Women's Employment - United Nations Research Institute for Social ...

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Women’s employment in the textile manufacturing sectors of Bangladesh and Morocco be counterbalanced by the socioeconomic changes brought by rural development (Bilsborrow, 1993). In countries such as Bangladesh and Thailand, where rapid growth takes place in the capital city, migration occurs to avail economic opportunities generated by those cities. In particular, women’s independent migration occurs as a direct response to the demand generated by the export-oriented manufacturing industries in those metropolises. Hence, along with policies directed to slowing migration, the government must undertake migrationresponsive policies. Migration-responsive policies in this case cover a broad range and include access to housing, basic amenities, health care and consciousness-raising on diseases such as STD and AIDS/ HIV, education and training, transport and childcare services. Any policy that facilitates the provision of adequate housing and other services to female migrants will accelerate economic growth by facilitating female mobility in response to economic incentives. Some of the recommendations made by proceedings of the United Nations expert meeting on the “Feminization of Internal Migration” (1993) can also be emphasized for the present study. • Governments, the private sector and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) should provide adequate support services to first time migrants in urban areas, including job placement services and accommodation for migrant women. • There should be more low-cost but technologically appropriate public housing projects and housing credit schemes for women. Government should also ensure that existing legislation and administrative practices shall grant equal ownership and tenancy rights to women as to men. The findings of the present study also draw attention to the need for cheap and safe public transportation. It showed a heavy concentration of women in those wards where garment factories are located. Elsewhere, the author (Afsar, 1997) argued that due to lack of horizontal mobility, women often compete for same type of job and as a result of a “crowding effect”, wages paid to women are generally lower than men. Private sector actors, preferably NGOs, can start city shuttle services for female workers of garment and other manufacturing industries in the peak hours in the morning, evening and night to enable women perform their normal and overtime work. Employers can also use their vans to pick up and drop off women workers during odd hours of morning and/or evening and can charge for the petrol cost. Elsewhere the author has also argued that the government should invest more to improve roads and transportation facilities 142
Gender dimensions of labour migration in Dhaka city’s formal manufacturing sector between rural and urban areas, which will encourage more temporary rather than permanent migration. This proposition was derived from one pertinent finding which shows that temporary migrants came from those villages which are better connected with Dhaka city than those of permanent migrants (Afsar, 1995). The present study confirms that women are underrepresented in technically skilled jobs and in senior grades in industry, a universally common pattern. It also shows that the wage gap between men and women workers at this level is the highest compared to the skilled and unskilled production workers’ level. 19 These findings call for a gender-equitable spread of students at secondary and tertiary levels of education and a revision of curriculum and teaching practices to achieve more scientific orientation and technological relevance. Demand-based vocational training, particularly for migrant women, should be organized by both government and non-government organizations. Women workers should also have opportunities for on-the-job training. As the RMG industries are run largely by private entrepreneurs, it would be difficult to impose on-the-job training requirements through government directives. Employers may agree on paper but not in principle, or may implement training half-heartedly. Moreover, too many impositions may lead to closure of some of the factories and hence many women will be deprived of job opportunities. Therefore, some incentive and disincentive schemes along with education of employers and advocacy programs can be more effective. Incentives can take the forms of tax rebates or discounts and sales promotion. Donors can come forward with the funds for training for women workers. Those factories that organize such training on a regular basis can be made eligible such funds after thorough scrutiny and assessment by independent research bodies. The study also reveals that women are not lagging behind men in making demands for better working conditions such as paid leave, higher wages and change in night duty. However, they are often more penalized through salary cuts for taking more sick leave than men. A women worker takes more sick leave because she is more vulnerable to sickness than her male colleagues, and because she must care for family members during their illnesses. Women workers bear the double burden of domestic chores in a situation where basic amenities are shared with 15-30 families. In addition, the lack of child care facilities or services for the urban working women, create constant conflict and tension. Hence, there is a need for better and more efficient delivery of water and sanitation facilities and protection of tenants’ 143
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Women’s Employment in the Textile
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This United Nations Research Instit
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Acknowledgements Many people have b
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notwithstanding the inertia of the
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Carol Miller is a policy analyst on
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xii VII. Contribution of different
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Introduction 1 Introduction 1 Shahr
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Introduction Table 1: Basic indicat
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Introduction women have been tradit
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Introduction The chapters on Bangla
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Introduction women workers related
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Introduction participate in labour
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Introduction their bargaining power
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Introduction processing zones hypot
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Introduction IV. The case studies T
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Introduction experience in garment
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Introduction V. Conclusion Although
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Introduction improved technology. T
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Introduction References Afsar, R. (
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Introduction Household Power Relati
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Wage discrimination by gender in Mo
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