 2000). Warmer years 

and global trends in warming ocean water may increase the potential for water to remain within the 

required temperature range. 

Figure 4-12. Distribution of jack mackerel and nort hern anchovy eggs, 2006 (Source: UCSD 2006) 

4-100 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-13. Mea n water temperature calculated over 11 years of monitoring. Adapted from 

WDFW water temperature data. 

4.4.6 Special-Status Species 

Aquatic special-status species potentially occurring in t he project vicinity are listed in Table 4-30. 

This table was compiled based upon ODFW and NOAA listings. Species listed under the ESA 

(federally-listed species) are further described in Section 4.7, Species Listed under the Endangered 

Species Act. 

Table 4-30. List of species of special concern. The list includes federal and state status and a brief 

summary of habitat requirements. 

Common Name 


Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 

Habitat Requirements 

River Lamprey Lampetra ayresi FCo SC Early lifestages rear in freshwater. Parasitic adults 

feed in marine water 

Pacific Herring Clupea Pallasi FC SC Young found in shallow, vegetated areas in the 

intertidal and subtidal zones. Developed young 

and adults found in pelagic waters 

Chin ook Salmon 

(Puget Sound) 

Oncorhynchus 

tshawytscha 

FT SC Spawning occurs in freshwater streams. Smolts, 

juveniles and adults rear in nearshore habitat and 

pelagic marine water. 

Steelhead Oncorhynchus mykiss FT none Spawning occurs in freshwater streams. Smolts, 

(Puget Sound) 

juveniles and adults rear in nearshore and pelagic 

marine waters. 

Bull Trout Salvelinus confluentus FT SC Spawning occurs in freshwater streams. Juveniles 

(Coastal/Puget 

and adults rear primarily in nearshore habitat and 

Sound) 

some pelagic marine waters. 

4-101 January 31, 2008



Federal State 

Common Name Scientific Name Status Status Habitat Requirements 

Eulachon Thaleichthys pacificus none SC Spawning occurs in freshwater streams. Young 

are quickly swept to estuary and pelagic water. 

Young and adults reside in pelagic marine waters 

Pacific Cod 

(Puget Sound) 

Pacific Hake 

(Puget Sound) 

Walleye Pollock 

(South Puget 

Sound) 

Gadus macrocephalus FCo SC Eggs are demersal and found sublittorally. Larvae 

and small juveniles are pelagic; large juveniles 

and adults are parademersal 

Merluccius productus FCo SC Eggs and larvae of the coa stal stock are pelagic in 

40–140 m of wa ter; adults are epi-meso 

pelagic 

Theragra 

chalcog ramma 

FCo SC Midwater to bottom-dwelling fish, living anywhere 

between shallow, nearshore waters to 1000 m. 

Most occur between 100-300 m depth. 

Brown Rockfish Sebastes auriculatus FCo SC Common in waters less than 53 m and the young 

are widely di stributed in shallow water bays. 

Copper Rockfish Sebastes caurinus FCo SC Young are pelagic and associated with s urface 

waters. Adults occur in nearshore waters from the 

surface to 183 m in depth. 

Greenstriped 

Rockfish 

Sebastes elongatus none SC Young found in 60-100 m depths. Adults generally 

reside in deep water from 52-828 m, but can move 

inshore. 

Widow Rockfish Sebastes entomelas none SC Larvae are neritic and epipelagic, occurring from 

near surface to 20 m deep. Adults are sublittoral 

to bathyal from depths of 24-549 m. 

Yellowtail Sebastes flavidus none SC Yellowtail rockfish is a common species that is 

Rockfish most abundant over the mi ddle shelf. They are 

most common near the bottom, but not 

on the 

bottom. They are found generally 24+ km offshore 

Quillback 

Rockfish 

Sebastes maliger FCo SC Young quillback rockfish occur along the shores at 

depths less than 60 m and adults usually in 

deeper waters to 140 m. 

Black Rockfish Sebastes melanops none SC Black r ockfish occ ur from the surface t o 366 m, 

but are most common at depths shallower than 55 

m. Off Oregon, they are most common in waters 

from 12 to 90 m. 

China Rockfish Sebastes nebulosus none SC China rockfish occur both inshore and along the 

open coast from 3 to 128 m . They 

are most 

commonly found in 

waters between 18 and 92 m. The juveniles are 

pelagic, but the a dults are sedentary, 

associated 

with rocky reefs or cobble. 

Tiger Rockfish Sebastes nigrocinctus none SC Tiger rockfish are generally found in waters less 

than 30 m in Puget Sound. Juveniles are found 

near surface around floating plant matter. Adults 

are found near reefs and undersea caves. 

Bocaccio 

Rockfish 

Sebastes paucispinis none SC Nearshore and offshore species commonly found 

from 50 to 250 m depths. Categorized as a middle 

shelf-mesobenthal species. 

Canary Rockfish Sebastes pinniger none SC Middle shelf-mesobenthal species. Young start in 

shallow water and move to greater depths with 

age. Depth range is from shallow to 425 m of 

depth. 

4-102 January 31, 2008



Common Name 

Redstripe 

Rockfish 

Yelloweye 

Rockfish 

Leatherback Sea 

Turtle 

Green Sea 

Turtle 

Loggerhead Sea 

Turtle 


Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 


Sebastes proriger none SC Inhabit the outer shelf and upper slope. Reported 

between 12 and 425 m in depth, but are most 

common (95%) between 150 an d 275 m. 

Sebastes ruberrimus none SC middle shelf-mesobenthal species. Occur in water 

25–475 m de ep; they most commonly occur at 

depths from 91 to 180 m. 

Dermochelys coriacea FE SE Young born on southern beach habitat. Maturing 

young adults reside in pelagic marine waters. 

Chelonia mydas FT ST Young born on southern beach habitat. Maturing 


Caretta caretta FT ST Young born on southern beach habitat. Maturing 


4.5 Wildlife and Botanical Resources 

4.5.1 Wildlife Habitats in the Vicinity of the Permit Areas 

No site-specific descriptions of wildlife habitats in the direct vicinity of the District’s permits 

were located during PAD information-gathering efforts. However, Johnson and O’ Neil (2001) 

present habitat mapping and classifications of wildlife habitats in Oregon 

and Washington, 

including each of the seven permit sites. A total of thirteen w ildlife habitat types are noted 

(Table 4-31). 

Table 4-31. Wildlife habitats located in project vicinities (calculated from Johnson and O’Neil 2001) 

Habitat 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Agate 

Passage 

Acres within 0.25 mile of Proje ct Sites 

San 

Deception Guemes Rich Juan 

Pass Channel Passage Channel 

Spieden 

Channel 

Total 

Agriculture, Pasture, and 557. 2 258.3 30.4 236.9 1082.8 

Mixed Environs 

Bays and Estuaries 434.8 2.5 1.7 4.3 443.3 

Coastal Headlands and 12.2 

Islets 

1.4 1.2 14.8 

Herbaceous Wetlands 122.3 73.0 3.1 1.5 200.0 

Inland Marine Deeper 70767.5 716.8 

Waters 

1991.3 1179.2 2617.9 1315.0 3295.7 81883.5 

Lakes, Rivers, Ponds, and 106.5 

2.4 108.9 

Reservoirs 

Marine Nearshore 1855.2 215.5 2884.1 702.6 891.5 6548.9 

4-103 January 31, 2008



Admiralty Agate 

Habitat Inlet Passage 

Acres within 0.25 mile of Project Sites 

San 

Deception Guemes Rich Juan 

Pass Channel Passage Channel 

Spieden 

Channel 

Marine Shelf 1.4 1.4 

Urban and Mixed 2215.2 465.2 31.1 631.5 986.4 4329.4 

Environs 

Westside Grasslands 114.0 21.9 128.5 264.3 

Total 

Westside Lowlands 

Conifer-Hardwood Forest 

6754.7 181. 5 981.9 593.2 406.9 502.1 524.1 9944.2 

Westside Oak and Dry 

Douglas-fir Forest and 

Woodlands 

14.2 

14.2 

Westside Riparian- 

Wetlands 

1941.5 20.8 5.2 88.4 2055.9 

Total 84881.2 1363.5 3506.2 5383.6 4023.8 2550.0 5183.3 106891.6 

4.5.2 Washington Natural Heritage Program Records 

The Washington Natural Heritage Program (WNHP) maintains GIS records of high-quality natural 

communities and state-listed and federally listed plant species in Washington State. Results of the 

District’s query of the WNHP database for current records in the vicinity of the permit areas are 

presented below. No current records were returned for Rich Passage or Agate Passage. 

Table 4-32. Washington Natural Heritage Program Records within 0.25 miles of the District’s 

permit areas 

WNHP Record 

Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 


Alaska Alkaligrass None Sensitive 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock/Pacific Rhododendron - Evergreen Huckleberry None None 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Swordfern None None 

High salinity lagoon None None 

Sandy, high salinity, low marsh None None 

Saltgrass - Pickleweed None None 

Pickleweed None None 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Oceanspray / Swordfern None None 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Oceanspray / Swordfern None None 


Bigleaf Maple - Red Alder / Swordfern - Fringecup Community None None 

Golden Paintbrush Threatened Endangered 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Salal None None 

Transition zone wetland None None 

Broad-leaf Cattail None None 

High salinity lagoon None None 

Coastal Spit with Native Vegetation None None 

American Dunegrass - Japanese Beachpea None None 

Red Fescue - Silver Burweed None None 

4-104 January 31, 2008



WNHP Record 

Federal State 

Status Status 

Red Fescue - Great Camas – Oregon Gumweed 

None None 

Sandy, high salinity, low marsh 

None None 

Sandy, moderate salinit y, low marsh N one None 

Saltgrass - Pickleweed 

None None 

Pickleweed 

None None 

Silty, moderate salinity, low marsh None None 

Pickleweed - Saltgrass - Seaside Arro wgrass - (Fleshy Jaumea) 

None None 

Vanc ouver Ground-cone 

None None 

Alaska Alkaligrass 

None None 

Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Pacific Rhododendron - Evergreen 

Huckleberry 

None None 

Douglas-fir – Western Hemlock / Swordfern None None 

Silty, moderate salinity, low marsh None None 

Saltgrass - (Pickleweed) None None 


Alaska Alkaligrass None Sensitive 

White Meconella None Threatened 



Douglas-fir / Salal – Oceanspray None None 

Douglas-fir / Common Snowberry - Oceanspray None None 

Douglas-fir – Pacific Madrone / American Purple Vetch None None 


Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Dwarf Oregongrape None None 

Roemer's Fescue - Field Chickweed - Prairie Junegrass None None 



Douglas-fir - Western Hemlock / Salal / Swordfern None None 





Alaska Alkaligrass None None 

White Meconella None None 




Douglas-fir / Common Snowberry – Oceanspray None None 

Douglas-fir – Pacific Madrone / American Purple Vetch None None 




Low Elevation Freshwater Wetland None None 

Coontail 

None None 

Cusick's Sedge - (Marsh Cin quefoil) None None 


Sharpfruited Peppergrass None Threatened 

Nuttall's Quillwort None Sensitive 

California Buttercup None Threatened 

Shore Pine - Douglas-fir / Salal None None 



Erect Pygmy-weed None Threatened 

4-105 January 31, 2008



4.5.3 Wildlife in the Vicinity of the Permit Areas 

4.5.3.1 Occurrence Models 

Wildlife potentially occurring in the vicinity of the project sites was assessed using occurrence 

models presented by Johnson and O’Neil (2001), based on habitats occurring within 0.4 km (0.25 

miles) of each project site. These potentially occurring species were cross-referenced against the 

Washington Nature Mapping Program (NatureMapping, 2007) and Vertebrate Distribution Models 

from Washington GAP Data Products (WDFW 2007) , and against actual sightings for marine 

mammals (King County, 2007; Orcanetwork, 2007b; WDF W, 2007 ), resulting in a maxi mum of 

302 vertebrates predicted to potent ially o ccur in the vicinity of the project sites (at Admiralty 

I nlet ), and a minimum of 232 (at Agate Passage). Differences between sites primarily reflect 

variance in bird distributions. Admiralty Inlet is predicted to potentially support 11 amphibian 

species, 217 birds, 55 mammals, 9 reptiles, and 10 marine mammals (Table 4-33). The entire list of 

wildlife predicted to potentially occur in the project vicinities by Johnson and O’Neil is provided 

in Appendix E. Additional information on wildlif e listed under the Endangered Spec ies Act is 

provided in Section 4.7; additional information on other special-status wildlife is provided in 

Section 4.5.5. 

Table 4-33. 

Wildife potentially occurring in the project vicinities, as predicted by Johnson and 

O’Neil (2001) and WDFW (2007). 

Number of Species Potentially Occurring 

Project Area Amphibians Birds Mammals Reptiles Marine Mammals Total 

Admiralty Inlet 11 217 55 9 10 302 

Spieden Channel 11 213 55 9 10 298 

San Juan Channel 11 199 55 9 10 284 

Guemes Channel 11 213 55 9 10 298 

D eception Pass 11 215 55 9 10 300 

Agate Passage 11 147 55 9 10 232 

Rich Passage 11 213 55 9 10 298 

4.5.3.2 Marine Mammal Sightings 

PAD information-gathering efforts located two multi-species survey datasets identifying marine 

mammal occurrences in Puget Sou nd. The firs t dataset represents twelve ye ars of vessel surveys 

4-106 January 31, 2008



conducted by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. These surveys were conducted 

basin-wide, and with the results available in a spatially rectified database, an analysis of each 

project site is possibl e (Table 4-34). The San Juan Channel site had the highest number of 

sightings, with the majority representing harbor seals. Admiralty Inlet had the second-highest 

observation total and the greatest diversity of species si ghtings. Harbor sea 

ls were the most 

common species and represented the only species sighted in Agate Passage and Deception Pass 

( Table 4-34). Additional information on marine mammals listed under the Endangered Species 

Act is provided in Section 4.7. Additional information on other special-status marine mammals is 

provided in Section 4.4.6. 

Tabl e 4-34. Marine mammal sightings within 0.4 km (0.25 miles) of the project areas from 

WDF W vessel surveys ( 1992 to 2004). 

Species 

Observed 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Agate 

Passage 

Project Are a (buffered by 0.4 km o r 0.25 miles) 

Deception 

Pass 

Guemes 

Channel 

Rich 

Passage 

San Juan Spieden 

Channel Channel 

California Sea Lion 8 0 0 0 20 8 

4 

Dall's Porpoise 16 0 0 0 0 0 

0 

Harbor Porpoise 67 0 0 0 0 1 

0 

Harbor Seal 687 2 16 21 14 

869 671 

Orca 10 0 0 0 0 0 0 

River Otter 12 0 0 1 0 14 0 

Stellar Sea Lion 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 

Total Sightings 800 2 16 22 34 892 690 

Puget Sound marine mammal sightings are also available as datasets compiled from recreational 

land-based surveys conducted by the public (OrcaNetwork 2007a) (Tables 4-35 and 4-36). 

Because they do not rely on rigorous sampling designs, these data may understate the presence or 

absence of some species. 

Table 4-35. Land-based recreational marine mammal sightings occurring by project area in 2006. 

Cell contents displays both month of sighting and number of sightings that occurred. 

2006 Marine Mammals 

Sightings 

Jan - Mar 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Spieden 

Channel 

Guemes 

Channel 

Project Area 

San Juan 

Channel 

Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

Orca Feb(1) March(1) Feb(2) 

Gray Whale 

Humpback Whale 

Jan(1) March(1) 

Rich 

Passage 

4-107 January 31, 2008




Sightings 

Apr - Jun 

Jul - Sep 

Oct - Dec 

Minke 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Spieden 

Channel 

Guemes 

Channel 

Project Area 

San Juan 

Channel 

Orca May(1) June(4) 

Gray Whale 


Minke 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

April(4) 

Orca August(1) August(1) Sept(1) 

Gray Whale 


August(1) 

Minke Sept(1) Sept(1) 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Orca 

Gray Whale 


Minke 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Oct(4) Nov(4) Dec(7) 

Oct(1) 

Rich 

Passage 

Table 4-36. Recreational land-based marine mammal sightings occufring by project area in 2005. 

Cell contents displays both month of sighting and number of sightings that occurred. 


Sightings 

Jan - Mar 

Apr – Jun 

Jul – Sep 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Spieden 

Channel 

Project Area 

Guemes San Juan 


Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

Rich 

Passage 

Orca Jan(2) March(1) Jan(1) Jan(5) 

Gray Whale March(4) March(2) Feb(1) March(3) 


Minke 

March(1) 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Orca April(1) April(1) May(2) 

Gray Whale April(2) May(2) April(1) 


Minke 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

Orca Sept(1) July(1) 

Gray Whale 

July(1) 


Minke 

August(1) 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

4-108 January 31, 2008



2005 Marine Mammals Admiralty Spieden 

Sightings 

Inlet Channel 

Oct – Dec 

Project Area 

Guemes San Juan 


Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

Rich 

Passage 

Orca Oct(2) Dec(1) Nov(11) Dec(2) 

Gra y Whale 

Oc t(2) 


Minke 

Pseudorca 

Fin Whale 

In addition to these sighting data, WDFW m aintains digital records for marine ma 

mmal haulout 

s ites in the vicinity of four of the seven project sites: Admiralty Inlet (four sites); Spieden Channel 

( greater than ten sites); San Juan Channel ( nine s ites); and Rich Passage (two sites). The data are 

current as of the District’s Decembe r 2007 data request; an overview of marine mammal haulout 

sites in the vicinity of the project sites is presented in App endix E. 

4.5.3.3 Sho rebird and Seabird Sightings 

Shorebird and seabird observational data from WDFW vessel surveys are available from 1992 

through 2004 (Table 4-37). These data were processed in GIS so as to include birds sighted 

within 0.4 km (0.25 miles) of each project site. The greatest (55,590 sightings) and most diverse 

(57 species) representation of birds was found at Admiralty In let. Dece ption Pass had the fewest 

number (1,476 sightings) of bird sightings. Agate Passage had the lowest number of species (33). 

In addition, WDFW maintains records for seabird colonies in the vicnity of five of the project 

sites: Admiralty Inlet (alcids, cormorants, and “other” spe cies); Spieden Channel (alcids and other 

species); Guemes Channel (al cids), San Juan Channel (alcids and cormorants and other species); 

and Decepti on Pass (alcids and cormorants). Mapping of these seabird colonies is provided in 

Appendix E. 

4-109 January 31, 2008



Table 4-37. Shore and seabird sightings within 0.4 km (0.25 miles) of the Proejct area from WDFW 

vesse l surveys (1992 to 2004). 

Species 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Project Area (b uffered 0.4 km or 0.25 miles) 

Agate Deception 

Guemes 

Rich San Juan 

Passage 

Pass Channel 

Passage 

Channel 

Spieden 

Channel 

American Wigeon 2,698 332 286 122 5,259 12 

Ancient Murrelet 152 65 17 

Bald Eagle 83 2 6 18 4 11 25 

Barrows Goldeneye 67 48 12 6 178 3 3 

Belted Kingfisher 38 2 13 9 5 2 2 

Black Brant 1,635 79 1 6 

Black Oystercatcher 8 

4 3 54 3 

Black Scoter 258 4 1 263 1 

3 

Black Turnstone 8 

12 

Black-Bellied Plover 20 

Bonapartes Gull 1,879 2 58 2 67 310 48 

Brandts Cormorant 10 1 6 1 

1 

Bufflehead 9,455 550 170 452 328 526 1,208 

California Gull 99 1 1 1 7 

Canada Goose 35 19 

Canvasback 25 

Caspian Tern 74 5 3 2 

Common Goldeneye 662 596 19 61 414 9 82 

Common Loon 240 26 13 25 5 11 5 

Common Merganser 124 149 6 15 96 11 44 

Common Murre 6,062 3 49 30 314 32 

Double-Crested Cormorant 789 72 105 272 382 25 43 

Dunlin 200 

Gadwall 77 

Glaucous-Winged Gull 4,713 121 230 674 589 435 207 

Great Blue Heron 419 13 68 23 34 7 13 

Greater Scaup 121 40 15 157 57 

Green-Winged Teal 141 1 

Harlequin Duck 1,117 9 2 22 97 221 157 

Heermann's Gull 3,853 13 5 345 2 

Herring Gull 386 66 

Hooded Merganser 183 6 8 5 20 43 

Horned Grebe 408 30 11 15 59 30 26 

Killdeer 2 5 

Mallard 889 

8 31 7 70 7 7 

Marbled Murrelet 250 3 2 65 2 51 40 

Mew Gull 432 4 11 69 

42 357 124 

Northern Pintail 444 

Northwestern Crow 930 136 7 136 682 26 103 

Oldsquaw 398 48 1 41 22 45 

Osprey 3 1 

4-110 January 31, 2008



Species 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Agate 

Passage 

Project Area (buffered 0.4 km or 0.25 miles) 

Deception 

Pass 

Guemes 

Channel 

Rich 

Passage 

San Juan 

Channel 

Spieden 

Channel 

Pacific Loon 502 23 1 3 56 50 32 

Pelagic Cormorant 98 25 18 4 3 

Pigeon Guillemot 1,897 194 79 440 46 111 104 

Red-Breasted Merganser 815 639 23 114 291 43 118 

Red-Necked Grebe 318 13 31 78 40 7 

Red-Tailed Hawk 4 

Red-Throated Loon 143 14 18 20 11 2 6 

Rhinoceros Auklet 5,177 16 150 9 207 36 

Rock Dove 1 1 

Ruddy Duck 166 12 2 15 2 

Sanderling 5 

Surf Scoter 2,748 318 23 102 1,061 81 98 

Tufted Puffin 1 

Western Grebe 3,129 25 215 18 3,557 2 

Whimbrel 1 

White-Winged Scoter 1,198 84 5 5 200 13 9 

Species Total 57 33 34 40 41 38 35 

Observational Total 55,590 3,522 1,476 3,256 14,052 3,503 2,702 

4.5.3.4 Priority Habitats and Species and Wildlife Heritage Databases 

WDFW datasets include its Priority Habitats and Species (PHS) and Wildlife Heritage databases, 

which include digital 

records of important wildlife habitats and sensitive and other wildlife 

occurrences at each project site. Appendix E provides mapping of P HS data in the vicinity of each 

of the District’s permit areas; the results are summarized below. The data are current as of 

December 2007; because the data are frequently updated, WDFW recommends using data requests 

no older than six months in evaluating proposed activities (WDFW 2006). 

Table 4-38. Presence of WDFW PHS and Wildlife Heritage database records in the vicinity of the 

District’s permit areas. 

Resource 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Agate 

Passage 

Deception 

Pass 

Guemes 

Channel 

Rich 

Passage 

San Juan 

Channel 

Speiden 

Channel 

Bald eagle X X X X X X X 

Band-tailed pigeon 

X 

Black oystercatcher X X 

Cliffs/bluffs X X X 

4-111 January 31, 2008



Resource 

Common loon 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Agate 

Passage 

Deception 

Pass 

X 

Guemes 

Channel 

Rich 

Passage 

San Juan 

Channel 

Speiden 

Channel 

Estuarine zone X X X X X X 

Great blue heron X X X X 

Harbor seal X X X 

Harlequin duck 

Islands X X 

Lagoons 

Long-legged myotis 

Mountain quail 

Old-growth/ mature 

forest 

X 

X 

X 

Osprey X X X 

Pacific lamprey 

X 

Peregrine falcon X X X 

Purple martin X X X X 

Red-legged frog 

Seabird 

concentrations 

Shorebird 


Slough 

X 

X 

X 

Surf scoter X X X 

Townsend’s bigeared 

bat 

Turkey vulture 

Urban open natural 

space 

Waterfowl 


X 

X 

X X X X 

X X X 

Wetlands X X X X X 

Yuma myotis 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

4.5.4 Eelgrass 

4.5.4.1 Overview of Eelgrass in Puget 

Sound 

In Puget Sound and the entire Pacific Northwest, the dominant species of eelgrass is Zostera 

marina, although populations of an exotic dwarf eelgrass, Z. japonica (synonym: Z. nana), have 

become establishe d near Bellingham in the northern reaches of the basin (DON 2006; Kozloff 

1993). Rarely exposed at low tide and found to depths of 10 m under ideal light conditions, 

4-112 January 31, 2008



eelgrass is a vascular plant and an obligate halophile which remains submerged or partially 

floating throughout its entire life cycle (Airamé et al. 2003; DON 2006; WSDNR 2007b, c, d). 

Eelgrass colonizes approximately 200-205 km 2 in Puget Sound and has a primary production rate 

that reaches as much as 84-480 grams of carbon per square meter per year (Airamé et al. 2003; 

DON 2006; Green and Short, 2003, WSDNR 2007b). Eelgrass beds provide habitat and refuge for 

many larger organisms including sea anemones, jellyfish, snails, limpets, nudibranchs, clams, sea 

stars, brittle stars, sea cucumbers, isopods, crabs (e.g. red crabs, graceful crabs, spider crabs, and 

helmet crabs), and many species of fish (e.g. gunnels and pipefish) (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993; 

WSDE 2007; WSDNR 2007c; Williams et al. 2003). Several economically important species 

similarly depend on eelgrass communities for food, shelter, and nursery grounds. These include 

chum salmon (Oncorhynchus keta), Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi), and Dungeness crabs (Cancer 

magister) which move into the protection of the beds to molt during the spring (DON 2006; 

Kozloff 1993). 

4.5.4.2 Distribution of Eelgrass at the Seven Permit Sites 

The project sites represent areas with relatively higher energy than the rest of Puget Sound. As a 

result, fine organic material and mud are less common as substrate materials, limiting eelgrass 

distributions at each project site. Nevertheless, each of the permit sites either supports eelgrass 

beds or presents an environmental setting favorable to the establishment of eelgrass beds 

somewhere within their confines (see Table 4-39). As eelgrass is typically limited to a maximum 

depth of approximately 10 m, extant eelgrass beds are restricted to the periphery of each of the 

permit sites, or to recesses outside the main flow of the channel (Figure 4-14). 

Table 4-39. Distribution of eelgrass beds at project sites 

Site Present Adjacent Absent 

Admiralty Inlet X X 

Spieden Channel Minimal X 


X 



Agate Pass X X 

Rich Passage X X 

Sources: DON 2006; Friends of the San Juans, 2007; PSWQA 1992. 

4-113 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-14. Distribution of eelgrass beds at project sites 


Within Admiralty Inlet, eelgrass beds are found in narrow strips along both the northeast and 

southwest shores of the southern half of the site (DON 2006). In addition, eelgrass beds encircle 

Indian Island and are present on all shores except that nearest the Olympic Peninsula (DON 2006; 

PSWQA 1992). Eelgrass beds may exist along the southern shore of the seaward entrance, 

although surfgrass may dominate in this region. The site is also adjacent to small beds that exist 

further south (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). 


Within Spieden Channel, eelgrass is largely absent, although minimal beds may exist along 

the southern shores 

of the western entrance (DON 2006; Friends of the San Juans 2007; PSWQA 

4-114 January 31, 2008



1992). These may be the result of incursions from large populations that exist adjacent to the 

western entrance and south of the site (DON 2006; Friends of the San Juans, 2007; PSWQA 1992). 


Within Guemes Channel, eelgrass exists in extremely narrow beds that extend along the southern 

shore (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). 


Within San Juan Channel, broad eelgrass beds are found along the eastern shore of the northern 

entrance (DON 2006; Friends of the San Juans, 2007; PSWQA 1992). The site is also adjacent to 

eelgrass beds that exist west of the northern entrance and east of the southern entrance (DON 

2006; Friends of the San Juans, 2007; PSWQA 1992) . 


Within Deception Pass, eelgrass is found in long narrow beds along both north and south shores of 

the eastern entrance to the site (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). Eelgrass is also found in large beds 

outside of the main channel in Cornet Bay (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). 

Agate Pass 

Within Agate Pass, broad eelgrass beds are found along both the northwest and southeast shores 

(DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). Due to the shallow depths of the pass, the southern beds extend 

almost to the center of the channel (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992; Williams et al. 2003). The site is 

also adjacent significant meadows of eelgrass that are found to the south of both entrances and to 

the north of the east entrance (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992). 

Rich Passage 

Within Rich Passage, large beds of eelgrass are found on both shores, with those found towards the 

western entrance being concentrated on the northern shore, and those towards the eastern entrance 

4-115 January 31, 2008



being concentrated on the southern shore (DON 2006; PSWQA 1992; Williams et al. 2003). 

Significant eelgrass beds are also found adjacent to the eastern entrance of the site (DON 2006; 

PSWQA 1992). 

4.5.5 Macroalgae 

Marine macroalgae occur throughout Puget Sound, from above the high water mark where they are 

only occasionally wetted by the splash of waves, in tide pools, throughout the shallow sub-tidal 

zone, and when the clarity of the water column permits, to depths of more than 60 m (Guiry 2007; 

Kozloff 1993). Although some species, such as Sargassum spp., can survive unattached to the 

seafloor as fully planktonic organisms, seaweeds are generally sessile and typically associated with 

rocks, hard-bottom and larger-grained unconsolidated substrates as well as man-made structures 

(DON 2006; Guiry 2007; Williams et al. 2003). Within Puget Sound, marine macroalgae of the 

supra-littoral fringe (greater than approximately two meters above mean lower low water) are 

dominated by the green algae genus Prasiola (Kozloff 1993). However, below this level, 

within the inter-tidal and sub-tidal zones, a diverse range of seaweeds are present in abundance 

(Table 4-40). 

Table 4-40. 

Common seaweed species of Puget Sound 

Seaweed 

Red Algae 

(Rhodophyta) 

Green Algae 

(Chlorophyta) 

Brown Algae 

(Phaeophyta) 


Inter-tidal 

Endocladia muricata, Bangia 

fuscopurpurea, Porphyra perforata, P. 

torta, Gigartina papillata, Halosaccion 

glandiforme, Microcladia borealis, 

Hymenena flabelligera, Botryoglossum 

farlowianum, Cryptopleura lobulifera, 

Opuntiella californica 

Cladophora columbiana, Ulva spp., 

Acrosiphonia coalita 

Fucus distichus, F. spiralis, Scytosiphon 

lomentaria, Hedophyllum sessile, 

Leathesia difformis 

Sub-tidal 

Smithora naia dum, Constantinea simplex, C. 

subulifera, Gi gartina exasperata, Iridaea cordata, 

Odonthalia floccose, O. washingtoniensis, 

Rhodomela larix, Hymenena flabelligera, 

Botryoglossum farlowianum, Cryptopleura 

lobulifera, Erythrophy llum delesserioides, 

Plocamium cartilagin eum, Laurencia spectabilis, 

Gymnogongrus spp., Gracilaria sjoestedtii, 

Sarcodiotheca gaudichaudii 

Codium fragile 

Laminaria saccharina, L. groenlandica, L. 

setchellii, Costaria costata, Agarum fimbriatum, 

Cymathere triplicate, Egregia menziesii, 

Pterygophora californica, Alaria marginata, 

Desmarestia ligulata, D. viridis, Nereocystis 

luetkeana, Sargassum muticum, Cystoseira 

geminate, Coilodesme californica, Analipus 

japonicus, Colpomenia bullosa 

4-116 January 31, 2008



Although seaweeds, and macroalgae in general, are an important food source and provide both 

shelter and a substrate for attachment for many grazing organisms, one order of brown algae, 

Laminariales, is unmatched in its capacity to form biogenic habitat (DON 2006; Guiry 2007; 

MBARI 2007). Commonly referred to as kelp, the laminarians often form complex, vertically 

structured forests that provide unique foraging, breeding, and nursery grounds as well as shelter for 

a wide range of fauna including sponges, worms, barnacles, snails, crabs, shrimp, sea cucumbers, 

sea stars, urchins, sea anemones, scallops, oysters, abalones, octopi, numerous species of 

groundfish, as well as several marine mammals (DON 2006; Kozloff 1993; Gustafson 

et al. 2000). 

Kelp consists of 30 genera that are found in cold (less than 20ºC or 68ºF), nutrient-rich waters 

worldwide. They are generally light sensitive, and are restricted from depths shallower than two 

meters; however, under ideal light conditions, they can be found growing at depths of more than 

60 m (DON 2006; Guiry 2007; Rodriguez et al. 2001; Rodriguez 2003). Kelp is typically 

associated with hard substrates such as solid rock, boulders, cobble and man-made structures, and 

the most persistent populations of these highly visible macroalgae are generally found in 

environments characterized by moderate relief and moderate to low sand coverage (DON 2006; 

Graham 1997; Williams et al. 2003). The primary productivity of kelp can reach 350-2800 grams 

of carbon per square meter per year, with some species such as bull kelp and giant kelp growing 

half a meter each day (DON 2006). Of all algae, the laminarians possess perhaps the most highly 

specialized and advanced morphological structures, which include not only blades, stipes and 

holdfasts, but also gas filled bladders, pneumatocysts, that enable the larger species to extend from 

the seafloor to the surface and to remain floating within zones of greater light intensity (Guiry 

2007; MBARI 2007). 

Kelp forests typically posses a canopy composed of two species, bull kelp (Nereocystis 

luetkeana), which is dominant in exposed regions, and giant kelp (Macrocystsis pyrifera) which 

is more prevalent in sheltered lower energy environments; an understory formed by several 

species, including walking kelp (Pterygophora californica), drilly kelp (Alaria marginata), 

laminariales (Laminaria saccharina and L. setchellii), and feather boa kelp (Egregia menziesii); 

a turf layer consisting of filamentous and thallose red algae; and a crustose layer made 

4-117 January 31, 2008



up of encrusting (Lithophyllum spp.) and articulated corallines (e.g., Calliarthron spp. and 

Bossiella spp.) algae (Airamé et al., 2003; DON 2006; Kozloff 1993; Proctor et al. 1980; 

Williams et al. 2003). 

Table 4-41. Distribution of kelp at the District’s permit areas 

Site Canopy-Forming Kelp Understory Kelp 

Admiralty Inlet X X 

Spieden Channel X X 


X 



Agate Passage 

X 

Sources: DON 2006; WSDNR 2007. 

Figure 4-15. Kelp distributions in the permit areas 

4-118 January 31, 2008




Within Admiralty Inlet, canopy-forming kelp are found along both shores of the northwest 

entrance, and patches of stand-alone understory kelp are spread throughout the remainder of the 

site along both shores as well as around Indian I sland (DON 2006; WSDNR 2007; City of Port 

Townsend 2007). 


Within Spieden Channel, canopy-forming kelp as well as uncomplexed understory kelp are found 

throughout the site along both shores (D ON 2006; 

WSDNR 2007). 


Within Guemes Channel, patchy understory kelp exists along both shores (DON 2006; 

WSDNR 2007). 

S an Juan Channel 

Within San Juan Channel, canopy-forming kelp and stand-alone understory kelp are found 

throughout the site along both shores (D ON 2006; 

WSDNR 2007). 


Within Deception Pass, canopy-forming kelp as well as uncomplexed understory kelp are found 

throughout the site along both shores (DON 2006; WSDNR 2007). 

Agate Pass 

Within Agate Pass, canopy-forming kelp are largely absent, but sparse patches of stand-alone 

understory kelp are found (DON 2006; WSD NR 2007). 

Rich Passage 

Within Rich Passage, canopy-forming kelp are larg ely absent, but sparse patches of stand-alone 

understory kelp are found (DON 2006; WSDNR 2007). 

4-119 January 31, 2008



4.5.6 Special-Status Wildlife Not Listed under the Endangered Species Act 

Based on WDFW PHS and Wildlife Heritage data, Washington GAP occurrence data, and 

information on species habitat requirements, it is expected that a total of 32 special-status wildlife 

species (state-listed species not li sted under t he ESA) potentially occur in the vicinity of the 

District’s permit areas (Table 4-42). Wildlife spec ies listed under the ESA are further described in 

Section 4.7. 

Table 4-42. Special-status wildife known to occur or potentially occurring in the project vicinities 

Common Name 

Scientific 

Name 

Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 


Common Loon Gavia immer none SS Spend breeding season on large secluded lakes, deep 

inlets and bays, and near a good supply of small fish. 

In winter, they are usually found on salt water, but 

occasionally on fresh water. WDFW records for 

Deception Pass. 

Western Grebe Aechmophorus 

occidentalis 

none SC In winter they are found mostly on saltwater bays. 

During breeding season they are found on freshwater 

wetlands with a mix of open water and emergent 

Brown Pelican 

Brandt's 

Cormorant 

Golden Eagle 

Bald Eagle 

Northern 

Goshawk 

Merlin 

Peregrine Falcon 

Pelecanus 

occidentalis 

Phalacrocorax 

penicillatus 

Aquila 

chrysaetos 

Haliaeetus 

leucocephalus 

vegetation. 

FE SE Nest on islands off the coasts of southern California 

and Mexico. After the breeding season, they move 

north along the coast, frequenting shallow marine 

areas such as bays, offshore islands, spits, 

breakwaters, and open sandy beaches. 

none SC Almost always found on salt or brackish water, they 

inhabit rocky shorelines and open ocean. Nesting 

colonies are typically on slopes and occasionally on 

steep cliffs. 

none SC During the nesting season, they require open areas 

with large, rocky cliffs or large trees, such as 

Ponderosa pines. They are often found in alpine 

parkland and mid-elevation clear-cuts, as well as in 

shrub-steppe areas and open forests. 

FCo ST They are generally found in coastal areas or near large 

inland lakes and rivers that have abundant fish and 

shores with large trees. WDFW records for all permit 

sites. 

Accipiter gentilis FCo SC They inhabit mature coniferous forests, often on 

moderate slopes, especially at mid- to high elevations. 

They are often found along the forest edge, and will 

use mixed coniferous and deciduous forests as well. 

Falco 

none SC Breed in places with trees for nests and open areas for 

columbarius 

Falco 

peregrinus 

FCo 

SS 

hunting. Found in small numbers near openings in 

coniferous forests in the Puget Sound area and 

Cascades. In winter, they are found in coastal areas, 

estuaries, agricultural lands, and suburban towns. 

They are typically found hunting in open areas, 

especially along the coast and near other bodies of 

water that provide habitat for their prey. They nest on 

cliffs and man-made cliff-like structures. WDFW 

records for Deception Pass, Guemes Channel, and 

4-120 January 31, 2008



Common Name 

Scientific 

Name 

Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 


Speiden Channel. 

American 

Peregrine Falcon 

Arctic Peregrine 

Falcon 

Peal's Peregrine 

Falcon 

Sandhill Crane 

Falco 

peregrinus 

anatum 

Falco 

peregrinus 

tundrius 

FCo SS This subspecies has similar habitat requirements as 

the Peregrine Falcon. Primarily inhabit inland North 

America. 

FCo SS This subspecies has similar habitat requirements as 

the Peregrine Falcon. Does not breed in Washington. 

Falco FCo SS They are found along the coast and in Puget Sound. 

peregrinus 

pealei 

This subspecies has similar habitat requirements as 

the Peregrine Falcon. 

Grus 

canadensis 

Common Murre Uria aalge none SC 

Marrbled 

Murrelet 

Cassin's Auklet 

Tufted Puffin 

Yellow-billed 

Cuckoo 

Brachyramphus 

marmoratus 

Ptychoramphus 

aleuticus 

Fratercula 

cirrhata 

Coccyzus 

americanus 

none SE In Washington, they nest in wetlands with emergent 

vegetation in areas that are surrounded by coniferous 

forests. During migration and in winter they live in 

more open prairie, agricultural fields, and river valleys. 

Most colonies in Washington are located on sea stacks 

and flat-topped islands. They are found closer to rocky 

shorelines during the breeding season, and farther 

offshore during the non-breeding season. 

FT ST Marbled Murrelets inhabit calm, shallow, coastal 

waters and bays, but breed inland, up to 70 km from 

shore, in mature, wet forest. 

FCo SC When breeding, they come inland and nest on islands. 

In the non-breeding season, they are found in the open 

ocean, at the outer edge of the continental shelf. 

FCo SC They can be found in many coastal habitats adjacent 

to the northern Pacific coast, with the exception of 

estuaries. They breed in colonies on islands with 

steep, grassy slopes or on cliff tops. Winter habitat is 

well offshore, in mid-ocean. 

FC SC Only rarely seen in summer in western Washington. 

Generaly live in western North America along forested 

stream-sides. 

Vaux's Swift Chaetura vauxi none SC They usually roost and nest arround either coniferous 

or mixed forest, in natural cavities such as hollow 

trees. Foraging habitat is open sky over woodlands, 

lakes, and rivers, where flying insects are abundant. 

Purple Martin Progne subis none SC In Washington State, open land near water is their 

primary nesting and foraging habitat. They can be 

found in developed areas, along waterfronts, and in 

fields, wetlands, and clearings. WDFW records for 

Admiralty Inlet, Agate passage, Deception Pass, and 

Rich Passage. 

Oregon Vesper 

Sparrow 

Streaked Horned 

Lark 

Pooecetes 

gramineus 

affinis 

Eremophila 

alpestris strigata 

FCo SC They are commonly found in dry grasslands and 

agricultural fields at low to moderate elevations. They 

nest on the ground in a small depression, often near 

the base of a grass clump, weed, or shrub. 

FC SE They inhabit open ground with short grass or scattered 

bushes. It is primarily found on prairies, sandbars, and 

grassy ocean dunes in western Washington. Nest 

sites are usually on open ground next to a clump of 

grass or similar feature. 

Sea Otter Enhydra lutris FCo SE Live in coastal waters usually within 2 km of shore, 

especially shallows with kelp beds and abundant 

shellfish. 

4-121 January 31, 2008



Common Name 

Gray Whale 

Sei Whale 

Scientific 

Name 

Eschrichtius 

robustus 

Balaenoptera 

borealis 

Federal 

Status 

State 

Status 


none SS Eastern north Pacific stock migrates from Alaska to 

Mexico. Uses marine near shore pelagic, and 

estuarine bay/sound, lagoon habitats. Lives mainly in 

coastal and shallow shelf waters. Young are born in 

lagoons and bays in southern range. 

FE SE Generally found in deep water, along edge of 

continental shelf and in open ocean. Migrates 

between lower-latitude wintering grounds and higherlatitude 

feeding grounds. 

Fin Whale Balaenoptera FE SE Pelagic, usually found in largest numbers 40 km or 

physalus 

more from shore. Migrates seasonally to colder highlatitude 

waters for summer feeding, to warmer lowerlatitude 

waters for winter breeding. Young are born in 

the warmer waters of the lower latitudes. 

Blue Whale Balaenoptera 

musculus 

FE SE Mainly pelagic, generally prefers cold waters and open 

seas, but young are born in warmer waters of lower 

latitudes. 

Humpback 

Whale 

Megaptera 

novaeangliae 

Orca (Killer Orcinus orca FE SE Mainl 

Whale) 

FE SE Pelagic and coastal waters, sometimes frequenting 

inshore areas such as bays. Winters largely in 

tropical/subtropical waters near islands or coasts, 

summers in temperate and subpolar waters. 

y in coastal waters, but may occur anywhere in 

all oceans and major seas at any time of year. 

Pacific Harbor 

Porpoise 

Sperm Whale 

Steller Sea Lion 

Phocoena 

phocoena 

Physeter 

macrocephalus 

Eumetopias 

jubatus 

none SC Coastal waters and adjacent offshore shallows, also 

inhabits inshore areas such as bays, channels, and 

rivers. Mothers and young tend to move into sheltered 

coves and similar sites soon after parturition. 

FE SE Pelagic, prefers deep water, sometimes around islands 

or in shallow shelf waters. Seasonal north-south 

migration, from higher latitudes in summer to lower in 

winter. 

FT ST Marine habitats include coastal waters near shore and 

over the continental slope, sometimes rivers are 

ascended in pursuit of prey. Terrestrial habitats consist 

of a variety of shoreline types. 

4.6 Wetlands, Riparian, and Littoral Habitat 

Wetland, riparian, and littoral habitat occurring within 0.4 km (0.25miles) of the permit sites are 

described below based on USFWS National Wetland Inventory (NWI) mapping, which provides 

information on wetland habitats (including riparian and littoral areas) using remote sensing and 

aerial photo interpretation techniques. Mapping of wetland, riparian, and littoral habitats is 

provided in Appendix E. Wildlife species lists for the project vicinity, including wetland habitats, 

are provided in Section 4-5. 

4-122 January 31, 2008



4.6.1 Admiralty Inlet 

Within Admiralty Inlet, a total of 29,300 hectares (293 km 2 ) of wetland habitat are currently 

identified. Of this total area, 6,430 hectares (64.3 km 2 ) are marine systems, while estuarine 

systems, which dominate the overall wetland type, represent 22,800 hectares (228 km 2 ). 

Lacustrine and palustrine habitats, 29.5 hectares and 83.0 hectares respectively, account for less 

than 1 percent of the total area (see Table 4-43). 

4.6.2 Spieden Channel 

Within Spieden Channel, 1,680 hectares of wetland habitat are currently identified by NWI maps. 

Of this total area, 1,670 hectares are marine systems, while estuarine and lacustrine wetlands are 

entirely absent. Palustrine habitat accounts for 1.6 hectares and represents less than 1 percent of 

the total area (see Table 4-43). 

4.6.3 San Juan Channel 

Within San Juan Channel, 813 hectares of wetland habitat are currently identified by NWI. Of this 

total area, 812 hectares are marine systems, while estuarine and lacustrine wetlands are again 

entirely absent. Freshwater palustrine habitat accounts for less than 0.4 hectares and represents 

less than 1 percent of the total area (see Table 4-43). 

4.6.4 Guemes Channel 

Within Guemes Chann el, a total of 1, 670 hectares of wetland habitat are currently identified. Of 

this total area, 1,270 hectar es are marine system s, while estuarine systems comprise 363 hectares. 

Lacustrine wetlands are not prese nt, and palustrine habitat accounts fo r 39.3 hectares, 

approximately 2.3 percent of the total area (see Table 4-43). 

4-123 January 31, 2008



4.6.5 Deception Pass 

Within Deception Pass, 875 h ectares of wetland habi tat are currently identified by NWI. Of this 

total area, 127 hectares are marine systems, while estuarine systems, which dominate the overall 

wetland type, represent 747 hectares. Palustrine habitat is not pr esent, and freshwater lacus trine 

habitat accounts for 0.8 hectares, less than 1 percent of the total area (see Table 4-43). 

4.6.6 Agate Passage 

Within Agate Passage, a total of 290 hectares of wetland habitat are currently identified by NWI. 

This entire area is comprised solely of estuarine systems, as marine, lacustrine and palustrine 

habitats are completely absent (see Table 4-43). 

4.6.7 Rich Passage 

Within Rich Passage, a total of 1,030 hectares of wetland habitat are currently identified. Of this 

total area, more than 99 percent is estuarine in nature. Marine and lacustrine wetlands are entirely 

absent, and freshwater palustrine habitat accounts for just 4.0 hectares, representing less than 1 

percent of the total area (see Table 4-43). 

Table 4-43. NWI-identified wetlands identified within 0.4 km (0.25 miles) of the permit site 

Wetland Type 

Hectares of Wetland by Project Area (buffered by 0.4 km or 0.25 miles) 

Admiralty Inlet Agate Passage Deception Pass Guemes Channel 

% of 

% of 

% of 

% of 

Hectares Area Hectares Area Hectares Area Hectares Area 

Estuarine 22757.5 77.67 290.0 100.00 746.5 85.35 363.0 21.78 

Lacustrine 29.5 0.10 0 0 1.0 0.11 0 0 

Marine 6430.5 21.95 0 0 127.0 14.54 1265.0 75.87 

Palustrine 83.0 0.28 0 0 0 0 39.5 2.35 

Aquatic Bed 2.5 0.01 0 0 0 0 5.5 0.35 

Emergent 52.0 0.18 0 0 0 0 24.0 1.43 

Forrested 2.0 0.01 0 0 0 0 8.5 0.52 

Open Water 15.0 0.05 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Scrub Shrub 11.5 0.04 0 0 0 0 1.0 0.05 

Total 29300.5 100.00 290.0 100.00 874.5 100.00 1667.5 100.00 

4-124 January 31, 2008



Wetland Type 

Hectares of Wetland by Project Area (buffered by 0.4 km or 0.25 miles) 

Rich Passage San Juan Channel Spieden Channel 

Hectares % of Area Hectares % of Area Hectares % of Area 

Estuarine 1027.0 99.60 0 0 0 0 

Lacustrine 0 

0 0 0 0 0 

Marine 0 0 812.0 99.98 1674.5 99.91 

Palustrine 4.0 0.40



Table 4-44. ESA-listed and candidate species potentially occurring within and around the District’s 

permit areas 

Fish 

Common Name 


Federal 

Status 

Relevant Recovery Plans and 

Status Reports 

Chinook Salmon (Puget Sound) Oncorhynchus tshawytscha CH T Good et al. 2005; NOAA 2005b 

Steelhead (Puget Sound) Oncorhynchus mykiss T Good et al. 2005; NOAA 2005b 

Bull Trout (Coastal/Puget Sound) Salvelinus confluentus CH T Good et al. 2005; NOAA 2005b 

Chum Salmon (Summer-run) Oncorhynchus keta CH T NOAA 2007c,d; 2005b 

Birds 

Snowy Plover Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus CH T USFWS 2006c; 2001 

Brown Pelican Pelecanus occidentalis E USFWS 2006b 

Marbled Murrelet Brachyramphus marmoratus CH T USFWS 2006a; 2003; 1997 

Marine Mammals 

Sei Whale Balaenoptera borealis E NMFS 2003a 

Fin Whale Balaenoptera physalus E NMFS 2006a; 2003b 

Blue Whale Balaenoptera musculus E NMFS 2004; 2000; 1998 

Humpback Whale Megaptera novaeangliae E NMFS 2005e;1991 

Orca (Killer Whale) Orcinus orca CH E Krahn et al. 2004; NMFS 2006c 

Sperm Whale Physeter macrocephalus E NMFS 2006b; 2003c 

Steller Sea Lion Eumetopias jubatus T 

Reptiles 

Angliss and Outlaw 2006; NMFS 

2007; 1992 

Leatherback Sea Turtle Dermochelys coriacea CH E NMFS and USFWS 1998c 

Green Sea Turtle Chelonia mydas T NMFS and USFWS 1998a 

Loggerhead Sea Turtle Caretta caretta T NMFS and USFWS 1998b 

Plants 

Golden paintbrush Castilleja levisecta T USFWS 2000 

Status definitions: CH - critical habitat has been designated; E – endangered; T - threatened 

4.7.1 Fish 

The following summary addresses rare, threatened or endangered fish species expected to occur 

within or near the project area. 

4.7.1.1 Chinook Salmon Puget Sound ESU 

Chinook salmon within Puget Sound are a threatened species and represent an evolutionarily 

significant unit (ESU) – that is, a population, or group of populations, within a species that 

4-126 January 31, 2008



are reproductively isolated. The Puget Sound ESU currently has 22 extant populations (see 

Table 4-45) (Good et al. 2006). Chinook salmon are an anadromous species—reproducing in 

freshwater streams and then migrating to rear in marine waters. Chinook migrations are separated 

into runs and divided by season (i.e., spring, summer, fall and winter). The Puget Sound ESU has 

spring, summer and fall runs. Table 4-46 describes the presence of Puget Sound Chinook salmon 

in each of the project areas. 

Chinook spend most of their life growing in productive marine waters. Although some juvenile 

Chinook use littoral habitats while developing, adults are primarily found in pelagic waters. 

Chinook generally migrate north upon entering the ocean, but detailed biotelemetric studies 

indicate that salmon do not display a set migration route; alternatively, they follow nektonic and 

planktonic food sources, the distributions of which are influen ced by tidal currents, upwelling 

events and ocean temperature (DON 2006; Hinke et al. 2005). Chinook will remain in the ocean 

for up to five years and can be found in marine waters year around. 

Assessing salmon presence and repetitive habitat use is challenging an d not always reliable, as 

pr eviously discussed in the general assessm ent of salmonids ( not ESA-listed) in Section 4.4.2. 

However, information provided by anglers can offer an alternative and important resource for 

determining species presence and potential repetitive habitat use. One popular website 

(www.salmonuniversity.com - Keizer and Nelson 2007) logs reliable fishing locations for Chinook 

salmon. Several angling sites were identified near project areas including: ‘ Salmon Bank’ near the San 

Juan Channel, ‘Mid-Channel Bank’ near Admiralty I nlet, and ‘Manchester’ near Rich Passage. Each 

site represents a nearshore foraging area that consistently produces adult Chinook salmon catch. 

As a whole, Puget Sound offers important and unique habi tat to Chinook salmon. The Sound is a 

sheltered fjord providing ample nearshore r efuge (FWS 2005). A review conducted by the 

National Marine Fisheries Service determined that, “…waters adjacent to the shoreline and 

extending out to the m aximum depth of the photic zone (i.e., from the line of extreme high tide out 

to a depth no greater than 30 m relative to the mean lower low water),” represented critical marine 

habitat (FWS 2005). This designation applied to 3,510 km of shoreline and adjacent nearshore 

marine habitat (NOAA 2005a). In addition, due to the opportunistic feeding nature of salmon and 

the dispersion of their prey, a number of deepwater and pelagic areas were also protected as 

important habitats (FWS 2005; NOAA 2005a). 

4-127 January 31, 2008



The Puget Sound Chinook ESU is currently in overall decline and is likely to become endangered 

(Good et al. 2005). The primary issues contributing to the decline of its populations are the blockage 

or degradation of habitats necessary for the freshwater stages of their lifecycles. Blocked or 

degraded habitat is cited as the result of dredging, flow alteration, dams and diversions (Good et al. 

2005) . 

Table 4-45. Run timing of current populations of Puget Sound Chinook salmon and their associated 

regions. Table adapted from Good et al. 2006. 

Population 1 

Geometric mean of natural 

spawners 

Run-timing 3 Bio-geographic Region 

(1998-2002) 2 

North Fork Nooksack 1,538 Early Strait of Georgia 

South Fork Nooksack 338 Early Strait of Georgia 

Lower Skagit 2,527 Late Whidbey Basin 

Upper Skagit 9,489 Late Whidbey Basin 

Lower Sauk 601 Late Whidbey Basin 

Upper Sauk 324 Early Whidbey Basin 

Suiattle 365 Early Whidbey Basin 

Upper Cascade 274 Early Whidbey Basin 

North Fork Stillaguamish 1,154 Late Whidbey Basin 

South Fork Stillaguamish 270 Late Whidbey Basin 

Stillaguamish early n/a Early Whidbey Basin 

Skykomish 4,262 Late Whidbey Basin 

Snoqualamie 2,067 Late Whidbey Basin 

Cedar 327 Late Main/South Basins 

North Lake Washington 331 Late Main/South Basins 

Green/Duwamish 8,884 Late Main/South Basins 

Puyallup 1,653 Late Main/South Basins 

White 844 Early Main/South Basins 

Nisqually 1,195 Late Main/South Basins 

Skokomish 1,392 Late Hood Canal 

Dosewallips 48 Late Hood Canal 

Dungeness 222 Late Strait of Juan de Fuca 

Elwha 688 Late Strait of Juan de Fuca 

1 

Puget Sound Technical Recovery Team (2001). 

2 

Good et al. 2005 

3 

Puget Sound Technical Recovery Team (2001, 2002). 

4-128 January 31, 2008



Table 4-46. Site-specific description of the presence of the Puget Sound Chinook salmon by project 

area 

Puget Sound Chinook Salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) - Status: Threatened 

Site 


Species Present: 

Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 

Agate Passage 


Yes 

Rich Passage 


Yes 

Description 

The project area provides a sizeable amount of littoral and pelagic habitat that is used 

by both juvenile and adult salmonids (Good et al. 2005). Critical habitat exists within 

the project area and consists primarily of littoral habitat (NMFS 2005a). The Mid- 

Channel Bank near the project area is a common salmon fishing location and 

represents a confirmation of the presence of salmonids within the project area (Keizer 

and Nelson 2007). Critical stream habitat was not identified within the project area, 

but proximal streams (Elwha River) do occur less than 15 km away. 

The project area provides critical littoral habitat (NMFS 2005a). There were not any 

identified critical freshwater stream habitat areas within or proximal to the project area. 

Furthermore, there were no local angling sites near the project area (Keizer and Nelson 

2007). Habitat within the project area is likely used by larger juveniles and adults for 

foraging. 

Critical habitat exists along the shorelines and mid-water of the project area (NMFS 

2005a). Critical freshwater stream habitat was not identified within or near the project 

area. Salmon Bank, a notable nearby salmon fishing area (Keizer and Nelson 2007) 

located southwest of the project area highlights the presence of adult Chinook. Habitat 

use within the project area is likely by larger juveniles and adults. 

The entire project area lies within designated critical habitat (NMFS 2005a). The 

project area is also less than eight kilometers from critical freshwater habitat and is 

within a short distance to the Skagit River, which provides extensive freshwater habitat 

to Chinook (NMFS 2005a). Angling activity was not identified within the area (Keizer 

and Nelson 2007). Based upon location, it is likely that young juveniles and adults 

rear and forage within the project area. 

The entire project area lies within designated critical habitat and represents a migratory 

corridor for species residing in the Skagit River Basin (NMFS 2005a). Species leaving 

Skagit Bay can either move southward through Saratoga Passage or westward through 

Deception Pass. This makes the project area important to the migratory pathway of 

Chinook. Surrounding the project area is abundant enclosed habitat that provides a 

calm water refuge for rearing smolts (Good et al. 2005). It is likely that young and 

adult Chinook are frequently present in the project area based upon available habitat. 

The entire project area lies within designated critical habitat (NMFS 2005a). The site 

is also surrounded by numerous critical freshwater streams. Spawned offspring 

migrating to the main Puget Sound Channel will have to pass through either Rich or 

Agate Passage—making the project area an important migratory corridor. 

The entire project area lies within designated critical habitat (NMFS 2005a). The site 

is also s urrounded by numerous critical freshwater streams. Spawned offspring 

migrating to the main Puget Sound Channel will have to pass through either Rich or 

Agate Passage--making the project area an important migratory corridor. South of the 

project area is a nearby angling location, Manchester, which has been noted for its use 

by adult Chinook (Keizer and Nelson 2007). 

4-129 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-16. Freshwater stream and marine critical habitat area for the Puget Sound ESU of 

Chinook salmon. Source: NMFS 2005a 

4.7.1.2 Chum Salmon 

Puget Sound supports two chum salmon ESUs, including the Hood Canal summer-run and the 

Puget Sound and Strait of Georgia chum salmon population. Only the Hood Canal run is federally 

protected and considered to be in critical condition. The chum salmon is different from many 

other salmon in that it is obligatorily an anadromous species—meaning there are no landlocked 

4-130 January 31, 2008



freshwater variations (Johnson et al. 1997). Chum salmon spawn in coastal streams and quickly 

emerge to spend most of their development in estuarine and ocean waters. This close association 

with the marine environment makes the chum salmon less dependant upon freshwater streams and 

more susceptible to changes in the ocean. 

Although Hood Canal summer-run populations can be found in the Discovery and Sequim bays of 

the Strait of Juan de Fuca, only half of the ESU’s historical 16 populations remains, with many of 

these being enhanced by injections of hatchery fish (Fresh 2006; Good et al. 2005; WDFW 2003; 

WDFW and PNPTT 2000 2001). Table 4-47 below presents a list of extant Hood River chum 

populations by river basin. A 4-year geometric mean abundance of summer-run salmon in 

population bearing streams adjacent Hood Canal was calculated for 1999 through 2002 and ranged 

from 10 to slightly more than 4,500 spawners (median = 576, mean = 1,064; Good et al. 2005). 

The summer run spawns from mid-September through mid-October. 

Table 4-47. List of extant Hood River chum salmon stock in and around the Puget Sound by river 

basin. Table adapted from Good et al. 2006. 

Stock 

Union River 

Lilliwaup Creek 

Hamma Hamma River 

Duckabush River 

Dosewallips River 

Big/Little Quilcene rivers 

Snow/Salmon creeks 

Jimmycomelately Creek 

Dungeness River 

Status 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Extant 

Unknown 

The range of the summer-run ESU is limited and relatively well defined. Sequim Bay, Discovery 

Bay, and nearshore areas along Admiralty Inlet and Hood Canal all represent designated critical 

habitat for these salmonids. Amounting to 607 km of coastal environment, this critical habitat is 

primarily located along marine shorelines, which is consistent with chum salmon’s obligatory and 

predominant use of oceanic and estuarine waters (NOAA 2005a). Table 4-48 describes the 

presence of Hood Canal chum salmon in each of the project areas. 

4-131 January 31, 2008



The Hood Canal summer-run chum salmon is classified as likely to become endangered. 

Comprising populations are in decline due to several factors, including competition with hatchery 

and fall run chum salmon, high incidental harvest, low coastal stream flows, and elevated water 

temperatures (Good et al. 2005; Fresh 2006). Another growing concern is pinniped predation 

which can account for up to 29 percent of spawning run mortality (Good et al. 2005). 

Table 4-48. Site-specific description of the presence of the Hood Canal chum salmon by project 

area. 

Hood Canal Chum Salmon (Oncorhynchus keta) - Status: Threatened 

Site 



Yes 

Description 

The project area contains critical habitat that is an extension of that from Hood 

Canal (NMFS 2005b). The Inlet constitutes an important marine habitat that is 

frequently used by both juveniles and adults (Good et al. 2005). Since spawning 

occurs within Hood Canal (Good et al. 2005), the Inlet provides a migratory 

pathway for all species migrating into the eastern portions of Puget Sound. 

All remaining sites 


Yes, low potential 

These project areas do not represent critical habitat and are not primary areas for 

feeding or rearing (NMFS 2005b). Populations are concentrated in and around 

the Hood Canal and the eastern portions of the Strait of Juan de Fuca (Good et 

al. 2005). Chum salmon can move into other marine areas such as the San Juan 

Islands or the northern basins of greater Puget Sound; however, use of these 

areas is minimal and primarily for foraging (Good et al. 2005). It is anticipated 

that a small number of chum may be present intermittently in these project areas. 

4-132 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-17. 

Freshwater and marine critical habitat for the Hood Canal chum salmon 

Source: NMFS 2005b 

4.7.1.3 Bull Trout 

Puget Sound and the coastal waters off of the Olympic Peninsula contain a diverse group of bull 

trout populations identified as the Coastal-Puget Sound bull trout distinct population segment 

(DPS). This DPS includes all bull trout populations within the Pacific coast drainages of 

Washington as well as within Puget Sound. The Columbia River and the Cascade Mountains form 

4-133 January 31, 2008



the southern and eastern boundaries that separate this group from other bull trout population 

segments. 

The bull trout can assume any one of several life history strategies that include: spawning in 

streams and rearing in lakes (adfluvial), spawning in small tributaries and rearing in mainstem 

streams (fluvial), spawning and remaining in small headwater streams (resident), and spawning in 

freshwater and maturing in saltwater (anadromous) (WDFW 2000b). The Coastal-Puget Sound 

DPS is the only known DPS in the coterminous United States to contain all life history forms— 

including anadromy. This unique diversity of life history strategies makes the Coastal-Puget 

Sound DPS increasingly important for the maintenance of genetic diversity and range within the 

species (FWS 2004). 

Bull trout have specific habitat requirements (Rieman and McIntyre 1993) that dictate their 

distribution and abundance. Integral habitat parameters include water temperature, cover, channel 

form and stability, valley form, spawning and rearing substrates, and migratory corridors. These 

requirements, which are relatively numerous and specific compared to other salmonids, increase 

the susceptibility of the species to decline as a result of habitat loss and degradation. Table 4-49 

describes the presence of Coastal-Puget Sound bull trout in each of the project areas. 

Bull trout populations in Puget Sound are currently in decline as a result of both historical and 

current land use activities. These activities include: the construction of dams and diversions, forest 

management, fisheries management, agriculture, road construction and maintenance, and urban 

development (FWS 2004). The Coastal-Puget Sound DPS bull trout was listed as a threatened 

species on November 1, 1999 (FWS 1999). 

4-134 January 31, 2008



Table 4-49. Site-specific description of the presence of the coastal Puget Sound bull trout 

Site 



Yes 



Uncertain 



Uncertain 



Yes 



Yes 

Agate Passage 


Uncertain 

Rich Passage 


Uncertain 

Bull trout (Salvelinus confluentus) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

Freshwater stream habitat does not occur within the project area but is 

proximally located to the west along the Strait of Juan de Fuca (USFWS 2004). 

The project area's large size and favorable nearshore habitat (Rieman and 

McIntyre 1993) likely provides rearing and foraging areas for juvenile and adult 

bull trout. 

Species were not identified within the project area. However, adults are known 

to forage in pelagic waters and to follow available nekton (Rieman and McIntyre 

1993). There is, consequently, the potential for larger juveniles and adults to 

forage near or within the project area, but documented confirmation of such 

activity was not found. 

Species were not identified within the project area. However, adults are known 

to forage in pelagic waters and follow available nekton (Rieman and McIntyre 

1993). Consequently, there is a potential for larger juveniles and adults to forage 

near or within the project area, but documented confirmation of such activity 

was not found. 

Documented habitat use exists for the eastern outer perimeter of the project area, 

and the persistent presence of juveniles and adults is likely (USFWS 2004). The 

Channel is likely used by trout for both rearing and foraging. Padilla Bay is 

located to the east of the project area and there is northerly access to Bellingham 

Bay without passing through Guemes Channel. The Channel does provide 

westerly migratory access to Rosario Strait. 

There are numerous areas within and around the Pass that are used by bull trout 

(USFWS 2004). In addition, the project area serves as a migratory corridor to 

Rosario Strait for trout populations from the Skagit River. The project area is of 

notable importance due to its relatively small size and its documented high usage 

by bull trout (USFWS 2004). 

Freshwater spawning habitat does not occur within the stream systems 

surrounding Port Orchard, but does occur east of the project area within Lake 

Washington (USFWS 2004). It is likely that larger juveniles and adults may be 

found within the project area foraging, but the Passage does not serve as a 

primary migratory corridor. 

Freshwater spawning habitat does not occur within stream systems surrounding 

Port Orchard, but does occur northeast of the project area within Lake 

Washington (USFWS 2004). It is likely that larger juveniles and adults may be 

found within the project area foraging, but the Passage does not serve as a 

primary migratory corridor. 

4-135 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-18. 

Freshwater and marine habitat for the Coastal Puget Sound bull trout 

(Source: USFWS 2004) 

4.7.1.4 Puget Sound Steelhead 

The Puget Sound steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) DPS exhibits a diverse and unique life history. 

Steelhead are an anadromous variation of the rainbow trout, and rear in freshwater for one to three 

years before migrating to marine waters to further develop. In the Pacific Northwest, steelhead 

spend two years in freshwater and two years in oceanic water—sexually maturing at four years of 

4-136 January 31, 2008



age (Busby et al. 1996). Adults have excellent homing abilities during their return to natal 

streams, and unlike many other salmonids, steelhead are iteroperous—potentially spawning 

multiple times. Researchers have found that repeat spawning events are not common, generally 

not occurring more than twice, and are notably rare north of Oregon (Busby et al. 1996). 

Within the Puget Sound DPS, steelhead exhibit two unique life history types that differ in the 

timing of sexual development and return migration to natal streams. These life-history types are 

classified as summer- and winter-run. Summer-run steelhead—also called stream-maturing—enter 

freshwater between May to October at an early stage of maturation. They migrate through the 

stream during lower flows to access the headwaters where they continue to mature till spring 

before spawning. Winter-run, or ocean-maturing, steelhead enter freshwater between December to 

April at an advanced stage of maturation. They migrate through the stream at higher flows and 

spawn from mid-April to May. Although winter- and summer-run spawning may temporally 

overlap, the two runs are generally separated spatially during this period, with summer-run 

steelhead spawning higher up in the streams (Behnke 1992). 

During the marine phase of steelhead maturation, they can be found throughout Puget Sound. And 

although they migrate to the open Pacific Ocean, steelhead may spend considerable time in the 

calm fjord-like protection of Puget Sound. The Sound offers excellent shelter as well as highly 

productive areas that support the foraging activity and rapid growth of juveniles. The ocean phase 

of steelhead maturation is poorly understood. Steelhead can be found throughout the water column 

from the surface to depths of 200 m (DON 2006). Water temperature preferences vary by lifecycle 

stage, but 10°C is generally optimal with 24°C representing the upper threshold (DON 2006). 

Evidence from past tagging and genetic research has indicated that Puget Sound steelhead 

eventually travel to the central North Pacific Ocean (French et al. 1975, Hartt and Dell 1986, 

Burgner et al. 1992). 

There are 15 unique populations identified for West Coast steelhead. As of 2006, 10 of the 15 

populations were designated with threatened or endangered status (DON 2006). As a result of 

downward trends in recent stock abundance, the Puget Sound DPS was listed as threatened on May 

11, 2007. Although the Skagit and Snohomish river populations, the two largest stocks of the 

4-137 January 31, 2008



ESU, have been increasing, the Hood Canal area populations, the Lake Washington winter 

steelhead, and the Deer Creek (i.e. North Fork of the Stillaguamish River) summer steelhead have 

received notable attention due to steep declines (NOAA 1996a). 

Table 4-50. Site-specific description of the presence of the Puget Sound steelhead by project area. 

Puget Sound Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) - Status: Threatened 

Site 



Yes 

Description 

The Admiralty Inlet project area overlaps with freshwater winter steelhead habitat near 

Port Townsend. There are also additional streams extending from the shoreline up to 

Dungeness Spit. South of Admiralty Inlet are several small streams that also provide 

habitat for winter steelhead. Summer steelhead habitat lies approximately 25 to 30 km 

south of the site in Hood Canal. The proximity of habitat increases the potential for 

migrating freshwater juveniles to pass through and forage within the project area. There 

is also a limited possibility that the more distantly located summer steelhead may also 

forage within the project area. *Species distribution description above based upon 

Streamnet (2005). 



Yes 

Spieden Channel is located on the northwest end of the San Juan Island archipelago and 

is over 48 km from identified freshwater steelhead habitat (Streamnet 2005); however, 

the area does lie within the designated DPS boundary (Good et al. 2005) and is likely 

used as marine foraging habitat for large juveniles and adults. Steelhead were also 

identified as present within the San Juan Islands by the Shared Strategy for Puget Sound 

restoration group. 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 

Agate Passage 

San Juan Channel is located between San Juan Island and Lopez Island and is over 30 

km from freshwater steelhead habitat; however, the area does lie within the designated 

DPS boundary (Good et al. 2005) and is likely used as marine foraging habitat for large 

juveniles and adults. Steelhead were also identified as present within the San Juan 

Islands by the Shared Strategy for Puget Sound restoration group. 

Guemes Channel is approximately 16 km from the Samish River, which supports a 

winter-run population of steelhead (Streamnet 2005). While not a primary migratory 

pathway for steelhead, it is likely that juveniles and adults may forage within the 

channel. Furthermore, the nearshore habitat between Guemes Island and Fidalgo Island 

may provide habitat for smaller juveniles. 

Deception Pass is a narrow corridor that provides a migratory pathway for both summer 

and winter-run steelhead from the Skagit River to the ocean (DON 2006). The sheltered 

waters leading to the narrow pass provide calm habitat for juveniles to rear. Juvenile and 

adult individuals may be present year around taking advantage of the extensive nearshore 

habitat (Streamnet 2005). 

Agate Passage possesses nearshore habitat that is adjacent to several small freshwater 

4-138 January 31, 2008




Yes 

Rich Passage 


Yes 

Puget Sound Steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss) - Status: Threatened 

streams supporting winter-run steelhead (Streamnet 2005). Summer-run habitat in the 

Duwamish River south of the Lake Washington is also proximal to the site. Agate 

Passage is part of the Kitsap Peninsula, which constitutes over 580 km of saltwater 

shoreline used by rearing juvenile steelhead and other salmonids (SSPS 2007). Sampling 

conducted by King County found that few steelhead occupied the surrounding area, with 

catch accounting for less than 2.5 percent, by composition, of the total salmonid presence 

(Brenman et al. 2004). 

Like nearby Agate Passage, Rich Passage possesses nearshore habitat that is adjacent to 

several small freshwater streams supporting winter-run steelhead (Streamnet 2005). The 

passage is also proximally located to summer-run habitat in the Duwamish River. 

Additionally, Rich Passage is part of the Kitsap Peninsula, which provides saltwater 

shoreline habitat used by rearing juvenile steelhead (SSPS 2007). Sampling conducted 

by King County found that few steelhead occupied the surrounding area, with catch 

accounting for less than 2.5 percent, by composition, of the total salmonid presence 

(Brenman et al. 2004). 

4-139 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-19. 

Freshwater and marine habitat (not critical habitat) for the Puget Sound steelhead. 

Source: Streamnet 2005 

4-140 January 31, 2008



4.7.2 Birds 

4.7.2.1 Western Snowy Plover 

The western snowy plover is a small seabird that resides along the west coast of North America. 

The plover primarily resides in beach habitat and dunes (Contreras 1998). Adults move along 

wave breaks of sandy beaches, where they forage for small insects, crustaceans, and fish. Unlike 

other seabirds, snowy plovers remain along the coastline and do not make extensive seaward 

flights. Nesting generally occurs from March through September in small divots on sandy beaches 

(USFWS 2001). 

Figure 4-20. 

Breeding and year-round distribution of the snowy plover along the Washington 

coast (Source: BirdWeb 2007) 

Although the snowy plover is found along the southern Washington coast, it is primarily 

concentrated in Oregon, with populations slowly tapering northward. The snowy plover is not 

expected to overlap the project area. Table 4-51 describes the presence of the snowy plover in 

each of the project areas. 

4-141 January 31, 2008



Table 4-51. Site-specific description of the presence of the snowy plover by project area 

Site 

All Sites 


Unlikely 

Snowy Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus nivosus) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

The range of the snowy plover extends to approximately Cape Flattery and does 

not overlap with the site footprint or surrounding terrestrial area (Birdweb 2007, 

USFWS 2001). Individuals are not expected to be present, and there is no 

overlap of critical habitat. 

4.7.2.2 Marbled Murrelet 

The marbled murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) is a small seabird of the Alcidae family 

which inhabits the eastern Pacific coastline from Alaska to southern California (USFWS 2006a). 

Spending much of its life at sea, the marbled murrelet is generally found in association with calm, 

shallow coastal waters and bays typically less than 1-1.6 km from shore (Seattle Audubon Society 

2007). It is most often observed alone or in pairs, and appears to be solitary to moderately social 

with interactions among larger groups primarily occurring en route to nesting or foraging activities 

(Seattle Audubon Society 2007; USFWS 1997). 

Early in the spring, as the marbled murrelets’ winter plumage of gray, black and white begins to 

give way to the cryptic brown plumage of the breeding season, long term pair bonds are initiated 

between mates (Seattle Audubon Society 2007). These bonds form the foundation of a nesting 

strategy that is unique among the alcids, for although marbled murrelets forage at sea, they nest, 

from late March to late September, in coniferous old-growth forests or stands that may be as many 

as 70-80 km inland (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; USFWS 1997, 2006a). Mates take 24-hour 

shifts incubating the sole egg laid by the female sometime between April and July, and as one 

remains in the nest, the other flies out to sea and forages for food (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; 

USFWS 1997). This pattern is maintained for four weeks until the hatchling emerges, and for 

another four weeks afterwards until the semi-precocious chick itself departs for the sea in the 

middle of the night in search of food (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; USFWS 1997). Following 

this departure and with the onset of fall, the adult murrelets return to the sea full time, where they 

undergo a flightless molt of their breeding plumage, again vesting their characteristic fall and 

winter colors (USFWS 1997). 

4-142 January 31, 2008



Like all alcids, marbled murrelets forage for prey by diving and swimming underwater, propelling 

themselves with their wings (Seattle Audubon Society 2007). They generally forage in nearshore 

waters shallower than 30 m but are capable of diving to depths of up to 50 m (Seattle Audubon 

Society 2007; WSDNR 2006; USFWS 1997). During summer, when nourishment of nestlings and 

frequent long flights inland are required, fish form a significant part of their diet, with typical prey 

including Pacific sand lance (Ammodytes hexapterus), Pacific herring (Clupea harengus), northern 

anchovy (Engraulis mordax), smelts (Osmeridae), and sea perch (Cymatogaster aggregata) 

(USFWS 1997). While adult and sub-adult marbled murrelets primarily feed on the larval and 

juvenile stages of prey fish, chicks are normally fed larger second-year fish (Seattle Audubon 

Society 2007; USFWS 1997). During winter and spring, outside of the nestling and fledgling 

periods, fish are less important and invertebrates such as euphausiids, mysids, and gammarid 

amphipods may represent a considerable fraction of their total diet (USFWS 1997). As such, 

marbled murrelets are considered opportunistic feeders, requiring primarily that their prey fall 

within certain size classes (USFWS 1997). Although some uncertainty remains regarding the 

actual composition of the marbled murrelet’s diet in the Pacific Northwest, it appears that the most 

common food source for both adults and chicks across their entire range is the Pacific sand lance 

(USFWS 1997; Speich and Wahl 1995). 

Once thought to be abundant in the Pacific Northwest, marbled murrelets are now only considered 

common during certain times of the year (USFWS 1997). Increased mortality due to by-catch 

complications and oil spills, and the loss of nesting habitat through the logging of old-growth 

forests and coastal development have led to a perceived decline in the population of marbled 

murrelets in Washington and to the consequent listing of the species as threatened by both federal 

and state authorities (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; USFWS 1997). Hampered by their nongregarious 

nature, the relative isolation of their nests, and their generally low density, 

approximations of the number of marbled murrelets in Washington are problematic (Piatt et al. 

2007). However, statewide estimates currently range from a breeding population of approximately 

5,000 to almost 9,800, while within Puget Sound, population estimates range from 1,490 to 2,580 

(Seattle Audubon Society 2007; SEI 1996; Speich and Wahl 1995; WSDNR 2006). 

Due to its sheltered waters, mixed rock and sandy shorelines, and its proximity to old-growth 

forests, Puget Sound is used heavily during the breeding season (Strong 1995; USFWS 1997). It is 

also believed to be a vital wintering area for populations of marbled murrelets moving south from 

4-143 January 31, 2008



British Columbia to take advantage of the basin’s protected bays and channels (Speich and Wahl 

1995; USFWS 1997). During the breeding season, murrelets are concentrated where food and 

nearby nesting habitat are abundant, including the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the south shore of Lopez 

Island, the southwest shore of Lummi Island, Obstruction and Peavine passes between Orcas and 

Blakely islands in the San Juans, Point Wilson, Point Roberts, Cattle Point, Green Point, Tongue 

Point, and Dungeness Wildlife Refuge and Spit (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; Speich and Wahl 

1995). Areas of winter concentration include Sequim, Discovery and Chuckanut bays; the waters 

around the San Juan and Whatcom County islands; and, the inland waters east of and including 

Admiralty Inlet (Seattle Audubon Society 2007; Speich and Wahl 1995). 

Table 4-52. Site-specific description of the presence of the marbled murrelet by project area 

Site 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 

Agate Passage 


Yes 

Rich Passage 


Yes 

Marbled Murrelet (Brachyramphus marmoratus) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

Admiralty Inlet is characterized by several features that make it favorable to the 

presence of marbled murrelets. It possesses both under-story and canopy-forming 

kelp, elevated current velocities as well as sill-type structures at both entrances which 

promote enhanced mixing. It also possesses Pacific herring spawning grounds within 

its confines. 

Spieden Channel is also characterized by several features that make it favorable to the 

presence of marbled murrelets. Like Admiralty Inlet, it possesses both under-story 

and canopy-forming kelp, elevated current velocities as well as a narrow-shelf 

shoreline of mixed rock substrate. It also possesses Pacific sand lance and smelt 

spawning grounds within its confines. 

San Juan Channel possesses both under-story and canopy-forming kelp, elevated 

current velocities, and a narrow-shelf shoreline with a gravel based substrate. It also 

possesses Pacific sand lance and smelt spawning grounds within its confines. 

While Guemes Channel does not possess all of the same qualities as the above sites, it 

does possess under-story kelp and elevated current velocities. It is also very near the 

San Juan and Whatcom County islands, which are areas of year round marbled 

murrelet concentration. 

Deception Pass possesses several features that make it favorable to the presence of 

marbled murrelets including both under-story and canopy-forming kelp, elevated 

current velocities, and a narrow-shelf shoreline of mixed bedrock, gravel and sand 

substrate. 

Agate Passage is characterized by several features that also make it favorable to the 

presence of marbled murrelets. Like Guemes Channel, it possesses only under-story 

kelp, but elevated current velocities and the presence of Pacific herring spawning 

grounds within its confines may attract marbled murrelets. 

Rich Passage is perhaps the least favorable of all the sites for the presence of marbled 

murrelets. Although it does not possess spawning grounds for any of the forage fish 

species nor canopy-forming kelp, it does possess under-story kelp and elevated 

current velocities as well as benthic substrates of mixed gravel and sand. 

Sources: 1982 Survey - Speich and Wahl, 1989; DON, 2006; Evans- Hamilton, Inc., 1987; PSWQA, 1992; 

4-144 January 31, 2008



4.7.2.3 Brown Pelican 

The brown pelican is moderate-sized seabird that nests in colonies on small coastal islands. The 

pelican is found primarily in California, where the California brown pelican subspecies occurs. 

Pelicans feed in shallow estuarine waters and seldom venture more than 30 km out to sea; 

however, flights of up to 65 km have been observed when fishing conditions are good and prey 

species are abundant (USFWS 2006b). 

Nesting generally occurs in spring and summer, and both males and females actively invest in 

rearing young. Daily loafing and nocturnal roost areas are located on sand spits and along offshore 

sand bars. Small coastal islands provide protection from predators and are preferred nesting sites 

(USFWS 2006b). 

Figure 4-21. Distribution of the brown pelican along Washington State (Source: Birdweb 2007) 

In Washington, brown pelicans can be expected along the outer coast from June to October. 

Commonly used areas include the mouth of the Columbia River, Ocean Shores in Gray's Harbor, 

and Copalis National Wildlife Refuge, which is a collection of coastal islands, rocks, and reefs that 

extends from Clallam County to Grays Harbor County (BirdWeb 2007). 

4-145 January 31, 2008



The status of the brown pelican has greatly improved. The primary factor associated with the 

initial decline of the species was the use of DDT, a harmful pesticide that reduced eggshell 

thickness (USFWS 2006b). Subsequent banning of DDT and additional regulatory measures have 

resulted in population growth (USFWS 2006b). 

Brown pelicans can occur around Puget Sound, but are more common south of Cape Flattery. 

Twelve years of vessel monitoring conducted by WDFW resulted in only 28 brown pelican 

sightings within Washington. Only one sighting was in proximity (within 19 km of Admiralty 

Inlet and Agate Passage) to the project areas. The remaining sightings occurred off of the central 

and southern Washington coastline (WDFW 2004). Table 4-53 describes the presence of the 

brown pelican in each of the project areas. 

Table 4-53. Site-specific description of the presence of the brown pelican by project area 

Brown Pelican (Pelecanus occidentalis) - Status: Endangered 

Site 

All Sites 


Rare 

Description 

The brown pelican is rarely found within Puget Sound (Birdweb 2007). 

Populations roost in southern Washington estuaries including, Willapa Bay and 

Grays Harbor. Only one sighting occurred during twelve years of monitoring. 

The sighting was in the southern portion of the Sound (WDFW 2004). The 

likelihood of species presence is greatest in southern sites and decreases towards 

northern sites. Brown pelicans are capable of flying long distances (USFWS 

2006b), so there is potential for an individual to be present in a project area, but 

the overall likelihood is low. 

4.7.3 Pinnipeds 

The following summary addresses rare, threatened or endangered pinniped species expected to 

occur within or near the permit areas. 

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4.7.3.1 Steller Sea Lion 

The Steller sea lion has a widespread distribution, occurring from northern Japan and the western 

Gulf of Alaska to the west coast of northern California. The species consists of two designated 

population segments, the western stock and the eastern stock (NOAA 2007e). The western stock 

occurs from the western Gulf of Alaska west to Japan, while the eastern stock is found from 

Alaska south along the West Coast states of California, Oregon and Washington (NOAA 2007e). 

Sea lion habitat includes both marine waters and terrestrial rookeries (i.e., breeding grounds and 

haulouts), with the primary factor influencing habitat selection being prey availability. Males are 

the primary occupants of haulout sites. And although sea lions may be found on gravel or cobble 

beaches, their preferred terrestrial habitat typically consists of exposed rocky shorelines associated 

with shallow well mixed waters, average tidal speeds and gradual bottom slopes (NOAA 2007e). 

Within Washington, there is no habitat that has been identified as critical for Steller sea lions. 

Breeding primarily occurs during June and July in rookeries situated on remote islands, rocks and 

reefs (NOAA 2007e). Females remain with pups for one week after birth and then leave for 

varying lengths of time to feed. During June and July, sea lions show high fidelity to their natal 

rookeries. Outside of June and July, however, sea lions can travel great distances to feed. 

Foraging sea lions have been observed traveling up to 1,770 km from their natal grounds at travel 

rates exceeding 160 km/day (NOAA 2007e). 

There are no rookeries within Washington State, however adolescent and adult Steller sea lions can 

be found along the coast throughout the year (NMFS 2007). There are four major haulout areas 

within Washington. The majority of counted individuals are assumed to be immature and nonbreeding 

adults possibly associated with rookeries in southeast Alaska or the Rogue Reef in Oregon 

(NMFS 2007). Table 4-54 describes the presence of Steller sea lions in each of the project areas. 

The eastern stock of Steller sea lions is increasing, although the current populations remain listed 

as threatened. Populations appear to be improving at a rate of 3-4 percent annually (NOAA 2007). 

The highest concentrations of sea lions are found in southeast Alaska and British Columbia. South 

of Alaska, the largest reproductive sub-population of sea lions can be found in northern California 

and southern Oregon. 

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While the eastern stock is improving, threats still exist. In order of relative importance, these 

include environmental variability, competition with fisheries, predation from killer whales, toxins, 

inadvertent commercial take, Alaskan native harvest, disease, and adverse interactions associated 

with tourism and research (NMFS 2007). 

Table 4-54. Site-specific description of the presence of the Steller sea lion by project area. 

Site 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 

Steller Sea Lion (Eumetopias jubatus) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

Admiralty Inlet is a large open inlet that contains numerous species of pelagic fish. It is 

likely that Steller sea lions may forage within the Inlet. The project area does not 

provide critical habitat for the species (NOAA 2007). There was a single individual 

sighted by WDFW within 16 km of the eastern portion of the inlet (Seamap 1992). 

Spieden Channel is adjacent to Spieden Island, which is noted for its use as a haul out 

site for large numbers of pinnipeds (Seamap 1992). There are numerous sightings of 

Steller sea lions within the project area and in the surrounding marine waters, with 

additional sightings occurring within 16 km south of the project area. Spieden Channel 

is not critical habitat (NOAA 2007). 

San Juan Channel is south of Spieden Channel, where numerous Steller sea lion 

sightings occur. WDFW documented sea lion sightings both slightly north of the San 

Juan Channel and within the southern portion of the project area (Seamap 1992). There 

are also three additional sightings within 16 km south of the project area. San Juan 

Channel is not critical habitat (NOAA 2007). 

Guemes Channel is a notable area for harbor seal haulout and may provide intermittent 

foraging habitat for Steller sea lions (Seamap 1992). The Channel is close to Black 

Rock, which is a notable haulout area for Steller sea lions (NOAA 2007). The closest 

documented sightings by WDFW were approximately 16 km north, off of Orcas Island. 

Guemes Channel is not identified as critical habitat (NOAA 2007). 



Uncertain 

Agate Passage 


Uncertain 

Rich Passage 


Uncertain 

The project area does not provide notable habitat for Steller sea lions, nor does critical 

habitat exist within the project area (NOAA 2007). WDFW ocean surveys did identify 

Steller sea lions within 19 km of the project area, but there were no additional sightings 

or haulouts within the area (Seamap 1992). 


habitat exist within the project area (NOAA 2007). WDFW ocean surveys did not 

identify a single Steller sea lion within 65 km of the project area (Seamap 1992). 


habitat exist within the project area (NOAA 2007). WDFW ocean surveys did not 

identify a single Steller sea lion with 80 km of the project area (Seamap 1992). 

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Figure 4-22. Steller sea lion sightings collected during WDFW vessel surveys. 

Source: Seamap 1992 

4.7.4 Cetaceans 

The following summary addresses rare, threatened or endangered cetacean species expected to 

occur within or near the project area. 

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4.7.4.1 Fin Whale 

Fin whales occur in the major oceans of the world and tend to be more prominent in temperate and 

polar waters. Based on ship surveys in the summer and autumn of 1993 and 1996, the California, 

Oregon, and Washington stock of fin whales is estimated at 1,851 individuals (Barlow and Taylor 

2001). The fin whale is federally listed as endangered. 

Fin whales feed on krill and small pelagic fish, such as herring, but probably do not make largescale 

migrations (Reeves et al. 2002). Fin whales are generally rare within Puget Sound and are 

not expected to be common near the project area. However, in December 2005, one posting on the 

OrcaNetwork (OrcaNetwork 2007a) reported a single sighting of a fin whale 10 km south of Race 

Rocks within the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The posting and report included identification 

photographs that confirm the potential for fin whale presence within the Sound. However, this was 

the only sighting identified during research and review of extant literature. Table 4-55 describes 

the presence of fin whales in each of the project areas. 

Table 4-55. Site-specific description of the presence of the fin whale by project area. 

Site 

All Sites 


Uncertain 

Fin Whale (Balaenoptera physalus) - Status: Endangered 

Description 

Review of 12 years of vessel surveys searching for bird and marine mammals 

did not report a single sighting of a fin whale (WDFW 2004). Only one sighting 

was reported in the Strait of Juan de Fuca by a recreational whale watcher 

(OrcaNetwork 2007). The likelihood for fin whales to be present in the project 

area is minimal. 

4.7.4.2 Humpback Whale 

The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) is a highly migratory marine mammal that is 

found both along the West Coast and worldwide (NMFS 2005c). Humpback whales grow up to 15 

m in length and feed on krill and other small marine organisms. Populations of the humpback 

whale are classified as endangered; however, numbers are improving. Population estimates 

suggest an increase of 6-7 percent annually over the last 20 years (NMFS 2005c). 

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The humpback whale migrates seasonally for feeding and mating. While the International 

Whaling Commission (IWC) recognizes only one Pacific stock of whales, research suggests that at 

least three distinct stocks may exist (NMFS 2005c): 

• Eastern North Pacific Stock - a stock that resides in Central America and Mexico during 

winter and spring but migrates along the West Coast to British Columbia during summer 

and fall. 

• Central North Pacific Stock - a stock that resides in the Hawaiian Islands during winter 

and spring but migrates to northern British Columbia or southern Alaska through Prince 

Williams Sound during summer and fall. 

• Western North Pacific Stock - a stock that resides in Japan during winter and spring but 

migrates to the Bering Sea and Aleutian Islands during summer and fall. 

Based upon these definitions, two of the three populations migrate through Washington’s coastal 

waters annually. While the migratory routes of the whales are not known precisely, the three 

identified stocks do follow general trends, with movement along the coastline primarily occurring 

during summer and fall (NMFS 1991). Recreational whale watching groups monitoring humpback 

whales have identified several individuals within the Strait of Juan de Fuca (OrcaNetwork 2007a). 

Other less frequent sightings have occurred in Haro Strait, off Vancouver and Camano islands, and 

near the Tacoma Ferry dock. Table 4-56 describes the presence of humpback whales in each of 

the project areas. 

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Table 4-56. Site-specific description of the presence of the humpback whale by project area 

Site 



Yes 



Uncertain 

Humpback Whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) - Status: Endangered 

Description 

Humpback whale sightings were greatest along the Strait of Juan de Fuca 

(OrcaNetwork 2007a), which is proximally located west of the project area. 

Individuals were also seen at Camano Island and the Tacoma Ferry dock and would 

have likely passed through the project area to reach those locations. Presence 

appears to be seasonal and is concentrated in summer and fall (OrcaNetwork 

2007a). The project area does not provide critical habitat for the species, but may 

provide intermittent foraging grounds during migration NMFS 2005c). 

Sightings have occurred along Haro Strait which is closely located west of the 

project site (OrcaNetwork 2007a). No sightings were identified within the project 

area. The potential for species presence within the project area is low and expected 

to only occur briefly during migration. 



Uncertain 



Uncertain 



Yes 

Agate Passage 


Uncertain 

Rich Passage 


Uncertain 

Sightings have occurred along Haro Strait and along the southern portion of 

Vancouver Island (OrcaNetwork 2007a). No sightings were identified within the 

project area. The potential for species presence within the project area is low and 

expected to only occur briefly during migration. 

The sightings closest to the project area occurred along Camano Island 

(OrcaNetwork 2007a). The possibility does exist for whales moving within the 

Sound to pass through the Channel, but they have not been sighted within or near 

the project area nor has there been any documented use of the site by the species. 

Nearby sightings at Camano Island suggest that humpbacks do migrate through the 

Pass (OrcaNetwork 2007a). Whales would have to travel through Possession Sound 

and Saratoga Passage to reach the Island from the south or pass directly through 

Deception Pass to reach Camano Island from the west. The project area does not 

provide notable habitat but does constitute a migratory corridor for individuals on an 

intermittent basis. 

Other whales have been identified near the Passage (OrcaNetwork 2007a), so the 

shallow depth and recessed location does not seem to pose an issue for large marine 

mammals. The closest sighting to the project area occurred at the Tacoma Ferry 

dock, which is over 48 km south of the site (OrcaNetwork 2007a). However, to 

reach the ferry terminal, the humpback had to pass near the project area. No 

sightings were reported for Port Orchard or for other areas closer to the project area 

than the Tacoma Ferry dock. 

The closest sighting to the project area occurred at the Tacoma Ferry dock, which is 

over 32 km south of the site (OrcaNetwork 2007a). However, to reach the ferry, the 

humpback had to pass near the project area. No sightings were reported for Port 

Orchard or for other areas closer to the project area than the Tacoma Ferry dock. 

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Note: Dashed line represents the U.S.; 

thick line indicates the outer boundary 

of all surveys combined. 

Source: NMFS 2005c. 

Figure 4-23. 

Humpback whale sightings based on shipboard surveys off California, Oregon, and 

Washington, 1991 to 2001. 

4.7.4.3 Orca (Killer Whale) 

The eastern killer whale is a large predatory cetacean from the dolphin family that can assume one 

of three life history forms. These forms include resident (which is a colloquial term referring not 

necessarily to site fidelity but rather to centralized movement patterns), transient, and offshore. 

There are five populations of resident orcas or killer whales in the northeast Pacific. Of these five, 

4-153 January 31, 2008



only one southern population occurs within Puget Sound (MarineBio 2007). This population 

spends the majority of the summer in and around the Sound and consists of three resident pods 

(i.e., J, K and L pods) that generally occupy the west side of the San Juan Island, Haro Strait and 

the southern end of Vancouver Island. Pods can be found in the Sound year around, but during 

fall, winter and spring, southern residents are more prone to excursions and can be seen as far 

south as California. Less is known about offshore movements during non-summer months 

(NOAA 2007b). 

Orcas are opportunistic feeders that prey upon an array of fish and marine mammals. Orcas hunt 

in pods and corral fish or other prey in a cooperative manner. The orca is an apex predator that has 

been known to hunt cetaceans, pinnipeds, fish, squid and even polar bears (MarineBio 2007). 

The specific diet of pods varies both by location and by resident or transient behavior. Resident 

pods generally eat fish with few attacks on marine mammals, while transient pods are more prone 

to aggressive attacks on larger prey. 

Based upon the repetitive use of specific regions within the basin, critical habitat has been defined 

for the three southern resident pods (i.e. J, K and L) that are found in Puget Sound. This critical 

habitat comprises three distinct areas identified as the summer core area, Puget Sound, and the 

Strait of Juan de Fuca (NOAA 2006); see Figure 4-38). These regions constitute the majority of 

Washington’s northwestern coastline and exclude only a few small areas. Table 4-57 describes the 

presence of resident orcas in each of the project areas. 

Currently, the southern population of orcas is listed as endangered. Population trends have 

fluctuated over the years, but population numbers are up since the 1970s when an estimated 71 

whales existed (MarineBio 2007). In 2003, a total of 83 whales were tallied; however, this number 

was down from 97 animals in 1996 (a primary motivation to list the orca). Census activities 

estimate that there are 3.0 births per year and 2.7 mortalities, creating a relatively fine margin. The 

reproductive cycle of an orca is long and slow. Females are sexually mature after 6 to 10 years, 

while males mature later at approximately 10 to 13 years. Gestation lasts approximately 17 

months and a female may only have one calf every 3 to 5 years. This slow reproductive cycle 

makes any recovery a long process. 

4-154 January 31, 2008



Several factors continue to pose a threat or risk to orcas within the Sound. These factors can 

include: depleted prey abundance (i.e., salmon), low genetic diversity due to inbreeding, 

underwater noise pollution (e.g., commercial, recreational, and research), disease, and 

environmental contaminants. Close monitoring and routine evaluation of orcas and their habitat 

within the Sound are being maintained in an effort to support the long-term recovery of the 

southern resident population (NOAA 2006). 

Table 4.1-57. Site-specific description of the presence of the southern resident killer whale by project 

area 

Southern Resident Killer Whale (Orcinas orca) - Status: Endangered 

Site 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 



Yes 

Agate Passage 


Yes 

Rich Passage 


Yes 

Description 

The site is not identified as a primary residence area for orcas, but is part of both 

the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Puget Sound critical habitat areas (NOAA 2006). 

Numerous sightings have occurred within the project area and there is a good 

possibility that the species will be present (WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 2007a). 

The site is located on the north end of San Juan Island and within the Summer 

Core critical habitat area (NOAA 2006). There is a possibility that orcas will be 

present, and there have been several sightings of orcas less than one kilometer 

from the project area (WDFW 2004). 

The Channel is located near Haro Strait and situated on the east side of 

Vancouver Island, both of which are primary locations for orca feeding and 

residence. The site lies within the Summer Core critical habitat area and there is 

a possibility that orcas will be present (NOAA 2006). There have been several 

sightings of orcas within and around the project area (WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 

2007a). 

The Channel is somewhat distant from the noted habitats adjacent Vancouver 

and San Juan Islands, but it is situated within the Summer Core critical habitat 

area (NOAA 2006), and there is a good possibility that orcas will be present. 

There have been several sightings of orcas within and around the project area 

(WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 2007a). 

The site is not identified as a primary residence area for orcas, but is part of the 

Puget Sound critical habitat area (NOAA 2006). There is a good possibility that 

the species will be present. There have been several sightings of orcas within 

and around the project area (WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 2007a). 

The site is not identified as a primary residence area for orcas, but is part of the 

Puget Sound critical habitat area. There have been several sightings of orcas 

within and around the project area (WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 2007a). 

The site is not identified as a primary residence area for orcas (NOAA 2006), but 

it is part of the Puget Sound critical habitat area. There have been several 

sightings of orcas within and around the project area (WDFW 2004; OrcaNetwork 

2007a). 

4-155 January 31, 2008



Figure 4-24. 

Southern resident killer whale critical habitat and sightings collected during twelve 

years of WDFW vessel surveys (Source: NOAA 2006) 

4.7.4.4 Sperm Whale 

The sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) is a deep-diving odontocete (toothed whale; NOAA 

2007b). This species is unique in many ways, having a disproportionately large head, the largest 

brain of any animal and strong sexual dimorphism. Adult males can grow up to 16 m long, but 

females are considerably smaller, not exceeding 11 m (NOAA 2007b). 

There are several sperm whale stocks found throughout the world, including a West Coast stock 

(i.e., California, Oregon, and Washington; NOAA 2007b). This population resides primarily in 

California but has also been historically observed off the Oregon and Washington coasts in every 

4-156 January 31, 2008



season except winter (December through February). Population estimates have varied—at times 

dramatically—and show no apparent trend. However, estimates from 1996 to 2001 suggest the 

West Coast stock is comprised of 1,233 whales (NOAA 2007b). The species is listed as 

endangered. 

Upon conducting a thorough search, no sightings of sperm whales within Puget Sound were 

identified. Since the sperm whale is a deep-diving mammal, it requires deepwater habitat. Sperm 

whales spend their life in water averaging over 395 m in depth (NOAA 2007b). There, they prey 

on native deepwater species including squid, shark, skates and bony fish (NOAA 2007b). And 

while sperm whales can be found along the Washington Coast, it is likely they occur in the deeper 

waters offshore. The likelihood of sperm whales straying into the vicinity of the Project is 

therefore minimal due to the relatively shallow depth of Puget Sound and the absence of suitable 

diving habitat within the Project’s seven areas. Table 4-58 describes the presence of sperm whales 

in each of the project areas. 

Table 4-58. Site-specific description of the presence of the sperm whale by project area 

Site 

All Sites 


Unlikely 

Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus) - Status: Endangered 

Description 

Review of 12 years of bird and marine mammal surveys did not identify a single 

sighting of a sperm whale in Puget Sound (USFWS 2004). All reported sightings 

were offshore in deeper pelagic waters. The sperm whale is deep-diving and 

both forages and migrates in deepwater habitat. It is unlikely that the species will 

be present in the project area. 

4.7.5 Sea Turtles 

Although sea turtles are considered to be warm water marine reptiles, several species, including 

the green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), and the leatherback 

turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), have been documented (from strandings along the Oregon and 

Washington Coast) to occur in the Pacific Northwest (Bruggeman et al. 1992). During the 1989- 

1991 Oregon and Washington Marine Mammal and Seabird Survey, observers documented 16 

leatherback turtles, five of which occurred off of northern Oregon along the continental slope 

while the remaining 11 were sighted off the coast of Washington. All sightings were between June 

and September, and no other sea turtle species was observed during the survey (Bruggeman et al. 

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1992). The following summary addresses rare, threatened or endangered sea turtle species 

potentially occurring in or near the project areas. 

4.7.5.1 Leatherback Sea Turtle 

The endangered leatherback sea turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) is the most commonly observed sea 

turtle on the West Coast. Sightings are, however, still infrequent and generally occur in open 

water (NMFS and USFWS 1998c). Leatherback turtles predictably reside in tropical latitudes (i.e., 

Central America) during the nesting season, but following nesting, they undergo poorly 

documented feeding migrations that range over 1600 km and extend along the West Coast to 

Alaska. During these migrations, leatherbacks feed primarily on mid-water jellyfish, 

siphonophores, and salps (NMFS and USFWS 1998c). They surface only to breathe. 

Observations of leatherbacks in Washington are made primarily during recreational boating 

activities or commercial seining operations that occur kilometers offshore in pelagic areas and 

along the continental slope (NMFS and USFWS 1998c). During the 1989-1991 Oregon and 

Washington Marine Mammal and Seabird Survey, the 11 leatherback turtles observed in 

Washington’s coastal waters were also located no less than 61 km offshore, again along the 

continental slope (Bruggeman et al. 1992). The likelihood of leatherback turtles migrating through 

the project vicinity is therefore minimal (see Table 4-59). 

Table 4-59. 

Site-specific description of the presence of the leatherback sea turtle by project area 

Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea) - Status: Endangered 

Site 

All Sites 


Unlikely 

Description 

The species is concentrated in tropical latitudes, with the only Washington sightings 

occurring in pelagic waters along the continental slope. No documented sightings within 

Puget Sound were identified (NMFS and USFWS 1998c). 

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4.7.5.2 Green Sea Turtle 

The green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) is federally listed as endangered and is rarely observed in 

the Pacific Northwest (NMFS and USFWS 1998a). 

Although it has a global distribution, it 

primarily resides in warm coastal waters. And as there are no known nesting sites along the West 

Coast, and the majority of observations occur in the marine waters south of San Diego, little is 

known regarding the limited remaining numbers of green sea turtles inhabiting the West Coast. 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998a). There have been no recent documented sightings of the green sea 

turtle in or near the coastal waters of Washington State, but both adult and juvenile green turtles 

have been reported from gillnet bycatch and from beach strandings as far north as Gray’s Harbor 

(Eckert 1993; NMFS and USFWS 1998a). These instances are, however, rare and generally 

associated with El Nino events (Stinson 1984). The presence of green sea turtles within the project 

vicinity is unlikely (see Table 4-60). 

Table 4-60. Site-specific description of the presence of the green sea turtle by project area 

Site 

All Sites 

Species 

Present: 

Unlikely 

Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia midas) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

Sightings of the species in Washington are rare with the furthest north sighting 

occurring distantly south of the project areas, in Gray's Harbor. Sightings in Gray's 

Harbor are considered rare and generally only occur during warm water El Nino events. 

No sightings were identified within Puget Sound (NMFS and USFWS 1998a). 

4.7.5.3 Loggerhead Sea Turtle 

Similar to the green sea turtle, the loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) is federally listed as 

endangered and is rarely observed in the Pacific Northwest. The loggerhead has a global 

distribution and primarily resides in waters south of San Diego, California. Even though they 

undergo extensive migrations to feed on mid-water organisms in the open ocean, there are no 

known loggerhead nesting sites on the West Coast (NMFS and USFWS 1998b). Sightings of 

juvenile loggerhead turtles have occurred in Washington no further north than Gray’s Harbor 

(NMFS and USFWS 1998b). The presence of loggerhead sea turtles within the project vicinity is 

therefore unlikely (see Table 4-61 below). 

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Table 4-61. Site-specific description of the presence of the loggerhead sea turtle by project area 

Site 

All Sites 


Unlikely 

Loggerhead Sea Turtle (Caretta caretta) - Status: Threatened 

Description 

Sightings of the species in Washington are rare with the furthest north sighting 

occurring distantly south of the project areas, in Gray's Harbor. No sightings 

were identified in Puget Sound (NMFS and USFWS 1998b). 

4.7.5.4 Golden Paintbrush 

Golden paintbrush (Castilleja levisecta) is an herbaceous hemiparasitic plant known from a total of 

eleven populations in Western Washington and British Columbia. Golden paintbrush habitat 

consists of Puget Sound Trough grasslands, including on coastal bluffs, and islands, from sea level 

to approximately 300 feet in elevation. The plant was listed as threatened on June 11, 1997; a 

recovery plan for the species was issued on August 23, 2000 (USFWS 2000). No critical habitat 

has been designated. GIS data maintained by the WNHP indicates that one occurrence of golden 

paintbrush is known from the vicinity of the Admiralty Inlet permit area; although none are known 

to occur adjacent to the District’s other permit areas, suitable habitat is likely to occur. 

4.8 Recreation and Land Use 

The District’s seven permit sites, together with their associated underwater cables and terrestrial 

transmission corridors, lie within or bisect five Washington counties: Jefferson County, San Juan 

County, Island County, Kitsap County, and Skagit County. Major land and water uses in the 

project area include recreation, commercial fishing, transportation, and commerce. The permit 

sites also include portions of the Cascadia Marine Trail, which was certified as a National 

Recreational Trail in 1994 (Washington Water Trails Association 2008), as well as several features 

of the San Juan Islands Wildlife Refuge, which consists of rocks, reefs, grassy islands, and forested 

islands scattered throughout northern Puget Sound. 

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4.8.1 Recreational Use in the District’s Permit Areas 

4.8.1.1 Overview 

Puget Sound is a national tourist destination, and tourism generates an estimated $5.2 billion in 

revenue and 68,000 jobs annually (WSDE 2007). The Puget Sound Partnership reports that this 

represents nearly 80 percent of the statewide revenues from tourism and travel and 75 percent of 

all tourism related jobs. 

Public access to Puget Sound has been identified as an important issue (ICOR, 2002). Soon after 

statehood in 1889, Washington State began to sell tidelands in order to raise money and to 

encourage both marine commerce and shellfish harvesting (WDFW 2000). The sale of publicly 

owned tidelands and shorelines continued until the passage of the Shoreline Management Act in 

the early 1970s. According to a Trust for Public Land report (2005), only 425 miles or 19 percent 

of Puget Sound’s shoreline are publicly assessable. However, as only half of these public shores 

have upland access points, only ten percent of Washington’s inland marine waters are readily 

accessible. 

Approximately 390,000 people participate in a wide range of recreational activities in, on, or 

around Puget Sound at least once a year. Activities include kayaking, scuba diving, windsurfing, 

fishing, whale watching and boating (WSDE 2006). The following is a description of the 

recreational resources that generally occur within the project area. 

Boating-Related Activities 

Recreational boating provides relaxation and enjoyment for thousands of Puget Sound area 

residents and visitors. Residents own more than 165,000 powerboats, 21,500 sailboats, and 45,000 

canoes, kayaks, inflatable boats and other personal watercraft (PSAT 2003). There are 331 launch 

sites for small boats throughout the region and an additional 244 marinas that have a total of over 

39,000 mooring slips. 

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The Cascadia Marine Trail, a National Recreation Trail designed for non-motorized boats, 

intersects a number of the District’s permit sites (WWTA 2008). This salt water trail extends 225 

km from the Canadian border in the north to Olympia in the south. It was built through the 

cooperative efforts of the Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission, Washington Water 

Trails Association, Washington State Department of Natural Resources and other state and local 

government agencies. While there are currently more than 50 campsites that are part of the trail, 

the stated goal is to establish a campsite every 8 to 13 km along the length of Puget Sound’s 

shoreline. The trail was designated a National Recreation Trail in 1994 and selected as one of 16 

National Millennium Trails by the White House in 2000 (WWTA 2008). 

Whale watching has increased in popularity over the past two decades, particularly in the Strait of 

Juan de Fuca. In 2003 there were approximately 80 commercial whale watching boats in the Puget 

Sound area (PSAT 2003). The revenue from whale watching in the state of Washington is 

estimated at $13.5 million (with $9.6 million generated by commercial boat tours and the 

remainder from land-based viewing) (Hoyt 2001). More than 500,000 people each year participate 

in whale watching aboard commercial vessels, while another 3,000 to 8,000 people whale watch 

from private boats (Whale Museum, 2007). 

Recreational Fishing / Shellfishing 

Sportfishing for salmon, sturgeon and other marine fish is a popular activity throughout Puget 

Sound. The value of recreational fishing is estimated to be $117 million annually (WSDE 2007a). 

Salmon are a particularly important species with 618,274 fishing trips for salmon made in Puget 

Sound a resulting catch of 375,558 salmon according to the Washington Department of Fish and 

Wildlife (IE 2006). 

The recreational value of shellfishing has been estimated to be approximately $25 million a year 

(WSDE 2007a). Crabbing is one of Puget Sound’s most popular recreational fisheries with 

recreational crabbers collecting about three million pounds of hard shell crabs annually (PSWQAT 

2000). The most popular species is the Dungeness crab, which is caught using pots, ring nets and 

bare hands. Other crabs frequently caught include the Red Rock crab and Shore crab. 

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Swimming-Related Activities 

In Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, over 450 sites have been identified where the public 

may enter the water (WSDE 2002). The surface temperature and waves at these locations make 

swimming difficult; however, state studies have indicated that beachcombing is a popular activity 

with many residents (ICOR 2002). 

SCUBA Diving 

Despite cold water temperatures and generally limited visibility, SCUBA diving is a popular 

pastime in Puget Sound. Washington State ranks fourth in the nation in terms of per capita dive 

participation, and there is consequently a large number of charter operations and dive shops in the 

vicinity (Washington Scuba Alliance, 2007). The Washington State Parks and Recreation 

Commission established the Underwater Park System to preserve unique marine resources in 

Washington as well as to provide quality dive sites for recreational purposes. 

An important and unique component of recreational SCUBA diving within Puget Sound is the 

exploration of sunken ships. Puget Sound has several sunken ships that are both historically 

significant and accessible to divers by way of SCUBA. One such ship, the S. S. Governor, is 

located within Admiralty Inlet. This ship is regarded as a site of historical importance and is also a 

popular deep water dive site for experienced divers (Polagye et al. 2007). The S.S. Governor and 

its cultural debris cover slightly more than 0.4 hectares of seafloor, and approval from the US 

Coast Guard is required prior to any dive. More information regarding the S.S. Governor and 

other sunken ships within Puget Sound are addressed in the cultural resources Section 4.1.10. 

Parks 

Numerous parks, open spaces, and recreational facilities are located throughout the Puget Sound 

region. These spaces occur on both private and publicly-owned lands, with the public resources 

being operated and administered by an array of federal, state, and local government agencies. In 

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2007, the WSDE recorded 38 state parks, national parks, wildlife refuges, forests and several local 

parks within the region, many of which have been developed from decommissioned military bases 

(WSDE 2007b). In addition, efforts exist to expand the number of new parks within Puget Sound, 

and in June 2006, the Alliance for Puget Sound Shorelines (a coalition of the People For Puget 

Sound, The Trust for Public Land, and The Nature Conservancy) announced a three year, $80 

million campaign to restore and protect hundreds of kilometers of shoreline and to create several 

new parks. 

A notable open space resource within Puget Sound is the San Juan Islands National Wildlife 

Refuge. The refuge consists of 83 features scattered throughout northern Puget Sound, including 

rocks, reefs, grassy islands, and forested islands. The islands, totaling almost 182 hectares, were 

set aside to protect colonies of nesting seabirds, including pigeon guillemots, double-crested 

cormorants, and pelagic cormorants. The islands also attract a variety of other wildlife, including 

bald eagles and harbor seals (USFWS 2008). In order to help maintain the natural character of 

these islands, all (except Matia and Turn islands) are closed to public access, including an 180- 

meter (200-yard) buffer extending out from the islands’ shorelines. 

A review of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) maps identified seven refuge features that 

occur within the project area (Murray 1998). Three of these features are located in the San Juan 

Channel area (Shark Reef, Harbor Rock, and “Islets and Rocks”) and four in the Spieden Channel 

area (Barren Island, Center Reef, Battleship Island, and Sentinel Rock). 

4.8.1.2 Specific Recreational Opportunities 

This section describes the recreational resources known to exist within or near the specific permit 

areas. Due to their popularity, it is highly likely that the recreational activities described above as 

well as others will occur, to varying degrees, in each of the permit areas. The precise use and the 

extent of this use, however, is not readily known for any of the sites. Known recreational 

opportunities for each of the seven project sites are addressed below. 

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Admiralty Inlet is the largest of the seven permit areas and includes several known recreational 

resources within its confines. The Inlet is popular for both whale-watching and boating activities, 

and the S.S. Governor wreck – 1.6 km off Point Wilson - is a popular deep-water dive for 

experienced divers. In total, at least 13 parks are designated in the vicinity of Admiralty Inlet. 

Information describing nine of these parks – seven state, one county, and one local – is provided 

below based on information provided by Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission 

(2008a-h). Detailed information for the other parks (e.g., Ebey’s Landing National Historic 

Reserve, North Beach Park, Jefferson County Park, East Beach Park and Lions Club Park) was not 

readily available. 

• Fort Worden State Park - Fort Worden State Park is a 176-hectare multi-use public space 

that includes a marine park with over 3.2 km of saltwater shoreline (Washington State 

Parks and Recreation Commission 2008a). The park, punctuated by historic nineteenthcentury 

military fort buildings, is set atop a high bluff overlooking Puget Sound. Fort 

Worden offers a variety of activities including hiking, biking, boating, diving, fishing, 

swimming, water skiing, and crabbing; the park includes an underwater marine component. 

An artificial reef, composed of tires and concrete, was constructed within the park to 

improve the quality of recreational diving by providing additional habitat for marine 

organisms. Camping is available at two campgrounds. The beach campground features 50 

full-service hookup sites including water, electric, and sewer. The upper campground 

features 30 sites with water and electricity, and a sewer dump station nearby. An additional 

recreational vehicle (RV) rally site is also available at Fort Worden for groups with 10 to 

22 self-contained RVs. Moreover, Fort Worden State Park boasts a conference center that 

houses a variety of meeting rooms and guest accommodations and offers both food service, 

and recreational opportunities. 

• Fort Casey State Park - Fort Casey State Park is a 189-hectare park with a lighthouse and 

views of both Admiralty Inlet and the Strait of Juan de Fuca (Washington State Parks and 

Recreation Commission 2008b). The park includes more than 3.2 km of saltwater shoreline 

and adjacent nearshore habitat that supports a variety of fish and sea life including crabs, 

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octopuses, scallops, sea birds, sea cucumbers, seals, sea stars, cod, eel, perch, salmon, and 

steelhead. Activities at Fort Casey State Park include hiking, beachcombing, bird 

watching, boating, fishing and diving; the park includes an underwater marine component. 

The park offers picnic and camping facilities on a first-come, first-served basis. The picnic 

grounds include 68 unsheltered picnic tables, and the campground includes 35 tent sites, a 

restroom, and a shower. In addition, the park has an amphitheater and fire circles, and 

offers interpretive activities. 

• South Whidbey Island State Park - South Whidbey Island State Park is a 140-hectare park 

with 1,370 m of saltwater shoreline on Admiralty Inlet (Washington State Parks and 

Recreation Commission 2008c). The park is open year round for camping and day use. 

Activities at South Whidbey Island State Park include hiking, saltwater fishing, saltwater 

swimming, clamming, crabbing, and wildlife viewing. The park contains 46 tent spaces, 

eight utility spaces, one dump station, two restrooms (one ADA) and four showers. One 

group camp site with water, vault toilets, and accommodations for up to 100 people is also 

available. The park further offers one kitchen shelter without electricity, plus four 

sheltered and 19 unsheltered picnic tables. The park is closed December to January, and all 

campsites are on a first-come, first-served basis. 

• Mystery Bay State Park - Mystery Bay State Park is a four-hectare park with 209 m of 

saltwater shoreline on Mystery Bay (Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission 

2008d). The park is open year-round for day use only. Overnight camping is not 

available. The park offers a variety of activities including boating, diving, clamming, 

crabbing, and oyster collecting. The site has 208 m of moorage, and watercraft can be 

launched at the park’s boat ramp with a daily or annual permit from the State Parks 

headquarters in Olympia. The park provides one kitchen shelter without electricity as well 

as four unsheltered picnic tables. No camping is available at Mystery Bay State Park. 

• Fort Flagler State Park - Fort Flagler State Park is a 317-hectare park bound on three sides 

by more than 5.6 km of saltwater shoreline (Washington State Parks and Recreation 

Commission 2008e). Formerly an established military fort, the park includes many 

historic nineteenth-century buildings. It is open year-round for day use but is closed to 

camping from November 1 to March 1. Fort Flagler offers a number of activities including 

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boating (with mooring available along 78 m of shoreline), hiking, biking, saltwater fishing, 

swimming, water skiing, clamming, and crabbing. The launching of watercraft is allowed 

from the park’s two boat ramps with a $5 daily permit. The park provides 19 sheltered and 

40 unsheltered picnic tables, and one kitchen shelter without electricity which is available 

on the west side of the Island. 

The Park contains 101 standard tent sites, 14 utility spaces, one dump station, four 

restrooms (one ADA), and eight showers (two ADA). Two primitive group campsites are 

also available. The scout area group campsite accommodates a maximum of 40 people and 

includes a fire ring, one open-sided shelter, and one vault toilet. The wagon wheel area 

group campsite includes two vault toilets and no hookups. 

Fort Flagler State Park also offers unique indoor accommodations at the Fort Flagler 

Environmental Learning Center (ELC), the Hospital Steward’s House, the Waterway 

House, and two Non-commissioned Officers’ Quarters - north and south. The Fort Flagler 

ELC consists of Camp Hoskins (capacity of 180), Camp Richmond (capacity 52), and 

Camp Wilson (capacity 29). All of the Fort Flagler ELC accommodations are dormitory 

camp arrangements and include restroom and shower facilities, a dining hall, and a kitchen. 

The Hospital Steward’s House has an occupancy of four guests with two bedrooms, a bath, 

a kitchen, a dining room, and a living room. The Waterway House has an occupancy of 

eight guests with four bedrooms, two baths, a kitchen, a dining room, and a living room. 

Both of the Non-commissioned Officers’ Quarters have an occupancy of four guests with 

two bedrooms, one bath, a kitchen, a dining area, and a living room. 

• Old Fort Townsend State Park - Old Fort Townsend State Park is a 149-hectare park that 

includes more than 1,190 m of saltwater shoreline on Port Townsend Bay (Washington 

State Parks and Recreation Commission 2008f). It is open year-round for day use, with 

camping permitted only during the summer. Activities at Old Fort Townsend State Park 

include boating, hiking, diving, saltwater fishing, and crabbing. The park offers 40 

campsites, one dump station, two restrooms, and one shower. Three picnic shelters and 43 

picnic tables are also available at the park. The boat launches located nearest to Old Fort 

Townsend State Park are at Port Townsend, Fort Flagler, and Hadlock. Daily and annual 

moorage permits are available. 

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• Fort Ebey State Park - Originally built for coastal defense in World War II, Fort Ebey is 

now a 261-hectare state park with five kilometers of saltwater coastline on Whidbey Island 

(Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission 2008g). Activities at the park 

include hiking, biking, freshwater fishing, paragliding, surfing, and seaweed harvesting. 

Watercraft can be launched from the park with a $5 daily permit. The Park is open year 

round for camping and day use. The park contains 40 standard campsites, ten utility spaces 

with electricity and water hook-ups, one restroom (ADA), and two showers (one ADA). 

One campsite is available solely to those traveling by human powered watercraft on the 

Cascadia Marine Trail. Group camping accommodations are also available for up to 75 

people. A vault toilet and running water are available at the group site, and both flush 

toilets and showers are available within a five minute walk from the site. The Park has 25 

unsheltered picnic tables located at the Gun Battery, the beach area, and the Point Partridge 

area. Two log picnic shelters are available for reservation. These shelters include two 

covered picnic tables, two uncovered picnic tables, and two large BBQ grills. One shelter 

is located at the Gun Battery Picnic area and can accommodate up to 150 people. The 

other shelter is located at the beach area and can accommodate up to 100 people. 

• North Beach Park - North Beach Park offers access to the shoreline of the Strait of Juan de 

Fuca and is both owned and operated by Jefferson County (City of Port Townsend, 2008a). 

Boat watching, beachcombing, and dog walking are popular activities in the park. 

• Chetzemoka Park - Chetzemoka Park comprises approximately two hillside hectares 

commanding a view of the Cascade Mountains. The keystone of Port Townsend's parks, 

this Victorian park was established in 1904. Chetzemoka Park includes 25 parking spaces, 

several picnic areas, a shelter, a playground, restrooms, and a bandstand (City of Port 

Townsend, 2008b). 


As discussed above, four features of the San Juan Islands National Wildlife Refuge (Barren Island, 

Center Reef, Battleship Island, and Sentinel Rock) are found within the Spieden Channel permit 

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area. Posey Island State Park, which has two campsites that are available exclusively for camping 

along the Cascadia Marine Trail, also falls within the project area. 


The 89-hectare Washington Park lies within the Guemes Channel permit area. Owned and 

operated by the City of Anacortes, Washington Park offers a number of activities including 

walking, biking, boating and camping. Saddlebag Island is also located within the project area. 

The Island is comprised of a pair of wooded headlands connected by a narrow low pass and 

provides a campsite dedicated to users of the Cascadia Marine Trail. 


As discussed above, three features of the San Juan Islands National Wildlife Refuge (Shark Reef, 

Harbor Rock, and “Islets and Rocks”) are found within the San Juan Channel permit area. 


Deception Pass State Park is a 1,673-hectare park with more than 23.5 km of saltwater shoreline 

and almost 10.5 km of freshwater shoreline on three lakes. The marine portion of the park is 

located both within and adjacent to the Deception Pass permit area. The park features a variety of 

trails including hiking trails, biking trails, and horse trails. Other activities at the park include 

freshwater and saltwater boating, freshwater and saltwater fishing, freshwater swimming, whitewater 

kayaking, diving, clamming, crabbing, mountain biking, camping and sailboarding. 

Agate Passage 

There were no significant recreational resources identified within the permit area. However, as 

with the other project areas, activities such as boating and fishing are popular within Agate 

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Passage. Drift-diving has also been identified as being a common activity in this area (Polagye et 

al 2007). 

Rich Passage 

To the southwest, Rich Passage is bordered by the 22-hectare Wynn-Jones Preserve. Wynn-Jones 

Preserve is owned by Kitsap County and offers saltwater access and walking trails. In addition, 

there are four state parks located within the Rich Passage permit area, each of which is described 

below (Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission 2008h). 

• Fort Ward State Park - Fort Ward State Park is a 55-hectare park with 1,310 m of 

saltwater shoreline on Rich Passage. The park possesses a number of historic structures 

that reflect the past military significance of the area. It offers 16 unsheltered picnic tables 

divided into upper and lower areas. The upper picnic area is accessible by automobile, 

while the lower area, along Rich Passage, is accessible only by foot. The park is open 

year-round from 8 a.m. to dusk, however, day-use of the upper area is closed from October 

18 to April 8. The facility is especially popular with divers, as it has an underwater park 

specifically designed for use by SCUBA divers. Besides diving, other activities possible at 

Fort Ward State Park include hiking, boating, fishing, water skiing, crabbing, sailboarding, 

and bird watching. No public overnight camping is available at Fort Ward State Park. The 

park is, however, part of the Cascadia Marine Trail and has one campsite available solely 

for those arriving by human-powered watercraft. This campsite is available on a firstcome, 

first-served basis. 

• Kopachuck State Park - Kopachuck State Park is a 44-hectare park with more than 1.6 km 

of saltwater shoreline on Henderson Bay. One portion of the park, Cutts Island (or 

“Deadman's Island”), is 0.8 km from shore and reachable only by boat. The park provides 

scenic views of sunsets, the Olympic Mountains and Puget Sound. Available activities 

include hiking, boating, diving, fishing, swimming, water skiing, shellfishing, crabbing, 

and beach combing. The park offers 41 campsites, one dump site, one restroom (ADA), 

and two showers. The park also has two group campsites that are available for reservation 

and suitable for tents. One group campsite can accommodate up to 35 people, the other 

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approximately 20 people. Kopachuck State Park provides four kitchen shelters with 

electricity as well as 16 sheltered and 76 unsheltered picnic tables on a first-come, firstserved 

basis. 

• Blake Island State Park - Blake Island State Park is a 192-hectare park with magnificent 

views of both the Olympic Mountains and the Seattle skyline. It has eight kilometers of 

saltwater shoreline, more than 5.2 of which are associated with an underwater park. Blake 

Island State Park can only be reached by tour boat or by private boat, and both Indian-style 

salmon dinners and demonstrations of Northwest Indian dancing are offered at Tillicum 

Village, a concession on the island. Activities at the park include hiking and biking (with 

25 km of trail), boating (with 460 m of moorage), diving, fishing, clamming, crabbing, and 

beachcombing. Additional features include two volleyball courts and two horseshoe pits. 

Twenty-one mooring buoys are available for overnight boaters, and fees are charged yearround 

for mooring at the park’s docks. The park is open year-round for camping and day 

use with 51 available tent spaces, one dump station, four restrooms (one ADA), and one 

shower area. Campsites dedicated to use by canoers and kayakers of the Cascadia Marine 

Trail are available on the west end of the island. Two picnic shelters, complete with fire 

pits, are also available for groups of 100 people or less. BBQ grills are available in the 

day-use area of Blake Island State Park. 

• Manchester State Park - Manchester State Park is a 45-hectare park with 1,040 m of 

saltwater shoreline on Rich Passage. It represents the western border of the Rich Passage 

project area and is open year-round for both day use and camping. Manchester State Park 

offers activities such as mountain biking, hiking, wildlife viewing, diving and saltwater 

fishing. It also possesses one volleyball court and two horseshoe pits. Kayaks and other 

small watercraft may be carried to the beach and launched from the shore. The park has 35 

tent spaces, 15 utility spaces, and two restrooms with showers. Three campsites are 

reserved specifically for hikers and bikers on a first-come, first-served basis. Group 

accommodations are also available. One group campsite can accommodate 20 to 130 

people and includes a large fire circle, 12 RV hookups, and a covered shelter with eight 

picnic tables and electricity. Several unsheltered picnic tables and braziers as well as two 

unisex restrooms with showers are included in the group campsite. Picnic facilities at 

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Manchester State Park include 36 unsheltered picnic tables, one large picnic shelter, and 

two small picnic shelters. 

4.8.2 Shoreline Management 

4.8.2.1 Shoreline Management Act 

Washington’s Shoreline Management Act (SMA) was adopted by public referendum in 1972. Its 

stated goal was “to prevent the inherent harm” associated with "an uncoordinated and piecemeal 

development of the State’s shorelines” (WSDE 2007b). The SMA establishes management policy 

that encourages water-dependent uses, protects the quality of the natural environment and local 

waters, promotes public access, and increases recreational opportunities (WSDE 2007b). 

Permitted uses of the State’s shorelines are to be designed and conducted in a manner that 

minimizes, insofar as practical, any damage to the ecology and environment of the shoreline area 

or any interference with the public's use of the water. 

Under the SMA, “shorelines of the State” (RCW 90.58.030(2)) are defined, in part, as the State’s 

marine waters and the adjacent shorelands that extend 61 m (200 feet) landward from the ordinary 

high water mark (OHWM). The State has generally interpreted the OHWM as being equivalent to 

the mean high water mark. 

In addition, the SMA affords special consideration to “Shorelines of Statewide Significance”. The 

preferred uses for these shorelines include those that: 1) recognize and protect statewide interest 

over local interest; 2) preserve the natural character of the shoreline; 3) result in more long term 

than short term benefit; 4) protect the resources and ecology of the shoreline; 5) increase public 

access to publicly owned shoreline areas; and 6) increase recreational opportunities for the public 

within the shoreline area. Shorelines of statewide significance are defined as including all the 

waters of Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca, as well as specific Puget Sound shorelines. 

Under the SMA, each city and county that encompasses some portion of the "shorelines of the 

State" must adopt a Shoreline Master Program (SMP). This program must be based on state laws 

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and rules but be tailored to the specific geographic, economic and environmental needs of the 

community. The SMP is essentially a comprehensive and environmentally oriented shoreline plan 

and zoning ordinance that is applicable to shoreline areas and customized to local circumstances. 

The WSDE provides technical guidance for creating SMPs and reviews the final documents. 

Currently each of Washington’s 39 counties and more than 200 cities administer Shoreline Master 

programs in Washington, including the City of Port Townsend (2007), and the City of Anacortes 

(2007). 

4.8.2.2 Coastal Zone Management 

In 1976, Washington became the first state to design and implement a federally-approved Coastal 

Zone Management (CZM) program. The CZM program is a voluntary state and federal partnership 

that encourages states to adopt their own management programs in order to meet the federal goals 

of protection, restoration, and appropriate development of coastal zone resources. Washington’s 

CZM program is based primarily upon the Shoreline Management Act of 1971 and to a lesser 

degree on other state land use and resource management laws. Washington’s program document, 

Managing Washington’s Coast, was most recently updated in 2003. 

Washington’s Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA) recognizes ten “Areas of Particular 

Concern.” These areas occur where resource features are considered to be of greater than local 

significance, where particular concerns are identified, or where the potential for more than one 

major land or water use exists. Two of the ten “Areas of Particular Concern” include waters that 

extend into adjacent project sites: 

• The Skagit and Padilla Bays - The Skagit River system is the source for over 35 percent of 

the fresh water entering Puget Sound and the Strait of Juan de Fuca. The Skagit River is 

the only system in the state that supports all five species of Pacific salmon, and has the 

largest pink salmon stock in the state (Shared Strategy for Puget Sound 2007). The river is 

responsible for, and closely associated with, the largest area of tidal flats in the Puget 

Sound basin, an area that offers significant winter habitat to waterfowl (Garrett 2006). 

And while Skagit Bay and Padilla Bay are physically separated, they are treated as one 

system due to their connection via the Swinomish Channel. Skagit Bay is in the vicinity of 

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the Deception Pass project area while Padilla Bay is connected to the Guemes Channel 

project area. 

• Northern Straits and Puget Sound Petroleum Transfer and Processing Area - The 

Northern Straits include the San Juan Islands, Northern Puget Sound, and the Strait of Juan 

de Fuca. A major petroleum transportation corridor runs through these waters, as 

Washington is one of the largest crude oil refining centers along the West Coast. Each 

year, vessels transport about 57 billion liters of crude oil and refined petroleum products 

through Puget Sound, and shipments are expected to increase in the future. This area was 

listed in part due to concerns over the volume of oil and number of ocean-going ships 

moving through this region. The Northern Straits region includes the project areas of 

Spieden Channel and San Juan Channel. 

4.8.3 Current and Future Recreation Needs 

For over two decades, the state of Washington has had a statewide comprehensive outdoor 

recreation plan (SCORP). Washington State legislation (RCW 79A.25.020(3) has mandated that 

the Interagency Committee for Outdoor Recreation (IAC) (now the Recreation and Conservation 

Office) must “prepare and update a strategic plan for the acquisition, renovation, and development 

of recreational resources and the preservation and conservation of open space” (WRC 2007). The 

SCORP sets state goals for the development of walking and biking trails in populated areas, water 

access sites and parks (including but not limited to camping areas, natural open space, unpaved 

trails, picnic areas and water viewpoints). Plans rely on public meetings, on surveys of 

participation in recreational activities, and on focus groups to determine whether recreation 

providers are meeting the demand for resources. 

In 2002, the Recreation and Conservation Funding Board completed the 2002-2005 SCORP 

assessment. This document incorporated all previous Washington SCORPs (IAC 1900, 1995a) as 

well as the Washington State Trails Plan (IAC 1991). The IAC examined the assessment of 

outdoor recreation in Washington State by dividing the report into six sections: participation 

(demand), inventory (supply), recreation needs analysis, recommendations to meet needs, funding 

sources, and strategic options open to the State. Similar to previous SCORPs, a statewide survey 

discussing participation in outdoor recreation was conducted with over 1,500 people across the 

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state who were randomly recruited to keep track of recreational activities during a calendar year 

(IAC 1995b). 

The 2002 SCORP reported that more than half of the State’s population participates in some form 

of outdoor recreation. Approximately half of this activity is local, as it involves open space, parks, 

playgrounds, trails and other facilities located in close proximity to the participant’s residence. 

The remaining recreational activity that occurs in Washington is evenly dispersed over both state 

and federal lands. Approximately 7 percent of all state lands (almost 263,000 hectares) are set 

aside for the primary purpose of recreation. However, most state lands are still accessible for 

recreational activities, even though they may have a different primary purpose. Approximately 91 

percent of all federal lands (~3.5 million hectares) are recreational in nature, although their remote 

location and higher elevations make them less accessible to most recreational users (IAC 2002). 

From the data collected, seven major issues were identified by the IAC: 

• There is a critical need to provide better-managed land and facilities that support outdoor 

recreation; 

• Linear activities are the most popular recreational activities. A large portion of linear 

activity, walking and biking, takes place close to home on sidewalks and roads; 

• Individual and team sports are the second most popular recreational activity that strains 

available facilities; 

• Nature and natural settings play a crucial role in many of the activities listed, underscoring 

the importance of fish and wildlife habitat preservation; 

• There is a need to address the role of outdoor recreation in helping to reverse the current 

trend of declining public health which is related to inactivity; 

• There is a need to find acceptable means to pay for maintenance and operation of public 

land and facilities; and, 

• There is a need for improved data on the public’s recreational behavior and preferences as 

well as for an up-to-date inventory of available facilities in order to ensure that public 

resources are used effectively to address the public’s interests. 

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In terms of specific recommendations, the IAC noted that entities operating under FERC licenses 

have a duty to provide public access to recreational lands and waters at their project sites. Most 

licensed projects in Washington provide traditional facilities such as boat ramps and campgrounds. 

The IAC recommended that non-federal hydropower project operators: 1) enhance the inventory of 

trails for walking and biking; 2) manage dispersed shoreline camping; 3) improve access for onwater 

recreation; and 4) improve opportunities for non-consumptive interaction with nature 

including fish and wildlife. 

The 2002-2005 SCORP assessment also addressed future recreational trends and needs. Since the 

previous assessment was completed in 1995, Washington’s population has grown 20 percent. This 

growth has resulted in an increased number of people being engaged in recreation, even though the 

percentage of people actively participating in outdoor recreation has declined. As an example, the 

1990 surveys found that 76 percent of Washington households walked or hiked for recreation, 

while twelve years later, that number dropped to 53 percent. This shift may be due to an aging of 

the population or to an overall decline in public health. While not specifically stated in the report, 

this finding suggests that there may be an increased demand for parks and sight-seeing vistas in 

and around urban centers. 

Drawing upon the survey work completed during the development of the 2002 SCORP document, 

the IAC projected future participation in recreational activities over the next 10 to 20 years (IAC 

2003). The results from the 15 categories analyzed (see Table 4-62 below) suggest that there will 

be an increased participation in, and hence demand for, all activities except fishing and hunting. 

Table 4-62. Estimated change in participation rates compared to current levels 

Activity 10 Year Change 20 Year Change 

Walking +23% +34% 

Hiking +10% +20% 

Outdoor team and individual sports +6% +12% 

Nature Activities +23% +37% 

Sightseeing +10% +20% 

Bicycle riding +19% +29% 

Picnicking +20% +31% 

Motor Boating +10% No Estimate 

Non-pool swimming +19% +29% 

Visiting a Beach +21% +33% 

Canoeing/Kayaking +21% +30% 

Downhill skiing +21% No Estimate 

Cross-country Skiing +23% No Estimate 

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Activity 10 Year Change 20 Year Change 

Snowmobile Riding +42% No Estimate 

Fishing -5% -10% 

Camping – primitive dispersed +5% No Estimate 

Camping – backpacking +5% +8% 

Camping – developed (RV style) +10% +20% 

Off-road Vehicle Riding +10% +20% 

Hunting-shooting -15% -21% 

Equestrian +5% +8% 

4.8.4 Recreation Designations in the Project Vicinities 

The Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife has established Marine Protected Areas throughout 

the Puget Sound Region for the protection and preservation of species and/or habitat, but to also serve 

as places designated areas where recreation occurs. Marine Protected Areas were developed for the 

benefit of fish and wildlife resources as many of the protected areas are some sort of “no-take” marine 

areas. The map below depicts the marine protected areas in Puget Sound. 

Figure 4-25. Protected Marine Areas in Puget Sound (Source: WDFW, 2007a) 

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4.8.4.1 Orchard Rocks Conservation Area 

Orchard Rocks lies in the eastern portion of Rich Passage, a high-current channel separating 

Bainbridge Island and the eastern portion of the Kitsap Peninsula (WSFW 2007b). The sites lies in 

the middle of the channel and consists of rocky ridges, bedrock, and cobble and pebble habitats 

that extend from intertidal depths to depths of 70 feet (MLLW). Recreational and commercial 

fishing is prohibited in the conservation area, as is the taking of invertebrates and fishes. Orchard 

Rocks Conservation Area is located in close proximity to the Rich Passage permit area. 

Source: WSFW, 2007b 

Figure 4-26. Orchard Rocks Conservation Area 

4.8.4.2 Keystone Conservation Area 

The site is along the southern shore of Fort Casey State Park (WDFW 2007c). It includes the 

eastern side of the jetty into Keystone Ferry harbor and extends eastward to the eastern row of 

pilings under the old military dock. The jetty is a man-made structure composed of large revetment 

boulders that creates high-relief, structurally complex habitat within the site. The area is a wellknown 

dive location and is frequented by recreational divers and student researchers. Keystone is 

a fully protected marine reserve for non-tribal citizens; thus, recreational and commercial fishing 

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and harvesting is prohibited, as is the taking of invertebrates and species. Keystone Conservation 

Area is located in close proximity to the Admiralty Inlet permit area. 

Source: WDFW2007c. 

Figure 4-27. 

Keystone Conservation Area 

4.8.4.3 Admiralty Head Marine Preserve 

The Admiralty Head Marine Preserve incorporates a near shore kelp bed that grows upon a mix of 

rocks, boulders and ridges of hardpan and bedrock just north of Fort Casey State Park (WDFW 

2007d). The reserve extends offshore from the extreme low water mark and extends down to 

depths of 40 feet (mllw). Admiralty Head is considered a partially-protected marine reserve for 

non-tribal citizens. Recreational and commercial fishing/harvesting activities are generally 

prohibited, although dive fishing for sea urchins and sea cucumbers is allowed. Admiralty Head 

Marine Preserve is located in close proximity to the Admiralty Inlet permit area. 

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Source: WDFW,2007d. 

Figure 4-28. 

Admiralty Head Marine Preserve 

4.8.4.4 Haro Strait and San Juan and Upright Channels Sea Cucumber and Sea Urchin 

Commercial Harvest Exclusion Zones 

Two Sea Cucumber and Sea Urchin Harvest Exclusion Zones were created in Puget Sound: 

1) Haro Strait and 2) San Juan and Upright Channels. These reserves prohibit non-tribal 

commercial fishers from harvesting sea urchins and sea cucumbers and by agreement treaty tribes 

also do not harvest in these areas. The Haro Strait Urchin and Cucumber Reserve is bounded on 

the west by the International Border with Canada and to the east by the west shore of San Juan 

Island (WDFW 2007e). The San Juan and Upright Channel reserve is bounded on the west by the 

east shore of San Juan Island and to the east by the west shore of Shaw Island (WDFW 2007f). 

Many small islands are included in the reserve including Jones, Yellow, Low, Brown, O’Neal, and 

McConnell Islands. The southern portion of the reserve includes the town of Friday Harbor. The 

reserve includes the Friday Harbor, Shaw Island, and Yellow and Low Marine Preserves. 

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4.8.5 Non-Recreational Land Use 

4.8.5.1 Marine Land Uses 

While the waters of Puget Sound are used for a wide variety of non-recreational purposes, three are 

of particular relevance to the District’s permit areas, each of which is discussed below. 

Shipping and Transportation 

Maritime travel on Puget Sound is heavy, as people and goods are moved across the Sound and 

around the world. The ports of Puget Sound provide a gateway to the world, with Seattle and 

Tacoma in 2006 having a combined container traffic that ranks third among all U.S. ports after Los 

Angeles/Long Beach and New York City (American Association of Port Authorities 2006). In 

2005, more than $70 billion worth of goods traveled through these two ports (Trade Development 

Alliance of Greater Seattle 2004). 

Additional traffic on Puget Sound is created by the frequent runs of the Washington State ferry 

system, which is the largest in the United States. Ferries are a popular mode of transportation 

throughout the Puget Sound region with over 25 million passengers annually. As shown in Figure 

4-29, some of the ferry routes lie in close proximity to, or intersect, several of the project areas. 

The Anacortes to Sidney, British Columbia route is adjacent to, or crosses, both the Guemes 

Channel and Spieden Channel project areas. And the Keystone to Port Townsend route bisects the 

Admiralty Inlet site. In addition, many small commercial craft also operate throughout the waters 

of the Puget Sound basin. 

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Source: Washington State Ferries, 2007. 

Figure 4-29. 

Washington State ferries routes 

Fisheries and Aquaculture 

Commercial fishing is an important economic interest for Washington. The State's fishing and 

aquaculture industries are sustained by the catch and harvest of salmon, clams, oysters, herring, 

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cod, trout, perch, sole and flounder, as well as algae, sea urchin roe, geoducks, and sea cucumbers. 

The net economic value of commercial salmon fishing has been estimated at over $7 million 

annually, while the average commercial revenue of shellfish (including crab, shrimp, mussel, 

oysters, and geoduck clams) has been estimated at $59.3 million annually (IE 2006; WSDE 2007). 

Tribal fishing uses of the project sites are described in Sections 4.10 and 4.12. 

U.S. Military 

The U.S. Navy operates a number of important military facilities in Puget Sound. These facilities 

include: the Naval Station in Everett; the Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in Bremerton; the Naval 

Submarine Base in Bangor; the Naval Undersea Weapons Engineering Station in Keyport; the 

Naval Air Station and Seaplane Base on Whidbey Island; the Port of Seattle; and the Port of 

Tacoma. The Puget Sound Naval Shipyard is the largest shipyard on the West Coast as well as the 

second largest industrial facility in Washington in terms of plant investment and the number of 

civilians employed (Federation of American Scientists 1998). 

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Source: http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/facility/puget-sound.htm 

Figure 4-30. 

Military facilities in Puget Sound 

4.8.5.2 Existing Land and Water Uses 


The main urban area along this channel is Port Townsend, which is located at the southwest corner 

of the project area. Much of the site’s western shoreline is characterized by forest and light 

residential development, while a majority of the eastern half of the channel, particularly along the 

Whidbey Island shore, is characterized by forest and agriculture (City of Port Townsend 2007). 

Although the only significant source of commercial traffic at Port Townsend is a paper plant 

southwest of the city, all maritime traffic bound for, or departing from, the ports of Seattle, Everett, 

Tacoma and Olympia also transits through the Inlet via a major shipping lane that bisects the 

project area (NOAA 2007). In addition to commercial shipping, two ferry routes cross through the 

project area (see Figure 4-46) (City of Port Townsend 2007). 

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The U.S. Navy also has a strong presence in Admiralty Inlet. The extreme western edge of the 

project area is the Admiralty Bay Mining Range - restricted area 7/R-6701; no anchors, fishing 

gear, grapnels, or dumping of non-buoyant objects are allowed in this area. 

Source: PSWQA 1987 

Figure 4-31. 

Shipping lanes and ferry routes in Admiralty Head 

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Figure 4-32. 

Shipping lanes and ferry routes in the San Juan Islands (ferry foutes in solid lines) 


Figure 4-33 

Ferry routes near Skagit Bay (ferry routes in solid lines; map shows the lack of ferry 

routes). 

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The southern shore of the Channel is characterized both by forest and by a small number of 

residential homes. To the north, the Channel is bound by Spieden Island, which possesses a 

shoreline of beach and barren rocks. Maritime traffic in Spieden Channel is dominated by 

recreational vessels, the Anacortes-Sidney, BC ferry, and the occasional tug or barge (NOAA 

2007). Commercial fishing for pink and sockeye salmon is permitted from July through December 

(Polagye et al. 2007). 


To the north, Guemes Channel is bound by Guemes Island, which is primarily pastoral, although 

some limited urban development exists near the town of Guemes. To the south, the Channel is 

bound by Fidalgo Island, which, in contrast to Guemes Island, is dominated by an urbanized 

municipality - Anacortes. The southern beaches tend towards sand and cobble. Tankers travel 

through the passage to deliver oil to refineries at March Point, and a small car ferry also transits 

between the two islands and across the project area. 


The eastern shore of the Channel is primarily forested and only minimally developed. The western 

shore is a combination of residential homes and mixed forest. Maritime traffic in San Juan 

Channel is limited to recreational boats and the occasional tug or barge. Moreover, the project 

area lies within the San Juan National Wildlife Refuge, which restricts the range of permissible 

land uses. San Juan County’s economy is heavily supported by tourism-related revenue (San Juan 

Island Chamber of Commerce 2007). 


The majority of the channel is bordered by Deception Pass State Park, although the town of Dewey 

occupies the Pass’s northeast corner. Sheer rock cliffs line the water’s edge for much of the 

project area, and State Highway 20 crosses over Deception Pass via a steel bridge whose trusses lie 

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within the confines of the site. Most of the maritime traffic is recreational, although commercial 

traffic and the Victoria Clipper may use the pass as an alternate route if Puget Sound is too choppy. 

Agate Passage 

The lands on either side of this channel are primarily forested and residential in nature. Beaches 

tend towards sand and cobble. The Port Madison Indian Reservation, which includes a casino, 

occupies the western shore of the Passage, and State Highway 305 crosses the channel on a steel 

bridge whose trusses fall within the confines of the project area. Maritime traffic is primarily 

limited to recreational vessels. 

Rich Passage Project 

Land use along this channel is dominated by a combination of forest, beach and residential 

development. Beaches tend to be a mixture of sand and cobbles. Fort Ward State Park is located 

along the northern shore of the Passage, while Manchester State Park lies along the southern. To 

the south of Manchester State Park is the Middle Point and Orchard Point Military Reservation. 

Naval vessels, including aircraft carriers, pass through the channel to reach the Puget Sound Naval 

Shipyard at Bremerton. A ferry travels from Seattle through the channel to Bremerton and back 

again. In addition, commercial vessels use the passage to transport goods and materials (Polagye 

et al. 2007). 

4.9 Aesthetic Resources 

Residents and visitors are drawn to the Sound to enjoy its scenic vistas, relax on its shores, and to 

observe its abundant wildlife. The basin was shaped by the carving and till deposition of glaciers 

that retreated as recently as 13,000 years ago (Booth and Goldstein 1994). Nestled between the 

Olympic Mountains to the west and the Cascade Mountains to the east, the basin is surrounded by 

valley walls that descend through rolling hills before reaching the lowlands that form the periphery 

of the Sound itself. The estuary has over 4,000 km of shoreline that encompass 7,250 square 

kilometers of inland marine waters (Gelfenbaum et al 2006). These waters are fed both by the 

Pacific Ocean and by the rivers and major streams that drain the adjacent watershed. 

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The topography of the basin greatly contributes to the aesthetics of the region. Views of the Sound 

and its many tributaries as well as of the surrounding mountains, particularly Mount Rainier and 

Mount Baker, are highly valued (PSRC 2006). Numerous local, state and national parks, as well 

as wildlife refuges and scenic viewpoints, have been established within and around Puget Sound. 

The visual character of each of the sites is described below. 

4.9.1 Admiralty Inlet 

Admiralty Inlet is a wide channel bordered on the northern side by Whidbey Island. The shoreline 

is largely undeveloped and includes both forested areas and bluff-backed sandy beaches (National 

Park Service 2008). Seven state parks, as well as several county and local parks, provide 

viewpoints from which to observe the waters of Puget Sound and the neighboring landscape. Fort 

Worden State Park encompasses the highest point west of Point Wilson, and most of the land on 

Admiralty Head is occupied by Fort Casey State Park and Ebey’s Landing National Historic 

Reserve. Views of both the Olympic and Cascade mountains are available from within the 

perimeter of the project (Larsen 2003). 

4.9.2 Spieden Channel 

The southern shore of the Channel is characterized by forest, a small number of residential homes 

and Posey Island State Park. Posey Island is part of the Cascadia Marine Trail and serves as a 

camping area for people utilizingon the trail (WWTA 2008). The Island is also popular as it 

provides spectacular views of Puget Sound sunsets. The northern shore of the Channel is formed 

by Spieden Island, which is comprised primarily of beach and barren rocks. 

4.9.3 Guemes Channel 

Guemes Channel is bordered by Guemes Island to the north and by Fidalgo Island to the south. 

The former is largely undeveloped but does possess some residential homes (PSAT 2005). Kelly’s 

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Bluff, situated on the island’s southeast corner, provides excellent views of Puget Sound as well as 

neighboring mountain ranges. The City of Anancortes occupies the majority of the the Channel’s 

southern shore. The project area also includes six islands (Jack, Vendovi, Cone, Sinclair, 

Saddlebag, and Huckleberry islands), all of which are uninhabited or sparsely populated homes 

(PSAT 2005). 

4.9.4 San Juan Channel 

The San Juan Islands are a group of several hundred islands, islets, rocks, and reefs (USFS 2008). 

The project area is a mixture of light residential housing and forest lands, with rocky shorelines 

(PSAT 2005). It is also part of the San Juan National Wildlife Refuge, and much of the 

surrounding area is protected from future development. 

4.9.5 Deception Pass 

The Deception Pass project area is bordered by Deception Pass State Park. This park is 

characterized by rugged and sheer cliffs that drop abruptly into the turbulent waters below 

(Washington State Parks and Recreation Commission 2008). Deception Pass also offers views of 

old-growth forests and abundant wildlife. 

4.9.6 Agate Passage 

Agate Passage is bordered to the south by Bainbridge Island and to the north by the Port Madison 

Indian Reservation. Lands adjacent this portion of the sound are characterized by forest, beach, 

and a limited number of residential dwellings. 

4.9.7 Rich Passage 

The shorelines of this channel are characterized by a combination of forest, beach and limited 

residential (Pacific International Engineering 2005). Fort Ward State Park is located along the 

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northern shore while Manchester State Park lies along the southern. To the south of Manchester 

State Park are the Middle Point and Orchard Point military reservations. 

4.10 Cultural Resources 

Section 106 of the 1966 National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA), as amended, and its 

implementing regulations found in 36 C.F.R. § 800, require that federal agencies take into account 

the effects that their undertakings may have on historic properties. To accomplish this, the 

significant cultural resources within a project’s Area of Potential Effects (APE) must be identified, 

the potential effects of the project on these resources must be assessed, and the options for treating 

such effects must be considered. This section provides the results of data gathering using existing, 

relevant, and reasonably available information to identify significant cultural remains and locations 

currently documented within the project’s APE. 

This section is divided into five parts. Section 4.10.1 provides the nomenclature and synonymy 

used throughout the cultural section. The APE is defined in Section 4.10.2, and the methods 

employed to collect information about known cultural resources in the project area is detailed in 

Section 4.10.3. Section 4.10.4 provides an overview of the cultural context for the project area, 

and the results of the data gathering follow in Section 4.10.5. 

4.10.1 Nomenclature and Synonymy 

Certain terms used throughout this section warrant definition. As defined under 36 C.F.R. 

§ 800.16, “historic property” refers to any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, 

object, or Traditional Cultural Property (TCP) included in, or eligible for inclusion in, the National 

Register of Historic Places (NRHP) [36 C.F.R. § 800.16(1)]. 

TCPs are defined as cultural resources eligible for inclusion in the NRHP because of their 

“association with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that are (a) rooted in that 

community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the 

community” (NR Bulletin 38 1998). 

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For purposes of this document, the term “cultural resources” is used in the broad sense to refer to 

“those parts of the physical environment—natural and built—that have cultural value of some kind 

to some sociocultural group” (King 1998). Thus, the term cultural resources is used to discuss any 

prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or object, regardless of its National Register 

eligibility. 

4.10.2 Area of Potential Effects 

A project’s APE is defined as “...the geographic area or areas within which an undertaking may 

directly or indirectly cause changes in the character or use of historic properties, if any such 

properties exist” [Under 36 C.F.R. § 800.16(d)]. Under 36 C.F.R. § 800.4(a)(1), the APE is 

identified and documented early in the planning process and is thus considered to be a preliminary 

designation until concurrence is obtained from the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO). 

The District has initially identified the preliminary APE for the project as all lands immediately 

surrounding each permit site, extending 30.5 m (100 feet) up to the natural high waterline at shore. 

In general, this includes all land necessary for construction, operation, and maintenance of the 

project and takes into account potential wave action that may occur along the exposed shoreline 

because of turbine operation. The APE also includes the location of the power cables and their 

linear extent up to the point of interconnection to the grid. The APE may be modified following 

consultation with interested parties if the consultation identifies additional lands outside of the 

project area that may be affected by project-related activities. 

4.10.3 Cultural Context 

4.10.3.1 Prehistory and Archaeology 

Archaeological investigations in the vicinity of the project suggest that native groups of Puget 

Sound diverged from migrating groups that may have reached the Puget Sound area approximately 

12,000 years ago, immediately following the glacial melt that began around 14,000 years ago 

(Fladmark 1983; Hopkins 1979). This is known as the Paleo-Indian Period, and is marked by the 

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early migration of small bands of unspecialized hunter-gatherer-fishers into Washington State until 

approximately 7,500 years ago (Blukis-Onat et al. 2000). Northwest Coast archaeological 

assemblages from the Paleoindian Period have been dated to as early as 10,000-5,000 years ago, 

with other evidence suggesting possible human occupation up to 2,000 years prior to that (Carlson 

1990; Mitchell 1990). However, sites with indisputable ages over 5,000 years are uncommon. 

The artifact assemblages identified from early sites in coastal Washington and the Puget Sound 

area indicate that people from this period used riverine, lacustrine, marine, and littoral 

environments. As environmental conditions stabilized after the recession of the glaciers, groups of 

people began to disperse. Some spread into the upland plateaus and relict terraces, while others 

remained in the lowland areas. Although few habitation sites from this period are well-defined, 

archaeological evidence indicates that seasonal habitation sites (e.g. winter villages; spring, 

summer, and fall resource procurement and processing camps; lithic workshop sites; and fishing 

stations) were indeed used (Blukis-Onat et al. 2000). 

Four early technological complexes have been identified in the Pacific Northwest region: the 

Fluted Point Tradition, the Stemmed Point Tradition, the Pebble Tool Tradition, and the 

Microblade Tradition (Carlson 1990). Relevant to the project area are the Fluted Point Tradition 

and Pebble Tool Tradition. Very few non-lithic artifacts associated with these traditions have been 

found, and the limited number of remains from hunting and weaponry do not provide much insight 

into the lifeways of these early inhabitants beyond their lithic technology. Sites identified with 

these two traditions have been found inland from current shorelines (sometimes up to 30.5 m), on 

remnant river terraces, or on landforms created by glacial outwash (Blukis-Onat et al. 2000). One 

of the earliest dates associated with these traditions comes from an archaeological site near 

Groundhog Bay in southeast Alaska and is radiocarbon dated to 7,800 B.C.-3,500 B.C. Some of 

the earliest examples of basketry (found at Silver Hole and Kilgii Gwaay) and fish nets (found at 

Lanaak) in the Pacific Northwest date to the latter part of this same period (Foster and Croes 2004; 

Croes et al 2005). Artifact assemblages that date prior to 3,000 B.C. have also been found 

throughout the Puget Sound area on Whidbey Island, in Olympia, and further north in the Strait of 

Georgia at Dionisio Point, Birch Bay, and Glenrose (Carlson 1990). 

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The Fluted Point (Clovis) Tradition has been found from Whidbey Island through the south Puget 

Sound lowlands to the Columbia River and dates to between 10,800 B.C. and 10,500 B.C. This 

tradition is identified at the Manis Mastodon Site in Sequim, Washington, which dates to 10,800 

B.C. and possibly provides the earliest evidence for human occupation of coastal Washington. At 

this site, Gustafson and Manis (1984) recovered bison and mastodon remains from a stratum 

radiocarbon dated to 10,000 B.C.-9,000 B.C. A pointed bone fragment was discovered in one of 

the mastodon ribs, as were polishing and striations on other bones (Carlson 1990). No other 

cultural artifacts were identified, although elephant remains were recovered from an older stratum. 

The Pebble Tool Tradition extended from the Fraser River to the Oregon coast but was 

concentrated in the Strait of Georgia, the Strait of Juan de Fuca, Johnson Strait, Puget Sound, and 

the lower reaches of regional streams inhabited by anadromous fish species (Carlson 1990). It is 

defined by a reliance on pebble and cobble tools and also by the additional use of leaf-shaped 

bifaces, which occurred during the early part of the Tradition. A component of this tradition was 

identified at the Manis Mastodon Site and dated to 8,000 B.C.-4,000 B.C. (Carlson 1990). Other 

sites containing pebble tool assemblages have provided dates comparable to the period identified at 

the Manis Mastodon Site (Carlson 1990). Archaeological sites investigated immediately north of 

Vancouver Island during the 1970s and 1980s (Apland 1982; Carlson 1979; Hester and Nelson 

1978) suggest that local cultural assemblages, dating to after 6,500 B.C., likely represent the 

interface between this tradition and the Microblade Tradition to the north (Carlson 1990). 

The period from about 4,500 to 3,300 years ago represents a time of increasing differentiation 

between peoples living inland and those living near the coast. Native coastal groups within the 

project area relied on a complex system of hunting and gathering that reflected the seasonal 

abundance of mammals, birds, fish, and shellfish (Goetz and Tingwall 2006). In the Puget Sound 

and Strait of Georgia localities, the remains of cervids, canids, and phocids have been found at 

sites dating to the latter part of the Pebble Tool Tradition, ca. 4,500-3,000 B.C. (Carlson 1990). 

The appearance of these remains roughly coincides with the transition to, and the emergence of, 

shell middens; a ubiquitous component of coastal Washington archaeology that dates to slightly 

less than 4,000 years ago. Fish remains show up in assemblages at this time as well, and have 

included salmon, rockfish, cod, and other marine fish species. 

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The cultural sequence developed for the Strait of Georgia provides the best framework for 

understanding the subsistence-settlement patterns of project vicinity inhabitants after 4,000 years 

ago. This period is characterized by a significant increase in sedentism and dependence on 

salmonids, and a decrease in the reliance on large land mammals. This change is reflected in the 

composition of the inhabitants’ tool kits, which came to include toggling harpoon points - a 

demonstration of increased specialization in marine mammal hunting. With the adoption of a more 

sedentary lifestyle came the implementation of other cultural materials and practices, including 

basketry and bent-wood box technology, ground stone adzes, antler and bone wedges (indicating 

the continued development of timber-based technology), and the construction of permanent houses 

within villages (Blukis-Onat et al. 2000). 

The tremendous wealth of environmental resources during this time, combined with the 

development of food storage capabilities, is believed to be a major factor in the increased 

complexity of the Puget Sound cultures. This era is known as the Locarno Beach Phase, which is 

identified as the earliest phase of the Strait of Georgia sequence and dates from 3,500 to 2,500 

years ago. R.G. Matson (1989) theorized that control over shellfish beaches during this phase 

represents the region’s first foray into corporate (family) ownership of resources. This control, and 

the management of shellfish beds and fishing grounds (and the economic stability implied by this 

innovation), led to the development of a ranked society (Matson 1989). The Locarno Beach Phase 

was followed by the Marpole Phase, dating roughly from 2,500 to 1,500 years ago. Davy (1996) 

notes that the Marpole Phase is characterized by symbols of socio-economic stability that include 

large multi-family houses, a ranked society, a sedentary settlement system, and a diverse 

economy, as evinced by solid archaeological evidence (Davy 1996). Large plank houses and the 

extraordinary art emblematic of the Pacific Northwest cultures have their roots in the Marpole 

Phase. The final phase of the Strait of Georgia sequence is known as the Strait of Georgia or San 

Juan Phase, dating from 1,500 to 100 years ago. At this time, the development of bone and antler 

tool technology increased almost to the exclusion of stone tool technology. Archaeological sites 

from this time reveal the use of spindle whorls, blanket pins, and looms, indicating that site 

occupants developed an increased specialization in household weaving. 

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4.10.3.2 Ethnohistory 

Prior to the arrival of Europeans, the Puget Sound basin was populated by a number of native 

peoples. Some of the tribal groups and lineages that historically occupied the area have dispersed 

or been subsumed by other tribal groups. The native peoples who inhabited Puget Sound at the 

beginning of the historic period represent five relatively distinct ethnic groups: the Central Coast 

Salish, the Northern and Southern Lushootseed, the Twana, and the Clallam peoples. These 

groups in turn represent five major linguistic stocks, including the Clallam, the North Straits, the 

Nooksack, the Lushootseed, and the Salishan language families. Within these major stocks were 

16 coastal languages and seven languages spoken in the interior of Washington. Of the tribes 

identified within the project area, 19 are federally-recognized (DON 2006). 

The tribes in the Puget Sound area have a long history of both peaceful and hostile interactions 

with each other. A number of tribes have traditional and accustomed fishing grounds that overlap 

in many portions of the Sound; the Samish and the Snoqualmie are the primary exceptions to this 

in that they do not retain any federally-recognized rights to traditional fishing areas (DON 2006). 

The current fishing grounds differ from ancestral fishing and gathering areas in one significant 

way: the modern, federally-recognized fishing grounds are fixed locations. Consequently, 

fisheries management is especially crucial to tribes since they cannot move their designated fishing 

areas if, or when, stocks are depleted. The extent and details of these fishing grounds are 

described in Section 4.12 and Appendix F based on maps provided in PSWQA (1992). 

Regionally, tribes had similar subsistence patterns based on fishing in both the ocean and the 

rivers, the gathering of other marine resources, hunting of game, and the gathering of various 

native plants. Salmon is of primary importance to the tribes, both for subsistence purposes and for 

ceremonial and religious purposes (DON 2006). Ancestral groups relied on salmon and 

considered the fish a symbol of their tribal and individual identity. Sockeye, coho, chum, Chinook 

and pink salmon are all harvested in the Puget Sound area (DON 2006). 

Shellfish are also a traditional resource used for subsistence and for symbolic, ceremonial, religious, 

and other cultural purposes. Several Puget Sound tribes retain the right to harvest various intertidal 

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shellfish in traditional gathering grounds, including Manila, butter, native little neck, horse, geoduck, 

and eastern soft shell clams as well as cockles and oysters (DON 2006). 

4.10.3.3 History 

The Coast Salish name for the Sound, Whulge (WulcH, whulj), is a Lushootseed word meaning 

Salt Water (Kruckeberg 1991; Thrush 2007). Puget Sound (or Puget’s Sound) received its current 

name from George Vancouver, who claimed the territory for Great Britain in 1792. Vancouver’s 

expedition to the Pacific Northwest was preceded by Manuel Quimper’s 1790 voyage and 

Francisco Eliza’s 1791 voyage. The Sound was named for Lieutenant Peter Puget, who explored 

the southern end of this body of water in 1792. Originally, “Puget Sound” only referred to the 

southern portion of the Sound (south of Poverty Bay); the northern part of the Sound was called 

Admiralty Inlet. Quimper Peninsula, on which Port Townsend is located, is named for Manuel 

Quimper. 

One of the most profound influences imposed on the project area was the arrival of European fur 

traders. The Europeans sought sea otter pelts and quickly developed trade relationships with the 

tribes (Cole and Darling 1990). In 1799, the Russians established a permanent trading post with 

the Tlingit. In 1811, American traders established a permanent post on the Columbia River. 

However, by 1821, the Hudson’s Bay Company held a monopoly on the fur trade. Eventually, the 

fur traders decimated the coastal sea otter population and sought opportunities to barter with the 

tribes for beaver, raccoon, bear, and deer. Brisk fur trade between the tribes and Hudson’s Bay 

Company encouraged the establishment of Fort Nisqually and Fort Vancouver (Goetz and 

Tingwall 2006). The Hudson Bay Company traders became known to the tribes as “Boston Men”. 

Both forts fast became centers for white settlement, agriculture, and raising livestock (Kirk and 

Alexander 1990). 

The increasing Euro-American population and the search for more resources led to numerous 

mapping and survey expeditions in the project vicinity. One such expedition was the Wilkes and 

Fremont expedition in the late 1840s, which was designed to map Admiralty Inlet. The area 

around Port Townsend and Hadlock Bay was Chemakum (or Á-hwa-ki-lu) Territory. Vancouver 

4-197 January 31, 2008



documented the presence of three abandoned villages along the bay, one of which was a stockaded 

village near Chimacum Creek (Kent 2004). The area near Chimacum Creek was visited in 1859 

by James Swan; his report described a sawmill but made no mention of a stockaded village (Willis 

and Sharley 2005). The combined effect of illness and war led to the demise of many people, and 

by the 1850s, the S’Klallam (or Nuxwsl’a’yem) living along the western shore of Admiralty Inlet 

had assimilated the remaining Chemakum people (Willis and Sharley 2005). 

Washington Territory was organized in 1853 under Governor Isaac Stevens. Stevens arranged a 

series of treaties with regional Indian tribes. Tribal people were forcibly relocated to reservations 

in the mid-1850s to permit the expansion of white settlement and the continued development of 

early agriculture, logging and mining industries (Willis and Sharley 2005). The completion of the 

transcontinental railroad and the Klondike gold discovery contributed to a boom in economic 

development. Port Townsend, in particular, became a major shipping port for goods and gold 

hunters headed for the mining camps. San Francisco’s economic boom contributed to a 

corresponding boom in the Washington Territory, with northwest logging businesses and timber 

mills supplying much of the materials used to build the growing metropolis of San Francisco 

(Willis and Sharley 2005). 

Increasing settlement and industrial development led to the further deterioration of tribal and white 

relations during the 1850s, and in 1855-1856, a series of tribal uprisings occurred. The uprisings 

were suppressed by the US Army, which established forts such as Fort Townsend and Fort 

Nisqually throughout the Territory. Conflicts, driven by territorial issues and disagreements over 

the definition of usual and accustomed fishing rights, continued between tribal and white 

populations throughout the late 1800s. Washington Territory’s admittance to statehood in 1889 

marked the continuation of this long struggle over fishing rights, which would continue until the 

latter part of the twentieth century. A series of court cases (US et al. v. Alaska Packers Association 

in 1897; US v. Winans in 1905; Makah Indian Tribe v. Schoettler in 1951; and State of Washington 

v. Satiacum in 1857, among others), culminating with Judge Boldt’s landmark decision in 1974 

(US v State of Washington), sought to clarify established treaty rights as they pertain to the 

regulation of tribal use of usual and accustomed fishing grounds (Marino 1998). 

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4.10.4. Background Research Methods 

The District conducted a records search at the Washington State Department of Archaeology and 

Historic Preservation (DAHP) between November 11 - 28, 2007. The DAHP office houses all 

cultural resources data (e.g., archaeological survey reports, archaeological site records, etc.) for the 

state of Washington. The records inspected at the DAHP office include archaeological site records, 

base maps depicting archaeological site and survey locations, archaeological investigation reports 

(i.e., letter reports, survey reports, site testing and evaluation reports), the NRHP, Washington 

Register, Washington Historical Landmarks, and Washington Points of Historic Interest. Because 

the District’s initial pilot installation is envisioned in Admiralty Inlet the records search was limted 

to this site. In the event additional developments are initiated, additional research will be 

conducted after project plans have been developed in more detail. 

The area included in the records search included all lands within the Admiratly Inlet APE as 

described above. Specifically, this includes all submerged lands immediately surrounding the 

permit area and extending approximately 30.5 m (100 feet) shoreward to the natural high-water 

line. It also further includes a 0.4 km (0.25 mile) radius around three potential upland interconnect 

points. 

4.10.5 Results 


The records search identified 19 previous cultural investigations and 51 previously recorded 

archaeological sites within the Admiralty Inlet APE. Twenty-eight prehistoric archaeological sites 

are included in the records search results. These consist of shell middens, burials, village sites, 

camp sites, and lithic scatters. Fifteen historic-era archaeological sites are also found within the 

project area and include shipwrecks, Chinese laborer camps, military fortifications, and early 

examples of northwest industry such as railroads, logging mills, and historic-era buildings. In 

addition, several historic districts are adjacent to the Admiralty Inlet project area. Eight sites 

contain both prehistoric and historic-era cultural remains which are represented by combinations of 

4-199 January 31, 2008



shell middens, petroglyphs, lithics with trash scatters, historic-era homesteads, and other 

miscellaneous historic-era debris and artifacts. Moreover, mammoth remains have also been 

identified at some sites within the APE. Previous studies and previously documented 

archaeological sites are discussed below. 

Previous Cultural Investigations in the Admiralty Inlet APE 

Nineteen cultural studies have been performed within the Admiralty Inlet APE (Table 4-63). 

Reports for seven of these studies provide details regarding archaeological excavations at the 

Bugge Spit Site (45 JE 06) and the Walan Point Site (45 JE 16). Two reports focus on historic-era 

cultural resources, including lighthouses and military fortifications. 

Table 4-63. Previous cultural investigations within the Admiralty Inlet area of potential effects (APE) 

NADB # Author/Year Title Investigation 

1348107 Berger, M. 2006 Preliminary Cultural Resources Assessment for the 

Marrowstone Island Water System Project, Marrowstone 

Island, Jefferson County, Washington. On File at the 

Washington State Department of Archaeology and Historic 

Preservation. 

Surface survey 

Blukis-Onat, A. 

1976 

Blukis-Onat, A. 

1990 

1346353 Blukis-Onat, A. 

1999 

Archaeological Excavations at Site 45 JE 16, Indian Island, 

Jefferson County, Washington. Washington Archaeological 

Research Center, Washington State University, Project 

Report No. 30, Pullman. On File at the Washington State 

Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation. 

Letter to LCDR Hiursch, Naval Undersea Warfare 

Engineering Station, Indian Island Detatchment, Hadlock, 

Washington, 1 July. On file at Washington Stae Department 

of Archaeology and Historic Preservation. 

Lighthouse Shores 7375. On File at the Washington State 

Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation. 

Test excavations 



1345798 Davy, D. 1996 Archaeological Test Investigations at the Bugge Spit Site 

45JE06 Site 10-Northend Landfill Construction of Landfill 

Cap and Shoreline Protection System. On File at the 


Preservation. 

1345790 Davy, D. 1997 Human Remains, Bugge Spit Archaeological Site Northend 

Landfill Project, D.O. 002, Navy RAC II. On File at the 


Preservation. 

Test excavation 

Excavation Unit 

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1345779 Davy, D. 1998 Final Archaeological Data Recovery Excavations at the 

Bugge Spit Site, 45JE06 Site 10, Northend Landfill Cap and 

Shoreline Protection System. 

1345784 Davy, D. 1998 Draft Final Archaeological Data Recovery Excavations at the 

Bugge Spit Site, (45JE06) Site 10, Northend Landfill Cap 

and Shoreline Protection System. On File at the Washington 

State Department of Archaeology and Historic Preservation. 

Data recovery 

Data recovery 

1345787 Dugas, Amy E. 

and Harvey S. 

Rice 1997 

Ebasco 

Environmental 

1994 

Walan Point Site / Sherman Point. For Larson 

Anthropological/Archaeological Services. Washington 

Archaeological Site Inventory Form (addendum). On File at 

the Washington State Department of Archaeology and 

Historic Preservation. 

Archaeological Closure Report Interim Removal Action Sites 

11 and 12, Naval Ordnance Center Pacific Division 

Detatchment Port Hadlock, Hadlock, Washington. Submitted 

to the Naval Ordnance Center, Pacific Division, Detatchment 

Port Hadlock, Hadlock, Washington. Contract No. N44255- 

93-D-4050, Delivery Order No. 0005. On File at the 


Preservation. 


Test Excavations 

/ backhoe testing 

1345792 Forbes, R. Gerald 

Thorsen, and 

Samuel Johnson 

1993 

Paleoseismogenic Significance of Submerged Trees Near 

Pt. Wilson, Pt. Townsend, Washington. On File at the 


Preservation. 


1339483 Goetz, L. 1998 Results of a Cultural Resources Inventory of the Niva 

Property on Mutiny Bay, Whidbey Island, WA. On File at 

the Washington State Department of Archaeology and 

Historic Preservation. 

Augering 

1348102 Goetz, L. and D. 

Tingwall 2006 

Hussey, J. and 

J.N. Gibson 1995 

Cultural Resources Report, Indian Point Property Cleanup 

Project, Jefferson County, Port Townsend, Washington. On 

File at the Washington State Department of Archaeology 

and Historic Preservation. 

Fort Casey Military Reservation, near Coupeville, Island 

County, Washington. Report on application by Washington 

State Parks and Recreation Commission for Transfer of 

Surplus Properties for a Historical Monument. Report on 

File at National Park Service, Region Four, San Francisco. 

Backhoe 

Historic 

Properties 

Inventory 

1343609 Kent, R. 2004 Cultural Resources Reconnaissance Survey for the Little 

Oak Bay Restoration Project on Portage Canal near Port 

Hadlock, Jefferson County, Washington. 

1347183 Kent, R. 2006 Cultural Resources Survey for the Lake Crocket Navigation 

Channel Maintenance Dredging and Adjacent Beach 

Nourishment Project, Whidbey Island, Island County, 

Washington. On File at the Washington State Department 




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Luttrell, C 2007 

Cultural Resources Investigations for the Washington State 

Parks and Recreation Commission Fort Flagler State Park 

Wastewater Improvement Project, Jefferson County, 

Washington. On File at the Washington State Department of 

Archaeology and Historic Preservation. 

Shovel test 

1343751 Weaver, D. 2004 Cultural Resource Assessment for the Bon Air Community 

Water Reservoir, Booster Pump Station and Water 

Distribution System, Whidbey Island, Island County, 



Shovel test 

1346660 Willis, W. and A. 

Sharley 2005 

Cultural Resources Investigations of the Proposed 

Chimacum Creek Beach Inprovement and Fill Removal 

Project at the Chimacum Creek Estuary, Jefferson County, 



Excavation/ 

Backhoe 

Previously Recorded Archaeological Sites 

As shown on Table 4-64, the majority of sites (n=36) in the APE contain prehistoric cultural 

remains, of which 29 are shell middens or include shell midden components. Four of these sites 

are villages and include three known ethnographic locations, including a Chimakum village called 

Tséts-i-bûs or C’ic’abus (Tweddell 1974; Elmendorf 1990; Eells 1985 and 1996). A second 

village, identified on an 1856 map, also appears to be a Chimakum site and includes five houses 

(Indian Claims Commission 1974; Kent 2004). A third ethnographic site is the Snohomish village 

of SHET’LH-shet-lhuts; it contains at least three houses and a cemetery (Tweddell 1974). Seven 

additional ethnohistoric sites have also been documented in the area, outside of the APE (Willis 

and Sharley 2005). 

Table 4-64. Previously recorded archaeological sites within the Admiralty Inlet area of potential 

effects (APE) 

Trinomial Site Description 1 Recorders NRHP 2 Status WHR 3 Status 

Prehistoric Sites 

45 IS 025 Shell midden, FST, historic dump, Wessen 1988a Unevaluated Unevaluated 

mammoth tooth 

45 IS 026 Shell midden, FST Bryon 1953 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 IS 027 Shell midden, burial noted on 1953 site Wessen 1988b Unevaluated Unevaluated 

form (not confirmed) 

45 IS 028 Shell midden, FST, potential potlatch Wessen 1988c Unevaluated Unevaluated 

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house (not confirmed) 

45 IS 029 Shell midden, faunal remains, FAR Wessen 1988d Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 IS 088 Shell midden, earthworks, faunal Wessen 1988e Unevaluated Unevaluated 

remains, lithic debris, FAR 

45 IS 121 Shell midden, lithics (FST, ground Wessen 1988f Unevaluated Unevaluated 

stone adzes) 

45 IS 202 Shell midden, faunal remains, hearth, Blukis-Onat 1994 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

burial cairn (human remains collected), 

pit feature 

45 IS 206 Shell midden Robinson 1999a; Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Thomson 2002 

45 IS 208 Petroglyph Greengo, Black, and Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Black 2000 

45 IS 222 Shell midden Robinson 1999b Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 007 Shell midden, faunal remains, FAR Coale 1956 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 013 Mammoth bone Illegible Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 016 Chemakum or K'lallam village: shell Blukis-Onat 1976; Unevaluated Unevaluated 

midden, harpoon valve, awls, abrading 

stones 

Daugherty and Rice 

1974a; Rice and 

Daugherty 1974a 

45 JE 017 Shell midden Daugherty 1975a; Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Rice and Daugherty 

1975b 

45 JE 018 Shell midden Daugherty 1975b; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975c 

45 JE 019 Shell midden Daugherty 1975c; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975d 

45 JE 020 Shell midden Daugherty 1975d; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975e 

45 JE 021 Shell midden Rice and Daugherty Unevaluated Unevaluated 

1975f 

45 JE 022 Shell midden Daugherty 1975e; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975g 

45 JE 024 Shell midden Daugherty 1975f; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975h 

45 JE 025 Shell midden Daugherty 1975g; Unevaluated Unevaluated 


1975i 

45 JE 074 Shell midden, burial Kramer 2005 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 200 Shell midden, faunal remains, antler Wessen 1989 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

wedge, bone point fragment, charcoal, 

lithic debris 

45 JE 213 Shell midden, faunal remains, FAR, Wessen 1994 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

charcoal 

45 JE 275 Village, shell midden, FAR Kent 2004a Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 276 Village, shell midden Kent 2004b Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 286 Isolated toggling harpoon valve Willis 2005 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

fragment, lithic debitage 

Historic-Era Sites 

45 IS 101 Lighthouse, associated structural Collins 1971 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

remains (oil house, barn), built in 1858 

45 IS 103 Fort Casey, est. late-1890s Collins 1971 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

46 JE 026 Timber fort built ca.1856, additional Hunt 1972 Unevaluated Eligible 

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structures built 1874-1926 

45 JE 033 Victorian Architecture Hunt n.d. Eligible Unevaluated 

45 JE 035 Victorian Architecture, French 

Hunt 1969a Eligible Eligible 

Renaissance Influence, built 1890 

45 JE 037 Octagonal lighthouse, built 1879 Hunt 1969b Eligible Eligible 

45 JE 057 Built 1889-1891 Harwood 1974 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 058 Built in 1885, Italinate Architecture Hunt 1969c Unevaluated Eligible 

45 JE 073 40-block city park Hunt 1970a Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 JE 84 Fort, built 1875-1899, Italian – Hansen 1975 Eligible Eligible 

Italianate Architecture 

45 JE 086 Marrowstone Point Lighthouse (1888), Hunt 1970b Eligible Unevaluated 

Point Wilson Lighthouse (1879), Point 

Hudson Lighthouse (1887) 

45 JE 201 Shipwrecks: Southern Chief (threemasted 

Barnard 1990a; 

Traveler – Unevaluated 

barkentine); Traveler, 

Ferndale, Warhawk; bottles, nails, 

copper spikes (collected) 

Barnard 1990b Eligible Southern 

Chief -Ineligible 

45 JE 273 Historic bridge George 2001 Unevaluated Eligible 

45 JE 289 Historic pilings alignment, ca. 

Sharley 2006 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

nineteenth century 

45 JE 304 Historic dock (1890s-1960s) Stilson 2007 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Prehistoric/Historic-Era Sites 

45 JF 012 Unknown Wyatt 1996 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

45 IS 120/ 

45 IS 200 

Shell midden, faunal materials, lithic 

debris, FAR, early historic debris/ 

dump. 

45 JE 006 Shell midden, faunal remains, FAR, 

FST, adzes, bone/antler needle, 

historic debris 

45 JE 011 Rectangular and sub-rectangular 

depressions with structural remains, 

historic glass 

45 JE 023 Shell midden, historic farmstead, 

historic grave/headstone 

45 JE 027 Ethnographic site: shell midden, 

residential remains, petroglyph, historic 

Chinese workers camp and mill (1890- 

1910), alcohol plant (1913) 

Wessen 1988g Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Coale 1956 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Solland and Stenholm 

1963 


1975j 

Hansen and Stump 

1974; Hunt 1970c; 

McClure and Stump 

1979 

Unevaluated 

Unevaluated 

Eligible 

Unevaluated 

Unevaluated 

Eligible 

45 JE 212 Shell midden, camp, faunal remains, Nelson 1993 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

FAR, charcoal, brick, nails 

45 JE 277 Ethnographic site: S'Klallam or Kent 2004 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

Chemakum stockade village, five 

houses, FAR, ceramics 

45 JE 285 Isolated lithic debitage, glass Willis 2005 Unevaluated Unevaluated 

1 FAR = Fire Affected Rock; FST = Flaked Stone Tool 

2 NRHP = National Register of Historic Places 

3 WHR = Washington Historic Register 

A significant effort was made in the 1970s to evaluate historic-era cultural resources in the 

Admiralty Inlet area. Seventeen sites within the project area have been evaluated for inclusion in 

4-204 January 31, 2008



either the NRHP or the Washington Historic Register (WHR). Eight are eligible for inclusion in 

the NRHP and seven are eligible for inclusion in the WHR. The Fort Casey Lighthouse (45 IS 

101) and State Park (45 IS 103) are documented within the project area but have not been 

evaluated (Collins 1971). The Point Wilson Lighthouse (45 JE 037) has been evaluated and is 

eligible for listing in both the NRHP and the WHR. Port Wilson (45 JE 86), which includes the 

Marrowstone Point and Point Hudson lighthouses, is also eligible for listing in the NRHP (Hunt 

1970). Old Fort Townsend State Park, Port Townsend Art Gallery, and the Portage Canal Bridge) 

are all eligible for inclusion in the WHR, while the Port Hadlock Mill Site, the Fort Flagler 

Historic District, and the Old German Consulate/Frank’s Folly/Olsen-Hastings House are eligible 

for inclusion in both the NRHP and WHR. In addition, the Hastings Building is also eligible for 

inclusion in the NRHP. 

Recent research on submerged resources has led to the identification of at least four shipwrecks in 

Admiralty Inlet - the Southern Chief (three-mast barkentine), the Traveler, the Ferndale, and the 

Warhawk. After evaluation, the Traveler was determined to be eligible for inclusion in the NRHP, 

while the Southern Chief was determined to be ineligible (Barnard 1990). The Ferndale and 

Warhawk ships have not yet been evaluated. All of the ships are recorded as archaeological site 45 

JE 201. The SS Governor is not formally documented as a cultural resource, but it is a well-known 

dive site for technical SCUBA diving excursions. 

Most of the archaeological sites were recorded during, or prior to, the mid-1970s when many were 

documented during pedestrian surveys for military construction projects. Documents associated 

with these studies offer little more than rough site descriptions, and only a few of the sites have 

actually been evaluated. Gary Wessen’s efforts to re-document shell midden sites from 1988 – 

1999 is the notable exception. 

Traditional Cultural Properties 

The records search did not reveal previously documented Traditional Cultural Properties (TCPs) in 

the Admiralty Inlet APE. 

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4.11 Socioeconomic Resources 

This seven project sites are located in the following counties: 

• Jefferson County (Admiralty Inlet) 

• San Juan County (San Juan Channel, Spieden Channel) 

• Island County (Deception Pass, Admiralty Inlet) 

• Kitsap County (Agate Passage, Rich Passage) 

• Skagit County (Guemes Channel, Deception Pass) 

Socioeconomic resources associated with each county are discussed below. 

4.11.1 General Land Use Patterns 

Each of the project areas are predominantly marine environments. In terms of the terrestrial 

portions of the project areas, the coastal lands surrounding each of the sites under consideration are 

actively used by various groups. And although the areas around San Juan Channel and Spieden 

Channel are generally forested or undeveloped, much of the land near Agate Passage and Rich 

Passage is urban in nature. Overall, the dominant land types are forest and residential, but a more 

detailed discussion of land use within the project areas is provided in Section 4.8.5, Non- 

Recreational Land Use. 

One concern within the Puget Sound watershed is the affect of heightened development pressures 

which may lead to an increase in impervious surfaces. Impervious surface area increases the 

amount of stormwater run-off, which the Washington Department of Ecology has stated is the 

leading cause of pollution in state waters which fail to meet water quality standards. From 1991 to 

2001, there was a 10.4 percent increase in impervious surfaces within the entire watershed and an 

estimated 7.3 percent of the total area below 305 m (1,000 feet) in elevation was covered by 

impervious surface (PSAT, 2004). The EPA’s Puget Sound Georgia Basin Ecosystem project used 

Landsat Thematic Mapper and Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper satellite imagery to classify 

4-206 January 31, 2008



land uses within the Puget Sound watershed (EPA, 2007). Figures 4-34 and 4-35 below show the 

average annual change in urbanization for the regions which encompass the project sites. 

Figures 4-34 and 4-35. 

Puget Sound water and San Juan watershed average annual change in 

urbanization, 1995-2000 

4.11.2 Population Patterns 

Approximately 4 million people, or 70 percent of the population of Washington State, live within 

the Puget Sound Watershed. The population within the region is growing at an estimated rate of 

50,000 people per year and projections suggest that 1.4 million new residents will reside within the 

region by 2025 (PSAT, 2007). Information on recent population trends for the five affected 

counties is presented in Table 4-65. The statewide population density in 2005 was 36 persons per 

square kilometer. 

4-207 January 31, 2008



Table 4-65. Population trends in project area 

Item 

Island Jefferson Kitsap San Juan Skagit 

County County County County County 

1990 Total Population 60,195 20,146 189,731 10,035 79,545 

2005 Total Population (Est.) 76,000 27,600 240,400 15,500 110,900 

Percent Change in Population 1990 -2005 +26% +37% +27% +54% +39% 

Land Area in Square Kilometers 539.8 4,698 1,026 453.0 4,494 

Density (Persons per Square Kilometer) 140.8 5.9 234.3 34.2 24.7 

2005 

Housing Units 2005 35,515 15,526 98,431 10,867 46,476 

Sources: Washington Office of Financial Management (population), U.S. Bureau of the Census (housing, land area) 

4.11.3 Income and Employment Sources 

In general, the economy of the state of Washington is comparable to the rest of the country. The 

median household income in Washington in 2004 was $48,438, and the per capita income in 1999 

was $22,973, while the national figures were $44,334 and $21,587 respectively (US Census 

Bureau 2008). The 1999 poverty rate in the state of Washington was 10.6 percent (Bishaw and 

Iceland 2003), which fell below the figure of 11.8 percent for the country as a whole (Weinberg 

2000). However, the unemployment rate for the state of Washington was determined to be 4.9 

percent in 2006, compared to the national average of 4.7 percent that same year (Washington 

Employment Security Department, 2006). Income statistics for the five affected counties are 

presented in Table 4-66. 

Table 4-66. Economic statistics for project area 

Item 

Island 

County 

Jefferson 


Kitsap 


San Juan 


Skagit 


Median Household Income, 2004 $47,345 $42,965 $52,503 $45,461 $45,192 

Per Capita Income, 2000 $21,472 $22,211 $22,317 $30,603 $21,256 

Poverty Status, Percent of Population, 2004 8.3% 10.9% 9.3% 8.4% 12.2% 

Annual Average Unemployment Rate, 2006 4.9% 4.7% 4.9 3.6% 5.1% 

Annual Job Growth, 2006 4.7% 1.6% 2.0% 3.3% 1.7% 

Sources: U.S. Bureau of the Census (income, poverty status), Washington State Employment Security Department 

(unemployment, job growth) 

Puget Sound plays an integral role in the region's economy. Within Puget Sound an estimated 

142,000 firms provide 1.8 million jobs in a variety of industries (WSDE 2007). Shipping and 

transportation, fishing and shellfish harvesting, recreational boating and tourism are some of the 

4-208 January 31, 2008



many industries that depend on Puget Sound, each of which is described in Sections 4.8 (tourism 

and sports fishing) and 4.9 ( non-recreational land uses). Table 4-67 provides employment and 

payroll data, based on 2002 North American Industry Classification System (NAICS) definitions, 

for key business sectors in the five affected counties. 

4-209 January 31, 2008



Table 4-67. Project area employment data (2004) 

2002 NAICS Sector 

Forestry, Fishing, related 

activities and others 

Number of 

Employees 

Island County Jefferson County Kitsap County San Juan County Skagit County 

Annual 

Payroll 

($1000) 

Number of 

Employees 

Annual 

Payroll 

($1000) 

Number of 

Employees 

Annual 

Payroll 

($1000) 

Source: U.S. Census Bureau 2004 County Business Patterns, accessed at: http://censtats.census.gov/cbpnaic/cbpnaic.shtml 

P:\SnohmshCty\079.0005_Strategic_Planning_Suppor\Research\Preliminary Issues\Sean's work\Socioeconomic Resources.doc 

Number of 

Employees 

Annual 

Payroll 

($1000) 

Number of 

Employees 

Annual 

Payroll 

($1000) 

17 233 57 1720 74 4028 49 1625 383 18170 

Mining 26 681 50 2263 39 1361 0 0 44 2133 

Utilities 20-99 0 0-19 0 129 6305 68 3432 100-249 0 

Construction 1089 34914 734 22388 4234 158629 731 23972 2906 112078 

Manufacturing (Durable and 

Non-Durable Goods) 

559 23544 755 28940 1777 66502 181 6795 5467 234979 

Wholesale Trade 170 6591 20-99 0 1346 52684 20-99 0 1529 72466 

Retail Trade 2493 52706 1150 24433 11537 273371 685 17625 7238 184745 

Transportation and 

Warehousing 

223 8582 20-99 0 913 31582 67 2319 1271 46755 

Information (includes 

publishing and 

254 11422 188 6031 1457 62469 110 4975 473 16664 

telecommunications) 

Finance and Insurance 648 22868 194 7080 2395 101944 154 6618 1156 47792 

Real Estate and Rental and 

Leasing 

286 6802 210 3955 1323 32931 121 3206 671 17216 

Professional, Scientific and 

Technical Services 

481 15920 225 6383 3046 128407 211 9130 1237 45705 

Management of Companies 

and Enterprises 

Administration Support and 

Waste Services 

34 2534 20-99 0 212 7863 0-19 0 5 463 

393 9077 212 3920 3443 95885 121 3123 1229 24608 

Educational Services 159 3207 1,000-2,499 0 771 18527 20-99 0 215 4720 

Health Care and Social 

Assistance 

2134 61313 1148 35631 10652 336149 333 7540 5784 195089 

Arts, Entertainment and 

Recreation 

295 5178 134 2044 2055 39462 190 3901 931 17925 

Accommodation and Food 

Services 

1690 18776 918 11221 6309 77736 750 16456 4446 64099 

Other Services, except Public 

Administration 

746 11983 431 7929 3139 59258 172 3180 1756 34973 

Devine Tarbell Corporation 4-210 January 31, 2008



4.12 Tribal Resources 

As noted in Section 4.10 (Cultural Resources), Section 106 of the National Historic Preservation 

Act (NHPA) of 1966, as amended, and its implementing regulations found in 36 C.F.R. § 800, 

require federal agencies to take into account the effects of their undertakings on historic 

properties, which include locations and resources of traditional importance to potentially affected 

Indian tribes. To accomplish this, cultural resources within the project’s APE must be identified, 

potential project effects must be assessed, and options for treating effects on significant resources 

must be considered. This section provides the results of data gathering using existing, relevant, 

and reasonably available information to identify significant cultural resources currently 

documented within the project’s APE. 

This section is divided into five parts. Section 4.12.1 provides the nomenclature and synonymy 

used throughout the tribal interests section. The APE is defined in Section 4.12.2 and the 

methods employed to collect information about known cultural resources in the project area is 

detailed in Section 4.12.3. Section 4.12.4 provides a discussion of tribal interests and the results 

of the data gathering. 

4.12.1 Nomenclature and Synonymy 

Certain terms used throughout this section warrant definition. As defined under 36 C.F.R. 

§ 800.16, “historic property” refers to any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, 

object, or Traditional Cultural Property (TCP) included in or eligible for inclusion in the 

National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) [36 C.F.R. § 800.16(1)]. 

TCPs are defined as cultural resources eligible for inclusion in the NRHP because of their 

“association with cultural practices or beliefs of a living community that are (a) rooted in that 

community’s history, and (b) are important in maintaining the continuing cultural identity of the 

community” (NR Bulletin 38, 1998). 

For purposes of this document, the term “cultural resources” is used in the broad sense to refer to 

“those parts of the physical environment—natural and built—that have cultural value of some 

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kind to some sociocultural group” (King 1998). Thus, the term “cultural resources” is used to 

discuss any prehistoric or historic district, site, building, structure, or object, regardless of its 

National Register eligibility. 

TCPs can be further defined as: 

• Locations associated with the traditional beliefs of a Native American group about its 

origins, its cultural history, or the nature of the world. 

• A rural community whose organization, buildings and structures, or patterns of land use 

reflect the cultural traditions valued by its long-term residents. 

• An urban neighborhood that is the traditional home of a particular cultural group, and that 

reflects its beliefs and practices. 

• Locations where Native American religious practitioners have historically gone and are 

known or thought to go to today, to perform ceremonial cultural rules of practice. 

• Locations where a community has traditionally carried out economic, artistic or other 

cultural practices important in maintaining its historic identity. (National Register 

Bulletin 38, 1998). 

4.12.2 Area of Potential Effects 

As noted in section 4.10, the District has initially identified the preliminary APE for each of its 

project sites as all lands immediately surrounding each permit area and extending 30.5 m (100 

ft.) up to the natural high water line at shore. 

4.12.3 Background Research 

The District conducted a records search at the Washington State Department of Archaeology and 

Historic Preservation (DAHP) between November 11 and November 28, 2007 and on January 9, 

2008. The DAHP office houses all cultural resources data (e.g., archaeological survey reports, 

archaeological site records, etc.) for the state of Washington. The records inspected at the DAHP 

office include archaeological site records, base maps depicting archaeological site and survey 

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locations, archaeological investigation reports (i.e., letter reports, survey reports, site testing and 

evaluation reports), the NRHP, Washington Register, Washington Historical Landmarks, and 

Washington Points of Historic Interest. 

The Study Area included in the records search for the project area is the same as the APE 

described above. Specifically, this includes all submerged lands immediately surrounding the 

turbine location and extending approximately 100 feet inland to the natural high-waterline at 

shore and further includes a 0.25-mile radius around three upland interconnect points. 

4.12.4 Results 

Indian Trust Assets (ITAs) are legal interests in assets held in trust by the federal government for 

Indian tribes or individual Indians. Assets can be real property, physical assets or intangible 

property rights. A characteristic of an ITA is that it cannot be sold, leased or otherwise alienated 

without the United States government’s approval. Examples of ITAs are lands, including 

reservations and public domain allotment; minerals; water rights; hunting and fishing rights; other 

natural resources; money or claims. ITAs do not include things in which a tribe or individuals have 

no legal interest. For example, off-reservation sacred lands or archaeological sites in which a tribe 

has no interest are not ITAs. 

Many of the tribes in the Puget Sound area have ITAs in the form of “usual and accustomed 

grounds and stations” (U&A) for fishing (DON 2006) that overlap in many portions of the Puget 

Sound area. As noted in Section 4.10, the Samish and the Snoqualmie are the 

primary exceptions to this with no federally recognized rights to traditional fishing areas (DON 

2006). Fisheries management is especially crucial to tribes since they cannot move their 

designated fishing areas when or if stocks are depleted. Table 4-68 lists the U&A fishing 

locations within or adjacent to the project areas, as depicted by PSWQA (1992). 

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Table 4-68. Usual and Accustomed fishing locations by project area and Tribe 

Tribe 

Jamestown 

Klallam 

Lower Elwha 

Kallam 

Admiralty 

Inlet 

Spieden 

Channel 

Guemes 

Channel 

San Juan 

Channel 

Deception 

Pass 

Agate 

Passage 

Rich 

Passage 

X X X X - - - 

X - - - - - - 

Lummi X X X X X - - 

Muckleshoot - - - - - X X 

Port Gamble 

Kallam 

X X X X 

Suquamish X X X X X - X 

Swinomish X X X X X - - 

Tulalip X - - - - - X 

Sources: Puget Sound Environmental Atlas (PSWQA 1992) 


The Chemakum Tribe is known to have inhabited the western side of Admiralty Inlet, from Port 

Townsend to Hood Canal. Two principal Chemakum villages are situated in the area, but there 

is no formal, modern group of Chemakum descendents. The Chemakum had warred at times 

with Clallam, Makah, Twana, Snohomish, and Duwamish. A violent campaign by the 

Suquamish Salish to exterminate the Chemakum appears to have taken place as late as the 1850s 

(Suttles 1990). By the early twentieth century, the remaining Chemakum were absorbed by the 

Clallam and Twana groups and the Chemakum language was no longer spoken (Suttles 1990). 

Three unnamed and three named Central Coast Salish village sites may lie in or near the 

Admiralty Inlet project area (Dailey 2007; Suttles 1990). Lower Skagit legend holds that one of 

these is the oldest of the Skagit villages. After contact with Europeans, the site was not occupied 

by Lower Skagit peoples, but by the Snohomish peoples (Dailey 2007). 

About the mid-1800s, the Snohomish village of SHET’LH-shet-lhuts (burnt leaves) reportedly 

contained three houses measuring about 50x16 feet, a potlatch house, and burial grounds (Dailey 

2007). 

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The Lower Skagit village site of no-BAHKS was heavily populated and a primary resource 

location for horse clams, mussels, sole, flounder and cockles (Dailey 2007). The third and largest 

of the Lower Skagit village sites was known as the village of bah-TSAHD-ah-lee (snake place) 

(Dailey 2007). 

In 1854 and 1855, treaty agreements, executive orders, or acts of Congress were enacted to 

transfer lands around the Puget Sound and San Juan Islands into the control of the United States. 

Puget Sound tribes staged a brief but ultimately unsuccessful uprising in the winter of 1855-1856 

in response to the dispossession, epidemics, and encroachment by white settlers. Treaties ratified 

in this same period of time also guaranteed tribal fishing rights for various tribes, although the 

terms of these rights have been the subject of legal disputes for over a century. U&A fishing 

grounds are used to harvest fish, shellfish, and other species or for any traditional purpose, as 

established under the treaties and under the case law of the U.S. versus Washington rulings in 

1998, 1999, and 1974. 


Spieden Channel, located between San Juan Island and Spieden Island in San Juan County, is an 

area traditionally occupied by Central Coast Salish of the Northern Straits language group 

(Polagy et al. 2007). This area is said to be the original home of Songish/Lummi and is strongly 

identified with the group’s creation story (Dailey 2007). The Songish/Lummi village site 

of “WH’LEHL-kluh” lies in or near this project area and is associated with four other villages in 

the area. 


Guemes Channel is located in western Skagit County and was traditionally occupied by the 

Northern Lushootseed of the Northern Straits language group. This is the location of two principal 

Samish village sites (Suttles 1990). One is known as SWHAH-ee-melh and was first recorded by 

Spanish explorers in 1792 as two large houses. When the village became crowded in the early 

1800s, a portion of the group moved to form the new village of keh-LEH-tseelch. The SWHAH-ee- 

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melh village was abandoned around 1850 when people moved to eh-TSEH-kun village (Dailey 

2007). Also in the area is the village of keh-LEH-tseelch (ironwoods), established in the early 

1800s by the Samish, who relocated from the SWHAH-ee-melh village (Dailey 2007). 


The San Juan Channel location is in San Juan County and was historically occupied by Central 

Coast Salish of the Northern Straits language group. The Songish/Lummi Tribe was the primary 

group on San Juan Island. The shallower portions of the San Juan Channel have been identified 

as U&A fishing areas for various tribes (Polagye et al. 2007) 

The archaeological sites of Cattle Point, Jekyll’s Lagoon, and the Richardson site are located in 

or near the project area (Suttles 1990). Excavations at the Cattle Point site indicate that 

occupation occurred there at least seasonally for the past 5,000 years (Dailey 2007). 

An unnamed village site lies near the project area and was potentially occupied by the Lummi. It 

may have been established after contact with Europeans. Historical records describe the village 

as having had more than one large building (Dailey 2007). 


The narrow and turbulent Deception Pass, located between Island County to the south and Skagit 

County to the north, is within the area historically occupied by the Northern Lushootseed of the 

Northern Straits language group. The current Swinomish Indian Reservation is located 

immediately east of Deception Pass. The main Swinomish village of SDEE-oos is in or near the 

Swinomish Indian Reservation (Dailey 2007). 

Agate Passage 

Agate Passage, located in Kitshap County, was historically occupied by the Southern 

Lushootseed (Polagy et al. 2007). The Suquamish Tribe operates a casino and resort at the Port 

Madison Suquamish Indian Reservation, located to the west of the project area. 

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The Agate Passage area contains a number of historical village sites associated with the 

Suquamish including: 

• The main Suquamish village of ts'KOOB (clear saltwater) was the home of Chief Seattle, 

who lived there following the treaties of the 1850s. Residents of this location were called 

the sook-WAHBSH (clear saltwater dwellers) (Dailey 2007). 

• An unnamed village lies near the ts’KOOB village (Dailey 2007). 

• The village site of CHOO-kwohp is reported to contain four large buildings that were 

destroyed by construction of a sawmill in the mid- to late-1800s (Dailey 2007). The 

sook-WAHBSH (clear saltwater dwellers) group had inhabited the village. 

• One other unnamed village site in the area was also inhabited by the sook-WAHBSH 

(clear saltwater dwellers) group (Dailey 2007). 

Rich Passage 

Rich Passage, located in Kitshap County, was historically inhabited by the Southern Lushootseed 

and, more specifically, by the Suquamish peoples. Two Suquamish village sites have been 

identified in the area and include the beh-beh-HOO-dee (dancing place), which was abandoned 

by the late 1800s; only two buildings remain (Dailey 2007). Near the beh-beh-HOO-dee site is 

the village of too-kwah-HAH-duhch, meaning goose droppings (Dailey 2007). 

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