HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF LESSINI MOUNTAINS ... - CC-WaterS
HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF LESSINI MOUNTAINS ... - CC-WaterS
HYDROGEOLOGICAL MAP OF LESSINI MOUNTAINS ... - CC-WaterS
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
<strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION<br />
The Lessini Mountains are in the western part of the Venetian Fore-Alps (fig. 1) and develop over<br />
an area of approximately 1500 km 2 . From an administrative point of view, they belong to the<br />
provinces of Verona, Vicenza, and Trento. They are bordered by the Adige Valley to the West, by<br />
the Leogra Valley to the East and N-E, while the Val dei Ronchi separates them from the Pasubio–<br />
Carega Group in the north-western sector. From a geographic point of view, they include the<br />
western Lessini Mountains (from the Adige Valley to the Illasi Valley) and eastern Lessini<br />
Mountains (from the Illasi Valley to the Leogra Valley).<br />
In the territory of the Veneto Region, the Lessini Mountains are subdivided in the Lessini Veronesi<br />
(fig. 2) and Lessini Vicentini, separated by the Mount Calvarina ridge (683 m a.s.l.) included<br />
between the Alpone Valley (VR) and the Chiampo Valley (VI). The maximum altitude reached by<br />
these mountains is 1865 m a.s.l. (with the Cima Trappola).<br />
The “Kater II” project covers the area included between the Adige Valley and the Chiampo Valley,<br />
extending for an overall length of about 980 km 2 , mainly involving the territory of the province of<br />
Verona and only partly that of Vicenza.<br />
As explained in detail later, the western Lessini Mountains essentially consist of carbonate rocks,<br />
whose role is particularly important in the development of karst phenomena, while the eastern<br />
Lessini Mountains are prevalently made of volcanic rocks linked to the tertiary venetian<br />
magmatism: here, the karst morphology is virtually unseen, while the territory is mainly modelled<br />
by gravitational causes. In its turn, the tectonic pattern equally affects the evolution of surface<br />
forms in both sectors.
CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
Figure 1: Geographical location of the Lessini Mountains<br />
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Figure 2: A panoramic view of the Conca dei Parpari<br />
2. CLIMATIC FEATURES<br />
Generally speaking (SORBINI, 1993) the pluviometric regime in the area of the Lessini Mountains is<br />
very similar to that of Fore-Alpine areas, though with a much lower average rain levels. The<br />
variability of total rainfall approaches 22% and reaches 28% in the northern and higher sector of<br />
the basin. On average, the permanence of snow on the ground varies from a few days at low<br />
altitudes to 3–5 months at higher altitudes.<br />
The graphs below show the rainfall values obtained by processing the data provided by ARPAV<br />
regarding the sites in the Lessini territory where continuous measurements concerning the 1992 to<br />
2005 period are available.<br />
Figure 3: Annual rainfall in Fosse di S. Anna d’Alfaedo<br />
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Figure 4: Average monthly rainfall in Fosse di S. Anna d’Alfaedo<br />
The longest and most complete series of the area refers to the Fosse di S. Anna d’Alfaedo station<br />
(954 m a.s.l.), consisting in measurements taken in the 1961-1990 30-year period (figs. 3 and 4).<br />
The rainfall regime of this station seems to be slightly abnormal compared with the typical regime<br />
of Fore-Alpine areas registered by the other stations (fig. 5). In fact, the most rainy month in Fosse<br />
di S. Anna is August, followed by May and June, while the other pluviometric stations detected<br />
more abundant rainfalls in autumn and, in the second place, in spring, except for the Illasi area,<br />
where the second maximum is reached in the summer. All the other stations showed that the less<br />
rainy month of the year is February.<br />
Figure 5: Average monthly rainfall in the meteorological stations of Lessini Mountains<br />
Comparing the annual values obtained by pluviometric stations with comparable data are<br />
available (fig. 6), it comes out that the average annual rainfall ranges from 826 mm to 1413 mm.<br />
The highest values are seen in the mountain areas, and secondarily in the areas at the western<br />
(Dolcè) and southern margins (Montecchia di Corsara) of the Lessini Mountain.<br />
Figure 6: Average annual rainfall in the meteorological stations of Lessini Mountains<br />
As far as temperatures are concerned, average annual values are established around 13° C in the<br />
mid-low Lessini region, and around 9.3 °C in San Bortolo.<br />
Data regarding temperatures (1992-2005) show a thermal regime characterised by maximum<br />
average values in the months of July and August, and minimum values in the months of January and<br />
December (fig. 7).<br />
Figure 7: Average maximum monthly temperature in the meteorological stations of Lessini Mountains<br />
One anomalous finding is the value of average minimum temperatures in the months of January,<br />
February and December in the Montecchia di Crosara station (fig. 8), which is placed at 50 m<br />
above sea level, but in spite of this shows lower temperatures in these months even compared to the<br />
San Bortolo station that lies at an altitude of 936 m. This anomaly, which may be attributed to local<br />
thermal inversion phenomena, is also highlighted by the frequent presence of fog in the area.<br />
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Figura 8: Average minimum monthly temperature in the meteorological stations of Lessini Mountains<br />
3. GEOMORPHOLOGY<br />
3.1 Morphology<br />
From a morphological point of view, the Lessini Mountains complex consists of an inclined plateau<br />
sloping SW for about 5°. Its southern and central parts are deeply carved by a thick series of<br />
parallel valleys generally positioned in NNE-SSW (to the West) and NNW-SSE (to the East)<br />
directions. These valleys, which are called “vaj” or “progno” by the locals, are initially narrow,<br />
but then widen up considerably as long as they proceed southward. Their rectilinear course shows<br />
a clear tectonic influence: the Lessini valleys, in fact, are set on tectonic discontinuities.<br />
The long and narrow ridges that lead off the wide northern plateau (fig. 9) plunge below fluvialalluvial<br />
areas when they reach the plain and then re-emerge locally in the form of low isolated<br />
hills.<br />
Figure 9: View from a ridge summit near Conca dei Parpari<br />
The summit tableland of the Lessini Mountains extends for about 60 km 2 and is entirely covered<br />
with grazing land.<br />
The area examined (the central-western Lessini) may be in turn divided into different areas<br />
depending on their altitude and different evolution of the local morphology:<br />
• a basal strip, between the Adige riverbed and 900 m a.s.l., where valley incisions extend<br />
upwards, until they become large hilly areas (fig. 10);<br />
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• an intermediate strip, between 900 and 1200 m a.s.l., characterised by narrow ridges and<br />
narrow valleys (locally named “vaj”), with many scattered human settlements (fig. 11);<br />
• a summit strip or “upper Lessini”, between 1200 and 1800 m a.s.l., with extensive grazing<br />
land from which impressive rocky peaks emerge. In the North, the surface slopes down<br />
towards the Trentino Region, with marked slopes and steep cliffs. This area is the site that<br />
presents the most interesting karst phenomena (fig. 12).<br />
Figure 10: The wide valley-bottom of Vajo di Squaranto nearby Montorio<br />
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Figure 11: The village of Lesi (Bosco Chiesanuova)<br />
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Figure 12: Karst phenomena in the upper Vajo di Squaranto<br />
3.2 Karstification<br />
The karst phenomenon has not given to the Lessini Mountains area the classic karstic features<br />
(dolines, polje), even though the total absence of surface water already informs us about the<br />
magnitude of the underground phenomenon. The hypogean forms are extensively and largely<br />
spread, as proven by the 825 caves known until today, some of which are extremely important.<br />
SAURO (1973) describes karstification in the Lessini Mountains both as “fluvial karst”, for the clear<br />
predominance of river morphologies, and as “tectonic karst”, for the significant impact of tectonics<br />
on the development of karst and, consequently, onto the entire landscape.<br />
The role played in karstification and in the hydrogeological system of the Lessini Mountains by<br />
overburden (landslide deposits, moraines, debris, eluvial and colluvial deposits) is very important,<br />
as it represents epikarst water reservoirs that are slowly released into the underlying karstfied<br />
rocks.<br />
Acting on the several rock formations of the area, karstification has developed different<br />
morphologies that vary based on their lithology; for example, the so-called “rock cities” (fig. 13)<br />
are a typical phenomenon of Rosso Ammonitico, while dells and dry valleys are more typically<br />
found on Biancone, on Oolite di S. Vigilio and Calcari Grigi (figs. 14 and 15). Dolines are<br />
prevalently formed by the contact between Biancone and the underlying jurassic limestones, while<br />
rocks, which are more favourable to the development of caves, are Rosso Ammonitico, Oolite di S.<br />
Vigilio and Calcari Grigi.<br />
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Figure 13: The “Rock City” near Camposilvano (Velo Veronese)<br />
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Figure 14: Dry valley (Conca dei Parpari)<br />
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Figure 15: Small dolines on the floor of a dry valley (Branchetto Pass)<br />
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The most common among hypogean forms are vertical development caves, such as, for example, the<br />
Spluga della Preta (near the Corno d’Aquilio), a drop of 877 m to create the third deepest cave of<br />
the Veneto Region and a space extent of 4518 m to give the fourth largest cave of Veneto.<br />
In addition to Spluga della Preta, the main caves in the area examined are Spurga delle Cadene<br />
(Dolcè) and the Lesi Abyss (Bosco Chiesanuova), with space developments of 1200 m and 472 m,<br />
respectively. More well-known karst morphologies are Covolo di Camposilvano (fig. 16), an<br />
imposing 83 m deep collapse dolines, and the Veja Bridge, near S. Anna d’Alfaedo, a hypogean<br />
complex consisting of a natural rock bridge that represents the non-collapsed portion of the vault of<br />
the initial chamber.<br />
More spectacular typical karst forms of the Lessini Mountains can be admired in the Sphinx Valley,<br />
in the vicinity of Camposilvano (fig. 17).<br />
Figure 16: Covolo di Camposilvano<br />
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Figure 17: Sphinx Valley, near Camposilvano<br />
3.2.1 The Sphinx Valley<br />
The Sphinx Valley area is recognised as a natural monument representing a karst landscape named<br />
“rock city” (figs. 13 and 17). The evolution of karst erosion combined with other physical-chemical<br />
crumbling processes have enlarged the pre-existing vertical discontinuities and karst fissures, thus<br />
creating karren and corridors in Rosso Ammonitico layers. This generated special stone blocks,<br />
either isolated or in groups, with typical parallelepipedon (fig. 18) or mushroom-like forms (fig.<br />
19). The typical rock "mushrooms" have a "hat" of Rosso Ammonitico, that is more resistant to<br />
erosion, and "stalk" of the oolitic calcarenite belonging to the S. Vigilio Group, with a greater<br />
susceptibility to erosion.<br />
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Figure 18: Rock city (Sphinx Valley – Camposilvano)<br />
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Figure 19: The “Mushroom” (Sphinx Valley – Camposilvano)<br />
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3.2.2 Covolo di Camposilvano<br />
Covolo di Camposilvano (fig. 16) is the most interesting example of collapse doline found in the<br />
Lessini Mountains. It is a spectacular and very peculiar karst cave generated by the collapse of a<br />
great doline set on Biancone, Rosso Ammonitico and oolitic limestones of S. Vigilio Group. The<br />
entrance of the cave is at an altitude of 1204 m, the global drop is 83 m, the diameter is 60 m and<br />
the global development ranges for 130 m.<br />
Globally, the Covolo is a set of karst caves consisting of many rooms that form a complex system<br />
originated by the karst processes connected with water circulation between layers.<br />
The main cavern sometimes works as a “trap” for cold air: the considerable temperature difference<br />
from external air may sometimes result in ice formations in spring, which may even last throughout<br />
the year, or in the development of condensation mists.<br />
Not far from the karst cave lies a small local museum (fig. 20) preserving interesting fossil remains<br />
and pre-historic findings that have been found nearby, including both mineral and fossils, either<br />
local or from other places. In particular, the Covolo area, which was already settled by humans in<br />
the Neolithic age, is an important deposit of Quaternary fossils, with bone finds from holocenic<br />
Cervus sp. and Bos taurus.<br />
Figure 20: Shark vertebrae and ammonite fossils at the entrance into the Museum of Camposilvano<br />
4 GEOLOGY<br />
4.1 Stratigraphical succession<br />
The Lessini Mountains mainly consist of carbonate sedimentary rocks dating back to the Mesozoic<br />
and Tertiary periods. Cretaceous-Jurassic lithotypes crop out in the northern sector, while the<br />
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southern sector is occupied by Eocene lithotypes. The lithology here (fig. 21) essentially consists of<br />
dolomite rock, dolomitic limestone, limestone and marly limestone, but Eocene volcanic rock also<br />
crops out, mainly in the Alpone Valley.<br />
Here are the formations of the stratigraphic series of the Lessini Mountains: Dolomia Principale,<br />
Calcari Grigi, Oolite di S. Vigilio, Rosso Ammonitico, Biancone, Scaglia Rossa, eocenic limestone.<br />
Basaltic volcanic rocks (such as basalts, hyaloclastite and tuffs) crop out only in some parts of the<br />
territory, prevalently in the eastern sector.<br />
Figure 21: Lessini Mountains lithologies visible in the walls of a building<br />
The most ancient formation is the Dolomia Principale, which consists of bioclastic calcarenites,<br />
biomicrites, and stromatolites. The overall power of 900 m is almost entirely visible only on the<br />
Adige and Ronchi valley slopes, while only the highest portion of the units emerges from the upper<br />
Illasi Valley.<br />
Jurassic units are represented by Calcari Grigi, Oolite di S. Vigilio and Rosso Ammonitico (fig.<br />
22), with an overall 400–450 m thickness. From a lithological point of view, oolitic calcarenites are<br />
frequently found, together with biostromal limestones, lumachelle limestone, encrinitic calcarenites,<br />
and marly flinty limestones, while the most recent terms are micritic limestones. These formations<br />
make up the main frame of the Lessini ridges and form the slopes of the deeply-embedded, and often<br />
vertically walled, valleys.<br />
Rosso Ammonitico has peculiar morphological features: it generates both the summit frames of the<br />
ridges, as well as the shelves along the slopes and the plateaus of the northern tableland.<br />
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Figure 22: A quarry near Camposilvano, with Oolite di S. Vigilio (below) and Rosso Ammonitico (above)<br />
Stratigraphically overlying jurassic terms are the Biancone and Scaglia Rossa formations, lower<br />
and upper Cretaceous in age, respectively. They consist of thickly-stratified fine-grained limestones,<br />
whose global thickness ranges from about 200 m in the western sector to over 400 m in the eastern<br />
sector. They come in the form of wide strips, scarcely steep along the slopes and rounded ridges at<br />
the top of the medium-high Lessini Mountains.<br />
The top member of the Biancone, which corresponds to the Cenomanian (fig. 29), plays a<br />
significant role for its important hydrogeological implications: they are thickly-stratified marly<br />
limestones and bituminous marls, whose thickness ranges from 50 to 80 m in the area of the Lessini<br />
Mountains. In particular, the passage to the Turonian is marked by 65–130 cm of black and yellow<br />
argillites and siltites. This formation is intensely fractured in the Lessini Mountains due to the<br />
presence of many faults, and plays a considerably important role from a hydrogeological point of<br />
view (see section 5).<br />
Subsequently, during the Paleogene, basalt-like volcanic rock was laid in the Alpone-Agno graben<br />
which took the form of small-grain, often stratified, breccias. The same magmatic cycle also<br />
includes dyke bodies and eruption vents of breccia (necks), which intruded into sedimentary<br />
formations all over the area of the Lessini Mountains (fig. 23).<br />
Units of the Eocene (Scaglia Cinerea, Calcari Nummulitici and Marne di Priabona) crop out along<br />
ridge tops and, in the case of Calcari Nummulitici, originate a marked karst morphology with<br />
scattered groups of dolines. Eocene limestone are also found in the grabens of the area of Bosco<br />
Chiesanuova.<br />
Finally, the most recent terms of stratigraphic succession are found in the vicinity of Verona,<br />
represented by calcarenites and sandstone from the mid Miocene.<br />
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Figure 23: Columnar basalts in San Giovanni Ilarione<br />
4.2 Structural layout<br />
From a tectonic point of view, the Lessini Mountains have gone through extensional phases during<br />
the ancient Mesozoic and Tertiary, a compressive phase in the Neogene and a southward tilting<br />
phase in the Pliocene-Quaternary.<br />
The faults originated in the Mesozoic have variable directions between North and NNE. They are<br />
synsedimentary faults that formed at the margin of the Trentino platform, while this migrated<br />
eastward in the Jurassic.<br />
The faults originated during the initial phases of the Tertiary have a NNW direction, but can also<br />
be found in the NNE directions, where they represent pre-existing faults later reactivated as leftlateral<br />
strike-slip faults (ZAMPIERI, 1995 and 2000). It is in this phase that the most significant<br />
feature of the Lessini Mountains was established: the Alpone-Agno graben (localised in the eastern<br />
portion of the area considered in this report), a structure linked to the Paleogenic extension (fig.<br />
24) and accompanied by volcanism. At the same time, a complicated system of normal NNE and<br />
NNW faults was activated in the central-western Lessini Mountains.<br />
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Figure 24: Tectonic sketch of the Lessini Mountains (ZAMPIERI, 2000)<br />
In the course of the Neogene, the ongoing compressive phase in the Southern Alps only slightly<br />
involved the Lessini Mountains by producing the Corno d’Aquilio and Marana thrusts (CORSI &<br />
GATTO, 1964; ZAMPIERI, 1991). The latter inverted the northern portion of the Alpone-Agno graben<br />
(ZAMPIERI, 1995). During this phase, the pre-existing faults were reactivated as strike-slip faults.<br />
During the Pliocene, the southward tilt phase begun (ZANFERRARI et al., 1982), which later evolved<br />
in the SW direction due to the thrust caused by the NE migration of the Apennine foredeep<br />
(DOGLIONI, 1993).<br />
Evidence of neotectonics in the Lessini Mountains have been recognised by SAURO (1978), ZAMPIERI<br />
(2000), and SAURO & ZAMPIERI (2001). The latter, in particular, have recognised some slopes<br />
originated by extensional tectonics that have reactivated fault planes dating back to the early<br />
Tertiary period in the Orsara area (upper Pantena Valley) and Scandole (Vajo dell’Anguilla).<br />
4.2.1 Tectonic structures in the central-western Lessini Mountains<br />
This sector of the Lessini Mountains has been studied in detail by ZAMPIERI (2000) and as<br />
summarized below, it is characterised by a rather complex structural configuration created by the<br />
existence of two main systems of faults. The NNE-directed system is located in the central part,<br />
while a NNW-oriented systems is found in the northern and central-eastern areas.<br />
The area of interference between the two systems, which is localised among Bosco Chiesanuova,<br />
Velo Veronese and Cerro Veronese, corresponds to a lowered rhomboidal structure within which<br />
igneous rock intrusions and dolomitisation of the pre-existing rocky bodies took place.<br />
The western margin of this structure is bordered by the fault of Bosco Chiesanuova, whose length<br />
globally reaches ten kilometres, but which consists of three segments whose interconnection is<br />
maintained by relay ramps.<br />
This structure includes two minor grabens (Scardon and Mount Purghestal) with basalt and Eocene<br />
calcareous rocks on their bottom. In particular, the basin of Mount Purghestal shows Eocene<br />
calcareous blocks layers converging toward the centre of the graben, which leads to assume that<br />
the structure has appeared after the collapse in the roof of the magma caldera situated along a<br />
lateral ramp of a fault in the NNE-oriented system (volcanic-tectonic basin).<br />
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Another volcanic-tectonic basin is that of Mount Purga, near Velo Veronese. If we look at the map,<br />
Mount Purga seems to be surrounded by normal faults and by basalt dykes from the Paleogene all<br />
around. Consequently, this is another case where the opening of fractures along the connection<br />
ramps between the various fault segments has led to the development of a rhomboidal basin where<br />
a magma chamber has settled at low depth. Subsequently, the collapse of the roof of this chamber<br />
seems to have formed the subcircular collapse basin of Mount Purga.<br />
5 HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES AND HYDROGEOLOGY<br />
The major valleys furrowing the area of the Lessini Mountains are generally oriented N-S and<br />
widen considerably while they converge toward the River Adige. The shape of these valleys, which<br />
are rather deep, is the result of the combination of fluvial, karst, glacial and tectonic processes still<br />
active today (SAURO, 1978; ZAMPIERI, 2000; SAURO and ZAMPIERI, 2001).<br />
The drainage network is well developed, but inactive; this reflects the importance of the karst<br />
phenomenon in this area. As a consequence, torrents have transitory flow rates determined only by<br />
significant rainfall events.<br />
Frequent specimens of valleys suspended above the main valleys are seen, whose origin can be<br />
attributed to the rapid incision of valley floors in connection with recent tectonic uplifting<br />
movements in the Lessini Mountains area, but also with the progressive karstification of the<br />
network of dry valleys (SAURO, in SORBINI 1993).<br />
Four drainage basins can be identified:<br />
• Alpone – Tramigna;<br />
• Vajo di Squaranto;<br />
• Progno di Valpantena;<br />
• Progno di Fumane.<br />
As far as hydrogrology is concerned, the permeability of rock masses should be attributed to both<br />
karst and the thick fracturation of lithotypes, where the latter phenomenon considerably increases<br />
the secondary permeability of formations notoriously considered as scarcely permeable, such as,<br />
for example, Biancone and Scaglia Rossa. For this reason, formations in this area have been<br />
assigned an average permeability due to fracturation, because the fractures pervading these rocks<br />
have such a continuity as to establish communication between the relevant aquifers and the main<br />
underlying aquifer. However, this absorption is so slow that the water has the time to establish a<br />
superficial circulation. Only locally suspended aquifers feeding low discharge springs have been<br />
detected.<br />
Rosso Ammonitico is accounted for a different hydrogeological behaviour, with water penetrating<br />
inside it following a high number of vertical flow directions (SAURO, 1973).<br />
The underground runoff of water is very fast in the areas where Oolite di S. Vigilio and Calcari<br />
Grigi formations crop out, as very large caves are found here, which contribute to determine a<br />
substantially horizontal flow (PASA, 1954).<br />
The lithotypes found in the Lessini Mountains have been grouped under three main hydrogeological<br />
categories:<br />
• an eastern group characterised by volcanic lithotypes, with low discharge springs;<br />
• a central-northern group with a predominance of jurassic–cretacic limestones, with karsttype<br />
springs;<br />
• a southern group characterised by cretacic and eocenic limestones and volcanic rocks: this<br />
sector corresponds to the northern limit of the alluvial plain of the River Adige; springs are<br />
of karst-type here and have limited flow rates.<br />
The springs of the Lessini Mountains have variable discharges, closely depending on the local<br />
hydrogeological conditions. Permanence times may range from a few months for the areas with a<br />
primary porosity, up to a few days or a few hours for karst aquifers.<br />
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
There is a rather high number of springs at an altitude, which are characterised by temporary flows<br />
and generally reduced discharges. These springs are closely dependent on meteoric events and are<br />
essentially connected with localised epikarst systems having limited-size drainage basins.<br />
The most important springs are located in the Fraselle Valley (which have been captured with<br />
collection works below the river-bed), the Ossenigo springs (located in a small side valley on the<br />
rocks hanging above the Adige Valley, and the Montorio springs.<br />
5.1 The Montorio springs<br />
The Montorio springs (figs. 25 and 26) are a very interesting natural phenomenon from a scientific<br />
point of view, due to both their hydro-structural arrangement and to their remarkable total<br />
discharge (5 m 3 /s). The gravelly-sandy alluvia of the Montorio area have four adjacent springs<br />
connected to a buried karst structure (30-40 m deep). These springs have been studied for a long<br />
time, since 1889; in particular, there is an extensive study published in 1993 by the Town Museum<br />
of Natural History of Verona. These springs consist in four small lakes located in Montorio, 60 m<br />
a.s.l., which are directly supplied by karst channels placed in the Calcari Grigi formation.<br />
Figure 25: Small sand volcanoes at the water emergence of Spring Fontanon in Montorio<br />
The springs are located at the outlet of the Vajo di Squaranto, which looks like a deep river karst<br />
canyon elongated in the N-S direction for an overall length of approximately 30 km and about 3-4<br />
km wide. In particular, the flow rates of the four springs have been studied from June 1988 to<br />
March 1993 (ANTONELLI in SORBINI, 1993), during which period annual average rainfalls onto the<br />
catchment basin considered were of 1080 mm, a value close to the 30-year average.<br />
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The mean discharge of the springs, concerning the surface flow volumes, is about 5 m 3 /s. So, we<br />
may assume that a non-negligible amount of this discharge is lost in valley floor alluvia. The<br />
minimum discharge measured after a long and special period of drought was 1 m 3 /s, while the<br />
maximum discharge was 11 m 3 /s (ANTONELLI in SORBINI, 1993).<br />
Figura 26: The Spring Fontanon in Montorio<br />
The discharge of these springs is characterised by a high synchronism and is closely connected with<br />
the rainfall regime of the mountain area. Flood peaks are registered within 24-48 hours after the<br />
main rainfall events and are related with channel karst and well developed circuits. The storage<br />
volume estimated with the depletion curve method has been found to be 6107 m 3 .<br />
Geophysical tests and the drilling of well for potable-irrigation water supply have shown that the<br />
depth of the groundwater table in alluvia varies from 20 to 30 m in the northern sector of the valley,<br />
from 15 to 10 m in the central area, and is reduced to 1–5 m in the southern section. The thickness<br />
of alluvial materials filling the valley is rapidly increased southward, reaching over 100 m at the<br />
outlet into the plain (ZAMBRANO, in SORBINI, 1993). The rocky substrate near Montorio is at least<br />
30-40 m below the ponds.<br />
The catchment basin upstream the Montorio springs extends for approximately 100 km 2 and the<br />
highest altitude reached is 1865 m (Cima Trappola). The hydrogeological basin of the springs has<br />
been estimated to be of about 200 km 2 .<br />
The Montorio springs have not been captured and the water, which was used by mills in the past<br />
(fig. 27), now flow out feeding the Torrent Fibbio.<br />
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
Figure 27: Mill in the center of Montorio<br />
In the 1988-1990 period, some samples of spring water and valley floor wells have been tested<br />
(SORBINI, 1993). The quality of water was proved to be good: none of the per parameters examined<br />
reached or exceeded the maximum admissible concentration for drinking use and nitrate levels<br />
were among the lowest observed in the Verona area. The chemical-physical tests carried out<br />
showed the prevalence of calcium bicarbonate, among salts, which proves that the water flows<br />
inside calcareous rocks. The mean temperature is around 11 °C, PH is 7.6.<br />
Microbiological tests showed a temporary faecal contamination, with an increase in these levels<br />
close to the first flood events immediately following periods of drought.<br />
The quality of water in the karst reservoir was only partially altered by the high number of<br />
potentially polluting activities existing in the Lessini area, particularly those related to the<br />
settlements: about 10,000 inhabitants in the mountain area (there is a remarkable increase in the<br />
number of inhabitants for tourist purposes in the summer and during Christmas holidays), farming<br />
activities (about 30,000 heads of cattle, 60,000 swine and a few million chicken), and animal<br />
breeding waste spilling. Furthermore, some cattle is taken up to the mountains for pasture in the<br />
more than hundred ”malghe” of the Upper Lessini during the summer.<br />
6 <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong><br />
6.1 Choices and criteria<br />
In order to create a hydrogeological map, first of all we have collected geologic and hydrogeologic<br />
data regarding the area to be represented. Then, based on these data, we have identified the<br />
“hydrogeologic units”, consisting in geometrically contiguous groups of rocks (lithotypes) having<br />
similar permeability features (fig. 28). The work was carried out following the guide-lines issued by<br />
the National Geological Service (today APAT). The lithotypes cropping out have been grouped in<br />
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
units having homogeneous hydrogeological features and distinguished on the basis of their degree<br />
of permeability.<br />
Figure 28: Schematic hydrogeological sections of the Lessini Mountains. Keys – pale blu: calcareous-dolomitic Unit,<br />
pale green: marly-calcareous unit, dark green: marly-clayey Unit, olive green: calcareous Unit, brown: volcanic Unit,<br />
orange: colluvial and eluvial Deposit, red: main tectonic structures.<br />
In figure 28 is shown the stratigraphic relation among the hydrogeological units; note the<br />
difference between western and eastern Lessini, due to litho-stratigraphic variation in the two<br />
areas.<br />
The data contained in the basic geological map have been compared and integrated with other<br />
thematic maps available at different scales and reprocessed to eventually obtain the<br />
Hydrogeological Map here attached.<br />
The “Geological Map of the Natural Park of Lessinia” (scale 1:40,000) has been selected among<br />
the basic geological maps available and adopted, to be then integrated with the Sheets of the<br />
Geological Map of Italy no. 35 “Riva del Garda”, no. 36 “Schio”, no. 48 “Peschiera del Garda”,<br />
no. 49 “Verona” (scale 1:100,000). The Hydrogeological Map has then been drawn adding the<br />
typical elements of the hydrogeology of the area (springs, wells, karst cavities, hydrography,<br />
tectonics).<br />
The map representation scale (1:50,000) was determined by the need to provide a good general<br />
view of the different subjects represented with respect to the extent of the area (980 km 2 ).<br />
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
Figure 29: Stratigraphic relationship among hydrogeological units outcropping in Lessini Mountains<br />
6.2 Hydrogeological units<br />
Six hydrogeological rock units have been defined, with permeability related to fracturation and<br />
karstification. The loos materials are divided into four classes, depending on their permeability<br />
(related to porosity):<br />
Calcareous-dolomitic unit: it includes dolomites and dolomitic limestones, which generally consist<br />
of massif beds or have an undistinguished stratification. Permeability here is related to fracturation<br />
and karstification, and is locally remarkable. The complex has a thickness of several hundreds of<br />
metres: altitude infiltrating water is propagated underground through the system of karst channels<br />
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and gets to the springs situated at the base in extremely rapid times. Karst springs have discharges<br />
that can reach even a few cubic metres per second, as in the Montorio case.<br />
Marly-calcareous unit: it includes limestones ranging from mildly clayish to marly with<br />
intercalations of marl and shale. Usually, it is thickly stratified and densely fractured, which<br />
generally gives a medium level of permeability. Suspended water flows are found locally, whose<br />
extension and thickness is limited (at different altitudes) and which supply a high number of small<br />
springs.<br />
Marly-clayey unit: it includes thickly stratified marly limestones with important clayish and<br />
organic-clayish intercalations. Permeability (related to fracturation) is low.<br />
Calcareous unit: it includes marly limestones, compact limestones and nummulitic limestones with<br />
macroforaminifers and lignitic intercalations. Permeability, related to karstification and porosity<br />
(nummulitic limestones), is generally high.<br />
Volcanic unit: it includes volcanoclastic rocks, sometimes stratified, breccias, hyaloclastites and<br />
massive or altered basalt lava rocks. Permeability is generally low, locally variable depending on<br />
the degree of clayey alteration.<br />
Marly unit: it includes marls to more or less laminated marls. Permeability is low and locally<br />
related to the degree of fracturation and fissuration.<br />
Eluvial and colluvial deposits: these are eterometric deposits with abundant clay matrix and<br />
coarse skeleton: alteration and degradation blankets of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, fillings of<br />
the main karst depressions and colluvial deposits at the foot of hill slopes and in the areas between<br />
valleys. Permeability is generally very low.<br />
Debris and alluvial deposits: these are valley floor alluvial deposits, alluvial fans, colluvia and<br />
landslide deposits, consisting of elements with a largely variable grain size (from big blocks to<br />
gravelly, sandy and/or muddy materials), characterised by a generally high permeability. Locally,<br />
permeability may be reduced in the presence of cemented levels or very fine grain material.<br />
Colluvial and glacial deposits: these generally consist of prevalently fine-grain materials derived<br />
from the alteration of the bedrock and from heterometric accumulations with abundant silty matrix<br />
of glacial origin. Permeability is generally very medium or low.<br />
Muddy-clayey alluvial deposits: they include high-heterometry deposits ranging from big blocks to<br />
fine or very fine-grain materials with a muddy-silty matrix, generally loose, sometimes cemented.<br />
Permeability is generally low or very low.<br />
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CARTA IDROGEOLOGICA DEI MONTI <strong>LESSINI</strong> - <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong> <strong>OF</strong> <strong>LESSINI</strong> <strong>MOUNTAINS</strong><br />
CONTENT<br />
1. GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION............................................................................................................................ 1<br />
2. CLIMATIC FEATURES........................................................................................................................................ 3<br />
3. GEOMORPHOLOGY........................................................................................................................................... 5<br />
3.1 Morphology................................................................................................................................................. 5<br />
3.2 Karstification .............................................................................................................................................. 8<br />
3.2.1 Valle delle Sfingi or the Sphinx Valley...................................................................................................... 13<br />
3.2.2 Covolo di Camposilvano........................................................................................................................... 16<br />
4 GEOLOGY ......................................................................................................................................................... 16<br />
4.1 Stratigraphical succession........................................................................................................................ 16<br />
4.2 Structural layout ....................................................................................................................................... 19<br />
4.2.1 Tectonic structures in the central-western Lessini Mountains....................................................................... 20<br />
5 HYDROGRAPHIC FEATURES AND HYDROGEOLOGY................................................................................. 21<br />
5.1 The Montorio springs................................................................................................................................22<br />
6 <strong>HYDROGEOLOGICAL</strong> <strong>MAP</strong>............................................................................................................................. 24<br />
6.1 Choices and criteria.................................................................................................................................. 24<br />
6.2 Hydrogeological units............................................................................................................................... 26<br />
28