The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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64 considered that taxa richness was relatively high in the New Zealand urban streams they studied. Suren (2000) notes that as urban streams are typically highly modified and water quality is low the overall ecosystem in urban streams is degraded and this is then reflected in the nature <strong>of</strong> the macroinvertebrate community present (especially when compared with non-urban streams). <strong>The</strong>re have a number <strong>of</strong> studies in New Zealand that have examined the biological resources <strong>of</strong> urban streams. <strong>The</strong>se studies include Kingett Mitchell (2000) who examined stream environments in Waitakere City; Kingett Mitchell (2001), urban streams in North Shore City catchments; Suren (2001), urban streams in Auckland City; Wilding (1996, 1999) urban streams in Auckland; Kingett Mitchell (in prep), Wellington steams and Macaskill et al. (2003), Rotorua City. Table 6.2 summarises the results <strong>of</strong> the study undertaken in Waitakere City (Kingett Mitchell 2000), which illustrates some <strong>of</strong> the trends in macroinvertebrate metrics. Table 6.2 - Invertebrate indices scores for streams in Waitakere City grouped by land use. (taken from Kingett Mitchell 2000). Land use Taxa No. EPT Taxa No. EPT Ratio QMCI QUCI Margalefs % Dominant taxon Native bush 19 ± 2 8.3 ± 3.2 0.5 ± 0.2 5.6 ± 1.1 0.9 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.3 34 ± 6 Urban/bush 11 ± 4 3.4 ± 1.3 0.0 ± 0.0 5.0 ± 0.3 1.0 ± 0.4 1.8 ± 0.5 71 ± 9 Rural 17 ± 1 3.6 ± 1.2 0.1 ± 0.1 3.6 ± 0.3 0.4 ± 0.2 2.6 ± 0.2 48 ± 7 Urban/rural 15 ± 3 2.0 ± 1.0 0.0 ± 0.0 2.9 ± 0.2 0.4 ± 0.4 2.3 ± 0.0 52 ± 23 Urban 9 ± 1 0.5 ± 0.2 0.0 ± 0.0 3.2 ± 0.2 0.0 ± 0.0 1.4 ± 0.1 66 ± 5 Note: Values are presented as mean ± 1 standard deviation. General Tools Macroinvertebrates are the most commonly used bio-monitoring tool when freshwater bio-monitoring is undertaken (Rosenberg & Resh 1993). In general, benthic invertebrate bio-monitoring focuses on community level characteristics such as taxonomic diversity and the presence/absence <strong>of</strong> sensitive indicator species. More recently bio-monitoring investigations have assessed the effect <strong>of</strong> specific environmental stressors on biochemical, genetic, morphological and physiological changes. Macroinvertebrates assimilate and reflect water quality and habitat conditions over time and are therefore ideal indicators <strong>of</strong> environmental stress. Advantages <strong>of</strong> using benthic macroinvertebrates in biomonitoring programmes include: 1. Commonly occurring. 2. Community diversity reflects a wide range <strong>of</strong> environmental stressors. 3. Relatively sedentary and therefore reflect localised conditions. 4. Bio-accumulate toxic substances. 5. Detectable changes in community structure are obvious to trained biologists. 6. Easily collected and identified. 7. Integrate multiple stressors and therefore reflect overall stream health. Benthic macroinvertebrates are widely used by freshwater managers in New Zealand to assess and monitor water quality and in-stream health. In New Zealand, benthic invertebrate bio-monitoring has focused on community level data. A range <strong>of</strong> biological indices has been used to simplify complex species lists into single numbers that are easily understood by non-biologists. <strong>The</strong> inset box provides a summary <strong>of</strong> the range <strong>of</strong> indices and metrics available with which to assess community well-being. Tools with specific relevance to assessing road transport effects Tools, which are specific to assessing road run<strong>of</strong>f effects on macro-invertebrate communities in stream environments, have not been identified in this review. <strong>The</strong> strength <strong>of</strong> invertebrate bio- Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
65 monitoring is in its ability to assess general effects <strong>of</strong> land use changes and activities. <strong>The</strong> inherent spatial and temporal variability <strong>of</strong> invertebrate communities limits their ability to isolate and quantify specific effects such as those associated with road run<strong>of</strong>f. It is unlikely therefore that assessing invertebrate community structure will provide meaningful data for isolating/quantifying the effect <strong>of</strong> road run<strong>of</strong>f. A number <strong>of</strong> the existing invertebrate bio-monitoring tools could be modified to reflect the specific effects associated with road run<strong>of</strong>f. Invertebrate bio-monitoring tools, which have the potential for development, include: Derivations <strong>of</strong> UQMCI that reflect the sensitivity <strong>of</strong> invertebrates to road run<strong>of</strong>f. Indicator species approach. A considerable amount <strong>of</strong> research would be required to develop these tools to a point that they were able to be used to isolate and quantify the effect <strong>of</strong> road run<strong>of</strong>f from general urban stormwater run<strong>of</strong>f. Overall, macro-invertebrate monitoring and assessment tools provide information on the overall state <strong>of</strong> the aquatic environment. In waterways with multiple inflows and other impacts the tools do not allow the effects <strong>of</strong> road run<strong>of</strong>f to be isolated. However, as with other tools, in situations where road run<strong>of</strong>f is isolated (e.g., in remote locations) or where an upstream-downstream comparison is possible, the tools may isolate effects associated with motor vehicle derived stormwater run<strong>of</strong>f. <strong>The</strong> latter assumes no confounding from other urban sources in run<strong>of</strong>f. Overall, the various studies that have examined macro-invertebrate communities below road and motorway discharges, have provided variable results with a number <strong>of</strong> studies not showing any identifiable adverse effect which could be attributable to stormwater run<strong>of</strong>f specifically associated with roads. Available information does show however, that urbanisation including changes in the total imperviousness <strong>of</strong> catchments result in substantial changes in the composition <strong>of</strong> macro-invertebrate communities in freshwater streams. Those changes are multi-faceted and reflect the various changes that occur as a consequence <strong>of</strong> urbanisation. <strong>Road</strong>s contribute to the changes observed in urban areas as roads constitute a key part <strong>of</strong> the imperviousness <strong>of</strong> urban areas. Within urban areas roads are likely to be a contributing factor to the impacted nature <strong>of</strong> freshwater macro-invertebrate communities observed in New Zealand. 6.2.5 Fish <strong>Effects</strong> <strong>of</strong> road run<strong>of</strong>f on freshwater fish populations Jellyman (1987a) characterised the types <strong>of</strong> water and habitat quality effects that result from various land use changes and activities that effect fishery values in New Zealand. <strong>The</strong> most significant effects associated with urban stormwater discharges include temperature, nutrients, turbidity, pH, dissolved oxygen. Shueler (2003) examines the effects <strong>of</strong> urbanisation (as percent imperviousness) <strong>of</strong> fish communities. Fish community changes are characterised by a shift to more pollution tolerant species and decreased survival <strong>of</strong> eggs and larvae. Schueler (2003) identifies a considerable number <strong>of</strong> studies undertaken principally in the US that have examined the impacts <strong>of</strong> changing impervious cover on freshwater fish communities. Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
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iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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vi MW Molecular weight N Nitrogen N
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Page 44 and 45: 34 (1995) provide a general review
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Page 48 and 49: 38 by ARC (1994) indicated that TPH
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Page 54 and 55: 44 5 PATHWAYS & FATE OF CONTAMINANT
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Page 60 and 61: 50 Figure 5.1 - Percentage
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Page 64 and 65: 54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
Page 66 and 67: 56 5.6 Summary The
Page 68 and 69: 58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
Page 70 and 71: 60 General Assessment Tools Commonl
Page 72 and 73: 62 3. Increasing sediment inputs. 4
Page 76 and 77: 66 Freshwater macro-invertebrate me
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Page 82 and 83: 72 one factor used to classify orga
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Page 92 and 93: 82 High molecular weight PAHs are t
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Page 98 and 99: 88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
Page 100 and 101: 90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
Page 102 and 103: 92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
Page 104 and 105: 94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
Page 106 and 107: 96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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Page 110 and 111: 100 trace metals (probably Cu and Z
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114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
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116 The quality <s
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118 International studies have show
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120 A number of st
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122 construction. Center for Resear
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124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
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126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
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128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
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130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
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132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
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134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
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136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
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138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
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140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
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142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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