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ASIA-PACIFIC<br />

FISHERY<br />

COMMISSION<br />

<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific<br />

100 000<br />

80 000<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

60 000<br />

40 000<br />

Rest <strong>of</strong><br />

the world<br />

20 000<br />

0<br />

APFIC<br />

member<br />

1950<br />

1955<br />

1960<br />

1965<br />

1970<br />

1975<br />

1980<br />

1985<br />

1990<br />

1995<br />

2000


RAP PUBLICATION 2006/22<br />

<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific 2006<br />

Rob<strong>in</strong> Lungren, Derek Staples, Simon Funge-Smith & Jesper Clausen<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />

Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

Bangkok, 2006<br />

1


The designation <strong>and</strong> presentation <strong>of</strong> material <strong>in</strong> this publication do not imply the expression <strong>of</strong><br />

any op<strong>in</strong>ion whatsoever on the part <strong>of</strong> the Food <strong>and</strong> Agriculture Organization <strong>of</strong> the United Nations<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g the legal status <strong>of</strong> any country, territory, city or area <strong>of</strong> its authorities, or concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the delimitation <strong>of</strong> its frontiers <strong>and</strong> boundaries.<br />

All rights reserved. Reproduction <strong>and</strong> dissem<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> material <strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>formation product for<br />

educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission<br />

from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction <strong>of</strong> material<br />

<strong>in</strong> this <strong>in</strong>formation product for sale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written<br />

permission <strong>of</strong> the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to<br />

the Secretary, <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission, <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific,<br />

Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road, Bangkok 10200, Thail<strong>and</strong> or by E-mail to fao.rap@fao.<strong>org</strong>.<br />

© <strong>FAO</strong> 2006<br />

For copies please write to:<br />

The Secretary<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

Maliwan Mansion, 39 Phra Athit Road<br />

Bangkok 10200<br />

THAILAND<br />

Tel: (+66) 2 697 4119<br />

Fax: (+66) 2 697 4445<br />

E-mail: fao.rap@fao.<strong>org</strong><br />

ii


Foreword<br />

The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC) provides its members with a regular overview <strong>of</strong><br />

the status <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Fish <strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

are important <strong>in</strong> supply<strong>in</strong>g animal prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> nutrition to a large part <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n-Pacific<br />

populations, <strong>and</strong> are <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly becom<strong>in</strong>g an important source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come <strong>and</strong> trade for the region.<br />

The region currently produces almost 50 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s fish from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

over 90 percent from <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

The region is very diverse <strong>and</strong> considerable differences exist with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> among the seas <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region. However, despite this diversity there are also many common trends that will have<br />

a large impact on the future <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region. One alarm<strong>in</strong>g trend is the<br />

rapid decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the status <strong>of</strong> coastal fishery resources <strong>and</strong> ecosystems throughout the region.<br />

Aquaculture production cont<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>crease at a rapid rate, with a large part <strong>of</strong> this <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g driven by massive growth <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a. However, there are now several constra<strong>in</strong>ts that threaten<br />

its future growth. For example, <strong>aquaculture</strong> growth is dependent on the use <strong>of</strong> “trash fish” for<br />

feed<strong>in</strong>g the cultured species (either directly or by processed fish meal/oil), <strong>and</strong> is not susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

<strong>in</strong> the long-term unless major changes take place <strong>in</strong> the management <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> practices.<br />

This 2006 report provides an update <strong>of</strong> the major trends <strong>and</strong> future <strong>potential</strong> for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> provides an <strong>in</strong>sight <strong>in</strong>to the many challenges that will<br />

need to be addressed if <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> are to cont<strong>in</strong>ue to contribute significantly to<br />

food security <strong>and</strong> poverty reduction <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

He Changchui<br />

Assistant Director-General <strong>and</strong> Regional Representative<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

iii


Preparation <strong>of</strong> this document<br />

This document was prepared for the Twenty-n<strong>in</strong>th session <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission (APFIC),<br />

which was held <strong>in</strong> Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia from 21 to 23 August 2006. APFIC has assumed a new role as<br />

a “regional consultative forum”, <strong>and</strong> is endeavour<strong>in</strong>g to respond effectively to the chang<strong>in</strong>g requirements<br />

<strong>in</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector <strong>in</strong> the region. In support <strong>of</strong> the work <strong>of</strong> the Forum, APFIC is<br />

committed to improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation on the status <strong>and</strong> trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

the region <strong>and</strong> to regularly review<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> analys<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>formation. This document is aimed at <strong>in</strong>form<strong>in</strong>g<br />

APFIC member States <strong>of</strong> the current status <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region as well as the emerg<strong>in</strong>g issues fac<strong>in</strong>g the sector.<br />

Abstract<br />

Lundgren, R., Staples, D.J., Funge-Smith, S.J. & Clausen, J. 2006. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific 2006. <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific. RAP PUBLICATION 2006/22. 62pp.<br />

The <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector rema<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong> fundamental importance to the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />

Production from both capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> has grown s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002 (3 percent for capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> 14 percent for <strong>aquaculture</strong>). In 2004, the region contributed 49 percent <strong>of</strong> the global<br />

production <strong>of</strong> captured fish (46.7 million tonnes) <strong>and</strong> 91 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> (54.3 million<br />

tonnes).<br />

This huge production (<strong>and</strong> value) provides many opportunities for revenue generation, employment,<br />

<strong>and</strong> should contribute significantly to poverty reduction <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased food security <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />

However, there are many challenges that need to be met to make this a reality.<br />

Us<strong>in</strong>g regional fishery data <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation collated by <strong>FAO</strong>, this report provides a comprehensive<br />

picture <strong>of</strong> production trends <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> reviews the current status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

resources <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> species <strong>and</strong> their contribution to national economies <strong>and</strong> food security.<br />

This is illustrated by a detailed view <strong>of</strong> sub-regions <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production by species groups.<br />

The report also elaborates on two emerg<strong>in</strong>g issues that require closer attention <strong>in</strong> the future to<br />

ensure susta<strong>in</strong>able development <strong>of</strong> the sector – illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong> unregulated (IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> food safety <strong>and</strong> trade <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

iv


Geographical scope <strong>of</strong> this review<br />

States <strong>and</strong> areas<br />

This review covers the States <strong>and</strong> entities <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region that report <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

statistics to <strong>FAO</strong>, <strong>and</strong> which are with<strong>in</strong> the area <strong>of</strong> competence <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific Fishery Commission.<br />

They are sub-divided <strong>in</strong>to the follow<strong>in</strong>g sub-regions;<br />

Oceania: American Samoa, Australia, Christmas Isl<strong>and</strong>, Cocos (Keel<strong>in</strong>g) Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Fiji,<br />

French Polynesia, Guam, Kiribati, Marshall Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Federated States <strong>of</strong> Micronesia (FSM), Nauru,<br />

New Caledonia, New Zeal<strong>and</strong>, Niue, Norfolk Isl<strong>and</strong>, Northern Mariana Is., Palau, Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />

(PNG), Pitcairn Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Samoa, Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, <strong>and</strong> Wallis <strong>and</strong><br />

Futuna Is.<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong>: Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan <strong>and</strong> Sri Lanka<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR (People’s Democratic Republic),<br />

Malaysia, Myanmar, Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, S<strong>in</strong>gapore, Thail<strong>and</strong>, Timor-Leste <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a: Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (People’s Republic <strong>of</strong>), Hong Kong SAR (Semi-autonomous Region) <strong>and</strong><br />

Taiwan POC (Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a)<br />

Other <strong>Asia</strong>: Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Korea DPR (Democratic People’s Republic <strong>of</strong>), Mongolia,<br />

Korea, RO (Republic <strong>of</strong>), Tajikistan <strong>and</strong> Uzbekistan<br />

Production areas<br />

In cases where the fish<strong>in</strong>g occurs on the high sea or <strong>in</strong> Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) under access<br />

agreements, although the production is assigned to the flag vessel, the catches made outside the regional<br />

area mentioned above are excluded from this review. The regional area covers the <strong>FAO</strong> Major Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Areas (MFA) as follows:<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters: <strong>Asia</strong> – Inl<strong>and</strong> waters (MFA 04)<br />

Oceania – Inl<strong>and</strong> waters (MFA 06)<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters: Western/Eastern Indian Ocean (MFA 51 <strong>and</strong> 57)<br />

Northwest, Western/Eastern Central <strong>and</strong> (MFA 61, 71, 77 <strong>and</strong> 81)<br />

Southwest Pacific Ocean<br />

Species<br />

Data on aquatic mammals, aquatic plants, corals, pearls, sponges <strong>and</strong> crocodiles from capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

are excluded.<br />

v


Table <strong>of</strong> contents<br />

Page<br />

FOREWORD ...............................................................................................................................................<br />

PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT ......................................................................................................<br />

GEOGRAPHICAL SCOPE OF THIS REVIEW ............................................................................................<br />

iii<br />

iv<br />

v<br />

1. CONTRIBUTIONS OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION ...... 1<br />

1.1 CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL ECONOMIES............................................................................................. 1<br />

1.2 CONTRIBUTION TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION AND FOOD SECURITY ................................................................ 3<br />

2. PRODUCTION TRENDS OF FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE .................................................. 5<br />

2.1 CAPTURE FISHERIES PRODUCTION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION .............................................................. 5<br />

2.2 AQUACULTURE PRODUCTION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION...................................................................... 8<br />

2.3 STATUS AND TRENDS BY SUBREGIONS ................................................................................................. 11<br />

3. STATUS OF RESOURCES................................................................................................................ 23<br />

MARINE WATERS ............................................................................................................................. 23<br />

3.1 ASSESSING THE STATUS OF FISHERY RESOURCES................................................................................... 23<br />

3.2 EVIDENCE FROM STOCK ASSESSMENTS ................................................................................................ 23<br />

3.3 EVIDENCE FROM HISTORIC TRAWL SURVEYS .......................................................................................... 23<br />

3.4 EVIDENCE FROM LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEMS....................................................................................... 25<br />

3.5 EVIDENCE FROM FISHER’S PERCEPTIONS .............................................................................................. 32<br />

INLAND WATERS ............................................................................................................................. 35<br />

3.6 WATER RESOURCES ......................................................................................................................... 35<br />

3.7 FISHERY RESOURCES ....................................................................................................................... 35<br />

4. STATUS OF AQUACULTURE ........................................................................................................... 37<br />

4.1 CARNIVOROUS SPECIES OR SPECIES REQUIRING HIGHER PRODUCTION INPUTS ............................................. 37<br />

4.2 FINFISH REQUIRING LOWER INPUTS ..................................................................................................... 39<br />

4.3 CRUSTACEANS ................................................................................................................................ 41<br />

4.4 MOLLUSCS .................................................................................................................................... 43<br />

4.5 AQUATIC PLANTS ............................................................................................................................. 43<br />

4.6 REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS ............................................................................................................... 44<br />

4.7 NICHE AQUACULTURE SPECIES ........................................................................................................... 45<br />

5. SELECTED ISSUES FACING FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 46<br />

5.1 ILLEGAL, UNREPORTED AND UNREGULATED FISHING (IUU) IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC REGION .............................. 46<br />

5.2 SEAFOOD QUALITY AND SAFETY IN THE CONTEXT OF TRADE ..................................................................... 53<br />

6. OUTLOOK FOR FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC ....................... 59<br />

6.1 GLOBAL AND REGIONAL PREDICTIONS.................................................................................................. 59<br />

6.2 UNEXPLOITED FISHERIES ................................................................................................................... 59<br />

6.3 SMALL-SCALE FISHERIES .................................................................................................................. 60<br />

6.4 AQUACULTURE ................................................................................................................................ 61<br />

vii


Table <strong>of</strong> contents (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />

Page<br />

Tables<br />

Table 1. Contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> to GDP (2004) ......................................... 1<br />

Table 2. Top five trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (World) ................................................................................... 4<br />

Table 3. Top ten seafood trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (APFIC region) ......................................................... 4<br />

Table 4. Estimates <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (tonnes) ................................... 7<br />

Table 5. Top twenty capture production ................................................................................................ 9<br />

Table 6. Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producers States <strong>in</strong> (2004) ..................................................................... 10<br />

Table 7. Top twenty cultured species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by quantity ............................................ 12<br />

Table 8. South <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species ..................................................... 14<br />

Table 9. Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .............................................. 14<br />

Table 10. Ch<strong>in</strong>a capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .............................................................. 16<br />

Table 11. Unidentified capture production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ............................................................................... 18<br />

Table 12. Other <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species ...................................................... 19<br />

Table 13. Oceania capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten species .......................................................... 22<br />

Table 14. Summary <strong>of</strong> stock assessments <strong>in</strong> selected APFIC countries............................................... 24<br />

Table 15. Comparison <strong>of</strong> catch, revenues, costs <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its ................................................................. 26<br />

Table 16. The large mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific ................................................................... 28<br />

Table 17. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean............ 34<br />

Table 18. Aquaculture production reported under “mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei” ................................................. 39<br />

Table 19. Tilapia top eight producer States (2004) ................................................................................. 40<br />

Table 20. Countries export<strong>in</strong>g tilapia (2004) ........................................................................................... 40<br />

Table 21. Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs top ten producer States (2004) ................................................................... 40<br />

Table 22. Milkfish top four producer States (2004) ................................................................................. 41<br />

Table 23. Penaeid Shrimp to ten producer States (2004)....................................................................... 42<br />

Table 24. Freshwater prawn top eight producer States (2004) .............................................................. 42<br />

Table 25. Lower value molluscs top ten producer (2002) ....................................................................... 43<br />

Table 26. Higher value molluscs top ten producer (2002) ...................................................................... 43<br />

Table 27. Aquatic plants top ten producer States (2004) ....................................................................... 44<br />

Table 28. Aquatic plants top ten cultured species (2004) ...................................................................... 44<br />

Table 29. Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species (2004) ........................................................................................... 45<br />

Table 30. Number <strong>of</strong> rejections at the border <strong>of</strong> EU from 1999-2002.................................................... 54<br />

viii


Table <strong>of</strong> contents (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />

Page<br />

Figures<br />

Figure 1. Net exporters <strong>and</strong> net importers <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region ........................................................... 4<br />

Figure 2. Trends <strong>in</strong> global capture production....................................................................................... 7<br />

Figure 3. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by sub-region outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a .................................................. 7<br />

Figure 4. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by species group outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a ............................................ 9<br />

Figure 5. Trends <strong>in</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production ................................................................................ 10<br />

Figure 6. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by environment ...................... 10<br />

Figure 7. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ................................................ 13<br />

Figure 8. Capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................................................ 13<br />

Figure 9. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups .......................... 13<br />

Figure 10. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> major species <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> ....................................................... 13<br />

Figure 11. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ......................................... 15<br />

Figure 12. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ......................................... 15<br />

Figure 13. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups ............... 15<br />

Figure 14. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................... 15<br />

Figure 15. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment ........................................................ 17<br />

Figure 16. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by major species groups ........................................................ 17<br />

Figure 17. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment ................................................. 17<br />

Figure 18. Trends <strong>in</strong> top eight cultured species <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ........................................................................ 17<br />

Figure 19. Trends <strong>in</strong> major cultured carnivorous species production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a ...................................... 17<br />

Figure 20. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by environment ................................................. 20<br />

Figure 21. Capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ................................................. 20<br />

Figure 22. Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups ....................... 20<br />

Figure 23. Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups ........................... 20<br />

Figure 24. Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by environment .................................................... 21<br />

Figure 25. Capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by major species groups .................................................... 21<br />

Figure 26. Trawl surveys <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region ........................................................................................... 24<br />

Figure 27. Decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the abundance <strong>of</strong> fish .......................................................................................... 26<br />

Figure 28. Changes <strong>in</strong> the composition <strong>of</strong> the top ten species .............................................................. 26<br />

Figure 29. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Kuroshio Current LME ........................................................ 33<br />

Figure 30. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Yellow Sea LME.................................................................. 33<br />

Figure 31. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME ............................................................ 33<br />

Figure 32. Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Southeast Australia LME ................................................... 34<br />

Figure 33. Trend <strong>in</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g by species for mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR ................................................ 39<br />

Figure 34. <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacifc region show<strong>in</strong>g the high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Indian Oceans <strong>and</strong><br />

national Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) <strong>and</strong> Territorial Seas .......................................... 48<br />

ix


1. Contributions <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce the last APFIC publication on “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific”<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004, capture <strong>fisheries</strong> have seen a small <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> production while <strong>aquaculture</strong> has cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />

to grow at a rapid rate. Both capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> sectors cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be <strong>of</strong> fundamental<br />

importance to the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> food security, revenue generation <strong>and</strong> employment. In<br />

many <strong>of</strong> the countries, catch<strong>in</strong>g or farm<strong>in</strong>g aquatic resources forms a vital part <strong>of</strong> rural people’s livelihoods.<br />

Fisheries <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> also have a deep cultural significance <strong>and</strong> are more than just a source <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>come<br />

or food supply; traditional fishery products such as fish sauce <strong>and</strong> fish-based condiments have always<br />

been important <strong>in</strong>gredients <strong>of</strong> people’s daily diet which are not easily substituted. All sizes <strong>and</strong> types <strong>of</strong><br />

fish are utilised <strong>in</strong> a wide variety <strong>of</strong> ways <strong>and</strong> there is very little discard or wastage. The role that fish play<br />

<strong>in</strong> both the food security <strong>and</strong> nutritional security <strong>of</strong> many rural <strong>and</strong> coastal populations has <strong>of</strong>ten been<br />

underestimated <strong>in</strong> the past. It is also now recognised that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> are an important<br />

contributor to the national economies for some APFIC member countries, especially <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region.<br />

Fish products are also the most heavily traded natural food commodity <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>and</strong> trade issues<br />

<strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g fish are becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly important.<br />

1.1 Contribution to national economies<br />

Although not recognised as a major contributor to<br />

GDP <strong>in</strong> many countries, <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production is an important contributor to some<br />

national economies across the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />

Estimates <strong>of</strong> the capture production value 1 <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

that the contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> to GDP<br />

accounts for more than one percent <strong>in</strong> many States<br />

<strong>in</strong> the region (Table 1). The <strong>fisheries</strong> sector plays<br />

a critical role <strong>in</strong> the national economies <strong>of</strong> Small<br />

Isl<strong>and</strong> Develop<strong>in</strong>g States (SIDS). The economic<br />

contribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production tends to be<br />

less <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>and</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong>n States, yet<br />

there are still eight <strong>of</strong> these States to which<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> contribute more than one percent <strong>of</strong><br />

GDP. It is also worth not<strong>in</strong>g that these figures for<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> value are probably underestimated <strong>and</strong><br />

do not adequately value the artisanal part <strong>of</strong> the<br />

sector. Overall, it is clear that more policy attention<br />

should be paid to this important production sector.<br />

Aquaculture also makes an important contribution<br />

to GDP <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region <strong>and</strong> it is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. In<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>n States, the production accounts for over one<br />

percent <strong>of</strong> GDP <strong>in</strong> six States. Statistics related to<br />

export <strong>in</strong>come from <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are not<br />

generally available <strong>and</strong> this affects the estimation<br />

<strong>of</strong> the contribution to foreign currency earn<strong>in</strong>gs<br />

through exports <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />

Table 1<br />

Contribution <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> to GDP (2004)<br />

Production value as percent <strong>of</strong> GDP 2<br />

Capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

Aquaculture<br />

Kiribati 36.171 Lao PDR 6.330<br />

Marshall Is. 24.768 Viet Nam 5.166<br />

Maldives 19.312 Bangladesh 2.399<br />

Vanuatu 18.891 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 2.102<br />

Solomon Is. 11.048 Myanmar 1.241<br />

FSM 10.535 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1.020<br />

Cambodia 7.884 Cambodia 0.914<br />

Tuvalu 4.774 Indonesia 0.842<br />

PNG 4.636 Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 0.769<br />

Viet Nam 3.897 Korea DPR 0.520<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 2.217 India 0.437<br />

Tonga 2.152 Nepal 0.385<br />

Indonesia 1.835 New Caledonia 0.378<br />

Bangladesh 1.762 New Zeal<strong>and</strong> 0.318<br />

Myanmar 1.721 Taiwan POC 0.305<br />

Samoa 1.632 Malaysia 0.283<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 1.590 Iran 0.198<br />

Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s 1.548 Sri Lanka 0.195<br />

Korea DPR 1.465 Korea RO 0.147<br />

Sri Lanka 1.281<br />

Fiji 1.208<br />

Lao PDR 1.163<br />

1 The data to quantify the value <strong>of</strong> capture production is not<br />

readily available for many States. As <strong>in</strong>dicative figures, unit<br />

value <strong>of</strong> 0.8 US$ per kg was applied for this estimation <strong>of</strong><br />

capture production value.<br />

2 GDP values <strong>in</strong> 2003 calculated from the ESCAP <strong>of</strong>ficial<br />

statistics except Taiwan POC.<br />

1


It is clear that the State list<strong>in</strong>gs above also closely<br />

match those States which export considerable<br />

amounts <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products (particularly<br />

shrimp). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is an exception <strong>in</strong> this case<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce the majority <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products it<br />

produces are consumed domestically, although<br />

there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend towards export<br />

focussed products.<br />

It should be noted that besides mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a considerable contribution to the national<br />

economies <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> earn<strong>in</strong>gs from export <strong>of</strong><br />

products from <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>, these<br />

figures <strong>of</strong>ten mask the real importance to the<br />

national economy <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> poverty alleviation<br />

<strong>and</strong> nutritional benefits.<br />

Employment, <strong>in</strong>come <strong>and</strong> trade<br />

Very little <strong>in</strong>formation on employment <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> exists <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

<strong>and</strong> only a few States report the number <strong>of</strong> fishers<br />

<strong>and</strong> fish farmers. Despite this, there are clear<br />

<strong>in</strong>dications that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> play<br />

a substantial role <strong>in</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g vital <strong>in</strong>come<br />

generation opportunities to the people. For<br />

example, Ch<strong>in</strong>a, the country with the highest<br />

number <strong>of</strong> fishers <strong>and</strong> fish farmers, had an<br />

estimated 12.2 million engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004, account<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

about 30 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s total. In India,<br />

7.9 million <strong>of</strong> male <strong>and</strong> 2.7 million <strong>of</strong> female<br />

workers were directly engaged <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> fish<br />

farm<strong>in</strong>g. In the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector<br />

provides direct <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct employment to over<br />

one million people, or about 12 percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />

agriculture, fishery <strong>and</strong> forestry sector workforce 3<br />

<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> Viet Nam more than 1 million people are<br />

employed <strong>in</strong> the <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry. 4<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> (2004) 5 estimated that <strong>Asia</strong> accounted for<br />

87 percent <strong>of</strong> the total global number <strong>of</strong> persons<br />

engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

(total 38 million). [new figures will be published<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>FAO</strong> (<strong>in</strong> press) 6 ]. These figures typically<br />

represent full time fishers <strong>and</strong> those for whom<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g is a highly significant activity as well as<br />

full time <strong>aquaculture</strong> farmers. The figures for<br />

people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> seasonally or as<br />

a supplemental part <strong>of</strong> a more diverse livelihood<br />

3<br />

Bureau <strong>of</strong> Fisheries <strong>and</strong> Aquatic Resources <strong>of</strong> the<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es<br />

http://www.bfar.da.gov.ph/programs/gma_fisprogrm/fish_<br />

sector.htm<br />

4<br />

MOFI 2006.<br />

5<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA <strong>FAO</strong> Rome 2004.<br />

6<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA <strong>FAO</strong> Rome (<strong>in</strong> press).<br />

are difficult to estimate <strong>and</strong> are <strong>of</strong>ten not recorded.<br />

Figures, therefore, represent lower thresholds.<br />

However, although the number <strong>of</strong> people employed<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> particularly <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> has<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> several countries <strong>in</strong> the region, the<br />

number <strong>in</strong> developed countries such as Japan has<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>ed (a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>of</strong> over 50 percent between<br />

1970 <strong>and</strong> 2004).<br />

In addition to those people <strong>in</strong>volved directly <strong>in</strong> the<br />

primary production sector, it should be noted that<br />

there are a number <strong>of</strong> people who are engaged<br />

<strong>in</strong> the support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> such as boat build<strong>in</strong>g, ice mak<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

feed manufactur<strong>in</strong>g, process<strong>in</strong>g, market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

distribution <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />

As dem<strong>and</strong> outstrips supply, the price <strong>of</strong> fish is<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g worldwide <strong>and</strong> fish is becom<strong>in</strong>g a “cash<br />

crop”. In many cases, the more marketable fish<br />

are be<strong>in</strong>g sold to provide <strong>in</strong>come that is used to<br />

purchase other more affordable food items.<br />

Fisheries <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> therefore both act to<br />

secure nutritious food for rural <strong>and</strong> coastal<br />

populations <strong>and</strong> to alleviate poverty. This is<br />

discussed <strong>in</strong> detail <strong>in</strong> section 1.2.<br />

Fish products are highly traded commodities <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region br<strong>in</strong>g<strong>in</strong>g valuable foreign<br />

exchange earn<strong>in</strong>gs to export<strong>in</strong>g States. In fact, fish<br />

products are the most highly traded natural<br />

commodity globally <strong>and</strong> trade is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. Total<br />

world trade reached a record value <strong>of</strong> US$71.5<br />

billion (export value) <strong>in</strong> 2004. This was a 23 percent<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease relative to 2000.<br />

The five top global markets for fish are Japan, USA,<br />

<strong>and</strong> the EU counties <strong>of</strong> Spa<strong>in</strong>, France <strong>and</strong> Italy. In<br />

terms <strong>of</strong> exports, two APFIC countries are <strong>in</strong> the<br />

top five (Table 2).<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has been the top exporter <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce 1999, exports reach<strong>in</strong>g US$6.8 billion <strong>in</strong><br />

2004. Thail<strong>and</strong> is the second largest exporter,<br />

followed by Viet Nam export<strong>in</strong>g US$4.1 billion <strong>and</strong><br />

US$2.4 billion tonnes respectively <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />

(Table 3). With<strong>in</strong> the region Japan is ma<strong>in</strong> market<br />

<strong>and</strong> is followed by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Korea RO <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

Hong Kong SAR. Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> top the<br />

exporters list.<br />

Exports totalled US$22.2 billion, while imports<br />

totalled US$26.0 billion with<strong>in</strong> the top ten States<br />

<strong>in</strong> region. Many <strong>of</strong> the countries, especially Ch<strong>in</strong>a,<br />

now import large quantities <strong>of</strong> fish meal to fuel its<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> growth.<br />

2


Many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries have now become net<br />

exporters <strong>of</strong> fish, rather than net importers, a trend<br />

most evident <strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> region.<br />

Figure 1 shows the difference between the imports<br />

<strong>and</strong> exports for the top trad<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region. The quantity <strong>of</strong> imported <strong>fisheries</strong> products<br />

<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR exceeded that <strong>of</strong> exported products<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004; however, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR achieved a remarkable<br />

trade surplus <strong>of</strong> US$3.6 billion from <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

products, which is an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>of</strong> US$1.2 billion<br />

from 2002, <strong>in</strong>dicative <strong>of</strong> the strong value add<strong>in</strong>g<br />

that occurred <strong>in</strong> the process.<br />

Trade for fish is particularly important <strong>in</strong> Small<br />

Isl<strong>and</strong> Develop<strong>in</strong>g States (SIDS) where l<strong>and</strong>-based<br />

resources are very limited – the contribution <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> products can be as high was as high as<br />

80 percent <strong>of</strong> total exported commodities <strong>of</strong> the<br />

State. Other countries with a trade surplus <strong>of</strong> this<br />

size are the big net exporters such as Indonesia,<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam.<br />

1.2 Contribution to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong><br />

food security<br />

Importance <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector <strong>in</strong> poverty<br />

alleviation<br />

Although rapid economic growth <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />

especially <strong>in</strong> India <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, has lifted a large<br />

number <strong>of</strong> people out <strong>of</strong> poverty, almost 690 million<br />

people still live on less than US$1 a day <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific. Almost all analyses on poverty<br />

alleviation conclude that economic growth by<br />

itself will not be sufficient to alleviate poverty <strong>and</strong><br />

reduce food <strong>in</strong>security unless targeted pro-poor<br />

<strong>in</strong>terventions are also applied. <strong>FAO</strong> 7 has just<br />

published another <strong>in</strong> its series <strong>of</strong> Technical<br />

Guidel<strong>in</strong>es to support the implementation <strong>of</strong> the<br />

Code <strong>of</strong> Conduct for Responsible Fisheries that<br />

outl<strong>in</strong>es how the contribution <strong>of</strong> small-scale<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong> food security<br />

can be <strong>in</strong>creased. It advocates a vision <strong>in</strong> which<br />

small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>potential</strong> to contribute to<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able development is fully realised. It<br />

recommends greater emphasis on legislation <strong>and</strong><br />

policy to support the poor <strong>and</strong> advocates (i) better<br />

management that <strong>in</strong>cludes manag<strong>in</strong>g small-scale<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>; (ii) mak<strong>in</strong>g markets work for the poor;<br />

(iii) f<strong>in</strong>anc<strong>in</strong>g poverty alleviation; <strong>and</strong> (iv) appropriate<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation, research <strong>and</strong> communication.<br />

Importance <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> human nutrition<br />

The fact that fish is <strong>of</strong> high nutritional value is<br />

well known. Less well-known is the significant<br />

contribution that it makes to the diet <strong>of</strong> many<br />

fish-consum<strong>in</strong>g communities <strong>in</strong> both the developed<br />

<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g world.<br />

Fish provides high quality prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> a wide<br />

variety <strong>of</strong> vitam<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong> m<strong>in</strong>erals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

vitam<strong>in</strong>s A <strong>and</strong> D, phosphorus, magnesium,<br />

selenium, <strong>and</strong> iod<strong>in</strong>e, especially <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish.<br />

Fish is also a valuable source <strong>of</strong> essential fatty<br />

acids <strong>and</strong> its prote<strong>in</strong> is easily digestible.<br />

Even <strong>in</strong> small quantities, fish can have a significant<br />

positive impact on improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>of</strong> dietary<br />

prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>take by complement<strong>in</strong>g the essential<br />

am<strong>in</strong>o acids that are <strong>of</strong>ten present <strong>in</strong> low quantities<br />

<strong>in</strong> the rice-<strong>and</strong>-vegetable diets typical <strong>of</strong> many<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g States. In particular, fish is a rich<br />

source <strong>of</strong> lys<strong>in</strong>e which is an essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid<br />

that is <strong>of</strong>ten deficient <strong>in</strong> rice diets with little animal<br />

prote<strong>in</strong>.<br />

Recent research shows that fish is much more than<br />

just an alternative source <strong>of</strong> animal prote<strong>in</strong>. Fish<br />

oils <strong>in</strong> fatty fish are the richest source <strong>of</strong> a type <strong>of</strong><br />

fat that is vital for bra<strong>in</strong> development <strong>in</strong> unborn<br />

babies <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>fants. This makes all fish <strong>and</strong><br />

especially fatty fish, such as tuna, mackerel <strong>and</strong><br />

sard<strong>in</strong>e, particularly good components <strong>of</strong> the diet<br />

<strong>of</strong> pregnant <strong>and</strong> lactat<strong>in</strong>g women. It is therefore<br />

apparent that fish makes a valuable contribution to<br />

the nutritional quality <strong>of</strong> the diets <strong>of</strong> the populations<br />

<strong>of</strong> many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region.<br />

7<br />

<strong>FAO</strong>, 2005. Increas<strong>in</strong>g the contribution <strong>of</strong> small-scale<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> to poverty alleviation <strong>and</strong> food security. <strong>FAO</strong><br />

Technical Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Responsible Fisheries 10.<br />

3


Table 2<br />

Top five trad<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> 2004 (World)<br />

Imports<br />

Exports<br />

Country (Million US$) Country (Million US$)<br />

1 Japan 14 830 1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 6 780<br />

2 USA 12 079 2 Norway 4 171<br />

3 Spa<strong>in</strong> 5 239 3 Thail<strong>and</strong> 4 053<br />

4 France 4 217 4 USA 3 693<br />

5 Italy 3 919 5 Peru


2. Production trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be the world’s largest producer <strong>of</strong> fish. In 2004, this amounted to<br />

87.1 million tonnes – 46.7 million tonnes from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> 40.4 million tonnes from <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

[total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production less aquatic plants]. This represents 49 percent <strong>and</strong> 89 percent <strong>of</strong> the global<br />

production, respectively. When aquatic plants are <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> the total <strong>aquaculture</strong> figures, <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production outstrips that <strong>of</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> for the first time (total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> 54.3 million<br />

tonnes <strong>and</strong> 91 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s production).<br />

Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased by 3 percent over that <strong>of</strong> 2002 (driven ma<strong>in</strong>ly by growth <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>)<br />

<strong>and</strong> 14 percent for total <strong>aquaculture</strong> (driven ma<strong>in</strong>ly by growth <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>). Of the top<br />

ten producers <strong>of</strong> capture fish, five States were from the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (Ch<strong>in</strong>a (1 st ), Indonesia (5 th ),<br />

Japan (6 th ), India (7 th ) <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> (9 th ). For <strong>aquaculture</strong>, Ch<strong>in</strong>a alone is reported to have produced<br />

70 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production (about four times greater than Peru’s <strong>fisheries</strong> production,<br />

the number two fishery producer worldwide).<br />

The <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region are dom<strong>in</strong>ated by pelagic species – <strong>in</strong> many sub-regions it is small<br />

pelagics that are the dom<strong>in</strong>ant group. The proportion <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> many areas,<br />

a trend that is meet<strong>in</strong>g the grow<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> for these fish for livestock/<strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds. Freshwater<br />

fish dom<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>aquaculture</strong> production. As expected, there is considerable variation <strong>in</strong> general trends<br />

among the five ma<strong>in</strong> sub-regions <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific. Production from Ch<strong>in</strong>a, South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Southeast<br />

<strong>Asia</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>ues to grow. Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production from Japan, Korea DPR <strong>and</strong> Korea RO have shown<br />

a steady decl<strong>in</strong>e over many years, while <strong>aquaculture</strong> production has rema<strong>in</strong>ed relatively stable. Oceania’s<br />

production is m<strong>in</strong>or compared with the other sub-regions, but cont<strong>in</strong>ues to <strong>in</strong>crease, although many <strong>of</strong> the<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Pacific small isl<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States, that operate at a subsistence level, are not recorded.<br />

2.1 Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

Production from the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region’s capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> has <strong>in</strong>creased by 1.3 million tonnes s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

2002 <strong>and</strong> totalled 46.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. This<br />

represents an overall 3 percent <strong>in</strong>crease over that<br />

<strong>of</strong> 2002. Inl<strong>and</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> have <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

by 5 percent while that <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>creased by only 2.5 percent.<br />

The region has been the world’s largest producer<br />

<strong>of</strong> fish for decades, <strong>and</strong> contributed 49 percent <strong>of</strong><br />

global production <strong>in</strong> 2004. Of the top ten producers<br />

<strong>of</strong> capture fish <strong>in</strong> the world, five States come from<br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific area, namely Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (1 st ),<br />

Indonesia (5 th ), Japan (6 th ), India (7 th ) <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong><br />

(9 th ). Total capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production has steadily<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased s<strong>in</strong>ce 1950, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from the mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

capture <strong>fisheries</strong> sector (Figure 2). In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

waters, the regional share has had a m<strong>in</strong>or<br />

decrease to 64.1 percent.<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is still by far the largest producer <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region with a reported production <strong>of</strong> 16.9 million<br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, represent<strong>in</strong>g 37 percent <strong>of</strong> regional<br />

production. This is more than three times greater<br />

than the second largest producer <strong>in</strong> the region –<br />

Indonesia. Because <strong>of</strong> this enormous scale <strong>of</strong><br />

production, Ch<strong>in</strong>a 1 is treated as a dist<strong>in</strong>ct<br />

sub-region <strong>in</strong> this review.<br />

Top ten producers <strong>of</strong> capture fish <strong>in</strong> 2004 were<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Peru, USA, Chile, Indonesia, Japan,<br />

India, Russian Federation, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Norway;<br />

five <strong>of</strong> these are <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />

The top ten producers amount to 58 percent <strong>of</strong><br />

the total global production.<br />

With the exception <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, total capture fishery<br />

production from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters peaked <strong>in</strong> 1989 at<br />

25.5 million tonnes <strong>and</strong> then gradually decl<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

However, there appears to have been a gradual<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> recent years <strong>and</strong> has almost reached<br />

the same level <strong>of</strong> 1989 aga<strong>in</strong>, i.e. 25.2 million<br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

As seen <strong>in</strong> Figure 3, Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> has cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />

to <strong>in</strong>crease production <strong>and</strong> has ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the<br />

largest share (exclud<strong>in</strong>g Ch<strong>in</strong>a) <strong>of</strong> the APFIC region<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce 1994. Growth <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> has occurred but<br />

1<br />

In this document, “Ch<strong>in</strong>a” refers to the sub-region that<br />

<strong>in</strong>cludes Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Hong Kong SAR, Macao SAR <strong>and</strong><br />

Taiwan POC.<br />

5


is relatively slow. The “other <strong>Asia</strong>” sub-region used<br />

to be the top contributor to the region, but has<br />

experienced a serious <strong>and</strong> cont<strong>in</strong>uous decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong><br />

production s<strong>in</strong>ce 1988.<br />

The recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong> over<br />

figures for 2002 has occurred ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Southeast<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>, <strong>in</strong> particular Indonesia (12 percent <strong>in</strong>crease),<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (9.5 percent), Viet Nam (10 percent),<br />

Myanmar (10 percent). Major <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> catch<br />

have also occurred <strong>in</strong> many <strong>of</strong> the previously m<strong>in</strong>or<br />

producers <strong>in</strong> the Pacific such as the Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />

Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Tuvalu <strong>and</strong> Vanuatu that have<br />

all witnessed <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>of</strong> over 50 percent as<br />

a result <strong>of</strong> an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g share <strong>of</strong> the tuna catch.<br />

Major decreases have been reported by India<br />

(-5.1 percent), Korea RO (-6.0 percent), New<br />

Zeal<strong>and</strong> (-6.35 percent) <strong>and</strong> Pakistan (-7.7 percent).<br />

In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters, global capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

production, 2 <strong>in</strong> general, has <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>and</strong> its<br />

reported growth <strong>in</strong> the late 1990s was remarkable.<br />

However, it was dur<strong>in</strong>g this period that a change<br />

<strong>in</strong> the way several States estimated their <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> production occurred <strong>and</strong> it is likely that<br />

earlier production was underestimated. Myanmar<br />

has recently reported considerable <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> its<br />

<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production which is attributed to<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased enhancement, but also due to improved<br />

underst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the production from the “<strong>in</strong>n”<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> (concession <strong>fisheries</strong>). Even today, there<br />

is considerable uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty about <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> production<br />

figures – for example, Coates 3 estimated that<br />

production from Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> was possibly<br />

under-reported by a factor <strong>of</strong> between 2.5 <strong>and</strong> 3.6.<br />

Total <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the region <strong>in</strong> 2004 was<br />

reported as 5.9 million tonnes. The <strong>in</strong>crease over<br />

that <strong>of</strong> 2002 has come ma<strong>in</strong>ly from Myanmar<br />

(78.2 percent), Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (0.1 percent but still<br />

a relatively large quantity), Bangladesh (6.3 per<br />

cent) <strong>and</strong> India (3.8 percent). Large decreases<br />

were reported <strong>in</strong> Cambodia (-30.6 percent),<br />

Viet Nam (-35.6 percent), Pakistan (-5.9 percent)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Laos P.R (-10.9 percent). South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> contributed the greatest<br />

production compared with other sub-regions.<br />

(Figure 3).<br />

2 It is common knowledge that <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation systems<br />

<strong>in</strong> the region have been particularly weak <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas. The<br />

relatively low level <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture production could be<br />

simply a reflection <strong>of</strong> poor quality <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation.<br />

3<br />

Coates, D. (2003). An overview <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture fishery<br />

statistics <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. In: New approaches for the<br />

improvement <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture fishery statistics <strong>in</strong> the Mekong<br />

Bas<strong>in</strong>. <strong>FAO</strong> & MRC, RAP Publication 2003/01. 45 pp.<br />

The proportion <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

throughout much <strong>of</strong> the region. In this report, this<br />

term refers to fish that are generally <strong>of</strong> relatively low<br />

economic value <strong>and</strong> typically small sized. They can<br />

be used for either human consumption or as animal<br />

feeds (both fish <strong>and</strong> livestock). They may be used<br />

directly <strong>in</strong> both <strong>aquaculture</strong> to feed other fish or<br />

processed <strong>in</strong>to fish meal/oil for <strong>in</strong>corporation <strong>in</strong>to<br />

formulated diets. In human food, the fish may be<br />

consumed directly, or further processed <strong>of</strong>ten us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

traditional methods <strong>of</strong> process<strong>in</strong>g small fish.<br />

Unfortunately there are very few records <strong>of</strong> the<br />

amount <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish currently be<strong>in</strong>g taken<br />

<strong>in</strong> the APFIC region. This is partly due to the fact<br />

that the term “trash fish” is used to mean different<br />

th<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong> different States mak<strong>in</strong>g report<strong>in</strong>g difficult<br />

– <strong>in</strong> some States it only refers to fish that is used<br />

for livestock/fish food, while <strong>in</strong> others it covers both<br />

livestock/fish food <strong>and</strong> human food. This broad<br />

range <strong>of</strong> use <strong>of</strong> the term means that it is difficult<br />

to agree on a common generic term <strong>and</strong> def<strong>in</strong>ition.<br />

Recent reviews <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish have been<br />

carried out <strong>in</strong> Bangladesh, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, India,<br />

Indonesia, the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>. 4 Use was<br />

also made <strong>of</strong> a similar study carried out by the<br />

Australian Centre for Agriculture Research (ACIAR)<br />

<strong>in</strong> Viet Nam. 5 A summary <strong>of</strong> the estimates <strong>of</strong> the<br />

amount <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish be<strong>in</strong>g caught <strong>in</strong><br />

these countries (no estimate was available for<br />

Indonesia) is presented <strong>in</strong> Table 4.<br />

The percentage <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish recorded<br />

<strong>in</strong> these countries ranged from 4 percent to<br />

38 percent <strong>of</strong> the total mar<strong>in</strong>e capture l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs. In<br />

some regions <strong>of</strong> Viet Nam, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />

the percentage was <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> 50 percent,<br />

especially <strong>in</strong> areas where low value/trash fish are<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g targeted. The weighted average percentage<br />

across the region was 25 percent.<br />

A very approximate “back <strong>of</strong> the envelope” was<br />

used to trace the flow <strong>of</strong> fish products through to<br />

(i) direct human use <strong>and</strong> (ii) <strong>in</strong>direct human use<br />

through <strong>aquaculture</strong>. For 2003, the recorded <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />

capture fishery l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs was about 39.3 million<br />

tonnes (for all carnivorous <strong>and</strong> omnivorous fish<br />

<strong>and</strong> exclud<strong>in</strong>g molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds) <strong>and</strong><br />

the latest estimate for discard<strong>in</strong>g is 1.8 percent<br />

4<br />

Funge-Smith, S., L<strong>in</strong>debo, E. & Staples, D. (2005). <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> today: The production <strong>and</strong> use <strong>of</strong> low value/trash<br />

fish from mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, RAP<br />

publication 2005/16.<br />

5<br />

Edwards, P., Tuan, L.A. & Allen, G.L. (2004). A survey <strong>of</strong><br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e trash fish <strong>and</strong> fish meal as <strong>aquaculture</strong> feed <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />

<strong>in</strong> Vietnam. ACIAR Work<strong>in</strong>g paper 57.<br />

6


Figure 2<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> global capture production<br />

10 000<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

100 000<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />

8 000<br />

80 000<br />

6 000<br />

60 000<br />

Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

4 000<br />

Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

40 000<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

2 000<br />

APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

20 000<br />

APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 3<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by sub-region outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />

4 000<br />

30 000<br />

3 000<br />

2 000<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong><br />

1 000<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

0<br />

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

20 000<br />

Other <strong>Asia</strong><br />

South <strong>Asia</strong><br />

10 000<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

0<br />

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> Other <strong>Asia</strong> Oceania<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Table 4<br />

Estimates <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (tonnes)<br />

Country Low value/trash fish % <strong>of</strong> catch Dom<strong>in</strong>ant gear Year <strong>of</strong> estimate<br />

Bangladesh 71 000 17 Gill nets (48%) 2001-02<br />

Set bag nets (42%)<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 5 316 000 38 Trawl 2001<br />

India 271 000 10-20 Trawl 2003<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 78 000 4 Trawl (41%) 2003<br />

Danish se<strong>in</strong>e (22%)<br />

Purse se<strong>in</strong>e (12%)<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 765 000 31 Trawl 1999<br />

Viet Nam 933 183 36 Trawl 2001<br />

7


(i.e. 720 000 tonnes), giv<strong>in</strong>g a total capture figure<br />

<strong>of</strong> 40.0 million tonnes.<br />

Apply<strong>in</strong>g a 25 percent low value/trash fish factor<br />

to the l<strong>and</strong>ed catch gives a figure <strong>of</strong> 9.8 million<br />

tonnes be<strong>in</strong>g used for livestock/fish, <strong>and</strong><br />

29.5 million tonnes be<strong>in</strong>g used directly for human<br />

consumption. The total <strong>aquaculture</strong> from <strong>Asia</strong> for<br />

all fish exclud<strong>in</strong>g molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds is<br />

estimated as 28.0 million tonnes. From these<br />

figures, it is clear that the diversion <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

via <strong>aquaculture</strong> is provid<strong>in</strong>g a very significant<br />

proportion (approximately 50 percent) <strong>of</strong> the total<br />

fish provided to humans (both with<strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

exported to other more developed countries). An<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g proportion <strong>of</strong> this is high-valued<br />

carnivorous species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly dependent on<br />

imported fish meal/oil.<br />

Just look<strong>in</strong>g at total capture fishery production,<br />

however, masks considerable differences <strong>in</strong> the<br />

trends <strong>of</strong> the ma<strong>in</strong> species groups (Figure 4).<br />

Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish peaked at 6.4 million tonnes<br />

as early as 1974 <strong>and</strong> then decl<strong>in</strong>ed to the lowest<br />

level at 4.4 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1991. Production then<br />

levelled <strong>of</strong>f <strong>and</strong> was up to 4.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />

2004.<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish peaked at 11.8 million tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1988 <strong>and</strong> subsequently decreased to the<br />

production levels seen <strong>in</strong> the early 1980s. In 2004<br />

it was 9.9 million tonnes. Other species groups<br />

such as freshwater/diadromous fish, crustaceans<br />

<strong>and</strong> cephalopods have grown steadily while<br />

mollusc production has levelled <strong>of</strong>f at around<br />

800 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes.<br />

It is important to realise that the region’s catch is<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated by pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> many<br />

sub-regions by small pelagic species (e.g.<br />

Japanese jack mackerel, Japanese anchovy, chub<br />

mackerel, Pacific saury, Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e, Indian<br />

mackerels <strong>and</strong> scads).<br />

The top twenty species <strong>in</strong> the region (Table 5),<br />

however, show considerable changes <strong>in</strong> the<br />

rank<strong>in</strong>gs over time. It is significant that the<br />

reduction <strong>in</strong> catch <strong>of</strong> s<strong>in</strong>gle dom<strong>in</strong>ant species such<br />

as Alaska pollock 6 <strong>in</strong> the early 1970s <strong>and</strong> chub<br />

mackerel 7 <strong>in</strong> the late 1970s resulted <strong>in</strong> changes <strong>in</strong><br />

relative rank<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> large pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e species<br />

(i.e. skipjack tuna <strong>and</strong> yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna) <strong>in</strong> 2000 that<br />

has carried through to 2004. When the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese<br />

figures are <strong>in</strong>cluded, the large catches <strong>of</strong> largehead<br />

6<br />

Its highest production was 2.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1973.<br />

7<br />

Its highest production was 1.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1978.<br />

hairtail (1.6 million tonnes), akiami paste shrimp<br />

(Acetes spp.) (681 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes) <strong>and</strong> Japanese<br />

Spanish mackerel (428 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes) <strong>in</strong>creases<br />

their importance <strong>in</strong> the overall rank<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

Unfortunately, there is still a considerable capture<br />

production that is not identified to the species level<br />

but recorded as mar<strong>in</strong>e/freshwater fishes nei, 8<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e/freshwater molluscs nei <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e/<br />

freshwater crustaceans nei. The quantity reported<br />

under these categories has for some sub-regions<br />

been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g significantly <strong>in</strong> recent years, which<br />

<strong>in</strong>dicates a worry<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> available statistical<br />

quality. In 2004, 14.3 million tonnes or 31 percent<br />

<strong>of</strong> capture production was not identified to species,<br />

order, or family level. It is notable that Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />

has improved its report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />

The report<strong>in</strong>g on nei species has been reduced by<br />

almost 3 million tonnes or from 47 percent on<br />

reported capture production <strong>in</strong> 2002 to 31 percent<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

2.2 Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region produced 40.4 million<br />

tonnes <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> – 89 percent <strong>of</strong> global<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> production (total <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production less aquatic plants). In terms <strong>of</strong> value,<br />

the region’s share is slightly less, but is still<br />

78 percent <strong>of</strong> total value <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

When aquatic plant production is <strong>in</strong>cluded (the vast<br />

majority <strong>of</strong> which orig<strong>in</strong>ates <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

area), the region becomes even more dom<strong>in</strong>ant,<br />

represent<strong>in</strong>g 91 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production by quantity <strong>and</strong> 80 percent by value.<br />

Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producer States by quantity<br />

(exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants) <strong>in</strong> 2004 were Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />

India, Viet Nam, Thail<strong>and</strong>, Indonesia, Bangladesh,<br />

Japan, Chile, Norway <strong>and</strong> USA. <strong>Asia</strong>n States hold<br />

the top seven positions.<br />

By value, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Japan, India, Chile, Viet Nam,<br />

Indonesia, Norway, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh<br />

are amongst the top ten producer States. (see<br />

Table 6)<br />

The growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

has cont<strong>in</strong>ued to be very strong, reflect<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

trend for the last ten years. This results ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

from cont<strong>in</strong>uously <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g production from<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR. 9 Between 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2004, production<br />

8<br />

Nei = not elsewhere <strong>in</strong>cluded.<br />

9<br />

Growth rate for the period <strong>of</strong> 1991-2004 was 11.6 percent<br />

exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants production.<br />

8


Figure 4<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production by species group outside Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

12 000<br />

8 000<br />

4 000<br />

0<br />

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

Freshwater <strong>and</strong> diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish Crustaceans Cephalopods<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />

Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Table 5<br />

Top twenty capture production species <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

1960 1980 2004 (without Ch<strong>in</strong>a) (Production) 2004 with Ch<strong>in</strong>a (Production)<br />

1 Jap. jack mackerel Chub mackerel Skipjack tuna 1 339.9 Japanese anchovy 1 795.8<br />

2 Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid Alaska pollock Japanese anchovy 692.4 Skipjack tuna 1 550.1<br />

3 Japanese anchovy Skipjack tuna Natantian decapods 621.9 Largehead hairtail 1 548.6<br />

4 Chub mackerel Natantian decapods Scads nei 602.1 Scads nei 1 226.7<br />

5 Pacific saury Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid Chub mackerel 524.6 Natantian decapods 1 051.6<br />

6 Alaska pollock Japanese anchovy Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna 518.6 Chub mackerel 1 036.2<br />

7 Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e Indian mackerel nei 497.8 Mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei 927.8<br />

8 Natantian decapods Croakers, drums nei Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g skid 447.4 Croakers, drum nei 753.2<br />

9 Scads nei Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Croakers, drums nei 418.4 Squids nei 725.2<br />

10 Indian mackerel Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3 Akiami paste shrimp 681.4<br />

11 Sharks, rays, skates Stolephorus anchovies Carangids nei 344.6 Yellow f<strong>in</strong> tuna 624.4<br />

12 Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Indian mackerels Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e 327.8 Indian mackerel nei 497.8<br />

13 Skipjack tuna Sharks, rays, skates Alaska pollock 319.4 Jap. fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 447.4<br />

14 Clupeoids nei Pacific saury Yesso scallop 313.8 Jap. Spanish mackerel 428.0<br />

15 Croakers, drums nei Scads nei Jap. jack mackerel 279.8 Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3<br />

16 Indian mackerel nei Clupeoids nei Frigate & bullet tunas 263.0 Freshwater molluscs nei 406.2<br />

17 Bigeye tuna Tuna-like fishes nei Cephalopods nei 262.7 Silver pomfrets nei 386.5<br />

18 Stolephorus anchovies Ponyfishes nei Chum salmon 261.6 Gazami crab nei 347.0<br />

19 Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 6 210.9 Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 8 816.3<br />

20 Freshwater fishes nei Freshwater fishes nei Freshwater fishes nei 2 295.2 Freshwater fishes nei 4 019.3<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

9


Table 6<br />

Top ten <strong>aquaculture</strong> producer States <strong>in</strong> (2004) (exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plant production)<br />

By quantity<br />

By value<br />

Country (1 000 tonnes) Country (Million US$)<br />

1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 30 398 1 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 30 870<br />

2 India 2 472 2 Japan 3 205<br />

3 Viet Nam 1 199 3 India 2 936<br />

4 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1 173 4 Chile 2 801<br />

5 Indonesia 1 045 5 Viet Nam 2 444<br />

6 Bangladesh 915 6 Indonesia 1 993<br />

7 Japan 776 7 Norway 1 688<br />

8 Chile 675 8 Thail<strong>and</strong> 1 587<br />

9 Norway 638 9 Bangladesh 1 363<br />

10 USA 606 10 Myanmar 1 231<br />

Other 5 031 Other 13 231<br />

Total 45 468 Total 63 356<br />

Figure 5<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

Quantity<br />

Value<br />

50 000<br />

80 000<br />

40 000<br />

30 000<br />

Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

60 000<br />

Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

40 000<br />

20 000<br />

10 000<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

20 000<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

0<br />

APFIC area<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

0<br />

APFIC area<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

APFIC (w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a) Ch<strong>in</strong>a Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes (quantity), million US$ (value)<br />

Figure 6<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by environment<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />

21 000<br />

18 000<br />

18 000<br />

15 000<br />

15 000<br />

12 000<br />

12 000<br />

9 000<br />

9 000<br />

6 000<br />

6 000<br />

3 000<br />

3 000<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a APFIC w/o Ch<strong>in</strong>a Rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

10


<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>in</strong>creased by 4.7 million tonnes<br />

(12.8 percent). In terms <strong>of</strong> tonnage other countries<br />

that showed large <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong>cluded Viet Nam<br />

(68 percent), Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (28 percent), Indonesia<br />

(28 percent), India (13 percent), Thail<strong>and</strong><br />

(22.9 percent), Myanmar (110 percent) <strong>and</strong> Korea<br />

RO (20 percent). Both <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture <strong>and</strong><br />

mariculture showed steady growth but the growth<br />

rate <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture sector was more rapid<br />

(Figure 5).<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a 10 alone reported to have produced<br />

41.7 million tonnes or 71 percent <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004 (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic<br />

plants). This enormous scale <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a can be compared with the<br />

total <strong>fisheries</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Peru, the world’s<br />

second largest <strong>fisheries</strong> producer after Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />

which was 9.6 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

both capture <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>). This was still less<br />

than one quarter <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production alone (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants). S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR is such a predom<strong>in</strong>ant producer, the<br />

scale <strong>of</strong> reported production can mask other<br />

regional trends <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a 11 is treated separately <strong>in</strong><br />

this report.<br />

If we exclude Ch<strong>in</strong>a, the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region still<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>s an important production area for<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong>, exhibit<strong>in</strong>g steady growth regardless<br />

<strong>of</strong> the culture environment. In particular, <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

culture more than doubled its production from<br />

1 885 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 5 629 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Such advances far exceed the<br />

growth <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the rest <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

(Figure 6).<br />

Top five cultured species <strong>in</strong> 2004 were all freshwater<br />

carps (Silver carp, Rohu, Catla, Common carp <strong>and</strong><br />

Mrigal) <strong>and</strong> their aggregated production was<br />

2 635 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes account<strong>in</strong>g for 77 percent<br />

<strong>of</strong> total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> the sub-region.<br />

There has been little change <strong>in</strong> the top twenty<br />

cultured species 12 <strong>in</strong> the region between 1990 <strong>and</strong><br />

10<br />

This figure is for all Ch<strong>in</strong>a, but the massive scale <strong>of</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production challenges statistical<br />

collection <strong>and</strong> there are uncerta<strong>in</strong>ties regard<strong>in</strong>g the quantities<br />

reported.<br />

11<br />

See footnote 1.<br />

12<br />

There is significant volume <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

reported by large group <strong>of</strong> species, e.g. 3 394 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong> fish production <strong>in</strong> 2002 were not identified at<br />

family, order or species level. Consequently, the species item<br />

totals could have underestimated the real production <strong>of</strong> the<br />

<strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />

2004 (exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs). The<br />

top species are all <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters species, which are<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese <strong>and</strong> Indian carps.<br />

It is worth not<strong>in</strong>g that the number <strong>of</strong> carnivorous<br />

species has <strong>in</strong>creased dur<strong>in</strong>g the past ten years.<br />

In mar<strong>in</strong>e waters, major cultured species are<br />

generally dom<strong>in</strong>ated by high-valued carnivorous<br />

species such as penaeid shrimp, jacks <strong>and</strong><br />

sea breams. Production <strong>of</strong> crabs as well as the<br />

White leg shrimps have made significant advances<br />

<strong>in</strong> recent years. White leg shrimp are now the top<br />

production species (Table 7).<br />

2.3 <strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> trends by sub-regions<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> (2004) 13 estimated that <strong>Asia</strong> accounted for<br />

87 percent <strong>of</strong> the total global number <strong>of</strong> persons<br />

engaged <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

(total 38 million). These figures typically represent<br />

full time <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> those for whom fish<strong>in</strong>g is<br />

a highly significant activity <strong>and</strong> full time <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

farmers. The figures for people <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

seasonally or as a supplemental part <strong>of</strong> a more<br />

diverse livelihood are difficult to estimate <strong>and</strong> are<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten not.<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

The South <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region showed cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />

growth from 1980-2002 but has tended to level <strong>of</strong>f<br />

<strong>in</strong> recent years. It nearly doubled its capture<br />

production from 3.1 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1980 to<br />

5.8 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (Figure 7). Most <strong>of</strong> the<br />

overall growth resulted from production <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

waters, but South <strong>Asia</strong> has the largest share <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> capture production (30 percent <strong>of</strong> total<br />

capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production) among sub-regions <strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific area. After rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g relatively<br />

stable dur<strong>in</strong>g late 1970s <strong>and</strong> 1980s, <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

production grew rapidly from the early 1990s. It<br />

reached the highest level <strong>of</strong> production at<br />

1.9 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2001 but showed a sharp<br />

decrease <strong>in</strong> 2002 for the first time <strong>in</strong> the past<br />

ten years, but has started to <strong>in</strong>crease aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />

In comparison with top production species <strong>of</strong> other<br />

sub-regions, the comb<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong>n<br />

species is unique <strong>in</strong> the sense that freshwater<br />

species (Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei: 5 th ), diadromous species<br />

(Hilsa shad: 2 nd ), demersal species (Croakers/<br />

drums: 3 rd ), crustaceans (Natantian decapods: 4 th )<br />

<strong>and</strong> pelagic species (Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e: 1 st ) are all<br />

ranked high <strong>in</strong> the list (Table 8).<br />

13<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> SOFIA, (Rome 2004).<br />

11


Table 7<br />

Top twenty cultured species <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region by quantity<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

1990 2004<br />

1 Silver carp 1 416.6 1 Silver carp 3 839.1<br />

2 Grass carp 1 042.0 2 Grass carp 3 831.4<br />

3 Bighead carp 671.8 3 Common carp 3 140.0<br />

4 Common carp 658.4 4 Bighead carp 2 097.2<br />

5 Tilapia 282.8 5 Crucian carp 1 948.9<br />

6 Rohu 244.7 6 Tilapia 1 238.1<br />

7 Catla 235.3 7 Rohu 761.1<br />

8 Crucian carp 215.6 8 Catla 615.6<br />

9 Japanese eel 163.5 9 Mrigal carp 573.7<br />

10 White amur bream 161.6 10 White amur bream 516.9<br />

11 Mrigal carp 160.1 11 Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab 415.7<br />

12 Clarias catfishes 61.1 12 Black carp 296.4<br />

13 Barb 47.0 13 Amur catfish 246.9<br />

14 Climb<strong>in</strong>g perch 39.4 14 Snakehead 239.1<br />

15 Black carp 37.9 15 Japanese eel 238.4<br />

16 Milkfish 34.5 16 Oriental river prawn 213.1<br />

17 Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei 25.6 17 Giant river prawn 193.5<br />

18 Gourami 24.9 18 S<strong>of</strong>t-shell turtle 170.1<br />

19 Trouts 24.7 19 M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong> fish 168.7<br />

20 Giant river prawn 18.5 20 Swamp eel 137.5<br />

Misc. freshwater fishes 776.8 Misc. freshwater fishers 1 767.3<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e/brackish waters<br />

1990 2004<br />

1 Milkfish 399.6 1 White leg shrimp 1 111.2<br />

2 Giant tiger prawn 289.7 2 Giant tiger prawn 698.7<br />

3 Fleshy prawn 185.1 3 Milkfish 514.7<br />

4 Japanese amberjack 161.6 4 Japanese amberjack 150.1<br />

5 Silver seabream 52.0 5 Indo-Pacific swamp crab 117.5<br />

6 Tilapia 39.2 6 Other penaeus shrimps 99.2<br />

7 Banana prawn 32.8 7 Silver seabream 85.3<br />

8 Metapenaeus shrimps 28.6 8 Banana prawn 83.2<br />

9 Coho salmon 23.6 9 Japanese seabass 82.5<br />

10 Other penaeus shrimps 21.0 10 Swimm<strong>in</strong>g crabs, etc. 68.4<br />

11 Kuruma prawn 9.3 11 Large yellow croaker 67.4<br />

12 Barramundi 7.9 12 Left-eye flounders 57.3<br />

13 Mullets 7.9 13 Fleshy prawn 56.8<br />

14 Bastard halibut 7.1 14 Groupers 54.5<br />

15 Indian white prawn 6.7 15 P<strong>org</strong>ies, seabream 53.3<br />

16 Japanese jack mackerel 5.9 16 Japanese sea cucumber 53.3<br />

17 Indo-Pacific swamp crab 3.8 17 Kuruma prawn 47.5<br />

18 Nile tilapia 3.8 18 Red drum 43.5<br />

19 Puffers 2.9 19 Jellyfishes 39.4<br />

20 Groupers 2.8 20 Bastard halibut 37.4<br />

Misc. fishes 38.6 Misc. fishes 218.9<br />

Misc. crustaceans 4.5 Misc. crustaceans 47.4<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

* Coloured cells <strong>in</strong>dicate carnivorous species ** Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs<br />

12


Figure 7<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />

<strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />

6 000<br />

2 000<br />

Figure 8<br />

Capture production <strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong><br />

by major species groups<br />

1 600<br />

4 000<br />

1 200<br />

2 000<br />

800<br />

400<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Cephalopods<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 9<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

<strong>of</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />

3 500<br />

3 000<br />

2 500<br />

2 000<br />

1 500<br />

1 000<br />

500<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Figure 10<br />

Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong><br />

major species <strong>in</strong> South <strong>Asia</strong><br />

700<br />

600<br />

500<br />

400<br />

300<br />

200<br />

100<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Freshwater fishes<br />

Diadromous fishes<br />

Molluscs<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />

Other<br />

Rohu<br />

Mrigal carp<br />

Silver carp<br />

Grass carp<br />

Catla<br />

Common carp<br />

Giant tiger prawn<br />

Penaeid shrimps<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

13


Table 8<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top<br />

ten species<br />

Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />

Indian oil sard<strong>in</strong>e 309.4<br />

Hilsa shad 256.0<br />

Croakers, drums nei 254.2<br />

Natantian decapods nei 240.0<br />

Cypr<strong>in</strong>ids nei 201.6<br />

Giant tiger prawn 170.9<br />

Skipjack tuna 161.3<br />

Bombay-duck 152.7<br />

Clupeoids nei 133.3<br />

Sea catfishes nei 109.3<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 1 080.2<br />

Freshwater fishes nei 1 197.9<br />

Among mar<strong>in</strong>e species, both pelagic fishes <strong>and</strong><br />

demersal fishes showed almost parallel <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

trends with similar levels <strong>of</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />

(1 195 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>and</strong> 1 043 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes, respectively). Freshwater fish <strong>and</strong><br />

diadromous fish have been the number one<br />

production group for the last four decades (except<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1992) <strong>and</strong> achieved very rapid growth <strong>in</strong> the<br />

1990s. Crustacean production has been relatively<br />

stable <strong>and</strong> production levels <strong>of</strong> molluscs <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

cephalopods <strong>in</strong> this area have been very low<br />

(Figure 8).<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong> – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

South <strong>Asia</strong>’s production almost tripled from<br />

1 230 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 3 423 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. The majority <strong>of</strong> production comes<br />

from <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters <strong>and</strong> hence the growth <strong>of</strong> the<br />

sector has been mostly due to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

freshwater culture (Figure 9).<br />

Although Indian carps (Rohu, Catla <strong>and</strong> Mrigal<br />

carp) have been the ma<strong>in</strong> group cultured <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region, there have been notable <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the<br />

production <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>troduced Ch<strong>in</strong>ese carps <strong>in</strong> recent<br />

years. Silver carp production has also <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

almost five-fold <strong>in</strong> two years (1999-2001) <strong>and</strong><br />

became the top cultured species <strong>in</strong> 2001 for the<br />

first time. S<strong>in</strong>ce then, the production has decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

by half. On the other h<strong>and</strong>, common carp<br />

production recorded very rapid <strong>in</strong>creases s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

2000 but shows a cont<strong>in</strong>uous <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend<br />

(Figure 10).<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustacean production, mostly comprised<br />

<strong>of</strong> Penaeid shrimp, has <strong>in</strong>creased steadily <strong>and</strong><br />

reached 178 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. In general,<br />

the level <strong>of</strong> diversification <strong>of</strong> cultured species is<br />

relatively low <strong>in</strong> this area <strong>and</strong> there has been very<br />

limited or no reported mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish production.<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

Production growth <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> has also been<br />

very strong for the past four decades with mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

capture production <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g l<strong>in</strong>early through this<br />

period to a level <strong>of</strong> 15 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (total<br />

capture production).<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> production appears to have levelled out <strong>and</strong><br />

reached 1.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Consider<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the rich freshwater resources <strong>in</strong> the area, it is<br />

thought that a figure <strong>of</strong> only 11 percent <strong>of</strong> total<br />

production 14 com<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters is probably<br />

an underestimate for this sub-region (Figure 11).<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> species groups are the pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

fish group <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei group. Both keep<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g strongly <strong>and</strong> are a major driv<strong>in</strong>g force <strong>of</strong><br />

the overall production growth (Figure 12).<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish, demersal fish,<br />

crustaceans <strong>and</strong> cephalopods showed similar<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends, ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g nearly the same<br />

share <strong>of</strong> production. The proportion <strong>of</strong> unidentified<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e fish (mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei) is still notably high<br />

(31 percent <strong>of</strong> total production) <strong>in</strong> this sub-region.<br />

Table 9<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production,<br />

top ten species<br />

Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />

Scads nei 598.2<br />

Indian mackerels nei 497.8<br />

Sard<strong>in</strong>ellas nei 408.3<br />

Skipjack tuna 356.4<br />

Natantian decapods nei 344.3<br />

Carangids nei 283.3<br />

Tuna-like fishes nei 271.7<br />

Stolephorus anchovies 259.9<br />

Frigate <strong>and</strong> bullet tunas 236.7<br />

Threadf<strong>in</strong> breams nei 234.1<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 4 625.9<br />

Freshwater fishes nei 1 066.0<br />

Eight <strong>of</strong> the top ten production species are mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

pelagic fishes <strong>and</strong> the top three ranks are<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>ated by the small pelagic fish group (scads,<br />

Indian mackerels, <strong>and</strong> sard<strong>in</strong>ellas) (Table 9). The<br />

large pelagic fish group (skipjack tuna, carangids,<br />

14<br />

see footnote 8.<br />

14


Figure 11<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />

<strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />

16 000<br />

12 000<br />

8 000<br />

4 000<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Figure 12<br />

Capture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

by major species groups<br />

6 000<br />

5 000<br />

4 000<br />

3 000<br />

2 000<br />

1 000<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />

Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Cephalopods<br />

Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 13<br />

Aquaculture production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups<br />

Production by quantity<br />

Production by value<br />

Freshwater fishes<br />

Aquatic<br />

plants 26.9%<br />

Molluscs<br />

10.5%<br />

Crustaceans<br />

16.7%<br />

Freshwater<br />

fishes<br />

36.7%<br />

Diadromous<br />

fishes<br />

8.6%<br />

Diadromous fishes<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Molluscs<br />

Aquatic plants<br />

Other<br />

Crustaceans<br />

47.1%<br />

Freshwater<br />

fishes<br />

40.7%<br />

Diadromous<br />

fishes<br />

7.9%<br />

Figure 14<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />

2 400<br />

1 800<br />

1 200<br />

Freshwater<br />

fishes<br />

Diadromous<br />

fishes<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />

Crustaceans<br />

600<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Molluscs<br />

Aquatic<br />

plants<br />

Others<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

15


tuna-like fishes, frigate <strong>and</strong> bullet tunas) also<br />

feature relatively high <strong>in</strong> the rank<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> is very<br />

diversified. In terms <strong>of</strong> value, highly priced<br />

crustaceans have an <strong>in</strong>creased share <strong>of</strong> 47 percent<br />

<strong>of</strong> the total production, followed by freshwater fish<br />

at 41 percent (Figure 13).<br />

Top ten cultured species <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

(by quantity, exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants) were Giant<br />

tiger prawn, Milkfish, White leg shrimp, Nile tilapia,<br />

Green mussel, Common carp, Blood cockle, Rohu,<br />

Catfish <strong>and</strong> Banana prawn.<br />

Freshwater f<strong>in</strong>fish culture has <strong>in</strong>creased from<br />

564 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 2 305 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, with an average annual <strong>in</strong>crement<br />

<strong>of</strong> 124 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes. In the mariculture<br />

sub-sector, aquatic plants have shown a surpris<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

strong production growth. Crustaceans have<br />

been a major cultured species throughout the<br />

sub-region, but growth is slow<strong>in</strong>g (Figure 14).<br />

Zanzibar weed (Eucheuma cottonii) is still the most<br />

widely cultured aquatic plant <strong>in</strong> the region with<br />

a production <strong>of</strong> 1 070 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

Apart from aquatic plants, Giant tiger shrimp<br />

(Penaeus monodon) is ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the position <strong>of</strong><br />

top produced species, although very recently the<br />

massive <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production <strong>of</strong> White leg shrimp<br />

(P. vannamei) is start<strong>in</strong>g to challenge this position.<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

Three periods that show dist<strong>in</strong>ct trends (Figure 15)<br />

can be seen <strong>in</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese statistics. The first<br />

period, 1950 to 1985, has relatively low rates <strong>of</strong><br />

growth, <strong>and</strong> all species groups exhibited very<br />

similar patterns, albeit with some annual<br />

fluctuations. In the second period, 1986 to 1998,<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a reported very rapid <strong>and</strong> substantial growth<br />

<strong>in</strong> production <strong>in</strong> almost all types <strong>of</strong> capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>. Between 1993 <strong>and</strong> 1997, annual<br />

<strong>in</strong>crements <strong>of</strong> total production always exceeded<br />

one million tonnes (the highest annual <strong>in</strong>crement<br />

was 1.7 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1995). Subsequent to this<br />

amaz<strong>in</strong>g period, the third period started with the<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> the zero growth policy <strong>in</strong> 1998; total<br />

production started to decl<strong>in</strong>e for the first time <strong>in</strong><br />

almost twenty years with the degree <strong>of</strong> decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

higher <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e production than <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

production.<br />

Most species groups showed similar rapid growth<br />

trends dur<strong>in</strong>g the second period. However, trends<br />

<strong>in</strong> the third period varied widely. The proportion<br />

<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish nei group decl<strong>in</strong>ed sharply, whilst the<br />

crustacean group cont<strong>in</strong>ued to grow. Dur<strong>in</strong>g this<br />

period, molluscs ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the same production<br />

level (Figure 16).<br />

Largehead hairtail <strong>and</strong> Japanese anchovy catches<br />

were extremely high <strong>in</strong> 2004 with both species<br />

exceed<strong>in</strong>g one million tonnes (Table 10). A second<br />

group <strong>in</strong>cludes a variety <strong>of</strong> species group such as<br />

small pelagic fish (scads <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel),<br />

large pelagic fish (Japanese Spanish mackerel),<br />

bentho-pelagic fish (silver pomfrets), demersal fish<br />

(golden threadf<strong>in</strong> bream), crustaceans (akiami paste<br />

shrimp <strong>and</strong> gazami crab) <strong>and</strong> cephalopods.<br />

Table 10<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />

species<br />

Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />

Largehead hairtail 1 411.6<br />

Japanese anchovy 1 103.4<br />

Akiami paste shrimp 673.5<br />

Scads nei 624.6<br />

Chub mackerel 511.7<br />

Natantian decapods nei 429.8<br />

Japanese Spanish mackerel 391.8<br />

Silver pomfrets nei 386.5<br />

Gazami crab 340.9<br />

Croakers, drums nei 334.8<br />

Notable differences <strong>in</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese production<br />

figures compared with other sub-regions <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Remarkably high proportion <strong>of</strong> crustaceans <strong>in</strong><br />

(15.3 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004) compared to those <strong>of</strong><br />

other sub-regions. Proportions <strong>of</strong> crustaceans<br />

<strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, South <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong><br />

were 5.8 percent, 9.4 percent <strong>and</strong> 3.8 percent<br />

respectively.<br />

Although dim<strong>in</strong>ish<strong>in</strong>g, a large quantity <strong>of</strong><br />

production is reported as unidentified large<br />

group<strong>in</strong>gs that far exceed that <strong>of</strong> the other<br />

sub-regions. Total quantity reported under<br />

these groups was 5.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />

represent<strong>in</strong>g 30.0 percent <strong>of</strong> the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese total<br />

capture production (Table 11).<br />

A much smaller amount <strong>of</strong> small pelagic fish<br />

<strong>in</strong> the catch compared with other sub-regions,<br />

especially South <strong>Asia</strong>.<br />

16


Figure 15<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

by environment<br />

20 000<br />

15 000<br />

10 000<br />

5 000<br />

Figure 16<br />

Capture production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

by major species groups<br />

5 000<br />

4 000<br />

3 000<br />

2 000<br />

1 000<br />

0<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Cephalopods<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 17<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a by environment<br />

20 000<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

24 000<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />

15 000<br />

18 000<br />

10 000<br />

12 000<br />

5 000<br />

Freshwater<br />

fishes<br />

6 000<br />

Molluscs<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Aquatic plant<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Aquatic plants Molluscs Crustaceans Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes Diadromous fishes Freshwater fishes<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 18<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> top eight cultured species<br />

<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a (aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> molluscs)<br />

Figure 19<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> major cultured carnivorous<br />

species production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

4 500<br />

4 000<br />

3 500<br />

3 000<br />

2 500<br />

2 000<br />

1 500<br />

1 000<br />

500<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Japanese kelp<br />

Grass carp<br />

Wakame<br />

Japanese carpet shell<br />

Pacific cupped oyster<br />

Silver carp<br />

Aquatic plants nei<br />

Common carp<br />

600<br />

500<br />

400<br />

300<br />

200<br />

100<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Snakehead<br />

Japanese eel<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei<br />

Fleshy prawn<br />

Giant river prawn<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab<br />

M<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong> fish<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs nei<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

17


Table 11<br />

Unidentified capture production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

(1 000 tonnes)<br />

●<br />

Species group 2002 2004<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 3 596 2 605<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei 1 377 849<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustaceans nei 1 215 0<br />

Freshwater fishes nei 924 1 724<br />

Freshwater molluscs nei 773 343<br />

Freshwater crustaceans nei 551 0<br />

Total <strong>of</strong> “nei” groups 8 435 5 523<br />

Total capture production 17 767 17 970<br />

% contribution <strong>of</strong> “nei” groups 47% 30%<br />

Consistently high catch <strong>of</strong> some major species<br />

such as the largehead hairtail that hasn’t<br />

shown any signs <strong>of</strong> decreas<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Detailed statistics for the Xianshan County <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Zhejiang Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR have been made<br />

available through sample surveys carried out <strong>in</strong><br />

2002/03. The total catch, based on the survey<br />

data, was 324 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes from June 2002 to<br />

May 2003, <strong>of</strong> which 78 percent came from pair<br />

trawl<strong>in</strong>g, 8 percent from shrimp beam trawl<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

7 percent from drift gill nets, 6 percent from otter<br />

trawl<strong>in</strong>g, 1 percent from crab-cage fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

0.35 percent from purse se<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g.<br />

A comparison with <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics for the county<br />

showed that for some gears, such as pair trawls<br />

<strong>and</strong> otter trawls, the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics were overestimated<br />

by about 20 percent but for other gears<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g beam trawls, crab-cage fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> purse<br />

se<strong>in</strong>e, the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics were under-reported.<br />

The total sample survey estimate for 6 gears was<br />

92 percent <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>of</strong>ficial figures for all gears<br />

the county.<br />

Break down by gear <strong>and</strong> species showed the<br />

extremely large catch taken by pair trawlers <strong>in</strong> this<br />

area <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (250 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes from June<br />

2002 to May 2003). Otter trawls, shrimp beam<br />

trawls <strong>and</strong> drift gillnets also all recorded catches<br />

<strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> 20 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes for the same<br />

sample period. The dom<strong>in</strong>ance <strong>of</strong> some species<br />

such as largehead hairtail <strong>and</strong> butterfish from pair<br />

trawls is also very marked, (96 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />

<strong>and</strong> 27.5 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes, respectively). Pair<br />

trawlers also caught large quantities <strong>of</strong> juvenile<br />

Spanish mackerel, <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel, with a very<br />

large number <strong>of</strong> other species mak<strong>in</strong>g up the rest<br />

<strong>of</strong> the catch.<br />

Large yellow croaker fetched the highest market<br />

price, but because largehead hairtail was caught<br />

<strong>in</strong> such large quantities <strong>and</strong> fetched a reasonable<br />

price, this was the most valuable species<br />

(33 percent <strong>of</strong> the total value <strong>of</strong> the fishery).<br />

The study also identified that about 27 percent <strong>of</strong><br />

the catch was reported as unsorted fish by the<br />

skipper <strong>of</strong> the vessel (low value/trash species).<br />

About 16 percent <strong>of</strong> this was for human<br />

consumption <strong>and</strong> 11 percent for <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

feed. Both categories conta<strong>in</strong>ed, on average,<br />

about twenty species, but the species composition<br />

differed between different vessels <strong>and</strong> different<br />

trips. Otter trawls were found to be target<strong>in</strong>g<br />

unsorted species dur<strong>in</strong>g the spr<strong>in</strong>g period.<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

As reported above, Ch<strong>in</strong>a’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> production<br />

has now reached 41.7 million tonnes or 70 percent<br />

<strong>of</strong> the world <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />

(<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants). Growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> culture<br />

has cont<strong>in</strong>ued, ma<strong>in</strong>ly from <strong>in</strong>creased production<br />

<strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish culture, which is be<strong>in</strong>g achieved through<br />

the <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g systems rather than<br />

any significant <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> production area. Growth<br />

<strong>in</strong> production from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters has been driven<br />

by molluscs <strong>and</strong> aquatic plants (Figure 17).<br />

The production <strong>of</strong> most cultured species cont<strong>in</strong>ued<br />

to <strong>in</strong>crease. However, there are a number <strong>of</strong><br />

species worth highlight<strong>in</strong>g, as follows:<br />

Japanese kelp (Lam<strong>in</strong>aria japonica): its production<br />

growth is remarkable; <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g from 1 222<br />

thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 4 208 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2002 with a m<strong>in</strong>or decl<strong>in</strong>e to 4 006 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

Miscellaneous aquatic plants: this massive<br />

volume <strong>of</strong> aquatic plants is not reported at the<br />

species level. However, production jumped from<br />

196 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 to 3 931 thous<strong>and</strong><br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has improved the<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g at species level s<strong>in</strong>ce 2003 <strong>and</strong> the<br />

figure has decreased to 2 538 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004. As a result <strong>of</strong> the improved report<strong>in</strong>g<br />

by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Wakame (Undaria p<strong>in</strong>natifida) has<br />

become the second largest cultured plant with<br />

a total <strong>of</strong> 2 196 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

Pacific cupped oyster: this is another cultured<br />

species that has made outst<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g growth;<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g from 503 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1990 up<br />

to 3 751 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Mollusc<br />

production is also difficult to <strong>in</strong>tensify <strong>and</strong><br />

18


<strong>in</strong>creased production suggests developments <strong>of</strong><br />

new production areas as <strong>in</strong> the case <strong>of</strong> aquatic<br />

plants (Figure 18).<br />

Carnivorous species: Rapid growth <strong>in</strong> production<br />

<strong>of</strong> high value carnivorous species such as m<strong>and</strong>ar<strong>in</strong><br />

fish, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish started<br />

to occur s<strong>in</strong>ce 1995. Many <strong>of</strong> the carnivorous<br />

species show very similar patterns <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>in</strong><br />

production (Figure 19).<br />

Other <strong>Asia</strong> – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

Total production <strong>in</strong>creased towards its peak<br />

production <strong>of</strong> 14.9 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1986, <strong>and</strong><br />

thereafter decreased steadily (Figure 20).<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g the late 1960s to early 1970s, demersal fish<br />

became the most important production group with<br />

a very rapid growth rate, achiev<strong>in</strong>g a three-fold<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> fifteen years (Figure 21). It started to<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>e, however, after the peak production <strong>of</strong> five<br />

million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1974, gradually at first, but with<br />

a sharp decl<strong>in</strong>e after 1976. The current level <strong>of</strong><br />

demersal fish production is now as low as <strong>in</strong> the<br />

early 1950s. This reduction was compensated for<br />

by <strong>in</strong>creased production <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e pelagic fish until<br />

1988, but then a similar decl<strong>in</strong>e to that <strong>of</strong> demersal<br />

fish production occurred. Current production levels<br />

have dropped to 3 million tonnes, similar to those<br />

<strong>of</strong> the early 1970s.<br />

In terms <strong>of</strong> major production species, pelagic<br />

species predom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> this area. It is also notable<br />

that there is high production <strong>of</strong> cephalopods<br />

(Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g squid) <strong>and</strong> molluscs (Yesso<br />

scallop) (Table 12).<br />

Table 12<br />

Other <strong>Asia</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />

species<br />

Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />

Japanese anchovy 692.4<br />

Chub mackerel 523.7<br />

Skipjack tuna 489.0<br />

Japanese fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 447.4<br />

Alaska pollock 319.4<br />

Yesso scallop 313.8<br />

Japanese jack mackerel 279.8<br />

Chum salmon 261.6<br />

Pacific saury 230.0<br />

Okhotsk atka mackerel 179.3<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 428.6<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e crustaceans nei 63.6<br />

Aquatic plants cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be a predom<strong>in</strong>ant part<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>, particularly <strong>in</strong> East<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>n States. They account for 52 percent <strong>of</strong><br />

total production. This is followed by molluscs<br />

(29 percent) <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish (11 percent).<br />

However, the high economic value <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

f<strong>in</strong>fish makes this species group the largest<br />

contributor <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> value, constitut<strong>in</strong>g<br />

42 percent <strong>of</strong> total production value (Figure 22).<br />

Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> this region has been very<br />

stable; most <strong>of</strong> the major species groups have<br />

been ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed at the current level <strong>of</strong> production<br />

for the last ten years. The only exception to this<br />

is aquatic plant production, which peaked <strong>in</strong> 1993<br />

at 2.3 million tonnes <strong>and</strong> then decreased by almost<br />

35 percent to 1.5 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (Figure 23).<br />

It is notable that the percentage <strong>of</strong> carnivorous fish<br />

to total fish production is very high <strong>in</strong> this<br />

sub-region (82 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004) compared with<br />

South <strong>Asia</strong>, Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a, which all<br />

have levels below 10 percent.<br />

Oceania – capture <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

Oceania’s capture production also consists ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

<strong>of</strong> fish taken from mar<strong>in</strong>e waters, but unlike other<br />

<strong>Asia</strong> it has cont<strong>in</strong>ued to <strong>in</strong>crease (Figure 24).<br />

Capture <strong>fisheries</strong> are <strong>of</strong>ten subsistence <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> many small isl<strong>and</strong> States <strong>and</strong> production may<br />

not be well represented <strong>in</strong> the <strong>of</strong>ficial statistics.<br />

General trends <strong>in</strong> production are basically<br />

determ<strong>in</strong>ed by a few larger States such as Australia<br />

<strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> with well established commercial<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> sectors, with the exception <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fshore<br />

pelagic <strong>fisheries</strong>. Rapid growth <strong>of</strong> pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

fish production from the late 1990’s has ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

come from Skipjack tuna <strong>in</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />

(Figure 25). Commercial <strong>of</strong>fshore production has<br />

also <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> many small isl<strong>and</strong> States <strong>and</strong><br />

contributed to the <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> total production.<br />

Many <strong>of</strong> the top ten species produced from capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> Oceania (Table 13) are ma<strong>in</strong>ly from the<br />

temperate waters <strong>of</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia.<br />

Oceania – <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

Aquaculture production from the small isl<strong>and</strong><br />

States is relatively limited. The aggregated<br />

production <strong>of</strong> all isl<strong>and</strong> States was 19 585 tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2002 (less than one percent <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region) <strong>and</strong> seems<br />

to have decl<strong>in</strong>ed even further to 7 723 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />

2004.<br />

19


Figure 20<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production<br />

<strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by environment<br />

15 000<br />

Figure 21<br />

Capture production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong><br />

by major species groups<br />

8 000<br />

10 000<br />

6 000<br />

4 000<br />

5 000<br />

2 000<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />

Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Cephalopods<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods)<br />

Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 22<br />

Aquaculture production <strong>in</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong>: proportion <strong>of</strong> major species groups<br />

Quantity<br />

11.2%<br />

29.0%<br />

52.2%<br />

Freshwater fishes<br />

Diadromous fishes<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Molluscs<br />

Value<br />

11.0% 41.7%<br />

16.2%<br />

24.9%<br />

Aquatic plants<br />

Others<br />

Figure 23<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> other <strong>Asia</strong> by major species groups<br />

2 500<br />

2 000<br />

1 500<br />

1 000<br />

500<br />

Freshwater<br />

fishes<br />

Diadromous<br />

fishes<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

fishes<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Molluscs<br />

Aquatic<br />

plants<br />

0<br />

1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004<br />

Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

20


Figure 24<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by environment<br />

1 500<br />

1 000<br />

500<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />

Total production Inl<strong>and</strong> Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

Figure 25<br />

Capture production <strong>of</strong> Oceania by major species groups<br />

600<br />

400<br />

200<br />

0<br />

1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 200<br />

Freshwater/diadromous fish<br />

Demersal mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Pelagic mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Misc. mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

Crustaceans<br />

Cephalopods<br />

Molluscs (excl. cephalopods) Misc. aquatic animals<br />

* Exclud<strong>in</strong>g aquatic plants Unit: 1 000 tonnes<br />

21


Table 13<br />

Oceania capture <strong>fisheries</strong> production, top ten<br />

species<br />

Species Tonnes (1 000)<br />

Skipjack tuna 333.2<br />

Blue grenadier 143.3<br />

Well<strong>in</strong>gton fly<strong>in</strong>g squid 84.4<br />

Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna 62.3<br />

Jack <strong>and</strong> horse mackerels 43.2<br />

Clupeoids nei 37.0<br />

Antarctic krill 29.5<br />

Albacore 28.2<br />

Snoek 22.6<br />

Southern blue whit<strong>in</strong>g 21.6<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei 76.1<br />

Seaweed, clams, penaeid shrimp, tilapia <strong>and</strong><br />

milkfish are the ma<strong>in</strong> cultured groups. In terms <strong>of</strong><br />

value, two commodities from three States dom<strong>in</strong>ate<br />

the value <strong>of</strong> commercial <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong><br />

region. They are cultured black pearl from French<br />

Polynesia <strong>and</strong> the Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> shrimp from<br />

New Caledonia.<br />

Live reef fish, aquarium fish <strong>and</strong> pearls br<strong>in</strong>g<br />

significant <strong>in</strong>come to some Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s,<br />

although relatively low <strong>in</strong> quantity. Although the<br />

target species are mostly caught from the wild,<br />

there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g desire for culture-based<br />

sources. Giant clam culture for the ornamental<br />

trade is widespread throughout the region <strong>and</strong><br />

the total export is probably <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>of</strong><br />

30 000-50 000 pieces/annum. The Pacific is also<br />

a major supplier <strong>of</strong> “live rock” (rock encrusted with<br />

corall<strong>in</strong>e algae) with approximately 50 000 pieces<br />

<strong>of</strong> live rock currently be<strong>in</strong>g cultured <strong>in</strong> the Fiji.<br />

Eucheuma cottonii seaweed (Zanzibar weed)<br />

culture is well established <strong>in</strong> the Kiribati atolls <strong>and</strong><br />

is be<strong>in</strong>g rejuvenated <strong>in</strong> the Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />

Fiji.<br />

Interest <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> freshwater <strong>aquaculture</strong> is grow<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

particularly amongst the larger Melanesian States<br />

such as Fiji <strong>and</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea. At present<br />

the most commonly farmed species are tilapia,<br />

common carp <strong>and</strong> Macrobrachium prawns.<br />

New Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia have shown a steady<br />

growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production through<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased production <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish species. Major<br />

cultured species <strong>of</strong> these States were mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

molluscs, salmonids <strong>and</strong> tunas.<br />

22


3. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> resources<br />

The general consensus is that most <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region, especially <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>, are<br />

show<strong>in</strong>g signs <strong>of</strong> overexploitation <strong>and</strong> severe degradation. This is particularly evident <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>shore coastal<br />

areas where (i) stock assessments <strong>of</strong> major species, (ii) historic research surveys, (iii) analyses <strong>of</strong> ecosystem<br />

changes <strong>and</strong> (iv) perceptions <strong>of</strong> fishers all show the same trends. The evidence is so overwhelm<strong>in</strong>g that<br />

any call to delay management action until more scientific assessments are available must be seen as<br />

irresponsible.<br />

In <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> waters, most <strong>fisheries</strong> are small-scale activities where the catch per capita is relatively small <strong>and</strong><br />

used ma<strong>in</strong>ly for subsistence purposes. The lack <strong>of</strong> accurate report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> makes<br />

it difficult to describe their status, but it is generally felt that they are under considerable pressure from<br />

loss <strong>and</strong> degradation <strong>of</strong> habitat as well as overfish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e waters<br />

3.1 Assess<strong>in</strong>g the status <strong>of</strong> fishery<br />

resources<br />

In many <strong>of</strong> the seas <strong>of</strong> the APFIC region, traditional<br />

methods <strong>of</strong> assess<strong>in</strong>g the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

resources, us<strong>in</strong>g scientific stock assessments,<br />

sett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> reference po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />

performance aga<strong>in</strong>st these reference po<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />

is not really practical. This is due, firstly, to<br />

the complexity <strong>of</strong> the tropical systems that<br />

predom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> the region – the multi-species/<br />

multi-gear nature <strong>of</strong> the <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong>, secondly,<br />

the lack <strong>of</strong> capacity to carry out the necessary<br />

assessments <strong>and</strong>/or monitor<strong>in</strong>g, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

areas where fish are l<strong>and</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> multiple small<br />

l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g sites or along the beaches.<br />

Report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> total production also <strong>of</strong>ten masks<br />

what is actually happen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the fishery, <strong>and</strong><br />

should not be used as an <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> resource<br />

status.<br />

In this analysis we look at the evidence on the<br />

status <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e resources based on four methods:<br />

• stock assessment <strong>of</strong> major species;<br />

• historic research surveys;<br />

• ecosystem changes; <strong>and</strong><br />

• perception <strong>of</strong> fishers.<br />

3.2 Evidence from stock assessments<br />

Regular stock assessments are conducted <strong>in</strong> some<br />

<strong>of</strong> the more developed countries <strong>of</strong> the region<br />

(Table 14). However, even <strong>in</strong> these countries the<br />

number <strong>of</strong> species regularly assessed is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />

relatively low. In the case <strong>of</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> Malaysia<br />

these assessments are used <strong>in</strong> day-to-day <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management, but <strong>in</strong> the other countries the<br />

scientific results are only partially <strong>in</strong>tegrated <strong>in</strong>to<br />

management decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g. In cases where<br />

it is possible to assess the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

stocks, current catch levels <strong>of</strong>ten exceed Maximum<br />

Susta<strong>in</strong>able Yield (MSY) estimates <strong>and</strong> many <strong>of</strong><br />

these stocks are designated as over-fished.<br />

In many other countries, s<strong>in</strong>gle species stock<br />

assessments are not conducted regularly but<br />

a common practice is to conduct “multi-species”<br />

assessments from time to time us<strong>in</strong>g aggregated<br />

catch <strong>and</strong> effort data <strong>in</strong> simple production <strong>and</strong><br />

similar models. The reliability <strong>of</strong> these types <strong>of</strong><br />

assessments is known to be very low <strong>and</strong> the<br />

degree <strong>of</strong> uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty very high (the basic<br />

assumption that the catch per unit effort (CPUE) is<br />

a good <strong>in</strong>dicator <strong>of</strong> fish relative abundance is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />

not met). The results are not <strong>in</strong> a form that can be<br />

used regularly <strong>in</strong> management but are <strong>of</strong>ten used<br />

to set targets for future fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>and</strong> total<br />

yields. In many cases, the uncerta<strong>in</strong>ty <strong>of</strong> these<br />

assessments has not been taken <strong>in</strong>to account <strong>and</strong><br />

the predictions have proved to be too optimistic,<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten accelerat<strong>in</strong>g the decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the resources.<br />

3.3 Evidence from historic trawl surveys<br />

Biomass analyses<br />

The results <strong>of</strong> the WorldFish Center (WorldFish)<br />

study on scientific trawl surveys (Trawlbase) 1 was<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> the previous APFIC “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> the Pacific”. These analyses were available<br />

on the status <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> from eight APFIC<br />

States (Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia,<br />

1<br />

Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed,<br />

M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z., Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen,<br />

V., Pauly, D. & Munro (eds.) (2003). Assessment, management<br />

<strong>and</strong> future directions for coastal <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n States.<br />

WorldFish Center Conference Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />

23


Table 14<br />

Summary <strong>of</strong> stock assessments <strong>in</strong> selected APFIC countries<br />

Country<br />

Regular<br />

stock<br />

assessment<br />

Number <strong>of</strong><br />

species<br />

Resource surveys Reference po<strong>in</strong>ts Used <strong>in</strong> management<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Yes 8 Yes* MSY, MCY etc. Yes (Selected species)<br />

India Yes ~50 Yes MSY Yes (partial)<br />

Indonesia No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY Yes (partial)<br />

Japan Yes Ma<strong>in</strong> species** Yes MSY, MEY etc. Yes<br />

Korea RO Yes 9 Yes (Yellow Sea) MSY, MEY etc. Yes (partial)<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es No Multi-species** Yes Generic MSY No<br />

Malaysia Yes Ma<strong>in</strong> species** Yes MSY, MEY etc. Yes<br />

Myanmar No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY No<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> No Multi-species** Yes Generic MSY No<br />

Viet Nam No Multi-species** Yes* Generic MSY No<br />

* Resources surveys not regular.<br />

** “Multi-species” assessments based on aggregated catch <strong>and</strong> effort data.<br />

Figure 26<br />

Trawl surveys <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region<br />

From Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z.<br />

<strong>and</strong> Zhou, W. (2003). South <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n coastal <strong>fisheries</strong>: Their status <strong>and</strong><br />

directions for improved management. Conference Synopsis <strong>and</strong> recommendations,<br />

p. 1-40 <strong>in</strong> Silvestre, G.T., Garces, L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna,<br />

C.Z., Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen, V., Pauly, D. <strong>and</strong> Munro (eds.) Assessment,<br />

Management <strong>and</strong> Future Directions for Coastal Fisheries <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n Countries. WorldFish<br />

Center Conference Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />

24


the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Sri Lanka, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam),<br />

based on trawl survey data spann<strong>in</strong>g the period<br />

1920 to the present. The surveys covered a wide<br />

area <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region (Figure 26).<br />

Unfortunately, fund<strong>in</strong>g for this project has f<strong>in</strong>ished<br />

<strong>and</strong> there is no update on earlier f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs. There<br />

are also other very comprehensive survey data<br />

available for other areas, especially those carried<br />

out by the Fishery Survey if India (FSI) that started<br />

<strong>in</strong> 1946 <strong>and</strong> currently deploys more than 12 vessels<br />

along the Indian coast <strong>and</strong> the Andaman <strong>and</strong><br />

Nicobah Isl<strong>and</strong>s that could be <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> future<br />

analyses.<br />

However, despite the fact that the work is not<br />

on-go<strong>in</strong>g, we consider these WorldFish analyses<br />

based on scientific surveys the most conv<strong>in</strong>c<strong>in</strong>g<br />

evidence that is available on the status <strong>of</strong> resources<br />

<strong>in</strong> trawled areas <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region <strong>and</strong> worth<br />

reiterat<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

The analyses <strong>of</strong> the trawl surveys showed<br />

considerable degradation <strong>and</strong> overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

coastal stocks. In surveys that were carried out<br />

for periods greater than 25 years, the amount <strong>of</strong><br />

fish (measured as tonnes/km 2 ) had decl<strong>in</strong>ed to<br />

between 6 <strong>and</strong> 33 percent <strong>of</strong> the orig<strong>in</strong>al earlier<br />

value. The amount <strong>of</strong> fish available to today’s<br />

fishers had decl<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> all countries, some as much<br />

as 40 percent <strong>in</strong> five years. The most dramatic<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>es were <strong>in</strong> the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the East<br />

Coast <strong>of</strong> Malaysia. Two examples, one for the Gulf<br />

<strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> one for Manila Bay are given <strong>in</strong><br />

Figure 27.<br />

The Trawlbase study also enabled an estimation<br />

<strong>of</strong> the exploitation rate for 427 stocks <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

With the exception <strong>of</strong> the coast <strong>of</strong> Brunei<br />

Darussalam, where fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure is less <strong>in</strong>tense,<br />

the majority <strong>of</strong> stocks were be<strong>in</strong>g fished at levels<br />

above the recommended optimum range.<br />

The surveys also demonstrated that the abundance<br />

<strong>of</strong> larger, more valuable species (e.g. groupers,<br />

snappers, sharks <strong>and</strong> rays) higher up <strong>in</strong> the food<br />

cha<strong>in</strong> have decl<strong>in</strong>ed, while smaller species lower<br />

<strong>in</strong> the food cha<strong>in</strong> (e.g. triggerfish, card<strong>in</strong>al fish <strong>and</strong><br />

squids/octopus) have <strong>in</strong>creased to relative<br />

abundance. In the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> trawl survey<br />

catch <strong>in</strong> the 1960s, the top ten species (or species<br />

groups) were made up <strong>of</strong> rays, bream, goatfish with<br />

some squid, lizard fish <strong>and</strong> snapper (Figure 28).<br />

By contrast, <strong>in</strong> the mid-1990s less desirable pony<br />

fish, squid, barracuda, <strong>and</strong> lizard fish had become<br />

much more prevalent. This “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />

cha<strong>in</strong>” appeared to be a common phenomenon <strong>in</strong><br />

many <strong>of</strong> the trawl survey data.<br />

Socio-economic assessments<br />

WorldFish also carried out some <strong>in</strong>-depth socioeconomic<br />

assessments <strong>of</strong> the eight participat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

States. This allowed an assessment <strong>of</strong> the<br />

importance <strong>of</strong> coastal <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> earn<strong>in</strong>gs,<br />

employment, trade <strong>and</strong> nutrition <strong>and</strong> their<br />

contribution to the economy. The pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong><br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g operations <strong>in</strong> Malaysia, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

Viet Nam was studied, <strong>and</strong> broken down <strong>in</strong>to<br />

several sub-sectors.<br />

In general, fish<strong>in</strong>g is still a pr<strong>of</strong>itable enterprise <strong>in</strong><br />

all <strong>of</strong> these three States, particularly for the owners<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels. Owners <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

craft <strong>and</strong> gear earn large pr<strong>of</strong>its (up to 30 percent<br />

per year) while artisanal, small-scale fishers <strong>of</strong>ten<br />

have an extremely marg<strong>in</strong>al livelihood, although<br />

benefits are not evenly distributed. Unfortunately,<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>its from <strong>in</strong>dustrial fish<strong>in</strong>g do not flow <strong>in</strong>to the<br />

rural communities as it employs few crew <strong>and</strong><br />

provides little opportunity for unemployed or<br />

under-employed small-scale fishers.<br />

The loss <strong>in</strong> revenue <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its associated with<br />

overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> degraded resources were<br />

demonstrated us<strong>in</strong>g the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> as an<br />

example (Table 15). Based on 1995-96 data, large<br />

rent dissipation <strong>and</strong> excess capacity (<strong>in</strong> both labour<br />

<strong>and</strong> capital) can be clearly seen. Similar analyses<br />

have been done for the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>and</strong> other<br />

areas <strong>in</strong> the past. More <strong>of</strong> these sorts <strong>of</strong> analyses<br />

should be carried out to guide future policy<br />

decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

3.4 Evidence from Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Ecosystems (LMEs)<br />

APFIC’s Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e Ecosystems<br />

To date, 63 LMEs have been described worldwide<br />

with twenty <strong>of</strong> these be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region.<br />

Much <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>formation used below has<br />

been taken from the NOAA website, which<br />

acknowledges sources <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation <strong>and</strong> has an<br />

extensive reference list, 2 as well as an analysis <strong>of</strong><br />

the <strong>FAO</strong> catch database as modified by the<br />

University <strong>of</strong> British Columbia 3 (“Sea around us”<br />

project).<br />

The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is characterized by<br />

considerable diversity <strong>in</strong> LMEs <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> their<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> driv<strong>in</strong>g forces (Table 16). The table<br />

2<br />

Large Ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the World:<br />

http://www.edc.uri.edu/lme/<br />

3 UBC large Mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems:<br />

http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />

25


Figure 27<br />

Decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> the abundance <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> (i) Manila Bay <strong>and</strong> (ii) Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> as measured by trawl<br />

surveys. From same source as Figure 26<br />

1.4<br />

BIOMASS DECLINE IN MANILA BAY<br />

1.4<br />

BIOMASS DECLINE IN THE GULF OF THAILAND<br />

1.2<br />

1.2<br />

BIOMASS ( x 10 t)<br />

6<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

0.4<br />

0.4<br />

0.2<br />

0.2<br />

0<br />

0<br />

1947 1952 1957 1962 1967 1972 1977 1982 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985<br />

YEAR<br />

YEAR<br />

BIOMASS ( x 10 t)<br />

6<br />

1.0<br />

0.8<br />

0.6<br />

Figure 28<br />

Changes <strong>in</strong> the composition <strong>of</strong> the top ten species taken from trawl survey catches <strong>in</strong> the Gulf<br />

<strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> between 1966 <strong>and</strong> 1995. Data from same source as Figure 26<br />

1966 1995<br />

Rays<br />

Splendid Pony<br />

fish<br />

Tachsuridae<br />

Indian squid<br />

Threadf<strong>in</strong><br />

bream<br />

Lizard fish<br />

Bream<br />

Indian squid<br />

Bream spp.<br />

Goatfish<br />

Pugnose pony<br />

fish<br />

Barracuda<br />

Rays Threadf<strong>in</strong> bream Goatfish<br />

Bream spp. Indian squid Tachsuridae<br />

Bigeye Lizard fish Snapper<br />

Scad<br />

Splendid Pony fish<br />

Barracuda<br />

Bream<br />

Goat fish<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese squid<br />

Indian squid<br />

Pugnose pony fish<br />

Lizard fish<br />

Rabbit fish<br />

Orange f<strong>in</strong> pony fish<br />

Table 15<br />

Comparison <strong>of</strong> catch, revenues, costs <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>its at different levels <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort (MSY = maximum<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able yield; MEY = maximum economic yield). From same source as Figure 26<br />

State <strong>of</strong> Effort Catch Revenue Costs Pr<strong>of</strong>it<br />

fishery (Std. hr x 10 6 ) (Tonnes x 10 3 ) (Baht x 10 6 ) (Baht x 10 6 ) (Baht x 10 6 )<br />

MSY 28.57 985 6 578 1 992 4 586<br />

MEY 21.75 952 6 359 1 517 4 842<br />

Open access 62.70 654 4 372 4 372 0<br />

Actual (1995) 56.88 728 4 862 3 966 896<br />

26


has excluded four LMEs from Australia as well as<br />

the large Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific. The four<br />

Australian LMEs were excluded as their catches<br />

were very small <strong>and</strong> not important to the analysis.<br />

In the case <strong>of</strong> Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific, this<br />

area was not <strong>in</strong>cluded as an LME on the “Sea<br />

around us” website.<br />

In terms <strong>of</strong> the total recorded catch s<strong>in</strong>ce 1950, the<br />

most productive LMEs are the East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea,<br />

the Kuroshio Current <strong>and</strong> the South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea.<br />

Follow<strong>in</strong>g closely beh<strong>in</strong>d are the Yellow Sea, the<br />

Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan, the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>and</strong> the NW<br />

Pacific high seas area.<br />

The Indonesian Sea, the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the<br />

Sulu-Celebes Seas are clustered <strong>in</strong> another group,<br />

followed by the much smaller catches <strong>in</strong> New<br />

Zeal<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Australia LMEs.<br />

All LMEs have a mixture <strong>of</strong> pelagic <strong>and</strong> demersal<br />

species, although pelagics dom<strong>in</strong>ate <strong>in</strong> most<br />

LMEs, especially <strong>in</strong> the Kuroshio Current, Sea<br />

<strong>of</strong> Japan, Yellow Sea, East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, South<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, Arabian Sea, Sulu-Celebes Sea, <strong>and</strong><br />

Indonesian Sea.<br />

In the Kuroshio Current, Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan, Yellow Sea,<br />

East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea <strong>and</strong> South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea, the major<br />

species are the Japanese pilchard (Sard<strong>in</strong>ops<br />

sagax – melanostictus), chub mackerel (Scomber<br />

japonicus) <strong>and</strong> the largehead hairtail (Triciurus<br />

lepturus).<br />

In the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal, Arabian Gulf, Sulu-Celebes<br />

Seas, Indonesian Sea <strong>and</strong> NW Australia, anchovies<br />

(Stolephorus spp. <strong>and</strong> Engraulidae) form a large<br />

part <strong>of</strong> the catch with other small pelagic species<br />

such as the sard<strong>in</strong>e (Sard<strong>in</strong>ella spp.) common <strong>in</strong><br />

some areas. Pacific saury (Colobis saira) has<br />

formed a large part <strong>of</strong> the catch <strong>in</strong> the high seas<br />

<strong>of</strong> the NW Pacific.<br />

Exceptions to this pattern are the heavily trawled<br />

areas <strong>of</strong> the Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Northern Australia<br />

where more demersals, threadf<strong>in</strong> breams <strong>and</strong><br />

shrimps, respectively, are taken, although even <strong>in</strong><br />

these areas catches <strong>of</strong> anchovies are almost as<br />

high as the demersal catches.<br />

In terms <strong>of</strong> total catch, bottom trawl<strong>in</strong>g takes the<br />

largest proportion <strong>of</strong> the catch <strong>in</strong> 12 out <strong>of</strong> the 15<br />

LMEs <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong> Table 16. This <strong>in</strong>cludes pair<br />

trawl<strong>in</strong>g that, <strong>in</strong> many areas <strong>of</strong> the region, operates<br />

high-lift nets that catch significant quantities <strong>of</strong><br />

bentho-pelagic species, such as the largehead<br />

hairtail <strong>and</strong> pelagic species such as Japanese<br />

anchovy. As expected from the nature <strong>of</strong> these<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>, catches from mid-water trawls <strong>and</strong> purse<br />

se<strong>in</strong>es are also large, especially <strong>in</strong> the more pelagic<br />

LMEs.<br />

These statistics, however, tend to mask the<br />

importance <strong>of</strong> the small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> to these<br />

LMEs, <strong>and</strong> although no firm data are available<br />

they are known to constitute a large proportion <strong>of</strong><br />

the catch from many areas.<br />

Many LMEs are shared by several countries. For<br />

example, the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal is bordered by<br />

eight countries that all contribute to its catch.<br />

Table 16 shows the distribution <strong>of</strong> catch by<br />

countries as estimated by reported l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs<br />

<strong>and</strong> distributed on the basis <strong>of</strong> known access<br />

agreements <strong>in</strong> other country’s EEZ. There are<br />

some obvious discrepancies <strong>in</strong> this analysis (e.g.<br />

high catch by Indonesia <strong>in</strong> Southeast Australia), but<br />

it does demonstrate the multi-national nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />

sector <strong>and</strong> the many shared fish stocks that are<br />

taken by several countries <strong>in</strong> each LME.<br />

Catch trends <strong>in</strong> selected Large Mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

Ecosystems<br />

Based on their overall trends <strong>in</strong> catches, the LMEs<br />

<strong>of</strong> the APFIC region were categorized <strong>in</strong>to four<br />

major groups <strong>in</strong> the 2004 “<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific”:<br />

i. Offshore deepwater systems dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />

pelagic fishes (e.g. Kuroshio Current <strong>and</strong> NW<br />

Pacific);<br />

ii. Heavily fished coastal systems that display<br />

sequential depletion <strong>of</strong> species groups<br />

characteristic <strong>of</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>”<br />

(e.g. Yellow Sea, Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> NW<br />

Australia);<br />

iii.<br />

iv.<br />

Coastal systems that are still show<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g reported catches <strong>in</strong> all species<br />

groups (e.g. Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal <strong>and</strong> South Ch<strong>in</strong>a<br />

Sea); <strong>and</strong><br />

Fisheries managed under tight access right<br />

controls (e.g. Southeast Australia <strong>and</strong> New<br />

Zeal<strong>and</strong> Shelf).<br />

One example <strong>of</strong> each <strong>of</strong> these categories is<br />

analysed <strong>in</strong> some detail below.<br />

i) Offshore deepwater pelagic systems<br />

Kuroshio Current<br />

The catch <strong>in</strong> the Kuroshio Current showed a sharp<br />

peak <strong>in</strong> the mid-1980s with catches <strong>of</strong> 2.9 million<br />

tonnes. S<strong>in</strong>ce then there has been a dramatic<br />

27


Table 16<br />

The large mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystems <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (exclud<strong>in</strong>g W Australia, E Australia, NE Australia <strong>and</strong> SW Australia)<br />

LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />

Sea <strong>of</strong> Japan Mixed Bottom trawl (29%) Japan (54%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> 1970s Climate<br />

Large bentho-pelagics (28%) Mid-water trawl (28%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (15%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium pelagics (24%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (17%) Russian Fed. (12%) Large bentho-pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Habitat<br />

Small pelagics (12%) Korea DPR (11%) Recent <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> squid, large pelagics, Pollution<br />

lobsters <strong>and</strong> crabs.<br />

Kuroshio Current Mixed Bottom trawl (33%) Japan (81%) Small pelagics <strong>and</strong> pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> Climate<br />

Small pelagics (26%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (25%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (11%) mid-1980s<br />

Medium pelagics (26%) Mid-water trawl (13%) Korea RO (6%) Catches <strong>in</strong> 1980s dom<strong>in</strong>ated by South<br />

Medium demersals (15%) American pilchard<br />

Recent lower catches dom<strong>in</strong>ated by<br />

Japanese anchovy<br />

Yellow Sea Mixed Driftnets (26%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (72%) Medium pelagics dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g with a peak Climate<br />

Medium pelagics (18%) Bottom trawlers (25%) Japan (11%) <strong>in</strong> 1980 Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Shrimps (14%) Bagnets (17%) Korea RO (11%) Small pelagics <strong>and</strong> lobsters, crabs started Habitat<br />

Cephalopods (13%) an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> early 90s but have showed Pollution<br />

a recent sharp decrease. Recent <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

shrimps<br />

East Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (34%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (68%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium bentho-pelagics (15%) Bagnets (14%) Japan (20%) Small demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1960s Pollution<br />

Small pelagics (14%) Mid-water trawls (9%) Korea RO (8%) <strong>and</strong> aga<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> late 1990s Habitat<br />

Medium pelagics (14%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Shrimp <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Climate<br />

Medium demersals (13%)<br />

South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (37%) Ch<strong>in</strong>a (39%) Increas<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> all groups up until Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium pelagics (13%) Gillnets (8%) Viet Nam (21%) late 1990s Pollution<br />

Medium demersals (12%) Mid-water trawls (7%) Indonesia (13%) Pelagics still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Habitat<br />

Small pelagics (11%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (7%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (9%)<br />

Small demersals (10%)<br />

Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal Mixed Bottom trawls (34%) Myanmar (26%) All groups <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Small demersals (25%) Gillnets (14%) India (22%) Pollution<br />

Medium pelagics (21%) Mid-water trawls (14%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (13%) Habitat<br />

Medium demersals (17%) Malaysia (13%)<br />

28


Table 16 (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />

LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />

Gulf <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> Mixed Bottom trawls (35%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (38%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s followed Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Small demersals (21%) Gillnets (11%) Viet Nam (36%) by a sudden decl<strong>in</strong>e dur<strong>in</strong>g 1980s <strong>and</strong> 1990s Pollution<br />

Medium pelagics (20%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Malaysia (20%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s Habitat<br />

Medium reef assoc. fish (17%) Mid-water trawls (8%) Cambodia (6%) Small pelagics fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g annually<br />

Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s<br />

Arabian Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (35%) India (62%) Pelagics stable s<strong>in</strong>ce mid-1980s but Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium demersals (20%) Mid-water trawls (12%) Pakistan (11%) <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g recently Pollution<br />

Small pelagics (17%) Driftnets (11%) Iran (10%) Small demersals <strong>and</strong> shrimp <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g until Habitat<br />

Small demersals (12%) Gillnets (7%) Bentho-pelagics stable recently<br />

Large pelagics (11%)<br />

Sulu-Celebes Sea Mixed Bottom trawl (23%) Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (78%) Small pelagics <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with annual Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium pelagics (45%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (16%) Indonesia (13%) fluctuations Pollution<br />

Small demersals (12%) Boat se<strong>in</strong>es (14%) Malaysia (6%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s Habitat<br />

Medium reef assoc. fish (10%) Large demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1950s<br />

Small pelagics (9%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> 1970s <strong>and</strong> late 1990s<br />

Large pelagics stable s<strong>in</strong>ce early 1990s<br />

Indonesian Sea Mixed Bottom trawls (26%) Indonesia (71%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s but stable Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium pelagics (26%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (20%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (25%) s<strong>in</strong>ce early 1990s Pollution<br />

Medium reef assoc. fish (12%) Mid-water trawls (13%) Philipp<strong>in</strong>es (2%) Small pelagics still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g Habitat<br />

Small pelagics (12%) Gillnets (11%) Korea RO (2%) Large pelagics showed rapid growth dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium demersals (11%) 1990s but decl<strong>in</strong>ed over recent years<br />

Demersals peaked late 1990s<br />

Insular Pacific Mixed Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (37%) USA (85%) Small pelagics cyclical peak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> late 1950s Climate<br />

Hawaiien Medium pelagics (33%) Hookes or g<strong>org</strong>es (16%) Other (8%) <strong>and</strong> late 1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Large pelagics (31%) By div<strong>in</strong>g (14%) Korea RO (6%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1980s Habitat<br />

Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (14%) Molluscs peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1960s, early 1970s<br />

Large pelagics decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g s<strong>in</strong>ce late 1980s<br />

N Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (31%) Indonesia (37%) Shrimp catches cyclical Climate<br />

Large pelagics (16%) Purse se<strong>in</strong>es (9%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (34%) Large pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Medium pelagics (15%) Mid-water trawls (9%) Australia (15%) Demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s<br />

Medium demersals (10%) Troll l<strong>in</strong>es (8%) <strong>and</strong> early 1990s<br />

29


Table 16 (cont<strong>in</strong>ued)<br />

LME Fishery Gear Country fish<strong>in</strong>g Trends Driv<strong>in</strong>g Force(s)<br />

NW Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (26%) Australia (52%) Small demersals peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Small pelagics (23%) Beach se<strong>in</strong>es (18%) Indonesia (25%) <strong>and</strong> early 1990s Habitat<br />

Medium demersals (15%) Mid-water trawls (12%) Thail<strong>and</strong> (21%) Pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> mid-1990s<br />

Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (13%) H<strong>and</strong> dredges (8%) Small pelagics <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Shrimp catches stable<br />

SE Australia Mixed Bottom trawls (43%) Australia (67%) Small pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1990s Climate<br />

Large sharks (25%) Traps (14%) Indonesia (23%) Molluscs peaked <strong>in</strong> early 1970s <strong>and</strong> Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Large demersals (20%) Gillnets (13%) New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (5%) mid-1980s Pollution<br />

Other demersal <strong>in</strong>vert. (14%) Lobster, crab catches steady Habitat<br />

New Zeal<strong>and</strong> Mixed Bottom trawls (62%) New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (90%) Large demersals cyclical but stable Climate<br />

Shelf Large demersals (41%) Squid hooks (9%) Ukra<strong>in</strong>e (4%) s<strong>in</strong>ce 1990 Fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Large bentho-pelagics (12%) Hookes or g<strong>org</strong>es (6%) Australia (2%) Large bentho-pelagics cyclical but Pollution<br />

Cephalopods (9%) relatively stable Habitat<br />

Medium pelagics (9%) Small bentho-pelagics peaked <strong>in</strong> late 1980s<br />

30


decrease <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2003 the total catch for the area<br />

was only 684 thous<strong>and</strong> tonnes. The peak <strong>in</strong> 1986<br />

was dom<strong>in</strong>ated by medium pelagic species, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

the Japanese pilchard that comprised 78 percent<br />

<strong>of</strong> the catch. In 2003 this figure decreased to 26<br />

percent. Instead, small pelagic fish, such as<br />

Japanese anchovy, are now the most commonly<br />

caught group <strong>of</strong> species.<br />

This LME shows the typical longer-term cycle <strong>of</strong><br />

pelagic <strong>fisheries</strong>, <strong>in</strong> which one group <strong>of</strong> species is<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten replaced by another. This decadal change<br />

is usually attributed to climatic cycles.<br />

In 2003 there were four countries fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

area. Japan is the dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g country (81 percent),<br />

followed by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (11 percent), Korea RO<br />

(6 percent) <strong>and</strong> Taiwan POC (2 percent).<br />

The trend for gear used <strong>in</strong> the area follows the<br />

trend <strong>of</strong> the catches, show<strong>in</strong>g a large peak for<br />

purse se<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> 1986. In 2003, 33 percent <strong>of</strong> the<br />

catch was taken by bottom trawl which makes it<br />

the ma<strong>in</strong> used gear <strong>in</strong> the area. It is followed by<br />

purse se<strong>in</strong>es (25 percent) <strong>and</strong> mid-water trawls<br />

(13 percent).<br />

ii)<br />

Yellow Sea<br />

Systems show<strong>in</strong>g “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />

cha<strong>in</strong>” effects<br />

The Yellow Sea is one <strong>of</strong> the most <strong>in</strong>tensively<br />

exploited areas <strong>in</strong> the world, <strong>and</strong> has exhibited<br />

a pronounced change <strong>in</strong> ecosystem structure<br />

<strong>and</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” effect. Due<br />

to overexploitation <strong>and</strong> natural fluctuations<br />

<strong>in</strong> recruitment, some <strong>of</strong> the larger-sized <strong>and</strong><br />

commercially important species were replaced by<br />

smaller, less valuable, forage fish. When bottom<br />

trawlers were <strong>in</strong>troduced <strong>in</strong> the early twentieth<br />

century, many stocks were <strong>in</strong>tensively exploited<br />

by Ch<strong>in</strong>ese, Korean <strong>and</strong> Japanese fishers <strong>and</strong><br />

all the major stocks were heavily fished <strong>in</strong> the<br />

1960s, which had a significant effect on the<br />

ecosystem. Pacific herr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> chub mackerel<br />

became dom<strong>in</strong>ant <strong>in</strong> the 1970s. Smaller-bodied<br />

<strong>and</strong> economically less pr<strong>of</strong>itable anchovy <strong>and</strong><br />

scaled sard<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong> the 1980s <strong>and</strong> took<br />

a prom<strong>in</strong>ent position <strong>in</strong> the ecosystem.<br />

Drift nets have always been a major gear <strong>in</strong> this<br />

LME but the catch from bottom trawls has also<br />

been <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> 2003 accounted for<br />

25 percent <strong>of</strong> the catch.<br />

The countries border<strong>in</strong>g the Yellow Sea take<br />

most <strong>of</strong> the catch – Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 72 percent, Japan<br />

11 percent <strong>and</strong> Korea RO 11 percent.<br />

iii)<br />

Systems with reported <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g catches<br />

<strong>in</strong> all species groups<br />

Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal<br />

Commercial species for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude anchovies, croakers, shrimp <strong>and</strong> tuna<br />

(yellowf<strong>in</strong>, bigeye <strong>and</strong> skipjack). Shrimp is a major<br />

export earner.<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> data show a steady rise <strong>in</strong> total l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong><br />

all major groups s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1950s. This appears to<br />

be largely as a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased mar<strong>in</strong>e l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs<br />

reported for Indonesia, Myanmar, Malaysia <strong>and</strong><br />

Bangladesh. The other Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal counties<br />

(India, Pakistan, Maldives <strong>and</strong> Sri Lanka) have all<br />

reported losses <strong>in</strong> production <strong>in</strong> recent years, the<br />

greatest be<strong>in</strong>g from India. Increased competition<br />

<strong>and</strong> conflicts between small-scale <strong>and</strong> large-scale<br />

fishers <strong>and</strong> reports <strong>of</strong> decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g catches <strong>and</strong> catch<br />

rates by fishers <strong>in</strong>dicate that much <strong>of</strong> the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />

Bengal is also over-fished.<br />

There is an alarm<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> cyanide fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> this LME’s coral reefs for the lucrative live food<br />

fish markets <strong>in</strong> Hong Kong <strong>and</strong> S<strong>in</strong>gapore.<br />

Mangroves <strong>and</strong> estuaries – critical fish spawn<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>and</strong> nursery areas – are also under stress or<br />

threatened by pollution, sedimentation, dams for<br />

flood control (as <strong>in</strong> Bangladesh), <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />

coastal <strong>aquaculture</strong>. States border<strong>in</strong>g the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />

Bengal rate overexploitation <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e resources<br />

as the number one problem <strong>in</strong> the area.<br />

Catches com<strong>in</strong>g from bottom trawl<strong>in</strong>g dom<strong>in</strong>ate the<br />

catch, although the LME is characterized by many<br />

small-scale fishers us<strong>in</strong>g a wide variety <strong>of</strong> gears.<br />

As with the Yellow Sea, it is the countries<br />

surround<strong>in</strong>g the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal that record the<br />

greatest catches, although not only <strong>in</strong> their own<br />

EEZs. Thai trawlers are common <strong>in</strong> Myanmar <strong>and</strong><br />

known to operate as far away as Bangladesh.<br />

There is also a relatively large high sea area that<br />

supports caches <strong>of</strong> tuna <strong>and</strong> other large pelagics<br />

that are also fished by several distant-water fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

nations.<br />

31


iv)<br />

Fisheries under tight management control<br />

Southeast Australian Shelf<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> species harvested are scallops (<strong>in</strong> Bass<br />

Strait), rock lobster (Tasmania), <strong>and</strong> abalone<br />

(Tasmania <strong>and</strong> Victoria) <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>fish <strong>in</strong> the Southeast<br />

trawl fishery <strong>and</strong> shark <strong>in</strong> the shark <strong>fisheries</strong>. The<br />

long-st<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g trawl fishery has seen serial<br />

depletion <strong>of</strong> several <strong>of</strong> its important fish stocks,<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g eastern gemfish <strong>and</strong> more recently the<br />

deepwater orange roughy that is found associated<br />

with sea mounts. The fishery has been managed<br />

under <strong>in</strong>dividual transferable catch quotas (ITQ)<br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce the early 1990s, but to date these do not<br />

appear to have been very effective <strong>in</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

overfish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> this multi-species fishery.<br />

The ma<strong>in</strong> gear across the entire LME is bottom<br />

trawl<strong>in</strong>g, with other specialized gears catch<strong>in</strong>g<br />

scallops, lobsters <strong>and</strong> sharks (traps, dredges, <strong>and</strong><br />

gillnets).<br />

Trends <strong>in</strong> the trophic <strong>in</strong>dices<br />

The “Sea around us” project also provides<br />

calculations <strong>of</strong> the mean trophic level <strong>of</strong> the annual<br />

catches. In theory, changes <strong>in</strong> the mean trophic<br />

level reflect changes <strong>in</strong> the ecosystem structure,<br />

a higher value <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g a greater presence <strong>of</strong><br />

larger predators, <strong>and</strong> vice versa.<br />

In the Kuroshio Current LME, because this system<br />

is dom<strong>in</strong>ated by a few species groups, the change<br />

<strong>in</strong> trophic structure reflects the chang<strong>in</strong>g species<br />

mix. The low trophic <strong>in</strong>dex corresponds to the<br />

peak <strong>in</strong> the medium pelagic species group, ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

Japanese pilchards that are relatively low <strong>in</strong> the<br />

food cha<strong>in</strong>. More recently, the switch to the<br />

relatively higher trophic level species can also<br />

be seen (Figure 29).<br />

In contrast, the Yellow Sea LME shows less<br />

dramatic changes but a steady decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the mean<br />

trophic level, consistent with “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food<br />

cha<strong>in</strong>”, is apparent (Figure 30). In the Bay <strong>of</strong><br />

Bengal that has reported <strong>in</strong>creased catches <strong>in</strong> all<br />

major groups, a decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the mean trophic level<br />

can also be detected, suggestive <strong>of</strong> an overall shift<br />

<strong>in</strong> trophic structure <strong>in</strong> the Bay, or at least <strong>in</strong> the<br />

targeted species (Figure 31).<br />

In SE Australia, the overall pattern <strong>in</strong> the mean<br />

trophic level is more similar to that <strong>of</strong> the Kuroshio<br />

Current, but <strong>in</strong> the Australian case (Figure 32)<br />

reflects changes <strong>in</strong> catch composition that<br />

occurred as a result <strong>of</strong> overfish<strong>in</strong>g as well as<br />

management <strong>in</strong>terventions. Catches <strong>of</strong> fish high on<br />

the trophic scale, such as Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> tuna,<br />

were very high <strong>in</strong> the 1960s. The collapse <strong>of</strong> these<br />

catches <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> strict quotas<br />

brought about a shift to lower food cha<strong>in</strong> species<br />

after this time. However, s<strong>in</strong>ce the mid-1980s the<br />

mean trophic <strong>in</strong>dex has <strong>in</strong>creased aga<strong>in</strong>, driven by<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased catches <strong>of</strong> sharks <strong>and</strong> species such as<br />

blue grenadier.<br />

Ecosystem modell<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Fishery assessments based on ecosystem<br />

modell<strong>in</strong>g have also been carried out <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />

especially <strong>in</strong> the eight States with extensive historic<br />

trawl survey data that allow better estimates on the<br />

amount <strong>of</strong> fish present <strong>in</strong> the sea. This approach<br />

is based on ecosystem modell<strong>in</strong>g (e.g. Ecopath <strong>and</strong><br />

Ecosim) that allows an analysis <strong>of</strong> the structure<br />

|<strong>and</strong> function <strong>of</strong> whole ecosystems <strong>and</strong> how they<br />

have changed overtime. Christensen <strong>and</strong> his<br />

co-workers at the UBC are pioneer<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

approach <strong>and</strong> conduct<strong>in</strong>g analyses for the major<br />

LMEs. In the APFIC region they have concluded<br />

an analysis <strong>of</strong> the impact <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the South<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea. 4 This analysis clearly showed that for<br />

this large sea, “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” has<br />

occurred, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g gradual replacement <strong>of</strong> large,<br />

long-lived predators by small, short-lived fish lower<br />

down the food cha<strong>in</strong>, <strong>of</strong>ten referred to now as<br />

“trash fish”. The only exception to these trends<br />

was <strong>of</strong>f the coast <strong>of</strong> Brunei Darussalam where<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g pressure is much lighter than <strong>in</strong> other<br />

States, s<strong>in</strong>ce it effectively has mar<strong>in</strong>e protected<br />

areas (MPAs) around its oil rigs.<br />

3.5 Evidence from fisher’s perceptions<br />

Evidence ga<strong>in</strong>ed directly from fisher’s <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

communities perceptions are perhaps the most<br />

difficult to describe <strong>and</strong> quantify but are always<br />

consistent with the evidence derived from other<br />

sources. There are many studies documented<br />

throughout the region where participatory<br />

assessments have been carried out, on a range<br />

<strong>of</strong> scales focuss<strong>in</strong>g on one or two selected<br />

villages to large <strong>org</strong>anized fish<strong>in</strong>g associations<br />

(e.g. trawl-owners associations). The APFIC<br />

Secretariat did not have the resources to provide<br />

a comprehensive review but <strong>in</strong> many cases the<br />

4<br />

Christensen, V.T., Garces, L.R., Silvestre, G.T. <strong>and</strong> Pauly,<br />

D. (2003). Fisheries impact on the South Ch<strong>in</strong>a Sea large<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e ecosystem: A prelim<strong>in</strong>ary analysis us<strong>in</strong>g spatially<br />

explicit methodology, p. 51-62 <strong>in</strong> Silvestre, G.T., Garces,<br />

L.R., Stobutzki, I., Ahmed, M., Santos, R.A.V., Luna, C.Z.,<br />

Lachica-Al<strong>in</strong>o, L., Christensen, V., Pauly, D. & Munro (eds.)<br />

Assessment, management <strong>and</strong> future directions for coastal<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n States. WorldFish Center Conference<br />

Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 67, 1 120 pp.<br />

32


Figure 29<br />

Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Kuroshio Current LME<br />

Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />

Mean trophic level<br />

Trophic level<br />

3.4<br />

3.3<br />

3.2<br />

3.1<br />

3.0<br />

2.9<br />

2.8<br />

2.7<br />

2.6<br />

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

Figure 30<br />

Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Yellow Sea LME<br />

Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />

Mean trophic level<br />

3.5<br />

Trophic level<br />

3.4<br />

3.3<br />

3.2<br />

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

Figure 31<br />

Mean trophic level Index for the Bay <strong>of</strong> Bengal LME<br />

Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />

Mean trophic level<br />

3.7<br />

Trophic level<br />

3.6<br />

3.5<br />

3.4<br />

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

33


Figure 32<br />

Mean trophic level <strong>in</strong>dex for the Southeast Australia LME<br />

Copied from http://www.seaaroundus.<strong>org</strong>/lme/lme.aspx<br />

Mean trophic level<br />

Trophic level<br />

3.7<br />

3.6<br />

3.5<br />

3.4<br />

3.3<br />

3.2<br />

3.1<br />

3.0<br />

2.9<br />

2.8<br />

2.7<br />

2.6<br />

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000<br />

Table 17<br />

<strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean<br />

Species Central & Western Pacific Indian Ocean<br />

Skipjack tuna Underexploited Underexploited<br />

Yellowf<strong>in</strong> tuna Under/fully exploited Fully exploited<br />

Bigeye tuna Fully/overexploited Fully/overexploited<br />

Albacore tuna Underexploited Underexploited<br />

Swordfish<br />

Overexploited<br />

34


story seems to be the same – catches <strong>and</strong> catch<br />

per boat (gear, fish<strong>in</strong>g lot etc.) have decl<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

dramatically over the past 10-20 years. The status<br />

<strong>of</strong> the tuna species <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />

Pacific <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean can be seen <strong>in</strong><br />

Table 17.<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> has recently commissioned several<br />

participatory assessments across the region,<br />

<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g Timor-Leste, Viet Nam, Cambodia. As<br />

part <strong>of</strong> the response to the 2004 tsunami, <strong>FAO</strong> has<br />

supported rapid but limited assessments <strong>of</strong> the<br />

impacts <strong>of</strong> the tsunami on the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources<br />

<strong>of</strong> some affected areas <strong>of</strong> Sri Lanka, Indonesia <strong>and</strong><br />

Thail<strong>and</strong>. The objective <strong>of</strong> these assessments was<br />

to <strong>in</strong>form the <strong>fisheries</strong> sector rehabilitation <strong>and</strong><br />

reconstruction plann<strong>in</strong>g efforts.<br />

F<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs from these assessments to date <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />

that <strong>in</strong> the perceptions <strong>of</strong> the fishers there has been<br />

no significant direct impact <strong>of</strong> the tsunami on the<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> resources. However, localized impacts<br />

due to habitat modification (clos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> lagoons,<br />

destruction <strong>of</strong> mangrove <strong>and</strong> reef etc.) have been<br />

reported.<br />

In terms <strong>of</strong> long-term trends prior to the tsunami,<br />

fishers <strong>in</strong> all these countries reported decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

catches <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g numbers <strong>of</strong> vessels <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>.<br />

Inl<strong>and</strong> waters<br />

3.6 Water resources<br />

Because <strong>of</strong> the high population density <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>,<br />

the per capita availability <strong>of</strong> freshwater is the<br />

lowest <strong>in</strong> the world <strong>and</strong> compet<strong>in</strong>g usages <strong>of</strong><br />

freshwater have a major impact on <strong>fisheries</strong>. The<br />

ma<strong>in</strong> water resources for <strong>fisheries</strong> are the rivers<br />

<strong>and</strong> flood pla<strong>in</strong>s, natural lakes <strong>and</strong> man-made<br />

impoundments. The seasonal floodpla<strong>in</strong>s <strong>of</strong><br />

States such as Myanmar <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh all have<br />

major <strong>fisheries</strong>. In contrast, <strong>Asia</strong> has relatively<br />

few natural lakes <strong>and</strong> most <strong>of</strong> these are conf<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

to volcanic areas, notably <strong>in</strong> the Indonesian <strong>and</strong><br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>e archipelagos, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> northern India.<br />

The major exception is the Great Lake or Tonle<br />

Sap <strong>in</strong> Cambodia which occupies 200-300 km 2 <strong>in</strong><br />

the dry season, exp<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>g to 10 000-12 000 km 2<br />

<strong>in</strong> the wet.<br />

Over the centuries, reservoirs have been<br />

constructed <strong>in</strong> some States <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> (e.g. Sri Lanka),<br />

but more recently construction <strong>of</strong> reservoirs for<br />

irrigation, hydropower <strong>and</strong> flood protection has<br />

become common <strong>in</strong> many parts <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region.<br />

The reservoir resource <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is large <strong>and</strong> accounts<br />

for over 40 percent <strong>of</strong> the global large reservoir<br />

capacity. These range from large impoundments<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g from damm<strong>in</strong>g major rivers to small<br />

ra<strong>in</strong>fed ponds. It has been estimated that<br />

develop<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> have 66.7 million ha <strong>of</strong><br />

small to medium reservoirs with 85 thous<strong>and</strong> ha<br />

occurr<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

3.7 Fishery resources<br />

Most <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> are small-scale activities<br />

where the catch per craft (or catch per capita) is<br />

relatively small <strong>and</strong> the catch more <strong>of</strong>ten than not<br />

disposed <strong>of</strong> on the same day. The ma<strong>in</strong> exceptions<br />

are the <strong>in</strong>dustrialized <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the lower Mekong<br />

Bas<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the “fish<strong>in</strong>g lots” <strong>in</strong> the Tonle Sap <strong>of</strong><br />

Cambodia <strong>and</strong> the fish<strong>in</strong>g “<strong>in</strong>ns” <strong>of</strong> Myanmar. The<br />

lack <strong>of</strong> accurate report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these small-scale<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> makes it difficult to assess their status<br />

but they are under considerable pressure from both<br />

the loss <strong>and</strong> degradation <strong>of</strong> habitat <strong>and</strong> from<br />

overfish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Freshwater fishes are reported to be the most<br />

threatened group <strong>of</strong> vertebrates harvested by man.<br />

It has been estimated by the World Resources<br />

Institute that half <strong>of</strong> the world’s species were lost<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the last century <strong>and</strong> that dams, diversions<br />

<strong>and</strong> canals have fragmented many major rivers,<br />

severely impact<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> resources.<br />

Many <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> water habitats have been<br />

altered <strong>and</strong> degraded. Rivers <strong>and</strong> floodpla<strong>in</strong>s, <strong>in</strong><br />

particular, have been heavily impacted with the<br />

construction <strong>of</strong> dams, roads, channels <strong>and</strong> other<br />

irrigation systems. The tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> water to reduce<br />

the impacts <strong>of</strong> flood<strong>in</strong>g has probably had<br />

widespread effects on <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />

although the real impacts are poorly documented.<br />

Fishers regularly compla<strong>in</strong> that catches are<br />

decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, but it is uncerta<strong>in</strong> to what extent this is<br />

an effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g fishery pressure or the loss<br />

<strong>of</strong> fishery resources through habitat degradation<br />

<strong>and</strong> chang<strong>in</strong>g water flow regimes.<br />

Major changes <strong>in</strong> the way large systems function<br />

have enormously altered some areas by greatly<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g the seasonal “flood pulse” that previously<br />

resulted <strong>in</strong> large areas <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong> becom<strong>in</strong>g flooded<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the wet season. This has impacted on the<br />

ability <strong>of</strong> many species <strong>of</strong> fish to migrate to their<br />

spawn<strong>in</strong>g grounds <strong>and</strong> has also altered the flow<br />

pattern with accompanied habitat changes (e.g.<br />

runn<strong>in</strong>g water to lakes). Some mitigation attempts<br />

have been made <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> fish ladders to allow<br />

35


fish to migrate around dams but their success<br />

compared with orig<strong>in</strong>al conditions is unknown.<br />

Chang<strong>in</strong>g agricultural patterns <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g irrigation<br />

development <strong>and</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creased use <strong>of</strong> chemicals<br />

<strong>and</strong> pesticides <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified agricultural production<br />

have all had some impact on wild fishery resources.<br />

As <strong>in</strong> the mar<strong>in</strong>e environment, changes <strong>in</strong> species<br />

composition are also occurr<strong>in</strong>g. Catches <strong>of</strong> large,<br />

long lived species such as the giant catfish <strong>and</strong><br />

large cypr<strong>in</strong>id species are becom<strong>in</strong>g rare <strong>and</strong> there<br />

is evidence <strong>of</strong> “fish<strong>in</strong>g down the food cha<strong>in</strong>” <strong>in</strong><br />

some <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas. In the Mekong River, for<br />

example, the giant catfish (Pangasianodon gigas)<br />

has now become extremely rare <strong>and</strong> endangered.<br />

On the other h<strong>and</strong>, the status <strong>of</strong> some <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong><br />

fishery resources has been enhanced through<br />

stock<strong>in</strong>g programmes, <strong>in</strong>troductions <strong>of</strong> exotic<br />

species, habitat eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> habitat<br />

improvement. Stock enhancement is an <strong>in</strong>tegral<br />

part <strong>of</strong> most <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region <strong>and</strong> is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g, particularly where some<br />

sort <strong>of</strong> access restriction or user rights are <strong>in</strong> place.<br />

In general, <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> large lakes <strong>and</strong> rivers depend<br />

on naturally recruited stocks <strong>and</strong> the economic<br />

viability <strong>of</strong> stock enhancement has not been<br />

demonstrated <strong>in</strong> any <strong>Asia</strong>n State. In floodpla<strong>in</strong><br />

depressions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> small water bodies, stock<br />

enhancement has proven to be very successful.<br />

These cultured-based <strong>fisheries</strong> are seen as a way<br />

forward <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>and</strong> many States <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region. 5<br />

Of particular importance to many States <strong>of</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region are rice-field <strong>fisheries</strong> that<br />

either depend on natural <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> wild<br />

fish or stock<strong>in</strong>g fish, either simultaneously or<br />

alternately with the rice crop (probably more<br />

correctly def<strong>in</strong>ed as <strong>aquaculture</strong>). The fish are<br />

important for local consumption <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

<strong>and</strong> support rural livelihoods <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States.<br />

It is particularly important for food security as it is<br />

the most readily available, reliable <strong>and</strong> cheapest<br />

source <strong>of</strong> animal prote<strong>in</strong> for farm<strong>in</strong>g communities<br />

as well as the l<strong>and</strong>less. This importance is<br />

generally underestimated <strong>and</strong> undervalued. It is<br />

reported that the availability <strong>of</strong> this aquatic<br />

resource is decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g. Anecdotal evidence from<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a, Viet Nam, Lao PDR, Cambodia, Thail<strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> elsewhere suggests that it is considerably<br />

more difficult to f<strong>in</strong>d such food now than a decade<br />

or so ago. This is a result <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong><br />

through human population <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>and</strong> activities<br />

such as the use <strong>of</strong> pesticides, destruction <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

breed<strong>in</strong>g grounds <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

methods such as poisons <strong>and</strong> electro-fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

5 De Silva, S. & Funge-Smith, S. A Review <strong>of</strong> stock<br />

enhancement practices <strong>in</strong> the <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> water <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>,<br />

RAP Publication 2005/12<br />

http://www.apfic.<strong>org</strong>/modules/mydownloads/viewcat.<br />

php?cid=5<br />

36


4. <strong>Status</strong> <strong>of</strong> Aquaculture<br />

This part <strong>of</strong> the document will deal with the review <strong>of</strong> major groups <strong>of</strong> species that are currently cultured<br />

<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. The manner <strong>of</strong> group<strong>in</strong>g species will be accord<strong>in</strong>g to the trophic needs <strong>of</strong> the<br />

species <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> some cases the degree <strong>of</strong> reliance on external <strong>in</strong>puts (such as feeds <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>frastructure for<br />

culture).<br />

4.1 Carnivorous species or species<br />

requir<strong>in</strong>g higher production <strong>in</strong>puts<br />

Freshwater carnivorous species<br />

Eels<br />

Dur<strong>in</strong>g the period 1988 to 1998, the world’s<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> eels doubled from<br />

98 000 tonnes to 217 000 tonnes, <strong>of</strong> which<br />

95 percent was produced <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n farms.<br />

Eel production <strong>in</strong> Japan (Anguilla japonica) has<br />

rema<strong>in</strong>ed stable for the past ten years at around<br />

20 000 tonnes. The production <strong>of</strong> Taiwan POC has<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>ed greatly to the lowest level <strong>in</strong> 1999. In<br />

contrast, production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has risen steadily,<br />

until a peak <strong>in</strong> 1997, rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g just below this<br />

level until reach<strong>in</strong>g a new high <strong>in</strong> 2004 at a level <strong>of</strong><br />

178 176 tonnes.<br />

This production is reported as Japanese eel,<br />

however, Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR also imports European glass<br />

eels (Anguilla Anguilla) <strong>and</strong> hence some <strong>of</strong> this<br />

reported production would be the European eel. In<br />

2004, Ch<strong>in</strong>ese swamp eel production was also<br />

high at 137 486 tonnes for 2004. Malaysia <strong>and</strong><br />

Korea RO also produce some quantities <strong>of</strong><br />

Japanese eel through <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

Europe has <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly supplied <strong>Asia</strong>n eel<br />

farms with glass eels, <strong>and</strong> the region has gradually<br />

become more dependent on wild-caught eels <strong>of</strong><br />

Europe. In 1997, for example, France exported<br />

more than 266 tonnes <strong>of</strong> European eels to<br />

dest<strong>in</strong>ations outside the EU (amount<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

55 percent <strong>of</strong> all EU eel exports outside Europe<br />

that year). 1<br />

Salmonid – Freshwater culture<br />

Freshwater production <strong>of</strong> trout species <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

has been fairly stable over the last decade with the<br />

exception <strong>of</strong> the development <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>dustry <strong>of</strong><br />

Ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout <strong>in</strong> IR Iran, which has almost doubled<br />

production <strong>in</strong> two years (to 30 000 tonnes). Ayu<br />

sweetfish (Plecoglossus altivelis) production <strong>in</strong><br />

Japan has decl<strong>in</strong>ed by about 25 percent <strong>in</strong> the last<br />

decade (7 200 tonnes).<br />

1<br />

TRAFFIC report<br />

http://www.traffic.<strong>org</strong>/dispatches/archives/march2001/eel.html<br />

Catfish<br />

The top five produc<strong>in</strong>g states are Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong>, Indonesia, India <strong>and</strong> Malaysia. Total<br />

production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 652 386 tonnes <strong>and</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR produced 58 percent <strong>of</strong> the total<br />

production. Ch<strong>in</strong>a started to report on this group<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2003. The production (without Ch<strong>in</strong>a) shows<br />

a slow <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend with an average growth<br />

rate <strong>of</strong> 11 percent. This would be greater if<br />

Vietnamese production <strong>of</strong> Pangasius was also<br />

<strong>in</strong>cluded (Viet Nam does not report Pangasius<br />

separately from “freshwater fish nei”).<br />

The top five species are Amur catfish (Silurus<br />

asotus), Torpedo-shaped catfishes nei (Clarias<br />

spp.), Hybrid catfish (C. batrachus x C. gariep<strong>in</strong>us),<br />

Yellow catfish <strong>and</strong> Channel catfish (approx<br />

90 percent <strong>of</strong> the total production for the group).<br />

In addition, Viet Nam produces significant<br />

quantities <strong>of</strong> catfish <strong>of</strong> the Pangasius spp.<br />

Viet Nam produced over 300 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004<br />

which is a significant <strong>in</strong>crease over the estimated<br />

180 000 tonnes for 2003. 2<br />

Snakeheads<br />

The total production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 285 173 tonnes<br />

<strong>and</strong> the top four produc<strong>in</strong>g states are Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR,<br />

India, Indonesia <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has just<br />

started to report snakehead production separately<br />

(as with the catfish) <strong>in</strong> 2003. In 2004 Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />

produced 84 percent <strong>of</strong> the total <strong>Asia</strong>n production.<br />

The trend for this goup is hard to def<strong>in</strong>e. Indonesia<br />

<strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> show a stable trend at a low level<br />

(approx 6 600 tonnes). India has fluctuated <strong>in</strong> the<br />

past ten years with a high <strong>in</strong> 2000 <strong>of</strong> 80 740 tonnes<br />

<strong>and</strong> a low <strong>in</strong> 2001 <strong>of</strong> 1 301 tonnes but is aga<strong>in</strong><br />

show<strong>in</strong>g an <strong>in</strong>crease to almost 30 000 <strong>in</strong> 2004. The<br />

production <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>in</strong>creased by 35 percent to<br />

238 754 tonnes (2003 to 2004).<br />

Knifefish <strong>and</strong> gobies<br />

These species are not widely cultured but have<br />

a good market price <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> countries. The s<strong>and</strong><br />

goby production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is almost totally based on<br />

2<br />

http://www.globefish.<strong>org</strong>/<strong>in</strong>dex.php?id=2291&<br />

easysitestatid=626311130<br />

37


on-grow<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> wild caught f<strong>in</strong>gerl<strong>in</strong>gs. The total<br />

production <strong>of</strong> Knifefishes <strong>and</strong> Marble goby was<br />

214 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. Malaysia is the top producer,<br />

followed by Indonesia, S<strong>in</strong>gapore <strong>and</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong>.<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> has shown a decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g trend. In Malaysia<br />

production has decl<strong>in</strong>ed by half <strong>in</strong> a five year period<br />

to around 100 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, except for a peak<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>of</strong> 700 tonnes.<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackish water carnivorous species<br />

Barramundi <strong>and</strong> Japanese Seabass<br />

Barramundi (Lates calcifer) is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g ground with<br />

the regional total reach<strong>in</strong>g 29 884 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> has become the top producer <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region with a still <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend. The Thai<br />

production is still largely marketed domestically.<br />

There has been a significant reduction <strong>in</strong><br />

production from Hong Kong SAR which may be<br />

due to a shift towards higher value species<br />

<strong>and</strong> limited site availability. Korea RO is also<br />

produc<strong>in</strong>g Japanese seabass (Lateolabrax<br />

japonicus, 1 850 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has<br />

also reported large production <strong>of</strong> Japanese<br />

seabass start<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> 2003 <strong>and</strong> 2004 (217 000 tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004), which may be an effect <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR’s<br />

improved report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species (these<br />

species may have previously been reported under<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei).<br />

There has been limited <strong>in</strong>ternational trade <strong>of</strong> these<br />

species either live or processed <strong>and</strong> future<br />

expansion may be reliant on the development <strong>of</strong><br />

regional or <strong>in</strong>ternational markets. There is some<br />

<strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> Lates niloticus , the Nile Perch which has<br />

particularly white flesh <strong>and</strong> is widely traded as<br />

a commodity; Lates calcarifer does not have such<br />

good flesh colour, but may still <strong>of</strong>fer some <strong>potential</strong><br />

as an alternative <strong>in</strong> some markets.<br />

Salmonids – Brackishwater/Mariculture<br />

Culture <strong>of</strong> salmonids (ch<strong>in</strong>ook, coho, Atlantic<br />

salmon <strong>and</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow trout) <strong>in</strong> brackishwater <strong>and</strong><br />

mariculture is reported from Australia, New Zeal<strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> is currently at 29 631 tonnes.<br />

Japanese coho salmon culture had a peak <strong>in</strong> 1991<br />

<strong>and</strong> has decl<strong>in</strong>ed sharply <strong>in</strong> 1995 <strong>and</strong> hit its<br />

lowest po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong> 2002 dropp<strong>in</strong>g to 31 percent <strong>of</strong><br />

its 1991 production. In 2004 the production<br />

reached 9 607 tonnes. New Zeal<strong>and</strong>’s ch<strong>in</strong>ook<br />

salmon production is relatively stable at just over<br />

5 000 tonnes.<br />

Australian brackishwater culture <strong>of</strong> ra<strong>in</strong>bow<br />

trout has decl<strong>in</strong>ed over the past ten years from 890<br />

tonnes (1988) to zero reported <strong>in</strong> 1994. In contrast,<br />

over the past ten years the Australian Atlantic<br />

salmon <strong>in</strong>dustry has developed considerably to<br />

a current figure <strong>of</strong> 14 828 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004.<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackishwater carnivorous fish<br />

Over 40 species <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> brackishwater<br />

carnivorous (or largely carnivorous) f<strong>in</strong>fish are<br />

reported <strong>and</strong> are largely cultured <strong>in</strong> cages.<br />

Japanese culture <strong>of</strong> Amberjack (Seriola) is the<br />

leader with production stable at 150 068 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />

2004. The production <strong>of</strong> several other Japanese<br />

species is also quite stable (such as pufferfish,<br />

several mackerel species <strong>and</strong> bastard halibut) <strong>and</strong><br />

it is assumed that this is due to site limitations<br />

which effectively prevent further expansion. In<br />

Japan <strong>and</strong> Korea RO particularly, it is <strong>in</strong>evitable<br />

that there will be a turn towards imports from<br />

neighbour<strong>in</strong>g States such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR.<br />

Cobia<br />

Cobia (Rachycentron) culture <strong>in</strong>creased rapidly <strong>in</strong><br />

13 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1996 to 2 400 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 <strong>and</strong> was<br />

20 461 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (this is largely because <strong>of</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR report<strong>in</strong>g this species separately).<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese production <strong>in</strong> 2004 was 16 493 tonnes.<br />

Taiwan POC reports a production <strong>of</strong> 3 968 tonnes<br />

for 2004. Culture <strong>of</strong> this species is also tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>f<br />

rapidly <strong>in</strong> other States such as Viet Nam <strong>and</strong><br />

Thail<strong>and</strong>, possibly as a result <strong>of</strong> the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

availability <strong>of</strong> f<strong>in</strong>gerl<strong>in</strong>gs from Taiwan POC<br />

(however, this is not yet be<strong>in</strong>g reported widely,<br />

therefore the total production can be considered<br />

conservative). The very rapid growth rate <strong>of</strong> this<br />

species <strong>and</strong> relative hard<strong>in</strong>ess <strong>in</strong> ponds makes it<br />

an attractive species for <strong>aquaculture</strong>, although<br />

market acceptance is not yet def<strong>in</strong>ite.<br />

Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> Tuna<br />

Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong> Tuna culture <strong>in</strong> Australia has<br />

emerged as a significant <strong>in</strong>dustry for the country<br />

over the past ten years reach<strong>in</strong>g 4 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />

2002 <strong>and</strong> stayed at this level <strong>in</strong> 2004. Although the<br />

quantity is relatively low compared with the<br />

Japanese Amberjack production, the very high<br />

value <strong>of</strong> this product makes it a significant<br />

economic activity where it is practiced.<br />

The total value <strong>of</strong> the Australian Southern Bluef<strong>in</strong><br />

Tuna wild harvest component <strong>of</strong> the fishery was<br />

approximately US$50.5 million, <strong>and</strong> the valueadded<br />

from grow out <strong>of</strong> wild caught fish <strong>in</strong><br />

seacages is approximately US$97.3 million 3<br />

(2002-2003).<br />

3<br />

http://www.afma.gov.au/<strong>fisheries</strong>/tuna/sbt/default.htm<br />

http://www.australian<strong>aquaculture</strong>portal.com/PDF/<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry_bluef<strong>in</strong>_1.pdf<br />

38


Seabream<br />

Seabream production is conf<strong>in</strong>ed to Japan,<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, Taiwan POC, Korea RO <strong>and</strong> Hong Kong<br />

SAR. The Japanese production <strong>of</strong> seabream<br />

was 80 959 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004, more than half that<br />

(54 percent) <strong>of</strong> amberjack. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has started<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g over 40 000 tonnes start<strong>in</strong>g from 2003.<br />

The production <strong>of</strong> this species was probably<br />

reported earlier as Other mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei.<br />

Other mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish not elsewhere identified<br />

(nei)<br />

Most <strong>of</strong> these fish are assumed to be carnivorous<br />

<strong>and</strong> are fed by trash fish from the Ch<strong>in</strong>ese capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR production <strong>of</strong> European turbot<br />

is estimated at about 3 000 tonnes represent<strong>in</strong>g<br />

about 33 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production. 4<br />

This group <strong>of</strong> fish is <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>terest because <strong>of</strong> the large<br />

reported production from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR. Even though<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has decreased its report<strong>in</strong>g on nei<br />

species by 64 percent s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002, the quantity <strong>of</strong><br />

“mar<strong>in</strong>e f<strong>in</strong>fish nei” reported by Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR equals<br />

the total <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Malaysia. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

the <strong>in</strong>dividual species are not reported, trends<br />

cannot be determ<strong>in</strong>ed.<br />

It is important to po<strong>in</strong>t out that an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />

trends for a species most likely is a result <strong>of</strong><br />

improved report<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>in</strong>dividual species. Table 18<br />

<strong>and</strong> Figure 33 show the apparent drop <strong>in</strong><br />

production for Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR between 2002 <strong>and</strong> 2004,<br />

an artefact caused by improved detailed report<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividual species.<br />

Table 18<br />

Aquaculture production reported under “mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

f<strong>in</strong>fish nei”<br />

Country Tonnes 2002 Tonnes 2004<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 560 404 202 587<br />

Japan 8 287 6 951<br />

Taiwan POC 3 372 3 027<br />

India – 2 778<br />

Indonesia 2 937 1 602<br />

Malaysia 2 669 1 458<br />

Hong Kong SAR 597 493<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 94 162<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gapore 47 55<br />

Korea RO 81 3<br />

4 http://www.ices.dk/committe/acfm/comwork/report/2005/<br />

may/Wild%20cultured%20fish%20<strong>in</strong>teractions.pdf<br />

Figure 33<br />

Trend <strong>in</strong> report<strong>in</strong>g by species for mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes<br />

<strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (1 000 tonnes)<br />

1 200<br />

1 000<br />

800<br />

600<br />

400<br />

200<br />

0<br />

1995<br />

1996<br />

1997<br />

1998<br />

1999<br />

2000<br />

4.2 F<strong>in</strong>fish requir<strong>in</strong>g lower <strong>in</strong>puts<br />

Freshwater omnivorous <strong>and</strong> herbivorous fish have<br />

been important food fish for develop<strong>in</strong>g States <strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Traditional production<br />

methods have become diversified <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified,<br />

start<strong>in</strong>g with fertilized polyculture systems <strong>and</strong><br />

mov<strong>in</strong>g towards systems us<strong>in</strong>g supplemental feeds<br />

<strong>and</strong> even complete feeds. As dem<strong>and</strong> for fish<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases <strong>and</strong> prices rise, further pressure on<br />

<strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> feed<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />

expected <strong>in</strong> many States.<br />

Backyard ponds are an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly common sight<br />

<strong>in</strong> many States; however, this production is<br />

frequently missed <strong>in</strong> national statistical surveys due<br />

to the small unit size. In many cases ponds may<br />

be below the size required for registration <strong>and</strong><br />

production from them is not viewed as a significant<br />

economic activity. However, the large numbers <strong>of</strong><br />

these ponds <strong>and</strong> the aggregated production <strong>and</strong><br />

value to the households engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the activity<br />

is probably very significant. The lack <strong>of</strong> reliable<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation from this part <strong>of</strong> the sector currently<br />

limits evaluation <strong>of</strong> the grassroots impact <strong>of</strong> rural<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />

It has been suggested that the wide range <strong>of</strong><br />

species that are currently produced from<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> will decrease as greater rationalization<br />

<strong>and</strong> aggregation <strong>of</strong> production operations focus on<br />

a smaller number <strong>of</strong> species. This lesson has been<br />

taken from the livestock sector <strong>and</strong> is considered<br />

to be an essential part <strong>of</strong> the “<strong>in</strong>dustrialization” <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong>. This trend does not appear to be the<br />

case so far <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region with farmers<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly seek<strong>in</strong>g out new species that give<br />

them a market<strong>in</strong>g or pr<strong>of</strong>it advantage.<br />

2001<br />

2002<br />

2003<br />

2004<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e fishes nei By species Total<br />

39


Tilapia<br />

This “<strong>in</strong>dustrialization” trend is seen <strong>in</strong> some<br />

States with species such as tilapia. There is<br />

a trend towards st<strong>and</strong>ardization <strong>of</strong> size, feeds<br />

<strong>and</strong> production systems, some quality control,<br />

avoidance <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>f-flavours, <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />

supermarket cha<strong>in</strong>s.<br />

However, even with tilapia, there is still<br />

considerable flexibility <strong>of</strong> systems, stra<strong>in</strong>s <strong>and</strong><br />

colours <strong>of</strong> fish. There is probably more diversity<br />

<strong>in</strong> tilapia culture systems today than ten years ago<br />

with a range <strong>of</strong> characteristics <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Colouration (red, white <strong>and</strong> black stra<strong>in</strong>s)<br />

Monosex <strong>and</strong> mixed sex<br />

Pellet fed, supplemental feed <strong>and</strong> fertilized<br />

greenwater<br />

Freshwater <strong>and</strong> brackishwater<br />

Cold tolerance<br />

Table 19<br />

Tilapia top eight producer States (2004)<br />

Country<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 897 276<br />

Indonesia 156 010<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 145 869<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 97 653<br />

Taiwan POC 89 275<br />

Lao PDR 29 205<br />

Malaysia 25 642<br />

Myanmar 2 000<br />

Reported exports <strong>of</strong> tilapia are still low (~9 percent)<br />

relative to total regional production. The cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />

domestic dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> the high quality required for<br />

export targeted fish means that domestic market<strong>in</strong>g<br />

is still attractive <strong>in</strong> many States. The biggest<br />

exporter <strong>of</strong> frozen whole tilapia <strong>and</strong> frozen fillets<br />

to the USA was Ch<strong>in</strong>a (Ma<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Taiwan<br />

Prov<strong>in</strong>ce), which accounts for virtually all imports<br />

<strong>of</strong> this product by the USA 5 (Table 20).<br />

Table 20<br />

Countries export<strong>in</strong>g tilapia (2004)<br />

Country<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 78 865<br />

Taiwan POC 40 570<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 8 086<br />

5 http://www.eur<strong>of</strong>ish.dk/<strong>in</strong>dexSub.php?id=3059<br />

Carps <strong>and</strong> Barbs (cypr<strong>in</strong>ids)<br />

Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be the most popular<br />

species group among <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific States<br />

dom<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g eight ranks <strong>of</strong> the top ten freshwater<br />

species by production. Their production is<br />

particularly important <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> the vital supply<br />

<strong>of</strong> prote<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> major populous States <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR, India <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh.<br />

Silver carp has ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the highest production<br />

for decades. Grass carp was once <strong>in</strong> a distant<br />

second place but has recently closed the gap<br />

between the two species <strong>and</strong> was <strong>in</strong> 2004 at the<br />

same level.<br />

Common carp, the third highest production<br />

species, is literally the most commonly cultured<br />

species <strong>in</strong> the region; 20 States <strong>and</strong> areas have<br />

reported cultur<strong>in</strong>g this species (Table 21).<br />

Table 21<br />

Carps <strong>and</strong> barbs top ten producer States (2004)<br />

Country<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 14 369 900<br />

India 2 116 327<br />

Bangladesh 616 151<br />

Indonesia 216 517<br />

Myanmar 163 000<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 67 152<br />

Iran 65 400<br />

Lao PDR 32 450<br />

Nepal 20 000<br />

Cambodia 18 049<br />

Although production <strong>of</strong> most species <strong>in</strong> this group<br />

generally exhibits <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends, the rate <strong>of</strong><br />

growth s<strong>in</strong>ce 2001 for Silver carp has started to<br />

show signs <strong>of</strong> slow<strong>in</strong>g down.<br />

There are reports that the pr<strong>of</strong>itability <strong>of</strong> production<br />

<strong>of</strong> these species <strong>in</strong> India <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a is decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

farmers are start<strong>in</strong>g to explore the production <strong>of</strong><br />

alternative higher value species. S<strong>in</strong>ce the markets<br />

<strong>of</strong> these species are largely domestic, there is<br />

little opportunity for export, although India, for<br />

example, does export to neighbour<strong>in</strong>g Nepal <strong>and</strong><br />

Bangladesh.<br />

Pacus <strong>and</strong> Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (Collossoma spp. <strong>and</strong><br />

Piaractus spp.)<br />

These Lat<strong>in</strong> American species are not reported<br />

<strong>in</strong> detail for most countries grouped under<br />

“Freshwater species nei”. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has started<br />

40


eport<strong>in</strong>g production <strong>of</strong> Piaractus (86 409 tonnes)<br />

separately.<br />

Freshwater fish nei<br />

Statistics from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR have reported the<br />

reduction <strong>of</strong> “Freshwater fish nei” from 2 million<br />

tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 to less than 540 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong><br />

2004. These fish are now reported by species<br />

<strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong>terest<strong>in</strong>gly, are mostly carnivorous species<br />

with the exception <strong>of</strong> Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (Piaractus<br />

brachypomus). The species which are now<br />

reported <strong>in</strong> detail are Amur Catfish (245 874),<br />

Snakehead (238 754), Swamp eel (137 486),<br />

Pirapat<strong>in</strong>ga (86 409), Pond loach (79 409), Yellow<br />

catfish (63 062), Channel catfish (62 618), Sea trout<br />

(11 869), Sturgeons nei (11 269), Pond smelt<br />

(10 056), Ch<strong>in</strong>ese longsnout catfish (5 938) <strong>and</strong><br />

Salmonids nei (2 366).<br />

Milkfish<br />

Milkfish culture is a strong tradition <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es which reflects the country’s preference<br />

for the species. There are also traditions <strong>of</strong> milkfish<br />

culture <strong>in</strong> some <strong>of</strong> the Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong>s (Kiribati,<br />

Nauru, Cook Isl<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> Palau). Of these<br />

countries only Kiribati reports production to <strong>FAO</strong>.<br />

Milkfish have typically been produced <strong>in</strong><br />

brackishwater ponds but there is an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

trend <strong>in</strong> reported mariculture production, <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the use <strong>of</strong> more <strong>in</strong>tensive cage systems. These<br />

systems are fed with either pellets or trash fish <strong>and</strong><br />

are part <strong>of</strong> the general trend <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong><br />

mariculture <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es.<br />

Indonesia <strong>and</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es are traditionally<br />

the largest producers. Taiwan POC is reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

its production, possibly because <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

attention to higher value species. S<strong>in</strong>gapore has<br />

steadily developed its mariculture <strong>of</strong> milkfish<br />

(Table 22).<br />

Table 22<br />

Milkfish top four producer States (2004)<br />

Country Culture Environment Tonnes<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es Brackishwater 208 975<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e 37 351<br />

Freshwater 27 266<br />

Indonesia Brackishwater 241 418<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e 20<br />

Taiwan POC Brackishwater 25 053<br />

Freshwater 31 800<br />

S<strong>in</strong>gapore Mar<strong>in</strong>e 1 839<br />

Mullet<br />

Pond based brackishwater culture <strong>of</strong> mullet is<br />

typical but Korea RO has been report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mariculture production s<strong>in</strong>ce 2000. Indonesia has<br />

the largest production <strong>of</strong> this species <strong>and</strong><br />

experienced a sharp decl<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> 1998 but shows<br />

a fluctuat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend. Taiwan POC has<br />

relatively stable production but has seen a gradual<br />

reduction <strong>in</strong> production. Thail<strong>and</strong> has greatly<br />

reduced production <strong>in</strong> recent years.<br />

4.3 Crustaceans<br />

Whilst a number <strong>of</strong> crustacean species are<br />

cultured, the predom<strong>in</strong>ant commercial species are<br />

brackishwater shrimps, freshwater prawns <strong>and</strong><br />

freshwater/brackishwater crabs.<br />

Penaeid shrimp culture<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e shrimp cont<strong>in</strong>ued to dom<strong>in</strong>ate crustacean<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong>, with two major species account<strong>in</strong>g for<br />

over 56 percent <strong>of</strong> the total crustacean production<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004 (the White leg shrimp, Penaeus vannamei<br />

<strong>and</strong> Giant Tiger shrimp, Penaeus monodon). White<br />

leg shrimp production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

from 2 000 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2000 to over a million tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004. A significant amount <strong>of</strong> this production<br />

comes from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR (735 055 tonnes) <strong>and</strong><br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> (276 600) as well as <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g amounts<br />

from Indonesia <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam. Many other<br />

countries are now produc<strong>in</strong>g this species, however,<br />

not yet at a level where it is enter<strong>in</strong>g the statistics.<br />

Whilst the White leg shrimp ranked 10 th by weight<br />

<strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> regional <strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>in</strong> 2004,<br />

it ranked 1 st by value at US$3 684 million.<br />

Cultured shrimp production <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

reached 2.6 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004 (account<strong>in</strong>g<br />

for 65 percent <strong>of</strong> total shrimp l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs). The<br />

production <strong>of</strong> P. monodon has ranged between<br />

560 000 <strong>and</strong> 720 000 tonnes s<strong>in</strong>ce 1994, whilst<br />

its contribution to overall shrimp production has<br />

decl<strong>in</strong>ed from over 70 percent to 33 percent <strong>in</strong><br />

2004, as P. vannamei production has drastically<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased. P. ch<strong>in</strong>ensis had a stable <strong>in</strong>crease<br />

dur<strong>in</strong>g the 1990’s but has decreased s<strong>in</strong>ce 2002 to<br />

its lowest level s<strong>in</strong>ce 1985.<br />

Production trends <strong>in</strong> the region have <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

over the past ten years for the major producers<br />

(Table 23). Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR suffered a major setback <strong>in</strong><br />

the mid-1990s due to the occurrence <strong>of</strong> viral<br />

diseases <strong>in</strong> shrimp culture, but s<strong>in</strong>ce that time<br />

production has slowly recovered <strong>and</strong> has been<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g rapidly <strong>in</strong> recent years.<br />

41


Table 23<br />

Penaeid shrimp top ten producer States (2004)<br />

Country<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 935 944<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 390 000<br />

Viet Nam 275 569<br />

Indonesia 238 341<br />

India 133 020<br />

Bangladesh 58 044<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 37 947<br />

Malaysia 30 838<br />

Myanmar 30 000<br />

Taiwan POC 12 913<br />

Other major producers, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Viet Nam,<br />

have also encountered fluctuations <strong>in</strong> production<br />

which are primarily associated with the impact <strong>of</strong><br />

diseases. Production <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, India,<br />

Sri Lanka <strong>and</strong> Indonesia has also been affected by<br />

the impact <strong>of</strong> viral diseases (typically WSSV 6 ).<br />

Generally, high <strong>in</strong>ternational market dem<strong>and</strong> has<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong>terest <strong>in</strong> the culture <strong>of</strong> shrimp for<br />

export.<br />

Total production <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> was<br />

approximately 1.1 million tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2004. The ma<strong>in</strong><br />

reason for the importation <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei to <strong>Asia</strong><br />

has been the poor performance, slow growth rate<br />

<strong>and</strong> disease susceptibility <strong>of</strong> the major <strong>in</strong>digenous<br />

cultured shrimp species, P. ch<strong>in</strong>ensis <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />

<strong>and</strong> P. monodon virtually everywhere else. Shrimp<br />

production <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> has been marred by serious<br />

viral pathogens caus<strong>in</strong>g significant losses to the<br />

culture <strong>in</strong>dustries <strong>of</strong> most <strong>Asia</strong>n States over<br />

the past decade. It was not until the late 1990s<br />

that, spurred by the production <strong>of</strong> the imported<br />

P. vannamei, <strong>Asia</strong>n (<strong>and</strong> therefore world) production<br />

levels began to <strong>in</strong>crease aga<strong>in</strong>.<br />

There are problems associated with this dramatic<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the production <strong>of</strong> P. vannamei <strong>in</strong> terms<br />

<strong>of</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the product. With so many States<br />

now produc<strong>in</strong>g essentially the same product, global<br />

prices dropped dramatically dur<strong>in</strong>g 2002-2003.<br />

There has been a trend towards decreas<strong>in</strong>g shrimp<br />

prices for a number <strong>of</strong> years now. This has followup<br />

effects regard<strong>in</strong>g the actual value <strong>of</strong> the product<br />

sold <strong>and</strong> disagreements regard<strong>in</strong>g possible<br />

“dump<strong>in</strong>g” <strong>of</strong> shrimp onto markets.<br />

Freshwater prawns<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR <strong>and</strong> India have recently <strong>in</strong>creased the<br />

production <strong>of</strong> freshwater prawns (their respective<br />

production levels were zero <strong>and</strong> 311 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 1994<br />

as compared to 339 913 tonnes <strong>and</strong> 38 965 <strong>in</strong><br />

2004). Even Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Bangladesh show<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> production <strong>of</strong> freshwater<br />

prawns. Other producers have had relatively stable<br />

production levels (Table 24).<br />

Table 24<br />

Freshwater prawn top eight producer States<br />

(2004)<br />

Country<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 339 913<br />

India 38 965<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> 28 500<br />

Bangladesh 17 123<br />

Taiwan POC 10 039<br />

Viet Nam 7 6 247<br />

Malaysia 317<br />

Indonesia 290<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce it is not easy to <strong>in</strong>tensify production <strong>of</strong><br />

freshwater prawns due to their territorial habits<br />

<strong>and</strong> divergent growth effects, the development <strong>of</strong><br />

this sector is reasonably slow. In some States the<br />

sector has shrunk, as attention <strong>and</strong> resources have<br />

been diverted to brackishwater shrimp production.<br />

There have also been significant <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the<br />

production <strong>of</strong> L. vannamei <strong>and</strong> other Penaeid<br />

shrimp <strong>in</strong> freshwater (or extremely low sal<strong>in</strong>ity<br />

systems <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>). Reported production is very low<br />

(only 4 611 tonnes <strong>of</strong> L. vannamei are currently<br />

reported from freshwater production) <strong>and</strong> does not<br />

reflect the fact that there is substantial production<br />

<strong>of</strong> this species <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> areas.<br />

Although the pr<strong>in</strong>ciple species cultured <strong>in</strong><br />

freshwater (M. rosenbergii) does not suffer the<br />

same problems with viral diseases that impact the<br />

brackishwater shrimp <strong>in</strong>dustry so severely, export<br />

markets for freshwater prawns are much smaller<br />

<strong>and</strong> less developed. This is because consumers<br />

<strong>in</strong> general are not as familiar with these species as<br />

with brackishwater shrimp. Freshwater prawns,<br />

however, enjoy good domestic markets, especially<br />

<strong>in</strong> South <strong>and</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n States.<br />

6 Shrimp White Spot Syndrome Virus.<br />

7<br />

This figure was reported as freshwater crustaceans nei.,<br />

which was most likely freshwater prawn production, <strong>and</strong><br />

hence it is <strong>in</strong>cluded here.<br />

42


Crabs<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>ese river crab (Eriocheir s<strong>in</strong>ensis) <strong>and</strong><br />

Indo-Pacific swamp crab (Scylla serrata)<br />

constituted the major cultured crabs <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR production <strong>of</strong> Eriocheir s<strong>in</strong>ensis <strong>and</strong><br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs 8 has shown very strong growth s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />

1994 <strong>and</strong> they were ranked 14 th <strong>and</strong> 4 th respectively<br />

among the region’s top cultured crab species <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e waters <strong>in</strong> 2004. Indo-Pacific<br />

swamp crab showed stable <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g production<br />

trends for the past decade. The report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e crabs nei from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has decl<strong>in</strong>ed from<br />

178 185 tonnes <strong>in</strong> 2002 to around 10 000 tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004. At the same time, the named species <strong>of</strong><br />

Indo-Pacific swamp crab <strong>and</strong> Swimm<strong>in</strong>g crabs etc.,<br />

nei has <strong>in</strong>creased from zero to 108 503 tonnes <strong>and</strong><br />

74 625 tonnes respectively.<br />

4.4 Molluscs<br />

Mollusc culture is split <strong>in</strong>to low value species<br />

produced <strong>in</strong> extensive cultured systems (e.g.<br />

seeded blood cockle mudflats, mussel <strong>and</strong> oyster<br />

stake culture) <strong>and</strong> high value species produced <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>tensive systems (fed systems, <strong>and</strong> possibly<br />

recirculation).<br />

Recent improved breakdown by species <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> production <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>ese molluscs has<br />

given a better <strong>in</strong>dication <strong>of</strong> the proportion <strong>of</strong> low<br />

<strong>and</strong> high value mollusc production. Reported<br />

production <strong>of</strong> “Molluscs nei” <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has<br />

dropped from 1.25 million to 800 000 tonnes.<br />

Whilst it is possible to separate species such as<br />

Abalone or Giant clam as high value species, there<br />

are difficulties with some species such as mussels<br />

that may be cultured <strong>in</strong> low <strong>in</strong>put systems <strong>in</strong> one<br />

country (e.g. Thail<strong>and</strong>) but relatively high <strong>in</strong>put <strong>in</strong><br />

another (e.g. New Zeal<strong>and</strong>). Many States report<br />

their mollusc production <strong>in</strong> a large group<strong>in</strong>g such<br />

as mar<strong>in</strong>e molluscs nei.<br />

The IFPRI/WFC outlook on fish supply 9 projected<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g mollusc production, although this may<br />

have been based on current production trends<br />

rather than resource <strong>potential</strong>. The issue <strong>of</strong> site<br />

availability is likely to constra<strong>in</strong> future development<br />

<strong>of</strong> mollusc culture <strong>in</strong> several States as can be seen<br />

for the examples <strong>of</strong> Japan <strong>and</strong> Korea RO (Table 25<br />

<strong>and</strong> 26). In these two States, the production <strong>of</strong><br />

molluscs <strong>and</strong> seaweeds has been relatively stable<br />

for many years. This <strong>in</strong>dicates that suitable sites<br />

may now all be taken.<br />

Table 25<br />

Lower value molluscs top ten producer (2002)<br />

Country Species Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Japanese carpet shell 2 799 004<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Constricted tagelus 676 391<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Blood cockle 323 225<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> Green mussel 296 900<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Sea snails 202 452<br />

New Zeal<strong>and</strong> New Zeal<strong>and</strong> mussel 85 000<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Swan mussel 84 895<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> Blood cockle 75 600<br />

Malaysia Blood cockle 64 565<br />

Korea RO Japanese carpet shell 27 570<br />

Table 26<br />

Higher value molluscs top ten producer (2002)<br />

Country Species Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Pacific cupped oyster 3 750 910<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR Yesso scallop 910 352<br />

Korea RO Pacific cupped oyster 239 270<br />

Japan Pacific cupped oyster 234 151<br />

Japan Yesso scallop 215 203<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> Cupped oyster nei 27 900<br />

Taiwan POC Pacific cupped oyster 20 750<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es Slipper cupped oyster 15 915<br />

Australia Sydney cupped oyster 5 600<br />

Australia Pacific cupped oyster 3 495<br />

Unlike fish culture, the <strong>in</strong>tensification <strong>of</strong> mollusc<br />

culture is quite difficult <strong>and</strong> probably not<br />

economically viable. The trend <strong>in</strong> mollusc culture<br />

is more likely to be a shift from lower value species<br />

to higher value species <strong>in</strong> those areas where sites<br />

are suitable.<br />

A further dimension is the development <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensive<br />

on shore culture operations such as those for<br />

abalone <strong>and</strong> a number <strong>of</strong> gastropod species.<br />

4.5 Aquatic plants<br />

8 Although the species name is not specified <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR<br />

<strong>of</strong>ficial statistics, it is most likely Indo-Pacific swamp crab.<br />

9<br />

Delgado, C.D, Wada, N., Rosegrant, M.W., Meijer, S. <strong>and</strong><br />

Ahmed, M. (2003). Fish to 2020. Supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

chang<strong>in</strong>g global markets. WorldFish Center Technical<br />

Report 62. 226 pp.<br />

Aquatic plant production can be divided <strong>in</strong>to two<br />

dist<strong>in</strong>ct groups. The first group consists <strong>of</strong><br />

seaweeds <strong>of</strong> temperate waters solely <strong>and</strong><br />

traditionally used for food purposes <strong>and</strong> the second<br />

group consists <strong>of</strong> tropical species ma<strong>in</strong>ly<br />

processed as a source <strong>of</strong> commercially valuable<br />

43


iopolymers (carrageenan, agar) that are used for<br />

various food <strong>and</strong> non-food purposes (Table 27).<br />

Table 27<br />

Aquatic plants top ten producer States (2004)<br />

Countries<br />

Tonnes<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR 10 714 610<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es 1 204 808<br />

Korea RO 547 108<br />

Japan 484 389<br />

Korea DPR 444 295<br />

Indonesia 410 570<br />

Malaysia 30 957<br />

Viet Nam 30 000<br />

Cambodia 16 840<br />

Taiwan POC 9 164<br />

Seaweeds for food purposes<br />

This group <strong>in</strong>cludes Japanese kelp, laver (Nori),<br />

green laver <strong>and</strong> Wakame. The production <strong>of</strong> these<br />

species is conf<strong>in</strong>ed to East <strong>Asia</strong>n States <strong>and</strong> has<br />

a relatively stable production.<br />

Major cultured aquatic plants <strong>in</strong> East <strong>Asia</strong> are Laver<br />

(Nori), Japanese kelp <strong>and</strong> Wakame. They are all<br />

seaweeds for food purposes <strong>in</strong> contrast to those<br />

produced <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, which are ma<strong>in</strong>ly used<br />

as a source <strong>of</strong> commercially valuable biopolymers.<br />

The only exception to this is Japanese kelp<br />

culture, which has the largest share <strong>of</strong> production<br />

(33 percent <strong>in</strong> 2004). Its production doubled from<br />

two million tonnes <strong>in</strong> the three years to 1993 <strong>and</strong><br />

another one million tonnes was added <strong>in</strong> the next<br />

six years. This rapid <strong>in</strong>crease was probably due<br />

to cont<strong>in</strong>ued expansion <strong>of</strong> cultured areas <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a.<br />

Production <strong>of</strong> Japanese kelp peaked <strong>in</strong> 1999 <strong>and</strong><br />

s<strong>in</strong>ce then has stabilized, which might <strong>in</strong>dicate that<br />

the rapid expansion <strong>of</strong> production area reached<br />

a limit <strong>and</strong> further sites are not available.<br />

Recent detailed report<strong>in</strong>g from Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has given<br />

a clearer picture <strong>of</strong> aquatic plant production<br />

(Table 28).<br />

Seaweeds for biopolymers<br />

This group consists <strong>of</strong> Eucheuma, Kappaphycus,<br />

Gracilaria, red seaweeds <strong>and</strong> others. The<br />

Table 28<br />

Aquatic plants top ten cultured species (2004)<br />

Species<br />

Tonnes<br />

Japanese kelp 4 519 701<br />

Wakame 2 519 880<br />

Laver (Nori) 1 397 660<br />

Zanzibar weed (Euchema) 1 070 794<br />

Warty gracilaria 898 027<br />

Red seaweeds 410 570<br />

Fusiform sargassum 131 680<br />

Eucheuma seaweeds nei 101 889<br />

Sp<strong>in</strong>y eucheuma 85 754<br />

Elkhorn sea moss 44 814<br />

Philipp<strong>in</strong>es has the highest production <strong>of</strong> these<br />

aquatic plants <strong>and</strong> Eucheuma cottonii (Zanzibar<br />

weed) production <strong>in</strong> the Philipp<strong>in</strong>es far exceeds the<br />

production <strong>of</strong> other seaweeds (one million tonnes<br />

<strong>in</strong> 2004).<br />

New areas are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigated for the expansion<br />

<strong>of</strong> seaweed production s<strong>in</strong>ce global dem<strong>and</strong> for<br />

carrageenan <strong>and</strong> other alg<strong>in</strong>ates is expected to<br />

cont<strong>in</strong>ue to rise.<br />

4.6 Reptiles <strong>and</strong> amphibians<br />

Reported species are s<strong>of</strong>t shell turtle, crocodiles<br />

<strong>and</strong> frogs. Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has greatly <strong>in</strong>creased its<br />

reported production <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t-shell turtle <strong>in</strong> the past<br />

five years. The production <strong>of</strong> s<strong>of</strong>t-shell turles <strong>in</strong><br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR has <strong>in</strong>creased by 77 percent <strong>in</strong> five years<br />

to total production <strong>of</strong> 163 257 tonnes. Other states<br />

who reported production <strong>of</strong> turtles are Thail<strong>and</strong>,<br />

Taiwan POC <strong>and</strong> Korea RO.<br />

There are limited data on frog production, although<br />

frogs are be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly cultured <strong>in</strong> many<br />

States. Ch<strong>in</strong>a has reported production <strong>of</strong><br />

73 837 tonnes <strong>of</strong> frogs <strong>in</strong> 2004. The small size <strong>of</strong><br />

a typical frog farm (us<strong>in</strong>g small cement tanks or<br />

even pens) means that quantification <strong>of</strong> this type<br />

<strong>of</strong> operation is problematic.<br />

Crocodile production is grow<strong>in</strong>g quickly <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region with Cambodia export<strong>in</strong>g juvenile<br />

crocodiles to both Viet Nam <strong>and</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a PR.<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea also have<br />

crocodile farms. This production is rarely reported<br />

<strong>in</strong> fishery or <strong>aquaculture</strong> statistics.<br />

44


4.7 Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species<br />

There are a number <strong>of</strong> niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species<br />

that this review does not cover with statistical<br />

<strong>in</strong>formation. These species are either cultured at<br />

the pilot/experimental level or simply not reported<br />

by many States. Some <strong>of</strong> the species are not food<br />

type commodities (e.g. sponge <strong>and</strong> pearls,<br />

ornamental shells, ornamental fish) <strong>and</strong> are<br />

therefore not rout<strong>in</strong>ely monitored by the authority<br />

report<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong>formation (Table 29).<br />

Table 29<br />

Niche <strong>aquaculture</strong> species (2004)<br />

Species<br />

Tonnes<br />

Japanese sea cucumber 53 315<br />

Jellyfishes 39 415<br />

Sea squirts nei 21 442<br />

Sea urch<strong>in</strong>s nei 7 491<br />

Aquatic <strong>in</strong>vertebrates nei 2 744<br />

Sea cucumbers nei 42<br />

45


5. Selected issues fac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific<br />

5.1 Illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong> unregulated<br />

(IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region 1<br />

Background<br />

The <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is a major world producer<br />

<strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> products <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> 2004, the<br />

region produced almost 50 percent <strong>of</strong> the world’s<br />

total fish catch from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> about<br />

90 percent <strong>of</strong> global <strong>aquaculture</strong> production, with<br />

much <strong>of</strong> this com<strong>in</strong>g from the four major producers:<br />

Ch<strong>in</strong>a, India, Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> Indonesia. However, <strong>in</strong><br />

recent years, there has been a general trend <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region <strong>of</strong> significant decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong> coastal fishery<br />

resources. 2 Although <strong>in</strong>creased <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

production has been proposed <strong>in</strong> many countries<br />

<strong>of</strong> the region as a way <strong>of</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

wild fish stocks, this may be difficult because much<br />

<strong>of</strong> this <strong>aquaculture</strong> growth is currently dependent<br />

on the use <strong>of</strong> low value/trash fish derived from<br />

wild stocks for feed<strong>in</strong>g the cultured species,<br />

either directly or by its utilisation <strong>in</strong> processed fish<br />

meal/oil.<br />

Previous growth <strong>in</strong> production from wild mar<strong>in</strong>e fish<br />

stocks <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, <strong>and</strong> particularly<br />

<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region <strong>and</strong> APFIC<br />

Convention Area, has been achieved not by<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able, active management <strong>of</strong> stocks by<br />

coastal States but, almost without exception, by<br />

a process <strong>of</strong> sequentially deplet<strong>in</strong>g wild fish stocks<br />

with<strong>in</strong> an essentially unregulated management<br />

environment with fleets moved from one target<br />

species to another <strong>and</strong> from one area to another<br />

to susta<strong>in</strong> l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs. 3 However, although this<br />

process has fuelled the growth <strong>of</strong> fish production<br />

<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region for the past<br />

150 years, it has now run its course s<strong>in</strong>ce there are<br />

virtually no new unexploited fish stocks or areas<br />

rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> or outside the region that fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fleets can move to. Therefore, the only way that<br />

mar<strong>in</strong>e fish l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs (<strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> production,<br />

which depends on those l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs) can be<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>in</strong> the sub-region is for countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />

1 <strong>FAO</strong> consultant’s report provided by Gary M<strong>org</strong>an,<br />

Consultant, Australia.<br />

2<br />

Sugiyama, S., Staples, D. & Funge-Smith, S.J. 2004.<br />

<strong>Status</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>potential</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific. <strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific. RAP<br />

Publication 2004/25. 53 pp.<br />

3<br />

Butcher, J.G. 2004. The Clos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the Frontier: A History<br />

<strong>of</strong> the Mar<strong>in</strong>e Fisheries <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> c.1850-2000.<br />

Modern Economic History <strong>of</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, Institute <strong>of</strong><br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n Studies, S<strong>in</strong>gapore, 442 pp.<br />

sub-region, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific more generally,<br />

to urgently move to more active management<br />

<strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fish stocks to achieve long-term<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>ability.<br />

An important part <strong>of</strong> this essential move to better<br />

management <strong>of</strong> the region’s mar<strong>in</strong>e <strong>fisheries</strong> is to<br />

address the issue <strong>of</strong> illegal, unreported <strong>and</strong><br />

unregulated (IUU) fish<strong>in</strong>g. As coastal States<br />

develop new management regimes as well as<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> management plans <strong>and</strong> regulations to<br />

manage fish stocks under their jurisdiction for longterm<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>ability, the issue <strong>of</strong> controll<strong>in</strong>g IUU<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g becomes essential <strong>in</strong> achiev<strong>in</strong>g the aims <strong>of</strong><br />

those management regimes, management plans<br />

<strong>and</strong> regulations.<br />

The impact <strong>of</strong> current levels <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region generally has not been<br />

explicitly estimated but it is certa<strong>in</strong>ly large <strong>and</strong><br />

multi-faceted <strong>and</strong>, like IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g everywhere,<br />

<strong>in</strong>volves both direct <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>direct economic losses<br />

<strong>and</strong> social impacts. 4 Current annual economic<br />

losses to the region could amount to about<br />

US$5.8 billion annually, 5 with this figure be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

consistent with the estimate made by DFID 6 <strong>of</strong><br />

worldwide losses <strong>of</strong> US$4-9 billion as a result <strong>of</strong><br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Clearly, the issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g is a major factor<br />

<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> threatens not only the<br />

long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> fish stocks <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

but is currently impos<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>and</strong> will impose <strong>in</strong> the<br />

future, significant economic <strong>and</strong> social costs to the<br />

countries <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />

This review exam<strong>in</strong>es the issues <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region <strong>and</strong> APFIC<br />

Convention Area <strong>in</strong> particular <strong>and</strong> more broadly <strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the legislative <strong>and</strong><br />

4 MRAG. 2005. Review <strong>of</strong> Impacts <strong>of</strong> Illegal, Unreported<br />

<strong>and</strong> Unregulated Fish<strong>in</strong>g on Develop<strong>in</strong>g Countries, Synthesis<br />

Report. Mar<strong>in</strong>e Resources Assessment Group, for the UK<br />

Department <strong>of</strong> International Development, London. 17 pp.<br />

5 This is based on annual catches for the region <strong>of</strong> 45 million<br />

tonnes together with an average price <strong>of</strong> US$0.80/kg <strong>and</strong> an<br />

annual loss <strong>of</strong> 16 percent <strong>of</strong> catch value, as estimated by<br />

MRAG (2005).<br />

6 DFID. 2005. Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> an International Workshop<br />

on Impacts <strong>of</strong> Illegal Unreported <strong>and</strong> Unregulated Fish<strong>in</strong>g on<br />

Develop<strong>in</strong>g Countries, 16 th to 17 th June 2005, London. UK<br />

Department for International Development (DFID) <strong>and</strong><br />

Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD).<br />

46


material capacity to combat the problem, <strong>and</strong><br />

proposes recommendations for address<strong>in</strong>g what is<br />

probably the greatest threat to fish stocks, <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> those who depend on them that the region has<br />

faced.<br />

What is IUU?<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g occurs at a number <strong>of</strong> levels with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> the problems <strong>and</strong> the<br />

responses needed to address each level varies.<br />

Three pr<strong>in</strong>cipal types <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />

identified:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> a nation’s EEZ by nationals<br />

<strong>of</strong> the coastal State. Such illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g, by<br />

its very def<strong>in</strong>ition, is fish<strong>in</strong>g contrary to the<br />

laws <strong>of</strong> the coastal State <strong>and</strong> may <strong>in</strong>volve<br />

us<strong>in</strong>g illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g gear, fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> closed<br />

areas, fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> closed seasons etc. With<br />

generally open-access <strong>fisheries</strong>, <strong>in</strong>adequate<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance<br />

capabilities <strong>and</strong> division <strong>of</strong> regulatory power<br />

between national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial <strong>and</strong> local levels,<br />

this type <strong>of</strong> illegal fish<strong>in</strong>g is extremely common<br />

<strong>in</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the region.<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g by foreign vessels with<strong>in</strong> a<br />

nation’s EEZ. Such fish<strong>in</strong>g not only<br />

contravenes the laws <strong>of</strong> the coastal State but,<br />

<strong>in</strong> some cases, also contravenes the laws <strong>of</strong><br />

the flag State <strong>and</strong> perhaps <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

conventions <strong>and</strong> bi-lateral agreements. With<strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, this type <strong>of</strong> illegal<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g is also common. As an example <strong>of</strong> the<br />

extent <strong>of</strong> this type <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region,<br />

the Foreign M<strong>in</strong>istry <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> estimated <strong>in</strong><br />

1996 that a total <strong>of</strong> 3 889 Thai fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels<br />

were operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the waters <strong>of</strong> other countries<br />

(ma<strong>in</strong>ly <strong>in</strong> Myanmar, Indonesia, Malaysia,<br />

Viet Nam, Bangladesh Cambodia, Brunei <strong>and</strong><br />

India) but that only an estimated 1 079 <strong>of</strong> these<br />

were operat<strong>in</strong>g “legally”, while the other 2 810<br />

were operat<strong>in</strong>g “illegally”. 7 In fact, the National<br />

Development Plan <strong>of</strong> Thail<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />

a provision for at least half <strong>of</strong> its production<br />

target to come from other country’s EZZ,<br />

thereby imply<strong>in</strong>g a large degree <strong>of</strong> regional<br />

cooperation <strong>in</strong> the form <strong>of</strong> access agreements<br />

to make this IUU compliant.<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g on the high seas. S<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />

declaration <strong>of</strong> 200 mile Exclusive Economic<br />

Zones (EEZs) by nations <strong>of</strong> the region, the<br />

extent <strong>of</strong> high seas area has shrunk<br />

7<br />

Butcher, J.G. 2002. Gett<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to trouble: the Diaspora<br />

<strong>of</strong> Thai trawlers, 1975-2002. International Journal <strong>of</strong> Maritime<br />

History, 14(2): 85-121.<br />

considerably, particularly <strong>in</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

sub-region (Figure 1) where most waters are<br />

now part <strong>of</strong> EEZs. Therefore, the opportunity<br />

to fish <strong>in</strong> high seas areas is limited <strong>in</strong><br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, although areas such as the<br />

Indian Ocean still have significant high seas<br />

areas (Figure 34). Apart from the Indian<br />

Ocean Tuna Commission (IOTC) <strong>and</strong> the<br />

Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific Fisheries<br />

Commission (WCPFC), both <strong>of</strong> which are<br />

species-focussed, there are no Regional<br />

Fisheries Management Organizations <strong>in</strong> the<br />

area that have a co-ord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g management<br />

role for these high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific, which are, as a consequence,<br />

unregulated.<br />

Given the above considerations, anecdotal<br />

evidence 3, 8 not surpris<strong>in</strong>gly shows that, with<strong>in</strong><br />

the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>n sub-region <strong>and</strong> also the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region generally, by far the most<br />

common form <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g is that which occurs<br />

with<strong>in</strong> the EEZs <strong>of</strong> countries <strong>of</strong> the regions<br />

(both by nationals <strong>and</strong> by other flag States) <strong>and</strong><br />

therefore with<strong>in</strong> national jurisdictions. The<br />

will<strong>in</strong>gness, legislative capability, operational<br />

capability <strong>and</strong> governance structures <strong>of</strong> national<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> jurisdictions are therefore <strong>of</strong> paramount<br />

importance <strong>in</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

This is <strong>in</strong> contrast to many other regions <strong>of</strong> the<br />

world, where the focus <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g has been on<br />

high seas’ issues.<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

The genesis <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

The common occurrence <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region has its orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> four separate, but<br />

<strong>in</strong>ter-related, factors:<br />

(i)<br />

(ii)<br />

an historical lack <strong>of</strong> management <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capacity at the national level which has<br />

resulted, <strong>in</strong> most countries <strong>of</strong> the region, <strong>in</strong><br />

levels <strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity far <strong>in</strong> excess <strong>of</strong> that<br />

needed to exploit the <strong>fisheries</strong> resources <strong>of</strong><br />

their EEZs <strong>in</strong> a susta<strong>in</strong>able way;<br />

government subsidies, particularly <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region, for the build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

large <strong>of</strong>fshore vessels (Butcher, 2004), most<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten motivated by a desire to shift fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

efforts out <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>shore coastal waters;<br />

8 Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P., C. Cull<strong>in</strong>an, D. Balton, R. Sautter & J.E.<br />

Reynolds. 2003. Recent Trends <strong>in</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, Control <strong>and</strong><br />

Surveillance Systems for Capture Fisheries. Rome. <strong>FAO</strong><br />

Fisheries Tech. Pap. 415; 200 pp.<br />

47


Figure 34<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region show<strong>in</strong>g the high seas areas <strong>in</strong> the Pacific <strong>and</strong> Indian Oceans <strong>and</strong> national<br />

Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) <strong>and</strong> Territorial Seas. Note that the boundaries <strong>of</strong> EEZs are for<br />

illustrative purposes only <strong>and</strong> do not represent precise boundaries or claim.<br />

High Seas – Pacific Ocean<br />

High Seas – Indian Ocean<br />

EEZ areas & Territorial Seas<br />

48


(iii)<br />

(iv)<br />

generally weak governance structures<br />

<strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance<br />

capabilities at the national level to deter illegal<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g; <strong>and</strong><br />

the lack <strong>of</strong> a regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization to coord<strong>in</strong>ate susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

exploitation <strong>of</strong> species (many <strong>of</strong> which,<br />

particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>, cross national<br />

boundaries) <strong>and</strong> to address issues <strong>of</strong><br />

management <strong>of</strong> high seas areas, other than<br />

tuna.<br />

National legislative <strong>and</strong> governance issues<br />

The provisions <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation <strong>in</strong><br />

15 countries <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

13 APFIC members) were exam<strong>in</strong>ed <strong>and</strong> several<br />

important po<strong>in</strong>ts were immediately apparent:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Regulations relat<strong>in</strong>g to foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong><br />

a nation’s EEZ differ markedly between<br />

countries, despite many stocks be<strong>in</strong>g shared<br />

between countries <strong>of</strong> the region. These<br />

range from a complete ban on foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

(e.g. Philipp<strong>in</strong>es, Thail<strong>and</strong>) to jo<strong>in</strong>t venture<br />

arrangements (India, Sri Lanka) to seem<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

flexible arrangements requir<strong>in</strong>g only the issue<br />

<strong>of</strong> a license to a foreign vessel (e.g. Myanmar).<br />

While some countries (e.g. Japan, Thail<strong>and</strong>,<br />

Indonesia etc) require permits from national<br />

authorities for national vessels to undertake<br />

foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g, only two (Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea<br />

<strong>and</strong> Viet Nam) make it an <strong>of</strong>fence under<br />

national legislation for national vessels to fish<br />

illegally <strong>in</strong> either another country’s EEZ or on<br />

the high seas.<br />

44 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed have<br />

the legislative capacity to limit license numbers<br />

<strong>of</strong> national fishers with<strong>in</strong> their EEZ. The other<br />

56 percent <strong>of</strong> countries do not have<br />

the legislative capacity to limit the number <strong>of</strong><br />

licenses <strong>and</strong> therefore cannot, legislatively,<br />

limit fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity with<strong>in</strong> their EEZs.<br />

69 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed have<br />

legislation which either allows or m<strong>and</strong>ates a<br />

dual- or multi-layered system <strong>of</strong> management<br />

with management <strong>and</strong> other functions able to<br />

be carried out at the national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial,<br />

district or village level. Not all <strong>of</strong> the countries<br />

that implement such a multi-layered system<br />

appear to have legislative coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g<br />

mechanisms <strong>in</strong> place to ensure national<br />

consistency <strong>in</strong> management measures.<br />

●<br />

Although many stocks cross national<br />

boundaries, there is no regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>org</strong>anization that can coord<strong>in</strong>ate management<br />

measures across jurisdictions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g high<br />

seas areas.<br />

In brief, therefore, capacity to mange IUU <strong>in</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region is seriously uncoord<strong>in</strong>ated<br />

<strong>and</strong> fragmented at both the national <strong>and</strong> regional<br />

level.<br />

International agreements <strong>and</strong> arrangements<br />

In addition to the management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

resources (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g activities)<br />

with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs through national legislation,<br />

there are also a range <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational agreements,<br />

arrangements <strong>and</strong> treaties <strong>in</strong> place which set out<br />

conditions <strong>of</strong> access for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets to<br />

nation’s EEZs. The majority <strong>of</strong> these arrangements<br />

are bi-lateral agreements although there is no<br />

formal mechanism <strong>in</strong> place for coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g such<br />

<strong>in</strong>struments between countries.<br />

Countries <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region (<strong>in</strong> particular,<br />

those <strong>of</strong> the Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> sub-region), generally<br />

have not supported <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>and</strong> regional<br />

multi-lateral <strong>in</strong>itiatives to coord<strong>in</strong>ate issues<br />

<strong>of</strong> management, access arrangements <strong>and</strong><br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g control <strong>and</strong> surveillance <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong>.<br />

Only 12 percent <strong>of</strong> the region’s countries exam<strong>in</strong>ed<br />

have signed the UN Straddl<strong>in</strong>g Stocks Agreement,<br />

only 19 percent have signed the <strong>FAO</strong> Compliance<br />

Agreement <strong>and</strong> less than 10 percent have<br />

developed a national plan <strong>of</strong> action to combat IUU<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g. Even less have been able to implement<br />

these agreements <strong>and</strong> plans (see capacity to<br />

address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, below).<br />

Countries <strong>of</strong> the region therefore rely on national<br />

legislation (which, as <strong>in</strong>dicated above, is <strong>of</strong>ten<br />

<strong>in</strong>adequate) <strong>and</strong> bi-lateral arrangements, which are<br />

not coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally, to regulate access to<br />

their EEZs.<br />

In contrast, <strong>and</strong> as an example <strong>of</strong> what can be<br />

achieved through coord<strong>in</strong>ated multi-lateral action,<br />

countries <strong>of</strong> the western Pacific 9 have developed<br />

coord<strong>in</strong>at<strong>in</strong>g mechanisms, <strong>of</strong>ten through the Forum<br />

Fisheries Agency, to regulate access almost all <strong>of</strong><br />

which undertaken by foreign fleets, to their large<br />

9 These <strong>in</strong>clude Federated States <strong>of</strong> Micronesia, Kiribati,<br />

Marshall Isl<strong>and</strong>s, Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Nauru, Palau <strong>and</strong> the<br />

Solomon Isl<strong>and</strong>s.<br />

49


EEZs <strong>and</strong> for manag<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the tuna stocks<br />

with<strong>in</strong> these EEZs.<br />

Capacity to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Apart from legislative issues, the issue <strong>of</strong> illegal<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> outside a nation’s EEZ is also<br />

impacted by the monitor<strong>in</strong>g, compliance <strong>and</strong><br />

surveillance (MCS) capabilities <strong>of</strong> the coastal<br />

State to enforce legislation. Such capabilities<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly <strong>in</strong>volve self-regulation <strong>and</strong> communitybased<br />

participation through a co-management<br />

approach, which <strong>in</strong>volves a partnership between<br />

government <strong>and</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> manag<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a fishery.<br />

With<strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, the capabilities<br />

for effective MCS vary widely. 10 Monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capabilities are generally poorly developed <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region, particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. Control<br />

capabilities also vary widely with, for example,<br />

some countries hav<strong>in</strong>g no capacity to control IUU<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g while a number <strong>of</strong> countries, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Myanmar,<br />

Papua New Gu<strong>in</strong>ea, Indonesia, Republic <strong>of</strong> Korea<br />

<strong>and</strong> Malaysia, have fully or partially implemented<br />

VMS systems for monitor<strong>in</strong>g foreign <strong>and</strong> national<br />

vessel activities with<strong>in</strong> their EEZs.<br />

Surveillance capabilities <strong>in</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />

region are generally <strong>in</strong>adequate <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>volve the use<br />

<strong>of</strong> both voluntary compliance <strong>in</strong>itiatives (which are<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten the most common form <strong>of</strong> surveillance<br />

activity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>clude education <strong>and</strong> co-management<br />

programmes) <strong>and</strong> limited deterrent or enforcement<br />

approaches.<br />

All the available evidence would therefore seem to<br />

po<strong>in</strong>t towards a generally <strong>in</strong>effective deterrent <strong>and</strong><br />

enforcement capability 11 both for domestic <strong>and</strong> for<br />

foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> low levels <strong>of</strong><br />

compliance with <strong>fisheries</strong> management regulations.<br />

In contrast, the countries <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific<br />

generally have a well coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong> effective<br />

MCS system which supports harmonized <strong>and</strong><br />

coord<strong>in</strong>ated legislation. These MCS activities 12<br />

10<br />

Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P. 2000. Fisheries Management <strong>and</strong> MCS <strong>in</strong><br />

South <strong>Asia</strong>: Comparative Analysis. <strong>FAO</strong>/FISHCODE Project,<br />

GCP/INT/648/NOR. <strong>FAO</strong> Rome. 56 pp.<br />

11<br />

For example, Butcher (2002) has estimated that, <strong>in</strong> any one<br />

year, only about 10 percent <strong>of</strong> Thai trawlers who are operat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

illegally are apprehended.<br />

12 Anon. 2003. Regional MCS: The South Pacific Forum<br />

Fisheries Agency Experience <strong>in</strong> Flewwell<strong>in</strong>g, P. et al. 2003.<br />

Recent Trends <strong>in</strong> Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, Control <strong>and</strong> Surveillance<br />

Systems for Capture Fisheries. Rome. <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Tech.<br />

Paper 415; 151-162.<br />

(Anon, 2003) are coord<strong>in</strong>ated through the Forum<br />

Fisheries Agency (FFA) <strong>and</strong> stem from <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

agreements between the countries <strong>of</strong> the region. 13<br />

They <strong>in</strong>clude a regional register <strong>of</strong> foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

vessels, uniform vessel identification, catch <strong>and</strong><br />

position report<strong>in</strong>g, trans-shipment report<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

plac<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> observers on foreign vessels, aerial<br />

surveillance <strong>and</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> VMS.<br />

As a result <strong>of</strong> this well coord<strong>in</strong>ated regional<br />

approach to MCS activities, <strong>fisheries</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istrators<br />

are confident that compliance rates with <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

regulations <strong>in</strong> the region are high (Anon, 2003) <strong>and</strong>,<br />

consequently, the fish stocks <strong>of</strong> this sub-region<br />

(particularly tuna) are be<strong>in</strong>g effectively managed for<br />

long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability than <strong>in</strong> others. This does<br />

not imply that there are no problems <strong>in</strong> the<br />

sub-region, but they are under closer scrut<strong>in</strong>y <strong>and</strong><br />

pressure from other countries to change their<br />

practices.<br />

Address<strong>in</strong>g IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region<br />

In address<strong>in</strong>g the issues <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region, the key factors that have been responsible<br />

for generat<strong>in</strong>g the problem need to be addressed<br />

if long-term <strong>and</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>able solutions are to be<br />

found. These key factors <strong>in</strong>clude:<br />

Over-capacity <strong>of</strong> national fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets<br />

As perhaps the prime driver <strong>of</strong> both overexploitation<br />

<strong>of</strong> resources <strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

both with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the EEZs <strong>of</strong><br />

other nations, this issue must be addressed at the<br />

national level <strong>and</strong> preferably coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally.<br />

Some countries, such as Ch<strong>in</strong>a, have made a start<br />

on what is <strong>of</strong>ten a difficult <strong>and</strong> pa<strong>in</strong>ful process.<br />

However, around 60 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries <strong>of</strong> the<br />

region do not even have the legislative capacity to<br />

limit, let alone reduce, fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity. Some<br />

measures such as an immediate cessation <strong>of</strong><br />

subsidization <strong>of</strong> the conversion to, or build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong>,<br />

“<strong>of</strong>fshore” fish<strong>in</strong>g vessels should be used to reduce<br />

the rate <strong>of</strong> growth <strong>of</strong> national fleets while other<br />

more difficult measures, such as chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />

legislation <strong>and</strong> limit<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g the number <strong>of</strong><br />

vessels, should be put <strong>in</strong> place <strong>in</strong> the longer-term. 14<br />

Putt<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> place an effective capacity reduction<br />

13<br />

The Niue Treaty on Co-operation <strong>in</strong> Fisheries Surveillance<br />

<strong>and</strong> Law Enforcement (1992) <strong>and</strong> the Palau Arrangement for<br />

Management <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific Purse Se<strong>in</strong>e Fisheries<br />

(1992).<br />

14<br />

Although it is underst<strong>and</strong>able that <strong>in</strong>dividual Sates wish<br />

to be part <strong>of</strong> the lucrative <strong>of</strong>f-shore fish<strong>in</strong>g, subsidization <strong>of</strong><br />

this expansion at the global <strong>and</strong> regional level will be<br />

counter-productive <strong>in</strong> the longer term.<br />

50


programme is an essential step <strong>in</strong> most countries,<br />

not<strong>in</strong>g, however, that this is a long-term project <strong>and</strong><br />

is likely to extend over several decades.<br />

Regional cooperation <strong>and</strong> regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management <strong>org</strong>anizations<br />

Although the issues tend to be national <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong>,<br />

the IUU issues <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region will not<br />

be addressed until there is some agreement<br />

among countries to cooperate, either bilaterally or<br />

sub-regionally. This should <strong>in</strong>volve a review <strong>of</strong> the<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> management capacity <strong>and</strong> commitment to<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>fisheries</strong>, followed by agreements <strong>and</strong><br />

commitment to change <strong>and</strong> enhanced efforts to<br />

change <strong>and</strong> improve the situation. IUU, especially<br />

issues <strong>of</strong> encroachment <strong>in</strong>to the EEZs <strong>of</strong> other<br />

counties <strong>and</strong> high seas issues, will require<br />

extensive consultation <strong>and</strong> dialogue <strong>in</strong> order to<br />

reach agreed solutions.<br />

Many benefits can be achieved by reduc<strong>in</strong>g IUU<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the obvious benefits <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased<br />

catches <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it, <strong>in</strong>creased support for<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able livelihoods <strong>and</strong> improved contribution<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> to susta<strong>in</strong>able benefits. Other benefits<br />

could <strong>in</strong>clude improved safety at sea as well as<br />

regional security through rapid vessel identification<br />

<strong>and</strong> vessel monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

In many other parts <strong>of</strong> the world, regional <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management <strong>org</strong>anizations <strong>of</strong>ten provide a forum<br />

for these consultations. While the Indian Ocean<br />

Tuna Commission (IOTC) has management<br />

responsibility for tuna stocks with<strong>in</strong> its region<br />

<strong>and</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific Fisheries<br />

Commission (WCPFC) has responsibility for<br />

management <strong>of</strong> highly migratory species <strong>in</strong> the<br />

Western <strong>and</strong> Central Pacific, there is no regional<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> management <strong>org</strong>anization with<br />

responsibility for management <strong>and</strong> coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> issues that br<strong>in</strong>gs together different<br />

countries <strong>in</strong> sub-regions <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region.<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce (i) many, if not most, stocks are shared<br />

between countries <strong>of</strong> the region, (ii) national<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> management practices <strong>and</strong> capabilities<br />

are <strong>of</strong>ten not fully effective <strong>and</strong> (iii) the size <strong>and</strong><br />

scope <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region is large, the<br />

establishment <strong>of</strong> such a management body could<br />

br<strong>in</strong>g significant benefits.<br />

Governance <strong>and</strong> national legislation<br />

As the basis for long-term susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

stocks, good legislation <strong>and</strong> governance structures<br />

are essential for effective <strong>fisheries</strong> management.<br />

However, around 70 percent <strong>of</strong> the countries<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>ed have legislation that allows <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management to occur at national, prov<strong>in</strong>cial,<br />

district <strong>and</strong>/or village levels, <strong>of</strong>ten without any clear<br />

legislated coord<strong>in</strong>ation mechanisms.<br />

Some countries <strong>of</strong> the region (e.g. Viet Nam,<br />

Cambodia) are <strong>in</strong> the process <strong>of</strong> review<strong>in</strong>g their<br />

legislation but even newer legislation (e.g.<br />

Indonesia, 2004) <strong>of</strong>ten is not based on the<br />

concepts <strong>of</strong> the susta<strong>in</strong>able development <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

stocks <strong>and</strong> still does not conta<strong>in</strong> provisions to<br />

address key issues such as over-capacity. A<br />

review, preferably coord<strong>in</strong>ated regionally, <strong>of</strong><br />

national <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation <strong>in</strong> the region is<br />

therefore needed. <strong>FAO</strong> has worked with <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />

countries <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g a better legislative basis for<br />

management <strong>and</strong> could conceivably provide the<br />

coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>in</strong> approach that is needed.<br />

Monitor<strong>in</strong>g, control <strong>and</strong> surveillance capabilities for<br />

national fleets <strong>and</strong> for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g activities<br />

While countries <strong>of</strong> the Western Pacific have<br />

achieved a well-coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong> generally effective<br />

MCS capability for foreign fish<strong>in</strong>g, compliance<br />

rates with national legislation <strong>and</strong> regulations<br />

are low <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong>. The low compliance rates stem<br />

from (a) “open access” <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> which social<br />

objectives override those perta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g to susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

use; (b) generally poor, <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten difficult to access,<br />

statistical data bases <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>telligence on vessels,<br />

l<strong>and</strong><strong>in</strong>gs, fish<strong>in</strong>g gear type etc, at both the national<br />

<strong>and</strong> regional level; (c) control mechanisms which,<br />

although address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual issues such as<br />

prohibited fish<strong>in</strong>g gear etc, are not coord<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>and</strong><br />

focused to achieve, preferably through <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management plans, specific outcomes such as<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able <strong>fisheries</strong>; <strong>and</strong> (d) under-<strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong><br />

deterrent <strong>and</strong> enforcement capabilities although<br />

voluntary compliance <strong>in</strong>itiatives, such as<br />

educational programmes <strong>and</strong> co-management<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiatives are well developed <strong>in</strong> most countries.<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce MCS activities need to support effective<br />

legislation, the shortcom<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>of</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g MCS<br />

systems need to be addressed together with any<br />

legislative review processes (see above).<br />

Commitment to <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to control<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

While there is general support <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region for regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />

<strong>org</strong>anizations, particularly the Indian Ocean Tuna<br />

Commission (IOTC) <strong>and</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />

Pacific Fisheries Commission (WCPFC), countries<br />

<strong>of</strong> the region have been less enthusiastic <strong>in</strong><br />

51


support<strong>in</strong>g multi-lateral <strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to<br />

address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g. States <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region should therefore be encouraged to support<br />

such <strong>in</strong>itiatives, for example by becom<strong>in</strong>g<br />

signatories to the UNCLOS Straddl<strong>in</strong>g Stocks<br />

Agreement <strong>and</strong> the UN Compliance Agreement<br />

<strong>and</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g national plans <strong>of</strong> action to combat<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> support <strong>of</strong> the International Plan <strong>of</strong><br />

Action.<br />

An important issue which also needs to be<br />

addressed <strong>in</strong> most countries, second only to<br />

compliance with their own national <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

legislation, is commitment to have national fleets<br />

obey the fish<strong>in</strong>g rules <strong>and</strong> regulations <strong>of</strong> other<br />

nations <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational agreements. At the<br />

present time, only two countries <strong>of</strong> the region make<br />

it an <strong>of</strong>fence under national legislation for their<br />

vessels to fish illegally <strong>in</strong> another country. The<br />

<strong>in</strong>clusion <strong>of</strong> such provisions <strong>in</strong>to national legislation<br />

<strong>of</strong> other countries would send a clear message to<br />

national fleets that their governments support<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational <strong>in</strong>itiatives to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Conclusions<br />

With its orig<strong>in</strong>s <strong>in</strong> generally unregulated <strong>and</strong> open<br />

access national <strong>fisheries</strong>, IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region is now a major issue, cost<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the nations <strong>of</strong> the region an estimated US$5.8<br />

billion annually, threaten<strong>in</strong>g the long-term<br />

susta<strong>in</strong>ability <strong>of</strong> regional fish stocks <strong>and</strong> lead<strong>in</strong>g to<br />

social consequences that impact on all coastal<br />

communities <strong>in</strong> the region.<br />

The declaration <strong>of</strong> national EEZs has resulted <strong>in</strong> the<br />

seas <strong>of</strong> the region com<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly under<br />

national jurisdiction, particularly <strong>in</strong> Southeast <strong>Asia</strong><br />

where the extent <strong>of</strong> high seas areas is limited<br />

(Figure 34). This means that the solution to the<br />

issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the region lies with national<br />

governments although regional cooperation <strong>and</strong><br />

coord<strong>in</strong>ation is essential.<br />

This report has identified a number <strong>of</strong> factors<br />

that are contribut<strong>in</strong>g to the problem <strong>of</strong> IUU<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g. Perhaps the most important issue is the<br />

over-capacity <strong>of</strong> the region’s fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets which<br />

has contributed significantly to overexploitation <strong>of</strong><br />

stocks with<strong>in</strong> national EEZs <strong>and</strong> has fuelled the<br />

development <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fshore fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets which have<br />

contributed to the region’s IUU problems. These<br />

new national fleets are <strong>of</strong>ten justified on the basis<br />

that they will displace IUU vessels, but history has<br />

shown that this seldom works. However, many<br />

countries <strong>of</strong> the region lack the legislative ability to<br />

address this over-capacity issue although some<br />

steps, such as re-exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g subsidies, can be<br />

taken immediately.<br />

Separate management responsibility for <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

at the national <strong>and</strong> prov<strong>in</strong>cial level can, <strong>and</strong> has,<br />

contributed significantly to the over-capacity<br />

problem, particularly when the l<strong>in</strong>kages between<br />

national policies <strong>and</strong> local action are weak.<br />

In the longer term, fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>in</strong> the region will<br />

need to be reduced <strong>and</strong>, <strong>in</strong> many countries, this will<br />

be a long <strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong>ten pa<strong>in</strong>ful process. However, the<br />

pa<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> the economic losses <strong>of</strong> not reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity are much greater.<br />

This report therefore recommends that national<br />

governments review their <strong>fisheries</strong> legislation to<br />

ensure that it conta<strong>in</strong>s the ability to limit <strong>and</strong> reduce<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity <strong>and</strong> then assess what level <strong>of</strong><br />

capacity is appropriate 15 <strong>and</strong> how capacity<br />

adjustments can be made. Such assessments are<br />

<strong>of</strong>ten best <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to specific <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

management plans which can also address MCS<br />

capabilities needed to implement the plans.<br />

Regional coord<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> cooperation will be<br />

necessary <strong>in</strong> address<strong>in</strong>g national <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

IUU issues, <strong>and</strong> regional management <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

stocks will also be required <strong>in</strong> the long-term.<br />

Therefore, it is also recommended that, to achieve<br />

this, <strong>in</strong>vestigations be commenced with the aim <strong>of</strong><br />

establish<strong>in</strong>g a regional <strong>fisheries</strong> management<br />

<strong>org</strong>anization that would br<strong>in</strong>g together the nations<br />

<strong>of</strong> the region.<br />

Without address<strong>in</strong>g the issue <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g as<br />

a major part <strong>of</strong> a move towards susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong>, the future for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />

the region is not good. As other jurisdictions<br />

address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, the large foreign fleets <strong>of</strong> many<br />

<strong>of</strong> the region’s nations will <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly have their<br />

IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g activities curtailed <strong>and</strong> access to other<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> restricted. This could conceivably result<br />

<strong>in</strong> a return <strong>of</strong> those vessels to the region, putt<strong>in</strong>g<br />

additional pressure on national <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

coastal fish stocks.<br />

15<br />

Accurate estimates <strong>of</strong> “optimal” fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity are not<br />

required before action is taken. The process should be started<br />

as soon as possible <strong>and</strong> f<strong>in</strong>e-tuned as knowledge <strong>of</strong> the fish<br />

stocks <strong>and</strong> the vessel capacity improves through effective<br />

monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the reduction.<br />

52


Address<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g by the nations <strong>of</strong> the<br />

region is therefore a process that beg<strong>in</strong>s at home,<br />

at the national level. By strengthen<strong>in</strong>g national<br />

legislation, committ<strong>in</strong>g to susta<strong>in</strong>able management<br />

<strong>of</strong> fish stocks with<strong>in</strong> a country’s EEZ, development<br />

<strong>of</strong> national plans <strong>of</strong> action, reduc<strong>in</strong>g fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capacity to appropriate levels, implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />

effective MCS systems <strong>and</strong> support<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

<strong>in</strong>itiatives to address IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g, a start can be<br />

made on better overall regional management <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

stocks, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the important IUU fish<strong>in</strong>g issues<br />

that currently face the region.<br />

5.2 Seafood quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>in</strong> the<br />

context <strong>of</strong> trade<br />

Background<br />

Fish products are a heavily traded commodity.<br />

About 38 percent <strong>of</strong> global fish output by live<br />

weight enters <strong>in</strong>ternational market<strong>in</strong>g channels for<br />

export. Overall, <strong>Asia</strong> is a net importer <strong>of</strong> fish<br />

(by value) although many States are net exporters<br />

(see Chapter 1 for more details).<br />

There is considerable import <strong>of</strong> low value fish<br />

products <strong>and</strong> an export flow <strong>of</strong> higher value fish<br />

products <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region. 16 With cont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g<br />

development <strong>of</strong> economies <strong>in</strong> the region, an<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the trade flows <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> products with<strong>in</strong> the region can be<br />

expected. There will be <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g attention on the<br />

quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> these products.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trade <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

products <strong>and</strong> related focus on food safety is<br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g to more test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> foods, both for export<br />

outside <strong>of</strong> the region <strong>and</strong> with<strong>in</strong> the region. This<br />

is accompanied by <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly str<strong>in</strong>gent measures<br />

for ensur<strong>in</strong>g safety <strong>of</strong> food with improved hygiene<br />

<strong>and</strong> freedom from residues <strong>and</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ants.<br />

Whilst the earlier focus <strong>of</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>and</strong><br />

safety <strong>of</strong> products has been on the process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

export<strong>in</strong>g part <strong>of</strong> the sector, there is now <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

attention be<strong>in</strong>g given to the methods <strong>of</strong> production,<br />

both <strong>in</strong> capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>n export<strong>in</strong>g countries are now expected to<br />

meet the st<strong>and</strong>ards set by importers <strong>and</strong><br />

consumers both with<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> outside the region.<br />

Meet<strong>in</strong>g these expectations is crucial for both<br />

producers <strong>and</strong> processors to rema<strong>in</strong> competitive<br />

with<strong>in</strong> domestic <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational markets.<br />

There is also an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g trend <strong>in</strong> rejections<br />

associated with detection <strong>of</strong> chemical residues<br />

<strong>and</strong> microbiological-associated safety problems<br />

result<strong>in</strong>g from the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g volume <strong>of</strong> exported<br />

products <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly str<strong>in</strong>gent import<br />

requirements (Table 30).<br />

<strong>Asia</strong> has the most number <strong>of</strong> border rejection cases<br />

<strong>in</strong> the EU, vary<strong>in</strong>g from 50 to 75 percent <strong>of</strong> the total<br />

border cases each year. This is also true <strong>in</strong> terms<br />

<strong>of</strong> tonnes.<br />

The number <strong>of</strong> detention <strong>and</strong> rejection cases from<br />

<strong>Asia</strong> is also <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g. 17 In 2005, notifications<br />

concern<strong>in</strong>g residues <strong>of</strong> veter<strong>in</strong>ary medical<br />

products <strong>in</strong> fish products <strong>in</strong>creased by more<br />

than 50 percent. The trend <strong>in</strong> 2005 was that<br />

the detections <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> Malachite Green<br />

were significantly on the rise <strong>and</strong> this was also<br />

the case for detections <strong>of</strong> carbon monoxide<br />

treatment. 18<br />

Because <strong>of</strong> their longer history <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />

trade, capture fishery products have a longer<br />

history <strong>of</strong> attention with respect to food safety. The<br />

quality <strong>of</strong> capture fishery products also responded<br />

well to simple <strong>in</strong>terventions such as better on board<br />

h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g, clean ice <strong>and</strong> on-board hygiene, as well<br />

as improved management with<strong>in</strong> dockside <strong>and</strong><br />

process<strong>in</strong>g facilities.<br />

Improv<strong>in</strong>g the quality <strong>and</strong> safety <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> fishery products <strong>and</strong> reduc<strong>in</strong>g risks to<br />

ecosystems <strong>and</strong> human health from residues <strong>and</strong><br />

microbiological contam<strong>in</strong>ations have now become<br />

both an <strong>in</strong>tegral part <strong>of</strong> post-harvest h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

also pre-harvest management.<br />

Ma<strong>in</strong> food safety issues<br />

As import<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>and</strong> their consumers <strong>and</strong><br />

regulators are becom<strong>in</strong>g more concerned about<br />

residues <strong>and</strong> quality, attention is shift<strong>in</strong>g to the way<br />

fish is produced. In <strong>aquaculture</strong> this <strong>in</strong>cludes the<br />

<strong>in</strong>puts used, where they came from, social aspects<br />

related to other coastal stakeholders <strong>and</strong> the way<br />

that animals <strong>and</strong> plants are produced. In capture<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> the emphasis is also shift<strong>in</strong>g towards the<br />

sourc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> uncontam<strong>in</strong>ated fish (e.g. younger fish).<br />

Pre-harvest food safety is less <strong>of</strong> an issue <strong>in</strong><br />

capture <strong>fisheries</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce the fish are not fed or<br />

managed as a captive stock (i.e. no <strong>in</strong>puts are<br />

17<br />

<strong>FAO</strong>, Fisheries Technical Paper 473, 2005.<br />

16<br />

WorldFish Center, 2003.<br />

18<br />

EU, RASSF Annual Report, 2005.<br />

53


Table 30<br />

Number <strong>of</strong> rejections at the border <strong>of</strong> the European Union from 1999-2002 19<br />

Contam<strong>in</strong>ation Orig<strong>in</strong> 1999 2000 2001 2002<br />

Chemical <strong>Asia</strong> 19 12 49 232<br />

Other 13 20 19 47<br />

Micro-Biological <strong>Asia</strong> 49 63 54 86<br />

Other 41 46 30 46<br />

Other causes <strong>Asia</strong> 3 4 8 9<br />

Other 2 7 14 9<br />

used). However, fish may still orig<strong>in</strong>ate from<br />

environments which have chemical or biological<br />

contam<strong>in</strong>ations (e.g. red tide tox<strong>in</strong>s, chemical<br />

pollution, sewage/effluent contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong><br />

atmospheric pollution). It is essential to ensure<br />

that foods for human consumption are free from<br />

excesses <strong>of</strong> harmful or undesirable chemicals,<br />

harmful pathogens <strong>and</strong> resistant micro<strong>org</strong>anism’s<br />

bacteria <strong>and</strong> parasites.<br />

Increas<strong>in</strong>g calls for total traceability <strong>of</strong> food<br />

products are also affect<strong>in</strong>g the food production<br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry such that consumers can be assured that<br />

the product has been produced without the use <strong>of</strong><br />

transgenic technologies, without addition <strong>of</strong><br />

undesirable or harmful chemicals or additives, <strong>and</strong><br />

that all <strong>of</strong> the environments <strong>and</strong> ecosystems<br />

affected by the production facilities have not been<br />

compromised <strong>in</strong> any way.<br />

Chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>and</strong> residues<br />

Risks from chemicals come from chemicals applied<br />

to <strong>aquaculture</strong> production or contam<strong>in</strong>ants found<br />

<strong>in</strong> water. In <strong>aquaculture</strong> it is also important that the<br />

environment surround<strong>in</strong>g the production facility is<br />

protected from the negative effects <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong><br />

chemicals.<br />

It is important that governments from produc<strong>in</strong>g/<br />

export<strong>in</strong>g countries support their m<strong>in</strong>istries <strong>and</strong><br />

departments work<strong>in</strong>g on food safety to strengthen<br />

the capacity at national <strong>and</strong> local levels to prevent<br />

<strong>and</strong> control the use <strong>of</strong> chemicals, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />

antimicrobials, <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> general to ensure chemical<br />

<strong>and</strong> microbiologically safe products.<br />

Even though rules <strong>and</strong> regulations are be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

improved <strong>and</strong> implemented, there are still<br />

occasional cases <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> banned chemicals<br />

<strong>and</strong> drugs such as chloramphenicol, nitro-furans<br />

<strong>and</strong> malachite green. This can have huge<br />

repercussions from a market<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>of</strong> view. In<br />

addition to food safety risks associated with<br />

consumption <strong>of</strong> products conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g antimicrobial<br />

residues, it is likely that import<strong>in</strong>g countries <strong>in</strong> the<br />

near future will beg<strong>in</strong> screen<strong>in</strong>g imported foods for<br />

presence as well as levels <strong>of</strong> resistant bacteria<br />

(total bacteria <strong>and</strong> specific pathogens).<br />

Chemical contam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong> fishery products is an<br />

issue <strong>in</strong> some <strong>fisheries</strong>. 20 Examples <strong>of</strong> concern are<br />

the presence <strong>of</strong> diox<strong>in</strong>s residues <strong>in</strong> some fishery<br />

products (due to atmospheric pollution <strong>of</strong> waters),<br />

<strong>and</strong> mercury accumulation. In many cases the<br />

levels present <strong>in</strong> fish are tolerable at normal dietary<br />

<strong>in</strong>take levels, emphasiz<strong>in</strong>g the importance <strong>of</strong> proper<br />

scientific studies <strong>of</strong> risk associated with the<br />

consumption <strong>of</strong> contam<strong>in</strong>ated food products.<br />

Fish borne zoonoses<br />

Fish borne zoonotic parasites are an important<br />

problem related to local/domestic consumption <strong>of</strong><br />

raw or <strong>in</strong>adequately cooked fish. Increas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

evidence from countries <strong>in</strong> the region show that<br />

different types <strong>of</strong> zoonotic parasites are<br />

widespread <strong>in</strong> freshwater fish species. This group<br />

<strong>of</strong> parasites is <strong>of</strong> particular health importance <strong>in</strong><br />

Southeast <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> is associated with different<br />

types <strong>of</strong> liver cancer. Humans are <strong>in</strong>fected when<br />

consum<strong>in</strong>g raw or otherwise <strong>in</strong>adequately prepared<br />

dishes. Currently, parasitological exam<strong>in</strong>ation <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> products are ma<strong>in</strong>ly done by visual<br />

<strong>in</strong>spection, e.g. <strong>of</strong> fillets. However, with an<br />

anticipated <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the export <strong>of</strong> fresh <strong>and</strong> live<br />

aquatic <strong>org</strong>anisms, it is likely that import<strong>in</strong>g<br />

authorities will beg<strong>in</strong> test<strong>in</strong>g imported foods for<br />

presence <strong>of</strong> zoonotic parasites.<br />

19<br />

Adapted from: <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Technical Paper 473,<br />

“Causes <strong>of</strong> detentions <strong>and</strong> rejections <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>ternational fish<br />

trade”.<br />

20<br />

<strong>FAO</strong>, SOFIA 2004.<br />

54


Microbiological contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

Food safety issues also rise from the contam<strong>in</strong>ation<br />

<strong>of</strong> filter-feeders molluscs which filter large volumes<br />

<strong>of</strong> water daily to obta<strong>in</strong> food. Any pathogen<br />

present <strong>in</strong> such water will be accumulated <strong>in</strong> the<br />

molluscs. Food safety concerns are particularly<br />

high for molluscs consumed raw or <strong>in</strong>adequately<br />

heat treated. Mollusc culture is <strong>of</strong>ten located <strong>in</strong><br />

areas (e.g. coastal) <strong>of</strong> high faecal <strong>and</strong> chemical<br />

pollution ma<strong>in</strong>ly through discharge <strong>of</strong> wastewater<br />

from urban <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustrial areas. Thail<strong>and</strong>, Malaysia<br />

<strong>and</strong> Indonesia have permits from the EU to export<br />

live molluscs. 21<br />

Ma<strong>in</strong> trade issues<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce the 1990’s two ma<strong>in</strong> regulatory agreements<br />

– Sanitary <strong>and</strong> Phytosanitary Measures (SPS)<br />

<strong>and</strong> Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) have<br />

been implemented through the WTO (World Trade<br />

Organization).<br />

Sanitary <strong>and</strong> phytosanitary measures<br />

SPS measures are made to ensure that a import<strong>in</strong>g<br />

country’s consumers are be<strong>in</strong>g supplied with food<br />

that is safe by the st<strong>and</strong>ards the import<strong>in</strong>g country<br />

considers appropriate but they are at the same time<br />

made so the export<strong>in</strong>g country can ensure that<br />

strict health <strong>and</strong> safety regulations are not be<strong>in</strong>g<br />

used as an excuse for protect<strong>in</strong>g domestic<br />

producers (WTO, 2006).<br />

Technical barriers to trade<br />

The number <strong>of</strong> different regulations <strong>and</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />

makes life difficult for producers <strong>and</strong> exporters. If<br />

regulations are set arbitrarily without <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />

agreed guidance for sett<strong>in</strong>g st<strong>and</strong>ards, they could<br />

be used as an excuse for protectionism. The<br />

Agreement on Technical Barriers to Trade tries to<br />

ensure that regulations, st<strong>and</strong>ards, test<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

certification procedures do not create unnecessary<br />

obstacles (WTO, 2006).<br />

Many APFIC member countries are required to<br />

keep abreast <strong>of</strong> requirements <strong>of</strong> SPS <strong>and</strong> TBT <strong>in</strong><br />

order to ensure no or m<strong>in</strong>imal loss due to lost<br />

export opportunities. There has already been<br />

significant progress <strong>in</strong> successful implementation<br />

<strong>of</strong> HACCP (Hazard Analyses <strong>and</strong> Critical Control<br />

Po<strong>in</strong>t) at the seafood process<strong>in</strong>g level but due<br />

to consumer dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> a matur<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

21 Deboyser, 2006.<br />

development <strong>of</strong> the sector there is now also a need<br />

to look at the full production cha<strong>in</strong> (pre-harvest).<br />

Transparency <strong>and</strong> traceability are key words for the<br />

future production <strong>of</strong> seafood products.<br />

Traceability<br />

The global emerg<strong>in</strong>g trends <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong> traceability<br />

<strong>and</strong> label<strong>in</strong>g are requir<strong>in</strong>g countries to more<br />

effectively monitor the orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>and</strong> disposal <strong>of</strong> fishery<br />

catches <strong>and</strong> farm <strong>of</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />

In order to effectively track h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g through the<br />

market cha<strong>in</strong>, there is <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g pressure for the<br />

<strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> certification <strong>of</strong> products.<br />

Product label<strong>in</strong>g is also becom<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />

important as a means to effectively track products<br />

through the market cha<strong>in</strong> as well as a means to<br />

<strong>in</strong>form the consumer.<br />

Supermarket <strong>in</strong>fluence on trade<br />

The emergence <strong>of</strong> large supermarket retail cha<strong>in</strong>s/<br />

companies has had a significant impact on the<br />

dem<strong>and</strong> for seafood <strong>in</strong> European <strong>and</strong> North<br />

American import markets <strong>and</strong> to a lesser extent<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> elsewhere (although this <strong>in</strong>fluence<br />

is rapidly <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g with the rapid rate <strong>of</strong><br />

urbanization <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>). With their significant buy<strong>in</strong>g<br />

power <strong>and</strong> forward contracts, supermarkets are<br />

able to make significant dem<strong>and</strong>s on producers<br />

with respect to the quality <strong>and</strong> characteristics <strong>of</strong><br />

the product they <strong>in</strong>tend to purchase.<br />

Supermarkets are able to use market forces to<br />

dem<strong>and</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> quality criteria <strong>and</strong> even social,<br />

ethical <strong>and</strong> environmental quality assurances<br />

that may not be required under any national or<br />

<strong>in</strong>ternational regulation or measure (or may be<br />

more str<strong>in</strong>gent than exist<strong>in</strong>g measures). In this<br />

respect, supermarkets are effectively determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />

their own quality st<strong>and</strong>ards. There is a strong case<br />

for effective <strong>in</strong>formation exchange to <strong>in</strong>form<br />

supermarket decision-mak<strong>in</strong>g, as they are currently<br />

highly receptive to consumer dem<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> these<br />

are <strong>in</strong>fluenced through a wide range <strong>of</strong> media.<br />

Therefore, “gett<strong>in</strong>g the story straight” is important,<br />

particularly with respect to environmental <strong>and</strong><br />

socially related quality considerations s<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>in</strong><br />

many cases these are highly subjective or locally<br />

specific.<br />

Good examples <strong>of</strong> this are over-generalizations as<br />

to the manner <strong>of</strong> production <strong>of</strong> farmed shrimp, or<br />

the effects <strong>of</strong> trawl<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>fisheries</strong>. Good <strong>and</strong> bad<br />

55


examples can be found <strong>in</strong> each <strong>in</strong>stance but it is<br />

not possible to state whether these activities are<br />

universally acceptable or not.<br />

The conclusion is that supermarkets are, <strong>in</strong> effect,<br />

act<strong>in</strong>g as a label<strong>in</strong>g scheme themselves (i.e. their<br />

br<strong>and</strong> name <strong>and</strong> statements about their own quality<br />

st<strong>and</strong>ards effectively become the assurance to the<br />

consumer on a wide range <strong>of</strong> quality issues). It is<br />

therefore essential that there is effective dialogue<br />

over what constitutes reasonable st<strong>and</strong>ards.<br />

Guidel<strong>in</strong>es on ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g like the <strong>FAO</strong> Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />

for the ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> fishery products<br />

from mar<strong>in</strong>e capture <strong>fisheries</strong>, 22 codes <strong>of</strong> practice<br />

<strong>and</strong> better management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples like the<br />

International Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for Responsible Shrimp<br />

23<br />

Farm<strong>in</strong>g can be effective start<strong>in</strong>g po<strong>in</strong>ts <strong>in</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> tak<strong>in</strong>g forward this dialogue between<br />

producers, buyers <strong>and</strong> other stakeholders <strong>and</strong> to<br />

provide the adequate reassurances on both sides<br />

that unreasonable dem<strong>and</strong>s or expectations by<br />

either party can be avoided.<br />

Improved pre-harvest management<br />

The need to improve the pre-harvest management<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> capture fishery products is now<br />

lead<strong>in</strong>g towards improved production systems <strong>and</strong><br />

measurable systems for monitor<strong>in</strong>g compliance<br />

<strong>and</strong> assurance <strong>of</strong> quality <strong>and</strong> safety.<br />

The <strong>in</strong>troduction <strong>of</strong> such systems is a challenge to<br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>n region which represents the greatest<br />

diversity <strong>of</strong> production systems, species <strong>and</strong><br />

market requirements. This diversity is the great<br />

strength <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>n <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> but also<br />

presents challenges to the systematic management<br />

<strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> production. It is now clear that<br />

only parts <strong>of</strong> the sector will respond to market <strong>and</strong><br />

consumer dem<strong>and</strong>s, however, these are act<strong>in</strong>g as<br />

pilots for <strong>potential</strong> broader application.<br />

Improv<strong>in</strong>g pre-harvest management <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

In <strong>aquaculture</strong> systems, the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g need for<br />

effective management <strong>of</strong> pre-harvest food safety<br />

requires considerable capacity build<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong><br />

awareness rais<strong>in</strong>g for government <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dustry<br />

stakeholders deal<strong>in</strong>g with those concerned with<br />

22<br />

Guidel<strong>in</strong>es for Ecolabell<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> Fish <strong>and</strong> Fishery Products<br />

from Mar<strong>in</strong>e Capture Fisheries, Rome, <strong>FAO</strong>, 2005. 90 p.<br />

23 <strong>FAO</strong>/NACA/UNEP/World Bank/WWF 2006. International<br />

Pr<strong>in</strong>ciples for Responsible Shrimp Farm<strong>in</strong>g. Network <strong>of</strong><br />

Aquaculture Centres <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific (NACA) Bangkok,<br />

Thail<strong>and</strong>. 20 p.<br />

pond level management (i.e. farm managers,<br />

farmers, service providers).<br />

In response to the dem<strong>and</strong>s for more effective<br />

pre-harvest management, there is now emerg<strong>in</strong>g<br />

so-called “better management practices” (BMPs)<br />

which focus on improv<strong>in</strong>g production methods<br />

(from the perspective <strong>of</strong> hygiene, food safety as<br />

well as environmental <strong>and</strong> even ethical <strong>and</strong> animal<br />

welfare aspects).<br />

Aquaculture Certification Schemes<br />

Certification <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are rather new<br />

but are develop<strong>in</strong>g fast. There are already a number<br />

<strong>of</strong> certification schemes present. The different<br />

certifications relate to environmental <strong>and</strong> socially<br />

responsible <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>and</strong> to some extend also<br />

to food safety <strong>and</strong> quality <strong>of</strong> the end product.<br />

Examples <strong>of</strong> the certification schemes are given<br />

below:<br />

Food Quality Certification<br />

● Aquaculture Certification Council (Global)<br />

Website: www.<strong>aquaculture</strong>certification.<strong>org</strong><br />

● EUREP GAP (Global)<br />

Website: www.eurep.<strong>org</strong><br />

● Scottish Quality Salmon (National)<br />

Website: www.scottishsalmon.uk<br />

● Thai Quality Shrimp (National)<br />

Website: www.thaiqualityshrimp.com<br />

Better Management Practices<br />

● <strong>FAO</strong>/WB/NACA/UNDP/WWF<br />

Shrimp Consortium (Global)<br />

Website: www.enaca.<strong>org</strong><br />

Website: www.worldwildlife.<strong>org</strong><br />

Organic Certification<br />

● Naturl<strong>and</strong> (Global)<br />

Website: www.naturl<strong>and</strong>.de<br />

● IFOAM (Global)<br />

Website: www.ifoam.<strong>org</strong><br />

● Soil Association (National)<br />

Website: www.soilassociation.<strong>org</strong><br />

● Bio Swiss (National)<br />

Website: www.bio-suisse.ch<br />

● Canadian Organic Aquaculture (National)<br />

Website: www.certified<strong>org</strong>anic.bc.ca<br />

● BioGro New Zeal<strong>and</strong> (National)<br />

Website: www.biogro.co.nz<br />

Other Certification<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Carrefour (Retailer)<br />

Website: www.carrefour.com<br />

Wal-Mart (Retailer)<br />

Website: www.wal-mart.com<br />

56


To improve food safety <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>, new<br />

approaches to farm<strong>in</strong>g are required, with farmers<br />

work<strong>in</strong>g together with food safety experts to<br />

develop systems for farm<strong>in</strong>g aquatic animals that<br />

assure food safety. This is particularly important<br />

for <strong>Asia</strong>n species dest<strong>in</strong>ed for <strong>in</strong>ternational trade,<br />

such as shrimp <strong>and</strong> high value f<strong>in</strong>fish.<br />

It is also important for more domestically oriented<br />

products like carps, tilapia <strong>and</strong> other freshwater<br />

fish. Internationally accepted, science based<br />

quality control mechanisms, such as risk<br />

assessment <strong>and</strong> HACCP <strong>and</strong> Good Hygienic<br />

Practice (GHP), will become essential requirements<br />

for trad<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> products.<br />

Whilst BMPs target better production methods,<br />

they are not guarantees <strong>of</strong> food safety <strong>and</strong><br />

there is a need to better underst<strong>and</strong> food safety<br />

at the production level <strong>in</strong> order to develop<br />

these management practices <strong>and</strong> address the<br />

requirements for food safety <strong>of</strong> import<strong>in</strong>g markets<br />

<strong>and</strong> consumers. Important lessons on food safety<br />

from the process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry can <strong>potential</strong>ly be<br />

adjusted <strong>and</strong> applied to the farm level.<br />

Whilst much <strong>of</strong> the market pressure comes from<br />

import<strong>in</strong>g countries, there is also an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

trend <strong>of</strong> domestic dem<strong>and</strong>, fuelled largely by<br />

supermarkets <strong>and</strong> their sourc<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> market<strong>in</strong>g<br />

strategies, which are focus<strong>in</strong>g on susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>.<br />

Certification schemes for <strong>aquaculture</strong> products are<br />

a relatively recent development <strong>and</strong> are l<strong>in</strong>ked<br />

strongly to codes <strong>of</strong> practice <strong>and</strong> pr<strong>in</strong>ciples.<br />

The proliferation <strong>of</strong> codes <strong>and</strong> schemes does<br />

present the risk <strong>of</strong> confus<strong>in</strong>g consumers over<br />

label<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> what exactly the product they are<br />

purchas<strong>in</strong>g is be<strong>in</strong>g certified for. Some certification<br />

schemes cover the food safety <strong>and</strong> general food<br />

quality aspect <strong>of</strong> the product, whilst others<br />

<strong>of</strong>fer broader assurances related to m<strong>in</strong>imized<br />

environmental impact, ethical production <strong>and</strong><br />

adherence to specific production protocol (e.g.<br />

compliance to <strong>org</strong>anic production pr<strong>in</strong>ciples or<br />

stated codes <strong>of</strong> practice).<br />

Monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> these schemes <strong>and</strong> how products<br />

are certified or de-certified is also an area <strong>of</strong><br />

considerable diversity. There are examples <strong>of</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong>dustry self-regulation, government certification<br />

<strong>of</strong> the national <strong>in</strong>dustry st<strong>and</strong>ard <strong>and</strong> third<br />

party schemes where <strong>in</strong>dependent monitor<strong>in</strong>g<br />

is undertaken.<br />

The credibility <strong>of</strong> the various forms <strong>of</strong> certification<br />

is therefore different <strong>and</strong> also sensitive to public<br />

perception <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegrity <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>dependence <strong>of</strong> the<br />

certifier or self-certifier.<br />

Improv<strong>in</strong>g pre-harvest safety <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> production<br />

Capture fishery certification schemes have largely<br />

focused on more environmental impacts <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>and</strong> their mitigation.<br />

Some schemes have also <strong>in</strong>cluded animal welfare<br />

or conservation related elements (such as gears<br />

or fish<strong>in</strong>g techniques which m<strong>in</strong>imize by-catch);<br />

other schemes focus on broader susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

management pr<strong>in</strong>ciples. Aspects <strong>of</strong> food safety<br />

are less <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>and</strong> would be covered under<br />

HACCP based schemes for on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g.<br />

Fisheries Certification Schemes<br />

Certification <strong>of</strong> Fisheries has been developed for<br />

longer than <strong>aquaculture</strong> schemes. There are<br />

a number <strong>of</strong> good <strong>and</strong> already tested certification<br />

schemes available for <strong>fisheries</strong>. Some <strong>of</strong> the larger<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> certification schemes are given below:<br />

Ethical/Environmental Certification<br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e Stewardship Council (Global)<br />

Website: www.msc.<strong>org</strong><br />

Mar<strong>in</strong>e Aquarium Council (Global)<br />

Website: www.aquariumcounsil.<strong>org</strong><br />

“Dolph<strong>in</strong> Safe” Tuna Label (Global)<br />

Website: www.earthisl<strong>and</strong>.<strong>org</strong><br />

Other Certification<br />

Carrefour “Peche Responsible”<br />

Website: www.carrefour.com<br />

Unilever Fish Susta<strong>in</strong>ability Initiative<br />

Website: www.unilever.com<br />

57


Opportunities <strong>and</strong> limitations <strong>of</strong> HACCP<br />

HACCP <strong>and</strong> the ideas beh<strong>in</strong>d HACCP have been<br />

implemented <strong>in</strong> seafood process<strong>in</strong>g for a long time.<br />

The seafood process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustry was actually<br />

among the first food process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dustries to<br />

implement HACCP. There seem to be good<br />

opportunities to comb<strong>in</strong>e better management<br />

practices (with focus on production) with the<br />

ideas <strong>of</strong> HACCP (with focus only on food safety).<br />

HACCP ideas could be used as part <strong>of</strong> BMPs<br />

directly related to food safety.<br />

There are limitations <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g HACCP at pre-harvest<br />

level. As noted <strong>in</strong> the <strong>FAO</strong>/NACA/WHO report on<br />

Food Safety Issues Associated with Products from<br />

Aquaculture (1997) there are difficulties <strong>in</strong> us<strong>in</strong>g<br />

the HACCP approach on small-scale farms. This<br />

is also recognized <strong>in</strong> the discussions <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the<br />

f<strong>in</strong>al report from the Twenty-seventh Session <strong>of</strong> the<br />

Codex Committee on Fish <strong>and</strong> Fishery Products<br />

(2005). The Code states that it is not <strong>in</strong>tended to<br />

cover extensive fish farm<strong>in</strong>g systems that prevail<br />

<strong>in</strong> many develop<strong>in</strong>g countries or <strong>in</strong>tegrated<br />

livestock <strong>and</strong> fish culture systems. Many <strong>of</strong> these<br />

systems do however produce products that are<br />

traded <strong>in</strong>ternationally.<br />

It is possible that some <strong>of</strong> the ideas <strong>in</strong> HACCP can<br />

be comb<strong>in</strong>ed with BMP’s schemes that not only<br />

take food safety <strong>in</strong>to account but also other farm<br />

management procedures.<br />

The conclusion is that food safety <strong>and</strong> the<br />

implications it can have on both <strong>in</strong>ternationally<br />

traded products <strong>and</strong> on domestically consumed<br />

products (public health) are already an issue <strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> sector, as <strong>in</strong> other food produc<strong>in</strong>g sectors,<br />

<strong>and</strong> it is likely to become an even more important<br />

issue <strong>in</strong> the future both for processors as well as<br />

for pre-harvest management.<br />

58


6. Outlook for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

6.1 Global <strong>and</strong> regional predictions<br />

Predictions <strong>of</strong> future global trends were made by<br />

the International Food Policy Research Institute <strong>in</strong><br />

collaboration with the WorldFish Center (IFPR/<br />

WFC) – “Fish to 2020”. 1 The study predicted that<br />

production <strong>and</strong> consumption will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> develop<strong>in</strong>g States, but slow down <strong>in</strong><br />

developed States result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> the<br />

price <strong>of</strong> fish, especially fish meal <strong>and</strong> fish oil, wild<br />

fish, <strong>and</strong> high-value fish (assum<strong>in</strong>g that consumers<br />

will not greatly shift their preferences to other<br />

commodities such as poultry as fish prices<br />

<strong>in</strong>crease).<br />

A Jo<strong>in</strong>t WorldFish Center/<strong>FAO</strong> study has further<br />

exam<strong>in</strong>ed supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> for <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> five<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>n countries, based on a model derived from<br />

the WorldFish <strong>Asia</strong>-Fish model which has been<br />

previously used to develop scenarios related to<br />

supply <strong>and</strong> dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>n region. The<br />

model has been exp<strong>and</strong>ed to <strong>in</strong>corporate trade <strong>in</strong><br />

fish <strong>and</strong> fish products from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> for<br />

feeds <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>. The follow<strong>in</strong>g scenarios were<br />

analysed:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

The effect <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> the global price <strong>of</strong><br />

fishmeal as a result <strong>of</strong> reduction <strong>in</strong> global<br />

supply (e.g. corner<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> the market, decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />

<strong>in</strong> the global fish meal <strong>fisheries</strong> yield)<br />

The effect <strong>of</strong> more local/regional decl<strong>in</strong>es <strong>in</strong><br />

supply (from over-fish<strong>in</strong>g, environmental<br />

changes, fuel price rises)<br />

The effect <strong>of</strong> technology <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g the<br />

quality <strong>of</strong> l<strong>and</strong>ed fish to make it more<br />

acceptable as human food (e.g. through better<br />

on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g)<br />

The effect <strong>of</strong> improved feed usage <strong>and</strong> feed<br />

efficiency for <strong>aquaculture</strong><br />

The results <strong>of</strong> the modell<strong>in</strong>g have shown that,<br />

under all scenarios, there will be differential<br />

impacts on poor consumers who will be hit by the<br />

lower availability <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> higher prices. A<br />

second conclusion was that impacts <strong>of</strong> the<br />

scenarios differed depend<strong>in</strong>g on the stage <strong>of</strong><br />

a country’s <strong>aquaculture</strong> development. When<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> is <strong>in</strong> an early phase <strong>of</strong> development<br />

<strong>and</strong> the dependency on trash fish <strong>and</strong> fishmeal is<br />

1<br />

WorldFish Centre (IFPR/WFC) – “Fish to 2020”<br />

http://www.worldfishcenter.<strong>org</strong>/Pubs/fish-to-2020/fish-to-<br />

2020.htm<br />

relatively small, simple import substitutions<br />

compensate for changes <strong>in</strong> the supply <strong>of</strong> fishmeal<br />

or trash fish. In contrast, with <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />

development there is likely to be a shift to culture<br />

<strong>of</strong> lower value species or lower <strong>in</strong>tensity production<br />

that is less dependent on feed. With highly<br />

developed <strong>aquaculture</strong>, there will be no escape<br />

from fishmeal <strong>and</strong> trash fish price <strong>in</strong>creases. These<br />

<strong>in</strong>creases will result not only <strong>in</strong> impacts on fish<br />

prices <strong>and</strong> production, but will also have wider<br />

ripple effects on national economies lead<strong>in</strong>g to falls<br />

<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>comes <strong>and</strong> consumption. Impacts will be<br />

much bigger for Ch<strong>in</strong>a but the scenario <strong>in</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a is<br />

very likely to be a problem for other countries <strong>in</strong><br />

the region as their <strong>aquaculture</strong> sectors develop.<br />

The study highlighted the importance <strong>of</strong><br />

management <strong>of</strong> wild capture <strong>fisheries</strong> that <strong>in</strong>clude<br />

greater consideration <strong>of</strong> low value fish. The<br />

development <strong>of</strong> plant based substitutes for fish<br />

based feeds should also be a top priority.<br />

6.2 Unexploited <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

In response to decl<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>shore resources, many<br />

governments <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region are advocat<strong>in</strong>g<br />

a policy <strong>of</strong> mov<strong>in</strong>g the fish<strong>in</strong>g effort away from<br />

these coastal resources to <strong>potential</strong>ly less exploited<br />

ones. However, this represents a cont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>of</strong><br />

past practices where, globally, a steady expansion<br />

<strong>of</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g from <strong>in</strong>shore local regions to further<br />

<strong>of</strong>fshore fish<strong>in</strong>g grounds as the local stocks<br />

became depleted.<br />

This move may have delayed the <strong>in</strong>evitable<br />

reduction <strong>in</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity that the situation<br />

dictated as necessary, but it did not solve the<br />

problem. As the <strong>of</strong>fshore resources also became<br />

more depleted, these fleets either had to move<br />

back <strong>in</strong>shore, thus aggravat<strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong>al<br />

problem, or move to some other part <strong>of</strong> the world<br />

to fish. Increas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> from the world to move<br />

towards more responsible <strong>fisheries</strong> has resulted.<br />

Despite this warn<strong>in</strong>g many States believe that<br />

there is still room to move outwards with<strong>in</strong> the<br />

<strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region <strong>and</strong> many States <strong>in</strong> the region<br />

<strong>in</strong>clude further expansion <strong>in</strong>to <strong>of</strong>fshore <strong>fisheries</strong> as<br />

part <strong>of</strong> their future fishery plans. Although the<br />

<strong>potential</strong> is relatively unknown, especially <strong>in</strong><br />

demersal stocks, it is dangerous to assume that the<br />

<strong>of</strong>fshore regions will supply fish <strong>in</strong> quantities that<br />

we are familiar with <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>shore regions. It is well<br />

known that biological productivity decl<strong>in</strong>es<br />

exponentially as one moves away from the coast.<br />

59


Of the 363 million km 2 <strong>of</strong> ocean, <strong>in</strong> less than seven<br />

percent are waters with a depth <strong>of</strong> less than<br />

200 m, <strong>and</strong> this cont<strong>in</strong>ental shelf area accounts for<br />

90 percent <strong>of</strong> the global fish catch. The rest comes<br />

from deep-water demersal fish <strong>and</strong> highly migratory<br />

fish such as tuna that roam the vast desert-like<br />

expanse <strong>of</strong> the open ocean. It is unlikely that this<br />

percentage will change dramatically over the next<br />

10-20 years.<br />

There have been some resource surveys for<br />

deep-water demersal fish <strong>in</strong> the region, <strong>in</strong><br />

particular, those done by India. The Fishery Survey<br />

<strong>of</strong> India (FSI) is responsible for survey <strong>and</strong><br />

assessment <strong>of</strong> mar<strong>in</strong>e fishery resources <strong>of</strong> the<br />

Indian EEZ. With its headquarters at Mumbai, the<br />

Institute has seven operational bases at Porb<strong>and</strong>ar,<br />

Mumbai, Mormugao <strong>and</strong> Coch<strong>in</strong> along the west<br />

coast; Madras <strong>and</strong> Visakhapatnam along the east<br />

coast <strong>and</strong> Port Blair <strong>in</strong> the Andaman & Nicobar<br />

Isl<strong>and</strong>s. A total <strong>of</strong> 12 ocean-go<strong>in</strong>g survey vessels<br />

have been deployed for <strong>fisheries</strong> resources<br />

survey <strong>and</strong> monitor<strong>in</strong>g. At the time <strong>of</strong> writ<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>FAO</strong><br />

did not have access to these results. Experience<br />

from other parts <strong>of</strong> the world, however, has shown<br />

that many <strong>of</strong> the scarce deep water demersal<br />

stocks are long-lived (over 100 years) species <strong>of</strong><br />

low productivity <strong>and</strong> many have already been<br />

overexploited <strong>in</strong> many temperate waters. <strong>FAO</strong>’s<br />

Fishery Committee <strong>of</strong> the Eastern Central Atlantic<br />

(CECAF) has just concluded that “Any exploitation<br />

<strong>of</strong> these (deep water) species should be carefully<br />

designed, tak<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>to account the very low level <strong>of</strong><br />

susta<strong>in</strong>able yield <strong>of</strong> these fish populations <strong>and</strong> the<br />

isolation <strong>of</strong> sea-mount benthic ecosystems.”<br />

In terms <strong>of</strong> the highly migratory tuna species,<br />

purse-se<strong>in</strong>e fishery <strong>in</strong> the Western <strong>and</strong> Central<br />

Pacific (WCPO) has accounted for around<br />

55-60 percent <strong>of</strong> total catch <strong>in</strong> the area s<strong>in</strong>ce the<br />

early 1990s, with annual catches <strong>in</strong> the range <strong>of</strong><br />

790 000-1 200 000 tonnes. The majority <strong>of</strong> the<br />

WCPO purse-se<strong>in</strong>e catch (>70 percent) is taken by<br />

the four ma<strong>in</strong> distant-water fish<strong>in</strong>g fleets (Japan,<br />

Republic <strong>of</strong> Korea, Taiwan Prov<strong>in</strong>ce <strong>of</strong> Ch<strong>in</strong>a <strong>and</strong><br />

United States <strong>of</strong> America), which currently number<br />

around 140 vessels.<br />

There has been an <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g contribution from the<br />

grow<strong>in</strong>g number <strong>of</strong> Pacific Isl<strong>and</strong> domestic vessels<br />

<strong>in</strong> recent years (40 vessels <strong>in</strong> 2000), with the<br />

balance from Philipp<strong>in</strong>es <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> a variety <strong>of</strong><br />

other fleets, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g a small seasonally active<br />

Spanish fleet.<br />

As shown <strong>in</strong> Chapter 3 (Table 17), the tuna<br />

stocks <strong>in</strong> both the WCPO <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> the Indian Ocean,<br />

with the exception <strong>of</strong> skipjack, are all fully or<br />

overexploited. Recent studies have also shown<br />

that there is considerable overcapacity <strong>in</strong> the tuna<br />

fleets <strong>in</strong> both these oceans. 2 Assessments <strong>of</strong> the<br />

stocks <strong>in</strong> both the WCPO <strong>and</strong> the Indian Ocean<br />

also highlight the variability <strong>in</strong> recruitment <strong>in</strong> the<br />

faster grow<strong>in</strong>g more productive tuna species<br />

(skipjack <strong>and</strong> yellowf<strong>in</strong>), driven to a large extent by<br />

climatic changes such as El Niño. Scientists warn<br />

that because <strong>of</strong> the multi-species nature <strong>of</strong> the<br />

purse se<strong>in</strong>e <strong>and</strong> longl<strong>in</strong>e fishery, the impacts <strong>of</strong><br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g on skipjack could have a negative impact<br />

on more vulnerable species. In this respect, they<br />

advise that the Tuna Commissions should consider<br />

how to implement management measures to<br />

address over-fish<strong>in</strong>g <strong>and</strong> alleviate over-fished stock<br />

conditions <strong>in</strong> the future. For APFIC Members this<br />

will mean <strong>in</strong>creased competition for the total<br />

allowable catch limits that are be<strong>in</strong>g imposed.<br />

In summary, it would appear that any expansion<br />

<strong>in</strong>to <strong>of</strong>fshore waters will be limited for both pelagic<br />

<strong>and</strong> demersal <strong>fisheries</strong>, unless more selective<br />

fish<strong>in</strong>g gears for tunas can be developed. Overall,<br />

therefore, even to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the status quo <strong>in</strong><br />

capture <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>in</strong> the region, especially <strong>in</strong> terms<br />

<strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g food security <strong>and</strong> poverty alleviation<br />

for the region’s poor, the many issues highlighted<br />

<strong>in</strong> this review will need to be addressed. It is<br />

unlikely that any State can do this unilaterally,<br />

<strong>and</strong> a concerted <strong>and</strong> collaborative effort will be<br />

required.<br />

6.3 Small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

All analyses po<strong>in</strong>t to the fact that excess fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capacity <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort needs to be greatly<br />

reduced.<br />

The obvious dilemma <strong>in</strong> relation to reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />

capacity <strong>and</strong> fish<strong>in</strong>g effort <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region<br />

is that a large part <strong>of</strong> the production comes from<br />

small-scale operators, <strong>and</strong> they are <strong>of</strong>ten totally<br />

dependent on fishery resources for their livelihood.<br />

Despite efforts to “modernize” small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

<strong>in</strong> the region, the level <strong>of</strong> small-scale fish<strong>in</strong>g<br />

activity has not decreased. Given the significant<br />

contribution that small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> make to<br />

food security <strong>and</strong> poverty alleviation, the role <strong>of</strong><br />

small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong> <strong>and</strong> how they fit <strong>in</strong>to the<br />

multiple activities <strong>of</strong> rural economies should be<br />

carefully re-exam<strong>in</strong>ed. Unlike large-scale <strong>in</strong>dustrial<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>, they have low visibility <strong>and</strong> receive little<br />

attention from policy-makers. They are <strong>of</strong>ten open<br />

2<br />

Bayliff W.H, Moreno, Juan Ignacio de Leiva & Majkowski,<br />

J. (2005); Management <strong>of</strong> tuna fish<strong>in</strong>g capacity: conservation<br />

<strong>and</strong> socio-economics. <strong>FAO</strong> Fisheries Proceed<strong>in</strong>gs 2.<br />

60


access enterprises that contribute little to the<br />

national GDP <strong>and</strong> comm<strong>and</strong> little political attention<br />

<strong>and</strong> support through research, subsidies etc. As<br />

such, they tend to be dealt with through project<br />

work funded by donors.<br />

Small-scale <strong>fisheries</strong>, however, have a very large<br />

<strong>potential</strong> to improve the contribution that <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

as a whole make to susta<strong>in</strong>able development.<br />

Policies that support <strong>and</strong> foster small-scale<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>, at the expense <strong>of</strong> more <strong>in</strong>dustrialized<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong>, have the advantage <strong>of</strong> provid<strong>in</strong>g both<br />

social <strong>and</strong> economic benefits to a large number<br />

<strong>of</strong> stakeholders <strong>in</strong> the APFIC region as well<br />

as provid<strong>in</strong>g an important eng<strong>in</strong>e for wealth<br />

creation. Includ<strong>in</strong>g these stakeholders <strong>in</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

co-management is a positive step <strong>in</strong> this direction<br />

<strong>and</strong> APFIC has been provid<strong>in</strong>g considerable<br />

support <strong>in</strong> this endeavour.<br />

The APFIC Regional Workshop on “Ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>fisheries</strong> co-management” 3 acknowledged that<br />

co-management <strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> is widely practiced<br />

<strong>in</strong> most <strong>Asia</strong>n <strong>and</strong> Pacific countries, but noted<br />

that these were mostly undertaken either<br />

through traditional arrangements or on a pilot/<br />

demonstration scale implemented through<br />

projects. These pilot/demonstration schemes have<br />

shown that economic, social <strong>and</strong> environmental<br />

benefits can be achieved. Countries <strong>in</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong><br />

the Pacific are urged to move towards more<br />

<strong>org</strong>anized implementation <strong>of</strong> co-management at<br />

local, prov<strong>in</strong>cial <strong>and</strong> national levels, i.e. they should<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>stream <strong>fisheries</strong> co-management. This<br />

should build on exist<strong>in</strong>g co-management <strong>and</strong><br />

community-based arrangements where available.<br />

A number <strong>of</strong> challenges to successful ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g<br />

<strong>of</strong> co-management were highlighted<br />

which <strong>in</strong>clude poverty levels <strong>of</strong> fishers <strong>in</strong> the<br />

region; limited communication <strong>of</strong> the benefits <strong>of</strong><br />

co-management; resource constra<strong>in</strong>ts; weak<br />

governance frameworks <strong>and</strong> poor <strong>in</strong>stitutional<br />

l<strong>in</strong>kages <strong>and</strong>, importantly, the lack <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>tegration<br />

<strong>of</strong> <strong>fisheries</strong> management with other policy<br />

developments such as decentralization <strong>and</strong> poverty<br />

reduction.<br />

The workshop agreed on a number <strong>of</strong> strategies<br />

<strong>and</strong> actions to facilitate the ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong><br />

fishery co-management. These were:<br />

3<br />

APFIC, 2005. APFIC Regional consultative workshop on<br />

ma<strong>in</strong>stream<strong>in</strong>g <strong>fisheries</strong> co-management, Siem Reap,<br />

Cambodia, 9-12 August 2005. RAP Publication 2005/23.<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Demonstrate <strong>and</strong> communicate the benefits<br />

<strong>and</strong> importance <strong>of</strong> co-management to promote<br />

the scal<strong>in</strong>g up <strong>of</strong> pilot/demonstration activities;<br />

Provide appropriate national policy <strong>and</strong><br />

legislative frameworks;<br />

Ensure legitimate representation <strong>of</strong>, <strong>and</strong> trust<br />

among, stakeholders;<br />

Strengthen human/<strong>in</strong>stitutional capacity <strong>of</strong><br />

stakeholders to enable co-management;<br />

Empower fish<strong>in</strong>g communities to engage <strong>in</strong><br />

co-management;<br />

Establish, enhance <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease l<strong>in</strong>kages <strong>and</strong><br />

communication;<br />

Focus research <strong>and</strong> learn<strong>in</strong>g on <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

co-management; <strong>and</strong><br />

Make available <strong>and</strong> support susta<strong>in</strong>able<br />

f<strong>in</strong>ancial arrangements for <strong>fisheries</strong><br />

co-management.<br />

6.4 Aquaculture<br />

S<strong>in</strong>ce the yield from capture <strong>fisheries</strong> is not<br />

expected to <strong>in</strong>crease greatly, there is an emphasis<br />

be<strong>in</strong>g placed on the <strong>aquaculture</strong> sector’s ability to<br />

provide <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g quantities <strong>of</strong> fish to satisfy<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g dem<strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong> all regions.<br />

Several conditions must be satisfied <strong>in</strong> order for<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> be able to achieve this expectation.<br />

The massive expansion <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> required will<br />

need <strong>in</strong>creased production area, as well as greatly<br />

<strong>in</strong>creased <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong> production. Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />

l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water may be possible if the value <strong>of</strong><br />

fishery products <strong>in</strong>creases so that <strong>aquaculture</strong> can<br />

challenge other production systems for the use <strong>of</strong><br />

the feeds, l<strong>and</strong> <strong>and</strong> water required to effect this<br />

production. Alternatively, <strong>in</strong>creased efficiency <strong>in</strong><br />

the use <strong>of</strong> water <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>tensified production will<br />

reduce l<strong>and</strong> requirements. The current <strong>in</strong>tensity <strong>of</strong><br />

production <strong>in</strong> many States <strong>of</strong> <strong>Asia</strong> is such that there<br />

is considerable scope for <strong>in</strong>creased production per<br />

unit area. However, this will result <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased feed<br />

usage <strong>and</strong> probable <strong>in</strong>creased water requirements.<br />

Strengthen<strong>in</strong>g <strong>of</strong> environmental regulations is also<br />

driv<strong>in</strong>g <strong>aquaculture</strong> to limit its effluent outputs<br />

<strong>and</strong> the improved environmental pr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> parts <strong>of</strong><br />

the sub-sector is also be<strong>in</strong>g driven by consumer<br />

dem<strong>and</strong>s. Supermarkets are beg<strong>in</strong>n<strong>in</strong>g to impact<br />

the way <strong>aquaculture</strong> operates by requir<strong>in</strong>g a range<br />

<strong>of</strong> ethical, environmental <strong>and</strong> food safety st<strong>and</strong>ards<br />

to be met. This tends to focus on the export part<br />

<strong>of</strong> the sector, but domestic supermarkets are also<br />

61


ecom<strong>in</strong>g more particular, especially <strong>in</strong> terms <strong>of</strong><br />

food safety <strong>and</strong> product quality.<br />

The current reliance on fish meal as a prote<strong>in</strong><br />

source for <strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds is a major <strong>potential</strong><br />

constra<strong>in</strong>t. In look<strong>in</strong>g at the <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g use <strong>of</strong> low<br />

value/trash fish to feed the growth <strong>in</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong>,<br />

APFIC convened a regional consultative workshop<br />

on “Low value <strong>and</strong> trash fish <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific<br />

region”. 4 The ma<strong>in</strong> outcome <strong>of</strong> workshop was an<br />

action plan that <strong>in</strong>cluded:<br />

●<br />

●<br />

●<br />

Apply<strong>in</strong>g a number <strong>of</strong> fishery management<br />

<strong>in</strong>terventions (<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g reduction <strong>of</strong> trawler<br />

<strong>and</strong> pushnetters capacity; improve gear<br />

selectivity, <strong>in</strong>troduce more effective rights<br />

based-management; protection nursery areas;<br />

seek alternative employment options for<br />

fishers).<br />

Improv<strong>in</strong>g post-harvest <strong>in</strong>terventions which<br />

could be used to improve the utilization <strong>of</strong> low<br />

value/trash fish (improve on board h<strong>and</strong>l<strong>in</strong>g,<br />

diversify product forms).<br />

Address dem<strong>and</strong> for low value/trash fish<br />

by <strong>aquaculture</strong> by improv<strong>in</strong>g feeds for<br />

<strong>aquaculture</strong> through (chang<strong>in</strong>g over from direct<br />

feed<strong>in</strong>g to pellet feed<strong>in</strong>g; reduction <strong>of</strong> fish meal<br />

content by substitution <strong>of</strong> suitable <strong>in</strong>gredients<br />

<strong>in</strong> pellets; <strong>in</strong>vestment <strong>in</strong> feed research for<br />

<strong>in</strong>l<strong>and</strong>/mar<strong>in</strong>e species; <strong>and</strong> promote adoption<br />

<strong>and</strong> change over to pellet feeds.<br />

Aquaculture also currently competes with the<br />

livestock sector for fish meal for feeds <strong>and</strong> we are<br />

likely to see different outcomes <strong>of</strong> this competition<br />

depended on price <strong>of</strong> fish <strong>and</strong> the ability to become<br />

less reliant on fish as a feed <strong>in</strong>put. This puts even<br />

more pressure on <strong>aquaculture</strong> to reduce its reliance<br />

on fish meals <strong>and</strong> <strong>in</strong>crease the efficiency <strong>of</strong> their<br />

utilization. Whilst more efficient use <strong>of</strong> fish meal<br />

is possible, reduced reliance may be more difficult<br />

to achieve. In the face <strong>of</strong> <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g purchas<strong>in</strong>g<br />

power <strong>of</strong> <strong>aquaculture</strong> feeds, it may be the livestock<br />

sector which makes the greater progress towards<br />

reduc<strong>in</strong>g reliance on fish meals.<br />

The efficient culture <strong>of</strong> herbivorous/omnivorous fish<br />

is already a reality; however, it is apparent that<br />

current trends <strong>in</strong>dicate that <strong>aquaculture</strong> is mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />

towards higher value species that present greater<br />

pr<strong>of</strong>it marg<strong>in</strong>s. This trend is even be<strong>in</strong>g seen <strong>in</strong><br />

species that are traditionally considered to be<br />

relatively low <strong>in</strong>put species such as tilapia. The<br />

production <strong>of</strong> tilapia <strong>in</strong> several States is mov<strong>in</strong>g<br />

away from greenwater fertilized systems towards<br />

pellet-fed <strong>in</strong>tensified systems.<br />

It is <strong>in</strong>evitable that as fish prices rise, there will be<br />

a tendency for poorer parts <strong>of</strong> national populations<br />

to shift towards cheaper forms <strong>of</strong> meat such as<br />

chicken <strong>and</strong> pork. The question is whether fish <strong>in</strong><br />

the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region will rema<strong>in</strong> a common (<strong>and</strong><br />

even central) part <strong>of</strong> the diet <strong>of</strong> most people or<br />

<strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly become a luxury food item.<br />

4<br />

APFIC, 2005. APFIC Regional workshop on low value <strong>and</strong><br />

“trash fish” <strong>in</strong> the <strong>Asia</strong>-Pacific region. Hanoi, Viet Nam,<br />

7-9 June 2005. RAP Publication 2005/21.<br />

62


ASIA-PACIFIC FISHERY COMMISSION<br />

<strong>FAO</strong> Regional Office for <strong>Asia</strong> <strong>and</strong> the Pacific<br />

39 Phra Athit Road, Bangkok, Thail<strong>and</strong><br />

www.apfic.<strong>org</strong>

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