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ASIA-PACIFIC<br />
FISHERY<br />
COMMISSION<br />
<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the Pacific<br />
100 000<br />
80 000<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
60 000<br />
40 000<br />
Rest <strong>of</strong><br />
the world<br />
20 000<br />
0<br />
APFIC<br />
member<br />
1950<br />
1955<br />
1960<br />
1965<br />
1970<br />
1975<br />
1980<br />
1985<br />
1990<br />
1995<br />
2000
RAP PUBLICATION 2006/22<br />
<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific 2006<br />
Rob<strong>in</strong> Lungren, Derek Staples, Simon Funge-Smith & Jesper Clausen<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />
Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
Bangkok, 2006<br />
1
The designation <strong>and</strong> presentation <strong>of</strong> material <strong>in</strong> this publication do not imply the expression <strong>of</strong><br />
any op<strong>in</strong>ion whatsoever on the part <strong>of</strong> the Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g the legal status <strong>of</strong> any country, territory, city or area <strong>of</strong> its authorities, or concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the delimitation <strong>of</strong> its frontiers <strong>and</strong> boundaries.<br />
All rights reserved. Reproduction <strong>and</strong> dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> material <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>formation product for<br />
educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission<br />
from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction <strong>of</strong> material<br />
<strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>formation product for sale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written<br />
permission <strong>of</strong> the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to<br />
the Secretary, <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission, <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific,<br />
Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thail<strong>and</strong> or by E-mail to fao.rap@fao.<strong>org</strong>.<br />
© <strong>FAO</strong> 2006<br />
For copies please write to:<br />
The Secretary<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road<br />
Bangkok 10200<br />
THAILAND<br />
Tel: (+66) 2 697 4119<br />
Fax: (+66) 2 697 4445<br />
E-mail: fao.rap@fao.<strong>org</strong><br />
ii
Foreword<br />
The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) provides its members with a regular overview <strong>of</strong><br />
the status <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Fish <strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
are important <strong>in</strong> supply<strong>in</strong>g animal prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> nutrition to a large part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n-Pacific<br />
populations, <strong>and</strong> are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g an important source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come <strong>and</strong> trade for the region.<br />
The region currently produces almost 50 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s fish from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
over 90 percent from <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
The region is very diverse <strong>and</strong> considerable differences exist with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> among the seas <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region. However, despite this diversity there are also many common trends that will have<br />
a large impact on the future <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region. One alarm<strong>in</strong>g trend is the<br />
rapid decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> coastal fishery resources <strong>and</strong> ecosystems throughout the region.<br />
Aquaculture production cont<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>crease at a rapid rate, with a large part <strong>of</strong> this <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g driven by massive growth <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a. However, there are now several constra<strong>in</strong>ts that threaten<br />
its future growth. For example, <strong>aquaculture</strong> growth is dependent on the use <strong>of</strong> “trash fish” for<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g the cultured species (either directly or by processed fish meal/oil), <strong>and</strong> is not susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
<strong>in</strong> the long-term unless major changes take place <strong>in</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> practices.<br />
This 2006 report provides an update <strong>of</strong> the major trends <strong>and</strong> future <strong>potential</strong> for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> provides an <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to the many challenges that will<br />
need to be addressed if <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> are to cont<strong>in</strong>ue to contribute significantly to<br />
food security <strong>and</strong> poverty reduction <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
He Changchui<br />
Assistant Director-General <strong>and</strong> Regional Representative<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
iii
Preparation <strong>of</strong> this document<br />
This document was prepared for the Twenty-n<strong>in</strong>th session <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC),<br />
which was held <strong>in</strong> Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 21 to 23 August 2006. APFIC has assumed a new role as<br />
a “regional consultative forum”, <strong>and</strong> is endeavour<strong>in</strong>g to respond effectively to the chang<strong>in</strong>g requirements<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector <strong>in</strong> the region. In support <strong>of</strong> the work <strong>of</strong> the Forum, APFIC is<br />
committed to improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation on the status <strong>and</strong> trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
the region <strong>and</strong> to regularly review<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation. This document is aimed at <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g<br />
APFIC member States <strong>of</strong> the current status <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region as well as the emerg<strong>in</strong>g issues fac<strong>in</strong>g the sector.<br />
Abstract<br />
Lundgren, R., Staples, D.J., Funge-Smith, S.J. & Clausen, J. 2006. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific 2006. <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the Pacific. RAP PUBLICATION 2006/22. 62pp.<br />
The <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> fundamental importance to the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />
Production from both capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> has grown s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002 (3 percent for capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> 14 percent for <strong>aquaculture</strong>). In 2004, the region contributed 49 percent <strong>of</strong> the global<br />
production <strong>of</strong> captured fish (46.7 million tonnes) <strong>and</strong> 91 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> (54.3 million<br />
tonnes).<br />
This huge production (<strong>and</strong> value) provides many opportunities for revenue generation, employment,<br />
<strong>and</strong> should contribute significantly to poverty reduction <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased food security <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
However, there are many challenges that need to be met to make this a reality.<br />
Us<strong>in</strong>g regional fishery data <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation collated by <strong>FAO</strong>, this report provides a comprehensive<br />
picture <strong>of</strong> production trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> reviews the current status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
resources <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> species <strong>and</strong> their contribution to national economies <strong>and</strong> food security.<br />
This is illustrated by a detailed view <strong>of</strong> sub-regions <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production by species groups.<br />
The report also elaborates on two emerg<strong>in</strong>g issues that require closer attention <strong>in</strong> the future to<br />
ensure susta<strong>in</strong>able development <strong>of</strong> the sector – illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong> unregulated (IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> food safety <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
iv
Geographical scope <strong>of</strong> this review<br />
States <strong>and</strong> areas<br />
This review covers the States <strong>and</strong> entities <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region that report <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
statistics to <strong>FAO</strong>, <strong>and</strong> which are with<strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> competence <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission.<br />
They are sub-divided <strong>in</strong>to the follow<strong>in</strong>g sub-regions;<br />
Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Christmas Isl<strong>and</strong>, Cocos (Keel<strong>in</strong>g) Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Fiji,<br />
French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Federated States <strong>of</strong> Micronesia (FSM), Nauru,<br />
New Caledonia, New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, Niue, Norfolk Isl<strong>and</strong>, Northern Mariana Is., Palau, Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />
(PNG), Pitcairn Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Samoa, Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, <strong>and</strong> Wallis <strong>and</strong><br />
Futuna Is.<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong>: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan <strong>and</strong> Sri Lanka<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR (People’s Democratic Republic),<br />
Malaysia, Myanmar, Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, S<strong>in</strong>gapore, Thail<strong>and</strong>, Timor-Leste <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a: Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (People’s Republic <strong>of</strong>), Hong Kong SAR (Semi-autonomous Region) <strong>and</strong><br />
Taiwan POC (Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a)<br />
Other <strong>Asia</strong>: Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea DPR (Democratic People’s Republic <strong>of</strong>), Mongolia,<br />
Korea, RO (Republic <strong>of</strong>), Tajikistan <strong>and</strong> Uzbekistan<br />
Production areas<br />
In cases where the fish<strong>in</strong>g occurs on the high sea or <strong>in</strong> Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) under access<br />
agreements, although the production is assigned to the flag vessel, the catches made outside the regional<br />
area mentioned above are excluded from this review. The regional area covers the <strong>FAO</strong> Major Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Areas (MFA) as follows:<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters: <strong>Asia</strong> – Inl<strong>and</strong> waters (MFA 04)<br />
Oceania – Inl<strong>and</strong> waters (MFA 06)<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters: Western/Eastern Indian Ocean (MFA 51 <strong>and</strong> 57)<br />
Northwest, Western/Eastern Central <strong>and</strong> (MFA 61, 71, 77 <strong>and</strong> 81)<br />
Southwest Pacific Ocean<br />
Species<br />
Data on aquatic mammals, aquatic plants, corals, pearls, sponges <strong>and</strong> crocodiles from capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
are excluded.<br />
v
Table <strong>of</strong> contents<br />
Page<br />
FOREWORD ...............................................................................................................................................<br />
PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT ......................................................................................................<br />
GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE OF THIS REVIEW ............................................................................................<br />
iii<br />
iv<br />
v<br />
1. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION ...... 1<br />
1.1 CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL ECONOMIES............................................................................................. 1<br />
1.2 CONTRIBUTION TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND FOOD SECURITY ................................................................ 3<br />
2. PRODUCTION TRENDS OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE .................................................. 5<br />
2.1 CAPTURE FISHERIES PRODUCTION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION .............................................................. 5<br />
2.2 AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION...................................................................... 8<br />
2.3 STATUS AND TRENDS BY SUBREGIONS ................................................................................................. 11<br />
3. STATUS OF RESOURCES................................................................................................................ 23<br />
MARINE WATERS ............................................................................................................................. 23<br />
3.1 ASSESSING THE STATUS OF FISHERY RESOURCES................................................................................... 23<br />
3.2 EVIDENCE FROM STOCK ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................ 23<br />
3.3 EVIDENCE FROM HISTORIC TRAWL SURVEYS .......................................................................................... 23<br />
3.4 EVIDENCE FROM LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS....................................................................................... 25<br />
3.5 EVIDENCE FROM FISHER’S PERCEPTIONS .............................................................................................. 32<br />
INLAND WATERS ............................................................................................................................. 35<br />
3.6 WATER RESOURCES ......................................................................................................................... 35<br />
3.7 FISHERY RESOURCES ....................................................................................................................... 35<br />
4. STATUS OF AQUACULTURE ........................................................................................................... 37<br />
4.1 CARNIVOROUS SPECIES OR SPECIES REQUIRING HIGHER PRODUCTION INPUTS ............................................. 37<br />
4.2 FINFISH REQUIRING LOWER INPUTS ..................................................................................................... 39<br />
4.3 CRUSTACEANS ................................................................................................................................ 41<br />
4.4 MOLLUSCS .................................................................................................................................... 43<br />
4.5 AQUATIC PLANTS ............................................................................................................................. 43<br />
4.6 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ............................................................................................................... 44<br />
4.7 NICHE AQUACULTURE SPECIES ........................................................................................................... 45<br />
5. SELECTED ISSUES FACING FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 46<br />
5.1 ILLEGAL, UNREPORTED AND UNREGULATED FISHING (IUU) IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION .............................. 46<br />
5.2 SEAFOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY IN THE CONTEXT OF TRADE ..................................................................... 53<br />
6. OUTLOOK FOR FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ....................... 59<br />
6.1 GLOBAL AND REGIONAL PREDICTIONS.................................................................................................. 59<br />
6.2 UNEXPLOITED FISHERIES ................................................................................................................... 59<br />
6.3 SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES .................................................................................................................. 60<br />
6.4 AQUACULTURE ................................................................................................................................ 61<br />
vii
Table <strong>of</strong> contents (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />
Page<br />
Tables<br />
Table 1. Contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> to GDP (2004) ......................................... 1<br />
Table 2. Top five trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (World) ................................................................................... 4<br />
Table 3. Top ten seafood trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (APFIC region) ......................................................... 4<br />
Table 4. Estimates <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (tonnes) ................................... 7<br />
Table 5. Top twenty capture production ................................................................................................ 9<br />
Table 6. Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producers States <strong>in</strong> (2004) ..................................................................... 10<br />
Table 7. Top twenty cultured species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by quantity ............................................ 12<br />
Table 8. South <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species ..................................................... 14<br />
Table 9. Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .............................................. 14<br />
Table 10. Ch<strong>in</strong>a capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .............................................................. 16<br />
Table 11. Unidentified capture production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ............................................................................... 18<br />
Table 12. Other <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species ...................................................... 19<br />
Table 13. Oceania capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .......................................................... 22<br />
Table 14. Summary <strong>of</strong> stock assessments <strong>in</strong> selected APFIC countries............................................... 24<br />
Table 15. Comparison <strong>of</strong> catch, revenues, costs <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its ................................................................. 26<br />
Table 16. The large mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific ................................................................... 28<br />
Table 17. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean............ 34<br />
Table 18. Aquaculture production reported under “mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei” ................................................. 39<br />
Table 19. Tilapia top eight producer States (2004) ................................................................................. 40<br />
Table 20. Countries export<strong>in</strong>g tilapia (2004) ........................................................................................... 40<br />
Table 21. Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs top ten producer States (2004) ................................................................... 40<br />
Table 22. Milkfish top four producer States (2004) ................................................................................. 41<br />
Table 23. Penaeid Shrimp to ten producer States (2004)....................................................................... 42<br />
Table 24. Freshwater prawn top eight producer States (2004) .............................................................. 42<br />
Table 25. Lower value molluscs top ten producer (2002) ....................................................................... 43<br />
Table 26. Higher value molluscs top ten producer (2002) ...................................................................... 43<br />
Table 27. Aquatic plants top ten producer States (2004) ....................................................................... 44<br />
Table 28. Aquatic plants top ten cultured species (2004) ...................................................................... 44<br />
Table 29. Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species (2004) ........................................................................................... 45<br />
Table 30. Number <strong>of</strong> rejections at the border <strong>of</strong> EU from 1999-2002.................................................... 54<br />
viii
Table <strong>of</strong> contents (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />
Page<br />
Figures<br />
Figure 1. Net exporters <strong>and</strong> net importers <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region ........................................................... 4<br />
Figure 2. Trends <strong>in</strong> global capture production....................................................................................... 7<br />
Figure 3. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by sub-region outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a .................................................. 7<br />
Figure 4. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by species group outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a ............................................ 9<br />
Figure 5. Trends <strong>in</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production ................................................................................ 10<br />
Figure 6. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by environment ...................... 10<br />
Figure 7. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ................................................ 13<br />
Figure 8. Capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................................................ 13<br />
Figure 9. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups .......................... 13<br />
Figure 10. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> major species <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> ....................................................... 13<br />
Figure 11. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ......................................... 15<br />
Figure 12. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ......................................... 15<br />
Figure 13. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups ............... 15<br />
Figure 14. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................... 15<br />
Figure 15. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment ........................................................ 17<br />
Figure 16. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by major species groups ........................................................ 17<br />
Figure 17. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment ................................................. 17<br />
Figure 18. Trends <strong>in</strong> top eight cultured species <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ........................................................................ 17<br />
Figure 19. Trends <strong>in</strong> major cultured carnivorous species production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ...................................... 17<br />
Figure 20. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ................................................. 20<br />
Figure 21. Capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................................................. 20<br />
Figure 22. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups ....................... 20<br />
Figure 23. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ........................... 20<br />
Figure 24. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by environment .................................................... 21<br />
Figure 25. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by major species groups .................................................... 21<br />
Figure 26. Trawl surveys <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region ........................................................................................... 24<br />
Figure 27. Decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the abundance <strong>of</strong> fish .......................................................................................... 26<br />
Figure 28. Changes <strong>in</strong> the composition <strong>of</strong> the top ten species .............................................................. 26<br />
Figure 29. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Kuroshio Current LME ........................................................ 33<br />
Figure 30. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Yellow Sea LME.................................................................. 33<br />
Figure 31. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME ............................................................ 33<br />
Figure 32. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Southeast Australia LME ................................................... 34<br />
Figure 33. Trend <strong>in</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g by species for mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR ................................................ 39<br />
Figure 34. <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacifc region show<strong>in</strong>g the high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Indian Oceans <strong>and</strong><br />
national Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) <strong>and</strong> Territorial Seas .......................................... 48<br />
ix
1. Contributions <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the last APFIC publication on “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific”<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004, capture <strong>fisheries</strong> have seen a small <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> production while <strong>aquaculture</strong> has cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
to grow at a rapid rate. Both capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sectors cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be <strong>of</strong> fundamental<br />
importance to the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> food security, revenue generation <strong>and</strong> employment. In<br />
many <strong>of</strong> the countries, catch<strong>in</strong>g or farm<strong>in</strong>g aquatic resources forms a vital part <strong>of</strong> rural people’s livelihoods.<br />
Fisheries <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> also have a deep cultural significance <strong>and</strong> are more than just a source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come<br />
or food supply; traditional fishery products such as fish sauce <strong>and</strong> fish-based condiments have always<br />
been important <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>of</strong> people’s daily diet which are not easily substituted. All sizes <strong>and</strong> types <strong>of</strong><br />
fish are utilised <strong>in</strong> a wide variety <strong>of</strong> ways <strong>and</strong> there is very little discard or wastage. The role that fish play<br />
<strong>in</strong> both the food security <strong>and</strong> nutritional security <strong>of</strong> many rural <strong>and</strong> coastal populations has <strong>of</strong>ten been<br />
underestimated <strong>in</strong> the past. It is also now recognised that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> are an important<br />
contributor to the national economies for some APFIC member countries, especially <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region.<br />
Fish products are also the most heavily traded natural food commodity <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>and</strong> trade issues<br />
<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g fish are becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important.<br />
1.1 Contribution to national economies<br />
Although not recognised as a major contributor to<br />
GDP <strong>in</strong> many countries, <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production is an important contributor to some<br />
national economies across the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />
Estimates <strong>of</strong> the capture production value 1 <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />
that the contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> to GDP<br />
accounts for more than one percent <strong>in</strong> many States<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region (Table 1). The <strong>fisheries</strong> sector plays<br />
a critical role <strong>in</strong> the national economies <strong>of</strong> Small<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> Develop<strong>in</strong>g States (SIDS). The economic<br />
contribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production tends to be<br />
less <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>and</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong>n States, yet<br />
there are still eight <strong>of</strong> these States to which<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> contribute more than one percent <strong>of</strong><br />
GDP. It is also worth not<strong>in</strong>g that these figures for<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> value are probably underestimated <strong>and</strong><br />
do not adequately value the artisanal part <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sector. Overall, it is clear that more policy attention<br />
should be paid to this important production sector.<br />
Aquaculture also makes an important contribution<br />
to GDP <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region <strong>and</strong> it is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. In<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n States, the production accounts for over one<br />
percent <strong>of</strong> GDP <strong>in</strong> six States. Statistics related to<br />
export <strong>in</strong>come from <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are not<br />
generally available <strong>and</strong> this affects the estimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the contribution to foreign currency earn<strong>in</strong>gs<br />
through exports <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />
Table 1<br />
Contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> to GDP (2004)<br />
Production value as percent <strong>of</strong> GDP 2<br />
Capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
Aquaculture<br />
Kiribati 36.171 Lao PDR 6.330<br />
Marshall Is. 24.768 Viet Nam 5.166<br />
Maldives 19.312 Bangladesh 2.399<br />
Vanuatu 18.891 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 2.102<br />
Solomon Is. 11.048 Myanmar 1.241<br />
FSM 10.535 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1.020<br />
Cambodia 7.884 Cambodia 0.914<br />
Tuvalu 4.774 Indonesia 0.842<br />
PNG 4.636 Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 0.769<br />
Viet Nam 3.897 Korea DPR 0.520<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 2.217 India 0.437<br />
Tonga 2.152 Nepal 0.385<br />
Indonesia 1.835 New Caledonia 0.378<br />
Bangladesh 1.762 New Zeal<strong>and</strong> 0.318<br />
Myanmar 1.721 Taiwan POC 0.305<br />
Samoa 1.632 Malaysia 0.283<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 1.590 Iran 0.198<br />
Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s 1.548 Sri Lanka 0.195<br />
Korea DPR 1.465 Korea RO 0.147<br />
Sri Lanka 1.281<br />
Fiji 1.208<br />
Lao PDR 1.163<br />
1 The data to quantify the value <strong>of</strong> capture production is not<br />
readily available for many States. As <strong>in</strong>dicative figures, unit<br />
value <strong>of</strong> 0.8 US$ per kg was applied for this estimation <strong>of</strong><br />
capture production value.<br />
2 GDP values <strong>in</strong> 2003 calculated from the ESCAP <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />
statistics except Taiwan POC.<br />
1
It is clear that the State list<strong>in</strong>gs above also closely<br />
match those States which export considerable<br />
amounts <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products (particularly<br />
shrimp). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is an exception <strong>in</strong> this case<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products it<br />
produces are consumed domestically, although<br />
there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend towards export<br />
focussed products.<br />
It should be noted that besides mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a considerable contribution to the national<br />
economies <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> earn<strong>in</strong>gs from export <strong>of</strong><br />
products from <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>, these<br />
figures <strong>of</strong>ten mask the real importance to the<br />
national economy <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> poverty alleviation<br />
<strong>and</strong> nutritional benefits.<br />
Employment, <strong>in</strong>come <strong>and</strong> trade<br />
Very little <strong>in</strong>formation on employment <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> exists <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
<strong>and</strong> only a few States report the number <strong>of</strong> fishers<br />
<strong>and</strong> fish farmers. Despite this, there are clear<br />
<strong>in</strong>dications that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> play<br />
a substantial role <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g vital <strong>in</strong>come<br />
generation opportunities to the people. For<br />
example, Ch<strong>in</strong>a, the country with the highest<br />
number <strong>of</strong> fishers <strong>and</strong> fish farmers, had an<br />
estimated 12.2 million engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004, account<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
about 30 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s total. In India,<br />
7.9 million <strong>of</strong> male <strong>and</strong> 2.7 million <strong>of</strong> female<br />
workers were directly engaged <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> fish<br />
farm<strong>in</strong>g. In the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector<br />
provides direct <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct employment to over<br />
one million people, or about 12 percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
agriculture, fishery <strong>and</strong> forestry sector workforce 3<br />
<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Viet Nam more than 1 million people are<br />
employed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry. 4<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> (2004) 5 estimated that <strong>Asia</strong> accounted for<br />
87 percent <strong>of</strong> the total global number <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
(total 38 million). [new figures will be published<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>FAO</strong> (<strong>in</strong> press) 6 ]. These figures typically<br />
represent full time fishers <strong>and</strong> those for whom<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g is a highly significant activity as well as<br />
full time <strong>aquaculture</strong> farmers. The figures for<br />
people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> seasonally or as<br />
a supplemental part <strong>of</strong> a more diverse livelihood<br />
3<br />
Bureau <strong>of</strong> Fisheries <strong>and</strong> Aquatic Resources <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es<br />
http://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/programs/gma_fisprogrm/fish_<br />
sector.htm<br />
4<br />
MOFI 2006.<br />
5<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA <strong>FAO</strong> Rome 2004.<br />
6<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA <strong>FAO</strong> Rome (<strong>in</strong> press).<br />
are difficult to estimate <strong>and</strong> are <strong>of</strong>ten not recorded.<br />
Figures, therefore, represent lower thresholds.<br />
However, although the number <strong>of</strong> people employed<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> has<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> several countries <strong>in</strong> the region, the<br />
number <strong>in</strong> developed countries such as Japan has<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed (a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> over 50 percent between<br />
1970 <strong>and</strong> 2004).<br />
In addition to those people <strong>in</strong>volved directly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
primary production sector, it should be noted that<br />
there are a number <strong>of</strong> people who are engaged<br />
<strong>in</strong> the support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> such as boat build<strong>in</strong>g, ice mak<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
feed manufactur<strong>in</strong>g, process<strong>in</strong>g, market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />
As dem<strong>and</strong> outstrips supply, the price <strong>of</strong> fish is<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g worldwide <strong>and</strong> fish is becom<strong>in</strong>g a “cash<br />
crop”. In many cases, the more marketable fish<br />
are be<strong>in</strong>g sold to provide <strong>in</strong>come that is used to<br />
purchase other more affordable food items.<br />
Fisheries <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> therefore both act to<br />
secure nutritious food for rural <strong>and</strong> coastal<br />
populations <strong>and</strong> to alleviate poverty. This is<br />
discussed <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> section 1.2.<br />
Fish products are highly traded commodities <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g valuable foreign<br />
exchange earn<strong>in</strong>gs to export<strong>in</strong>g States. In fact, fish<br />
products are the most highly traded natural<br />
commodity globally <strong>and</strong> trade is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. Total<br />
world trade reached a record value <strong>of</strong> US$71.5<br />
billion (export value) <strong>in</strong> 2004. This was a 23 percent<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease relative to 2000.<br />
The five top global markets for fish are Japan, USA,<br />
<strong>and</strong> the EU counties <strong>of</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>, France <strong>and</strong> Italy. In<br />
terms <strong>of</strong> exports, two APFIC countries are <strong>in</strong> the<br />
top five (Table 2).<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has been the top exporter <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1999, exports reach<strong>in</strong>g US$6.8 billion <strong>in</strong><br />
2004. Thail<strong>and</strong> is the second largest exporter,<br />
followed by Viet Nam export<strong>in</strong>g US$4.1 billion <strong>and</strong><br />
US$2.4 billion tonnes respectively <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />
(Table 3). With<strong>in</strong> the region Japan is ma<strong>in</strong> market<br />
<strong>and</strong> is followed by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Korea RO <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />
Hong Kong SAR. Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> top the<br />
exporters list.<br />
Exports totalled US$22.2 billion, while imports<br />
totalled US$26.0 billion with<strong>in</strong> the top ten States<br />
<strong>in</strong> region. Many <strong>of</strong> the countries, especially Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />
now import large quantities <strong>of</strong> fish meal to fuel its<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> growth.<br />
2
Many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries have now become net<br />
exporters <strong>of</strong> fish, rather than net importers, a trend<br />
most evident <strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> region.<br />
Figure 1 shows the difference between the imports<br />
<strong>and</strong> exports for the top trad<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region. The quantity <strong>of</strong> imported <strong>fisheries</strong> products<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR exceeded that <strong>of</strong> exported products<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004; however, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR achieved a remarkable<br />
trade surplus <strong>of</strong> US$3.6 billion from <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
products, which is an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> US$1.2 billion<br />
from 2002, <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> the strong value add<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that occurred <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />
Trade for fish is particularly important <strong>in</strong> Small<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong> Develop<strong>in</strong>g States (SIDS) where l<strong>and</strong>-based<br />
resources are very limited – the contribution <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> products can be as high was as high as<br />
80 percent <strong>of</strong> total exported commodities <strong>of</strong> the<br />
State. Other countries with a trade surplus <strong>of</strong> this<br />
size are the big net exporters such as Indonesia,<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam.<br />
1.2 Contribution to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong><br />
food security<br />
Importance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector <strong>in</strong> poverty<br />
alleviation<br />
Although rapid economic growth <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> India <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, has lifted a large<br />
number <strong>of</strong> people out <strong>of</strong> poverty, almost 690 million<br />
people still live on less than US$1 a day <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific. Almost all analyses on poverty<br />
alleviation conclude that economic growth by<br />
itself will not be sufficient to alleviate poverty <strong>and</strong><br />
reduce food <strong>in</strong>security unless targeted pro-poor<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventions are also applied. <strong>FAO</strong> 7 has just<br />
published another <strong>in</strong> its series <strong>of</strong> Technical<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es to support the implementation <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Code <strong>of</strong> Conduct for Responsible Fisheries that<br />
outl<strong>in</strong>es how the contribution <strong>of</strong> small-scale<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong> food security<br />
can be <strong>in</strong>creased. It advocates a vision <strong>in</strong> which<br />
small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>potential</strong> to contribute to<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able development is fully realised. It<br />
recommends greater emphasis on legislation <strong>and</strong><br />
policy to support the poor <strong>and</strong> advocates (i) better<br />
management that <strong>in</strong>cludes manag<strong>in</strong>g small-scale<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>; (ii) mak<strong>in</strong>g markets work for the poor;<br />
(iii) f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g poverty alleviation; <strong>and</strong> (iv) appropriate<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation, research <strong>and</strong> communication.<br />
Importance <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> human nutrition<br />
The fact that fish is <strong>of</strong> high nutritional value is<br />
well known. Less well-known is the significant<br />
contribution that it makes to the diet <strong>of</strong> many<br />
fish-consum<strong>in</strong>g communities <strong>in</strong> both the developed<br />
<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g world.<br />
Fish provides high quality prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> a wide<br />
variety <strong>of</strong> vitam<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vitam<strong>in</strong>s A <strong>and</strong> D, phosphorus, magnesium,<br />
selenium, <strong>and</strong> iod<strong>in</strong>e, especially <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish.<br />
Fish is also a valuable source <strong>of</strong> essential fatty<br />
acids <strong>and</strong> its prote<strong>in</strong> is easily digestible.<br />
Even <strong>in</strong> small quantities, fish can have a significant<br />
positive impact on improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>of</strong> dietary<br />
prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>take by complement<strong>in</strong>g the essential<br />
am<strong>in</strong>o acids that are <strong>of</strong>ten present <strong>in</strong> low quantities<br />
<strong>in</strong> the rice-<strong>and</strong>-vegetable diets typical <strong>of</strong> many<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g States. In particular, fish is a rich<br />
source <strong>of</strong> lys<strong>in</strong>e which is an essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid<br />
that is <strong>of</strong>ten deficient <strong>in</strong> rice diets with little animal<br />
prote<strong>in</strong>.<br />
Recent research shows that fish is much more than<br />
just an alternative source <strong>of</strong> animal prote<strong>in</strong>. Fish<br />
oils <strong>in</strong> fatty fish are the richest source <strong>of</strong> a type <strong>of</strong><br />
fat that is vital for bra<strong>in</strong> development <strong>in</strong> unborn<br />
babies <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants. This makes all fish <strong>and</strong><br />
especially fatty fish, such as tuna, mackerel <strong>and</strong><br />
sard<strong>in</strong>e, particularly good components <strong>of</strong> the diet<br />
<strong>of</strong> pregnant <strong>and</strong> lactat<strong>in</strong>g women. It is therefore<br />
apparent that fish makes a valuable contribution to<br />
the nutritional quality <strong>of</strong> the diets <strong>of</strong> the populations<br />
<strong>of</strong> many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region.<br />
7<br />
<strong>FAO</strong>, 2005. Increas<strong>in</strong>g the contribution <strong>of</strong> small-scale<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong> food security. <strong>FAO</strong><br />
Technical Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Responsible Fisheries 10.<br />
3
Table 2<br />
Top five trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (World)<br />
Imports<br />
Exports<br />
Country (Million US$) Country (Million US$)<br />
1 Japan 14 830 1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 6 780<br />
2 USA 12 079 2 Norway 4 171<br />
3 Spa<strong>in</strong> 5 239 3 Thail<strong>and</strong> 4 053<br />
4 France 4 217 4 USA 3 693<br />
5 Italy 3 919 5 Peru
2. Production trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be the world’s largest producer <strong>of</strong> fish. In 2004, this amounted to<br />
87.1 million tonnes – 46.7 million tonnes from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> 40.4 million tonnes from <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
[total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production less aquatic plants]. This represents 49 percent <strong>and</strong> 89 percent <strong>of</strong> the global<br />
production, respectively. When aquatic plants are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the total <strong>aquaculture</strong> figures, <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production outstrips that <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> for the first time (total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> 54.3 million<br />
tonnes <strong>and</strong> 91 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s production).<br />
Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased by 3 percent over that <strong>of</strong> 2002 (driven ma<strong>in</strong>ly by growth <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>)<br />
<strong>and</strong> 14 percent for total <strong>aquaculture</strong> (driven ma<strong>in</strong>ly by growth <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>). Of the top<br />
ten producers <strong>of</strong> capture fish, five States were from the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (Ch<strong>in</strong>a (1 st ), Indonesia (5 th ),<br />
Japan (6 th ), India (7 th ) <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> (9 th ). For <strong>aquaculture</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a alone is reported to have produced<br />
70 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production (about four times greater than Peru’s <strong>fisheries</strong> production,<br />
the number two fishery producer worldwide).<br />
The <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region are dom<strong>in</strong>ated by pelagic species – <strong>in</strong> many sub-regions it is small<br />
pelagics that are the dom<strong>in</strong>ant group. The proportion <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> many areas,<br />
a trend that is meet<strong>in</strong>g the grow<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> for these fish for livestock/<strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds. Freshwater<br />
fish dom<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>aquaculture</strong> production. As expected, there is considerable variation <strong>in</strong> general trends<br />
among the five ma<strong>in</strong> sub-regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific. Production from Ch<strong>in</strong>a, South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Southeast<br />
<strong>Asia</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to grow. Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production from Japan, Korea DPR <strong>and</strong> Korea RO have shown<br />
a steady decl<strong>in</strong>e over many years, while <strong>aquaculture</strong> production has rema<strong>in</strong>ed relatively stable. Oceania’s<br />
production is m<strong>in</strong>or compared with the other sub-regions, but cont<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>crease, although many <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Pacific small isl<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States, that operate at a subsistence level, are not recorded.<br />
2.1 Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
Production from the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region’s capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> has <strong>in</strong>creased by 1.3 million tonnes s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
2002 <strong>and</strong> totalled 46.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. This<br />
represents an overall 3 percent <strong>in</strong>crease over that<br />
<strong>of</strong> 2002. Inl<strong>and</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> have <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
by 5 percent while that <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>creased by only 2.5 percent.<br />
The region has been the world’s largest producer<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish for decades, <strong>and</strong> contributed 49 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
global production <strong>in</strong> 2004. Of the top ten producers<br />
<strong>of</strong> capture fish <strong>in</strong> the world, five States come from<br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific area, namely Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (1 st ),<br />
Indonesia (5 th ), Japan (6 th ), India (7 th ) <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
(9 th ). Total capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production has steadily<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased s<strong>in</strong>ce 1950, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from the mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
capture <strong>fisheries</strong> sector (Figure 2). In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
waters, the regional share has had a m<strong>in</strong>or<br />
decrease to 64.1 percent.<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is still by far the largest producer <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region with a reported production <strong>of</strong> 16.9 million<br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, represent<strong>in</strong>g 37 percent <strong>of</strong> regional<br />
production. This is more than three times greater<br />
than the second largest producer <strong>in</strong> the region –<br />
Indonesia. Because <strong>of</strong> this enormous scale <strong>of</strong><br />
production, Ch<strong>in</strong>a 1 is treated as a dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />
sub-region <strong>in</strong> this review.<br />
Top ten producers <strong>of</strong> capture fish <strong>in</strong> 2004 were<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Peru, USA, Chile, Indonesia, Japan,<br />
India, Russian Federation, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Norway;<br />
five <strong>of</strong> these are <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />
The top ten producers amount to 58 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
the total global production.<br />
With the exception <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, total capture fishery<br />
production from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters peaked <strong>in</strong> 1989 at<br />
25.5 million tonnes <strong>and</strong> then gradually decl<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
However, there appears to have been a gradual<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> recent years <strong>and</strong> has almost reached<br />
the same level <strong>of</strong> 1989 aga<strong>in</strong>, i.e. 25.2 million<br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
As seen <strong>in</strong> Figure 3, Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> has cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease production <strong>and</strong> has ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />
largest share (exclud<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>a) <strong>of</strong> the APFIC region<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce 1994. Growth <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> has occurred but<br />
1<br />
In this document, “Ch<strong>in</strong>a” refers to the sub-region that<br />
<strong>in</strong>cludes Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Hong Kong SAR, Macao SAR <strong>and</strong><br />
Taiwan POC.<br />
5
is relatively slow. The “other <strong>Asia</strong>” sub-region used<br />
to be the top contributor to the region, but has<br />
experienced a serious <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />
production s<strong>in</strong>ce 1988.<br />
The recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong> over<br />
figures for 2002 has occurred ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Southeast<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>, <strong>in</strong> particular Indonesia (12 percent <strong>in</strong>crease),<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (9.5 percent), Viet Nam (10 percent),<br />
Myanmar (10 percent). Major <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> catch<br />
have also occurred <strong>in</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the previously m<strong>in</strong>or<br />
producers <strong>in</strong> the Pacific such as the Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Tuvalu <strong>and</strong> Vanuatu that have<br />
all witnessed <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>of</strong> over 50 percent as<br />
a result <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g share <strong>of</strong> the tuna catch.<br />
Major decreases have been reported by India<br />
(-5.1 percent), Korea RO (-6.0 percent), New<br />
Zeal<strong>and</strong> (-6.35 percent) <strong>and</strong> Pakistan (-7.7 percent).<br />
In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters, global capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
production, 2 <strong>in</strong> general, has <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>and</strong> its<br />
reported growth <strong>in</strong> the late 1990s was remarkable.<br />
However, it was dur<strong>in</strong>g this period that a change<br />
<strong>in</strong> the way several States estimated their <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> production occurred <strong>and</strong> it is likely that<br />
earlier production was underestimated. Myanmar<br />
has recently reported considerable <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> its<br />
<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production which is attributed to<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased enhancement, but also due to improved<br />
underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the production from the “<strong>in</strong>n”<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> (concession <strong>fisheries</strong>). Even today, there<br />
is considerable uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty about <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> production<br />
figures – for example, Coates 3 estimated that<br />
production from Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> was possibly<br />
under-reported by a factor <strong>of</strong> between 2.5 <strong>and</strong> 3.6.<br />
Total <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the region <strong>in</strong> 2004 was<br />
reported as 5.9 million tonnes. The <strong>in</strong>crease over<br />
that <strong>of</strong> 2002 has come ma<strong>in</strong>ly from Myanmar<br />
(78.2 percent), Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (0.1 percent but still<br />
a relatively large quantity), Bangladesh (6.3 per<br />
cent) <strong>and</strong> India (3.8 percent). Large decreases<br />
were reported <strong>in</strong> Cambodia (-30.6 percent),<br />
Viet Nam (-35.6 percent), Pakistan (-5.9 percent)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Laos P.R (-10.9 percent). South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> contributed the greatest<br />
production compared with other sub-regions.<br />
(Figure 3).<br />
2 It is common knowledge that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation systems<br />
<strong>in</strong> the region have been particularly weak <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas. The<br />
relatively low level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture production could be<br />
simply a reflection <strong>of</strong> poor quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />
3<br />
Coates, D. (2003). An overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture fishery<br />
statistics <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. In: New approaches for the<br />
improvement <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture fishery statistics <strong>in</strong> the Mekong<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong>. <strong>FAO</strong> & MRC, RAP Publication 2003/01. 45 pp.<br />
The proportion <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
throughout much <strong>of</strong> the region. In this report, this<br />
term refers to fish that are generally <strong>of</strong> relatively low<br />
economic value <strong>and</strong> typically small sized. They can<br />
be used for either human consumption or as animal<br />
feeds (both fish <strong>and</strong> livestock). They may be used<br />
directly <strong>in</strong> both <strong>aquaculture</strong> to feed other fish or<br />
processed <strong>in</strong>to fish meal/oil for <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to<br />
formulated diets. In human food, the fish may be<br />
consumed directly, or further processed <strong>of</strong>ten us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
traditional methods <strong>of</strong> process<strong>in</strong>g small fish.<br />
Unfortunately there are very few records <strong>of</strong> the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish currently be<strong>in</strong>g taken<br />
<strong>in</strong> the APFIC region. This is partly due to the fact<br />
that the term “trash fish” is used to mean different<br />
th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> different States mak<strong>in</strong>g report<strong>in</strong>g difficult<br />
– <strong>in</strong> some States it only refers to fish that is used<br />
for livestock/fish food, while <strong>in</strong> others it covers both<br />
livestock/fish food <strong>and</strong> human food. This broad<br />
range <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the term means that it is difficult<br />
to agree on a common generic term <strong>and</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ition.<br />
Recent reviews <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish have been<br />
carried out <strong>in</strong> Bangladesh, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, India,<br />
Indonesia, the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>. 4 Use was<br />
also made <strong>of</strong> a similar study carried out by the<br />
Australian Centre for Agriculture Research (ACIAR)<br />
<strong>in</strong> Viet Nam. 5 A summary <strong>of</strong> the estimates <strong>of</strong> the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish be<strong>in</strong>g caught <strong>in</strong><br />
these countries (no estimate was available for<br />
Indonesia) is presented <strong>in</strong> Table 4.<br />
The percentage <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish recorded<br />
<strong>in</strong> these countries ranged from 4 percent to<br />
38 percent <strong>of</strong> the total mar<strong>in</strong>e capture l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs. In<br />
some regions <strong>of</strong> Viet Nam, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />
the percentage was <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> 50 percent,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> areas where low value/trash fish are<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g targeted. The weighted average percentage<br />
across the region was 25 percent.<br />
A very approximate “back <strong>of</strong> the envelope” was<br />
used to trace the flow <strong>of</strong> fish products through to<br />
(i) direct human use <strong>and</strong> (ii) <strong>in</strong>direct human use<br />
through <strong>aquaculture</strong>. For 2003, the recorded <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />
capture fishery l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs was about 39.3 million<br />
tonnes (for all carnivorous <strong>and</strong> omnivorous fish<br />
<strong>and</strong> exclud<strong>in</strong>g molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds) <strong>and</strong><br />
the latest estimate for discard<strong>in</strong>g is 1.8 percent<br />
4<br />
Funge-Smith, S., L<strong>in</strong>debo, E. & Staples, D. (2005). <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> today: The production <strong>and</strong> use <strong>of</strong> low value/trash<br />
fish from mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, RAP<br />
publication 2005/16.<br />
5<br />
Edwards, P., Tuan, L.A. & Allen, G.L. (2004). A survey <strong>of</strong><br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e trash fish <strong>and</strong> fish meal as <strong>aquaculture</strong> feed <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
<strong>in</strong> Vietnam. ACIAR Work<strong>in</strong>g paper 57.<br />
6
Figure 2<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> global capture production<br />
10 000<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
100 000<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />
8 000<br />
80 000<br />
6 000<br />
60 000<br />
Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
4 000<br />
Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
40 000<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
2 000<br />
APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
20 000<br />
APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 3<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by sub-region outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />
4 000<br />
30 000<br />
3 000<br />
2 000<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong><br />
1 000<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
0<br />
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
20 000<br />
Other <strong>Asia</strong><br />
South <strong>Asia</strong><br />
10 000<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
0<br />
1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> Other <strong>Asia</strong> Oceania<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Table 4<br />
Estimates <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (tonnes)<br />
Country Low value/trash fish % <strong>of</strong> catch Dom<strong>in</strong>ant gear Year <strong>of</strong> estimate<br />
Bangladesh 71 000 17 Gill nets (48%) 2001-02<br />
Set bag nets (42%)<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 5 316 000 38 Trawl 2001<br />
India 271 000 10-20 Trawl 2003<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 78 000 4 Trawl (41%) 2003<br />
Danish se<strong>in</strong>e (22%)<br />
Purse se<strong>in</strong>e (12%)<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 765 000 31 Trawl 1999<br />
Viet Nam 933 183 36 Trawl 2001<br />
7
(i.e. 720 000 tonnes), giv<strong>in</strong>g a total capture figure<br />
<strong>of</strong> 40.0 million tonnes.<br />
Apply<strong>in</strong>g a 25 percent low value/trash fish factor<br />
to the l<strong>and</strong>ed catch gives a figure <strong>of</strong> 9.8 million<br />
tonnes be<strong>in</strong>g used for livestock/fish, <strong>and</strong><br />
29.5 million tonnes be<strong>in</strong>g used directly for human<br />
consumption. The total <strong>aquaculture</strong> from <strong>Asia</strong> for<br />
all fish exclud<strong>in</strong>g molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds is<br />
estimated as 28.0 million tonnes. From these<br />
figures, it is clear that the diversion <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
via <strong>aquaculture</strong> is provid<strong>in</strong>g a very significant<br />
proportion (approximately 50 percent) <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
fish provided to humans (both with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
exported to other more developed countries). An<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g proportion <strong>of</strong> this is high-valued<br />
carnivorous species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly dependent on<br />
imported fish meal/oil.<br />
Just look<strong>in</strong>g at total capture fishery production,<br />
however, masks considerable differences <strong>in</strong> the<br />
trends <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> species groups (Figure 4).<br />
Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish peaked at 6.4 million tonnes<br />
as early as 1974 <strong>and</strong> then decl<strong>in</strong>ed to the lowest<br />
level at 4.4 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1991. Production then<br />
levelled <strong>of</strong>f <strong>and</strong> was up to 4.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />
2004.<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish peaked at 11.8 million tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1988 <strong>and</strong> subsequently decreased to the<br />
production levels seen <strong>in</strong> the early 1980s. In 2004<br />
it was 9.9 million tonnes. Other species groups<br />
such as freshwater/diadromous fish, crustaceans<br />
<strong>and</strong> cephalopods have grown steadily while<br />
mollusc production has levelled <strong>of</strong>f at around<br />
800 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes.<br />
It is important to realise that the region’s catch is<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> many<br />
sub-regions by small pelagic species (e.g.<br />
Japanese jack mackerel, Japanese anchovy, chub<br />
mackerel, Pacific saury, Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e, Indian<br />
mackerels <strong>and</strong> scads).<br />
The top twenty species <strong>in</strong> the region (Table 5),<br />
however, show considerable changes <strong>in</strong> the<br />
rank<strong>in</strong>gs over time. It is significant that the<br />
reduction <strong>in</strong> catch <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle dom<strong>in</strong>ant species such<br />
as Alaska pollock 6 <strong>in</strong> the early 1970s <strong>and</strong> chub<br />
mackerel 7 <strong>in</strong> the late 1970s resulted <strong>in</strong> changes <strong>in</strong><br />
relative rank<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> large pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e species<br />
(i.e. skipjack tuna <strong>and</strong> yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna) <strong>in</strong> 2000 that<br />
has carried through to 2004. When the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />
figures are <strong>in</strong>cluded, the large catches <strong>of</strong> largehead<br />
6<br />
Its highest production was 2.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1973.<br />
7<br />
Its highest production was 1.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1978.<br />
hairtail (1.6 million tonnes), akiami paste shrimp<br />
(Acetes spp.) (681 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes) <strong>and</strong> Japanese<br />
Spanish mackerel (428 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes) <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
their importance <strong>in</strong> the overall rank<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Unfortunately, there is still a considerable capture<br />
production that is not identified to the species level<br />
but recorded as mar<strong>in</strong>e/freshwater fishes nei, 8<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e/freshwater molluscs nei <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e/<br />
freshwater crustaceans nei. The quantity reported<br />
under these categories has for some sub-regions<br />
been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g significantly <strong>in</strong> recent years, which<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates a worry<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> available statistical<br />
quality. In 2004, 14.3 million tonnes or 31 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> capture production was not identified to species,<br />
order, or family level. It is notable that Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />
has improved its report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />
The report<strong>in</strong>g on nei species has been reduced by<br />
almost 3 million tonnes or from 47 percent on<br />
reported capture production <strong>in</strong> 2002 to 31 percent<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
2.2 Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region produced 40.4 million<br />
tonnes <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> – 89 percent <strong>of</strong> global<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> production (total <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production less aquatic plants). In terms <strong>of</strong> value,<br />
the region’s share is slightly less, but is still<br />
78 percent <strong>of</strong> total value <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
When aquatic plant production is <strong>in</strong>cluded (the vast<br />
majority <strong>of</strong> which orig<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
area), the region becomes even more dom<strong>in</strong>ant,<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g 91 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production by quantity <strong>and</strong> 80 percent by value.<br />
Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producer States by quantity<br />
(exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants) <strong>in</strong> 2004 were Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />
India, Viet Nam, Thail<strong>and</strong>, Indonesia, Bangladesh,<br />
Japan, Chile, Norway <strong>and</strong> USA. <strong>Asia</strong>n States hold<br />
the top seven positions.<br />
By value, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Japan, India, Chile, Viet Nam,<br />
Indonesia, Norway, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh<br />
are amongst the top ten producer States. (see<br />
Table 6)<br />
The growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
has cont<strong>in</strong>ued to be very strong, reflect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
trend for the last ten years. This results ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
from cont<strong>in</strong>uously <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g production from<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR. 9 Between 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2004, production<br />
8<br />
Nei = not elsewhere <strong>in</strong>cluded.<br />
9<br />
Growth rate for the period <strong>of</strong> 1991-2004 was 11.6 percent<br />
exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants production.<br />
8
Figure 4<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by species group outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
12 000<br />
8 000<br />
4 000<br />
0<br />
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Freshwater <strong>and</strong> diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish Crustaceans Cephalopods<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />
Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Table 5<br />
Top twenty capture production species <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
1960 1980 2004 (without Ch<strong>in</strong>a) (Production) 2004 with Ch<strong>in</strong>a (Production)<br />
1 Jap. jack mackerel Chub mackerel Skipjack tuna 1 339.9 Japanese anchovy 1 795.8<br />
2 Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid Alaska pollock Japanese anchovy 692.4 Skipjack tuna 1 550.1<br />
3 Japanese anchovy Skipjack tuna Natantian decapods 621.9 Largehead hairtail 1 548.6<br />
4 Chub mackerel Natantian decapods Scads nei 602.1 Scads nei 1 226.7<br />
5 Pacific saury Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid Chub mackerel 524.6 Natantian decapods 1 051.6<br />
6 Alaska pollock Japanese anchovy Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna 518.6 Chub mackerel 1 036.2<br />
7 Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e Indian mackerel nei 497.8 Mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei 927.8<br />
8 Natantian decapods Croakers, drums nei Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g skid 447.4 Croakers, drum nei 753.2<br />
9 Scads nei Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Croakers, drums nei 418.4 Squids nei 725.2<br />
10 Indian mackerel Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3 Akiami paste shrimp 681.4<br />
11 Sharks, rays, skates Stolephorus anchovies Carangids nei 344.6 Yellow f<strong>in</strong> tuna 624.4<br />
12 Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Indian mackerels Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e 327.8 Indian mackerel nei 497.8<br />
13 Skipjack tuna Sharks, rays, skates Alaska pollock 319.4 Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 447.4<br />
14 Clupeoids nei Pacific saury Yesso scallop 313.8 Jap. Spanish mackerel 428.0<br />
15 Croakers, drums nei Scads nei Jap. jack mackerel 279.8 Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3<br />
16 Indian mackerel nei Clupeoids nei Frigate & bullet tunas 263.0 Freshwater molluscs nei 406.2<br />
17 Bigeye tuna Tuna-like fishes nei Cephalopods nei 262.7 Silver pomfrets nei 386.5<br />
18 Stolephorus anchovies Ponyfishes nei Chum salmon 261.6 Gazami crab nei 347.0<br />
19 Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 6 210.9 Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 8 816.3<br />
20 Freshwater fishes nei Freshwater fishes nei Freshwater fishes nei 2 295.2 Freshwater fishes nei 4 019.3<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
9
Table 6<br />
Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producer States <strong>in</strong> (2004) (exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plant production)<br />
By quantity<br />
By value<br />
Country (1 000 tonnes) Country (Million US$)<br />
1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 30 398 1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 30 870<br />
2 India 2 472 2 Japan 3 205<br />
3 Viet Nam 1 199 3 India 2 936<br />
4 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1 173 4 Chile 2 801<br />
5 Indonesia 1 045 5 Viet Nam 2 444<br />
6 Bangladesh 915 6 Indonesia 1 993<br />
7 Japan 776 7 Norway 1 688<br />
8 Chile 675 8 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1 587<br />
9 Norway 638 9 Bangladesh 1 363<br />
10 USA 606 10 Myanmar 1 231<br />
Other 5 031 Other 13 231<br />
Total 45 468 Total 63 356<br />
Figure 5<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
Quantity<br />
Value<br />
50 000<br />
80 000<br />
40 000<br />
30 000<br />
Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
60 000<br />
Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
40 000<br />
20 000<br />
10 000<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
20 000<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
0<br />
APFIC area<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
0<br />
APFIC area<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
APFIC (w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a) Ch<strong>in</strong>a Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes (quantity), million US$ (value)<br />
Figure 6<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by environment<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />
21 000<br />
18 000<br />
18 000<br />
15 000<br />
15 000<br />
12 000<br />
12 000<br />
9 000<br />
9 000<br />
6 000<br />
6 000<br />
3 000<br />
3 000<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
10
<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>in</strong>creased by 4.7 million tonnes<br />
(12.8 percent). In terms <strong>of</strong> tonnage other countries<br />
that showed large <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong>cluded Viet Nam<br />
(68 percent), Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (28 percent), Indonesia<br />
(28 percent), India (13 percent), Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
(22.9 percent), Myanmar (110 percent) <strong>and</strong> Korea<br />
RO (20 percent). Both <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture <strong>and</strong><br />
mariculture showed steady growth but the growth<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture sector was more rapid<br />
(Figure 5).<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a 10 alone reported to have produced<br />
41.7 million tonnes or 71 percent <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004 (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic<br />
plants). This enormous scale <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a can be compared with the<br />
total <strong>fisheries</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Peru, the world’s<br />
second largest <strong>fisheries</strong> producer after Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />
which was 9.6 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
both capture <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>). This was still less<br />
than one quarter <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production alone (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants). S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is such a predom<strong>in</strong>ant producer, the<br />
scale <strong>of</strong> reported production can mask other<br />
regional trends <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a 11 is treated separately <strong>in</strong><br />
this report.<br />
If we exclude Ch<strong>in</strong>a, the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region still<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>s an important production area for<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong>, exhibit<strong>in</strong>g steady growth regardless<br />
<strong>of</strong> the culture environment. In particular, <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
culture more than doubled its production from<br />
1 885 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 5 629 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Such advances far exceed the<br />
growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
(Figure 6).<br />
Top five cultured species <strong>in</strong> 2004 were all freshwater<br />
carps (Silver carp, Rohu, Catla, Common carp <strong>and</strong><br />
Mrigal) <strong>and</strong> their aggregated production was<br />
2 635 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes account<strong>in</strong>g for 77 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the sub-region.<br />
There has been little change <strong>in</strong> the top twenty<br />
cultured species 12 <strong>in</strong> the region between 1990 <strong>and</strong><br />
10<br />
This figure is for all Ch<strong>in</strong>a, but the massive scale <strong>of</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production challenges statistical<br />
collection <strong>and</strong> there are uncerta<strong>in</strong>ties regard<strong>in</strong>g the quantities<br />
reported.<br />
11<br />
See footnote 1.<br />
12<br />
There is significant volume <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
reported by large group <strong>of</strong> species, e.g. 3 394 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong> fish production <strong>in</strong> 2002 were not identified at<br />
family, order or species level. Consequently, the species item<br />
totals could have underestimated the real production <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />
2004 (exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs). The<br />
top species are all <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters species, which are<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>and</strong> Indian carps.<br />
It is worth not<strong>in</strong>g that the number <strong>of</strong> carnivorous<br />
species has <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g the past ten years.<br />
In mar<strong>in</strong>e waters, major cultured species are<br />
generally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by high-valued carnivorous<br />
species such as penaeid shrimp, jacks <strong>and</strong><br />
sea breams. Production <strong>of</strong> crabs as well as the<br />
White leg shrimps have made significant advances<br />
<strong>in</strong> recent years. White leg shrimp are now the top<br />
production species (Table 7).<br />
2.3 <strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> trends by sub-regions<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> (2004) 13 estimated that <strong>Asia</strong> accounted for<br />
87 percent <strong>of</strong> the total global number <strong>of</strong> persons<br />
engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
(total 38 million). These figures typically represent<br />
full time <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> those for whom fish<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
a highly significant activity <strong>and</strong> full time <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
farmers. The figures for people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
seasonally or as a supplemental part <strong>of</strong> a more<br />
diverse livelihood are difficult to estimate <strong>and</strong> are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten not.<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
The South <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region showed cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
growth from 1980-2002 but has tended to level <strong>of</strong>f<br />
<strong>in</strong> recent years. It nearly doubled its capture<br />
production from 3.1 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1980 to<br />
5.8 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (Figure 7). Most <strong>of</strong> the<br />
overall growth resulted from production <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
waters, but South <strong>Asia</strong> has the largest share <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture production (30 percent <strong>of</strong> total<br />
capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production) among sub-regions <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific area. After rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g relatively<br />
stable dur<strong>in</strong>g late 1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s, <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
production grew rapidly from the early 1990s. It<br />
reached the highest level <strong>of</strong> production at<br />
1.9 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2001 but showed a sharp<br />
decrease <strong>in</strong> 2002 for the first time <strong>in</strong> the past<br />
ten years, but has started to <strong>in</strong>crease aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />
In comparison with top production species <strong>of</strong> other<br />
sub-regions, the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />
species is unique <strong>in</strong> the sense that freshwater<br />
species (Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei: 5 th ), diadromous species<br />
(Hilsa shad: 2 nd ), demersal species (Croakers/<br />
drums: 3 rd ), crustaceans (Natantian decapods: 4 th )<br />
<strong>and</strong> pelagic species (Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e: 1 st ) are all<br />
ranked high <strong>in</strong> the list (Table 8).<br />
13<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA, (Rome 2004).<br />
11
Table 7<br />
Top twenty cultured species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by quantity<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
1990 2004<br />
1 Silver carp 1 416.6 1 Silver carp 3 839.1<br />
2 Grass carp 1 042.0 2 Grass carp 3 831.4<br />
3 Bighead carp 671.8 3 Common carp 3 140.0<br />
4 Common carp 658.4 4 Bighead carp 2 097.2<br />
5 Tilapia 282.8 5 Crucian carp 1 948.9<br />
6 Rohu 244.7 6 Tilapia 1 238.1<br />
7 Catla 235.3 7 Rohu 761.1<br />
8 Crucian carp 215.6 8 Catla 615.6<br />
9 Japanese eel 163.5 9 Mrigal carp 573.7<br />
10 White amur bream 161.6 10 White amur bream 516.9<br />
11 Mrigal carp 160.1 11 Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab 415.7<br />
12 Clarias catfishes 61.1 12 Black carp 296.4<br />
13 Barb 47.0 13 Amur catfish 246.9<br />
14 Climb<strong>in</strong>g perch 39.4 14 Snakehead 239.1<br />
15 Black carp 37.9 15 Japanese eel 238.4<br />
16 Milkfish 34.5 16 Oriental river prawn 213.1<br />
17 Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei 25.6 17 Giant river prawn 193.5<br />
18 Gourami 24.9 18 S<strong>of</strong>t-shell turtle 170.1<br />
19 Trouts 24.7 19 M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong> fish 168.7<br />
20 Giant river prawn 18.5 20 Swamp eel 137.5<br />
Misc. freshwater fishes 776.8 Misc. freshwater fishers 1 767.3<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e/brackish waters<br />
1990 2004<br />
1 Milkfish 399.6 1 White leg shrimp 1 111.2<br />
2 Giant tiger prawn 289.7 2 Giant tiger prawn 698.7<br />
3 Fleshy prawn 185.1 3 Milkfish 514.7<br />
4 Japanese amberjack 161.6 4 Japanese amberjack 150.1<br />
5 Silver seabream 52.0 5 Indo-Pacific swamp crab 117.5<br />
6 Tilapia 39.2 6 Other penaeus shrimps 99.2<br />
7 Banana prawn 32.8 7 Silver seabream 85.3<br />
8 Metapenaeus shrimps 28.6 8 Banana prawn 83.2<br />
9 Coho salmon 23.6 9 Japanese seabass 82.5<br />
10 Other penaeus shrimps 21.0 10 Swimm<strong>in</strong>g crabs, etc. 68.4<br />
11 Kuruma prawn 9.3 11 Large yellow croaker 67.4<br />
12 Barramundi 7.9 12 Left-eye flounders 57.3<br />
13 Mullets 7.9 13 Fleshy prawn 56.8<br />
14 Bastard halibut 7.1 14 Groupers 54.5<br />
15 Indian white prawn 6.7 15 P<strong>org</strong>ies, seabream 53.3<br />
16 Japanese jack mackerel 5.9 16 Japanese sea cucumber 53.3<br />
17 Indo-Pacific swamp crab 3.8 17 Kuruma prawn 47.5<br />
18 Nile tilapia 3.8 18 Red drum 43.5<br />
19 Puffers 2.9 19 Jellyfishes 39.4<br />
20 Groupers 2.8 20 Bastard halibut 37.4<br />
Misc. fishes 38.6 Misc. fishes 218.9<br />
Misc. crustaceans 4.5 Misc. crustaceans 47.4<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
* Coloured cells <strong>in</strong>dicate carnivorous species ** Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs<br />
12
Figure 7<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />
<strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />
6 000<br />
2 000<br />
Figure 8<br />
Capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong><br />
by major species groups<br />
1 600<br />
4 000<br />
1 200<br />
2 000<br />
800<br />
400<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Cephalopods<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 9<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
<strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />
3 500<br />
3 000<br />
2 500<br />
2 000<br />
1 500<br />
1 000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Figure 10<br />
Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong><br />
major species <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong><br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Freshwater fishes<br />
Diadromous fishes<br />
Molluscs<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />
Other<br />
Rohu<br />
Mrigal carp<br />
Silver carp<br />
Grass carp<br />
Catla<br />
Common carp<br />
Giant tiger prawn<br />
Penaeid shrimps<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
13
Table 8<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top<br />
ten species<br />
Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />
Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e 309.4<br />
Hilsa shad 256.0<br />
Croakers, drums nei 254.2<br />
Natantian decapods nei 240.0<br />
Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei 201.6<br />
Giant tiger prawn 170.9<br />
Skipjack tuna 161.3<br />
Bombay-duck 152.7<br />
Clupeoids nei 133.3<br />
Sea catfishes nei 109.3<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 1 080.2<br />
Freshwater fishes nei 1 197.9<br />
Among mar<strong>in</strong>e species, both pelagic fishes <strong>and</strong><br />
demersal fishes showed almost parallel <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trends with similar levels <strong>of</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />
(1 195 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>and</strong> 1 043 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes, respectively). Freshwater fish <strong>and</strong><br />
diadromous fish have been the number one<br />
production group for the last four decades (except<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1992) <strong>and</strong> achieved very rapid growth <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1990s. Crustacean production has been relatively<br />
stable <strong>and</strong> production levels <strong>of</strong> molluscs <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
cephalopods <strong>in</strong> this area have been very low<br />
(Figure 8).<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong> – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
South <strong>Asia</strong>’s production almost tripled from<br />
1 230 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 3 423 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. The majority <strong>of</strong> production comes<br />
from <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters <strong>and</strong> hence the growth <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sector has been mostly due to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
freshwater culture (Figure 9).<br />
Although Indian carps (Rohu, Catla <strong>and</strong> Mrigal<br />
carp) have been the ma<strong>in</strong> group cultured <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region, there have been notable <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced Ch<strong>in</strong>ese carps <strong>in</strong> recent<br />
years. Silver carp production has also <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
almost five-fold <strong>in</strong> two years (1999-2001) <strong>and</strong><br />
became the top cultured species <strong>in</strong> 2001 for the<br />
first time. S<strong>in</strong>ce then, the production has decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
by half. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, common carp<br />
production recorded very rapid <strong>in</strong>creases s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
2000 but shows a cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend<br />
(Figure 10).<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustacean production, mostly comprised<br />
<strong>of</strong> Penaeid shrimp, has <strong>in</strong>creased steadily <strong>and</strong><br />
reached 178 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. In general,<br />
the level <strong>of</strong> diversification <strong>of</strong> cultured species is<br />
relatively low <strong>in</strong> this area <strong>and</strong> there has been very<br />
limited or no reported mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish production.<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
Production growth <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> has also been<br />
very strong for the past four decades with mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
capture production <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>early through this<br />
period to a level <strong>of</strong> 15 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (total<br />
capture production).<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> production appears to have levelled out <strong>and</strong><br />
reached 1.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the rich freshwater resources <strong>in</strong> the area, it is<br />
thought that a figure <strong>of</strong> only 11 percent <strong>of</strong> total<br />
production 14 com<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters is probably<br />
an underestimate for this sub-region (Figure 11).<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> species groups are the pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
fish group <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei group. Both keep<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g strongly <strong>and</strong> are a major driv<strong>in</strong>g force <strong>of</strong><br />
the overall production growth (Figure 12).<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish, demersal fish,<br />
crustaceans <strong>and</strong> cephalopods showed similar<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g nearly the same<br />
share <strong>of</strong> production. The proportion <strong>of</strong> unidentified<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e fish (mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei) is still notably high<br />
(31 percent <strong>of</strong> total production) <strong>in</strong> this sub-region.<br />
Table 9<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production,<br />
top ten species<br />
Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />
Scads nei 598.2<br />
Indian mackerels nei 497.8<br />
Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3<br />
Skipjack tuna 356.4<br />
Natantian decapods nei 344.3<br />
Carangids nei 283.3<br />
Tuna-like fishes nei 271.7<br />
Stolephorus anchovies 259.9<br />
Frigate <strong>and</strong> bullet tunas 236.7<br />
Threadf<strong>in</strong> breams nei 234.1<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 4 625.9<br />
Freshwater fishes nei 1 066.0<br />
Eight <strong>of</strong> the top ten production species are mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
pelagic fishes <strong>and</strong> the top three ranks are<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the small pelagic fish group (scads,<br />
Indian mackerels, <strong>and</strong> sard<strong>in</strong>ellas) (Table 9). The<br />
large pelagic fish group (skipjack tuna, carangids,<br />
14<br />
see footnote 8.<br />
14
Figure 11<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />
<strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />
16 000<br />
12 000<br />
8 000<br />
4 000<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Figure 12<br />
Capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
by major species groups<br />
6 000<br />
5 000<br />
4 000<br />
3 000<br />
2 000<br />
1 000<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />
Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Cephalopods<br />
Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 13<br />
Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups<br />
Production by quantity<br />
Production by value<br />
Freshwater fishes<br />
Aquatic<br />
plants 26.9%<br />
Molluscs<br />
10.5%<br />
Crustaceans<br />
16.7%<br />
Freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
36.7%<br />
Diadromous<br />
fishes<br />
8.6%<br />
Diadromous fishes<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Molluscs<br />
Aquatic plants<br />
Other<br />
Crustaceans<br />
47.1%<br />
Freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
40.7%<br />
Diadromous<br />
fishes<br />
7.9%<br />
Figure 14<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />
2 400<br />
1 800<br />
1 200<br />
Freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
Diadromous<br />
fishes<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />
Crustaceans<br />
600<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Molluscs<br />
Aquatic<br />
plants<br />
Others<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
15
tuna-like fishes, frigate <strong>and</strong> bullet tunas) also<br />
feature relatively high <strong>in</strong> the rank<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> is very<br />
diversified. In terms <strong>of</strong> value, highly priced<br />
crustaceans have an <strong>in</strong>creased share <strong>of</strong> 47 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> the total production, followed by freshwater fish<br />
at 41 percent (Figure 13).<br />
Top ten cultured species <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
(by quantity, exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants) were Giant<br />
tiger prawn, Milkfish, White leg shrimp, Nile tilapia,<br />
Green mussel, Common carp, Blood cockle, Rohu,<br />
Catfish <strong>and</strong> Banana prawn.<br />
Freshwater f<strong>in</strong>fish culture has <strong>in</strong>creased from<br />
564 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 2 305 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, with an average annual <strong>in</strong>crement<br />
<strong>of</strong> 124 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes. In the mariculture<br />
sub-sector, aquatic plants have shown a surpris<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
strong production growth. Crustaceans have<br />
been a major cultured species throughout the<br />
sub-region, but growth is slow<strong>in</strong>g (Figure 14).<br />
Zanzibar weed (Eucheuma cottonii) is still the most<br />
widely cultured aquatic plant <strong>in</strong> the region with<br />
a production <strong>of</strong> 1 070 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
Apart from aquatic plants, Giant tiger shrimp<br />
(Penaeus monodon) is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the position <strong>of</strong><br />
top produced species, although very recently the<br />
massive <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production <strong>of</strong> White leg shrimp<br />
(P. vannamei) is start<strong>in</strong>g to challenge this position.<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
Three periods that show dist<strong>in</strong>ct trends (Figure 15)<br />
can be seen <strong>in</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese statistics. The first<br />
period, 1950 to 1985, has relatively low rates <strong>of</strong><br />
growth, <strong>and</strong> all species groups exhibited very<br />
similar patterns, albeit with some annual<br />
fluctuations. In the second period, 1986 to 1998,<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a reported very rapid <strong>and</strong> substantial growth<br />
<strong>in</strong> production <strong>in</strong> almost all types <strong>of</strong> capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>. Between 1993 <strong>and</strong> 1997, annual<br />
<strong>in</strong>crements <strong>of</strong> total production always exceeded<br />
one million tonnes (the highest annual <strong>in</strong>crement<br />
was 1.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1995). Subsequent to this<br />
amaz<strong>in</strong>g period, the third period started with the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> the zero growth policy <strong>in</strong> 1998; total<br />
production started to decl<strong>in</strong>e for the first time <strong>in</strong><br />
almost twenty years with the degree <strong>of</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
higher <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e production than <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
production.<br />
Most species groups showed similar rapid growth<br />
trends dur<strong>in</strong>g the second period. However, trends<br />
<strong>in</strong> the third period varied widely. The proportion<br />
<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei group decl<strong>in</strong>ed sharply, whilst the<br />
crustacean group cont<strong>in</strong>ued to grow. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this<br />
period, molluscs ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the same production<br />
level (Figure 16).<br />
Largehead hairtail <strong>and</strong> Japanese anchovy catches<br />
were extremely high <strong>in</strong> 2004 with both species<br />
exceed<strong>in</strong>g one million tonnes (Table 10). A second<br />
group <strong>in</strong>cludes a variety <strong>of</strong> species group such as<br />
small pelagic fish (scads <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel),<br />
large pelagic fish (Japanese Spanish mackerel),<br />
bentho-pelagic fish (silver pomfrets), demersal fish<br />
(golden threadf<strong>in</strong> bream), crustaceans (akiami paste<br />
shrimp <strong>and</strong> gazami crab) <strong>and</strong> cephalopods.<br />
Table 10<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />
species<br />
Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />
Largehead hairtail 1 411.6<br />
Japanese anchovy 1 103.4<br />
Akiami paste shrimp 673.5<br />
Scads nei 624.6<br />
Chub mackerel 511.7<br />
Natantian decapods nei 429.8<br />
Japanese Spanish mackerel 391.8<br />
Silver pomfrets nei 386.5<br />
Gazami crab 340.9<br />
Croakers, drums nei 334.8<br />
Notable differences <strong>in</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese production<br />
figures compared with other sub-regions <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Remarkably high proportion <strong>of</strong> crustaceans <strong>in</strong><br />
(15.3 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004) compared to those <strong>of</strong><br />
other sub-regions. Proportions <strong>of</strong> crustaceans<br />
<strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong><br />
were 5.8 percent, 9.4 percent <strong>and</strong> 3.8 percent<br />
respectively.<br />
Although dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g, a large quantity <strong>of</strong><br />
production is reported as unidentified large<br />
group<strong>in</strong>gs that far exceed that <strong>of</strong> the other<br />
sub-regions. Total quantity reported under<br />
these groups was 5.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />
represent<strong>in</strong>g 30.0 percent <strong>of</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese total<br />
capture production (Table 11).<br />
A much smaller amount <strong>of</strong> small pelagic fish<br />
<strong>in</strong> the catch compared with other sub-regions,<br />
especially South <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />
16
Figure 15<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
by environment<br />
20 000<br />
15 000<br />
10 000<br />
5 000<br />
Figure 16<br />
Capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
by major species groups<br />
5 000<br />
4 000<br />
3 000<br />
2 000<br />
1 000<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Cephalopods<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 17<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment<br />
20 000<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
24 000<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />
15 000<br />
18 000<br />
10 000<br />
12 000<br />
5 000<br />
Freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
6 000<br />
Molluscs<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Aquatic plant<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Aquatic plants Molluscs Crustaceans Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes Diadromous fishes Freshwater fishes<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 18<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> top eight cultured species<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a (aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs)<br />
Figure 19<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> major cultured carnivorous<br />
species production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
4 500<br />
4 000<br />
3 500<br />
3 000<br />
2 500<br />
2 000<br />
1 500<br />
1 000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Japanese kelp<br />
Grass carp<br />
Wakame<br />
Japanese carpet shell<br />
Pacific cupped oyster<br />
Silver carp<br />
Aquatic plants nei<br />
Common carp<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Snakehead<br />
Japanese eel<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei<br />
Fleshy prawn<br />
Giant river prawn<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab<br />
M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong> fish<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs nei<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
17
Table 11<br />
Unidentified capture production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
(1 000 tonnes)<br />
●<br />
Species group 2002 2004<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 3 596 2 605<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei 1 377 849<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustaceans nei 1 215 0<br />
Freshwater fishes nei 924 1 724<br />
Freshwater molluscs nei 773 343<br />
Freshwater crustaceans nei 551 0<br />
Total <strong>of</strong> “nei” groups 8 435 5 523<br />
Total capture production 17 767 17 970<br />
% contribution <strong>of</strong> “nei” groups 47% 30%<br />
Consistently high catch <strong>of</strong> some major species<br />
such as the largehead hairtail that hasn’t<br />
shown any signs <strong>of</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Detailed statistics for the Xianshan County <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Zhejiang Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR have been made<br />
available through sample surveys carried out <strong>in</strong><br />
2002/03. The total catch, based on the survey<br />
data, was 324 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes from June 2002 to<br />
May 2003, <strong>of</strong> which 78 percent came from pair<br />
trawl<strong>in</strong>g, 8 percent from shrimp beam trawl<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
7 percent from drift gill nets, 6 percent from otter<br />
trawl<strong>in</strong>g, 1 percent from crab-cage fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
0.35 percent from purse se<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />
A comparison with <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics for the county<br />
showed that for some gears, such as pair trawls<br />
<strong>and</strong> otter trawls, the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics were overestimated<br />
by about 20 percent but for other gears<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g beam trawls, crab-cage fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> purse<br />
se<strong>in</strong>e, the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics were under-reported.<br />
The total sample survey estimate for 6 gears was<br />
92 percent <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>of</strong>ficial figures for all gears<br />
the county.<br />
Break down by gear <strong>and</strong> species showed the<br />
extremely large catch taken by pair trawlers <strong>in</strong> this<br />
area <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (250 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes from June<br />
2002 to May 2003). Otter trawls, shrimp beam<br />
trawls <strong>and</strong> drift gillnets also all recorded catches<br />
<strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> 20 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes for the same<br />
sample period. The dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>of</strong> some species<br />
such as largehead hairtail <strong>and</strong> butterfish from pair<br />
trawls is also very marked, (96 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />
<strong>and</strong> 27.5 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes, respectively). Pair<br />
trawlers also caught large quantities <strong>of</strong> juvenile<br />
Spanish mackerel, <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel, with a very<br />
large number <strong>of</strong> other species mak<strong>in</strong>g up the rest<br />
<strong>of</strong> the catch.<br />
Large yellow croaker fetched the highest market<br />
price, but because largehead hairtail was caught<br />
<strong>in</strong> such large quantities <strong>and</strong> fetched a reasonable<br />
price, this was the most valuable species<br />
(33 percent <strong>of</strong> the total value <strong>of</strong> the fishery).<br />
The study also identified that about 27 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
the catch was reported as unsorted fish by the<br />
skipper <strong>of</strong> the vessel (low value/trash species).<br />
About 16 percent <strong>of</strong> this was for human<br />
consumption <strong>and</strong> 11 percent for <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
feed. Both categories conta<strong>in</strong>ed, on average,<br />
about twenty species, but the species composition<br />
differed between different vessels <strong>and</strong> different<br />
trips. Otter trawls were found to be target<strong>in</strong>g<br />
unsorted species dur<strong>in</strong>g the spr<strong>in</strong>g period.<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
As reported above, Ch<strong>in</strong>a’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />
has now reached 41.7 million tonnes or 70 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> the world <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />
(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants). Growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture<br />
has cont<strong>in</strong>ued, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from <strong>in</strong>creased production<br />
<strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish culture, which is be<strong>in</strong>g achieved through<br />
the <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g systems rather than<br />
any significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production area. Growth<br />
<strong>in</strong> production from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters has been driven<br />
by molluscs <strong>and</strong> aquatic plants (Figure 17).<br />
The production <strong>of</strong> most cultured species cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease. However, there are a number <strong>of</strong><br />
species worth highlight<strong>in</strong>g, as follows:<br />
Japanese kelp (Lam<strong>in</strong>aria japonica): its production<br />
growth is remarkable; <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g from 1 222<br />
thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 4 208 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2002 with a m<strong>in</strong>or decl<strong>in</strong>e to 4 006 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
Miscellaneous aquatic plants: this massive<br />
volume <strong>of</strong> aquatic plants is not reported at the<br />
species level. However, production jumped from<br />
196 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 3 931 thous<strong>and</strong><br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has improved the<br />
report<strong>in</strong>g at species level s<strong>in</strong>ce 2003 <strong>and</strong> the<br />
figure has decreased to 2 538 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004. As a result <strong>of</strong> the improved report<strong>in</strong>g<br />
by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Wakame (Undaria p<strong>in</strong>natifida) has<br />
become the second largest cultured plant with<br />
a total <strong>of</strong> 2 196 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
Pacific cupped oyster: this is another cultured<br />
species that has made outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g growth;<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g from 503 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 up<br />
to 3 751 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Mollusc<br />
production is also difficult to <strong>in</strong>tensify <strong>and</strong><br />
18
<strong>in</strong>creased production suggests developments <strong>of</strong><br />
new production areas as <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />
plants (Figure 18).<br />
Carnivorous species: Rapid growth <strong>in</strong> production<br />
<strong>of</strong> high value carnivorous species such as m<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong><br />
fish, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish started<br />
to occur s<strong>in</strong>ce 1995. Many <strong>of</strong> the carnivorous<br />
species show very similar patterns <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>in</strong><br />
production (Figure 19).<br />
Other <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
Total production <strong>in</strong>creased towards its peak<br />
production <strong>of</strong> 14.9 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1986, <strong>and</strong><br />
thereafter decreased steadily (Figure 20).<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the late 1960s to early 1970s, demersal fish<br />
became the most important production group with<br />
a very rapid growth rate, achiev<strong>in</strong>g a three-fold<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> fifteen years (Figure 21). It started to<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>e, however, after the peak production <strong>of</strong> five<br />
million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1974, gradually at first, but with<br />
a sharp decl<strong>in</strong>e after 1976. The current level <strong>of</strong><br />
demersal fish production is now as low as <strong>in</strong> the<br />
early 1950s. This reduction was compensated for<br />
by <strong>in</strong>creased production <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e pelagic fish until<br />
1988, but then a similar decl<strong>in</strong>e to that <strong>of</strong> demersal<br />
fish production occurred. Current production levels<br />
have dropped to 3 million tonnes, similar to those<br />
<strong>of</strong> the early 1970s.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> major production species, pelagic<br />
species predom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> this area. It is also notable<br />
that there is high production <strong>of</strong> cephalopods<br />
(Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g squid) <strong>and</strong> molluscs (Yesso<br />
scallop) (Table 12).<br />
Table 12<br />
Other <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />
species<br />
Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />
Japanese anchovy 692.4<br />
Chub mackerel 523.7<br />
Skipjack tuna 489.0<br />
Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 447.4<br />
Alaska pollock 319.4<br />
Yesso scallop 313.8<br />
Japanese jack mackerel 279.8<br />
Chum salmon 261.6<br />
Pacific saury 230.0<br />
Okhotsk atka mackerel 179.3<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 428.6<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustaceans nei 63.6<br />
Aquatic plants cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be a predom<strong>in</strong>ant part<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>, particularly <strong>in</strong> East<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n States. They account for 52 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
total production. This is followed by molluscs<br />
(29 percent) <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish (11 percent).<br />
However, the high economic value <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
f<strong>in</strong>fish makes this species group the largest<br />
contributor <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> value, constitut<strong>in</strong>g<br />
42 percent <strong>of</strong> total production value (Figure 22).<br />
Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> this region has been very<br />
stable; most <strong>of</strong> the major species groups have<br />
been ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at the current level <strong>of</strong> production<br />
for the last ten years. The only exception to this<br />
is aquatic plant production, which peaked <strong>in</strong> 1993<br />
at 2.3 million tonnes <strong>and</strong> then decreased by almost<br />
35 percent to 1.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (Figure 23).<br />
It is notable that the percentage <strong>of</strong> carnivorous fish<br />
to total fish production is very high <strong>in</strong> this<br />
sub-region (82 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004) compared with<br />
South <strong>Asia</strong>, Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, which all<br />
have levels below 10 percent.<br />
Oceania – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
Oceania’s capture production also consists ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish taken from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters, but unlike other<br />
<strong>Asia</strong> it has cont<strong>in</strong>ued to <strong>in</strong>crease (Figure 24).<br />
Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> are <strong>of</strong>ten subsistence <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> many small isl<strong>and</strong> States <strong>and</strong> production may<br />
not be well represented <strong>in</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics.<br />
General trends <strong>in</strong> production are basically<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a few larger States such as Australia<br />
<strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> with well established commercial<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> sectors, with the exception <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fshore<br />
pelagic <strong>fisheries</strong>. Rapid growth <strong>of</strong> pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
fish production from the late 1990’s has ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
come from Skipjack tuna <strong>in</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />
(Figure 25). Commercial <strong>of</strong>fshore production has<br />
also <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> many small isl<strong>and</strong> States <strong>and</strong><br />
contributed to the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> total production.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the top ten species produced from capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> Oceania (Table 13) are ma<strong>in</strong>ly from the<br />
temperate waters <strong>of</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia.<br />
Oceania – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
Aquaculture production from the small isl<strong>and</strong><br />
States is relatively limited. The aggregated<br />
production <strong>of</strong> all isl<strong>and</strong> States was 19 585 tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2002 (less than one percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region) <strong>and</strong> seems<br />
to have decl<strong>in</strong>ed even further to 7 723 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />
2004.<br />
19
Figure 20<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />
<strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />
15 000<br />
Figure 21<br />
Capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong><br />
by major species groups<br />
8 000<br />
10 000<br />
6 000<br />
4 000<br />
5 000<br />
2 000<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />
Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Cephalopods<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />
Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 22<br />
Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups<br />
Quantity<br />
11.2%<br />
29.0%<br />
52.2%<br />
Freshwater fishes<br />
Diadromous fishes<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Molluscs<br />
Value<br />
11.0% 41.7%<br />
16.2%<br />
24.9%<br />
Aquatic plants<br />
Others<br />
Figure 23<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />
2 500<br />
2 000<br />
1 500<br />
1 000<br />
500<br />
Freshwater<br />
fishes<br />
Diadromous<br />
fishes<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
fishes<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Molluscs<br />
Aquatic<br />
plants<br />
0<br />
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />
Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
20
Figure 24<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by environment<br />
1 500<br />
1 000<br />
500<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
Figure 25<br />
Capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by major species groups<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200<br />
Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />
Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
Crustaceans<br />
Cephalopods<br />
Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />
* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />
21
Table 13<br />
Oceania capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />
species<br />
Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />
Skipjack tuna 333.2<br />
Blue grenadier 143.3<br />
Well<strong>in</strong>gton fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 84.4<br />
Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna 62.3<br />
Jack <strong>and</strong> horse mackerels 43.2<br />
Clupeoids nei 37.0<br />
Antarctic krill 29.5<br />
Albacore 28.2<br />
Snoek 22.6<br />
Southern blue whit<strong>in</strong>g 21.6<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 76.1<br />
Seaweed, clams, penaeid shrimp, tilapia <strong>and</strong><br />
milkfish are the ma<strong>in</strong> cultured groups. In terms <strong>of</strong><br />
value, two commodities from three States dom<strong>in</strong>ate<br />
the value <strong>of</strong> commercial <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong><br />
region. They are cultured black pearl from French<br />
Polynesia <strong>and</strong> the Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shrimp from<br />
New Caledonia.<br />
Live reef fish, aquarium fish <strong>and</strong> pearls br<strong>in</strong>g<br />
significant <strong>in</strong>come to some Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />
although relatively low <strong>in</strong> quantity. Although the<br />
target species are mostly caught from the wild,<br />
there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g desire for culture-based<br />
sources. Giant clam culture for the ornamental<br />
trade is widespread throughout the region <strong>and</strong><br />
the total export is probably <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>of</strong><br />
30 000-50 000 pieces/annum. The Pacific is also<br />
a major supplier <strong>of</strong> “live rock” (rock encrusted with<br />
corall<strong>in</strong>e algae) with approximately 50 000 pieces<br />
<strong>of</strong> live rock currently be<strong>in</strong>g cultured <strong>in</strong> the Fiji.<br />
Eucheuma cottonii seaweed (Zanzibar weed)<br />
culture is well established <strong>in</strong> the Kiribati atolls <strong>and</strong><br />
is be<strong>in</strong>g rejuvenated <strong>in</strong> the Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
Fiji.<br />
Interest <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> freshwater <strong>aquaculture</strong> is grow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
particularly amongst the larger Melanesian States<br />
such as Fiji <strong>and</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea. At present<br />
the most commonly farmed species are tilapia,<br />
common carp <strong>and</strong> Macrobrachium prawns.<br />
New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia have shown a steady<br />
growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production through<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased production <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish species. Major<br />
cultured species <strong>of</strong> these States were mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
molluscs, salmonids <strong>and</strong> tunas.<br />
22
3. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> resources<br />
The general consensus is that most <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region, especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, are<br />
show<strong>in</strong>g signs <strong>of</strong> overexploitation <strong>and</strong> severe degradation. This is particularly evident <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>shore coastal<br />
areas where (i) stock assessments <strong>of</strong> major species, (ii) historic research surveys, (iii) analyses <strong>of</strong> ecosystem<br />
changes <strong>and</strong> (iv) perceptions <strong>of</strong> fishers all show the same trends. The evidence is so overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
any call to delay management action until more scientific assessments are available must be seen as<br />
irresponsible.<br />
In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters, most <strong>fisheries</strong> are small-scale activities where the catch per capita is relatively small <strong>and</strong><br />
used ma<strong>in</strong>ly for subsistence purposes. The lack <strong>of</strong> accurate report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> makes<br />
it difficult to describe their status, but it is generally felt that they are under considerable pressure from<br />
loss <strong>and</strong> degradation <strong>of</strong> habitat as well as overfish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />
3.1 Assess<strong>in</strong>g the status <strong>of</strong> fishery<br />
resources<br />
In many <strong>of</strong> the seas <strong>of</strong> the APFIC region, traditional<br />
methods <strong>of</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
resources, us<strong>in</strong>g scientific stock assessments,<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> reference po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
performance aga<strong>in</strong>st these reference po<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />
is not really practical. This is due, firstly, to<br />
the complexity <strong>of</strong> the tropical systems that<br />
predom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> the region – the multi-species/<br />
multi-gear nature <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong>, secondly,<br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> capacity to carry out the necessary<br />
assessments <strong>and</strong>/or monitor<strong>in</strong>g, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
areas where fish are l<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> multiple small<br />
l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites or along the beaches.<br />
Report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> total production also <strong>of</strong>ten masks<br />
what is actually happen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the fishery, <strong>and</strong><br />
should not be used as an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> resource<br />
status.<br />
In this analysis we look at the evidence on the<br />
status <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e resources based on four methods:<br />
• stock assessment <strong>of</strong> major species;<br />
• historic research surveys;<br />
• ecosystem changes; <strong>and</strong><br />
• perception <strong>of</strong> fishers.<br />
3.2 Evidence from stock assessments<br />
Regular stock assessments are conducted <strong>in</strong> some<br />
<strong>of</strong> the more developed countries <strong>of</strong> the region<br />
(Table 14). However, even <strong>in</strong> these countries the<br />
number <strong>of</strong> species regularly assessed is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
relatively low. In the case <strong>of</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> Malaysia<br />
these assessments are used <strong>in</strong> day-to-day <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management, but <strong>in</strong> the other countries the<br />
scientific results are only partially <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to<br />
management decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g. In cases where<br />
it is possible to assess the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
stocks, current catch levels <strong>of</strong>ten exceed Maximum<br />
Susta<strong>in</strong>able Yield (MSY) estimates <strong>and</strong> many <strong>of</strong><br />
these stocks are designated as over-fished.<br />
In many other countries, s<strong>in</strong>gle species stock<br />
assessments are not conducted regularly but<br />
a common practice is to conduct “multi-species”<br />
assessments from time to time us<strong>in</strong>g aggregated<br />
catch <strong>and</strong> effort data <strong>in</strong> simple production <strong>and</strong><br />
similar models. The reliability <strong>of</strong> these types <strong>of</strong><br />
assessments is known to be very low <strong>and</strong> the<br />
degree <strong>of</strong> uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty very high (the basic<br />
assumption that the catch per unit effort (CPUE) is<br />
a good <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> fish relative abundance is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
not met). The results are not <strong>in</strong> a form that can be<br />
used regularly <strong>in</strong> management but are <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />
to set targets for future fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>and</strong> total<br />
yields. In many cases, the uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>of</strong> these<br />
assessments has not been taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>and</strong><br />
the predictions have proved to be too optimistic,<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten accelerat<strong>in</strong>g the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the resources.<br />
3.3 Evidence from historic trawl surveys<br />
Biomass analyses<br />
The results <strong>of</strong> the WorldFish Center (WorldFish)<br />
study on scientific trawl surveys (Trawlbase) 1 was<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> the previous APFIC “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> the Pacific”. These analyses were available<br />
on the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> from eight APFIC<br />
States (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,<br />
1<br />
Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed,<br />
M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z., Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen,<br />
V., Pauly, D. & Munro (eds.) (2003). Assessment, management<br />
<strong>and</strong> future directions for coastal <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n States.<br />
WorldFish Center Conference Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />
23
Table 14<br />
Summary <strong>of</strong> stock assessments <strong>in</strong> selected APFIC countries<br />
Country<br />
Regular<br />
stock<br />
assessment<br />
Number <strong>of</strong><br />
species<br />
Resource surveys Reference po<strong>in</strong>ts Used <strong>in</strong> management<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Yes 8 Yes* MSY, MCY etc. Yes (Selected species)<br />
India Yes ~50 Yes MSY Yes (partial)<br />
Indonesia No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY Yes (partial)<br />
Japan Yes Ma<strong>in</strong> species** Yes MSY, MEY etc. Yes<br />
Korea RO Yes 9 Yes (Yellow Sea) MSY, MEY etc. Yes (partial)<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es No Multi-species** Yes Generic MSY No<br />
Malaysia Yes Ma<strong>in</strong> species** Yes MSY, MEY etc. Yes<br />
Myanmar No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY No<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> No Multi-species** Yes Generic MSY No<br />
Viet Nam No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY No<br />
* Resources surveys not regular.<br />
** “Multi-species” assessments based on aggregated catch <strong>and</strong> effort data.<br />
Figure 26<br />
Trawl surveys <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region<br />
From Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z.<br />
<strong>and</strong> Zhou, W. (2003). South <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n coastal <strong>fisheries</strong>: Their status <strong>and</strong><br />
directions for improved management. Conference Synopsis <strong>and</strong> recommendations,<br />
p. 1-40 <strong>in</strong> Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna,<br />
C.Z., Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen, V., Pauly, D. <strong>and</strong> Munro (eds.) Assessment,<br />
Management <strong>and</strong> Future Directions for Coastal Fisheries <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n Countries. WorldFish<br />
Center Conference Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />
24
the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Sri Lanka, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam),<br />
based on trawl survey data spann<strong>in</strong>g the period<br />
1920 to the present. The surveys covered a wide<br />
area <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region (Figure 26).<br />
Unfortunately, fund<strong>in</strong>g for this project has f<strong>in</strong>ished<br />
<strong>and</strong> there is no update on earlier f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. There<br />
are also other very comprehensive survey data<br />
available for other areas, especially those carried<br />
out by the Fishery Survey if India (FSI) that started<br />
<strong>in</strong> 1946 <strong>and</strong> currently deploys more than 12 vessels<br />
along the Indian coast <strong>and</strong> the Andaman <strong>and</strong><br />
Nicobah Isl<strong>and</strong>s that could be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> future<br />
analyses.<br />
However, despite the fact that the work is not<br />
on-go<strong>in</strong>g, we consider these WorldFish analyses<br />
based on scientific surveys the most conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g<br />
evidence that is available on the status <strong>of</strong> resources<br />
<strong>in</strong> trawled areas <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region <strong>and</strong> worth<br />
reiterat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The analyses <strong>of</strong> the trawl surveys showed<br />
considerable degradation <strong>and</strong> overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
coastal stocks. In surveys that were carried out<br />
for periods greater than 25 years, the amount <strong>of</strong><br />
fish (measured as tonnes/km 2 ) had decl<strong>in</strong>ed to<br />
between 6 <strong>and</strong> 33 percent <strong>of</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al earlier<br />
value. The amount <strong>of</strong> fish available to today’s<br />
fishers had decl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> all countries, some as much<br />
as 40 percent <strong>in</strong> five years. The most dramatic<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>es were <strong>in</strong> the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the East<br />
Coast <strong>of</strong> Malaysia. Two examples, one for the Gulf<br />
<strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> one for Manila Bay are given <strong>in</strong><br />
Figure 27.<br />
The Trawlbase study also enabled an estimation<br />
<strong>of</strong> the exploitation rate for 427 stocks <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
With the exception <strong>of</strong> the coast <strong>of</strong> Brunei<br />
Darussalam, where fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure is less <strong>in</strong>tense,<br />
the majority <strong>of</strong> stocks were be<strong>in</strong>g fished at levels<br />
above the recommended optimum range.<br />
The surveys also demonstrated that the abundance<br />
<strong>of</strong> larger, more valuable species (e.g. groupers,<br />
snappers, sharks <strong>and</strong> rays) higher up <strong>in</strong> the food<br />
cha<strong>in</strong> have decl<strong>in</strong>ed, while smaller species lower<br />
<strong>in</strong> the food cha<strong>in</strong> (e.g. triggerfish, card<strong>in</strong>al fish <strong>and</strong><br />
squids/octopus) have <strong>in</strong>creased to relative<br />
abundance. In the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> trawl survey<br />
catch <strong>in</strong> the 1960s, the top ten species (or species<br />
groups) were made up <strong>of</strong> rays, bream, goatfish with<br />
some squid, lizard fish <strong>and</strong> snapper (Figure 28).<br />
By contrast, <strong>in</strong> the mid-1990s less desirable pony<br />
fish, squid, barracuda, <strong>and</strong> lizard fish had become<br />
much more prevalent. This “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>” appeared to be a common phenomenon <strong>in</strong><br />
many <strong>of</strong> the trawl survey data.<br />
Socio-economic assessments<br />
WorldFish also carried out some <strong>in</strong>-depth socioeconomic<br />
assessments <strong>of</strong> the eight participat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
States. This allowed an assessment <strong>of</strong> the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> coastal <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> earn<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />
employment, trade <strong>and</strong> nutrition <strong>and</strong> their<br />
contribution to the economy. The pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong><br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g operations <strong>in</strong> Malaysia, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
Viet Nam was studied, <strong>and</strong> broken down <strong>in</strong>to<br />
several sub-sectors.<br />
In general, fish<strong>in</strong>g is still a pr<strong>of</strong>itable enterprise <strong>in</strong><br />
all <strong>of</strong> these three States, particularly for the owners<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels. Owners <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
craft <strong>and</strong> gear earn large pr<strong>of</strong>its (up to 30 percent<br />
per year) while artisanal, small-scale fishers <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
have an extremely marg<strong>in</strong>al livelihood, although<br />
benefits are not evenly distributed. Unfortunately,<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>its from <strong>in</strong>dustrial fish<strong>in</strong>g do not flow <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
rural communities as it employs few crew <strong>and</strong><br />
provides little opportunity for unemployed or<br />
under-employed small-scale fishers.<br />
The loss <strong>in</strong> revenue <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its associated with<br />
overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> degraded resources were<br />
demonstrated us<strong>in</strong>g the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> as an<br />
example (Table 15). Based on 1995-96 data, large<br />
rent dissipation <strong>and</strong> excess capacity (<strong>in</strong> both labour<br />
<strong>and</strong> capital) can be clearly seen. Similar analyses<br />
have been done for the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> other<br />
areas <strong>in</strong> the past. More <strong>of</strong> these sorts <strong>of</strong> analyses<br />
should be carried out to guide future policy<br />
decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
3.4 Evidence from Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Ecosystems (LMEs)<br />
APFIC’s Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e Ecosystems<br />
To date, 63 LMEs have been described worldwide<br />
with twenty <strong>of</strong> these be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region.<br />
Much <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation used below has<br />
been taken from the NOAA website, which<br />
acknowledges sources <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> has an<br />
extensive reference list, 2 as well as an analysis <strong>of</strong><br />
the <strong>FAO</strong> catch database as modified by the<br />
University <strong>of</strong> British Columbia 3 (“Sea around us”<br />
project).<br />
The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is characterized by<br />
considerable diversity <strong>in</strong> LMEs <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> their<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> driv<strong>in</strong>g forces (Table 16). The table<br />
2<br />
Large Ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the World:<br />
http://www.edc.uri.edu/lme/<br />
3 UBC large Mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems:<br />
http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />
25
Figure 27<br />
Decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the abundance <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> (i) Manila Bay <strong>and</strong> (ii) Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> as measured by trawl<br />
surveys. From same source as Figure 26<br />
1.4<br />
BIOMASS DECLINE IN MANILA BAY<br />
1.4<br />
BIOMASS DECLINE IN THE GULF OF THAILAND<br />
1.2<br />
1.2<br />
BIOMASS ( x 10 t)<br />
6<br />
1.0<br />
0.8<br />
0.6<br />
0.4<br />
0.4<br />
0.2<br />
0.2<br />
0<br />
0<br />
1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985<br />
YEAR<br />
YEAR<br />
BIOMASS ( x 10 t)<br />
6<br />
1.0<br />
0.8<br />
0.6<br />
Figure 28<br />
Changes <strong>in</strong> the composition <strong>of</strong> the top ten species taken from trawl survey catches <strong>in</strong> the Gulf<br />
<strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> between 1966 <strong>and</strong> 1995. Data from same source as Figure 26<br />
1966 1995<br />
Rays<br />
Splendid Pony<br />
fish<br />
Tachsuridae<br />
Indian squid<br />
Threadf<strong>in</strong><br />
bream<br />
Lizard fish<br />
Bream<br />
Indian squid<br />
Bream spp.<br />
Goatfish<br />
Pugnose pony<br />
fish<br />
Barracuda<br />
Rays Threadf<strong>in</strong> bream Goatfish<br />
Bream spp. Indian squid Tachsuridae<br />
Bigeye Lizard fish Snapper<br />
Scad<br />
Splendid Pony fish<br />
Barracuda<br />
Bream<br />
Goat fish<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese squid<br />
Indian squid<br />
Pugnose pony fish<br />
Lizard fish<br />
Rabbit fish<br />
Orange f<strong>in</strong> pony fish<br />
Table 15<br />
Comparison <strong>of</strong> catch, revenues, costs <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its at different levels <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort (MSY = maximum<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able yield; MEY = maximum economic yield). From same source as Figure 26<br />
State <strong>of</strong> Effort Catch Revenue Costs Pr<strong>of</strong>it<br />
fishery (Std. hr x 10 6 ) (Tonnes x 10 3 ) (Baht x 10 6 ) (Baht x 10 6 ) (Baht x 10 6 )<br />
MSY 28.57 985 6 578 1 992 4 586<br />
MEY 21.75 952 6 359 1 517 4 842<br />
Open access 62.70 654 4 372 4 372 0<br />
Actual (1995) 56.88 728 4 862 3 966 896<br />
26
has excluded four LMEs from Australia as well as<br />
the large Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific. The four<br />
Australian LMEs were excluded as their catches<br />
were very small <strong>and</strong> not important to the analysis.<br />
In the case <strong>of</strong> Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific, this<br />
area was not <strong>in</strong>cluded as an LME on the “Sea<br />
around us” website.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> the total recorded catch s<strong>in</strong>ce 1950, the<br />
most productive LMEs are the East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea,<br />
the Kuroshio Current <strong>and</strong> the South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea.<br />
Follow<strong>in</strong>g closely beh<strong>in</strong>d are the Yellow Sea, the<br />
Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan, the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>and</strong> the NW<br />
Pacific high seas area.<br />
The Indonesian Sea, the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Sulu-Celebes Seas are clustered <strong>in</strong> another group,<br />
followed by the much smaller catches <strong>in</strong> New<br />
Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia LMEs.<br />
All LMEs have a mixture <strong>of</strong> pelagic <strong>and</strong> demersal<br />
species, although pelagics dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> most<br />
LMEs, especially <strong>in</strong> the Kuroshio Current, Sea<br />
<strong>of</strong> Japan, Yellow Sea, East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, South<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, Arabian Sea, Sulu-Celebes Sea, <strong>and</strong><br />
Indonesian Sea.<br />
In the Kuroshio Current, Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan, Yellow Sea,<br />
East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea <strong>and</strong> South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, the major<br />
species are the Japanese pilchard (Sard<strong>in</strong>ops<br />
sagax – melanostictus), chub mackerel (Scomber<br />
japonicus) <strong>and</strong> the largehead hairtail (Triciurus<br />
lepturus).<br />
In the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal, Arabian Gulf, Sulu-Celebes<br />
Seas, Indonesian Sea <strong>and</strong> NW Australia, anchovies<br />
(Stolephorus spp. <strong>and</strong> Engraulidae) form a large<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the catch with other small pelagic species<br />
such as the sard<strong>in</strong>e (Sard<strong>in</strong>ella spp.) common <strong>in</strong><br />
some areas. Pacific saury (Colobis saira) has<br />
formed a large part <strong>of</strong> the catch <strong>in</strong> the high seas<br />
<strong>of</strong> the NW Pacific.<br />
Exceptions to this pattern are the heavily trawled<br />
areas <strong>of</strong> the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Northern Australia<br />
where more demersals, threadf<strong>in</strong> breams <strong>and</strong><br />
shrimps, respectively, are taken, although even <strong>in</strong><br />
these areas catches <strong>of</strong> anchovies are almost as<br />
high as the demersal catches.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> total catch, bottom trawl<strong>in</strong>g takes the<br />
largest proportion <strong>of</strong> the catch <strong>in</strong> 12 out <strong>of</strong> the 15<br />
LMEs <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> Table 16. This <strong>in</strong>cludes pair<br />
trawl<strong>in</strong>g that, <strong>in</strong> many areas <strong>of</strong> the region, operates<br />
high-lift nets that catch significant quantities <strong>of</strong><br />
bentho-pelagic species, such as the largehead<br />
hairtail <strong>and</strong> pelagic species such as Japanese<br />
anchovy. As expected from the nature <strong>of</strong> these<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>, catches from mid-water trawls <strong>and</strong> purse<br />
se<strong>in</strong>es are also large, especially <strong>in</strong> the more pelagic<br />
LMEs.<br />
These statistics, however, tend to mask the<br />
importance <strong>of</strong> the small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> to these<br />
LMEs, <strong>and</strong> although no firm data are available<br />
they are known to constitute a large proportion <strong>of</strong><br />
the catch from many areas.<br />
Many LMEs are shared by several countries. For<br />
example, the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal is bordered by<br />
eight countries that all contribute to its catch.<br />
Table 16 shows the distribution <strong>of</strong> catch by<br />
countries as estimated by reported l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs<br />
<strong>and</strong> distributed on the basis <strong>of</strong> known access<br />
agreements <strong>in</strong> other country’s EEZ. There are<br />
some obvious discrepancies <strong>in</strong> this analysis (e.g.<br />
high catch by Indonesia <strong>in</strong> Southeast Australia), but<br />
it does demonstrate the multi-national nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
sector <strong>and</strong> the many shared fish stocks that are<br />
taken by several countries <strong>in</strong> each LME.<br />
Catch trends <strong>in</strong> selected Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
Ecosystems<br />
Based on their overall trends <strong>in</strong> catches, the LMEs<br />
<strong>of</strong> the APFIC region were categorized <strong>in</strong>to four<br />
major groups <strong>in</strong> the 2004 “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific”:<br />
i. Offshore deepwater systems dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
pelagic fishes (e.g. Kuroshio Current <strong>and</strong> NW<br />
Pacific);<br />
ii. Heavily fished coastal systems that display<br />
sequential depletion <strong>of</strong> species groups<br />
characteristic <strong>of</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>”<br />
(e.g. Yellow Sea, Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> NW<br />
Australia);<br />
iii.<br />
iv.<br />
Coastal systems that are still show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g reported catches <strong>in</strong> all species<br />
groups (e.g. Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>and</strong> South Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />
Sea); <strong>and</strong><br />
Fisheries managed under tight access right<br />
controls (e.g. Southeast Australia <strong>and</strong> New<br />
Zeal<strong>and</strong> Shelf).<br />
One example <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> these categories is<br />
analysed <strong>in</strong> some detail below.<br />
i) Offshore deepwater pelagic systems<br />
Kuroshio Current<br />
The catch <strong>in</strong> the Kuroshio Current showed a sharp<br />
peak <strong>in</strong> the mid-1980s with catches <strong>of</strong> 2.9 million<br />
tonnes. S<strong>in</strong>ce then there has been a dramatic<br />
27
Table 16<br />
The large mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (exclud<strong>in</strong>g W Australia, E Australia, NE Australia <strong>and</strong> SW Australia)<br />
LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />
Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan Mixed Bottom trawl (29%) Japan (54%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> 1970s Climate<br />
Large bentho-pelagics (28%) Mid-water trawl (28%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (15%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium pelagics (24%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (17%) Russian Fed. (12%) Large bentho-pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Habitat<br />
Small pelagics (12%) Korea DPR (11%) Recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> squid, large pelagics, Pollution<br />
lobsters <strong>and</strong> crabs.<br />
Kuroshio Current Mixed Bottom trawl (33%) Japan (81%) Small pelagics <strong>and</strong> pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> Climate<br />
Small pelagics (26%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (25%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (11%) mid-1980s<br />
Medium pelagics (26%) Mid-water trawl (13%) Korea RO (6%) Catches <strong>in</strong> 1980s dom<strong>in</strong>ated by South<br />
Medium demersals (15%) American pilchard<br />
Recent lower catches dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />
Japanese anchovy<br />
Yellow Sea Mixed Driftnets (26%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (72%) Medium pelagics dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g with a peak Climate<br />
Medium pelagics (18%) Bottom trawlers (25%) Japan (11%) <strong>in</strong> 1980 Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Shrimps (14%) Bagnets (17%) Korea RO (11%) Small pelagics <strong>and</strong> lobsters, crabs started Habitat<br />
Cephalopods (13%) an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> early 90s but have showed Pollution<br />
a recent sharp decrease. Recent <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
shrimps<br />
East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (34%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (68%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium bentho-pelagics (15%) Bagnets (14%) Japan (20%) Small demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1960s Pollution<br />
Small pelagics (14%) Mid-water trawls (9%) Korea RO (8%) <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Habitat<br />
Medium pelagics (14%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Shrimp <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Climate<br />
Medium demersals (13%)<br />
South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (37%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (39%) Increas<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> all groups up until Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium pelagics (13%) Gillnets (8%) Viet Nam (21%) late 1990s Pollution<br />
Medium demersals (12%) Mid-water trawls (7%) Indonesia (13%) Pelagics still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Habitat<br />
Small pelagics (11%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (7%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (9%)<br />
Small demersals (10%)<br />
Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal Mixed Bottom trawls (34%) Myanmar (26%) All groups <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Small demersals (25%) Gillnets (14%) India (22%) Pollution<br />
Medium pelagics (21%) Mid-water trawls (14%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (13%) Habitat<br />
Medium demersals (17%) Malaysia (13%)<br />
28
Table 16 (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />
LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />
Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> Mixed Bottom trawls (35%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (38%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s followed Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Small demersals (21%) Gillnets (11%) Viet Nam (36%) by a sudden decl<strong>in</strong>e dur<strong>in</strong>g 1980s <strong>and</strong> 1990s Pollution<br />
Medium pelagics (20%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Malaysia (20%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s Habitat<br />
Medium reef assoc. fish (17%) Mid-water trawls (8%) Cambodia (6%) Small pelagics fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g annually<br />
Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s<br />
Arabian Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (35%) India (62%) Pelagics stable s<strong>in</strong>ce mid-1980s but Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium demersals (20%) Mid-water trawls (12%) Pakistan (11%) <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g recently Pollution<br />
Small pelagics (17%) Driftnets (11%) Iran (10%) Small demersals <strong>and</strong> shrimp <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g until Habitat<br />
Small demersals (12%) Gillnets (7%) Bentho-pelagics stable recently<br />
Large pelagics (11%)<br />
Sulu-Celebes Sea Mixed Bottom trawl (23%) Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (78%) Small pelagics <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with annual Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium pelagics (45%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (16%) Indonesia (13%) fluctuations Pollution<br />
Small demersals (12%) Boat se<strong>in</strong>es (14%) Malaysia (6%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s Habitat<br />
Medium reef assoc. fish (10%) Large demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1950s<br />
Small pelagics (9%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> 1970s <strong>and</strong> late 1990s<br />
Large pelagics stable s<strong>in</strong>ce early 1990s<br />
Indonesian Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (26%) Indonesia (71%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s but stable Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium pelagics (26%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (20%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (25%) s<strong>in</strong>ce early 1990s Pollution<br />
Medium reef assoc. fish (12%) Mid-water trawls (13%) Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (2%) Small pelagics still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Habitat<br />
Small pelagics (12%) Gillnets (11%) Korea RO (2%) Large pelagics showed rapid growth dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium demersals (11%) 1990s but decl<strong>in</strong>ed over recent years<br />
Demersals peaked late 1990s<br />
Insular Pacific Mixed Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (37%) USA (85%) Small pelagics cyclical peak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> late 1950s Climate<br />
Hawaiien Medium pelagics (33%) Hookes or g<strong>org</strong>es (16%) Other (8%) <strong>and</strong> late 1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Large pelagics (31%) By div<strong>in</strong>g (14%) Korea RO (6%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1980s Habitat<br />
Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (14%) Molluscs peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1960s, early 1970s<br />
Large pelagics decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce late 1980s<br />
N Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (31%) Indonesia (37%) Shrimp catches cyclical Climate<br />
Large pelagics (16%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (34%) Large pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Medium pelagics (15%) Mid-water trawls (9%) Australia (15%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s<br />
Medium demersals (10%) Troll l<strong>in</strong>es (8%) <strong>and</strong> early 1990s<br />
29
Table 16 (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />
LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />
NW Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (26%) Australia (52%) Small demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Small pelagics (23%) Beach se<strong>in</strong>es (18%) Indonesia (25%) <strong>and</strong> early 1990s Habitat<br />
Medium demersals (15%) Mid-water trawls (12%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (21%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1990s<br />
Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (13%) H<strong>and</strong> dredges (8%) Small pelagics <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Shrimp catches stable<br />
SE Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (43%) Australia (67%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1990s Climate<br />
Large sharks (25%) Traps (14%) Indonesia (23%) Molluscs peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s <strong>and</strong> Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Large demersals (20%) Gillnets (13%) New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (5%) mid-1980s Pollution<br />
Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (14%) Lobster, crab catches steady Habitat<br />
New Zeal<strong>and</strong> Mixed Bottom trawls (62%) New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (90%) Large demersals cyclical but stable Climate<br />
Shelf Large demersals (41%) Squid hooks (9%) Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (4%) s<strong>in</strong>ce 1990 Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Large bentho-pelagics (12%) Hookes or g<strong>org</strong>es (6%) Australia (2%) Large bentho-pelagics cyclical but Pollution<br />
Cephalopods (9%) relatively stable Habitat<br />
Medium pelagics (9%) Small bentho-pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s<br />
30
decrease <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2003 the total catch for the area<br />
was only 684 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes. The peak <strong>in</strong> 1986<br />
was dom<strong>in</strong>ated by medium pelagic species, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
the Japanese pilchard that comprised 78 percent<br />
<strong>of</strong> the catch. In 2003 this figure decreased to 26<br />
percent. Instead, small pelagic fish, such as<br />
Japanese anchovy, are now the most commonly<br />
caught group <strong>of</strong> species.<br />
This LME shows the typical longer-term cycle <strong>of</strong><br />
pelagic <strong>fisheries</strong>, <strong>in</strong> which one group <strong>of</strong> species is<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten replaced by another. This decadal change<br />
is usually attributed to climatic cycles.<br />
In 2003 there were four countries fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
area. Japan is the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g country (81 percent),<br />
followed by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (11 percent), Korea RO<br />
(6 percent) <strong>and</strong> Taiwan POC (2 percent).<br />
The trend for gear used <strong>in</strong> the area follows the<br />
trend <strong>of</strong> the catches, show<strong>in</strong>g a large peak for<br />
purse se<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> 1986. In 2003, 33 percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />
catch was taken by bottom trawl which makes it<br />
the ma<strong>in</strong> used gear <strong>in</strong> the area. It is followed by<br />
purse se<strong>in</strong>es (25 percent) <strong>and</strong> mid-water trawls<br />
(13 percent).<br />
ii)<br />
Yellow Sea<br />
Systems show<strong>in</strong>g “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>” effects<br />
The Yellow Sea is one <strong>of</strong> the most <strong>in</strong>tensively<br />
exploited areas <strong>in</strong> the world, <strong>and</strong> has exhibited<br />
a pronounced change <strong>in</strong> ecosystem structure<br />
<strong>and</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” effect. Due<br />
to overexploitation <strong>and</strong> natural fluctuations<br />
<strong>in</strong> recruitment, some <strong>of</strong> the larger-sized <strong>and</strong><br />
commercially important species were replaced by<br />
smaller, less valuable, forage fish. When bottom<br />
trawlers were <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the early twentieth<br />
century, many stocks were <strong>in</strong>tensively exploited<br />
by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, Korean <strong>and</strong> Japanese fishers <strong>and</strong><br />
all the major stocks were heavily fished <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1960s, which had a significant effect on the<br />
ecosystem. Pacific herr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel<br />
became dom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> the 1970s. Smaller-bodied<br />
<strong>and</strong> economically less pr<strong>of</strong>itable anchovy <strong>and</strong><br />
scaled sard<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the 1980s <strong>and</strong> took<br />
a prom<strong>in</strong>ent position <strong>in</strong> the ecosystem.<br />
Drift nets have always been a major gear <strong>in</strong> this<br />
LME but the catch from bottom trawls has also<br />
been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2003 accounted for<br />
25 percent <strong>of</strong> the catch.<br />
The countries border<strong>in</strong>g the Yellow Sea take<br />
most <strong>of</strong> the catch – Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 72 percent, Japan<br />
11 percent <strong>and</strong> Korea RO 11 percent.<br />
iii)<br />
Systems with reported <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g catches<br />
<strong>in</strong> all species groups<br />
Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />
Commercial species for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude anchovies, croakers, shrimp <strong>and</strong> tuna<br />
(yellowf<strong>in</strong>, bigeye <strong>and</strong> skipjack). Shrimp is a major<br />
export earner.<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> data show a steady rise <strong>in</strong> total l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />
all major groups s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1950s. This appears to<br />
be largely as a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased mar<strong>in</strong>e l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs<br />
reported for Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaysia <strong>and</strong><br />
Bangladesh. The other Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal counties<br />
(India, Pakistan, Maldives <strong>and</strong> Sri Lanka) have all<br />
reported losses <strong>in</strong> production <strong>in</strong> recent years, the<br />
greatest be<strong>in</strong>g from India. Increased competition<br />
<strong>and</strong> conflicts between small-scale <strong>and</strong> large-scale<br />
fishers <strong>and</strong> reports <strong>of</strong> decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g catches <strong>and</strong> catch<br />
rates by fishers <strong>in</strong>dicate that much <strong>of</strong> the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengal is also over-fished.<br />
There is an alarm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> cyanide fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> this LME’s coral reefs for the lucrative live food<br />
fish markets <strong>in</strong> Hong Kong <strong>and</strong> S<strong>in</strong>gapore.<br />
Mangroves <strong>and</strong> estuaries – critical fish spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>and</strong> nursery areas – are also under stress or<br />
threatened by pollution, sedimentation, dams for<br />
flood control (as <strong>in</strong> Bangladesh), <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
coastal <strong>aquaculture</strong>. States border<strong>in</strong>g the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengal rate overexploitation <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e resources<br />
as the number one problem <strong>in</strong> the area.<br />
Catches com<strong>in</strong>g from bottom trawl<strong>in</strong>g dom<strong>in</strong>ate the<br />
catch, although the LME is characterized by many<br />
small-scale fishers us<strong>in</strong>g a wide variety <strong>of</strong> gears.<br />
As with the Yellow Sea, it is the countries<br />
surround<strong>in</strong>g the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal that record the<br />
greatest catches, although not only <strong>in</strong> their own<br />
EEZs. Thai trawlers are common <strong>in</strong> Myanmar <strong>and</strong><br />
known to operate as far away as Bangladesh.<br />
There is also a relatively large high sea area that<br />
supports caches <strong>of</strong> tuna <strong>and</strong> other large pelagics<br />
that are also fished by several distant-water fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
nations.<br />
31
iv)<br />
Fisheries under tight management control<br />
Southeast Australian Shelf<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> species harvested are scallops (<strong>in</strong> Bass<br />
Strait), rock lobster (Tasmania), <strong>and</strong> abalone<br />
(Tasmania <strong>and</strong> Victoria) <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish <strong>in</strong> the Southeast<br />
trawl fishery <strong>and</strong> shark <strong>in</strong> the shark <strong>fisheries</strong>. The<br />
long-st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g trawl fishery has seen serial<br />
depletion <strong>of</strong> several <strong>of</strong> its important fish stocks,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g eastern gemfish <strong>and</strong> more recently the<br />
deepwater orange roughy that is found associated<br />
with sea mounts. The fishery has been managed<br />
under <strong>in</strong>dividual transferable catch quotas (ITQ)<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the early 1990s, but to date these do not<br />
appear to have been very effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this multi-species fishery.<br />
The ma<strong>in</strong> gear across the entire LME is bottom<br />
trawl<strong>in</strong>g, with other specialized gears catch<strong>in</strong>g<br />
scallops, lobsters <strong>and</strong> sharks (traps, dredges, <strong>and</strong><br />
gillnets).<br />
Trends <strong>in</strong> the trophic <strong>in</strong>dices<br />
The “Sea around us” project also provides<br />
calculations <strong>of</strong> the mean trophic level <strong>of</strong> the annual<br />
catches. In theory, changes <strong>in</strong> the mean trophic<br />
level reflect changes <strong>in</strong> the ecosystem structure,<br />
a higher value <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a greater presence <strong>of</strong><br />
larger predators, <strong>and</strong> vice versa.<br />
In the Kuroshio Current LME, because this system<br />
is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by a few species groups, the change<br />
<strong>in</strong> trophic structure reflects the chang<strong>in</strong>g species<br />
mix. The low trophic <strong>in</strong>dex corresponds to the<br />
peak <strong>in</strong> the medium pelagic species group, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
Japanese pilchards that are relatively low <strong>in</strong> the<br />
food cha<strong>in</strong>. More recently, the switch to the<br />
relatively higher trophic level species can also<br />
be seen (Figure 29).<br />
In contrast, the Yellow Sea LME shows less<br />
dramatic changes but a steady decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the mean<br />
trophic level, consistent with “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />
cha<strong>in</strong>”, is apparent (Figure 30). In the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />
Bengal that has reported <strong>in</strong>creased catches <strong>in</strong> all<br />
major groups, a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the mean trophic level<br />
can also be detected, suggestive <strong>of</strong> an overall shift<br />
<strong>in</strong> trophic structure <strong>in</strong> the Bay, or at least <strong>in</strong> the<br />
targeted species (Figure 31).<br />
In SE Australia, the overall pattern <strong>in</strong> the mean<br />
trophic level is more similar to that <strong>of</strong> the Kuroshio<br />
Current, but <strong>in</strong> the Australian case (Figure 32)<br />
reflects changes <strong>in</strong> catch composition that<br />
occurred as a result <strong>of</strong> overfish<strong>in</strong>g as well as<br />
management <strong>in</strong>terventions. Catches <strong>of</strong> fish high on<br />
the trophic scale, such as Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> tuna,<br />
were very high <strong>in</strong> the 1960s. The collapse <strong>of</strong> these<br />
catches <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> strict quotas<br />
brought about a shift to lower food cha<strong>in</strong> species<br />
after this time. However, s<strong>in</strong>ce the mid-1980s the<br />
mean trophic <strong>in</strong>dex has <strong>in</strong>creased aga<strong>in</strong>, driven by<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased catches <strong>of</strong> sharks <strong>and</strong> species such as<br />
blue grenadier.<br />
Ecosystem modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Fishery assessments based on ecosystem<br />
modell<strong>in</strong>g have also been carried out <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />
especially <strong>in</strong> the eight States with extensive historic<br />
trawl survey data that allow better estimates on the<br />
amount <strong>of</strong> fish present <strong>in</strong> the sea. This approach<br />
is based on ecosystem modell<strong>in</strong>g (e.g. Ecopath <strong>and</strong><br />
Ecosim) that allows an analysis <strong>of</strong> the structure<br />
|<strong>and</strong> function <strong>of</strong> whole ecosystems <strong>and</strong> how they<br />
have changed overtime. Christensen <strong>and</strong> his<br />
co-workers at the UBC are pioneer<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
approach <strong>and</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g analyses for the major<br />
LMEs. In the APFIC region they have concluded<br />
an analysis <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the South<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea. 4 This analysis clearly showed that for<br />
this large sea, “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” has<br />
occurred, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g gradual replacement <strong>of</strong> large,<br />
long-lived predators by small, short-lived fish lower<br />
down the food cha<strong>in</strong>, <strong>of</strong>ten referred to now as<br />
“trash fish”. The only exception to these trends<br />
was <strong>of</strong>f the coast <strong>of</strong> Brunei Darussalam where<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure is much lighter than <strong>in</strong> other<br />
States, s<strong>in</strong>ce it effectively has mar<strong>in</strong>e protected<br />
areas (MPAs) around its oil rigs.<br />
3.5 Evidence from fisher’s perceptions<br />
Evidence ga<strong>in</strong>ed directly from fisher’s <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
communities perceptions are perhaps the most<br />
difficult to describe <strong>and</strong> quantify but are always<br />
consistent with the evidence derived from other<br />
sources. There are many studies documented<br />
throughout the region where participatory<br />
assessments have been carried out, on a range<br />
<strong>of</strong> scales focuss<strong>in</strong>g on one or two selected<br />
villages to large <strong>org</strong>anized fish<strong>in</strong>g associations<br />
(e.g. trawl-owners associations). The APFIC<br />
Secretariat did not have the resources to provide<br />
a comprehensive review but <strong>in</strong> many cases the<br />
4<br />
Christensen, V.T., Garces, L.R., Silvestre, G.T. <strong>and</strong> Pauly,<br />
D. (2003). Fisheries impact on the South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea large<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystem: A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary analysis us<strong>in</strong>g spatially<br />
explicit methodology, p. 51-62 <strong>in</strong> Silvestre, G.T., Garces,<br />
L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z.,<br />
Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen, V., Pauly, D. & Munro (eds.)<br />
Assessment, management <strong>and</strong> future directions for coastal<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n States. WorldFish Center Conference<br />
Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />
32
Figure 29<br />
Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Kuroshio Current LME<br />
Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />
Mean trophic level<br />
Trophic level<br />
3.4<br />
3.3<br />
3.2<br />
3.1<br />
3.0<br />
2.9<br />
2.8<br />
2.7<br />
2.6<br />
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Figure 30<br />
Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Yellow Sea LME<br />
Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />
Mean trophic level<br />
3.5<br />
Trophic level<br />
3.4<br />
3.3<br />
3.2<br />
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Figure 31<br />
Mean trophic level Index for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME<br />
Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />
Mean trophic level<br />
3.7<br />
Trophic level<br />
3.6<br />
3.5<br />
3.4<br />
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
33
Figure 32<br />
Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Southeast Australia LME<br />
Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />
Mean trophic level<br />
Trophic level<br />
3.7<br />
3.6<br />
3.5<br />
3.4<br />
3.3<br />
3.2<br />
3.1<br />
3.0<br />
2.9<br />
2.8<br />
2.7<br />
2.6<br />
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />
Table 17<br />
<strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean<br />
Species Central & Western Pacific Indian Ocean<br />
Skipjack tuna Underexploited Underexploited<br />
Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Under/fully exploited Fully exploited<br />
Bigeye tuna Fully/overexploited Fully/overexploited<br />
Albacore tuna Underexploited Underexploited<br />
Swordfish<br />
Overexploited<br />
34
story seems to be the same – catches <strong>and</strong> catch<br />
per boat (gear, fish<strong>in</strong>g lot etc.) have decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
dramatically over the past 10-20 years. The status<br />
<strong>of</strong> the tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />
Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean can be seen <strong>in</strong><br />
Table 17.<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> has recently commissioned several<br />
participatory assessments across the region,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Timor-Leste, Viet Nam, Cambodia. As<br />
part <strong>of</strong> the response to the 2004 tsunami, <strong>FAO</strong> has<br />
supported rapid but limited assessments <strong>of</strong> the<br />
impacts <strong>of</strong> the tsunami on the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources<br />
<strong>of</strong> some affected areas <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka, Indonesia <strong>and</strong><br />
Thail<strong>and</strong>. The objective <strong>of</strong> these assessments was<br />
to <strong>in</strong>form the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector rehabilitation <strong>and</strong><br />
reconstruction plann<strong>in</strong>g efforts.<br />
F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from these assessments to date <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />
that <strong>in</strong> the perceptions <strong>of</strong> the fishers there has been<br />
no significant direct impact <strong>of</strong> the tsunami on the<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> resources. However, localized impacts<br />
due to habitat modification (clos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> lagoons,<br />
destruction <strong>of</strong> mangrove <strong>and</strong> reef etc.) have been<br />
reported.<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> long-term trends prior to the tsunami,<br />
fishers <strong>in</strong> all these countries reported decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
catches <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g numbers <strong>of</strong> vessels <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>.<br />
Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />
3.6 Water resources<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> the high population density <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>,<br />
the per capita availability <strong>of</strong> freshwater is the<br />
lowest <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>and</strong> compet<strong>in</strong>g usages <strong>of</strong><br />
freshwater have a major impact on <strong>fisheries</strong>. The<br />
ma<strong>in</strong> water resources for <strong>fisheries</strong> are the rivers<br />
<strong>and</strong> flood pla<strong>in</strong>s, natural lakes <strong>and</strong> man-made<br />
impoundments. The seasonal floodpla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />
States such as Myanmar <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh all have<br />
major <strong>fisheries</strong>. In contrast, <strong>Asia</strong> has relatively<br />
few natural lakes <strong>and</strong> most <strong>of</strong> these are conf<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to volcanic areas, notably <strong>in</strong> the Indonesian <strong>and</strong><br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>e archipelagos, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> northern India.<br />
The major exception is the Great Lake or Tonle<br />
Sap <strong>in</strong> Cambodia which occupies 200-300 km 2 <strong>in</strong><br />
the dry season, exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g to 10 000-12 000 km 2<br />
<strong>in</strong> the wet.<br />
Over the centuries, reservoirs have been<br />
constructed <strong>in</strong> some States <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> (e.g. Sri Lanka),<br />
but more recently construction <strong>of</strong> reservoirs for<br />
irrigation, hydropower <strong>and</strong> flood protection has<br />
become common <strong>in</strong> many parts <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region.<br />
The reservoir resource <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is large <strong>and</strong> accounts<br />
for over 40 percent <strong>of</strong> the global large reservoir<br />
capacity. These range from large impoundments<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g from damm<strong>in</strong>g major rivers to small<br />
ra<strong>in</strong>fed ponds. It has been estimated that<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> have 66.7 million ha <strong>of</strong><br />
small to medium reservoirs with 85 thous<strong>and</strong> ha<br />
occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a.<br />
3.7 Fishery resources<br />
Most <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> are small-scale activities<br />
where the catch per craft (or catch per capita) is<br />
relatively small <strong>and</strong> the catch more <strong>of</strong>ten than not<br />
disposed <strong>of</strong> on the same day. The ma<strong>in</strong> exceptions<br />
are the <strong>in</strong>dustrialized <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the lower Mekong<br />
Bas<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the “fish<strong>in</strong>g lots” <strong>in</strong> the Tonle Sap <strong>of</strong><br />
Cambodia <strong>and</strong> the fish<strong>in</strong>g “<strong>in</strong>ns” <strong>of</strong> Myanmar. The<br />
lack <strong>of</strong> accurate report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these small-scale<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> makes it difficult to assess their status<br />
but they are under considerable pressure from both<br />
the loss <strong>and</strong> degradation <strong>of</strong> habitat <strong>and</strong> from<br />
overfish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Freshwater fishes are reported to be the most<br />
threatened group <strong>of</strong> vertebrates harvested by man.<br />
It has been estimated by the World Resources<br />
Institute that half <strong>of</strong> the world’s species were lost<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the last century <strong>and</strong> that dams, diversions<br />
<strong>and</strong> canals have fragmented many major rivers,<br />
severely impact<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> resources.<br />
Many <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> water habitats have been<br />
altered <strong>and</strong> degraded. Rivers <strong>and</strong> floodpla<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular, have been heavily impacted with the<br />
construction <strong>of</strong> dams, roads, channels <strong>and</strong> other<br />
irrigation systems. The tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> water to reduce<br />
the impacts <strong>of</strong> flood<strong>in</strong>g has probably had<br />
widespread effects on <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />
although the real impacts are poorly documented.<br />
Fishers regularly compla<strong>in</strong> that catches are<br />
decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, but it is uncerta<strong>in</strong> to what extent this is<br />
an effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g fishery pressure or the loss<br />
<strong>of</strong> fishery resources through habitat degradation<br />
<strong>and</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g water flow regimes.<br />
Major changes <strong>in</strong> the way large systems function<br />
have enormously altered some areas by greatly<br />
reduc<strong>in</strong>g the seasonal “flood pulse” that previously<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> large areas <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g flooded<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the wet season. This has impacted on the<br />
ability <strong>of</strong> many species <strong>of</strong> fish to migrate to their<br />
spawn<strong>in</strong>g grounds <strong>and</strong> has also altered the flow<br />
pattern with accompanied habitat changes (e.g.<br />
runn<strong>in</strong>g water to lakes). Some mitigation attempts<br />
have been made <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> fish ladders to allow<br />
35
fish to migrate around dams but their success<br />
compared with orig<strong>in</strong>al conditions is unknown.<br />
Chang<strong>in</strong>g agricultural patterns <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g irrigation<br />
development <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creased use <strong>of</strong> chemicals<br />
<strong>and</strong> pesticides <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified agricultural production<br />
have all had some impact on wild fishery resources.<br />
As <strong>in</strong> the mar<strong>in</strong>e environment, changes <strong>in</strong> species<br />
composition are also occurr<strong>in</strong>g. Catches <strong>of</strong> large,<br />
long lived species such as the giant catfish <strong>and</strong><br />
large cypr<strong>in</strong>id species are becom<strong>in</strong>g rare <strong>and</strong> there<br />
is evidence <strong>of</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” <strong>in</strong><br />
some <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas. In the Mekong River, for<br />
example, the giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas)<br />
has now become extremely rare <strong>and</strong> endangered.<br />
On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the status <strong>of</strong> some <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />
fishery resources has been enhanced through<br />
stock<strong>in</strong>g programmes, <strong>in</strong>troductions <strong>of</strong> exotic<br />
species, habitat eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />
improvement. Stock enhancement is an <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />
part <strong>of</strong> most <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region <strong>and</strong> is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, particularly where some<br />
sort <strong>of</strong> access restriction or user rights are <strong>in</strong> place.<br />
In general, <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> large lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers depend<br />
on naturally recruited stocks <strong>and</strong> the economic<br />
viability <strong>of</strong> stock enhancement has not been<br />
demonstrated <strong>in</strong> any <strong>Asia</strong>n State. In floodpla<strong>in</strong><br />
depressions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> small water bodies, stock<br />
enhancement has proven to be very successful.<br />
These cultured-based <strong>fisheries</strong> are seen as a way<br />
forward <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>and</strong> many States <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region. 5<br />
Of particular importance to many States <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region are rice-field <strong>fisheries</strong> that<br />
either depend on natural <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> wild<br />
fish or stock<strong>in</strong>g fish, either simultaneously or<br />
alternately with the rice crop (probably more<br />
correctly def<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>aquaculture</strong>). The fish are<br />
important for local consumption <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
<strong>and</strong> support rural livelihoods <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States.<br />
It is particularly important for food security as it is<br />
the most readily available, reliable <strong>and</strong> cheapest<br />
source <strong>of</strong> animal prote<strong>in</strong> for farm<strong>in</strong>g communities<br />
as well as the l<strong>and</strong>less. This importance is<br />
generally underestimated <strong>and</strong> undervalued. It is<br />
reported that the availability <strong>of</strong> this aquatic<br />
resource is decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Anecdotal evidence from<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> elsewhere suggests that it is considerably<br />
more difficult to f<strong>in</strong>d such food now than a decade<br />
or so ago. This is a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong><br />
through human population <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>and</strong> activities<br />
such as the use <strong>of</strong> pesticides, destruction <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
breed<strong>in</strong>g grounds <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
methods such as poisons <strong>and</strong> electro-fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
5 De Silva, S. & Funge-Smith, S. A Review <strong>of</strong> stock<br />
enhancement practices <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> water <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>,<br />
RAP Publication 2005/12<br />
http://www.apfic.<strong>org</strong>/modules/mydownloads/viewcat.<br />
php?cid=5<br />
36
4. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> Aquaculture<br />
This part <strong>of</strong> the document will deal with the review <strong>of</strong> major groups <strong>of</strong> species that are currently cultured<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. The manner <strong>of</strong> group<strong>in</strong>g species will be accord<strong>in</strong>g to the trophic needs <strong>of</strong> the<br />
species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> some cases the degree <strong>of</strong> reliance on external <strong>in</strong>puts (such as feeds <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure for<br />
culture).<br />
4.1 Carnivorous species or species<br />
requir<strong>in</strong>g higher production <strong>in</strong>puts<br />
Freshwater carnivorous species<br />
Eels<br />
Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period 1988 to 1998, the world’s<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> eels doubled from<br />
98 000 tonnes to 217 000 tonnes, <strong>of</strong> which<br />
95 percent was produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n farms.<br />
Eel production <strong>in</strong> Japan (Anguilla japonica) has<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>ed stable for the past ten years at around<br />
20 000 tonnes. The production <strong>of</strong> Taiwan POC has<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed greatly to the lowest level <strong>in</strong> 1999. In<br />
contrast, production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has risen steadily,<br />
until a peak <strong>in</strong> 1997, rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g just below this<br />
level until reach<strong>in</strong>g a new high <strong>in</strong> 2004 at a level <strong>of</strong><br />
178 176 tonnes.<br />
This production is reported as Japanese eel,<br />
however, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR also imports European glass<br />
eels (Anguilla Anguilla) <strong>and</strong> hence some <strong>of</strong> this<br />
reported production would be the European eel. In<br />
2004, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese swamp eel production was also<br />
high at 137 486 tonnes for 2004. Malaysia <strong>and</strong><br />
Korea RO also produce some quantities <strong>of</strong><br />
Japanese eel through <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
Europe has <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly supplied <strong>Asia</strong>n eel<br />
farms with glass eels, <strong>and</strong> the region has gradually<br />
become more dependent on wild-caught eels <strong>of</strong><br />
Europe. In 1997, for example, France exported<br />
more than 266 tonnes <strong>of</strong> European eels to<br />
dest<strong>in</strong>ations outside the EU (amount<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
55 percent <strong>of</strong> all EU eel exports outside Europe<br />
that year). 1<br />
Salmonid – Freshwater culture<br />
Freshwater production <strong>of</strong> trout species <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
has been fairly stable over the last decade with the<br />
exception <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>of</strong><br />
Ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout <strong>in</strong> IR Iran, which has almost doubled<br />
production <strong>in</strong> two years (to 30 000 tonnes). Ayu<br />
sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis) production <strong>in</strong><br />
Japan has decl<strong>in</strong>ed by about 25 percent <strong>in</strong> the last<br />
decade (7 200 tonnes).<br />
1<br />
TRAFFIC report<br />
http://www.traffic.<strong>org</strong>/dispatches/archives/march2001/eel.html<br />
Catfish<br />
The top five produc<strong>in</strong>g states are Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong>, Indonesia, India <strong>and</strong> Malaysia. Total<br />
production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 652 386 tonnes <strong>and</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR produced 58 percent <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
production. Ch<strong>in</strong>a started to report on this group<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2003. The production (without Ch<strong>in</strong>a) shows<br />
a slow <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend with an average growth<br />
rate <strong>of</strong> 11 percent. This would be greater if<br />
Vietnamese production <strong>of</strong> Pangasius was also<br />
<strong>in</strong>cluded (Viet Nam does not report Pangasius<br />
separately from “freshwater fish nei”).<br />
The top five species are Amur catfish (Silurus<br />
asotus), Torpedo-shaped catfishes nei (Clarias<br />
spp.), Hybrid catfish (C. batrachus x C. gariep<strong>in</strong>us),<br />
Yellow catfish <strong>and</strong> Channel catfish (approx<br />
90 percent <strong>of</strong> the total production for the group).<br />
In addition, Viet Nam produces significant<br />
quantities <strong>of</strong> catfish <strong>of</strong> the Pangasius spp.<br />
Viet Nam produced over 300 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />
which is a significant <strong>in</strong>crease over the estimated<br />
180 000 tonnes for 2003. 2<br />
Snakeheads<br />
The total production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 285 173 tonnes<br />
<strong>and</strong> the top four produc<strong>in</strong>g states are Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />
India, Indonesia <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has just<br />
started to report snakehead production separately<br />
(as with the catfish) <strong>in</strong> 2003. In 2004 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />
produced 84 percent <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>Asia</strong>n production.<br />
The trend for this goup is hard to def<strong>in</strong>e. Indonesia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> show a stable trend at a low level<br />
(approx 6 600 tonnes). India has fluctuated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
past ten years with a high <strong>in</strong> 2000 <strong>of</strong> 80 740 tonnes<br />
<strong>and</strong> a low <strong>in</strong> 2001 <strong>of</strong> 1 301 tonnes but is aga<strong>in</strong><br />
show<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>crease to almost 30 000 <strong>in</strong> 2004. The<br />
production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>in</strong>creased by 35 percent to<br />
238 754 tonnes (2003 to 2004).<br />
Knifefish <strong>and</strong> gobies<br />
These species are not widely cultured but have<br />
a good market price <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> countries. The s<strong>and</strong><br />
goby production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is almost totally based on<br />
2<br />
http://www.globefish.<strong>org</strong>/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?id=2291&<br />
easysitestatid=626311130<br />
37
on-grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wild caught f<strong>in</strong>gerl<strong>in</strong>gs. The total<br />
production <strong>of</strong> Knifefishes <strong>and</strong> Marble goby was<br />
214 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Malaysia is the top producer,<br />
followed by Indonesia, S<strong>in</strong>gapore <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>.<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> has shown a decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g trend. In Malaysia<br />
production has decl<strong>in</strong>ed by half <strong>in</strong> a five year period<br />
to around 100 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, except for a peak<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>of</strong> 700 tonnes.<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackish water carnivorous species<br />
Barramundi <strong>and</strong> Japanese Seabass<br />
Barramundi (Lates calcifer) is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ground with<br />
the regional total reach<strong>in</strong>g 29 884 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> has become the top producer <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region with a still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend. The Thai<br />
production is still largely marketed domestically.<br />
There has been a significant reduction <strong>in</strong><br />
production from Hong Kong SAR which may be<br />
due to a shift towards higher value species<br />
<strong>and</strong> limited site availability. Korea RO is also<br />
produc<strong>in</strong>g Japanese seabass (Lateolabrax<br />
japonicus, 1 850 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has<br />
also reported large production <strong>of</strong> Japanese<br />
seabass start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2004 (217 000 tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004), which may be an effect <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR’s<br />
improved report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species (these<br />
species may have previously been reported under<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei).<br />
There has been limited <strong>in</strong>ternational trade <strong>of</strong> these<br />
species either live or processed <strong>and</strong> future<br />
expansion may be reliant on the development <strong>of</strong><br />
regional or <strong>in</strong>ternational markets. There is some<br />
<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> Lates niloticus , the Nile Perch which has<br />
particularly white flesh <strong>and</strong> is widely traded as<br />
a commodity; Lates calcarifer does not have such<br />
good flesh colour, but may still <strong>of</strong>fer some <strong>potential</strong><br />
as an alternative <strong>in</strong> some markets.<br />
Salmonids – Brackishwater/Mariculture<br />
Culture <strong>of</strong> salmonids (ch<strong>in</strong>ook, coho, Atlantic<br />
salmon <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout) <strong>in</strong> brackishwater <strong>and</strong><br />
mariculture is reported from Australia, New Zeal<strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> is currently at 29 631 tonnes.<br />
Japanese coho salmon culture had a peak <strong>in</strong> 1991<br />
<strong>and</strong> has decl<strong>in</strong>ed sharply <strong>in</strong> 1995 <strong>and</strong> hit its<br />
lowest po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> 2002 dropp<strong>in</strong>g to 31 percent <strong>of</strong><br />
its 1991 production. In 2004 the production<br />
reached 9 607 tonnes. New Zeal<strong>and</strong>’s ch<strong>in</strong>ook<br />
salmon production is relatively stable at just over<br />
5 000 tonnes.<br />
Australian brackishwater culture <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow<br />
trout has decl<strong>in</strong>ed over the past ten years from 890<br />
tonnes (1988) to zero reported <strong>in</strong> 1994. In contrast,<br />
over the past ten years the Australian Atlantic<br />
salmon <strong>in</strong>dustry has developed considerably to<br />
a current figure <strong>of</strong> 14 828 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackishwater carnivorous fish<br />
Over 40 species <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackishwater<br />
carnivorous (or largely carnivorous) f<strong>in</strong>fish are<br />
reported <strong>and</strong> are largely cultured <strong>in</strong> cages.<br />
Japanese culture <strong>of</strong> Amberjack (Seriola) is the<br />
leader with production stable at 150 068 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />
2004. The production <strong>of</strong> several other Japanese<br />
species is also quite stable (such as pufferfish,<br />
several mackerel species <strong>and</strong> bastard halibut) <strong>and</strong><br />
it is assumed that this is due to site limitations<br />
which effectively prevent further expansion. In<br />
Japan <strong>and</strong> Korea RO particularly, it is <strong>in</strong>evitable<br />
that there will be a turn towards imports from<br />
neighbour<strong>in</strong>g States such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR.<br />
Cobia<br />
Cobia (Rachycentron) culture <strong>in</strong>creased rapidly <strong>in</strong><br />
13 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1996 to 2 400 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 <strong>and</strong> was<br />
20 461 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (this is largely because <strong>of</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR report<strong>in</strong>g this species separately).<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 16 493 tonnes.<br />
Taiwan POC reports a production <strong>of</strong> 3 968 tonnes<br />
for 2004. Culture <strong>of</strong> this species is also tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f<br />
rapidly <strong>in</strong> other States such as Viet Nam <strong>and</strong><br />
Thail<strong>and</strong>, possibly as a result <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
availability <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>gerl<strong>in</strong>gs from Taiwan POC<br />
(however, this is not yet be<strong>in</strong>g reported widely,<br />
therefore the total production can be considered<br />
conservative). The very rapid growth rate <strong>of</strong> this<br />
species <strong>and</strong> relative hard<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> ponds makes it<br />
an attractive species for <strong>aquaculture</strong>, although<br />
market acceptance is not yet def<strong>in</strong>ite.<br />
Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> Tuna<br />
Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> Tuna culture <strong>in</strong> Australia has<br />
emerged as a significant <strong>in</strong>dustry for the country<br />
over the past ten years reach<strong>in</strong>g 4 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />
2002 <strong>and</strong> stayed at this level <strong>in</strong> 2004. Although the<br />
quantity is relatively low compared with the<br />
Japanese Amberjack production, the very high<br />
value <strong>of</strong> this product makes it a significant<br />
economic activity where it is practiced.<br />
The total value <strong>of</strong> the Australian Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong><br />
Tuna wild harvest component <strong>of</strong> the fishery was<br />
approximately US$50.5 million, <strong>and</strong> the valueadded<br />
from grow out <strong>of</strong> wild caught fish <strong>in</strong><br />
seacages is approximately US$97.3 million 3<br />
(2002-2003).<br />
3<br />
http://www.afma.gov.au/<strong>fisheries</strong>/tuna/sbt/default.htm<br />
http://www.australian<strong>aquaculture</strong>portal.com/PDF/<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry_bluef<strong>in</strong>_1.pdf<br />
38
Seabream<br />
Seabream production is conf<strong>in</strong>ed to Japan,<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Taiwan POC, Korea RO <strong>and</strong> Hong Kong<br />
SAR. The Japanese production <strong>of</strong> seabream<br />
was 80 959 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, more than half that<br />
(54 percent) <strong>of</strong> amberjack. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has started<br />
report<strong>in</strong>g over 40 000 tonnes start<strong>in</strong>g from 2003.<br />
The production <strong>of</strong> this species was probably<br />
reported earlier as Other mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei.<br />
Other mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish not elsewhere identified<br />
(nei)<br />
Most <strong>of</strong> these fish are assumed to be carnivorous<br />
<strong>and</strong> are fed by trash fish from the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR production <strong>of</strong> European turbot<br />
is estimated at about 3 000 tonnes represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />
about 33 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production. 4<br />
This group <strong>of</strong> fish is <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest because <strong>of</strong> the large<br />
reported production from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR. Even though<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has decreased its report<strong>in</strong>g on nei<br />
species by 64 percent s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002, the quantity <strong>of</strong><br />
“mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei” reported by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR equals<br />
the total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Malaysia. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dividual species are not reported, trends<br />
cannot be determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />
It is important to po<strong>in</strong>t out that an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
trends for a species most likely is a result <strong>of</strong><br />
improved report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species. Table 18<br />
<strong>and</strong> Figure 33 show the apparent drop <strong>in</strong><br />
production for Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR between 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2004,<br />
an artefact caused by improved detailed report<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />
Table 18<br />
Aquaculture production reported under “mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
f<strong>in</strong>fish nei”<br />
Country Tonnes 2002 Tonnes 2004<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 560 404 202 587<br />
Japan 8 287 6 951<br />
Taiwan POC 3 372 3 027<br />
India – 2 778<br />
Indonesia 2 937 1 602<br />
Malaysia 2 669 1 458<br />
Hong Kong SAR 597 493<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 94 162<br />
S<strong>in</strong>gapore 47 55<br />
Korea RO 81 3<br />
4 http://www.ices.dk/committe/acfm/comwork/report/2005/<br />
may/Wild%20cultured%20fish%20<strong>in</strong>teractions.pdf<br />
Figure 33<br />
Trend <strong>in</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g by species for mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />
<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (1 000 tonnes)<br />
1 200<br />
1 000<br />
800<br />
600<br />
400<br />
200<br />
0<br />
1995<br />
1996<br />
1997<br />
1998<br />
1999<br />
2000<br />
4.2 F<strong>in</strong>fish requir<strong>in</strong>g lower <strong>in</strong>puts<br />
Freshwater omnivorous <strong>and</strong> herbivorous fish have<br />
been important food fish for develop<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Traditional production<br />
methods have become diversified <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified,<br />
start<strong>in</strong>g with fertilized polyculture systems <strong>and</strong><br />
mov<strong>in</strong>g towards systems us<strong>in</strong>g supplemental feeds<br />
<strong>and</strong> even complete feeds. As dem<strong>and</strong> for fish<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>and</strong> prices rise, further pressure on<br />
<strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />
expected <strong>in</strong> many States.<br />
Backyard ponds are an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly common sight<br />
<strong>in</strong> many States; however, this production is<br />
frequently missed <strong>in</strong> national statistical surveys due<br />
to the small unit size. In many cases ponds may<br />
be below the size required for registration <strong>and</strong><br />
production from them is not viewed as a significant<br />
economic activity. However, the large numbers <strong>of</strong><br />
these ponds <strong>and</strong> the aggregated production <strong>and</strong><br />
value to the households engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the activity<br />
is probably very significant. The lack <strong>of</strong> reliable<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation from this part <strong>of</strong> the sector currently<br />
limits evaluation <strong>of</strong> the grassroots impact <strong>of</strong> rural<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />
It has been suggested that the wide range <strong>of</strong><br />
species that are currently produced from<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> will decrease as greater rationalization<br />
<strong>and</strong> aggregation <strong>of</strong> production operations focus on<br />
a smaller number <strong>of</strong> species. This lesson has been<br />
taken from the livestock sector <strong>and</strong> is considered<br />
to be an essential part <strong>of</strong> the “<strong>in</strong>dustrialization” <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong>. This trend does not appear to be the<br />
case so far <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region with farmers<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly seek<strong>in</strong>g out new species that give<br />
them a market<strong>in</strong>g or pr<strong>of</strong>it advantage.<br />
2001<br />
2002<br />
2003<br />
2004<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei By species Total<br />
39
Tilapia<br />
This “<strong>in</strong>dustrialization” trend is seen <strong>in</strong> some<br />
States with species such as tilapia. There is<br />
a trend towards st<strong>and</strong>ardization <strong>of</strong> size, feeds<br />
<strong>and</strong> production systems, some quality control,<br />
avoidance <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>f-flavours, <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
supermarket cha<strong>in</strong>s.<br />
However, even with tilapia, there is still<br />
considerable flexibility <strong>of</strong> systems, stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />
colours <strong>of</strong> fish. There is probably more diversity<br />
<strong>in</strong> tilapia culture systems today than ten years ago<br />
with a range <strong>of</strong> characteristics <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Colouration (red, white <strong>and</strong> black stra<strong>in</strong>s)<br />
Monosex <strong>and</strong> mixed sex<br />
Pellet fed, supplemental feed <strong>and</strong> fertilized<br />
greenwater<br />
Freshwater <strong>and</strong> brackishwater<br />
Cold tolerance<br />
Table 19<br />
Tilapia top eight producer States (2004)<br />
Country<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 897 276<br />
Indonesia 156 010<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 145 869<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 97 653<br />
Taiwan POC 89 275<br />
Lao PDR 29 205<br />
Malaysia 25 642<br />
Myanmar 2 000<br />
Reported exports <strong>of</strong> tilapia are still low (~9 percent)<br />
relative to total regional production. The cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />
domestic dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the high quality required for<br />
export targeted fish means that domestic market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is still attractive <strong>in</strong> many States. The biggest<br />
exporter <strong>of</strong> frozen whole tilapia <strong>and</strong> frozen fillets<br />
to the USA was Ch<strong>in</strong>a (Ma<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Taiwan<br />
Prov<strong>in</strong>ce), which accounts for virtually all imports<br />
<strong>of</strong> this product by the USA 5 (Table 20).<br />
Table 20<br />
Countries export<strong>in</strong>g tilapia (2004)<br />
Country<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 78 865<br />
Taiwan POC 40 570<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 8 086<br />
5 http://www.eur<strong>of</strong>ish.dk/<strong>in</strong>dexSub.php?id=3059<br />
Carps <strong>and</strong> Barbs (cypr<strong>in</strong>ids)<br />
Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be the most popular<br />
species group among <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific States<br />
dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g eight ranks <strong>of</strong> the top ten freshwater<br />
species by production. Their production is<br />
particularly important <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> the vital supply<br />
<strong>of</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> major populous States <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, India <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh.<br />
Silver carp has ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the highest production<br />
for decades. Grass carp was once <strong>in</strong> a distant<br />
second place but has recently closed the gap<br />
between the two species <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong> 2004 at the<br />
same level.<br />
Common carp, the third highest production<br />
species, is literally the most commonly cultured<br />
species <strong>in</strong> the region; 20 States <strong>and</strong> areas have<br />
reported cultur<strong>in</strong>g this species (Table 21).<br />
Table 21<br />
Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs top ten producer States (2004)<br />
Country<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 14 369 900<br />
India 2 116 327<br />
Bangladesh 616 151<br />
Indonesia 216 517<br />
Myanmar 163 000<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 67 152<br />
Iran 65 400<br />
Lao PDR 32 450<br />
Nepal 20 000<br />
Cambodia 18 049<br />
Although production <strong>of</strong> most species <strong>in</strong> this group<br />
generally exhibits <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends, the rate <strong>of</strong><br />
growth s<strong>in</strong>ce 2001 for Silver carp has started to<br />
show signs <strong>of</strong> slow<strong>in</strong>g down.<br />
There are reports that the pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> production<br />
<strong>of</strong> these species <strong>in</strong> India <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a is decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
farmers are start<strong>in</strong>g to explore the production <strong>of</strong><br />
alternative higher value species. S<strong>in</strong>ce the markets<br />
<strong>of</strong> these species are largely domestic, there is<br />
little opportunity for export, although India, for<br />
example, does export to neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Nepal <strong>and</strong><br />
Bangladesh.<br />
Pacus <strong>and</strong> Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (Collossoma spp. <strong>and</strong><br />
Piaractus spp.)<br />
These Lat<strong>in</strong> American species are not reported<br />
<strong>in</strong> detail for most countries grouped under<br />
“Freshwater species nei”. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has started<br />
40
eport<strong>in</strong>g production <strong>of</strong> Piaractus (86 409 tonnes)<br />
separately.<br />
Freshwater fish nei<br />
Statistics from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR have reported the<br />
reduction <strong>of</strong> “Freshwater fish nei” from 2 million<br />
tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 to less than 540 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />
2004. These fish are now reported by species<br />
<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly, are mostly carnivorous species<br />
with the exception <strong>of</strong> Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (Piaractus<br />
brachypomus). The species which are now<br />
reported <strong>in</strong> detail are Amur Catfish (245 874),<br />
Snakehead (238 754), Swamp eel (137 486),<br />
Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (86 409), Pond loach (79 409), Yellow<br />
catfish (63 062), Channel catfish (62 618), Sea trout<br />
(11 869), Sturgeons nei (11 269), Pond smelt<br />
(10 056), Ch<strong>in</strong>ese longsnout catfish (5 938) <strong>and</strong><br />
Salmonids nei (2 366).<br />
Milkfish<br />
Milkfish culture is a strong tradition <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es which reflects the country’s preference<br />
for the species. There are also traditions <strong>of</strong> milkfish<br />
culture <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Kiribati,<br />
Nauru, Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Palau). Of these<br />
countries only Kiribati reports production to <strong>FAO</strong>.<br />
Milkfish have typically been produced <strong>in</strong><br />
brackishwater ponds but there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trend <strong>in</strong> reported mariculture production, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the use <strong>of</strong> more <strong>in</strong>tensive cage systems. These<br />
systems are fed with either pellets or trash fish <strong>and</strong><br />
are part <strong>of</strong> the general trend <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong><br />
mariculture <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es.<br />
Indonesia <strong>and</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es are traditionally<br />
the largest producers. Taiwan POC is reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
its production, possibly because <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attention to higher value species. S<strong>in</strong>gapore has<br />
steadily developed its mariculture <strong>of</strong> milkfish<br />
(Table 22).<br />
Table 22<br />
Milkfish top four producer States (2004)<br />
Country Culture Environment Tonnes<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es Brackishwater 208 975<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e 37 351<br />
Freshwater 27 266<br />
Indonesia Brackishwater 241 418<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e 20<br />
Taiwan POC Brackishwater 25 053<br />
Freshwater 31 800<br />
S<strong>in</strong>gapore Mar<strong>in</strong>e 1 839<br />
Mullet<br />
Pond based brackishwater culture <strong>of</strong> mullet is<br />
typical but Korea RO has been report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mariculture production s<strong>in</strong>ce 2000. Indonesia has<br />
the largest production <strong>of</strong> this species <strong>and</strong><br />
experienced a sharp decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> 1998 but shows<br />
a fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend. Taiwan POC has<br />
relatively stable production but has seen a gradual<br />
reduction <strong>in</strong> production. Thail<strong>and</strong> has greatly<br />
reduced production <strong>in</strong> recent years.<br />
4.3 Crustaceans<br />
Whilst a number <strong>of</strong> crustacean species are<br />
cultured, the predom<strong>in</strong>ant commercial species are<br />
brackishwater shrimps, freshwater prawns <strong>and</strong><br />
freshwater/brackishwater crabs.<br />
Penaeid shrimp culture<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e shrimp cont<strong>in</strong>ued to dom<strong>in</strong>ate crustacean<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong>, with two major species account<strong>in</strong>g for<br />
over 56 percent <strong>of</strong> the total crustacean production<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004 (the White leg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei<br />
<strong>and</strong> Giant Tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon). White<br />
leg shrimp production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
from 2 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2000 to over a million tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004. A significant amount <strong>of</strong> this production<br />
comes from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (735 055 tonnes) <strong>and</strong><br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> (276 600) as well as <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g amounts<br />
from Indonesia <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam. Many other<br />
countries are now produc<strong>in</strong>g this species, however,<br />
not yet at a level where it is enter<strong>in</strong>g the statistics.<br />
Whilst the White leg shrimp ranked 10 th by weight<br />
<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> regional <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004,<br />
it ranked 1 st by value at US$3 684 million.<br />
Cultured shrimp production <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
reached 2.6 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (account<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for 65 percent <strong>of</strong> total shrimp l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs). The<br />
production <strong>of</strong> P. monodon has ranged between<br />
560 000 <strong>and</strong> 720 000 tonnes s<strong>in</strong>ce 1994, whilst<br />
its contribution to overall shrimp production has<br />
decl<strong>in</strong>ed from over 70 percent to 33 percent <strong>in</strong><br />
2004, as P. vannamei production has drastically<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased. P. ch<strong>in</strong>ensis had a stable <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1990’s but has decreased s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002 to<br />
its lowest level s<strong>in</strong>ce 1985.<br />
Production trends <strong>in</strong> the region have <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
over the past ten years for the major producers<br />
(Table 23). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR suffered a major setback <strong>in</strong><br />
the mid-1990s due to the occurrence <strong>of</strong> viral<br />
diseases <strong>in</strong> shrimp culture, but s<strong>in</strong>ce that time<br />
production has slowly recovered <strong>and</strong> has been<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g rapidly <strong>in</strong> recent years.<br />
41
Table 23<br />
Penaeid shrimp top ten producer States (2004)<br />
Country<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 935 944<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 390 000<br />
Viet Nam 275 569<br />
Indonesia 238 341<br />
India 133 020<br />
Bangladesh 58 044<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 37 947<br />
Malaysia 30 838<br />
Myanmar 30 000<br />
Taiwan POC 12 913<br />
Other major producers, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam,<br />
have also encountered fluctuations <strong>in</strong> production<br />
which are primarily associated with the impact <strong>of</strong><br />
diseases. Production <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, India,<br />
Sri Lanka <strong>and</strong> Indonesia has also been affected by<br />
the impact <strong>of</strong> viral diseases (typically WSSV 6 ).<br />
Generally, high <strong>in</strong>ternational market dem<strong>and</strong> has<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the culture <strong>of</strong> shrimp for<br />
export.<br />
Total production <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> was<br />
approximately 1.1 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />
reason for the importation <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei to <strong>Asia</strong><br />
has been the poor performance, slow growth rate<br />
<strong>and</strong> disease susceptibility <strong>of</strong> the major <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />
cultured shrimp species, P. ch<strong>in</strong>ensis <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />
<strong>and</strong> P. monodon virtually everywhere else. Shrimp<br />
production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> has been marred by serious<br />
viral pathogens caus<strong>in</strong>g significant losses to the<br />
culture <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>of</strong> most <strong>Asia</strong>n States over<br />
the past decade. It was not until the late 1990s<br />
that, spurred by the production <strong>of</strong> the imported<br />
P. vannamei, <strong>Asia</strong>n (<strong>and</strong> therefore world) production<br />
levels began to <strong>in</strong>crease aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />
There are problems associated with this dramatic<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the production <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the product. With so many States<br />
now produc<strong>in</strong>g essentially the same product, global<br />
prices dropped dramatically dur<strong>in</strong>g 2002-2003.<br />
There has been a trend towards decreas<strong>in</strong>g shrimp<br />
prices for a number <strong>of</strong> years now. This has followup<br />
effects regard<strong>in</strong>g the actual value <strong>of</strong> the product<br />
sold <strong>and</strong> disagreements regard<strong>in</strong>g possible<br />
“dump<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> shrimp onto markets.<br />
Freshwater prawns<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>and</strong> India have recently <strong>in</strong>creased the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> freshwater prawns (their respective<br />
production levels were zero <strong>and</strong> 311 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1994<br />
as compared to 339 913 tonnes <strong>and</strong> 38 965 <strong>in</strong><br />
2004). Even Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh show<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> production <strong>of</strong> freshwater<br />
prawns. Other producers have had relatively stable<br />
production levels (Table 24).<br />
Table 24<br />
Freshwater prawn top eight producer States<br />
(2004)<br />
Country<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 339 913<br />
India 38 965<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> 28 500<br />
Bangladesh 17 123<br />
Taiwan POC 10 039<br />
Viet Nam 7 6 247<br />
Malaysia 317<br />
Indonesia 290<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce it is not easy to <strong>in</strong>tensify production <strong>of</strong><br />
freshwater prawns due to their territorial habits<br />
<strong>and</strong> divergent growth effects, the development <strong>of</strong><br />
this sector is reasonably slow. In some States the<br />
sector has shrunk, as attention <strong>and</strong> resources have<br />
been diverted to brackishwater shrimp production.<br />
There have also been significant <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> L. vannamei <strong>and</strong> other Penaeid<br />
shrimp <strong>in</strong> freshwater (or extremely low sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />
systems <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>). Reported production is very low<br />
(only 4 611 tonnes <strong>of</strong> L. vannamei are currently<br />
reported from freshwater production) <strong>and</strong> does not<br />
reflect the fact that there is substantial production<br />
<strong>of</strong> this species <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />
Although the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple species cultured <strong>in</strong><br />
freshwater (M. rosenbergii) does not suffer the<br />
same problems with viral diseases that impact the<br />
brackishwater shrimp <strong>in</strong>dustry so severely, export<br />
markets for freshwater prawns are much smaller<br />
<strong>and</strong> less developed. This is because consumers<br />
<strong>in</strong> general are not as familiar with these species as<br />
with brackishwater shrimp. Freshwater prawns,<br />
however, enjoy good domestic markets, especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> South <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n States.<br />
6 Shrimp White Spot Syndrome Virus.<br />
7<br />
This figure was reported as freshwater crustaceans nei.,<br />
which was most likely freshwater prawn production, <strong>and</strong><br />
hence it is <strong>in</strong>cluded here.<br />
42
Crabs<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab (Eriocheir s<strong>in</strong>ensis) <strong>and</strong><br />
Indo-Pacific swamp crab (Scylla serrata)<br />
constituted the major cultured crabs <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR production <strong>of</strong> Eriocheir s<strong>in</strong>ensis <strong>and</strong><br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs 8 has shown very strong growth s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
1994 <strong>and</strong> they were ranked 14 th <strong>and</strong> 4 th respectively<br />
among the region’s top cultured crab species <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e waters <strong>in</strong> 2004. Indo-Pacific<br />
swamp crab showed stable <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g production<br />
trends for the past decade. The report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs nei from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has decl<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />
178 185 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 to around 10 000 tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004. At the same time, the named species <strong>of</strong><br />
Indo-Pacific swamp crab <strong>and</strong> Swimm<strong>in</strong>g crabs etc.,<br />
nei has <strong>in</strong>creased from zero to 108 503 tonnes <strong>and</strong><br />
74 625 tonnes respectively.<br />
4.4 Molluscs<br />
Mollusc culture is split <strong>in</strong>to low value species<br />
produced <strong>in</strong> extensive cultured systems (e.g.<br />
seeded blood cockle mudflats, mussel <strong>and</strong> oyster<br />
stake culture) <strong>and</strong> high value species produced <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>tensive systems (fed systems, <strong>and</strong> possibly<br />
recirculation).<br />
Recent improved breakdown by species <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese molluscs has<br />
given a better <strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> the proportion <strong>of</strong> low<br />
<strong>and</strong> high value mollusc production. Reported<br />
production <strong>of</strong> “Molluscs nei” <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has<br />
dropped from 1.25 million to 800 000 tonnes.<br />
Whilst it is possible to separate species such as<br />
Abalone or Giant clam as high value species, there<br />
are difficulties with some species such as mussels<br />
that may be cultured <strong>in</strong> low <strong>in</strong>put systems <strong>in</strong> one<br />
country (e.g. Thail<strong>and</strong>) but relatively high <strong>in</strong>put <strong>in</strong><br />
another (e.g. New Zeal<strong>and</strong>). Many States report<br />
their mollusc production <strong>in</strong> a large group<strong>in</strong>g such<br />
as mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei.<br />
The IFPRI/WFC outlook on fish supply 9 projected<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g mollusc production, although this may<br />
have been based on current production trends<br />
rather than resource <strong>potential</strong>. The issue <strong>of</strong> site<br />
availability is likely to constra<strong>in</strong> future development<br />
<strong>of</strong> mollusc culture <strong>in</strong> several States as can be seen<br />
for the examples <strong>of</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> Korea RO (Table 25<br />
<strong>and</strong> 26). In these two States, the production <strong>of</strong><br />
molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds has been relatively stable<br />
for many years. This <strong>in</strong>dicates that suitable sites<br />
may now all be taken.<br />
Table 25<br />
Lower value molluscs top ten producer (2002)<br />
Country Species Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Japanese carpet shell 2 799 004<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Constricted tagelus 676 391<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Blood cockle 323 225<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> Green mussel 296 900<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Sea snails 202 452<br />
New Zeal<strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> mussel 85 000<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Swan mussel 84 895<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> Blood cockle 75 600<br />
Malaysia Blood cockle 64 565<br />
Korea RO Japanese carpet shell 27 570<br />
Table 26<br />
Higher value molluscs top ten producer (2002)<br />
Country Species Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Pacific cupped oyster 3 750 910<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Yesso scallop 910 352<br />
Korea RO Pacific cupped oyster 239 270<br />
Japan Pacific cupped oyster 234 151<br />
Japan Yesso scallop 215 203<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> Cupped oyster nei 27 900<br />
Taiwan POC Pacific cupped oyster 20 750<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es Slipper cupped oyster 15 915<br />
Australia Sydney cupped oyster 5 600<br />
Australia Pacific cupped oyster 3 495<br />
Unlike fish culture, the <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> mollusc<br />
culture is quite difficult <strong>and</strong> probably not<br />
economically viable. The trend <strong>in</strong> mollusc culture<br />
is more likely to be a shift from lower value species<br />
to higher value species <strong>in</strong> those areas where sites<br />
are suitable.<br />
A further dimension is the development <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />
on shore culture operations such as those for<br />
abalone <strong>and</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> gastropod species.<br />
4.5 Aquatic plants<br />
8 Although the species name is not specified <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />
<strong>of</strong>ficial statistics, it is most likely Indo-Pacific swamp crab.<br />
9<br />
Delgado, C.D, Wada, N., Rosegrant, M.W., Meijer, S. <strong>and</strong><br />
Ahmed, M. (2003). Fish to 2020. Supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
chang<strong>in</strong>g global markets. WorldFish Center Technical<br />
Report 62. 226 pp.<br />
Aquatic plant production can be divided <strong>in</strong>to two<br />
dist<strong>in</strong>ct groups. The first group consists <strong>of</strong><br />
seaweeds <strong>of</strong> temperate waters solely <strong>and</strong><br />
traditionally used for food purposes <strong>and</strong> the second<br />
group consists <strong>of</strong> tropical species ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />
processed as a source <strong>of</strong> commercially valuable<br />
43
iopolymers (carrageenan, agar) that are used for<br />
various food <strong>and</strong> non-food purposes (Table 27).<br />
Table 27<br />
Aquatic plants top ten producer States (2004)<br />
Countries<br />
Tonnes<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 10 714 610<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 1 204 808<br />
Korea RO 547 108<br />
Japan 484 389<br />
Korea DPR 444 295<br />
Indonesia 410 570<br />
Malaysia 30 957<br />
Viet Nam 30 000<br />
Cambodia 16 840<br />
Taiwan POC 9 164<br />
Seaweeds for food purposes<br />
This group <strong>in</strong>cludes Japanese kelp, laver (Nori),<br />
green laver <strong>and</strong> Wakame. The production <strong>of</strong> these<br />
species is conf<strong>in</strong>ed to East <strong>Asia</strong>n States <strong>and</strong> has<br />
a relatively stable production.<br />
Major cultured aquatic plants <strong>in</strong> East <strong>Asia</strong> are Laver<br />
(Nori), Japanese kelp <strong>and</strong> Wakame. They are all<br />
seaweeds for food purposes <strong>in</strong> contrast to those<br />
produced <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly used<br />
as a source <strong>of</strong> commercially valuable biopolymers.<br />
The only exception to this is Japanese kelp<br />
culture, which has the largest share <strong>of</strong> production<br />
(33 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004). Its production doubled from<br />
two million tonnes <strong>in</strong> the three years to 1993 <strong>and</strong><br />
another one million tonnes was added <strong>in</strong> the next<br />
six years. This rapid <strong>in</strong>crease was probably due<br />
to cont<strong>in</strong>ued expansion <strong>of</strong> cultured areas <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a.<br />
Production <strong>of</strong> Japanese kelp peaked <strong>in</strong> 1999 <strong>and</strong><br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce then has stabilized, which might <strong>in</strong>dicate that<br />
the rapid expansion <strong>of</strong> production area reached<br />
a limit <strong>and</strong> further sites are not available.<br />
Recent detailed report<strong>in</strong>g from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has given<br />
a clearer picture <strong>of</strong> aquatic plant production<br />
(Table 28).<br />
Seaweeds for biopolymers<br />
This group consists <strong>of</strong> Eucheuma, Kappaphycus,<br />
Gracilaria, red seaweeds <strong>and</strong> others. The<br />
Table 28<br />
Aquatic plants top ten cultured species (2004)<br />
Species<br />
Tonnes<br />
Japanese kelp 4 519 701<br />
Wakame 2 519 880<br />
Laver (Nori) 1 397 660<br />
Zanzibar weed (Euchema) 1 070 794<br />
Warty gracilaria 898 027<br />
Red seaweeds 410 570<br />
Fusiform sargassum 131 680<br />
Eucheuma seaweeds nei 101 889<br />
Sp<strong>in</strong>y eucheuma 85 754<br />
Elkhorn sea moss 44 814<br />
Philipp<strong>in</strong>es has the highest production <strong>of</strong> these<br />
aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> Eucheuma cottonii (Zanzibar<br />
weed) production <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es far exceeds the<br />
production <strong>of</strong> other seaweeds (one million tonnes<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2004).<br />
New areas are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigated for the expansion<br />
<strong>of</strong> seaweed production s<strong>in</strong>ce global dem<strong>and</strong> for<br />
carrageenan <strong>and</strong> other alg<strong>in</strong>ates is expected to<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>ue to rise.<br />
4.6 Reptiles <strong>and</strong> amphibians<br />
Reported species are s<strong>of</strong>t shell turtle, crocodiles<br />
<strong>and</strong> frogs. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has greatly <strong>in</strong>creased its<br />
reported production <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t-shell turtle <strong>in</strong> the past<br />
five years. The production <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t-shell turles <strong>in</strong><br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has <strong>in</strong>creased by 77 percent <strong>in</strong> five years<br />
to total production <strong>of</strong> 163 257 tonnes. Other states<br />
who reported production <strong>of</strong> turtles are Thail<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Taiwan POC <strong>and</strong> Korea RO.<br />
There are limited data on frog production, although<br />
frogs are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly cultured <strong>in</strong> many<br />
States. Ch<strong>in</strong>a has reported production <strong>of</strong><br />
73 837 tonnes <strong>of</strong> frogs <strong>in</strong> 2004. The small size <strong>of</strong><br />
a typical frog farm (us<strong>in</strong>g small cement tanks or<br />
even pens) means that quantification <strong>of</strong> this type<br />
<strong>of</strong> operation is problematic.<br />
Crocodile production is grow<strong>in</strong>g quickly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region with Cambodia export<strong>in</strong>g juvenile<br />
crocodiles to both Viet Nam <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR.<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea also have<br />
crocodile farms. This production is rarely reported<br />
<strong>in</strong> fishery or <strong>aquaculture</strong> statistics.<br />
44
4.7 Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species<br />
There are a number <strong>of</strong> niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species<br />
that this review does not cover with statistical<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation. These species are either cultured at<br />
the pilot/experimental level or simply not reported<br />
by many States. Some <strong>of</strong> the species are not food<br />
type commodities (e.g. sponge <strong>and</strong> pearls,<br />
ornamental shells, ornamental fish) <strong>and</strong> are<br />
therefore not rout<strong>in</strong>ely monitored by the authority<br />
report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation (Table 29).<br />
Table 29<br />
Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species (2004)<br />
Species<br />
Tonnes<br />
Japanese sea cucumber 53 315<br />
Jellyfishes 39 415<br />
Sea squirts nei 21 442<br />
Sea urch<strong>in</strong>s nei 7 491<br />
Aquatic <strong>in</strong>vertebrates nei 2 744<br />
Sea cucumbers nei 42<br />
45
5. Selected issues fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the Pacific<br />
5.1 Illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong> unregulated<br />
(IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region 1<br />
Background<br />
The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is a major world producer<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> products <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> 2004, the<br />
region produced almost 50 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s<br />
total fish catch from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> about<br />
90 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production, with<br />
much <strong>of</strong> this com<strong>in</strong>g from the four major producers:<br />
Ch<strong>in</strong>a, India, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Indonesia. However, <strong>in</strong><br />
recent years, there has been a general trend <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region <strong>of</strong> significant decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> coastal fishery<br />
resources. 2 Although <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
production has been proposed <strong>in</strong> many countries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the region as a way <strong>of</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
wild fish stocks, this may be difficult because much<br />
<strong>of</strong> this <strong>aquaculture</strong> growth is currently dependent<br />
on the use <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish derived from<br />
wild stocks for feed<strong>in</strong>g the cultured species,<br />
either directly or by its utilisation <strong>in</strong> processed fish<br />
meal/oil.<br />
Previous growth <strong>in</strong> production from wild mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />
stocks <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, <strong>and</strong> particularly<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region <strong>and</strong> APFIC<br />
Convention Area, has been achieved not by<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able, active management <strong>of</strong> stocks by<br />
coastal States but, almost without exception, by<br />
a process <strong>of</strong> sequentially deplet<strong>in</strong>g wild fish stocks<br />
with<strong>in</strong> an essentially unregulated management<br />
environment with fleets moved from one target<br />
species to another <strong>and</strong> from one area to another<br />
to susta<strong>in</strong> l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs. 3 However, although this<br />
process has fuelled the growth <strong>of</strong> fish production<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region for the past<br />
150 years, it has now run its course s<strong>in</strong>ce there are<br />
virtually no new unexploited fish stocks or areas<br />
rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> or outside the region that fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fleets can move to. Therefore, the only way that<br />
mar<strong>in</strong>e fish l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs (<strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production,<br />
which depends on those l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs) can be<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the sub-region is for countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
1 <strong>FAO</strong> consultant’s report provided by Gary M<strong>org</strong>an,<br />
Consultant, Australia.<br />
2<br />
Sugiyama, S., Staples, D. & Funge-Smith, S.J. 2004.<br />
<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the Pacific. <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific. RAP<br />
Publication 2004/25. 53 pp.<br />
3<br />
Butcher, J.G. 2004. The Clos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Frontier: A History<br />
<strong>of</strong> the Mar<strong>in</strong>e Fisheries <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> c.1850-2000.<br />
Modern Economic History <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, Institute <strong>of</strong><br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n Studies, S<strong>in</strong>gapore, 442 pp.<br />
sub-region, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific more generally,<br />
to urgently move to more active management<br />
<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish stocks to achieve long-term<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability.<br />
An important part <strong>of</strong> this essential move to better<br />
management <strong>of</strong> the region’s mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>fisheries</strong> is to<br />
address the issue <strong>of</strong> illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong><br />
unregulated (IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g. As coastal States<br />
develop new management regimes as well as<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> management plans <strong>and</strong> regulations to<br />
manage fish stocks under their jurisdiction for longterm<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability, the issue <strong>of</strong> controll<strong>in</strong>g IUU<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g becomes essential <strong>in</strong> achiev<strong>in</strong>g the aims <strong>of</strong><br />
those management regimes, management plans<br />
<strong>and</strong> regulations.<br />
The impact <strong>of</strong> current levels <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region generally has not been<br />
explicitly estimated but it is certa<strong>in</strong>ly large <strong>and</strong><br />
multi-faceted <strong>and</strong>, like IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g everywhere,<br />
<strong>in</strong>volves both direct <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct economic losses<br />
<strong>and</strong> social impacts. 4 Current annual economic<br />
losses to the region could amount to about<br />
US$5.8 billion annually, 5 with this figure be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
consistent with the estimate made by DFID 6 <strong>of</strong><br />
worldwide losses <strong>of</strong> US$4-9 billion as a result <strong>of</strong><br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Clearly, the issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g is a major factor<br />
<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> threatens not only the<br />
long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> fish stocks <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
but is currently impos<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> will impose <strong>in</strong> the<br />
future, significant economic <strong>and</strong> social costs to the<br />
countries <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
This review exam<strong>in</strong>es the issues <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region <strong>and</strong> APFIC<br />
Convention Area <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>and</strong> more broadly <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the legislative <strong>and</strong><br />
4 MRAG. 2005. Review <strong>of</strong> Impacts <strong>of</strong> Illegal, Unreported<br />
<strong>and</strong> Unregulated Fish<strong>in</strong>g on Develop<strong>in</strong>g Countries, Synthesis<br />
Report. Mar<strong>in</strong>e Resources Assessment Group, for the UK<br />
Department <strong>of</strong> International Development, London. 17 pp.<br />
5 This is based on annual catches for the region <strong>of</strong> 45 million<br />
tonnes together with an average price <strong>of</strong> US$0.80/kg <strong>and</strong> an<br />
annual loss <strong>of</strong> 16 percent <strong>of</strong> catch value, as estimated by<br />
MRAG (2005).<br />
6 DFID. 2005. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> an International Workshop<br />
on Impacts <strong>of</strong> Illegal Unreported <strong>and</strong> Unregulated Fish<strong>in</strong>g on<br />
Develop<strong>in</strong>g Countries, 16 th to 17 th June 2005, London. UK<br />
Department for International Development (DFID) <strong>and</strong><br />
Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).<br />
46
material capacity to combat the problem, <strong>and</strong><br />
proposes recommendations for address<strong>in</strong>g what is<br />
probably the greatest threat to fish stocks, <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> those who depend on them that the region has<br />
faced.<br />
What is IUU?<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g occurs at a number <strong>of</strong> levels with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> the problems <strong>and</strong> the<br />
responses needed to address each level varies.<br />
Three pr<strong>in</strong>cipal types <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />
identified:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> a nation’s EEZ by nationals<br />
<strong>of</strong> the coastal State. Such illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g, by<br />
its very def<strong>in</strong>ition, is fish<strong>in</strong>g contrary to the<br />
laws <strong>of</strong> the coastal State <strong>and</strong> may <strong>in</strong>volve<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g gear, fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> closed<br />
areas, fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> closed seasons etc. With<br />
generally open-access <strong>fisheries</strong>, <strong>in</strong>adequate<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance<br />
capabilities <strong>and</strong> division <strong>of</strong> regulatory power<br />
between national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial <strong>and</strong> local levels,<br />
this type <strong>of</strong> illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g is extremely common<br />
<strong>in</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g by foreign vessels with<strong>in</strong> a<br />
nation’s EEZ. Such fish<strong>in</strong>g not only<br />
contravenes the laws <strong>of</strong> the coastal State but,<br />
<strong>in</strong> some cases, also contravenes the laws <strong>of</strong><br />
the flag State <strong>and</strong> perhaps <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
conventions <strong>and</strong> bi-lateral agreements. With<strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, this type <strong>of</strong> illegal<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g is also common. As an example <strong>of</strong> the<br />
extent <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />
the Foreign M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> estimated <strong>in</strong><br />
1996 that a total <strong>of</strong> 3 889 Thai fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels<br />
were operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the waters <strong>of</strong> other countries<br />
(ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia,<br />
Viet Nam, Bangladesh Cambodia, Brunei <strong>and</strong><br />
India) but that only an estimated 1 079 <strong>of</strong> these<br />
were operat<strong>in</strong>g “legally”, while the other 2 810<br />
were operat<strong>in</strong>g “illegally”. 7 In fact, the National<br />
Development Plan <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
a provision for at least half <strong>of</strong> its production<br />
target to come from other country’s EZZ,<br />
thereby imply<strong>in</strong>g a large degree <strong>of</strong> regional<br />
cooperation <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> access agreements<br />
to make this IUU compliant.<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g on the high seas. S<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
declaration <strong>of</strong> 200 mile Exclusive Economic<br />
Zones (EEZs) by nations <strong>of</strong> the region, the<br />
extent <strong>of</strong> high seas area has shrunk<br />
7<br />
Butcher, J.G. 2002. Gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to trouble: the Diaspora<br />
<strong>of</strong> Thai trawlers, 1975-2002. International Journal <strong>of</strong> Maritime<br />
History, 14(2): 85-121.<br />
considerably, particularly <strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
sub-region (Figure 1) where most waters are<br />
now part <strong>of</strong> EEZs. Therefore, the opportunity<br />
to fish <strong>in</strong> high seas areas is limited <strong>in</strong><br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, although areas such as the<br />
Indian Ocean still have significant high seas<br />
areas (Figure 34). Apart from the Indian<br />
Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific Fisheries<br />
Commission (WCPFC), both <strong>of</strong> which are<br />
species-focussed, there are no Regional<br />
Fisheries Management Organizations <strong>in</strong> the<br />
area that have a co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g management<br />
role for these high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific, which are, as a consequence,<br />
unregulated.<br />
Given the above considerations, anecdotal<br />
evidence 3, 8 not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly shows that, with<strong>in</strong><br />
the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region <strong>and</strong> also the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region generally, by far the most<br />
common form <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g is that which occurs<br />
with<strong>in</strong> the EEZs <strong>of</strong> countries <strong>of</strong> the regions<br />
(both by nationals <strong>and</strong> by other flag States) <strong>and</strong><br />
therefore with<strong>in</strong> national jurisdictions. The<br />
will<strong>in</strong>gness, legislative capability, operational<br />
capability <strong>and</strong> governance structures <strong>of</strong> national<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> jurisdictions are therefore <strong>of</strong> paramount<br />
importance <strong>in</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
This is <strong>in</strong> contrast to many other regions <strong>of</strong> the<br />
world, where the focus <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g has been on<br />
high seas’ issues.<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
The genesis <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
The common occurrence <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region has its orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> four separate, but<br />
<strong>in</strong>ter-related, factors:<br />
(i)<br />
(ii)<br />
an historical lack <strong>of</strong> management <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity at the national level which has<br />
resulted, <strong>in</strong> most countries <strong>of</strong> the region, <strong>in</strong><br />
levels <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity far <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> that<br />
needed to exploit the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources <strong>of</strong><br />
their EEZs <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able way;<br />
government subsidies, particularly <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region, for the build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
large <strong>of</strong>fshore vessels (Butcher, 2004), most<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten motivated by a desire to shift fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
efforts out <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>shore coastal waters;<br />
8 Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P., C. Cull<strong>in</strong>an, D. Balton, R. Sautter & J.E.<br />
Reynolds. 2003. Recent Trends <strong>in</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, Control <strong>and</strong><br />
Surveillance Systems for Capture Fisheries. Rome. <strong>FAO</strong><br />
Fisheries Tech. Pap. 415; 200 pp.<br />
47
Figure 34<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region show<strong>in</strong>g the high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Indian Oceans <strong>and</strong> national<br />
Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) <strong>and</strong> Territorial Seas. Note that the boundaries <strong>of</strong> EEZs are for<br />
illustrative purposes only <strong>and</strong> do not represent precise boundaries or claim.<br />
High Seas – Pacific Ocean<br />
High Seas – Indian Ocean<br />
EEZ areas & Territorial Seas<br />
48
(iii)<br />
(iv)<br />
generally weak governance structures<br />
<strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance<br />
capabilities at the national level to deter illegal<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>and</strong><br />
the lack <strong>of</strong> a regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />
<strong>org</strong>anization to coord<strong>in</strong>ate susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
exploitation <strong>of</strong> species (many <strong>of</strong> which,<br />
particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, cross national<br />
boundaries) <strong>and</strong> to address issues <strong>of</strong><br />
management <strong>of</strong> high seas areas, other than<br />
tuna.<br />
National legislative <strong>and</strong> governance issues<br />
The provisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation <strong>in</strong><br />
15 countries <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
13 APFIC members) were exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> several<br />
important po<strong>in</strong>ts were immediately apparent:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Regulations relat<strong>in</strong>g to foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />
a nation’s EEZ differ markedly between<br />
countries, despite many stocks be<strong>in</strong>g shared<br />
between countries <strong>of</strong> the region. These<br />
range from a complete ban on foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(e.g. Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Thail<strong>and</strong>) to jo<strong>in</strong>t venture<br />
arrangements (India, Sri Lanka) to seem<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
flexible arrangements requir<strong>in</strong>g only the issue<br />
<strong>of</strong> a license to a foreign vessel (e.g. Myanmar).<br />
While some countries (e.g. Japan, Thail<strong>and</strong>,<br />
Indonesia etc) require permits from national<br />
authorities for national vessels to undertake<br />
foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g, only two (Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />
<strong>and</strong> Viet Nam) make it an <strong>of</strong>fence under<br />
national legislation for national vessels to fish<br />
illegally <strong>in</strong> either another country’s EEZ or on<br />
the high seas.<br />
44 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed have<br />
the legislative capacity to limit license numbers<br />
<strong>of</strong> national fishers with<strong>in</strong> their EEZ. The other<br />
56 percent <strong>of</strong> countries do not have<br />
the legislative capacity to limit the number <strong>of</strong><br />
licenses <strong>and</strong> therefore cannot, legislatively,<br />
limit fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity with<strong>in</strong> their EEZs.<br />
69 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed have<br />
legislation which either allows or m<strong>and</strong>ates a<br />
dual- or multi-layered system <strong>of</strong> management<br />
with management <strong>and</strong> other functions able to<br />
be carried out at the national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial,<br />
district or village level. Not all <strong>of</strong> the countries<br />
that implement such a multi-layered system<br />
appear to have legislative coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />
mechanisms <strong>in</strong> place to ensure national<br />
consistency <strong>in</strong> management measures.<br />
●<br />
Although many stocks cross national<br />
boundaries, there is no regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>org</strong>anization that can coord<strong>in</strong>ate management<br />
measures across jurisdictions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g high<br />
seas areas.<br />
In brief, therefore, capacity to mange IUU <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region is seriously uncoord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />
<strong>and</strong> fragmented at both the national <strong>and</strong> regional<br />
level.<br />
International agreements <strong>and</strong> arrangements<br />
In addition to the management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
resources (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g activities)<br />
with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs through national legislation,<br />
there are also a range <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational agreements,<br />
arrangements <strong>and</strong> treaties <strong>in</strong> place which set out<br />
conditions <strong>of</strong> access for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets to<br />
nation’s EEZs. The majority <strong>of</strong> these arrangements<br />
are bi-lateral agreements although there is no<br />
formal mechanism <strong>in</strong> place for coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g such<br />
<strong>in</strong>struments between countries.<br />
Countries <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (<strong>in</strong> particular,<br />
those <strong>of</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region), generally<br />
have not supported <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>and</strong> regional<br />
multi-lateral <strong>in</strong>itiatives to coord<strong>in</strong>ate issues<br />
<strong>of</strong> management, access arrangements <strong>and</strong><br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g control <strong>and</strong> surveillance <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong>.<br />
Only 12 percent <strong>of</strong> the region’s countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
have signed the UN Straddl<strong>in</strong>g Stocks Agreement,<br />
only 19 percent have signed the <strong>FAO</strong> Compliance<br />
Agreement <strong>and</strong> less than 10 percent have<br />
developed a national plan <strong>of</strong> action to combat IUU<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g. Even less have been able to implement<br />
these agreements <strong>and</strong> plans (see capacity to<br />
address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, below).<br />
Countries <strong>of</strong> the region therefore rely on national<br />
legislation (which, as <strong>in</strong>dicated above, is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />
<strong>in</strong>adequate) <strong>and</strong> bi-lateral arrangements, which are<br />
not coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally, to regulate access to<br />
their EEZs.<br />
In contrast, <strong>and</strong> as an example <strong>of</strong> what can be<br />
achieved through coord<strong>in</strong>ated multi-lateral action,<br />
countries <strong>of</strong> the western Pacific 9 have developed<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms, <strong>of</strong>ten through the Forum<br />
Fisheries Agency, to regulate access almost all <strong>of</strong><br />
which undertaken by foreign fleets, to their large<br />
9 These <strong>in</strong>clude Federated States <strong>of</strong> Micronesia, Kiribati,<br />
Marshall Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Nauru, Palau <strong>and</strong> the<br />
Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />
49
EEZs <strong>and</strong> for manag<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the tuna stocks<br />
with<strong>in</strong> these EEZs.<br />
Capacity to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Apart from legislative issues, the issue <strong>of</strong> illegal<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> outside a nation’s EEZ is also<br />
impacted by the monitor<strong>in</strong>g, compliance <strong>and</strong><br />
surveillance (MCS) capabilities <strong>of</strong> the coastal<br />
State to enforce legislation. Such capabilities<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>volve self-regulation <strong>and</strong> communitybased<br />
participation through a co-management<br />
approach, which <strong>in</strong>volves a partnership between<br />
government <strong>and</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a fishery.<br />
With<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, the capabilities<br />
for effective MCS vary widely. 10 Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capabilities are generally poorly developed <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region, particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. Control<br />
capabilities also vary widely with, for example,<br />
some countries hav<strong>in</strong>g no capacity to control IUU<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g while a number <strong>of</strong> countries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,<br />
Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Indonesia, Republic <strong>of</strong> Korea<br />
<strong>and</strong> Malaysia, have fully or partially implemented<br />
VMS systems for monitor<strong>in</strong>g foreign <strong>and</strong> national<br />
vessel activities with<strong>in</strong> their EEZs.<br />
Surveillance capabilities <strong>in</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region are generally <strong>in</strong>adequate <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>volve the use<br />
<strong>of</strong> both voluntary compliance <strong>in</strong>itiatives (which are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten the most common form <strong>of</strong> surveillance<br />
activity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude education <strong>and</strong> co-management<br />
programmes) <strong>and</strong> limited deterrent or enforcement<br />
approaches.<br />
All the available evidence would therefore seem to<br />
po<strong>in</strong>t towards a generally <strong>in</strong>effective deterrent <strong>and</strong><br />
enforcement capability 11 both for domestic <strong>and</strong> for<br />
foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> low levels <strong>of</strong><br />
compliance with <strong>fisheries</strong> management regulations.<br />
In contrast, the countries <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific<br />
generally have a well coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong> effective<br />
MCS system which supports harmonized <strong>and</strong><br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ated legislation. These MCS activities 12<br />
10<br />
Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P. 2000. Fisheries Management <strong>and</strong> MCS <strong>in</strong><br />
South <strong>Asia</strong>: Comparative Analysis. <strong>FAO</strong>/FISHCODE Project,<br />
GCP/INT/648/NOR. <strong>FAO</strong> Rome. 56 pp.<br />
11<br />
For example, Butcher (2002) has estimated that, <strong>in</strong> any one<br />
year, only about 10 percent <strong>of</strong> Thai trawlers who are operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
illegally are apprehended.<br />
12 Anon. 2003. Regional MCS: The South Pacific Forum<br />
Fisheries Agency Experience <strong>in</strong> Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P. et al. 2003.<br />
Recent Trends <strong>in</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, Control <strong>and</strong> Surveillance<br />
Systems for Capture Fisheries. Rome. <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Tech.<br />
Paper 415; 151-162.<br />
(Anon, 2003) are coord<strong>in</strong>ated through the Forum<br />
Fisheries Agency (FFA) <strong>and</strong> stem from <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
agreements between the countries <strong>of</strong> the region. 13<br />
They <strong>in</strong>clude a regional register <strong>of</strong> foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
vessels, uniform vessel identification, catch <strong>and</strong><br />
position report<strong>in</strong>g, trans-shipment report<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
plac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> observers on foreign vessels, aerial<br />
surveillance <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> VMS.<br />
As a result <strong>of</strong> this well coord<strong>in</strong>ated regional<br />
approach to MCS activities, <strong>fisheries</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />
are confident that compliance rates with <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
regulations <strong>in</strong> the region are high (Anon, 2003) <strong>and</strong>,<br />
consequently, the fish stocks <strong>of</strong> this sub-region<br />
(particularly tuna) are be<strong>in</strong>g effectively managed for<br />
long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability than <strong>in</strong> others. This does<br />
not imply that there are no problems <strong>in</strong> the<br />
sub-region, but they are under closer scrut<strong>in</strong>y <strong>and</strong><br />
pressure from other countries to change their<br />
practices.<br />
Address<strong>in</strong>g IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region<br />
In address<strong>in</strong>g the issues <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region, the key factors that have been responsible<br />
for generat<strong>in</strong>g the problem need to be addressed<br />
if long-term <strong>and</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able solutions are to be<br />
found. These key factors <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />
Over-capacity <strong>of</strong> national fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets<br />
As perhaps the prime driver <strong>of</strong> both overexploitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> resources <strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
both with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the EEZs <strong>of</strong><br />
other nations, this issue must be addressed at the<br />
national level <strong>and</strong> preferably coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally.<br />
Some countries, such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a, have made a start<br />
on what is <strong>of</strong>ten a difficult <strong>and</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>ful process.<br />
However, around 60 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region do not even have the legislative capacity to<br />
limit, let alone reduce, fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity. Some<br />
measures such as an immediate cessation <strong>of</strong><br />
subsidization <strong>of</strong> the conversion to, or build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>,<br />
“<strong>of</strong>fshore” fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels should be used to reduce<br />
the rate <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> national fleets while other<br />
more difficult measures, such as chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
legislation <strong>and</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g the number <strong>of</strong><br />
vessels, should be put <strong>in</strong> place <strong>in</strong> the longer-term. 14<br />
Putt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> place an effective capacity reduction<br />
13<br />
The Niue Treaty on Co-operation <strong>in</strong> Fisheries Surveillance<br />
<strong>and</strong> Law Enforcement (1992) <strong>and</strong> the Palau Arrangement for<br />
Management <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific Purse Se<strong>in</strong>e Fisheries<br />
(1992).<br />
14<br />
Although it is underst<strong>and</strong>able that <strong>in</strong>dividual Sates wish<br />
to be part <strong>of</strong> the lucrative <strong>of</strong>f-shore fish<strong>in</strong>g, subsidization <strong>of</strong><br />
this expansion at the global <strong>and</strong> regional level will be<br />
counter-productive <strong>in</strong> the longer term.<br />
50
programme is an essential step <strong>in</strong> most countries,<br />
not<strong>in</strong>g, however, that this is a long-term project <strong>and</strong><br />
is likely to extend over several decades.<br />
Regional cooperation <strong>and</strong> regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management <strong>org</strong>anizations<br />
Although the issues tend to be national <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>,<br />
the IUU issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region will not<br />
be addressed until there is some agreement<br />
among countries to cooperate, either bilaterally or<br />
sub-regionally. This should <strong>in</strong>volve a review <strong>of</strong> the<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> management capacity <strong>and</strong> commitment to<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>fisheries</strong>, followed by agreements <strong>and</strong><br />
commitment to change <strong>and</strong> enhanced efforts to<br />
change <strong>and</strong> improve the situation. IUU, especially<br />
issues <strong>of</strong> encroachment <strong>in</strong>to the EEZs <strong>of</strong> other<br />
counties <strong>and</strong> high seas issues, will require<br />
extensive consultation <strong>and</strong> dialogue <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
reach agreed solutions.<br />
Many benefits can be achieved by reduc<strong>in</strong>g IUU<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the obvious benefits <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
catches <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it, <strong>in</strong>creased support for<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able livelihoods <strong>and</strong> improved contribution<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> to susta<strong>in</strong>able benefits. Other benefits<br />
could <strong>in</strong>clude improved safety at sea as well as<br />
regional security through rapid vessel identification<br />
<strong>and</strong> vessel monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
In many other parts <strong>of</strong> the world, regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management <strong>org</strong>anizations <strong>of</strong>ten provide a forum<br />
for these consultations. While the Indian Ocean<br />
Tuna Commission (IOTC) has management<br />
responsibility for tuna stocks with<strong>in</strong> its region<br />
<strong>and</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific Fisheries<br />
Commission (WCPFC) has responsibility for<br />
management <strong>of</strong> highly migratory species <strong>in</strong> the<br />
Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific, there is no regional<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> management <strong>org</strong>anization with<br />
responsibility for management <strong>and</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> issues that br<strong>in</strong>gs together different<br />
countries <strong>in</strong> sub-regions <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce (i) many, if not most, stocks are shared<br />
between countries <strong>of</strong> the region, (ii) national<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> management practices <strong>and</strong> capabilities<br />
are <strong>of</strong>ten not fully effective <strong>and</strong> (iii) the size <strong>and</strong><br />
scope <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region is large, the<br />
establishment <strong>of</strong> such a management body could<br />
br<strong>in</strong>g significant benefits.<br />
Governance <strong>and</strong> national legislation<br />
As the basis for long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
stocks, good legislation <strong>and</strong> governance structures<br />
are essential for effective <strong>fisheries</strong> management.<br />
However, around 70 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed have legislation that allows <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management to occur at national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial,<br />
district <strong>and</strong>/or village levels, <strong>of</strong>ten without any clear<br />
legislated coord<strong>in</strong>ation mechanisms.<br />
Some countries <strong>of</strong> the region (e.g. Viet Nam,<br />
Cambodia) are <strong>in</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> review<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
legislation but even newer legislation (e.g.<br />
Indonesia, 2004) <strong>of</strong>ten is not based on the<br />
concepts <strong>of</strong> the susta<strong>in</strong>able development <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
stocks <strong>and</strong> still does not conta<strong>in</strong> provisions to<br />
address key issues such as over-capacity. A<br />
review, preferably coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally, <strong>of</strong><br />
national <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation <strong>in</strong> the region is<br />
therefore needed. <strong>FAO</strong> has worked with <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
countries <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a better legislative basis for<br />
management <strong>and</strong> could conceivably provide the<br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> approach that is needed.<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance capabilities for<br />
national fleets <strong>and</strong> for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g activities<br />
While countries <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific have<br />
achieved a well-coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong> generally effective<br />
MCS capability for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g, compliance<br />
rates with national legislation <strong>and</strong> regulations<br />
are low <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. The low compliance rates stem<br />
from (a) “open access” <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> which social<br />
objectives override those perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
use; (b) generally poor, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to access,<br />
statistical data bases <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence on vessels,<br />
l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs, fish<strong>in</strong>g gear type etc, at both the national<br />
<strong>and</strong> regional level; (c) control mechanisms which,<br />
although address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual issues such as<br />
prohibited fish<strong>in</strong>g gear etc, are not coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong><br />
focused to achieve, preferably through <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management plans, specific outcomes such as<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>fisheries</strong>; <strong>and</strong> (d) under-<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong><br />
deterrent <strong>and</strong> enforcement capabilities although<br />
voluntary compliance <strong>in</strong>itiatives, such as<br />
educational programmes <strong>and</strong> co-management<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives are well developed <strong>in</strong> most countries.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce MCS activities need to support effective<br />
legislation, the shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g MCS<br />
systems need to be addressed together with any<br />
legislative review processes (see above).<br />
Commitment to <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to control<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
While there is general support <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region for regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />
<strong>org</strong>anizations, particularly the Indian Ocean Tuna<br />
Commission (IOTC) <strong>and</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />
Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), countries<br />
<strong>of</strong> the region have been less enthusiastic <strong>in</strong><br />
51
support<strong>in</strong>g multi-lateral <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to<br />
address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g. States <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region should therefore be encouraged to support<br />
such <strong>in</strong>itiatives, for example by becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />
signatories to the UNCLOS Straddl<strong>in</strong>g Stocks<br />
Agreement <strong>and</strong> the UN Compliance Agreement<br />
<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g national plans <strong>of</strong> action to combat<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> support <strong>of</strong> the International Plan <strong>of</strong><br />
Action.<br />
An important issue which also needs to be<br />
addressed <strong>in</strong> most countries, second only to<br />
compliance with their own national <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
legislation, is commitment to have national fleets<br />
obey the fish<strong>in</strong>g rules <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>of</strong> other<br />
nations <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational agreements. At the<br />
present time, only two countries <strong>of</strong> the region make<br />
it an <strong>of</strong>fence under national legislation for their<br />
vessels to fish illegally <strong>in</strong> another country. The<br />
<strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> such provisions <strong>in</strong>to national legislation<br />
<strong>of</strong> other countries would send a clear message to<br />
national fleets that their governments support<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Conclusions<br />
With its orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> generally unregulated <strong>and</strong> open<br />
access national <strong>fisheries</strong>, IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is now a major issue, cost<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the nations <strong>of</strong> the region an estimated US$5.8<br />
billion annually, threaten<strong>in</strong>g the long-term<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> regional fish stocks <strong>and</strong> lead<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
social consequences that impact on all coastal<br />
communities <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />
The declaration <strong>of</strong> national EEZs has resulted <strong>in</strong> the<br />
seas <strong>of</strong> the region com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly under<br />
national jurisdiction, particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />
where the extent <strong>of</strong> high seas areas is limited<br />
(Figure 34). This means that the solution to the<br />
issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region lies with national<br />
governments although regional cooperation <strong>and</strong><br />
coord<strong>in</strong>ation is essential.<br />
This report has identified a number <strong>of</strong> factors<br />
that are contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the problem <strong>of</strong> IUU<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g. Perhaps the most important issue is the<br />
over-capacity <strong>of</strong> the region’s fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets which<br />
has contributed significantly to overexploitation <strong>of</strong><br />
stocks with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> has fuelled the<br />
development <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fshore fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets which have<br />
contributed to the region’s IUU problems. These<br />
new national fleets are <strong>of</strong>ten justified on the basis<br />
that they will displace IUU vessels, but history has<br />
shown that this seldom works. However, many<br />
countries <strong>of</strong> the region lack the legislative ability to<br />
address this over-capacity issue although some<br />
steps, such as re-exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g subsidies, can be<br />
taken immediately.<br />
Separate management responsibility for <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
at the national <strong>and</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>cial level can, <strong>and</strong> has,<br />
contributed significantly to the over-capacity<br />
problem, particularly when the l<strong>in</strong>kages between<br />
national policies <strong>and</strong> local action are weak.<br />
In the longer term, fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>in</strong> the region will<br />
need to be reduced <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> many countries, this will<br />
be a long <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten pa<strong>in</strong>ful process. However, the<br />
pa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the economic losses <strong>of</strong> not reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity are much greater.<br />
This report therefore recommends that national<br />
governments review their <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation to<br />
ensure that it conta<strong>in</strong>s the ability to limit <strong>and</strong> reduce<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>and</strong> then assess what level <strong>of</strong><br />
capacity is appropriate 15 <strong>and</strong> how capacity<br />
adjustments can be made. Such assessments are<br />
<strong>of</strong>ten best <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to specific <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
management plans which can also address MCS<br />
capabilities needed to implement the plans.<br />
Regional coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> cooperation will be<br />
necessary <strong>in</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g national <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
IUU issues, <strong>and</strong> regional management <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
stocks will also be required <strong>in</strong> the long-term.<br />
Therefore, it is also recommended that, to achieve<br />
this, <strong>in</strong>vestigations be commenced with the aim <strong>of</strong><br />
establish<strong>in</strong>g a regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />
<strong>org</strong>anization that would br<strong>in</strong>g together the nations<br />
<strong>of</strong> the region.<br />
Without address<strong>in</strong>g the issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
a major part <strong>of</strong> a move towards susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong>, the future for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
the region is not good. As other jurisdictions<br />
address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, the large foreign fleets <strong>of</strong> many<br />
<strong>of</strong> the region’s nations will <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly have their<br />
IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g activities curtailed <strong>and</strong> access to other<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> restricted. This could conceivably result<br />
<strong>in</strong> a return <strong>of</strong> those vessels to the region, putt<strong>in</strong>g<br />
additional pressure on national <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
coastal fish stocks.<br />
15<br />
Accurate estimates <strong>of</strong> “optimal” fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity are not<br />
required before action is taken. The process should be started<br />
as soon as possible <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e-tuned as knowledge <strong>of</strong> the fish<br />
stocks <strong>and</strong> the vessel capacity improves through effective<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the reduction.<br />
52
Address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g by the nations <strong>of</strong> the<br />
region is therefore a process that beg<strong>in</strong>s at home,<br />
at the national level. By strengthen<strong>in</strong>g national<br />
legislation, committ<strong>in</strong>g to susta<strong>in</strong>able management<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish stocks with<strong>in</strong> a country’s EEZ, development<br />
<strong>of</strong> national plans <strong>of</strong> action, reduc<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity to appropriate levels, implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
effective MCS systems <strong>and</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiatives to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, a start can be<br />
made on better overall regional management <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
stocks, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the important IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues<br />
that currently face the region.<br />
5.2 Seafood quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> the<br />
context <strong>of</strong> trade<br />
Background<br />
Fish products are a heavily traded commodity.<br />
About 38 percent <strong>of</strong> global fish output by live<br />
weight enters <strong>in</strong>ternational market<strong>in</strong>g channels for<br />
export. Overall, <strong>Asia</strong> is a net importer <strong>of</strong> fish<br />
(by value) although many States are net exporters<br />
(see Chapter 1 for more details).<br />
There is considerable import <strong>of</strong> low value fish<br />
products <strong>and</strong> an export flow <strong>of</strong> higher value fish<br />
products <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region. 16 With cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />
development <strong>of</strong> economies <strong>in</strong> the region, an<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the trade flows <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> products with<strong>in</strong> the region can be<br />
expected. There will be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g attention on the<br />
quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> these products.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trade <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
products <strong>and</strong> related focus on food safety is<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g to more test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> foods, both for export<br />
outside <strong>of</strong> the region <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the region. This<br />
is accompanied by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly str<strong>in</strong>gent measures<br />
for ensur<strong>in</strong>g safety <strong>of</strong> food with improved hygiene<br />
<strong>and</strong> freedom from residues <strong>and</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants.<br />
Whilst the earlier focus <strong>of</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>and</strong><br />
safety <strong>of</strong> products has been on the process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
export<strong>in</strong>g part <strong>of</strong> the sector, there is now <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
attention be<strong>in</strong>g given to the methods <strong>of</strong> production,<br />
both <strong>in</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n export<strong>in</strong>g countries are now expected to<br />
meet the st<strong>and</strong>ards set by importers <strong>and</strong><br />
consumers both with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> outside the region.<br />
Meet<strong>in</strong>g these expectations is crucial for both<br />
producers <strong>and</strong> processors to rema<strong>in</strong> competitive<br />
with<strong>in</strong> domestic <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational markets.<br />
There is also an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> rejections<br />
associated with detection <strong>of</strong> chemical residues<br />
<strong>and</strong> microbiological-associated safety problems<br />
result<strong>in</strong>g from the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g volume <strong>of</strong> exported<br />
products <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly str<strong>in</strong>gent import<br />
requirements (Table 30).<br />
<strong>Asia</strong> has the most number <strong>of</strong> border rejection cases<br />
<strong>in</strong> the EU, vary<strong>in</strong>g from 50 to 75 percent <strong>of</strong> the total<br />
border cases each year. This is also true <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> tonnes.<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> detention <strong>and</strong> rejection cases from<br />
<strong>Asia</strong> is also <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. 17 In 2005, notifications<br />
concern<strong>in</strong>g residues <strong>of</strong> veter<strong>in</strong>ary medical<br />
products <strong>in</strong> fish products <strong>in</strong>creased by more<br />
than 50 percent. The trend <strong>in</strong> 2005 was that<br />
the detections <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> Malachite Green<br />
were significantly on the rise <strong>and</strong> this was also<br />
the case for detections <strong>of</strong> carbon monoxide<br />
treatment. 18<br />
Because <strong>of</strong> their longer history <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
trade, capture fishery products have a longer<br />
history <strong>of</strong> attention with respect to food safety. The<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> capture fishery products also responded<br />
well to simple <strong>in</strong>terventions such as better on board<br />
h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g, clean ice <strong>and</strong> on-board hygiene, as well<br />
as improved management with<strong>in</strong> dockside <strong>and</strong><br />
process<strong>in</strong>g facilities.<br />
Improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> fishery products <strong>and</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g risks to<br />
ecosystems <strong>and</strong> human health from residues <strong>and</strong><br />
microbiological contam<strong>in</strong>ations have now become<br />
both an <strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> post-harvest h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
also pre-harvest management.<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> food safety issues<br />
As import<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>and</strong> their consumers <strong>and</strong><br />
regulators are becom<strong>in</strong>g more concerned about<br />
residues <strong>and</strong> quality, attention is shift<strong>in</strong>g to the way<br />
fish is produced. In <strong>aquaculture</strong> this <strong>in</strong>cludes the<br />
<strong>in</strong>puts used, where they came from, social aspects<br />
related to other coastal stakeholders <strong>and</strong> the way<br />
that animals <strong>and</strong> plants are produced. In capture<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> the emphasis is also shift<strong>in</strong>g towards the<br />
sourc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> uncontam<strong>in</strong>ated fish (e.g. younger fish).<br />
Pre-harvest food safety is less <strong>of</strong> an issue <strong>in</strong><br />
capture <strong>fisheries</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce the fish are not fed or<br />
managed as a captive stock (i.e. no <strong>in</strong>puts are<br />
17<br />
<strong>FAO</strong>, Fisheries Technical Paper 473, 2005.<br />
16<br />
WorldFish Center, 2003.<br />
18<br />
EU, RASSF Annual Report, 2005.<br />
53
Table 30<br />
Number <strong>of</strong> rejections at the border <strong>of</strong> the European Union from 1999-2002 19<br />
Contam<strong>in</strong>ation Orig<strong>in</strong> 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />
Chemical <strong>Asia</strong> 19 12 49 232<br />
Other 13 20 19 47<br />
Micro-Biological <strong>Asia</strong> 49 63 54 86<br />
Other 41 46 30 46<br />
Other causes <strong>Asia</strong> 3 4 8 9<br />
Other 2 7 14 9<br />
used). However, fish may still orig<strong>in</strong>ate from<br />
environments which have chemical or biological<br />
contam<strong>in</strong>ations (e.g. red tide tox<strong>in</strong>s, chemical<br />
pollution, sewage/effluent contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong><br />
atmospheric pollution). It is essential to ensure<br />
that foods for human consumption are free from<br />
excesses <strong>of</strong> harmful or undesirable chemicals,<br />
harmful pathogens <strong>and</strong> resistant micro<strong>org</strong>anism’s<br />
bacteria <strong>and</strong> parasites.<br />
Increas<strong>in</strong>g calls for total traceability <strong>of</strong> food<br />
products are also affect<strong>in</strong>g the food production<br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry such that consumers can be assured that<br />
the product has been produced without the use <strong>of</strong><br />
transgenic technologies, without addition <strong>of</strong><br />
undesirable or harmful chemicals or additives, <strong>and</strong><br />
that all <strong>of</strong> the environments <strong>and</strong> ecosystems<br />
affected by the production facilities have not been<br />
compromised <strong>in</strong> any way.<br />
Chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> residues<br />
Risks from chemicals come from chemicals applied<br />
to <strong>aquaculture</strong> production or contam<strong>in</strong>ants found<br />
<strong>in</strong> water. In <strong>aquaculture</strong> it is also important that the<br />
environment surround<strong>in</strong>g the production facility is<br />
protected from the negative effects <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong><br />
chemicals.<br />
It is important that governments from produc<strong>in</strong>g/<br />
export<strong>in</strong>g countries support their m<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>and</strong><br />
departments work<strong>in</strong>g on food safety to strengthen<br />
the capacity at national <strong>and</strong> local levels to prevent<br />
<strong>and</strong> control the use <strong>of</strong> chemicals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
antimicrobials, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> general to ensure chemical<br />
<strong>and</strong> microbiologically safe products.<br />
Even though rules <strong>and</strong> regulations are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
improved <strong>and</strong> implemented, there are still<br />
occasional cases <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> banned chemicals<br />
<strong>and</strong> drugs such as chloramphenicol, nitro-furans<br />
<strong>and</strong> malachite green. This can have huge<br />
repercussions from a market<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. In<br />
addition to food safety risks associated with<br />
consumption <strong>of</strong> products conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g antimicrobial<br />
residues, it is likely that import<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the<br />
near future will beg<strong>in</strong> screen<strong>in</strong>g imported foods for<br />
presence as well as levels <strong>of</strong> resistant bacteria<br />
(total bacteria <strong>and</strong> specific pathogens).<br />
Chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> fishery products is an<br />
issue <strong>in</strong> some <strong>fisheries</strong>. 20 Examples <strong>of</strong> concern are<br />
the presence <strong>of</strong> diox<strong>in</strong>s residues <strong>in</strong> some fishery<br />
products (due to atmospheric pollution <strong>of</strong> waters),<br />
<strong>and</strong> mercury accumulation. In many cases the<br />
levels present <strong>in</strong> fish are tolerable at normal dietary<br />
<strong>in</strong>take levels, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g the importance <strong>of</strong> proper<br />
scientific studies <strong>of</strong> risk associated with the<br />
consumption <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ated food products.<br />
Fish borne zoonoses<br />
Fish borne zoonotic parasites are an important<br />
problem related to local/domestic consumption <strong>of</strong><br />
raw or <strong>in</strong>adequately cooked fish. Increas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
evidence from countries <strong>in</strong> the region show that<br />
different types <strong>of</strong> zoonotic parasites are<br />
widespread <strong>in</strong> freshwater fish species. This group<br />
<strong>of</strong> parasites is <strong>of</strong> particular health importance <strong>in</strong><br />
Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> is associated with different<br />
types <strong>of</strong> liver cancer. Humans are <strong>in</strong>fected when<br />
consum<strong>in</strong>g raw or otherwise <strong>in</strong>adequately prepared<br />
dishes. Currently, parasitological exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> products are ma<strong>in</strong>ly done by visual<br />
<strong>in</strong>spection, e.g. <strong>of</strong> fillets. However, with an<br />
anticipated <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the export <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>and</strong> live<br />
aquatic <strong>org</strong>anisms, it is likely that import<strong>in</strong>g<br />
authorities will beg<strong>in</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g imported foods for<br />
presence <strong>of</strong> zoonotic parasites.<br />
19<br />
Adapted from: <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Technical Paper 473,<br />
“Causes <strong>of</strong> detentions <strong>and</strong> rejections <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational fish<br />
trade”.<br />
20<br />
<strong>FAO</strong>, SOFIA 2004.<br />
54
Microbiological contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
Food safety issues also rise from the contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
<strong>of</strong> filter-feeders molluscs which filter large volumes<br />
<strong>of</strong> water daily to obta<strong>in</strong> food. Any pathogen<br />
present <strong>in</strong> such water will be accumulated <strong>in</strong> the<br />
molluscs. Food safety concerns are particularly<br />
high for molluscs consumed raw or <strong>in</strong>adequately<br />
heat treated. Mollusc culture is <strong>of</strong>ten located <strong>in</strong><br />
areas (e.g. coastal) <strong>of</strong> high faecal <strong>and</strong> chemical<br />
pollution ma<strong>in</strong>ly through discharge <strong>of</strong> wastewater<br />
from urban <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial areas. Thail<strong>and</strong>, Malaysia<br />
<strong>and</strong> Indonesia have permits from the EU to export<br />
live molluscs. 21<br />
Ma<strong>in</strong> trade issues<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the 1990’s two ma<strong>in</strong> regulatory agreements<br />
– Sanitary <strong>and</strong> Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)<br />
<strong>and</strong> Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) have<br />
been implemented through the WTO (World Trade<br />
Organization).<br />
Sanitary <strong>and</strong> phytosanitary measures<br />
SPS measures are made to ensure that a import<strong>in</strong>g<br />
country’s consumers are be<strong>in</strong>g supplied with food<br />
that is safe by the st<strong>and</strong>ards the import<strong>in</strong>g country<br />
considers appropriate but they are at the same time<br />
made so the export<strong>in</strong>g country can ensure that<br />
strict health <strong>and</strong> safety regulations are not be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
used as an excuse for protect<strong>in</strong>g domestic<br />
producers (WTO, 2006).<br />
Technical barriers to trade<br />
The number <strong>of</strong> different regulations <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
makes life difficult for producers <strong>and</strong> exporters. If<br />
regulations are set arbitrarily without <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />
agreed guidance for sett<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards, they could<br />
be used as an excuse for protectionism. The<br />
Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade tries to<br />
ensure that regulations, st<strong>and</strong>ards, test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
certification procedures do not create unnecessary<br />
obstacles (WTO, 2006).<br />
Many APFIC member countries are required to<br />
keep abreast <strong>of</strong> requirements <strong>of</strong> SPS <strong>and</strong> TBT <strong>in</strong><br />
order to ensure no or m<strong>in</strong>imal loss due to lost<br />
export opportunities. There has already been<br />
significant progress <strong>in</strong> successful implementation<br />
<strong>of</strong> HACCP (Hazard Analyses <strong>and</strong> Critical Control<br />
Po<strong>in</strong>t) at the seafood process<strong>in</strong>g level but due<br />
to consumer dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
21 Deboyser, 2006.<br />
development <strong>of</strong> the sector there is now also a need<br />
to look at the full production cha<strong>in</strong> (pre-harvest).<br />
Transparency <strong>and</strong> traceability are key words for the<br />
future production <strong>of</strong> seafood products.<br />
Traceability<br />
The global emerg<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> traceability<br />
<strong>and</strong> label<strong>in</strong>g are requir<strong>in</strong>g countries to more<br />
effectively monitor the orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> disposal <strong>of</strong> fishery<br />
catches <strong>and</strong> farm <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />
In order to effectively track h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g through the<br />
market cha<strong>in</strong>, there is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure for the<br />
<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> certification <strong>of</strong> products.<br />
Product label<strong>in</strong>g is also becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
important as a means to effectively track products<br />
through the market cha<strong>in</strong> as well as a means to<br />
<strong>in</strong>form the consumer.<br />
Supermarket <strong>in</strong>fluence on trade<br />
The emergence <strong>of</strong> large supermarket retail cha<strong>in</strong>s/<br />
companies has had a significant impact on the<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> for seafood <strong>in</strong> European <strong>and</strong> North<br />
American import markets <strong>and</strong> to a lesser extent<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> elsewhere (although this <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />
is rapidly <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with the rapid rate <strong>of</strong><br />
urbanization <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>). With their significant buy<strong>in</strong>g<br />
power <strong>and</strong> forward contracts, supermarkets are<br />
able to make significant dem<strong>and</strong>s on producers<br />
with respect to the quality <strong>and</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />
the product they <strong>in</strong>tend to purchase.<br />
Supermarkets are able to use market forces to<br />
dem<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> quality criteria <strong>and</strong> even social,<br />
ethical <strong>and</strong> environmental quality assurances<br />
that may not be required under any national or<br />
<strong>in</strong>ternational regulation or measure (or may be<br />
more str<strong>in</strong>gent than exist<strong>in</strong>g measures). In this<br />
respect, supermarkets are effectively determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
their own quality st<strong>and</strong>ards. There is a strong case<br />
for effective <strong>in</strong>formation exchange to <strong>in</strong>form<br />
supermarket decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g, as they are currently<br />
highly receptive to consumer dem<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> these<br />
are <strong>in</strong>fluenced through a wide range <strong>of</strong> media.<br />
Therefore, “gett<strong>in</strong>g the story straight” is important,<br />
particularly with respect to environmental <strong>and</strong><br />
socially related quality considerations s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong><br />
many cases these are highly subjective or locally<br />
specific.<br />
Good examples <strong>of</strong> this are over-generalizations as<br />
to the manner <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong> farmed shrimp, or<br />
the effects <strong>of</strong> trawl<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>fisheries</strong>. Good <strong>and</strong> bad<br />
55
examples can be found <strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>stance but it is<br />
not possible to state whether these activities are<br />
universally acceptable or not.<br />
The conclusion is that supermarkets are, <strong>in</strong> effect,<br />
act<strong>in</strong>g as a label<strong>in</strong>g scheme themselves (i.e. their<br />
br<strong>and</strong> name <strong>and</strong> statements about their own quality<br />
st<strong>and</strong>ards effectively become the assurance to the<br />
consumer on a wide range <strong>of</strong> quality issues). It is<br />
therefore essential that there is effective dialogue<br />
over what constitutes reasonable st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g like the <strong>FAO</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
for the ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> fishery products<br />
from mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong>, 22 codes <strong>of</strong> practice<br />
<strong>and</strong> better management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples like the<br />
International Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for Responsible Shrimp<br />
23<br />
Farm<strong>in</strong>g can be effective start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g forward this dialogue between<br />
producers, buyers <strong>and</strong> other stakeholders <strong>and</strong> to<br />
provide the adequate reassurances on both sides<br />
that unreasonable dem<strong>and</strong>s or expectations by<br />
either party can be avoided.<br />
Improved pre-harvest management<br />
The need to improve the pre-harvest management<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> capture fishery products is now<br />
lead<strong>in</strong>g towards improved production systems <strong>and</strong><br />
measurable systems for monitor<strong>in</strong>g compliance<br />
<strong>and</strong> assurance <strong>of</strong> quality <strong>and</strong> safety.<br />
The <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> such systems is a challenge to<br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>n region which represents the greatest<br />
diversity <strong>of</strong> production systems, species <strong>and</strong><br />
market requirements. This diversity is the great<br />
strength <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> but also<br />
presents challenges to the systematic management<br />
<strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> production. It is now clear that<br />
only parts <strong>of</strong> the sector will respond to market <strong>and</strong><br />
consumer dem<strong>and</strong>s, however, these are act<strong>in</strong>g as<br />
pilots for <strong>potential</strong> broader application.<br />
Improv<strong>in</strong>g pre-harvest management <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
In <strong>aquaculture</strong> systems, the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g need for<br />
effective management <strong>of</strong> pre-harvest food safety<br />
requires considerable capacity build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />
awareness rais<strong>in</strong>g for government <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />
stakeholders deal<strong>in</strong>g with those concerned with<br />
22<br />
Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Fish <strong>and</strong> Fishery Products<br />
from Mar<strong>in</strong>e Capture Fisheries, Rome, <strong>FAO</strong>, 2005. 90 p.<br />
23 <strong>FAO</strong>/NACA/UNEP/World Bank/WWF 2006. International<br />
Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for Responsible Shrimp Farm<strong>in</strong>g. Network <strong>of</strong><br />
Aquaculture Centres <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (NACA) Bangkok,<br />
Thail<strong>and</strong>. 20 p.<br />
pond level management (i.e. farm managers,<br />
farmers, service providers).<br />
In response to the dem<strong>and</strong>s for more effective<br />
pre-harvest management, there is now emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />
so-called “better management practices” (BMPs)<br />
which focus on improv<strong>in</strong>g production methods<br />
(from the perspective <strong>of</strong> hygiene, food safety as<br />
well as environmental <strong>and</strong> even ethical <strong>and</strong> animal<br />
welfare aspects).<br />
Aquaculture Certification Schemes<br />
Certification <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are rather new<br />
but are develop<strong>in</strong>g fast. There are already a number<br />
<strong>of</strong> certification schemes present. The different<br />
certifications relate to environmental <strong>and</strong> socially<br />
responsible <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> to some extend also<br />
to food safety <strong>and</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> the end product.<br />
Examples <strong>of</strong> the certification schemes are given<br />
below:<br />
Food Quality Certification<br />
● Aquaculture Certification Council (Global)<br />
Website: www.<strong>aquaculture</strong>certification.<strong>org</strong><br />
● EUREP GAP (Global)<br />
Website: www.eurep.<strong>org</strong><br />
● Scottish Quality Salmon (National)<br />
Website: www.scottishsalmon.uk<br />
● Thai Quality Shrimp (National)<br />
Website: www.thaiqualityshrimp.com<br />
Better Management Practices<br />
● <strong>FAO</strong>/WB/NACA/UNDP/WWF<br />
Shrimp Consortium (Global)<br />
Website: www.enaca.<strong>org</strong><br />
Website: www.worldwildlife.<strong>org</strong><br />
Organic Certification<br />
● Naturl<strong>and</strong> (Global)<br />
Website: www.naturl<strong>and</strong>.de<br />
● IFOAM (Global)<br />
Website: www.ifoam.<strong>org</strong><br />
● Soil Association (National)<br />
Website: www.soilassociation.<strong>org</strong><br />
● Bio Swiss (National)<br />
Website: www.bio-suisse.ch<br />
● Canadian Organic Aquaculture (National)<br />
Website: www.certified<strong>org</strong>anic.bc.ca<br />
● BioGro New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (National)<br />
Website: www.biogro.co.nz<br />
Other Certification<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Carrefour (Retailer)<br />
Website: www.carrefour.com<br />
Wal-Mart (Retailer)<br />
Website: www.wal-mart.com<br />
56
To improve food safety <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>, new<br />
approaches to farm<strong>in</strong>g are required, with farmers<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g together with food safety experts to<br />
develop systems for farm<strong>in</strong>g aquatic animals that<br />
assure food safety. This is particularly important<br />
for <strong>Asia</strong>n species dest<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>in</strong>ternational trade,<br />
such as shrimp <strong>and</strong> high value f<strong>in</strong>fish.<br />
It is also important for more domestically oriented<br />
products like carps, tilapia <strong>and</strong> other freshwater<br />
fish. Internationally accepted, science based<br />
quality control mechanisms, such as risk<br />
assessment <strong>and</strong> HACCP <strong>and</strong> Good Hygienic<br />
Practice (GHP), will become essential requirements<br />
for trad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />
Whilst BMPs target better production methods,<br />
they are not guarantees <strong>of</strong> food safety <strong>and</strong><br />
there is a need to better underst<strong>and</strong> food safety<br />
at the production level <strong>in</strong> order to develop<br />
these management practices <strong>and</strong> address the<br />
requirements for food safety <strong>of</strong> import<strong>in</strong>g markets<br />
<strong>and</strong> consumers. Important lessons on food safety<br />
from the process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry can <strong>potential</strong>ly be<br />
adjusted <strong>and</strong> applied to the farm level.<br />
Whilst much <strong>of</strong> the market pressure comes from<br />
import<strong>in</strong>g countries, there is also an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
trend <strong>of</strong> domestic dem<strong>and</strong>, fuelled largely by<br />
supermarkets <strong>and</strong> their sourc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g<br />
strategies, which are focus<strong>in</strong>g on susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />
Certification schemes for <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are<br />
a relatively recent development <strong>and</strong> are l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />
strongly to codes <strong>of</strong> practice <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />
The proliferation <strong>of</strong> codes <strong>and</strong> schemes does<br />
present the risk <strong>of</strong> confus<strong>in</strong>g consumers over<br />
label<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> what exactly the product they are<br />
purchas<strong>in</strong>g is be<strong>in</strong>g certified for. Some certification<br />
schemes cover the food safety <strong>and</strong> general food<br />
quality aspect <strong>of</strong> the product, whilst others<br />
<strong>of</strong>fer broader assurances related to m<strong>in</strong>imized<br />
environmental impact, ethical production <strong>and</strong><br />
adherence to specific production protocol (e.g.<br />
compliance to <strong>org</strong>anic production pr<strong>in</strong>ciples or<br />
stated codes <strong>of</strong> practice).<br />
Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these schemes <strong>and</strong> how products<br />
are certified or de-certified is also an area <strong>of</strong><br />
considerable diversity. There are examples <strong>of</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong>dustry self-regulation, government certification<br />
<strong>of</strong> the national <strong>in</strong>dustry st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>and</strong> third<br />
party schemes where <strong>in</strong>dependent monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
is undertaken.<br />
The credibility <strong>of</strong> the various forms <strong>of</strong> certification<br />
is therefore different <strong>and</strong> also sensitive to public<br />
perception <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> the<br />
certifier or self-certifier.<br />
Improv<strong>in</strong>g pre-harvest safety <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production<br />
Capture fishery certification schemes have largely<br />
focused on more environmental impacts <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>and</strong> their mitigation.<br />
Some schemes have also <strong>in</strong>cluded animal welfare<br />
or conservation related elements (such as gears<br />
or fish<strong>in</strong>g techniques which m<strong>in</strong>imize by-catch);<br />
other schemes focus on broader susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. Aspects <strong>of</strong> food safety<br />
are less <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>and</strong> would be covered under<br />
HACCP based schemes for on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Fisheries Certification Schemes<br />
Certification <strong>of</strong> Fisheries has been developed for<br />
longer than <strong>aquaculture</strong> schemes. There are<br />
a number <strong>of</strong> good <strong>and</strong> already tested certification<br />
schemes available for <strong>fisheries</strong>. Some <strong>of</strong> the larger<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> certification schemes are given below:<br />
Ethical/Environmental Certification<br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e Stewardship Council (Global)<br />
Website: www.msc.<strong>org</strong><br />
Mar<strong>in</strong>e Aquarium Council (Global)<br />
Website: www.aquariumcounsil.<strong>org</strong><br />
“Dolph<strong>in</strong> Safe” Tuna Label (Global)<br />
Website: www.earthisl<strong>and</strong>.<strong>org</strong><br />
Other Certification<br />
Carrefour “Peche Responsible”<br />
Website: www.carrefour.com<br />
Unilever Fish Susta<strong>in</strong>ability Initiative<br />
Website: www.unilever.com<br />
57
Opportunities <strong>and</strong> limitations <strong>of</strong> HACCP<br />
HACCP <strong>and</strong> the ideas beh<strong>in</strong>d HACCP have been<br />
implemented <strong>in</strong> seafood process<strong>in</strong>g for a long time.<br />
The seafood process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry was actually<br />
among the first food process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries to<br />
implement HACCP. There seem to be good<br />
opportunities to comb<strong>in</strong>e better management<br />
practices (with focus on production) with the<br />
ideas <strong>of</strong> HACCP (with focus only on food safety).<br />
HACCP ideas could be used as part <strong>of</strong> BMPs<br />
directly related to food safety.<br />
There are limitations <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g HACCP at pre-harvest<br />
level. As noted <strong>in</strong> the <strong>FAO</strong>/NACA/WHO report on<br />
Food Safety Issues Associated with Products from<br />
Aquaculture (1997) there are difficulties <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the HACCP approach on small-scale farms. This<br />
is also recognized <strong>in</strong> the discussions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the<br />
f<strong>in</strong>al report from the Twenty-seventh Session <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Codex Committee on Fish <strong>and</strong> Fishery Products<br />
(2005). The Code states that it is not <strong>in</strong>tended to<br />
cover extensive fish farm<strong>in</strong>g systems that prevail<br />
<strong>in</strong> many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries or <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />
livestock <strong>and</strong> fish culture systems. Many <strong>of</strong> these<br />
systems do however produce products that are<br />
traded <strong>in</strong>ternationally.<br />
It is possible that some <strong>of</strong> the ideas <strong>in</strong> HACCP can<br />
be comb<strong>in</strong>ed with BMP’s schemes that not only<br />
take food safety <strong>in</strong>to account but also other farm<br />
management procedures.<br />
The conclusion is that food safety <strong>and</strong> the<br />
implications it can have on both <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />
traded products <strong>and</strong> on domestically consumed<br />
products (public health) are already an issue <strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> sector, as <strong>in</strong> other food produc<strong>in</strong>g sectors,<br />
<strong>and</strong> it is likely to become an even more important<br />
issue <strong>in</strong> the future both for processors as well as<br />
for pre-harvest management.<br />
58
6. Outlook for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
6.1 Global <strong>and</strong> regional predictions<br />
Predictions <strong>of</strong> future global trends were made by<br />
the International Food Policy Research Institute <strong>in</strong><br />
collaboration with the WorldFish Center (IFPR/<br />
WFC) – “Fish to 2020”. 1 The study predicted that<br />
production <strong>and</strong> consumption will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States, but slow down <strong>in</strong><br />
developed States result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the<br />
price <strong>of</strong> fish, especially fish meal <strong>and</strong> fish oil, wild<br />
fish, <strong>and</strong> high-value fish (assum<strong>in</strong>g that consumers<br />
will not greatly shift their preferences to other<br />
commodities such as poultry as fish prices<br />
<strong>in</strong>crease).<br />
A Jo<strong>in</strong>t WorldFish Center/<strong>FAO</strong> study has further<br />
exam<strong>in</strong>ed supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> five<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>n countries, based on a model derived from<br />
the WorldFish <strong>Asia</strong>-Fish model which has been<br />
previously used to develop scenarios related to<br />
supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region. The<br />
model has been exp<strong>and</strong>ed to <strong>in</strong>corporate trade <strong>in</strong><br />
fish <strong>and</strong> fish products from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> for<br />
feeds <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>. The follow<strong>in</strong>g scenarios were<br />
analysed:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the global price <strong>of</strong><br />
fishmeal as a result <strong>of</strong> reduction <strong>in</strong> global<br />
supply (e.g. corner<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the market, decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> the global fish meal <strong>fisheries</strong> yield)<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> more local/regional decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong><br />
supply (from over-fish<strong>in</strong>g, environmental<br />
changes, fuel price rises)<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
quality <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong>ed fish to make it more<br />
acceptable as human food (e.g. through better<br />
on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g)<br />
The effect <strong>of</strong> improved feed usage <strong>and</strong> feed<br />
efficiency for <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />
The results <strong>of</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g have shown that,<br />
under all scenarios, there will be differential<br />
impacts on poor consumers who will be hit by the<br />
lower availability <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> higher prices. A<br />
second conclusion was that impacts <strong>of</strong> the<br />
scenarios differed depend<strong>in</strong>g on the stage <strong>of</strong><br />
a country’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> development. When<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> is <strong>in</strong> an early phase <strong>of</strong> development<br />
<strong>and</strong> the dependency on trash fish <strong>and</strong> fishmeal is<br />
1<br />
WorldFish Centre (IFPR/WFC) – “Fish to 2020”<br />
http://www.worldfishcenter.<strong>org</strong>/Pubs/fish-to-2020/fish-to-<br />
2020.htm<br />
relatively small, simple import substitutions<br />
compensate for changes <strong>in</strong> the supply <strong>of</strong> fishmeal<br />
or trash fish. In contrast, with <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
development there is likely to be a shift to culture<br />
<strong>of</strong> lower value species or lower <strong>in</strong>tensity production<br />
that is less dependent on feed. With highly<br />
developed <strong>aquaculture</strong>, there will be no escape<br />
from fishmeal <strong>and</strong> trash fish price <strong>in</strong>creases. These<br />
<strong>in</strong>creases will result not only <strong>in</strong> impacts on fish<br />
prices <strong>and</strong> production, but will also have wider<br />
ripple effects on national economies lead<strong>in</strong>g to falls<br />
<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>comes <strong>and</strong> consumption. Impacts will be<br />
much bigger for Ch<strong>in</strong>a but the scenario <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a is<br />
very likely to be a problem for other countries <strong>in</strong><br />
the region as their <strong>aquaculture</strong> sectors develop.<br />
The study highlighted the importance <strong>of</strong><br />
management <strong>of</strong> wild capture <strong>fisheries</strong> that <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
greater consideration <strong>of</strong> low value fish. The<br />
development <strong>of</strong> plant based substitutes for fish<br />
based feeds should also be a top priority.<br />
6.2 Unexploited <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
In response to decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>shore resources, many<br />
governments <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region are advocat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a policy <strong>of</strong> mov<strong>in</strong>g the fish<strong>in</strong>g effort away from<br />
these coastal resources to <strong>potential</strong>ly less exploited<br />
ones. However, this represents a cont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>of</strong><br />
past practices where, globally, a steady expansion<br />
<strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>shore local regions to further<br />
<strong>of</strong>fshore fish<strong>in</strong>g grounds as the local stocks<br />
became depleted.<br />
This move may have delayed the <strong>in</strong>evitable<br />
reduction <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity that the situation<br />
dictated as necessary, but it did not solve the<br />
problem. As the <strong>of</strong>fshore resources also became<br />
more depleted, these fleets either had to move<br />
back <strong>in</strong>shore, thus aggravat<strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />
problem, or move to some other part <strong>of</strong> the world<br />
to fish. Increas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> from the world to move<br />
towards more responsible <strong>fisheries</strong> has resulted.<br />
Despite this warn<strong>in</strong>g many States believe that<br />
there is still room to move outwards with<strong>in</strong> the<br />
<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> many States <strong>in</strong> the region<br />
<strong>in</strong>clude further expansion <strong>in</strong>to <strong>of</strong>fshore <strong>fisheries</strong> as<br />
part <strong>of</strong> their future fishery plans. Although the<br />
<strong>potential</strong> is relatively unknown, especially <strong>in</strong><br />
demersal stocks, it is dangerous to assume that the<br />
<strong>of</strong>fshore regions will supply fish <strong>in</strong> quantities that<br />
we are familiar with <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>shore regions. It is well<br />
known that biological productivity decl<strong>in</strong>es<br />
exponentially as one moves away from the coast.<br />
59
Of the 363 million km 2 <strong>of</strong> ocean, <strong>in</strong> less than seven<br />
percent are waters with a depth <strong>of</strong> less than<br />
200 m, <strong>and</strong> this cont<strong>in</strong>ental shelf area accounts for<br />
90 percent <strong>of</strong> the global fish catch. The rest comes<br />
from deep-water demersal fish <strong>and</strong> highly migratory<br />
fish such as tuna that roam the vast desert-like<br />
expanse <strong>of</strong> the open ocean. It is unlikely that this<br />
percentage will change dramatically over the next<br />
10-20 years.<br />
There have been some resource surveys for<br />
deep-water demersal fish <strong>in</strong> the region, <strong>in</strong><br />
particular, those done by India. The Fishery Survey<br />
<strong>of</strong> India (FSI) is responsible for survey <strong>and</strong><br />
assessment <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fishery resources <strong>of</strong> the<br />
Indian EEZ. With its headquarters at Mumbai, the<br />
Institute has seven operational bases at Porb<strong>and</strong>ar,<br />
Mumbai, Mormugao <strong>and</strong> Coch<strong>in</strong> along the west<br />
coast; Madras <strong>and</strong> Visakhapatnam along the east<br />
coast <strong>and</strong> Port Blair <strong>in</strong> the Andaman & Nicobar<br />
Isl<strong>and</strong>s. A total <strong>of</strong> 12 ocean-go<strong>in</strong>g survey vessels<br />
have been deployed for <strong>fisheries</strong> resources<br />
survey <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g. At the time <strong>of</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>FAO</strong><br />
did not have access to these results. Experience<br />
from other parts <strong>of</strong> the world, however, has shown<br />
that many <strong>of</strong> the scarce deep water demersal<br />
stocks are long-lived (over 100 years) species <strong>of</strong><br />
low productivity <strong>and</strong> many have already been<br />
overexploited <strong>in</strong> many temperate waters. <strong>FAO</strong>’s<br />
Fishery Committee <strong>of</strong> the Eastern Central Atlantic<br />
(CECAF) has just concluded that “Any exploitation<br />
<strong>of</strong> these (deep water) species should be carefully<br />
designed, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the very low level <strong>of</strong><br />
susta<strong>in</strong>able yield <strong>of</strong> these fish populations <strong>and</strong> the<br />
isolation <strong>of</strong> sea-mount benthic ecosystems.”<br />
In terms <strong>of</strong> the highly migratory tuna species,<br />
purse-se<strong>in</strong>e fishery <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />
Pacific (WCPO) has accounted for around<br />
55-60 percent <strong>of</strong> total catch <strong>in</strong> the area s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />
early 1990s, with annual catches <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>of</strong><br />
790 000-1 200 000 tonnes. The majority <strong>of</strong> the<br />
WCPO purse-se<strong>in</strong>e catch (>70 percent) is taken by<br />
the four ma<strong>in</strong> distant-water fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets (Japan,<br />
Republic <strong>of</strong> Korea, Taiwan Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong><br />
United States <strong>of</strong> America), which currently number<br />
around 140 vessels.<br />
There has been an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g contribution from the<br />
grow<strong>in</strong>g number <strong>of</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong> domestic vessels<br />
<strong>in</strong> recent years (40 vessels <strong>in</strong> 2000), with the<br />
balance from Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong><br />
other fleets, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a small seasonally active<br />
Spanish fleet.<br />
As shown <strong>in</strong> Chapter 3 (Table 17), the tuna<br />
stocks <strong>in</strong> both the WCPO <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean,<br />
with the exception <strong>of</strong> skipjack, are all fully or<br />
overexploited. Recent studies have also shown<br />
that there is considerable overcapacity <strong>in</strong> the tuna<br />
fleets <strong>in</strong> both these oceans. 2 Assessments <strong>of</strong> the<br />
stocks <strong>in</strong> both the WCPO <strong>and</strong> the Indian Ocean<br />
also highlight the variability <strong>in</strong> recruitment <strong>in</strong> the<br />
faster grow<strong>in</strong>g more productive tuna species<br />
(skipjack <strong>and</strong> yellowf<strong>in</strong>), driven to a large extent by<br />
climatic changes such as El Niño. Scientists warn<br />
that because <strong>of</strong> the multi-species nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />
purse se<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> longl<strong>in</strong>e fishery, the impacts <strong>of</strong><br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g on skipjack could have a negative impact<br />
on more vulnerable species. In this respect, they<br />
advise that the Tuna Commissions should consider<br />
how to implement management measures to<br />
address over-fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> alleviate over-fished stock<br />
conditions <strong>in</strong> the future. For APFIC Members this<br />
will mean <strong>in</strong>creased competition for the total<br />
allowable catch limits that are be<strong>in</strong>g imposed.<br />
In summary, it would appear that any expansion<br />
<strong>in</strong>to <strong>of</strong>fshore waters will be limited for both pelagic<br />
<strong>and</strong> demersal <strong>fisheries</strong>, unless more selective<br />
fish<strong>in</strong>g gears for tunas can be developed. Overall,<br />
therefore, even to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the status quo <strong>in</strong><br />
capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region, especially <strong>in</strong> terms<br />
<strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g food security <strong>and</strong> poverty alleviation<br />
for the region’s poor, the many issues highlighted<br />
<strong>in</strong> this review will need to be addressed. It is<br />
unlikely that any State can do this unilaterally,<br />
<strong>and</strong> a concerted <strong>and</strong> collaborative effort will be<br />
required.<br />
6.3 Small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
All analyses po<strong>in</strong>t to the fact that excess fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort needs to be greatly<br />
reduced.<br />
The obvious dilemma <strong>in</strong> relation to reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
capacity <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />
is that a large part <strong>of</strong> the production comes from<br />
small-scale operators, <strong>and</strong> they are <strong>of</strong>ten totally<br />
dependent on fishery resources for their livelihood.<br />
Despite efforts to “modernize” small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
<strong>in</strong> the region, the level <strong>of</strong> small-scale fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
activity has not decreased. Given the significant<br />
contribution that small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> make to<br />
food security <strong>and</strong> poverty alleviation, the role <strong>of</strong><br />
small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> how they fit <strong>in</strong>to the<br />
multiple activities <strong>of</strong> rural economies should be<br />
carefully re-exam<strong>in</strong>ed. Unlike large-scale <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>, they have low visibility <strong>and</strong> receive little<br />
attention from policy-makers. They are <strong>of</strong>ten open<br />
2<br />
Bayliff W.H, Moreno, Juan Ignacio de Leiva & Majkowski,<br />
J. (2005); Management <strong>of</strong> tuna fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity: conservation<br />
<strong>and</strong> socio-economics. <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 2.<br />
60
access enterprises that contribute little to the<br />
national GDP <strong>and</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> little political attention<br />
<strong>and</strong> support through research, subsidies etc. As<br />
such, they tend to be dealt with through project<br />
work funded by donors.<br />
Small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong>, however, have a very large<br />
<strong>potential</strong> to improve the contribution that <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
as a whole make to susta<strong>in</strong>able development.<br />
Policies that support <strong>and</strong> foster small-scale<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>, at the expense <strong>of</strong> more <strong>in</strong>dustrialized<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong>, have the advantage <strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g both<br />
social <strong>and</strong> economic benefits to a large number<br />
<strong>of</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region as well<br />
as provid<strong>in</strong>g an important eng<strong>in</strong>e for wealth<br />
creation. Includ<strong>in</strong>g these stakeholders <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
co-management is a positive step <strong>in</strong> this direction<br />
<strong>and</strong> APFIC has been provid<strong>in</strong>g considerable<br />
support <strong>in</strong> this endeavour.<br />
The APFIC Regional Workshop on “Ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>fisheries</strong> co-management” 3 acknowledged that<br />
co-management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> is widely practiced<br />
<strong>in</strong> most <strong>Asia</strong>n <strong>and</strong> Pacific countries, but noted<br />
that these were mostly undertaken either<br />
through traditional arrangements or on a pilot/<br />
demonstration scale implemented through<br />
projects. These pilot/demonstration schemes have<br />
shown that economic, social <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />
benefits can be achieved. Countries <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />
the Pacific are urged to move towards more<br />
<strong>org</strong>anized implementation <strong>of</strong> co-management at<br />
local, prov<strong>in</strong>cial <strong>and</strong> national levels, i.e. they should<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream <strong>fisheries</strong> co-management. This<br />
should build on exist<strong>in</strong>g co-management <strong>and</strong><br />
community-based arrangements where available.<br />
A number <strong>of</strong> challenges to successful ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>of</strong> co-management were highlighted<br />
which <strong>in</strong>clude poverty levels <strong>of</strong> fishers <strong>in</strong> the<br />
region; limited communication <strong>of</strong> the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />
co-management; resource constra<strong>in</strong>ts; weak<br />
governance frameworks <strong>and</strong> poor <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />
l<strong>in</strong>kages <strong>and</strong>, importantly, the lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration<br />
<strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> management with other policy<br />
developments such as decentralization <strong>and</strong> poverty<br />
reduction.<br />
The workshop agreed on a number <strong>of</strong> strategies<br />
<strong>and</strong> actions to facilitate the ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />
fishery co-management. These were:<br />
3<br />
APFIC, 2005. APFIC Regional consultative workshop on<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> co-management, Siem Reap,<br />
Cambodia, 9-12 August 2005. RAP Publication 2005/23.<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Demonstrate <strong>and</strong> communicate the benefits<br />
<strong>and</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> co-management to promote<br />
the scal<strong>in</strong>g up <strong>of</strong> pilot/demonstration activities;<br />
Provide appropriate national policy <strong>and</strong><br />
legislative frameworks;<br />
Ensure legitimate representation <strong>of</strong>, <strong>and</strong> trust<br />
among, stakeholders;<br />
Strengthen human/<strong>in</strong>stitutional capacity <strong>of</strong><br />
stakeholders to enable co-management;<br />
Empower fish<strong>in</strong>g communities to engage <strong>in</strong><br />
co-management;<br />
Establish, enhance <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease l<strong>in</strong>kages <strong>and</strong><br />
communication;<br />
Focus research <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
co-management; <strong>and</strong><br />
Make available <strong>and</strong> support susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />
f<strong>in</strong>ancial arrangements for <strong>fisheries</strong><br />
co-management.<br />
6.4 Aquaculture<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce the yield from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> is not<br />
expected to <strong>in</strong>crease greatly, there is an emphasis<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g placed on the <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector’s ability to<br />
provide <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g quantities <strong>of</strong> fish to satisfy<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> all regions.<br />
Several conditions must be satisfied <strong>in</strong> order for<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> be able to achieve this expectation.<br />
The massive expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> required will<br />
need <strong>in</strong>creased production area, as well as greatly<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> production. Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water may be possible if the value <strong>of</strong><br />
fishery products <strong>in</strong>creases so that <strong>aquaculture</strong> can<br />
challenge other production systems for the use <strong>of</strong><br />
the feeds, l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water required to effect this<br />
production. Alternatively, <strong>in</strong>creased efficiency <strong>in</strong><br />
the use <strong>of</strong> water <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified production will<br />
reduce l<strong>and</strong> requirements. The current <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong><br />
production <strong>in</strong> many States <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is such that there<br />
is considerable scope for <strong>in</strong>creased production per<br />
unit area. However, this will result <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased feed<br />
usage <strong>and</strong> probable <strong>in</strong>creased water requirements.<br />
Strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> environmental regulations is also<br />
driv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>aquaculture</strong> to limit its effluent outputs<br />
<strong>and</strong> the improved environmental pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> parts <strong>of</strong><br />
the sub-sector is also be<strong>in</strong>g driven by consumer<br />
dem<strong>and</strong>s. Supermarkets are beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to impact<br />
the way <strong>aquaculture</strong> operates by requir<strong>in</strong>g a range<br />
<strong>of</strong> ethical, environmental <strong>and</strong> food safety st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />
to be met. This tends to focus on the export part<br />
<strong>of</strong> the sector, but domestic supermarkets are also<br />
61
ecom<strong>in</strong>g more particular, especially <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />
food safety <strong>and</strong> product quality.<br />
The current reliance on fish meal as a prote<strong>in</strong><br />
source for <strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds is a major <strong>potential</strong><br />
constra<strong>in</strong>t. In look<strong>in</strong>g at the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> low<br />
value/trash fish to feed the growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>,<br />
APFIC convened a regional consultative workshop<br />
on “Low value <strong>and</strong> trash fish <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />
region”. 4 The ma<strong>in</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> workshop was an<br />
action plan that <strong>in</strong>cluded:<br />
●<br />
●<br />
●<br />
Apply<strong>in</strong>g a number <strong>of</strong> fishery management<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventions (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g reduction <strong>of</strong> trawler<br />
<strong>and</strong> pushnetters capacity; improve gear<br />
selectivity, <strong>in</strong>troduce more effective rights<br />
based-management; protection nursery areas;<br />
seek alternative employment options for<br />
fishers).<br />
Improv<strong>in</strong>g post-harvest <strong>in</strong>terventions which<br />
could be used to improve the utilization <strong>of</strong> low<br />
value/trash fish (improve on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
diversify product forms).<br />
Address dem<strong>and</strong> for low value/trash fish<br />
by <strong>aquaculture</strong> by improv<strong>in</strong>g feeds for<br />
<strong>aquaculture</strong> through (chang<strong>in</strong>g over from direct<br />
feed<strong>in</strong>g to pellet feed<strong>in</strong>g; reduction <strong>of</strong> fish meal<br />
content by substitution <strong>of</strong> suitable <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />
<strong>in</strong> pellets; <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> feed research for<br />
<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>/mar<strong>in</strong>e species; <strong>and</strong> promote adoption<br />
<strong>and</strong> change over to pellet feeds.<br />
Aquaculture also currently competes with the<br />
livestock sector for fish meal for feeds <strong>and</strong> we are<br />
likely to see different outcomes <strong>of</strong> this competition<br />
depended on price <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> the ability to become<br />
less reliant on fish as a feed <strong>in</strong>put. This puts even<br />
more pressure on <strong>aquaculture</strong> to reduce its reliance<br />
on fish meals <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease the efficiency <strong>of</strong> their<br />
utilization. Whilst more efficient use <strong>of</strong> fish meal<br />
is possible, reduced reliance may be more difficult<br />
to achieve. In the face <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g purchas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
power <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds, it may be the livestock<br />
sector which makes the greater progress towards<br />
reduc<strong>in</strong>g reliance on fish meals.<br />
The efficient culture <strong>of</strong> herbivorous/omnivorous fish<br />
is already a reality; however, it is apparent that<br />
current trends <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>aquaculture</strong> is mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
towards higher value species that present greater<br />
pr<strong>of</strong>it marg<strong>in</strong>s. This trend is even be<strong>in</strong>g seen <strong>in</strong><br />
species that are traditionally considered to be<br />
relatively low <strong>in</strong>put species such as tilapia. The<br />
production <strong>of</strong> tilapia <strong>in</strong> several States is mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />
away from greenwater fertilized systems towards<br />
pellet-fed <strong>in</strong>tensified systems.<br />
It is <strong>in</strong>evitable that as fish prices rise, there will be<br />
a tendency for poorer parts <strong>of</strong> national populations<br />
to shift towards cheaper forms <strong>of</strong> meat such as<br />
chicken <strong>and</strong> pork. The question is whether fish <strong>in</strong><br />
the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region will rema<strong>in</strong> a common (<strong>and</strong><br />
even central) part <strong>of</strong> the diet <strong>of</strong> most people or<br />
<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly become a luxury food item.<br />
4<br />
APFIC, 2005. APFIC Regional workshop on low value <strong>and</strong><br />
“trash fish” <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Hanoi, Viet Nam,<br />
7-9 June 2005. RAP Publication 2005/21.<br />
62
ASIA-PACIFIC FISHERY COMMISSION<br />
<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />
39 Phra Athit Road, Bangkok, Thail<strong>and</strong><br />
www.apfic.<strong>org</strong>