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Women’s employment in the textile manufacturing sectors of Bangladesh and Morocco most illiterate or semi-literate and unskilled rural women from landless households prior to the 1980s. 14 4. Safety and odd working hours 15 In the absence of cheap and safe public or factory operated transportation systems, young migrant women are generally protected against violence, physical or sexual assault on their way to and from the factory by their co-workers and family members. Nine out of 10 female garment factory workers live in the same ward as the factory, or nearby, and therefore walk to their workplace. The remaining 10 per cent of the female workers travel either by tempo 16 or rickshaw. However, whether they walk or ride on a rickshaw, they are always accompanied by co-workers and or family members (Table 17). Seldom do they go to the factory alone, particularly at night. Their strong group identity on the road works as a protective shield in the otherwise unprotected lonely dark roads and lanes. Only a fraction of female garment workers (3 per cent) reported being teased while returning from the office at night. However, the survey technique is not often useful to capture sensitive areas like sexual abuse/ harassment, since women often are inhibited about sharing their personal experience. Both men and women unanimously considered mastaans (muscle men), whether from their own communities or neighbouring ones, as the main threat, indicating that the problem requires serious attention by the authorities. Community-based focus group discussions (Afsar, 1998b) revealed many instances of threat of mastaans and other forms of sexual abuse/harassment faced by female garment factory workers. “Eve teasing” on the road and kidnapping of the female garment factory workers are not rare. 17 Within the factory, there is evidence of sexual harassment. Some women complained that their male co-workers treat them as “garments” to be used for some time and then thrown away. Taking advantage of women’s weaker economic position and bargaining power, male co-workers, technical, and even managerial staff make false promises of promotion or marriage. Once sexual relations are established, the women workers are often abandoned by their male colleagues. There are also cases reported where women do use relations with technical or even managerial staff to improve their position and end up leaving their own husbands. It is also worth noting that in the less-protected living and working environments found in urban settings, both male and female workers are susceptible to sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) (Afsar, 1998b) 18 , particularly 138
Gender dimensions of labour migration in Dhaka city’s formal manufacturing sector Table 15: Proportions and profiles of workers who demanded better working conditions Percentage and Paid leave Higher wages Change in More profile night duty overtime Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Garment Percentage 63.2 50.6 61.8 55.8 27.6 29.9 7.9 13.0 Average education (years) 2 2.9 2.9 2.5 2.8 2.6 2.0 2.0 Length of service (years) 2.9 4.4 2.7 3.4 1.9 3.7 5.0 3.5 Percentage whose demand sanctioned 72.9 79.5 36.2 30.2 42.9 43.5 0.0 2.6 Other industries Percentage 76.7 90.0 3.3 6.7 13.3 10.0 3.3 3.0 Average education (years) 3.7 3.7 2.0 4.0 2.7 3.0 4.0 4.0 Length of service (years) 6.9 8.5 12.0 12.0 3.0 11.3 6.0 9.0 Percentage whose demand sanctioned 86.9 96.3 100.0 50.0 50.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 Source: Sample survey of migrant workers of Dhaka’s formal manufacturing sector, 1996. Table 16: Percentage distribution of respondents by types of living arrangement in the place of destination and migration status Respondents Family unit Mess/boarding Sublet Others* All house Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Garment Non-migrant 66.7 80.0 33.3 - - - - 20.0 3 5 Long-term migrant 65.7 75.7 17.1 2.7 8.6 16.2 8.6 5.4 35 37 Recent migrant 36.8 65.7 44.7 17.1 7.7 17.1 - - 38 35 All 52.6 70.0 31.6 9.1 7.9 15.6 9.2 - 76 77 Others Non-migrant 61.5 75.0 7.7 - 15.4 - 15.4 25.0 13 16 Long-term migrant 16.7 78.6 25.0 - 8.3 21.4 50.0 - 12 14 Recent migrant 40.0 - 60.0 - - - - - 5 - All - - - - - - - - - - All (garment & others) 87 123 5 4 14 12 7 10 34 15 * Others include employer’s land and squatting government/public land. Source: Sample survey of migrant workers of Dhaka’s formal manufacturing sector, 1996. 139
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Women’s Employment in the Textile
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This United Nations Research Instit
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Acknowledgements Many people have b
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notwithstanding the inertia of the
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Carol Miller is a policy analyst on
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xii VII. Contribution of different
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Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Shahr
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Introduction Table 1: Basic indicat
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Introduction women have been tradit
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Introduction The chapters on Bangla
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Introduction women workers related
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Introduction participate in labour
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Introduction their bargaining power
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Introduction processing zones hypot
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Introduction IV. The case studies T
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Introduction experience in garment
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Introduction V. Conclusion Although
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Introduction improved technology. T
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Introduction References Afsar, R. (
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Introduction Household Power Relati
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Wage discrimination by gender in Mo
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