The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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76 in stormwater and receiving waters (e.g., hydroxide and carbonate). Thirdly, guidelines for the protection <strong>of</strong> aquatic life are guidelines. USEPA criteria are national guidelines that allow for site specific criteria to be developed. <strong>The</strong> redrafted ANZECC guidelines have also adopted the approach <strong>of</strong> site specific guideline development. This contrasts with the approach taken in the 1992 ANZECC guidelines. Overall this approach recognises that a single standard, criteria or guideline is not necessarily appropriate in all situations. Stormwater quality data from urban areas and from roads and motorways has shown that dissolved concentrations <strong>of</strong> metals such as Cu and Zn can reach very high concentrations in the first flush <strong>of</strong> stormwater. Over the duration <strong>of</strong> storm events, the concentration <strong>of</strong> dissolved zinc is the most significant in relation to water quality guidelines such as ANZECC (2000). <strong>The</strong> regular exceedence <strong>of</strong> dissolved concentrations suggests the likelihood <strong>of</strong> adverse effects on freshwater biota. Much <strong>of</strong> the copper in stormwater may be complexed by dissolved organic matter. Only a limited proportion <strong>of</strong> the dissolved Zn is likely to be complexed leaving most as the dissolved cation. A wide range <strong>of</strong> organic compounds are present in urban and road stormwater. <strong>The</strong>re is appears to be little published evidence <strong>of</strong> organic compounds in roading stormwater (derived from vehicles) being toxic and causing adverse effects on freshwater biological communities. 6.3.4 Toxicity data and Toxicity Tests Toxicity tests can be used to assess the potential for stormwater discharges to have adverse effects within receiving waters. A number <strong>of</strong> studies have been conducted that provide information on the toxicity <strong>of</strong> urban and roadway run<strong>of</strong>f. Those studies involving isolated roadway or highway run<strong>of</strong>f provide information without the confounding effects <strong>of</strong> other sources in the urban environment. <strong>The</strong>se studies are described to illustrate that a variety <strong>of</strong> studies have identified toxicity in road and highway run<strong>of</strong>f. As noted in the previous section, exceedence or not <strong>of</strong> international guidelines for the protection <strong>of</strong> aquatic life does not imply that there will be, or not be toxicity. <strong>The</strong> guidelines are simply that, guidance to managers to manage environmental effects. A number <strong>of</strong> standard tests are available for assessing the toxicity <strong>of</strong> discharges and receiving waters. Reviews <strong>of</strong> toxicity testing and toxicity carried out in New Zealand are provided by Hickey & Roper (1994) and Hickey (2000). Hall (1998a,b) also reviewed the use <strong>of</strong> toxicity tests and the use <strong>of</strong> native New Zealand species in toxicity tests. Burton & Pitt (2002) provide an overview <strong>of</strong> toxicity in stormwater and provide a summary <strong>of</strong> toxicity testing methods. <strong>The</strong> authors identified a significant number <strong>of</strong> issues that influence the evaluation <strong>of</strong> toxicity test data for stormwater toxicity tests using traditional tests. <strong>The</strong>y identified limitations in many test methods. One <strong>of</strong> the key conclusions made was that exposure to sporadic pulses <strong>of</strong> contaminants (such as occur in stormwater) may produce toxicity greater than exposure to constant concentrations. <strong>The</strong>y also noted that “traditional toxicity testing may not produce reliable conclusions when used to detect the adverse effects <strong>of</strong>: fluctuating stressor exposures, nutrients, suspended solids, temperature, UV light, flow, mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, teratogenicity, endocrine disruption or other sub-cellular responses”. <strong>The</strong>y also concluded that ecologically significant levels <strong>of</strong> high kow compounds may not produce short-term responses in exposures and this dictates further evaluation <strong>of</strong> exposure effects in aquatic ecosystems. Crunkilton et al. (1999), Crunkilton & Kron (1999), Hickey (1999) and Brent & Herricks (1999) reviewed and discussed various aspects <strong>of</strong> stormwater toxicity. A number <strong>of</strong> key points were made by the authors. <strong>The</strong>se were: a) Measured toxicity in US cities using conventional acute and chronic tests typically fails to detect toxic effects. b) Longer term toxicity (7-14 days) are required to identify the potential for toxicity to arise from stormwater discharges. c) Test design may not be appropriate given the variable nature <strong>of</strong> storm events. Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
77 d) Causes <strong>of</strong> toxicity cannot be easily identified. International work Winters & Gidley (1980) examined the effects <strong>of</strong> highway run<strong>of</strong>f on algae using a five day bioassay. Run<strong>of</strong>f was at times stimulatory but inhibited growth in the case <strong>of</strong> heavily used highways. It was concluded that it was nutrients in the run<strong>of</strong>f that stimulated growth and metals that inhibited it. Evaluation <strong>of</strong> the effects <strong>of</strong> highway run-<strong>of</strong>f on the growth rate <strong>of</strong> the algae Seanastrum capricornutum demonstrated that growth was reduced upon exposure to stormwater (Portele et al. 1982). Rainbow trout exposed to filtered stormwater (to remove particulates) showed no adverse effects as a result <strong>of</strong> 4 day exposure. Significant mortalities occurred in 50 and 100% dilutions using unfiltered samples (Portele et al. 1982). Differences in toxicity between different sites were also found. Yousef et al. (1985) found that copper in the water <strong>of</strong> a highway retention pond was toxic to mosquito fish (Gambusio affinis). Kzos et al. (1990) examined the effect <strong>of</strong> run<strong>of</strong>f from a bridge to young bluegill sunfish using 12 day bioassays. <strong>The</strong> results did not demonstrate significant toxicity apart from run<strong>of</strong>f containing significant amounts <strong>of</strong> de-icing salts. Batley et al. (1994) examined the toxicity <strong>of</strong> filtered stormwater to green alga. No toxicity was observed even though the concentrations present would have indicated toxicity. In that case it was considered that the Mn and Fe in the waters reduced the potential toxic effect through binding or other process. Maltby et al. (1995b) examined toxicity in a stream receiving water from the M1 motorway and proposed that PAHs were more toxic to amphipods than metals. Pitt et al. (1995) reported the results <strong>of</strong> Microtox testing <strong>of</strong> stormwater samples from a range <strong>of</strong> urban impervious surfaces. It was found that filtration significantly reduced the stormwater toxicity. For roads 67% <strong>of</strong> the samples were considered moderately toxic and none highly toxic. For parking areas 19% <strong>of</strong> the samples were considered highly toxic and 31% moderately toxic. <strong>The</strong> authors undertook a series <strong>of</strong> simple tests and treatments to examine the changes in toxicity. Burton & Pitt (2002) also summarised toxicity testing using freshwater organisms. <strong>The</strong>y identified that 40% <strong>of</strong> all stormwater samples demonstrated toxicity to D magna. No toxicity was observed for a number <strong>of</strong> other species including Ceratodaphnia and Lemna minor. Lopes & Fossum (1995) reported on toxicity testing <strong>of</strong> urban run<strong>of</strong>f in Maracopa County, Arizona, identifying that first flush stormwater were generally more toxic than flow weighted composite samples. Toxicity was greater to fathead minnows (Pimaphales promelas) compared to Ceratodaphnia dubia. <strong>The</strong> authors reported that 71% <strong>of</strong> first flush samples were toxic to fathead minnows and 28% to C dubia. 36% <strong>of</strong> flow weighted composite samples were toxic to fathead minnows and 14% to C dubia. Toxic samples came mainly from areas <strong>of</strong> residential and commercial landuse. An influence fro recently re-sealed asphalt was identified as a possible cause in the observed toxicity. Examination <strong>of</strong> the likely causes <strong>of</strong> toxicity indicated that most <strong>of</strong> the toxicity was caused by organic compounds but dissolved metals also appeared to contribute. <strong>The</strong> authors indicated that organophosphate pesticides were not the cause <strong>of</strong> toxicity in their stormwater samples. Marsalek et al. (1997) examined the toxicity <strong>of</strong> urban run<strong>of</strong>f from a range <strong>of</strong> urban sites including two large highways (>100,000 VPD). In a comparison <strong>of</strong> the toxicity <strong>of</strong> urban stormwater compared to highway run<strong>of</strong>f, 20% <strong>of</strong> the highway samples were identified as severely toxic compared to 1% <strong>of</strong> the urban run<strong>of</strong>f samples. Table 6.7 provides a summary <strong>of</strong> the frequency <strong>of</strong> toxicity detection in a selection <strong>of</strong> the highway – roadway samples examined by Marsalek et al. (1997). One <strong>of</strong> the interesting results obtained in the work carried out by Marsalek et al. (1997) was the range <strong>of</strong> responses obtained. That study utilised a range <strong>of</strong> toxicity tests (Daphnia 48 hour acute; Microtox 15 Kingett Mitchell Ltd Resource & Environmental Consultants
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The Effect
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ii 4.2 Particulates in Urban Run<st
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iv 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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vi MW Molecular weight N Nitrogen N
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2 1. Moncrieff, I.; Kennedy, P. 200
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4 Table 2.1 - Contaminant Source Cl
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6 mg/kg) and Zn (25-34,500 mg/kg).
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20 to elevated concentrations in ty
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22 sample of overs
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24 suspension and that carried as b
Page 36 and 37: 26 Figure 4.1 - Variation in the co
Page 38 and 39: 28 Figure 4.2 - Variation in the co
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Page 42 and 43: 32 probably reflect lower traffic d
Page 44 and 45: 34 (1995) provide a general review
Page 46 and 47: 36 Further data can be found in the
Page 48 and 49: 38 by ARC (1994) indicated that TPH
Page 50 and 51: 40 Cations/Anions Common ionic cons
Page 52 and 53: 42 Catchpits Between the street sur
Page 54 and 55: 44 5 PATHWAYS & FATE OF CONTAMINANT
Page 56 and 57: 46 The material wh
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Page 60 and 61: 50 Figure 5.1 - Percentage
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Page 64 and 65: 54 5.4.2 Dispersion Dilution and di
Page 66 and 67: 56 5.6 Summary The
Page 68 and 69: 58 6.2 Freshwater Ecosystems 6.2.1
Page 70 and 71: 60 General Assessment Tools Commonl
Page 72 and 73: 62 3. Increasing sediment inputs. 4
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Page 82 and 83: 72 one factor used to classify orga
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Page 92 and 93: 82 High molecular weight PAHs are t
Page 94 and 95: 84 Note: Sources refer Table 5.2. F
Page 96 and 97: 86 Although a range of</str
Page 98 and 99: 88 Bioaccumulation can be assessed
Page 100 and 101: 90 Figure 6.2 - metal concentration
Page 102 and 103: 92 6.5.3 Bioaccumulation of
Page 104 and 105: 94 Water Stormwater quality data fr
Page 106 and 107: 96 7. IDENTIFICATION OF ENVIRONMENT
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Page 110 and 111: 100 trace metals (probably Cu and Z
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Page 122 and 123: 112 grazers such as mud flat snails
Page 124 and 125: 114 8. OVERVIEW 8.1 Vehicles as sou
Page 126 and 127: 116 The quality <s
Page 128 and 129: 118 International studies have show
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Page 132 and 133: 122 construction. Center for Resear
Page 134 and 135: 124 Carey, J.; Cook, P.; Ciesy, J.;
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126 Ellis, J. B. 1986: Pollutional
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128 Harrop D. O. 1984: Stormwater r
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130 Kennedy, P. C.; Kjellstrom, T.
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132 Maltby, L. A.; Boxall, D. M.; F
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134 Novotny, V.; Muehring, D.; Zito
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136 Ruck, J. 1998: Evaluation <stro
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138 Terracciano, S. A.; O’Brien,
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140 Webster, J. G.; Brown, K. L.; W
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142 10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks to
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The Effects of Road Transport on Freshwater and Marine Ecosystems

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