Joint Presentation with Judy Willis - NESA

UbD Meets Neuroscience: 

Applying What We Know 

presented by 

Jay McTighe 

jmctigh@aol.com 

Judy Wills, M.D., M.Ed. 

jwillisneuro@aol.com


UbD Meets Neuroscience: Applying What We Know 

presented by 

Jay McTighe and Judy Willis, M.D., M.Ed. 

The confluence of research on learning from cognitive psychology, 

neuroscience and studies of student achievement provide educators with 

unprecedented knowledge. In this session, we will examine this research 

and its practical implications for curriculum, assessment, instruction and 

classroom climate. 

Participants will be actively engaged in exploring the following questions: 

• What does current brain research tell us about the most effective 

approaches for learning 

• How can we construct a more coherent and relevant curriculum from 

the learners’ perspective 

• How should we teach for understanding and transfer 

• What assessment practices will promote learning, not simply measure it 

• How does stress impact learning 

• What motivates learners to try their best What factors negatively affect 

student motivation 

• How can we improve student performance on standardized tests without 

excessive “test prep” 

©2010 Jay McTighe and Judy Willis page 2


Thinking about Learning 

Directions: Select one of the following statements with which you agree. Explain why you 

agree, and, if possible, give an example to illustrate the idea. 

1. Learning is purposeful and contextual. Learning is 

enhanced when the learner sees “the reasons why,” 

understands ways in which the knowledge can be used, 

and feels a need to learn it. 

2. New learning is built on prior knowledge. Learners 

use their experiences and background knowledge to 

actively construct meaning about themselves and the 

world around them. 

3. Learning must be guided by generalized principles in 

order to be widely applicable. Experts organize or chunk 

their knowledge around transferable core concepts (“big 

ideas”) that guide their thinking about the domain and 

help them integrate new knowledge. 

4. Learning is deepened when learners engage in thinking 

and actively processing new information. Different 

types of thinking, such as classification, prediction, 

analysis, inferential reasoning, and metacognition (i.e., 

thinking about thinking), mediate and enhance learning. 

Knowledge learned at the level of rote memory rarely 

transfers; i.e., cannot be applied to new situations. 

5. Learning can be enhanced through social interaction, 

interpersonal inquiry, and communications with others. 

6. Feedback is fundamental to improving learning and 

performance. The most helpful feedback is timely, specific, 

descriptive, and understandable to the learner in 

response to meaningful inquiries and applications. 

7. Emotional and motivational factors affect learning. 

A learner’s emotional state, beliefs, interests, goals, 

preferred ways of learning and sense of self affect their 

attention, focus, and effort. 

thoughts... 

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The UbD and RAD Connection – How and Why it Works 

UbD & RAD 

Elements 

Stage 1 – 

Frame content 

through “big 

ideas” and 

essential 

questions 

The 

Stage 2 – 

Include authentic 

performance 

tasks & rubrics 

among the 

assessments 

Stage 3 – 

Instruction and 

Learning Plan: 

Neuroscience – How/why it works 

The attention (intake) filter called the Reticular Activating System (RAS) is not under voluntary 

control. If information not “selected” for intake it cannot become memory. Intake determined by 

perceived threat or curiosity. 

The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature – well into the 20s. The prefrontal cortex is 

center of executive functions and directs conscious thought, logic, and judgment as well as responding 

reflectively instead of reacting to emotions. 

Because the PFC is most actively developing the executive function networks during the school 

years, these circuits need to be used for the brain to develop critical analysis, judgment, creative 

problem solving, and goal-directed behavior. 

Overly directed-instruction of predigested facts limits the exercise needed for the brain to maximize 

development of executive functions. Ideal input for executive function activation is curriculum 

designed around core concepts and essential questions. 

The amygdala is a part of limbic system that is found in the temporal lobe of the brain. The amygdala 

can be thought of as a “fork in the road” or a “switching station” on the way to the “thinking brain” 

(prefrontal cortex). After information passes through the RAS, it enters the amygdala. The amygdala 

then directs the information to one of two places. The information can be sent to either the lower 

REACTIVE brain or to the REFLECTIVE “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex). In the reactive lower 

brain, information is responded to with an automatic fight, flight or freeze response. 

To pass through amygdala to PFC, the brain cannot be in a reactive state of high stress (that includes 

prolonged boredom or frustration). Promotion of conduction to the PFC includes instruction and 

authentic performance tasks that incorporate personal relevance, achievable challenge, scaffolding 

(rubrics) & evidence of incremental progress. 

RAS strategies: reduce perception of threat and increase curiosity and prediction 




(continued) 

• Preassessments 

• Hooks 

• A-M-T 

Strategies 

• Graphic 

organizers 

• On-going 

(formative) 

assessments 

(e.g., white 

boards, exit cards) 

• Self- 

Assessment, 

Reflection and 

Goal Setting 

Patterning theory (as reason for activation of prior knowledge) because new sensory intake must be 

linked to a related memory circuit in the hippocampus to become short-term memory. After this 

encoding process, the newly enlarged relational memory circuit goes to the PFC where it must be 

stimulated (mental manipulation) for it to become long-term memory. This is the process of 

neuroplasticity 

Neuroplasticity is the neurological basis of concept construction and long-term memory. “Mental 

manipulation”, categorizing activities, repeated and multisensory practice, and prediction with feedback 

promote the structural changes resulting in long-term memory. Further A-M-T strategies promote the 

connections among separately constructed memory tracts to develop more extensive relational 

networks of conceptual knowledge. 

The dopamine-reward centers (nucleus accumbens) are small sacs of pure dopamine deep inside each 

hemisphere of the brain. They directly send dopamine into the PFC. When predictions are made using 

stored memory the release of dopamine, and its associated pleasure response, increases or decreases 

based on feedback that the prediction was correct or incorrect. Ongoing assessment that incorporates 

prediction with timely corrective feedback promotes changes in dopamine release resulting in 

neuroplastic strengthening of the networks that were used to make accurate predictions (decisions, 

answers) and rewiring of networks that made incorrect predictions. 

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that promotes pleasure, well-being, motivation, attention, and 

perseverance. Strategies can be used to promote whole brain release of dopamine from synapses (in 

contrast to the local blast of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens to the PFC). 

Self-assessment built by teacher-guided recognition of incremental progress toward desired goals 

(student interests linked to required standards so they want to know what they have to learn.). 

Awareness of incremental progress (like the computer game model) increases dopamine release. This 

metacognition is a key brain element that uses the intrinsic reinforcement of dopamine to replace 

negativity with motivation and promote self-directed goal-development. Students need guidance to 

recognize that effort toward goals results in progress, as they don’t yet have the executive function to 

make that association. 




(continued) 

UbD & RAD Elements Cognitive Science – How/why it works 

Stage 1 – Frame content through 

“big ideas” and essential 

questions 

Stage 2 – Include authentic 

performance tasks & rubrics 

among the assessments 

Stage 3 – Instruction and 

Learning Plan: 

• Pre-assessments 

(e.g., KWL) 

• Hooks 

(RAS promoting strategies) 

A-M-T Show various 

strategies including the new UbD 

Template 

- 

• These provide an organizing schema for taking in and connecting new information 

(“conceptual Velcro”). 

• Authentic tasks provide relevance and worthy learning targets (the “game” in 

athletics). 

• Pre-assessments allow teachers to check (and build on) prior knowledge, they reveal 

misconceptions, and they activate and focus attention. 

• Engage student attention; establish interest and purpose. 

• AMT actively engages students in “constructing meaning,” promotes thinking (“minds 

on” vs. passive) learning. 

• Graphic organizers a. Provide an organizing frame for integrating new information 

b. Supports connect new information w/ prior knowledge 

c. Gives shape to thought (makes the “invisible visible” 

d. Assists in generating ideas (beyond the information given) 

• Process guides 

• Process guides provide a step-by-step protocol for various ways of thinking and 

(Using “theory-embedded” tools) 

• On-going (formative) 

assessments 

(e.g., white boards, exit cards) 

• Self-Assessment, Reflection 

and Goal Setting 

meaning making (conceptual “training wheels”) 

• Provide feedback to teachers to help them adjust instruction if/when students aren’t 

“getting it.” Provide feedback to learners on specific ways they can improve. 

• Actively involves the learners in self-assessing and focusing their future efforts. 



Variables Influencing Student Focus and Effort 

Research has identified the following variables that impact a learner’s willingness to put forth 

effort. Both Understanding by Design and RAD Instruction address these variables in ways 

that support students and their learning. 

climate 

comfort 

acceptance 

safety 

teacher 

peers 

physical 

psychological 

task 

clarity 

• clear goals 

• known tasks 

• public criteria 

• models 

utility/ 

relevance 

• big ideas 

• essential questions 

• authentic tasks 

• personal/cultural 

connections 

perceived 

capacity to 

succeed 

• responsive 

teaching 

• personalized 

support 

• celebrating 

achievement 

and growth 



The Brain’s Structures -- Viewed from the Left 

The Brain’s Prediction -- Reward Circuit 



What Neuroscience Reveals about the Brain and Learning 

R.A.D. LEARNING and TEACHING 

The first step in understanding how the brain turns sensory input into knowledge, is to ex 

plore the three main concepts of R.A.D. learning and teaching. Each letter in the acronym R.A.D. 

stands for both a physical feature of the brain and a corresponding word that represents how that 

brain feature is connected to learning and teaching. 

R.A.D. LEARNING and TEACHING = 

R + A + D 

Reach + Attitude + Develop 

Reticular Activating System + Amygdala + Dopamine 

R = REACH students attention (RETICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM) 

A = Cultivate a positive ATTITUDE and reduce stress (AMYGDALA) 

D = DEVELOP memory (DOPAMINE) Part 1: Reaching Attention and the Reticular Activating 

System 

R 

Reach your students by making sure that the information they need to learn passes 

through the brain’s sensory filter – the Reticular Activating System (R.A.S) 

The Reticular Activating System (RAS) which is in the lower part of the posterior brain filters all 

incoming stimuli and makes the “decision” as to what people attend to or ignore. Information 

constantly comes into the brain from the body’s sensory receptors. At any given moment we are 

experiencing sights, sounds, smells, tastes and tactile input. It is impossible for us to be consciously 

aware of all of this sensory information. Therefore the brain has a filter (the RAS) that selects the 

sensory information to which we consciously attend. 

How does the RAS select which information passes through the filter to gain access to the 

conscious brain What are the criteria 

Sensory Information 

R 

A 

S 

This input now has 

the potential to 

eventually end up in 

the “thinking brain.” 

From all of the input, the sound of a baby crying is selected for attention by the RAS. 




(continued) 

The RAS is an involuntary filter that lets in only about 1% of the millions of its of sensory information 

available every second. It selects which information passes through the filter to gain access 

to the conscious brain based on inborn, “hard wired” criteria that are essentially the same for humans 

as higher mammals. 

The RAS first prioritizes novel stimuli. If there is a change in the environment, the related 

sensory input will likely pass through the RAS. For example if a fox looks out of his den in the 

morning and sees an unfamiliar fox walk by, that information will be attended to above other sensory 

input (e.g. the taste of food he just ate, the sound of birds singing, the feel of the breeze on his fur). 

The novelty that receives the highest priority is threat. If the RAS senses that the change 

in the environment is a source of threat, the related sensory input will pass through the RAS at the 

expense of other stimuli. For example, if the fox hears the howl of a wolf, a dangerous enemy, the 

related sensory input (the sound of the wolf’s howling) will likely take precedence over all other 

stimuli, including the sight of the unfamiliar fox. 

How can educators influence what the RAS selects 

Therefore, information (sensory stimuli) will most likely be selected by the RAS if there is 

no threat perceived in the environment is novel and provokes curiosity. When the curiosity is sustained 

by prediction, RAS continues to give entry to input relevant to the curiosity itself and to input 

relevant to the prediction. 

Step 1) First the educator should reduce any elements of perceived threat in the environment. 

For a student, threat can come in many forms, both subtle and overt. Threat can take the form of the 

grumpy face of a teacher, the fear of making a mistake in front of one’s peers, the anxiety of 

anticipating that a lesson will be too challenging. Specific suggestions for reducing anxiety and 

promoting positive feelings will be discussed in the “Attitude” (amygdala) portion of this presentation 

and handout. 




(continued) 

Step 2) Next, the educator should capitalize on the RAS’s preference for novel stimuli, because 

becoming aware of novel stimuli provokes curiosity. If a student is authentically curious about what 

a teacher has to share, attention and focus will follow. Specific suggestions for incorporating novelty 

into teaching are described in the following section. 

But my students don’t always pay attention! 

A word about inattention in students: Often students are criticized for not paying attention. 

However, the student’s RAS is constantly attending to information (e.g. the sound of their neighbor 

whispering, the texture of their too-tight pants, the ache of their growling stomach, etc.) but it may 

not be the information that the teacher thinks is important. The challenge for educators is to present 

their information is such a novel or curiosity provoking way that the RAS selects the educators input 

over all other competing stimuli. 

Strategies that Provoke Curiosity and Promote Attention and Focus 

• Music can be played as students enter the class. 

• Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher. 

• Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise. 

• Optical illusions can be used catch a student off guard. 

• Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more. 

• Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards 

before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative 

events in literature, “backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to 

discoveries, historical events or negative numbers. 

• Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention. 

• Suspenseful Pause: A significant pause before saying something important builds 

anticipation as the students wonder what you will say or do next. 

• Alterations in the classroom (e.g., a new display on bulletin board) promotes curiosity. 

• Discrepant events capture attention as students want to know how to make sense of 

something unusual that they are seeing. For example: “Why is the principal sitting in 

the library reading a Dr. Seuss book” 

How can the principles of advertising support educators in capturing students’ curiosity 

Advertisers hope to gain the attention, curiosity, and interest of their audience. For example, 

the “coming attractions” at a movie theatre are meant to leave the viewer wanting more. The trailers 

are usually edited in a way that is dramatic and attention grabbing. The trailer provides some 

indication of what the film is about, but leaves out the majority of the details. This technique creates 

suspense. The viewer, now enticed, wants to see the full-length movie to see how everything resolves. 




(continued) 

Animoto Videos: An “Animoto” is a short video that you can make for free online. Once you select 

images, text, and music, the website edits your selections into an eye-catching advertisement. If 

you sign up as an “educator”, you can use additional special features of the website, and have your 

students make “Animotos” too. 

http://animoto.com/education 

Some examples of Animotos that have been used to advertise upcoming lessons can be found by 

following the links below: 

A RAD advertisement I made: http://bit.ly/8O3NZ7 

“Funky Fractions” advertisement made by a previous participant: 

http://animoto.com/play/hJIiMYgkAHKHf7CLVhf3Kw 

“Fractions – Yes we can!” advertisement made by a previous participant: 

http://animoto.com/play/RZzA6MAHaGdcvsAv9FLcLA 

Additional uses of “Animotos”: Students can make Animotos for homework to summarize 

what they have learned in a given lesson. Animotos can also be used during the class period for dif 

ferentiation. If a student has demonstrated mastery of a concept based on a formative assessment, 

that student can work on an Animoto that represents what she learned. 

How can key points be emphasized throughout a lesson 

The above suggestions are often used at the outset of a lesson to alert students’ attention the fact 

that something new and important is being introduced. Throughout a lesson however the teacher 

is usually presenting information that represents varying degrees of importance. For example, in 

describing human anatomy a teacher might want students to understand the parts of the digestive 

system. Some anatomical structures are more important for understanding how the digestive system 

works than others. How can the teacher alert students to the most important information 

Color: The teacher uses a set of colored markers when writing notes on the 

board. Green could represent that a piece of information is important, yellow 

could represent even more importance, and red could represent the most 

important “take home message”. The students will also use colored pens or 

pencils to write their notes. This system also helps students when reviewing 

information later. 

Hat: During an oral presentation, when notes are not being used, a teacher 

could wear a hat and turn the bill of the hat in different directions to indicate 

levels of importance. 




(continued) 

Emotion and the Brain: De-stressing Learning 

What determines if the amygdala directs information to the reflective “thinking 

brain” (prefrontal cortex) or to the reactive lower brain 

When a person is in a state of stress, fear, frustration, helplessness, anxiety or boredom new 

information coming through the sensory intake areas of the brain cannot pass through the amygdala’s 

filter to gain access to the reflective prefrontal cortex. Instead, the information is conducted to the 

lower, reactive brain. As mentioned above, the lower, reactive brain has a limited set of instructions 

it can use to direct behavior, such as fight, flight, or freeze. Observing students during these states 

of stress-directed behavior, it is not surprising they some students are misidentified as suffering 

from ADHD, petit mal epilepsy (staring spells), and oppositional-defiant syndrome. Alternatively, 

if stress is reduced, and a person is in a relaxed and alert state, information can pass through the 

amygdala and on to the reflective “thinking brain” (prefrontal cortex). 

Causes of stress in school: 

• Fear of being wrong 

• Feeling too embarrassed to speak in class, answer questions or present their work to their peers 

• Test-taking anxiety 

• Physical and language differences 

• Boredom from lack of stimulation due to from prior mastery of the material or feeling that the 

information lacks personal relevance 

• Frustration with material that exceeds a student’s foundational knowledge 

• Feeling overwhelmed by the increased demands of each subsequent school year, and their inability 

to organize their time to respond to these demands 

What teachers need to know about stress in school: 

• Stress can cause behavior problems and obstruct learning. 

• Participating in new learning requires students to take risks that are often beyond their comfort 

zones. Steps should be taken to reduce stress during these times. 

• Before students can attend to higher-order thinking they must meet lower-level needs like survival 

and safety. Examples of survival needs experienced in school: thirst, hunger, clothes that 

don’t fit comfortably and lack of sleep. Examples of safety needs experienced in school: illness, 

being physically injured, being insulted or emotionally hurt and having ones property stolen or 

destroyed. 

NOTE on the role of teachers in reducing stress: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs places our need for 

physiological (survival) and safety as the base and prerequisite for our additional needs. Therefore, 

our students’ survival needs for food, water, clothing, and shelter, as well as their need to be free of 

physical and emotional harm must be acknowledged if we hope to ultimately have them engaging in 

higher-order thinking. A student who is experiencing the physical pain of hunger or the devastation 




(continued) 

of breaking up with a girlfriend during the previous lunch break is likely experiencing too much 

stress to process the information you are teaching him. As much as possible we should work to 

support our students’ access to basic needs by reaching out to social workers and community 

resources or providing simple modifications like letting a hungry student eat a snack. However, we 

cannot hope to remove all stress from the lives of of breaking up with a girlfriend during the previous 

lunch break is likely experiencing too much stress to process the information you are teaching him. 

As much as possible we should work to support our students’ access to basic needs by reaching out to 

social workers and community resources or providing simple modifications like letting a hungry 

student eat a snack. However, we cannot hope to remove all stress from the lives of our students. 

Instead we can teach them skills to soften the blow of the stresses they face. Giving them a few 

moments to journal in class, talk out conflicts with a peer, or practice some mindful breathing can 

go a long way in helping them set aside the external stressors and focus on the learning at hand. In 

addition, it is within our control to create learning environments that are inclusive and supportive so 

as not to add to pressures they face. 

**** 

How can we promote a positive attitude so that information gets to the prefrontal cortex (PFC) 

Use curiosity promoting questions/demonstrations 

• Teach students how to recognize their incremental progress towards a goal 

• Help students link new input with prior knowledge, especially prior memories that have 

positive emotional associations 

• Have students work in their zone of “achievable challenge” (described below) 

Offer students ACHIEVABLE CHALLENGES – ones that that prevent stress by avoiding 

boredom and frustration: 

An achievable challenge is one in which a student has the capacity (or skills to develop the 

capacity) to meet an ambitious goal. An achievable challenge is therefore a challenge that exists 

within Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal development”. As Goldilocks would say, the challenge is “not 

too hard, not too easy, but just right!” If a challenge is too easy a student will become bored, which 

leads to stress, and ultimately disengagement from learning. If a challenge is too difficult a student 

will experience frustration and hopelessness which also lead to excessive stress. However, when 

facing an achievable challenge that is just within one’s reach, the student avoids detrimental states of 

stress, and the amygdala is able to pass information on to the prefrontal cortex. 

An achievable challenge includes: 

• structured goals 

• frequent feedback 

• positive intrinsic reinforcement 

• scaffolding, tools and support provided when the level of challenge begins to exceed the participants 

capacity 




(continued) 

What can video and computer games teach us about achievable challenge 

Video and computer games are compelling because they offer individualized achievable 

challenges to their participants. At the outset, a player is presented with a goal. The player begins 

at level one, and through trial and error (feedback) builds enough skills to ultimately pass level one. 

The next level challenges the players newly developed skills, but ultimately, through sustained effort, 

practice, and persistence the player succeeds and continues to progress through the levels. The player 

feels the pride of knowing that their effort caused their success (intrinsic reinforcement). If a player is 

feeling stuck, usually they can find hints on the internet or learn tips from their peers. In this way, 

even the world of video and computer games offers scaffolding. 

Achievable Challenge and Individuation 

If teachers were able to implement a “video game” model of teaching, all students would be 

learning in their personal zone of achievable challenge at all times. Students would be frequently assessed 

to determine their appropriate “zone”, they would set and reset goals throughout learning, and 

they would receive the individual support needed to overcome setbacks and obstacles. In the future, 

it may be possible that individuated instruction will actually take place through computer programs. 

So, while students learn basic math facts from the computer within their personal zone of achievable 

challenge, their teacher can take on the role of facilitating projects requiring higher order thinking and 

collaboration. However, for many reasons, within the constraints of our current educational system, 

the level of individuation required to have every student constantly working within their zone of 

achievable challenge is impossible. Teachers simply do not have the time to individuate all learning. 

What can teachers do to capitalize on the power of having students work within their achievable 

challenge level Each of the following topics are discussed in more detail in the pages that follow: 


• Cultivate a “growth mindset” 

• Building motivation 

• Highlighting incremental progress 

• Formative assessments 

• Providing scaffolding 

• Rubrics 

• Activate prior knowledge and Personalization 

Pre-assessments are noncredit self-graded quizzes: A pre-assessment can be used to alert 

both the student and the teacher to what the student already knows about a topic. This gives an initial 

indication of an individual students “zone”. The teacher may find out that a student is missing some 

foundational skills that will be needed for the topic, or that the student already has a lot of knowledge, 

and without some additional challenge the student may become bored and disengaged. 




(continued) 

Using pre-assessment also benefit students in the following ways: 

• They provide a preview of the upcoming key concepts. Neurologically, this stimulates the circuits 

of any related prior knowledge the students have. Activating this knowledge makes it easier for 

students to understand and remember the new information. 

• When students make a prediction (by writing down what they think the correct answer will be) 

they have more buy-in when listening to the correct answers you provide following the pre-assessment. 

• The teacher provides timely corrective feedback by going over all of the answers immediately 

after the pre-assessment. Students correct their own quizzes (in another color). This allows them 

to notice, and then correct, their misconceptions. 

• To hold students accountable on these non-graded pre-assessments, you can tell students that 

sometimes the pre-test will be the same as the final. 

**** 

Promote a Growth Mindset 

People with a fixed mindset believe that people are born with a certain amount of intelligence 

and skill, and that is all we will ever get. Once we fail, there is no point in trying again, because we 

have reached our limit. Those with a growth mindset believe that people are given a certain amount 

of intelligence and skill, just as they have a certain body type, but that people have the potential to 

grow their intelligence and skill with hard work, just like a muscle. Those with a growth mindset are 

right, and the implications are enormous (Carol Dwerk 2007). Therefore, helping students learn from 

their mistakes, and bounce back from set-backs, is essential to moving students forward in their learning. 

Building Motivation 

Students who feel alienated in school need additional support to regain their confidence 

and feel motivated towards reaching a challenging goal. If struggling academically has always 

been a source of disappointment for them, you can brainstorm times when they have been successful 

towards reaching a goal (e.g. music, sports, art, making friends, cooking something new, 

etc.). Students who come to you with a high level of negativity can benefit a great deal from brain 

knowledge, especially about their ability to modify their brains through neuroplasticity. This can be 

especially motivating for students who have been marginalized by learning differences. Information 

about the brain, and how to teach students about the brain can be found in the following articles: 

• 

“What You Should Know About Your Brain” 

(http://radteach.com/page1/page8/page45/page45.html) 

and “How to Teach Students About the Brain” 

(http://radteach.com/page1/page8/page44/page44.html) 




(continued) 

Highlighting Incremental Progress 

Students should be made aware of the progress they are making towards a goal. In general we 

experience an intrinsic reward when we realize that we are making progress due to our practice and 

effort. Even noticing small changes can be helpful. For example, having students keep a graph of 

how their reading fluency improves depending on how much they practice can be very motivating. 

Formative Assessments 

As students progress though a lesson or unit, they should participate in on-going informal 

assessments with corrective feedback. For example, as a teacher is providing instruction on 

punctuation, she can write several sentences on the board and ask students to write down what type of 

punctuation they should use to end the sentence. Students will write their answer on their individual 

white boards and hold it up for the teacher to see. The teacher gets immediate feedback on how well 

everyone understands the concept. The teacher then explains the correct answer to correct any mis 

conceptions. This practice serves a variety of purposes. It keeps all students actively engaged in 

instruction unlike in traditional classrooms where only the student who raises his hand and answers 

the question participates. The student becomes aware of their misconceptions and the teacher has a 

sense of how to progress. Perhaps it is time for some students to move on to a more challenging 

activity (to avoid boredom) and for some students to remain with the teacher for some additional 

review (to avoid frustration). 

Scaffolding 

For some students, the level instruction in your class will be beyond their zone of achievable 

challenge. These students will need additional support and scaffolding. One option is to provide preunderlined 

books or partially filled in outlines from last year’s students or note-takers. They can add 

their own notes as they participate in the lesson. 

Rubrics 

Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before they 

begin a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students have 

done that correspond with levels of the rubric. 

Activating Prior Knowledge and Personalizing Learning 

All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are 

introduced to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and 

what they are going to learn. This serves several purposes. First, it is empowering for a students to 

realize that they already have some familiarity with a new or challenging topic. Second, students are 

more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. 

Neurologically speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with 

newly introduced information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information 

stored as working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become 

long term memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step 

in the series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. 




(continued) 

Strategies for helping students build personal relevance and activate prior knowledge: 

• Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around them. 

Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: 

http://www.thefutureschannel.com/ 

• Connect a unit with current events 

• Read aloud something curious or interesting that relates to the topic at hand 

• Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or 

mathematician when he/she was about the age of your students 

• Discuss the “So what” factor. Why should students WANT to know what you have to teach 

them You can discuss with students how information connects the “real world” or to their lives. 

Further it is motivating for students to know concretely how they are going to use the new information 

after you teach it to them. Are they going to discuss it with a classmate, or teach it to 

younger students 

• Have students interact with a text through the strategy of “Talking Back to the Text” 

“Talking Back to the Text” is an interactive reading strategy that helps students become personally 

engaged with what they are reading. Students begin by writing questions and prompts on post-it notes 

or other small papers that they can insert into their text. Some questions are prediction questions the 

student will answer before reading. Other questions and prompts will be answered while the student 

is reading: 

• Before reading, the student writes and answers prediction questions: 

o What do I think you’ll be telling me 

o I already know things about YOU so I predict.... 

• During reading, students can complete the following questions or prompts: 

o You are similar to what I have learned before, because you remind me of... 

o I would have preferred a picture of...(or sketch or download your own) 

o I didn’t know that and I like what you have to say (or I’ll bet this will be on the test) 

o I disagree 

o This is not what I expected 

o This gives me an idea 

o I want to know more about this than you have to offer and I know how to find out 

o I know there is more than one way to interpret this information 

o I won’t let you get away with anything, so I’ll check your source 

o What clues do you have to help me answer the Big Question Ah, this could be one right 

here.... 

• After reading, the student can respond to prompts, such as: 

o My prediction was.... (e.g., “on target” OR “very different from what YOU said”) 

o YOU didn’t say anything about.... 

o I wish that you had.... 

o If I had written you, I would have.... 




(continued) 

In an amygdala-positive learning environment we see evidence of active learning and participating: 

• Students observing and noticing with focused attention 

• Students discovering, thinking and questioning 

• Students solving traditional and extension problems 

• Students who are engaged, motivated, interested, self propelled learners 

• Students who understand the brain 

**** 

Neuroplasticity – You can change your intelligence (genius is more than genes) 

Neuroplasticity is the idea that through our repeated thoughts and actions, our brains change. 

Scientists previously believed that many parts of the brain only change during the “critical stages” 

of infancy. Research now suggests that all parts of the brain are malleable throughout our lives. 

Specifically, if a region of the brain is stimulated repeatedly (which happens when we practice using 

information), the connections between neurons (nerve cells) in that region will be strengthened, and 

new cells may be added. These strengthened connections, if used consistently, become useful, longterm 

memories. Conversely, if a neural pathway is not used, it will be pruned (removed). 

“D” 

Delight from Dopamine: Develop motivation and increase participation with dopamine! 

Dopamine is neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are chemicals in the brain which transmit signals 

between neurons (nerve cells). Neurotransmitters allow for information to travel from neuron to 

neuron throughout the brain. Dopamine is associated with pleasurable experiences and the anticipation 

of pleasurable experiences. Its release also increases focus, memory, decision-making, and 

executive function. 

When dopamine levels go up, the following behaviors are more prominent: 

• Pleasure 

• Creativity 

• Motivation 

• Curiosity 

• Persistence and perseverance 

The following activities increase dopamine levels: 

- Collaborating - Enjoying music - Being read to 

- Expressing gratitude - Experiencing humor - Optimism 

- Acting kindly - Having choice - Movement 

- Feeling self-appreciation-recognizing progress towards a personally meaningful goal 

- Interacting and collaborating well with classmates, including group work 




(continued) 

CHOICE 

The following strategies involving choice may increase dopamine levels among students: 

• Homework study habits: In the beginning of the year, the teacher can pose the question, “Do you 

want to spend less time on homework this year” The teacher then explains that there is no one 

way that students study best. Instead, the students are going to experiment and choose the most 

effective and efficient system for themselves. Students then hypothesize about what strategies or 

conditions (such as taking too-frequent snack breaks, interrupting their focus with texting, creating 

a homework schedule, or turning off the television) will help - or hinder - their learning. Once 

they have tested different strategies and conditions they report back to the class on how they work 

best. 

• Homework deliverables: Students can be given some choice in how they produce their homework. 

For example, if the assignment is to summarize a book chapter, there a variety of methods 

that could be used. A student could create an Animoto video online (animoto.com), create a 

graphic organizer or flow chart of the information, create n picture or visual image, submit a hard 

copy of how they would “text” or “tweet” about the information (hyper-condensing information 

in this way requires the use of precise vocabulary and a clear understanding of the content - just 

think about how much meaning can be found in a perfectly crafted haiku.) 

• Vocabulary: When students are asked to choose how to arrange a list of words (vocabulary, spelling, 

etc.) from words they find the most “pleasurable” to the words they find the least “pleasurable”, 

they remember all of the words better than if they had had no choice in the order of the 

word list. 

MOVEMENT 

The following strategies involving movement may increase dopamine levels among students: 

• Pantomime vocabulary words (English, foreign language, content specific) 

• Word Gallery: If students have a list of vocabulary words they can walk around the room and 

record the number of the numbered poster that has a verbal or pictorial representation of word. 

Subsequently students can add their own sentences or drawings to the wall charts. Provide 

scaffolding by allowing some students to have a one-word definition or work with a partner. 

The activity can be even more dopamine enriching by playing music that students can enjoy as 

they move through the activity. 

• Ball-toss review: Students can toss a ball to one another as each student states one thing they 

remembered from a lesson. 

• Snowball fight: Each student writes a key point of a lesson onto a piece of paper. The students 

then stand in a circle, crumple up their pieces of paper, and toss them into the middle of the 

circle. Students take turns selecting a “snowball” to read aloud to the class. 

• Write words with parts of the body: elbow, ear, knee etc. 

• Four corners: Each corner of the room can be marked with the letters A, B, C, or D. Students 

can answer multiple choice questions by moving to the corner of the choice they believe to be 

the correct answer. 




(continued) 

PEER INTERACTION 

The following strategies involving peer interaction may increase dopamine levels among students 

• Think-Pair-Share: Students, even in middle school and high school, can listen to directed 

lecture with focused attention for only fifteen to twenty minutes without some type of break. 

Having students take a moment to process information and communicate with the student 

next to them is an excellent, dopamine raising mini-break. 

Group projects: Groups work best if the members have a common, relevant, high interest goal 

that they can only achieve if all group members are accountable for the outcome. Students benefit 

from having opportunities to teach each other. In addition, students are more likely to ask each 

other clarifying questions, rather than asking in front of the whole class. Ideally, the problem or 

question that the group is investigating should involve opportunities for critical thinking and reasoning 

things out together. 

Game show: Students can be grouped in teams and given the chance to converse as a group before 

answering review questions in a quiz show format. In addition to the benefit of the peer interaction, 

game shows are fun which provides an additional dopamine boost. 

Group presentations: Teams can collaborate to produce graphic organizers related to a given 

topic. Graphic organizers can be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for 

review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned 

information to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has 

been discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. 

When the class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a 

graphic organizer that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a 

graphic organizer where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at 

once. While the right foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an iceskating 

partner overhead. Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the 

“anatomy” challenge, more students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons 

will be engaged. Teams can then present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector 

which brings with it the added fun of using the teacher’s special tools. 



Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson for Second Grade 

by Malana Willis 

Lesson topic: Comparing fractions – When comparing fractions, if the numerators are 

1, the fraction with the smaller denominator has the greater value. For example, 1/2 is 

greater than 1/8. (Second grade standard in California) 

*Note: This is typically very confusing for second graders, as they want 

to say that 1/8 is greater than 1/2 because the number 8 is greater than 2. 

Step of Lesson (teacher or student activity) 

How that step is neuro-logical (R.A.D.) 

Intro: Teacher enters the room carrying a 

Happy Birthday balloon and a pizza box. 

Teacher asks students what they think the 

lesson is going to be about. They will 

write a one word answer on their individual 

whiteboards and hold it up for the 

teacher to see. The teacher acknowledges 

the answers and explains that they will 

find out soon what the lesson will be 

about. 

This is a novel event and therefore will 

peak the students’ attention because 

the brain’s Reticular Activating System 

(RAS) responds to novel stimuli. 

Now the students know that the pizza box 

and balloon are advertising a lesson, 

which further peaks their attention. The 

opportunity to make a prediction, and 

then see if the prediction is correct gives 

them further “buy-in”. (RAS) 

Further, using the individual whiteboards 

reduces stress because the student 

doesn’t have to worry about saying the 

“wrong” answer aloud in front of his/her 

peers. (amygdala) 

Challenge question: The teacher will 

then pose the following challenge question: 

Usually people want to have a lot 

of something that they like. When is it 

better to only have a little bit of something 

that you like You can have students do 

a think-pair-share with their neighbor at 

this time. Explain that by the end of the 

lesson, we will discuss the answer to the 

question. (Answer – even though you like 

your friends, its better to have less friends 

at your party if you want a bigger slice of 

pizza you share! * 

This question creates some cognitive dissonance, 

which is another strategy for 

gaining attention. (RAS) 

A think-pair-share is social and involves 

some movement and interaction, which 

are both dopamine boosters. 

*Students understand that this is meant to 

be a funny way to help them remember 

how to compare fractions, not a value 

judgment on the comparative value of 

friends versus pizza.) 



Comparing Fractions: A R.A.D. Lesson 

(continued) 

Activating Prior Knowledge: Now the 

teacher explains that she will tell the class 

what the lesson is going to be about. Initially 

she explains that the lesson is about 

sharing. The teacher asks the class to 

think about a time when somebody shared 

something with them. A few students can 

share their answers aloud, and another 

think-pair share can be introduced if there 

is a lot of excitement around this topic. 

The teacher then explains that in math, fractions 

are used to describe sharing. The 

teacher can draw some fractions on the 

board and then ask students to think-pairshare 

about what they remember about 

fractions. Ask some students to tell the 

class what they remember about fractions, 

and record their contributions on the 

board. 

The lesson is now personalized because 

the student is able to connect with a positive 

memory of a time when someone 

shared with him/her. This reduces stress 

and adds pleasure with support supports 

the passage of new information through 

the amygdala to the prefrontal cortex. 

The teacher is activating prior knowledge 

around what the students already know 

about fractions. This is essential for a 

variety of reasons. First, the amygdala 

responds to the positive feelings students 

experience when they know that 

they already have some understanding 

of a topic. Further, without activating 

the prior knowledge, the brain will be 

much less efficient in consolidating the 

new information into long term memory. 

(hippocampus) 

Further, instead of just asking the class 

what they know about fractions, the 

teacher draws some fractions on the 

board. This adds visual sensory input 

which supports students who are strong 

visual learners and/or ELL’s who might 

not initially remember what the word 

“fraction” means, even though they do 

have knowledge of the concept. This 

reduces stress, which promotes the passage 

of information through the amygdala 

to the prefrontal cortex. 




(continued) 

Direct Instruction/Problem Solving: 

The teacher explains that she is going to show 

the class how fractions can help her figure out 

how to share pizza at her birthday party. The 

teacher gives the following example, and displays 

a poster with a drawing of the information: 

“I am having a birthday party, and I need 

to figure out how many people to invite. I love 

having lots of friends over, but I also really love 

pizza and I know I will be really hungry at my 

birthday party. I’m trying to decide if I should 

invite 8 people to my party or 4 people to my 

party.” The poster will show two pizzas: The 

first divided into 4 parts and the second divided 

into 8 parts. The teacher will show the students 

how to compare the size of the slices and decide 

that if the teacher is really hungry, she should 

only invite 4 people to her party. The teacher 

will then show the class that based on what 

they have already learned about fractions, they 

can label a slice of the first pizza as 1/4 and the 

second as 1/8. The teacher guides the class in 

concluding that 1/4 is greater than 1/8. 

Team task: Each group of students will get two 

circles, with dotted lines dividing the circles 

into wedges. The students will be asked to cut 

a wedge from each “pizza”, compare which is 

bigger, name and then compare the fractions. 

They will need to make a small poster showing 

their results. The teacher does one example 

first, and then the students will work together. 

After all teams are done, they will present their 

findings to the class. The teacher will record 

findings on a sheet that the class can refer to 

later. For example, the teacher can say “OK, 

team 1 found out that 1/2 is greater than 1/3” 

and record the information on the chart. 

This concrete example connects to something 

that many children can relate to (a 

birthday party with pizza) and is a little 

bit funny, because they are imagining 

their teacher having a birthday party. 

Humor promotes dopamine release 

which supports memory. 

Group work is social which is amygdala 

positive and promotes dopamine release 

that in turn supports memory. However, 

if the group’s interactions are unpleasant 

or stressful for any number of reasons 

(i.e. students arguing, not sharing materials, 

not knowing what their role is, 

feeling too confused etc.) the amygdala 

sends information to the lower brain 

where the output is limited to flight, 

fight, or freeze and the benefits of group 

work will be undone. Therefore it is 

essential that significant time and practice 

be spent on how to work as a 

cooperative group at the beginning of 

the school year with corrective feedback 

and debriefing throughout the year. 




(continued) 

Class number line: Half of the students will 

be given cards that have both the picture 

and numerical form of the fractions 1/1 

through 1/12. They will get in order from 

least to greatest. The other students will 

then check to see if they are in the correct 

order, and comment on what they notice. 

At this point if a student hasn’t noticed the 

rule (that while the fractions go from least 

to greatest, the number in the denominator 

goes from greatest to least) the teacher can 

scaffold students to making this observations. 

From this observation, students 

can be further supported recognizing that 

when comparing fractions in which the 

numerator is 1, the larger denominator corresponds 

to the smaller fraction. 

Formative Assessment: Students have 

their individual whiteboards. The teacher 

writes two fractions on the board (including 

the corresponding pictures) and asks 

students to write which fraction is greater. 

After several, the teacher can ask which 

fraction is less, and also take out the scaffold 

of the pictures. After each question, 

the teacher notices which students are 

struggling, and also providing and explaining 

the correct answer. It can be helpful 

to refer back to the party example (if four 

friends each share the pizza each slice is 

bigger than if six friends share the pizza) 

and also to the number line (which should 

now be posted in a visible location) 

This group activity is helpful in several 

ways. A number line can be thought of 

as a type of graphic organizer, in which 

the numbers are visually organized in 

meaningful way. Graphic organizers 

support the development of relational 

memories in hippocampus. 

Also, the scaffolding that they teacher is 

providing allows students to experience 

this activity as an achievable challenge. 

Making predictions (writing what they 

think the correct answer is) and then 

finding out if they are correct or incorrect, 

ultimately promotes the release of 

dopamine from the nucleus accumbens. 

This dopamine strengthens the neural 

network connected to the information. 

Being “assessed” in this way, in which 

students are provided with immediate 

corrective feedback, lowers stress and is 

amygdala positive. 




(continued) 

Differentiation: At this point the teacher 

will have an idea of which students understand 

the new content. The students that 

understand should proceed to a challenge 

activity. Following is an example of a 

dend-write they could respond to: 

• How many people would you want 

to come to your own pizza birthday 

party Draw a picture of how you 

would divide the food. 

Students who are struggling should remain 

with the teacher for further practice and 

review. With this smaller group, it will be 

easier to determine at which stage of the 

questions are they getting stuck. 

Review activities (these would be done in 

the days following the lesson): 

• Go fish: “I need a fraction that is 

greater than 1/8” 

• Errorless Math: 1/2 ____1/5 * answer: 

1/2 is greater than 1/5 

• Walk and waddle: each student has a 

fraction card. They walk around the 

room until they come to another person. 

They figure out together which 

fraction is less. The person with 

the lesser fraction squats down and 

waddles to another partner, while 

the person with the greater fraction 

walks. 

The students who understand the new topic, 

if required to keep reviewing with the 

group, may become bored and therefore 

stressed. There amygdala may respond 

to this stress by directing information to 

the lower brain where the output is limited 

to fight, flight, or freeze. This may 

result in the acting out or tuning out. By 

providing an activity within their range 

of achievable challenge, the learners 

will re-engage at a level that is engaging 

for them. 

By working more closely with the students 

who continue to struggle with the 

topic will lower their stress and allow 

their amygdala to pass on their new 

learning to their prefrontal cortex. You 

will also be providing them with the 

chance to practice the correct procedure 

with you to strengthen their new learning. 

These games, especially “walk and 

waddle” provide humor, positive peer 

interaction, movement and choice, all 

of which support the release of dopamine, 

and therefore the construction of 

memory. 



Consolidating New Information into Short-term Memory: 

Patterning for Memory 

Relational Memory 

After leaving the amygdala, new information makes one more stop before reaching the 

pre-frontal cortex. The new information enters a brain structure called the hippocampus. 

Hippocampus 

Prefrontal Cortex 

When the new information enters the hippocampus, related memories are triggered in 

various parts of the cortex. These related memories are stored in different parts of the cortex 

depending on which sensory receptors initially responded to the input. For example, the 

memory of ducks quacking is stored in the area of the cortex related to auditory input. If you 

were listening to a lecture about mallard ducks, the new information you were learning would 

enter your hippocampus. Related memories about ducks (e.g. the sound of ducks quacking, 

the image of ducks you saw in a pond, a fact you once heard about the properties of feathers) 

would “meet” the new information about mallard ducks in your hippocampus. The combination 

of the pre-existing related memories and the new information is called a “relational memory” 

(also referred to as short-term or working memory). 

Relational memories are temporary. They will only be converted to long-term memories 

if they are mentally manipulated in the prefrontal cortex. (Activities that require mental manipulation 

are described later in this document in the section called “Mental manipulation”) Once 

the information has been converted to long-term memory, when someone mentions something 

about a duck, your network of relational memories will be triggered and available to you. 

The ability of the brain to form relational memories is advantageous. If we were unable 

to form relational memories, all new learning would seem random and extremely hard to 

categorize and use. The brain’s ability to form relational memories is frequently an automatic 

process. However, if students have not been made aware how their prior knowledge connects 

with new information, it is unlikely relational memories will be formed. Teachers can make the 

process of forming relational memories more efficient, effective, and transparent to students. 

Activating a Prior Knowledge Bridge 

Prior knowledge is data that students have already acquired through formal teaching, 

personal experience or real world associations. Teachers should “activate” this prior knowledge 

by alerting students to what they already know that connects to what they are going to learn. 

This is consistent with the way the brain makes these connections through pattern recognition 

and pattern matching. 




(continued) 

Activate prior knowledge by: 

o Giving pre-unit assessments 

o Showing videos or images that remind students of prior knowledge 

o Holding class discussions starting with high interest current events 

o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective 

of another course or cross-curricular studies. 

Patterning 

The process that directs relational memory formation in the brain is “patterning.” To survive successfully 

animals need to understand their environments and make meaning of what they see, hear, 

smell, touch, and taste all around them. The brain is designed to perceive and generate patterns 

and uses these patterns to predict the correct response to new information. Based on our brains’ 

process of patterning, we are able to make predictions and anticipate what might happen next and 

the best response. For example, a fox might have acquired the pattern or relationship between cold 

temperatures and rabbits entering their dens earlier in the evening. Therefore, on a cold evening, 

the fox can predict that his best opportunity for catching dinner is before the sun goes down. 

Teachers can capitalize on the brain’s patterning in a variety of ways. 

• Presenting information in context (real world connections, cross-curricular themes of study, 

experiential learning, from concrete to abstract) helps students identify patterns and connect new 

information with previous experiences and memories (relational memories). 

• Graphic organizers: Help students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) 

by using graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and 

old information). 

Reduce Mistake Fear to Increase Participation and Memory 

Prediction + Mistakes + Neuroplasticity = Accurate Durable Memory 

Mistakes are useful, but scary! For most students, their greatest fear is making a mistake in 

front of the whole class. However, learning actually increases when we make mistakes. Every time 

that a student responds to a question, and receives feedback as to whether their response was 

correct or incorrect, the student is learning. If the student made a correct “prediction” (answer), the 

neural network storing the related information is strengthened. If the student made an incorrect 

“prediction” (answer), but then received corrective feedback and was able to revise their misunderstanding, 

their neural network will be corrected. However, if a student does not make any “predictions”, 

because they are not actively participating, their neural network will not be strengthened. 

In addition if a student makes a faulty prediction, and their misconception is not corrected, their 

misunderstanding will likely persist which can severely restrict future learning. Therefore, the goal 

is to keep all students participating and engaged because only the person who THINKS (predicts) 

learns. 




(continued) 

Reducing the Stress of Participation 

Students learn best from corrective feedback when they are in a state of low stress. Theref 

ore, despite the fact that students learn from mistakes, it is not ideal for a student to be “called out” 

as having made a mistake in front of his peers. Ideally, students share their predictions (answers) 

through the use of individual white boards. The students make a prediction, and hold up their white 

board for their teacher to see. After the teacher acknowledges that they have seen the students’ 

answers, the students lower their white boards so they are not on display for their peers. This protects 

students’ privacy and prevents cheating. When the teacher provides the correct answer, each 

individual student will know if they made a mistake, and can make their corrections. Of course 

there are times for class discussions and the public sharing of ideas. It is important to build a class 

culture where all answers, both correct and incorrect, are treated with respect and seen as learning 

opportunities. However, the white board strategy is useful not only for having students feel comfortable 

participating and predicting, but it also requires participation from all students which is 

important because as mentioned above, only the person who THINKS (predicts) learns. 

What is happening in the brain when we learn from mistakes 

There is a small brain structure called the nucleus accumbens. The nucleus accumbens 

constantly releases a small stream of dopamine (the neurotransmitter associated with pleasure) into 

the area of the prefrontal cortex where memories are formed. When we make a prediction (answer), 

and discover that our prediction is correct, the nucleus accumbens releases an extra dose of dopamine. 

While we may not consciously register the surge of pleasure caused by this dopamine 

boost, our brain does. The brain patterning connected to this correct prediction is strengthened to 

increase the likelihood that the correct prediction, and corresponding surge in dopamine, will occur 

again. Conversely, when we make a mistake, the nucleus accumbens diminishes the flow of dopamine. 

Our brain registers a decrease in dopamine, and reacts to this displeasure by deactivating the 

brain patterning that led to the incorrect prediction, the goal being to avoid making the mistake again 

with its corresponding decrease in dopamine. 

Strategies that increase participation and risk-taking in school: 

• Activate prior knowledge so students feel empowered by what they already know 

• Frequent interactive formative assessments during lessons keeps students actively connected 

• Use “safe” prediction opportunities like KWL charts and individual white boards 

• Ask students to discuss information in pairs. Then, have on student from each pair share-out 

either their own or their partners ideas 

• Examples and non-examples columns: If you are asking students to list examples of odd 

numbers, and some students offer even numbers by mistake, you can add the even numbers 

to a “non-example” category so that the student contribution is still useful 

• When students answer incorrectly, if any part of their answer is correct, you should repeat 

that part of their answer before clarifying and correcting their mistake 

• Teach students about neuroplasticity - that they literally have the power to change their brains 

and become “smarter” by thinking, making predictions, incorporating corrective feedback, 

and practicing and using the information they learn. 



Mental Manipulation for Long-term Memory 

Mental Manipulation 

Information that we learn, including that which has become integrated into a relational 

memory, will only become part of our long-term, consciously retrievable, store of useful knowledge 

if it is mentally manipulated in the prefrontal cortex. This means that the learner has to “do something” 

with the information rather than passively taking it in. There are many ways that teachers 

can have students mentally manipulate information. One way that has been very successful in the 

classes I have taught is the use of “Dend-Writes”. 

Dend-Writes (a word play on the neural structures called ‘dendrites’) are brief thinking/writing 

assignments that students do to help them make sense of and consolidate new learning. They also 

can provide teacher feedback such as checking for understanding. I usually have students write on 

small note cards. 

Following are the ten Dend-Write prompts that I have posted in my classroom: 

1. Create an analogy about what you learned; write what it reminded you of, or how it fits 

with what you already know. 

2. Draw a picture, diagram, or graphic organizer of what you learned. 

3. Write a reaction/reflection of how something you learned relates to your life. 

4. Write about something that made you wonder or surprised you - a new insight or discovery. 

5. What do you predict will come next 

6. How could you (or someone in a profession) use this knowledge 

7. What did you understand today that you haven’t understood before What is something 

that you are confused about or find difficult 

8. What was the part of lesson that you enjoyed the most What was the part that was most 

difficult for you 

9. What strategy did you use to solve a problem today 

10. “So What” – What do you think were the most important things in the lesson What are 

they important 

When and how to use Dend-Writes: 

• When checking for understanding, especially when on-going feedback tells you there are 

problems, you can use Dend-Write prompts such as #4, #7, or #8. Students should always start the 

response by including the positive statement that relates to the first part of the question. For #8 one 

would write, “The part of the lesson I enjoyed the most was ………and something that still confuses 

me is…” In that way the student will have a burst of brain satisfaction (dopamine) because they are 

recognizing an accomplishment. They then feel less anxious expressing what they still find confusing 

or difficult in the second part of their Dend-Write. 

• Feedback to you - how accurately the lesson was understood 

• Before the next class correct any misperceptions you discover 



Mental Manipulation (continued) 

• Make check marks on cards that you think the rest of the class would benefit from hearing. 

Students with checks share those insights with the class as a review or to promote discussion. 

(Because the teacher has identified the card as useful or correct, it lowers participation anxiety 

of the student presenters because they are confident that their responses are correct) 

• Students can add to their own notes based on what they learn from hearing the information 

on their classmate’s Dend-Write 

• Cards can become study aides 

• Posted on bulletin boards, Dend-Write cards cover important information for students who 

were absent and provide review information before the next class or the test. 

Additional examples of Mental Manipulation (especially effective if used within the first 24 hours 

after new learning has occurred): 

• Create a narrative – students can write and share a story about the new information. They 

should be encouraged to use personification and amusing details to make even the driest of 

facts memorable. For example, one of my previous workshop participants told an amusing 

story about a lonely piece of new information that entered a brain. It felt lost and sad until 

it found its family amongst the related memories in the hippocampus. Illustrating the story 

adds a further level of mental manipulation. 

• Teach the new information to someone else – understanding something well enough to teach 

it to another person requires a clarity of thought and understanding that ultimately supports 

the “teachers” long term memory of the concept. 

• Pair-share or collaborate: Students experience a greater level of understanding of concepts 

and ideas when they talk, explain, predict, and debate about them within a small group, instead 

of just passively listening to a lecture or reading a text. 

• Similarities and differences: Just as survival depends on recognizing the changes in an 

animal’s expected environment (e.g. what has changed and what has stayed the same in the 

environment of the fox), people are also responsive to remembering information by identifying 

similarities and differences. Researchers have found that identifying similarities and 

differences is the most effective way of committing information to memory. 

• Creating analogies allows students to relate information in new ways. 

For example: White is to Snow as Blue is to Sky. You can scaffold analogies by using ones 

students made in previous years, and leaving out one or two of the four components of A is to 

B as C is to D. Then they can explain and expand on the characteristic or relationship that ties 

the two sets together. 

• Creating similes such as “exercising my muscles makes me stronger like reading makes me 

smarter” also supports building long terms memories of new information. 



Prefrontal Cortex for Higher Order Skills 

(Executive Functions) 

The prefrontal cortex is the last part of the brain to mature-myelination, pruning. The brain 

maturation of this executive function control center is the last to come “online” and the maturation 

process continues into the mid twenties). The prefrontal cortex (PFC) responds to event and memory 

processing and makes conscious decisions. It is the region of the frontal lobe where the brain 

directs the planning of the movements to do a task. 

The PFC, once mature is associated with the highest cognitive processes, also referred to 

as executive functions, including planning, decision-making, reasoning, and analysis These executive 

functions, when formed into complete networks allows for patterned information to be used for 

organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment 

of one’s strengths and best strategies, abstractions, creative conceptual problem solving, attention 

focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions. 

Executive Functions 

Cognitive processing of information that takes place in areas in the prefrontal cortex and allow 

one to exercise conscious control over one’s emotions and thoughts. This control allows for patterned 

information to be used for organizing, analyzing, sorting, connecting, planning, prioritizing, 

sequencing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, assessment, abstractions, problem solving, attention 

focusing, and linking information to appropriate actions. Mature humans are the only creatures with 

the ability to analyze their thoughts and behaviors and then act in accordance with expectations for 

goal attainment. 

o Judgment: This executive function includes self-checking strategies such as estimating or 

checking grammar accuracy, time planning, looking for clues for questions in subsequent questions, 

and checking in with oneself to monitor their focus. 

o Prioritizing: Separating low relevance details from the main ideas and connecting separate 

facts into concepts. In college, many students still need to develop prioritizing skills students to 

make the most efficient use of study time and plan papers and study schedules. 

o Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop 

this PFC executive function, they are limited in capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable 

goals. They don’t yet recognize their incremental progress along the way to goals 

without help. 

o Remembering and applying past emotional, test prep, report planning experiences and applying 

potential “lessons” from those experiences to new situations, decision-making, analysis, 

and judgment. 



Will Today’s Students be Prepared for Higher Learning or the Jobs of the 21 st Century 

• New types of teaching, expectations for working independently with minimal guidance 

for how to do so, increased amounts of information to learn, requirements to USE not just 

MEMORIZE facts. 

• These new challenges depend on executive functions not yet fully developed and rarely used 

previously 

• Students are not usually taught how to learn, study, organize, prioritize, review, or actively 

participate, nor the reasons for any strategies or procedures they are told to use. Before 

teaching the information in college can be efficient, engaging, and successful, students need 

to learn how to learn, instead of passively memorizing force fed factlettes. 

• Memorization that was adequate in high school is not the way students are graded in college. 

In college and in the best jobs it is more about applying and communicating and supporting 

what one knows. In college and the most desirable jobs of the future today’s students will 

be asked to demonstrate these executive function skills and conceptual knowledge by comparison/contrast, 

giving new examples of concepts, transferring knowledge by applying big 

ideas to solve new types of problems never solved before. 

• Consequences we see in college students now who went through the overpacked curriculum 

and standardized testing without adequate opportunities to have scaffolded experiences using 

their higher thinking skills and organizational executive functions: Students, faced with 

more work and insufficient executive functions to organize or delay immediate gratification 

for long-term goals, make poor decisions that further diminish their success. Example: 

cramming without mental manipulation so no long-term memory; poor sleep and exercise, 

high-risk behavior for the dopamine they are not getting from recognition of incremental 

achievement. 

• Cycle of Failure: Poor study habits result in poor performance lowering sense of what is 

achievable and negative mindset. Less willing to take on challenge or persevere through 

setbacks. 

YOUR THOUGHTS: 

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Neuro-LOGICAL Strategies, p 1 

Strategies for Passage of Information through Emotional Filter (amygdala) Into Prefrontal 

Cortex (PFC) and Behavior Output Passage Out from the PFC (Reflective Responses) rather 

than behavior output involuntarily determined by lower brain (Reactive Responses) 

• Assessments: formative for feedback to correct or strengthen networks and goal motivating 

opportunities for authentic performance tasks so the brain recognizes and desires the goal of acquiring 

the information (for successful passage through intake (RAS) and emotional (amygdala) filters 

and processing of learning through executive functions 

• Pre-assessments “allow teachers to check (and build on) prior knowledge, they reveal misconceptions, 

and they activate and focus attention.” 

• Opportunities to recognize evidence of incremental progress 

• Teach students how to recognize their incremental progress towards a goal 

• Help students link new input with prior knowledge, especially prior memories that have positive 

emotional associations 

• Individualized Achievable Challenge with scaffolding (rubrics). An achievable challenge is 

one in which a student has the capacity (or skills to develop the capacity) to meet an ambitious goal. 

An achievable challenge is therefore a challenge that exists within Vygotsky’s “zone of proximal 

development”. If a challenge is too easy a student will become bored, which leads to stress, and ultimately 

disengagement from learning. If a challenge is too difficult a student will experience frustration 

and hopelessness, which also lead to excessive stress. With desired goals and achievable challenge 

that is just within one’s reach, the student avoids detrimental states of stress, and the amygdala 

is able to pass information on to the prefrontal cortex. 

Achievable challenge includes: 

• Evident, personally desired goals and clear understanding of assessments that will be included 

throughout the unit (teacher reviews, resource consultations) 

• Scaffolding, tools and support provided when the level of challenge begins to exceed the 

participants capacity 

Achievable challenge and individuation: 

If teachers were able to implement a “video game” model of teaching, all students would be 

learning in their personal zone of achievable challenge at all times. Students would be frequently assessed 

to determine their appropriate “zone”, they would set and reset goals throughout learning, and 

they would receive the individual support needed to overcome setbacks and obstacles. In the future, 

it may be possible that individuated instruction will actually take place through computer programs. 

So, while students learn basic math facts from the computer within their personal zone of achievable 

challenge, their teacher can take on the role of facilitating projects requiring higher order thinking 

and collaboration. However, for many reasons, within the constraints of our current educational system, 

the level of individuation required to have every student constantly working within their zone of 

achievable challenge is impossible. Teachers simply do not have the time to individuate all learning. 




What can teachers do to capitalize on the power of having students work within their achievable 

challenge level Each of the following topics are discussed in more detail in the pages that follow: 


• Cultivate a “growth mindset” 

• Building motivation 

• Highlighting incremental progress 

• Formative assessments 

• Providing scaffolding 

• Rubrics 

• Activate prior knowledge and Personalization 

• Formative assessments: As students progress though a lesson or unit, they should participate 

in on-going informal assessments with corrective feedback. For example, as a teacher is providing 

instruction on punctuation, she can write several sentences on the board and ask students to write 

down what type of punctuation they should use to end the sentence. Students will write their answer 

on their individual white boards and hold it up for the teacher to see. The teacher gets immediate 

feedback on how well everyone understands the concept. The teacher then explains the correct answer 

to correct any misconceptions. This practice serves a variety of purposes. It keeps all students 

actively engaged in instruction unlike in traditional classrooms where only the student who raises his 

hand and answers the question participates. The student becomes aware of their misconceptions and 

the teacher has a sense of how to progress. Perhaps it is time for some students to move on to a more 

challenging activity (to avoid boredom) and for some students to remain with the teacher for some 

additional review (to avoid frustration). 

• Scaffolding: For some students, the level instruction in your class will be beyond their zone 

of achievable challenge. These students will need additional support and scaffolding. One option is 

to provide pre-underlined books or partially filled in outlines from last year’s students or note-takers. 

They can add their own notes as they participate in the lesson. 

• Rubrics: Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before 

they begin a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students 

have done that correspond with levels of the rubric. 

Students can use rubrics to develop individualized achievable challenge goals before they begin 

a project or paper. It is helpful if students can see anchor papers that previous students have done 

that correspond with levels of the rubric. 

Before turning in work, students recheck and revise their final products against the rubric, 

especially if they have an intermediate goal in one of the sections and need to be sure their other sections 

are at least at acceptable levels. Ask, “Am I proud of my progress” 

• Goals that are attractive to students and achieve the teacher’s or curriculum requirements are 

mutually agreed upon, using the rubric to look for where to strive for achievable challenge (not too 

much, not too little). Sample papers in the achievable challenge range and above... 




• To build students’ capabilities to recognize their incremental progress to goals, teach them 

how to organize (executive function) and prioritize (based on current achievable challenge specific 

goals clearly visible on rubric and with choice on the main focus goal this time). 

• Records of successful strategies 

• Meet to compare self-assessment to rubric and teacher assessment so students learn to recognize 

incremental short and long-term goal progress independently. 

• The most effective learners set personal learning goals, employ proven strategies, and selfassess 

their work. Teachers help cultivate such habits of mind by modeling self-assessment and goal 

setting and by expecting students to apply these habits regularly. 



• Students discovering, thinking and questioning… 




Strategies for Information Intake through Brain’s Primitive Intake/Attention Filter 

(Reticular Activating System – RAS) 

• Reduce perceived threat 

o Classroom community building 

o Opportunities to develop individual strengths to be recognized by one’s self and classmates 

as valued participant in collaboration 

o Consistent enforcement of rules that promote sense of safety from threats to one’s body, 

emotions, and property 

• Novelty, Curiosity, and Prediction 

o Music can be played as students enter the class with a line from the lyrics relating to the 

instruction topic 

o Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher or meeting leader 

o Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise 

o Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more 

o Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards 

before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative events in literature, 

“backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to discoveries, historical events or negative 

numbers. 

o Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention 

o Suspenseful Pause: a significant pause before saying something important builds anticipation 

as the students wonder what you will say or do next 

o Alterations in the classroom such as a new display on a bulletin board promotes curiosity 




• To build students’ capabilities to recognize their incremental progress to goals, teach them 

how to organize (executive function) and prioritize (based on current achievable challenge specific 

goals clearly visible on rubric and with choice on the main focus goal this time). 

• Records of successful strategies 

• Meet to compare self-assessment to rubric and teacher assessment so students learn to recognize 

incremental short and long-term goal progress independently. 

• The most effective learners set personal learning goals, employ proven strategies, and selfassess 

their work. Teachers help cultivate such habits of mind by modeling self-assessment and goal 

setting and by expecting students to apply these habits regularly. 



• Students discovering, thinking and questioning… 




Strategies for Information Intake through Brain’s Primitive Intake/Attention Filter 

(Reticular Activating System – RAS) 

• Reduce perceived threat 

o Classroom community building 

o Opportunities to develop individual strengths to be recognized by one’s self and classmates 

as valued participant in collaboration 

o Consistent enforcement of rules that promote sense of safety from threats to one’s body, 

emotions, and property 

• Novelty, Curiosity, and Prediction 

o Music can be played as students enter the class with a line from the lyrics relating to the 

instruction topic 

o Costumes related to the lesson can be worn by the teacher or meeting leader 

o Speaking in a different voice (cadence, volume) can catch students by surprise 

o Bizarre factoids can be presented to make students want to learn more 

o Moving in a different way can be unexpected. For example, a teacher can walk backwards 

before a lecture. This could relate to topics such as: foreshadowing of negative events in literature, 

“backward” analysis or hindsight about events leading up to discoveries, historical events or negative 

numbers. 

o Varying the color of the paper, font, and spacing in a given text can spark attention 

o Suspenseful Pause: a significant pause before saying something important builds anticipation 

as the students wonder what you will say or do next 

o Alterations in the classroom such as a new display on a bulletin board promotes curiosity 




o Discrepant events capture attention as students want to know how to make sense of something 

unusual that they are seeing. For example: “Why is the principal sitting in the library reading a 

Dr. Seuss book upside down” 

Promote Sustained Attention with Prediction 

o Posting photographs related to an upcoming lesson in the days leading up to the lesson 

o Telling a story relating to an upcoming lesson 

o Creating a power point or slide show of images related to an upcoming lesson 

o Create a video advertisement using “Animoto” 

How to emphasize key information throughout a lesson 

Color: The teacher uses a set of colored markers when writing notes on the board. Green could represent 

that a piece of information is important, yellow could represent even more importance, and red 

could represent the most important “take home message”. The students will also use colored pens or 

pencils to write their notes. This system also helps students when reviewing information later. 

Hat: During an oral presentation, when notes are not being used, a teacher could wear a hat and turn 

the bill of the hat in different directions to indicate levels of importance. 

Strategies for Pattern Recognition to Encode Relational (Short-term) Memory 

Prior knowledge is data that students have already acquired through formal teaching, personal 

experience or real world associations. Teachers should “activate” this prior knowledge by alerting 

students to what they already know that connects to what they are going to learn. This is consistent 

with the way the brain makes these connections through pattern recognition and pattern matching 

Patterning: The process that directs relational memory formation in the brain is “patterning.” To 

survive successfully animals need to understand their environments and make meaning of what they 

see, hear, smell, touch, and taste all around them. The brain is designed to perceive and generate patterns 

and uses these patterns to predict the correct response to new information. Based on our brains’ 

process of patterning, we are able to make predictions and anticipate what might happen next and 

the best response. For example, a fox might have acquired the pattern or relationship between cold 

temperatures and rabbits entering their dens earlier in the evening. Therefore, on a cold evening, the 

fox can predict that his best opportunity for catching dinner is before the sun goes down. Teachers 

can capitalize on the brain’s patterning in a variety of ways. 

• Presenting information in context (real world connections, cross-curricular themes of study, 

experiential learning, from concrete to abstract) helps students identify patterns and connect new 

information with previous experiences and memories (relational memories). 




Activate prior knowledge and personalize learning: 

All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are introduced 

to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and 



more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. Neurologically 

speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with newly introduced 

information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information stored as 

working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become long-term 

memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step in the 

series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. 


• Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around 

them. Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: 




Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or 

mathematician when he/she 

Graphic organizers 

o Helping students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) by using 

graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and old information) 




o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective of another 

course or cross-curricular studies. 

Graphic organizers can be also be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for 

review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned information 

to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has been 

discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. When the 

class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a graphic organizer 

that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a graphic organizer 

where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at once. While the right 

foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an ice-skating partner overhead. 

Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the “anatomy” challenge, more 

students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons will be engaged. Teams can then 

present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector, which brings with it the added fun of 

using the teacher’s special tools. 




Activate prior knowledge and personalize learning: 

All students have some previous knowledge or connection to most new information they are introduced 

to. The teacher can help students make connections between what they already know and 



more invested in their learning when they can see a personal relevance or connection. Neurologically 

speaking, once prior knowledge is activated it forms a loose association with newly introduced 

information. This association is what is known as working memory. When information stored as 

working memory is consciously manipulated in some way it has the potential to become long-term 

memory. Therefore, one can see how activating prior knowledge is an important first step in the 

series of events that allows new information to become long term memory. 


• Show students how what they are about to study relates to their lives or the world around 

them. Watch a relevant video, such as those relating to math and science found on the following website: 




Before a lesson or unit, tell a narrative about the life of the author, scientist, historical figure, or 

mathematician when he/she 

Graphic organizers 

o Helping students “fit” new information into existing brain patterns (neural networks) by using 

graphic organizers (e.g. a Venn diagram used to compare and contrast new and old information) 




o Discussing with students what they learned about the topic from the perspective of another 

course or cross-curricular studies. 

Graphic organizers can be also be used for synthesizing information at the start of a unit, or for 

review before a test. The teacher can offer a challenge by asking students to relate newly learned information 

to a topic that students are more familiar with. For example, imagine that a class has been 

discussing the Winter Olympics and have generated a lot of excitement around the topic. When the 

class is taught some new anatomy concepts, the teacher challenges them to make a graphic organizer 

that relates the Winter Olympics to the parts of the body. A team might make a graphic organizer 

where a figure of a person has different body parts doing different sports all at once. While the right 

foot is skiing, the left foot is snowboarding, and the arms are lifting an ice-skating partner overhead. 

Because knowledge of both art and sports are needed to complete the “anatomy” challenge, more 

students than just those who typically thrive during science lessons will be engaged. Teams can then 

present their graphic organizers using an overhead projector, which brings with it the added fun of 

using the teacher’s special tools. 




Graphic organizers (maps, timelines, flow charts) are like an external prefrontal cortex 

Graphic organizers use executive functions when they match the brain’s mechanisms for arranging 

information in meaningful ways. Just as the prefrontal cortex automatically seeks links and patterns 

amongst facts, ideas, concepts, topics, and other categories of knowledge, so does the student 

who organizes new information into a graphic organizer. Some of the skills required when using a 

graphic organizer are: prioritizing, categorizing and recognizing relationships. These skills relate to 

prefrontal cortex executive functions that are not yet mature in our students. Therefore, scaffolding 

students in the use of these skills supports the development of their executive functions. 

Additional reasons that graphic organizers are beneficial: 

• Graphic organizers require students to summarize. It requires active thinking on the part of 

the student to make large amounts of information, from different sources, manageable. 

• Graphic organizers provide an opportunity for students to actively learn as they reconstruct 

information they hear, read, and discover, into a personally meaningful framework. 

• They can be done as a syn-naps (short brain break) and/or as a group activity 

• Allowing students choice in regards to which graphic organizing template they use boosts 

dopamine. 

Pre-assessments as noncredit self-graded quizzes 

A pre-assessment can be use to alert both the student and the teacher to what the student already 

knows about a topic. This gives an initial indication of an individual students “zone”. The teacher 

may find out that a student is missing some foundational skills that will be needed for the topic, or 

that the student already has a lot of knowledge, and without some additional challenge the student 

may become bored and disengaged. Using pre-assessment also benefit students in the following 

ways: 

• They provide a preview of the upcoming key concepts. Neurologically, this stimulates the 

circuits of any related prior knowledge the students have. Activating this knowledge makes it easier 

for students to understand and remember the new information. 

• When students make a prediction (by writing down what they think the correct answer will 

be) they have more buy-in when listening to the correct answers you provide following the pre-assessment. 

• The teacher provides timely corrective feedback by going over all of the answers immediately 

after the pre-assessment. Students correct their own quizzes (in another color). This allows them 

to notice, and then correct, their misconceptions. 

• To hold students accountable on these non-graded pre-assessments, you can tell students that 

sometimes the pre-test will be the same as the final. 




Strategies for Building Long-Term and Conceptual Memory With Neuroplasticity 

Neural network pattern expansion (extended, conceptual), accuracy, and permanence (long-term 

memory) 

• Scaffolded experiences, authentic assessments, performance tasks that build the procedural, 

organizational, prioritizing executive functions 

o Experiences that develop self-directed comprehension, memory, and creativity 

• “Talk back to the text” develops neural networks of active reading for understanding and 

memory that develop into self-directed strategic comprehension of complex texts. Specific examples 

of “Talk back to the text” questions can be included here 

• Deconstructing tasks, procedures, problems, and theories into smaller, accessible components 

develops into solving complex problems and creative innovation 

Strategies for Mental Manipulation to Extend Learning into Larger and Permanent Conceptual Neural 

Networks 

Examples of Mental Manipulation (especially effective if used within the first 24 hours after 

new learning has occurred): 

• Create a narrative – students can write and share a story about the new information. They 

should be encouraged to use personification and amusing details to make even the driest of facts 

memorable. For example, one of my previous workshop participants told an amusing story about 

a lonely piece of new information that entered a brain. It felt lost and sad until it found its family 

amongst the related memories in the hippocampus. Illustrating the story adds a further level of mental 

manipulation. 

• Teach the new information to someone else – understanding something well enough to teach 

it to another person requires a clarity of thought and understanding that ultimately supports the 

“teachers” long term memory of the concept. 

• Pair-share or collaborate: Students experience a greater level of understanding of concepts 

and ideas when they talk, explain, predict, and debate about them within a small group, instead of 

just passively listening to a lecture or reading a text. 

• Similarities and differences: Just as survival depends on recognizing the changes in an animal’s 

expected environment (e.g. what has changed and what has stayed the same in the environment 

of the fox), people are also responsive to remembering information by identifying similarities and 

differences. Researchers have found that identifying similarities and differences is the most effective 

way of committing information to memory. 

• Creating analogies allows students to relate information in new ways. For example: White 

is to Snow as Blue is to Sky. You can scaffold analogies by using ones students made in previous 

years, and leaving out one or two of the four components of A is to B as C is to D. Then they can 

explain and expand on the characteristic or relationship that ties the two sets together. 

• Creating similes such as “exercising my muscles makes me stronger like reading makes me 

smarter” also supports building long terms memories of new information. 

• Mnemonics: like PEMDAS for order of operations or ROYGBIV for the colors of the rainbow 

(red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet). 




• Summarize: Use “twitter” or “text message” style to be summaries concise. Younger children 

make “phones” (decorated towel or toilet tissue roll) and practice short overseas calls to someone in 

“a far away country – real or imaginary” but need to keep toll charges down with short call planned 

in advanced. 

• Creating a puzzle on Puzzlemaker.com 

• Animotos that summarize 

Repeated and multisensory practice makes permanent neural networks stored in multiple regions of 

the cortex. These remain connected so activating one will activate the others 

Strategies to Promote Increased Dopamine (whole brain dopamine release) 

• Highlighting incremental progress: The experience of incremental progress increases the 

brain’s predisposition for effort output. Students who feel alienated in school need additional support 

to regain their confidence and feel motivated towards reaching a challenging goal. If struggling 

academically has always been a source of disappointment for them, you can brainstorm times when 

they have been successful towards reaching a goal (e.g. music, sports, art, making friends, cooking 

something new, etc.). 

Students should be made aware of the progress they are making towards a goal. In general we 

experience an intrinsic reward when we realize that we are making progress due to our practice and 

effort. Even noticing small changes can be helpful. For example, having students keep a graph of 

how their reading fluency improves depending on how much they practice can be very motivating. 

The following activities increase dopamine levels: 

• Collaborating 

• Enjoying music 

• Being read to 

• Feeling self-appreciation-recognizing progress towards a personally meaningful goal 

• Acting kindly 

• Interacting and collaborating well with classmates, including group work 

• Expressing gratitude 

• Experiencing humor 

• Optimism 

• Choice 

• Movement 

CHOICE: The following strategies involving choice may increase dopamine levels among students 

• Homework study habits: In the beginning of the year, the teacher can pose the question, “Do 

you want to spend less time on homework this year” The teacher then explains that there is no one 

way that students study best. Instead, the students are going to experiment and choose the most effective 

and efficient system for themselves. Students then hypothesize about what strategies or 




conditions (such as taking too-frequent snack breaks, interrupting their focus with texting, creating 

a homework schedule, or turning off the television) will help - or hinder - their learning. Once they 

have tested different strategies and conditions they report back to the class on how they work best. 

• Homework deliverables: Students can be given some choice in how they produce their homework. 

For example, if the assignment is to summarize a book chapter, there a variety of methods 

that could be used. A student could create an Animoto video online (animoto.com), create a graphic 

organizer or flow chart of the information, create n picture or visual image, submit a hard copy of 

how they would “text” or “tweet” about the information (hyper-condensing information in this way 

requires the use of precise vocabulary and a clear understanding of the content - just think about how 

much meaning can be found in a perfectly crafted haiku.) 

• Vocabulary: When students are asked to choose how to arrange a list of words (vocabulary, 

spelling, etc.) from words they find the most “pleasurable” to the words they find the least “pleasurable”, 

they remember all of the words better than if they had had no choice in the order of the word 

list. 

MOVEMENT: The following strategies involving movement may increase dopamine levels among 

students 

• Pantomime vocabulary words (English, foreign language, content specific) 

• Word Gallery: If students have a list of vocabulary words they can walk around the room 

and record the number of the numbered poster that has a verbal or pictorial representation of word. 

Subsequently students can add their own sentences or drawings to the wall charts. Provide scaffolding 

by allowing some students to have a one-word definition or work with a partner. The activity can 

be even more dopamine enriching by playing music that students can enjoy as they move through the 

activity. 

• Ball-toss review: Students can toss a ball to one another as each student states one thing they 

remembered from a lesson. 

• Snowball fight: Each student writes a key point of a lesson onto a piece of paper. The students 

then stand in a circle, crumple up their pieces of paper, and toss them into the middle of the 

circle. Students take turns selecting a “snowball” to read aloud to the class. 

• Write words with parts of the body: elbow, ear, knee etc. 

• Four corners: Each corner of the room can be marked with the letters A, B, C, or D. Students 

can answer multiple choice questions by moving to the corner of the choice they believe to be 

the correct answer. 

PEER INTERACTION: The following strategies involving peer interaction may increase dopamine 

levels among students 

• Think-Pair-Share: Students, even in middle school and high school, can listen to directed 

lecture with focused attention for only fifteen to twenty minutes without some type of break. Having 

students take a moment to process information and communicate with the student next to them is an 

excellent, dopamine-raising mini-break. 




• Group projects: Groups work best if the members have a common, relevant, high interest goal 

that they can only achieve if all group members are accountable for the outcome. Students benefit 

from having opportunities to teach each other. In addition, students are more likely to ask each other 

clarifying questions, rather than asking in front of the whole class. Ideally, the problem or question 

that the group is investigating should involve opportunities for critical thinking and reasoning things 

out together. 

Strategies for Inaccurate Neural Network (memory) Correction and Accurate Network Reinforcement 

(Promotion of Dopamine Reward Prediction Feedback System – nucleus accumbens) 

o Promote prediction by all students 

o Provide timely corrective feedback 

o Lower Mistake Fear 

Strategies that increase participation and risk-taking in school: 

• Activate prior knowledge so students feel empowered by what they already know 

• Frequent interactive formative assessments during lessons keeps students actively connected 

• Use “safe” prediction opportunities like KWL charts and individual white boards 

• Ask students to discuss information in pairs. Then, have on student from each pair share-out 

either their own or their partners ideas 

• Examples and non-examples columns: If you are asking students to list examples of odd 

numbers, and some students offer even numbers by mistake, you can add the even numbers to a 

“non-example” category so that the student contribution is still useful 

• When students answer incorrectly, if any part of their answer is correct, you should repeat 

that part of their answer before clarifying and correcting their mistake 

• Teach students about neuroplasticity - that they literally have the power to change their brains 

and become “smarter” by thinking, making predictions, incorporating corrective feedback, and practicing 

and using the information they learn. 

Executive Functions for Current and Future Challenges and Opportunities 

The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the region of the brain that allows us to make conscious decisions in 

regards to our thoughts and emotions. It is the last part of the brain to mature, and maturation continues 

into the mid twenties. The PFC, once mature, is associated with the highest cognitive processes, 

also referred to as executive functions. Executive functions can be thought of as the skills that would 

make a corporate executive successful. These include planning, decision-making, reasoning, and 

analysis. These executive functions further allow for: organizing, sorting, connecting, prioritizing, 

self-monitoring, self-correcting, self-assessing, abstracting, creative conceptual problem solving, 

focusing, and linking information in order to take appropriate actions. 

Mature humans are the only creatures with the ability to analyze their thoughts and behaviors and 

direct them in a way that leads to the successful fulfillment of their goals. However, even in college 

students (early to mid-twenties), these functions are still being developed. Following are several 

executive functions that educators can help support in their students: 




o Judgment: This executive function, when developed, promotes a student’s ability to monitor 

the accuracy of his or her work. Techniques such estimation, and editing and revising one’s own 

written work require judgment. 

o Prioritizing: This executive function helps students to separate low relevance details from the 

main ideas of a text or topic of study. It also promotes one’s ability to combine separate facts into a 

broader concept. In college, many students still need to develop prioritizing skills to help them make 

the most efficient use of their time. 

o Setting goals, providing self-feedback, monitoring progress: Until students fully develop this 

PFC executive function, they are limited in their capacity to set and stick to realistic and manageable 

goals. They need support in recognizing their incremental progress towards their goals. 

o Metacognition: Assessment tasks that include opportunities for authentic transfer of learning 

to new contexts for exec function, concept and & long-term memory 

o Remembering and applying information from the past: The ability of students’ to apply “lessons” 

they have learned from past experiences to their current situation is still developing in some 

college students. 

To prepare students for college, job responsibilities, and life-long executive function use 

• Helping student to develop a personal responsibility for learning: In high school students may 

have relied on their teachers to keep them on track. High school teachers take attendance, call on 

students by name, and can even hold parent-teacher conferences. However in large college classes, 

students can feel anonymous. Students in a large lecture hall may hide behind their laptops, surfing 

the web instead of taking notes and asking questions. They feel that their relative anonymity to the 

professor will keep them from “getting in trouble”. Their lack of judgment prevents them from realizing 

that the information they are missing out on during the lecture will ultimately keep them from 

doing well in the class, and more importantly from learning and reaching their potential. Educators 

can help students see the link between in-class participation and success in college. Further, educators 

can spend some time talking with students about why they are in college and how to connect 

their broader life and career goals to the learning process. Students may require help shifting their 

focus from simply getting by with good grades, to taking ownership of their learning. 

• Students, throughout their educational journey, should be taught how to succeed in school: 

Students should be explicitly taught how to learn, study, organize, prioritize, review, and actively 

participate in class. They should be taught the reasons for any strategies or procedures they are told 

to use. 

• Making the switch from memorization to mental manipulation: Memorization that was adequate 

in high school is not the way students are graded in college. In college, and in many jobs, it is 

more about applying, communicating, and supporting what one knows. Students are asked to demonstrate 

executive function skills and conceptual knowledge by comparing and contrasting concepts, 

giving new examples of concepts, and transferring knowledge by applying big ideas to solve new 

types of problems. Educators can help students to recognize the ways in which they need to move 

beyond memorization. 



Optional Activities for Workshop Participants 

A-M (acquisition and making-meaning) 

• Create a narrative to explain the functions of the (RAS, amygdala, etc.) to a 

young student (or to a student in a grade you teach). 

• Pair-Share to summarize your understanding of… 

• Create an analogy, flow chart, skit, song/rap, graphic organizer, or diagram to 

represent the function and/or processing that takes place in the … 

• What strategies have you used to (promote curiosity, reduce stress, activate 

prior knowledge, etc.). Select one to share at your table group. An additional option to 

get more ideas is a “jigsaw” or “card party” where you write down the strategies from 

your group and move to different tables to hear their lists then return to your group and 

each share your favorites from those you just heard. 

• Select a dend-write from the 3 choices to complete. Hand it in at the end of 

today’s workshop and I’ll demonstrate the multiple uses of the dend-writes with your 

responses tomorrow. 

Dend-Writes (a word play on the neural structures called ‘dendrites’) are brief thinking/writing 

assignments that students do to help them make sense of and consolidate 

new learning. They also can provide teacher feedback such as checking for understanding. 

I usually have students write on small note cards. 

Following are the ten Dend-Write prompts that I posted in my classroom: 

1. Create an analogy about what you learned; write what it reminded you of, or 

how it fits with what you already know. 

2. Draw a picture, diagram, or graphic organizer of what you learned. 

3. Write a reaction/reflection of how something you learned relates to your life. 

4. Write about something that made you wonder or surprised you - a new insight 

or discovery. 

5. What do you predict will come next 

6. How could you (or someone in a profession) use this knowledge 

7. What did you understand today that you haven’t understood before What is 

something that you are confused about or find difficult 

8. What was the part of lesson that you enjoyed the most What was the part that 

was most difficult for you 

9. What strategy did you use to solve a problem today 

10. “So What” – What do you think were the most important things in the 

lesson What are they important 



Optional Activities for Workshop Participants 

(continued) 

When and how to use Dend-Writes: 

• When checking for understanding, especially when on-going feedback tells 

you there are problems, you can use Dend-Write prompts such as #4, #7, or #8. Students 

should always start the response by including the positive statement that relates 

to the first part of the question. For #8 one would write, “The part of the lesson I enjoyed 

the most was ………and something that still confuses me is…” In that way the 

student will have a burst of brain satisfaction (dopamine) because they are recognizing 

an accomplishment. They then feel less anxious expressing what they still find confusing 

or difficult in the second part of their Dend-Write. 

• Feedback to you - how accurately the lesson was understood 

• Before the next class correct any misperceptions you discover 

• Make check marks on cards that you think the rest of the class would benefit 

from hearing. Students with checks share those insights with the class as a review or to 

promote discussion. (Because the teacher has identified the card as useful or correct, 

it lowers participation anxiety of the student presenters because they are confident that 

their responses are correct) 

• Students can add to their own notes based on what they learn from hearing the 

information on their classmate’s Dend-Write 

• Cards can become study aides 

• Posted on bulletin boards, Dend-Write cards cover important information for 

students who were absent and provide review information before the next class or the 

test. 

Transfer: Applying your new learning to your professional work 

• Make an animoto to “advertise” your topic (unit/meeting) 

• Write in your handout under the section for _______ which strategies you 

could apply to your unit/meeting to promote the neurological processing in this brain 

network/filter/structure or to increase the dopamine effect. 



Glossary of Neuroscience Terms 

Amygdala: Part of limbic system in the temporal lobe. It was first believed to function as a brain 

center for responding only to anxiety and fear. When the amygdala is in this state of stress, fear, 

or anxiety-induced overactivation, new information coming through the sensory intake areas of 

the brain cannot pass through the amygdala’s filter to gain access to the prefrontal cortex and the 

information is conducted to the lower, reactive brain. 

Axon: The single fiber that extends from a neuron and transmits messages to the dendrites of other 

neurons (or to body tissues). 

Cerebral Cortex: This outer layer of the brain where most neurons are located is also called gray 

matter due to the coloration of the neurons. The cerebral cortex is associated with the highest 

cognitive processes, also referred to as executive functions, including planning, decision-making, 

reasoning, and analysis. 

Dendrite: Branched protoplasmic extensions that sprout from the arms (axons) or the cell bodies 

of neurons. Dendrites conduct electrical impulses toward the neighboring neurons. A single nerve 

may possess many dendrites. Dendrites increase in size and number in response to learned skills, 

experience, and information storage. New dendrites grow as branches from frequently activated 

neurons. 

Dopamine: A neurotransmitter most associated with attention, decision-making, executive function, 

and reward-stimulated learning. Dopamine release on neuroimaging has been found to increase in 

response to rewards and positive experiences. Scans reveal greater dopamine release while subjects 

are playing, laughing, exercising, and receiving self-acknowledgement for achievement. 

Executive Function: Cognitive processing of information for higher functions such as organizing, 

analyzing, sorting, connecting, planning, prioritizing, sequencing, self-monitoring, self-correcting, 

assessment, abstractions, problem solving, attention focusing, and linking information to appropriate 

actions. 

Graphic organizers: Diagrams that are designed to coincide with the brain’s style of patterning. 

For sensory information to be encoded (the initial processing of the information entering from the 

senses), consolidated, and stored the information must be patterned into a brain-compatible form. 

Graphic organizers can promote this more patterning if they guide students’ brains when they participate 

in this creating of relevant connections to their existing memory circuitry. 

Hippocampus: A ridge in the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain that consists mainly of gray 

matter that has a major role in memory processes. The hippocampus takes sensory inputs and 

integrates them with relational or associational patterns thereby binding the separate aspects of the 

experience into storable patterns of relational memories. 

Limbic System A group of interconnected deep brain structures involved in olfaction (smell), 



GLOSSARY (continued) 

Neuron: Specialized cells in the brain and throughout the nervous system that conduct electrical impulses 

to, from, and within the brain. Neurons are composed of a main cell body, a single axon for 

outgoing electrical signals, and a varying number of dendrites for incoming signals in electrical form. 

There are more than 100 billion neurons in an average adult brain. 

Neuronal Circuits or Neuronal Networks: Neurons communicate with each other by sending coded 

messages along electro-chemical connections. When there is repeated stimulation of specific patterns 

of a group of neurons, their connecting circuit becomes more developed and more accessible to 

efficient stimulation and response. This is where practice (repeated stimulation of grouped neuronal 

connections in neuronal circuits) results in more successful recall. 

Neuroplasticity: Dendrite formation and dendrite and neuron destruction (pruning) allows the brain 

to reshape and reorganize the networks of dendrite-neuron connections in response to increased or 

decreased use of these pathways. Plasticity refers to the ability of synapses, neurons, or regions of the 

brain to change their properties in response to usage (stimulation). 

Neurotransmitters: Brain proteins that are released by the electrical impulses on one side of the synapse, 

to then float across the synaptic gap carrying the information with them to stimulate the next 

nerve ending in the pathway. Once the neurotransmitter is taken up by next nerve ending, the electric 

impulse is reactivated to travel along to the next nerve. Neurotransmitters in the brain include serotonin, 

tryptophan, acetylcholine, dopamine, and others that transport information across synapses. 

When neurotransmitters are depleted, by too much information traveling through a nerve circuit without 

a break, the speed of transmission along the nerve slows down to a less efficient level. 

Prefrontal Cortex (front part of the frontal lobe): The prefrontal cortex responds to event and memory 

processing and makes conscious decisions. It is the region of the frontal lobe where the brain directs 

the planning of the movements to do a task 

Reticular Activating System (RAS): This lower part of the posterior brain filters all incoming stimuli 

and making the “decision” as to what people attend or ignore. The Reticular Activating System alerts 

the brain to sensory input that sense receptors in the body send up the spinal cord. The main categories 

that focus the attention of the RAS and therefore the student include physical need, choice, and 

novelty. 

Scaffolding: This is instruction based on the concept that learning always proceeds from the known to 

the new. Students construct their new learning on the foundations of what they already know with the 

help of teachers, parents, or a more knowledgeable other who support them with instruction to help 

them build upon the abilities and knowledge they have to reach a higher level. 

Synapse: These gaps between nerve endings are where neurotransmitters like dopamine carry information 

across the space separating the axon extensions of one neuron from the dendrite that leads to the 

next neuron in the pathway. Before and after crossing the synapse as a chemical message, information 

is carried in an electrical state when it travels down the nerve. It is through synaptic transmission that 

cells in the central nervous system communicate when an axon sends a neurotransmitter across the 

synaptic cleft to activate the receptor on the adjacent dendrite. 



What Is Exemplary Design for Learning 

1. Think back to your many prior experiences with well-designed learning, both in and out of 

school. What was the most well-designed learning experience you have ever encountered as a 

learner What features of the design - not the teacher’s style or your interests - made the learning 

so engaging and effective (Design elements include: challenges posed, sequence of activities, 

resources provided, assignments, assessments, groupings, site, accommodation of differences, 

teacher’s role, etc.). 

2. In sharing your recollections and analyses with your colleagues, build a list of generalizations 

that follow from the accounts. What do well-designed learning experiences have in common 

In other words, what must be built in “by design” for any learning experience to be maximally 

effective and engaging for students 

The best designs for learning... 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 

• 



W.H.E.R.E.T.O. 

Considerations for the Learning Plan 

The acronym W.H.E.R.E.T.O. summarizes the key elements that should be found in your learning 

plan, given the desired results and assessments drafted in Stages 1 and 2. Note that the elements need 

not appear in the same order as the letters of the acronym. Think of W.H.E.R.E.T.O. as a checklist for 

building and evaluating the final learning plan, not a suggested sequence. For example, the learning 

might start with a Hook (H), followed by instruction on the final performance requirements (W), then 

perhaps some rethinking of earlier work (R), etc. 

H 

How will we hook and 

hold student interest 

W 

Where are we going 

Why What is expected 

E 

How will we equip 

students for expected 

performances 

W.H.E.R.E.T.O. 

O 

How will we organize 

and sequence the 

learning 

R 

How will we help 

students rethink 

and revise 

T 

How will we tailor 

learning to varied 

needs, interests, 

styles 

E 

How will students 

self-evaluate and reflect 

on their learning 



W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – 

Questions to Consider for the “W” 

The “W” in W.H.E.R.E.T.O. should be considered from the students’ perspective. By working through 

“backward design,” designers should be clear about their goals and the evidence needed to show the 

extent that students have achieved them. Now, we seek to help the students become clear about the 

goals/expectations and the purpose/benefits of achieving them. Research and experience show that 

students are more likely to focus and put forth effort when they have clarity on the goals/expectations 

and see a purpose/value for the intended learning. 

Goals 

• Where are we going in 

this unit/course 

• What are the goals or 

standards toward which 

we are working 

• What will students be 

learning 

• What resources and 

learning experiences 

will help us get there 

Expectations 

• What is expected of 

students 

• What are key assignments 

and assessments 

• In what ways will students 

be expected to demonstrate 

learning ...understanding 

• What criteria and performance 

standards will be 

used for assessment 

W 

Relevance/ 

Value 

• Why is this worth 

learning 

• In what ways will this 

knowledge/these skills 

benefit students in 

school ...in the future 

Diagnosis 

• From where are students 

coming 

• What prior knowledge, interests, 

learning styles, talents 

do they bring 

• What misconceptions may 

exist 



W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – 

Examples for the “W” 

Goals 

❏ Directly state the desired results 

at the beginning of the unit. 

❏ Present unit/course goals, syllabus, 

and schedule on first day. 

❏ Post and discuss essential question(s) 

at the start of unit. 

❏ Invite students to generate questions. 

❏ Ask students to identify personal goals. 

Expectations 

❏ Present the culminating 

performance task requirements. 

❏ Review scoring rubric(s). 

❏ Show models/exemplars for 

expected products/performances. 

❏ Involve students in identifying 

preliminary evaluation criteria. 

W 

Relevance/Utility 

❏ Present the rationale for the 

unit/course goals. 

❏ Discuss the benefits to students. 

❏ Identify people and places beyond 

the classroom where this knowledge/ 

these skills are applied. 

❏ Use K-W-L to have students 

identify things they want to learn. 

❏ Give a pre-test on content 

knowledge. 

❏ Give a diagnostic skills test. 

❏ Use K-W-L to see what students 

already know (or think they know). 

❏ Have students create a visual 

organizer to reveal their initial 

knowledge and understandings. 

❏ Check for possible/probable 

misconceptions. 

Diagnosis 



Ideas for Diagnostic (Pre-) Assessment 

The following pre-assessment techniques provide efficient diagostic checks of student prior 

knowledge and misconceptions. This information guides any differentiatied instruction/assessment 

that may be needed. 

K-W-L-S 

Prior to the introduction of a new topic or skill, ask students what they already Know 

(or think they know) about the topic or skill. These are recorded on a board or chart paper 

under the “K” column. (Sometimes, students make statements that are incorrect or reveal 

misconceptions.) 

Secondly, ask them what they Want to know (or what questions they have) about the 

topic/skill. These are recorded under the “W” column. (Their questions often reveal interests 

or “hooks” to the topic. In some cases, their questions reveal misconceptions that will need 

to be addressed.) 

As the lesson or unit proceeds, Learnings are summarized and recorded in the “L” 

column as they occur. (This provides an opportunity to go back and correct any misconceptions 

that may have been initially recorded in the “K” column.) 

Pre-Test (non-graded) 

Give students a pre-test to check their prior knowledge of key facts and concepts. Use 

the results to plan instruction and selection of resources. (Make sure that students know that 

the results will not count toward fianl grades.) 

Skills Check (non-graded) 

Have students demonstrate their proficiency with a targeted skill or process. It is helpful 

to have a proficiency checklist or developmental rubric to use in assessing the degree of 

skill competence. Students can then use the checklist or rubric for on-going self assessment. 

Web/Concept Map 

Ask students to create a web or concept map to show the elements or components of 

a topic or process. This technique is especially effective in revealing whether students have 

gaps in their knowledge and the extent to which they understand relationships among the 

elements. 

Misconception Check 

Present students with common errors or predictable misconceptions regarding a 

designated topic, concept, skill or process. See if they are able to identify the error or misconception 

and explain why it is erroneous or flawed. 

The misconception check can also be presented in the form of a true-false quiz, where 

students must agree or disagree with statements or examples. 


K-W-L-S Chart 

An efficient and effective way to check for students’ prior knowledge and interests is through the use of a K-W-L-S 

Chart. At the beginning of a unit or course, students are asked what they Know (or think they know) about the given 

topic. These items are recorded in the K column of the K-W-L-S Chart, posted on a board or flip chart. Then, they 

are asked to pose questions about the topic (i.e., what they Want to know), and their questions are recorded in the 

W column. As the unit unfolds, the L column is used to summarize key things that the class has Learned about the 

topic. As the unit concudes, the class considers the implications of their learning (i.e., So What). The S column is 

used to list ways in which the new knowledge will be useful to them inside and outside of school. 

Know Want to Know Learned So What 



Expert 

Proficient 

Developing 

Proficiency 

Novice 

Chopsticks are 

gripped correctly and 

held at the far end. 

The bottom stick does 

not move when food is 

gripped. 


gripped correctly 

and held near the far 

end. The bottom stick 

moves slightly when 

food is gripped. 


gripped incorrectly 

and/or held near the 

middle. The bottom 

stick moves when 



gripped incorrectly 

and/or held near the 

bottom. Both sticks 

move or cross when 


The chopstick motions 

are smooth. The motion 

appears effortless and 

gracefull, with no wasted 

energy. 


are generally smooth 

and fluent, with minimal 

concentration 

required. 


appear mechanical, 

requiring deliberate 

effort. 


appear labored and 

awkward, requiring 

intense concentration. 

Desired food selection is 

precise. The user eats as 

quickly (and as much) as 

desired, while carrying 

on conversation w/ other 

diners. 

Desired foods are 

consistently selected 

and rarely dropped. 

Conversation may pause 

during food selection. 

Foods are occasionally 

missed and/or dropped. 

The user is able to eat, 

albeit quite slowly and 

deliberately. 

Foods are consistently 

missed and/or regularly 

dropped. User may to 

resort to “stabbing” the 

food to avoid hunger. 


grip fluency effect 

*Sticks: ___ childs ___ standard ___ metal 

Rubric for Using Chopsticks* 



W.H.E.R.E.T.O. – “Hooking” the Learners 

Effective teachers recognize the importance of hooking the student at the beginning of a new learning 

experience and holding their interest throughout. The “H” in W.H.E.R.E.T.O. directs designers to consider 

ways of engaging students in the topic and pointing toward big ideas, essential questions, and 

performance tasks -- by design. Use the list below to brainstrom possible “hooks” for your unit design. 

H 

Hook 

Hold 

How will you hook and hold student interests 

❏ odd fact, anomaly, counter-intuitive example ___________________ 

❏ provocative entry question ________________________________ 

❏ mystery ______________________________________________ 

❏ challenge _____________________________________________ 

❏ problem/issue _________________________________________ 

❏ experiment -- predict outcome _____________________________ 

❏ role-play or simulation ___________________________________ 

❏ personal experiences ____________________________________ 

❏ allow student choice for: _________________________________ 

❏ emotional connection ____________________________________ 

❏ humor _______________________________________________ 



Teaching and Learning for Understanding 

What does it mean to teach and learn for understanding 

We have found it useful to consider this question by examining three distinct, yet 

interrelated, learning goals: 1) acquisition of new information and skill, 2) making 

meaning of that content (i.e., coming to understand), and 3) transfer of one’s knowledge 

(i.e., applying one’s learning to new situations). 

These three categories link directly to elements identified in Understanding by 

Design. In Stage 1 teachers specify the knowledge and skill that they intend students 

to acquire. They also decide upon the “big ideas” they want students to come to 

understand and develop essential questions to help students make meaning of those 

ideas. In Stage 2, teachers develop performance tasks requiring transfer as evidence 

that students understand and can apply their knowledge in authentic contexts. 

Acquire 

important 

knowlege 

and skils 

Make 

Meaning 

of “big ideas” 

(key principles 

and strategies) 

Transfer 

learning to new 

situations 



What is Fair 

Who won this year’s 7th grade race around the campus 

Every year at Birdsong Middle School, there is an all-class race. Below are the results for the 7th 

grade (which is made up of four different classes of 7th grade). But there is a problem: no one agrees 

on who won! One person thinks Class C should win the trophy because they had the 1st runner overall 

in the race. Another person thinks Class D should win because they had 3 runners come in under 

10th place. A third person says: just find the average. But a 4th person said: wait a minute – Class C 

had way more students in their class than Class D! Averages won’t be fair. A 5th person says: use 

the scoring system in Cross Country – just add up the place of finish of the top 5 and lowest total 

wins. A 6th person says – unfair! Some classes did well in the first few runners but poorly in the 

middle! Why should they win Now, everyone is confused and arguing. 

What is the most fair solution Who should win the trophy Your group, well-known in the 

school as a group of expert mathematicians (and widely known and respected for your sense of fairness) 

is being consulted as to who should win the trophy. What will you recommend and why 

Class rank Class A Class B Class C Class D 

1 4 6 1 2 

2 9 7 3 5 

3 11 10 14 8 

4 12 13 18 15 

5 20 16 19 17 

6 21 22 23 31 

7 25 24 28 33 

8 26 27 30 36 

9 29 34 32 37 

10 35 39 41 38 

11 43 40 44 46 

12 45 42 47 51 

13 49 48 50 55 

14 54 52 56 57 

15 61 53 60 58 

16 65 62 63 59 

17 69 66 64 67 

18 70 72 68 

19 71 73 

20 74 

Notes on the chart: 

• The numbers in the chart, from 1 to 74 represent the place of finish of that runner. So, the overall 

race winner was from Class C, the number two runner overall was in Class D, etc. 

• Class rank refers to the rank of finish place in that class, not the overall race. So, the first runner in 

class A was 4th overall in the race, the 2nd best runner in class A came in 9th overall, etc. 

• The blanks reflect the fact that each of the 4 classes has a different number of students. Class D has 

20 students, CLASS A has 19 students, etc. 



Stage 3: Instruction and Learning Activities. 

A = acquiring basic knowledge and skills M = making meaning T = transfer 

MATHEMATICS Unit on Measures of Central Tendency 

Essential Question: What is fair - and how can mathematics help us answer the question 

1. Introduce and discuss the essential question, first part - What is ‘fair’ What is ‘unfair’ M 

2. Introduce the 7th grade race problem. Which 7th-grade class section won the race What is a 

fair way to decide Small-group inquiry, followed by class discussion of answers. M 

3. Teacher informs students about the mathematical connections derived from the problem analysis, 

and lays out the unit and its culminating transfer task. A 

4. In small-group jigsaw, students share their answers to the INQUIRY sheet, then return to their 

team to generalize from all the small-group work. Discuss other examples related to the concept 

of “fairness” such as the following. M 

• What is a fair way to rank many teams when they do not all play each other 

• What is a fair way to split up limited food among hungry people of very different sizes 

• When is it ‘fair’ to use majority vote and when is it not fair What might be fairer 

• Is it fair to have apportioned Representatives based on a state’s population, yet have two 

Senators from each state irrespective of their size What might be fairer 

• What are fair and unfair ways of representing how much money the “average” worker earns, 

for purposes of making government policy 

5. Teacher connects the discussion to the next section in the textbook - measures of central 

tendency (mean, median, mode, range, standard deviation). A 

6. Students practice calculating each type of measure. A 

7. Teacher gives quiz on mean, median, mode from textbook. A 

8. Teacher leads a review and discussion of the quiz results. A M 

9. Group task worked on in class: What is the fairest possible grading system for schools to use 

M T 

10. Individuals and small teams present their grading policy recommendations and reasons. M T 

11. Culminating transfer task: Each student determines which measure (mean, median or mode) 

should be used to calculate their grade for the marking period and write a note to the teacher 

showing their calculations and explaining their choice. T 

12. Students write a reflection on the essential question. 


UbD Template 2.0 

Stage 1 – Desired Results 

Established Goals 

Transfer 

Students will be able to independently use their learning to... 

What kinds of long-term, independent accomplishments are desired 

UNDERSTANDINGS 

Students will understand that... 

Meaning 

ESSENTIAL QUESTIONS 

Students will keep considering... 

What Content Standards, 

Program and/or Mission 

related goal(s) will this 

unit address 

What habits of mind and 

cross-disciplinary goal(s) 

– e.g. 21st century skills, 

core competencies – will 

this unit address 

What specifically do you want 

students to understand 

What inferences should they make 

Students will know... 

Acquisition of Knowledge & Skill 

What thought-provoking questions 

will foster inquiry, meaning making, 

and transfer 

Students will be skilled at... 

What facts and basic concepts 

should students know and be able 

to recall 

What discrete skills and processes 

should students be able to use 

© 2010 Grant Wiggins & Jay McTighe 62


Stage 2 – Evidence 

Coding 

Evaluative 

Criteria 

Assessment Evidence 

PERFORMANCE TASK(S) 

Students will show they really understand by... 

Are all 

of the 

Desired 

Results 

being 

appropriately 

assessed 

What criteria 

will be used in 

each 

assessment 

to evaluate 

attainment 

of the 

Desired 

Results 

Regardless 

of the format 

of the assessment, 

what 

qualities are 

most 

important 

OTHER EVIDENCE 

How will students demonstrate their understanding (meaningmaking 

and transfer) through complex performance 

Consider the six facets when developing assessments of understanding. 

Optional: Use the G.R.A.S.P.S. elements to frame an authentic context 

for the task(s). 

Students will show they have achieved Stage 1 goals by... 

What other evidence will you collect to determine 

whether Stage 1 goals were achieved 



Stage 3 – Learning Plan 

Coding 

What’s 

the 

goal 

for (or 

type 

of) 

each 

event 

What pre-assessments will you use to check students’ prior 

knowledge, skill levels and potential misconceptions 

Learning Events 

Student will be equipped for success at transfer, meaning-making, and acquisition by... 

Are all three types of goals (acquisition, meaning, and transfer) 

addressed in the learning plan 

Does the learning plan reflect principles of learning 

and best practices 

Is there tight alignment with Stages 1 and 2 

Is the plan likely to be engaging and effective for all students 

Pre-assessment 

Progress 

Monitoring 

How will you 

monitor students’ 

progress towards 

acquisition, meaning-making, 

and 

transfer, during 

lesson events 

What are potential 

rough spots and 

student misunderstandings 

While detailed lesson plans are not expected here, you should include 

sufficient information so that another teacher who is familiar with the 

unit’s content could understand and follow the basic learning plan. 

How will students 

get the feedback 

they need and 

opportunities to 

make use of it 

Optional: Use the column on the left to code your learning activities; e.g., 

their alignment with Stage 1 elements, T-M-A, or W.H.E.R.E.T.O. 





National Driver 

Development Standards 

Transfer 


T1 drive courteously and defensively without accidents or needless risk. 

G1 Demonstrate a working 

knowledge of rules, regulations 

and procedures of 

operating an automobile 

G2 Use visual search skills to 

obtain correct information 

and make reduced-risk decisions 

for effective speed 

and position adjustments 

G3 Interact with other users 

within the Highway 

Transportation System by 

adjusting speed, space, and 

communications to avoid 

conflicts and reduce risk 

G4 Demonstrate balanced 

vehicle movement through 

steering, braking, and accelerating 

in a precise and 

timely manner throughout 

a variety of adverse conditions 

Source: American Driver & 

Traffic Safety Association 

T2 anticipate and adapt their knowledge of safe and defensive driving to 

various traffic, road and weather conditions. 



U1 Defensive driving assumes that other 

drivers are not attentive and that they might 

make sudden or ill-advised moves. 

U2 The time needed to stop or react is 

deceptively small, thus requiring constant 

anticipation & attention. 

U3 Effective drivers constantly adapt to the various 

traffic, road, & weather conditions. 


K1 the driving laws of their state, province 

or country 

K2 rules of the road for legal, courteous 

and defensive driving 

K3 basic car features and functions 

Meaning 




Q1 What must I anticipate and do to 

minimize risk and accidents when I drive 

Q2 What makes a courteous and defensive 

driver 


S1 procedures of safe driving under 

varied traffic, road & weather 

conditions 

S2 signalling/communicating intentions 

S3 quick response to surprises 

S4 parallel parking 




Coding 

Evaluative 

Criteria 




Transfer 

goals 

Meaning 

Goals 

• skillful 

• courteous/ 

defensive 

• anticipates 

well 

• responsive 

to varied 

conditions 

• obeys traffic 

laws 

1. Task: Drive locally (e.g., from home to school and back), with adult supervision. 

The goal is to demonstrate skillful, responsive, and defensive driving under realworld 

conditions. 

2. Task: Same task as #1 but during rainy conditions. 

3. Task: Same task as #1 but in rush hour traffic. 

4. Booklet: Develop an illustrated booklet for other young drivers to help them 

understand the “big ideas” of safe and effective driving. 

Meaning 

Goals 

• accurate 

• perceptive 



5. Self-assess your driving and parking in Tasks 1 - 3 in terms of 

courteous & defensive. Discuss adjustments made. 

Skill & 

Transfer 

Goals 

• skilled 

6. Observation of student driver while using the simulator and while driving. 

Knowledge 

& Skill 

Goals; 

Basic 

Transfer 

• knows the 

law 

• meets driving 

test criteria 

7. Written test required for getting a license. 

8. Driving (road) test required for getting a license. 




Coding 

Pre-assessment of driving knowledge, skill, understandings, and attitudes using surveys and simulators. 




Progress 

Monitoring 

T 

M 

A 

Driving instruction is geared toward developing increasing levels of autonomous proficiency 

(i.e., transfer). Whether beginning with the driving simulator in the classroom or to actual 

driving on roads, the following sequence (a gradual release of responsibility) is employed: 

• The skill is introduced and modelled. 

• It is practiced and applied with overt instructional guidance. 

• It is practiced and applied correctly when prompted. 

• It is applied correctly and consistently without any prompting. 

MAKE MEANING: Students are prompted to reflect upon and generalize about the driving 

experience via discussion of the essential questions after each virtual and real road experience. 

Written self-assessment is required after each driving experience. Expert driving is 

modeled via video and the driving instructor, and the driver generalizes about good (vs. not so 

good) driving. 

ACQUIRE KEY SKILLS & FACTS and use them in context: Experience and equipping via 

direct instruction and video simultaors is provided in terms of how to handle: Wet Roads, 

Dry Roads, Darkness Daylight, Highway, City, Country. Direct Instruction on key laws and 

rules of the road, and practice tests are used. 

Formative assessment 

and informal feedback 

by instructor as student 

tries to apply skills 

learned while driving 

off-road 

• Look for such common 

misconceptions and skill 

deficits as - 

* failure to check mirrors 

and peripheral 

vision 

* not accurately responding 

during changes in 

road conditions 

* not perceiving speed of 

oncoming cars during 

merges and turns 

Separate skill development and real-world practice in – 

Car Check Circles Anticipation & Planning Ahead 

Safety Checks Pedestrian Crossings Use of Speed 

Controls & Instruments Highways Other Traffic 

Starting up, Moving and Stopping Turns Intersections 

Safe Positioning Reversing Darkness 

Mirrors Parking Weather Conditions 

Signals Emergency Stopping Rules & Laws 

Security 

Code Key: T = transfer, M = Meaning-making, A = Acquisition 





Transfer 


VIRGINIA SOCIAL STUDIES 

STANDARDS – Virigina History 

a) identify and interpret 

artifacts and primary and 

secondary source documents to 

understand events in history; 

f) sequence events in Virginia 

history; 

g) interpret ideas and events 

from different historical 

perspectives 

VIRGINIA VISUAL ARTS 

STANDARDS 

4.20 – The student will identify 

and investigate ways that works 

of art from popular culture 

reflect the past and influence 

the present. 

7.23 – The student will analyze, 

interpret, and judge works of art 

based on biographical, historical, 

or contextual information. 

• Recognize that history involves interpretation of past events, and that historical interpretations 

typically reflect a singular perspective, an incomplete account, or deliberate bias. 

• Critically evaluate historical accounts. 



• History consists of “his” story and “her” story. 

• There are often different perspectives on what 

happened in the past. 

• One’s experiences influence one’s view of 

history. Race and gender influence historical 

interpretation. 

• Photographs can reveal but also mislead. 

• Critical reading and viewing is necessary to recognize 

incomplete or biased accounts of the past. 


the basic history of early 20th-century 

Virginia, including the: 

- decline of agricultural society 

- growth of industrialization 

- move from rural to urban society 

- impact of segregation (e.g., Jim Crow laws) 

- impact of desegregation 

Meaning 




• Whose “story” is it 

• How do we know what really happened in the 

past 

• What roles do race and gender play in creating 

and interpreting history 

• What can a photograph tell us about a society 

• How should we “read” an historical account, 

artifact or photograph Can we trust them 


- describing and sequencing historical events 

- comparing primary and secondary sources 

- interpreting ideas from different perspectives 

- critically examining historical photographs 

- conducting 4-part art criticism process 




Coding 

Evaluative 

Criteria 




(framed using GRASPS) 

• Historically 

accurate 

• Thorough explanation 

of: 

• the significance 

of the 

selected 

events 

• the perspective 

or point 

of view of 

the photographs 

The Virginia Historical Society has invited you to prepare an exhibit to inform the public 

about significant transitions that occurred in early 20th-century Virginia society and show 

various points of view through which this history can be seen. The exhibit will be presented 

using historical photographs with commentaries. 

Your task is to choose two significant events or transition periods from early 20th-century 

Virginia.* Then, select several photographs that represent each event from two or more 

perspectives. Prepare a commentary for each selected photograph in which you explain: 

1. the significance of the event shown (i.e., how it reveals an important 

transition occurring in early 20th-century Virginia); AND 

2. the perspective or point of view of the photograph 

• Well-crafted 

display 

* Students have access to archives of historical photos at the following websites: 

http://cass.etsu.edu/ARCHIVES/photoapp.htm 

http://www.vcdh.virginia.edu/afam/raceandplace/index.htm 



• Historically 

accurate 

• Quizzes on historical facts and sequence of events 

• Critical analysis 

• “Reading” art and 4-part criticism worksheets 

• Effective analysis 

of perspective 

• Clear and appropriate 

reflections 

• Historical analysis sheet (perspectives) 

• Series of journal entries - reflections on events/time periods from different 

perspectives (race, gender, economic status) 





Coding 



Progress 

Monitoring 

M 

INTERPRET PHOTOS 

Distribute letter from Historical Society (task 2) and rubric. Present photo collection. Present students 

with an engaging photo of people in early 20th century Virginia, depicting a certain event or time of social 

transition (ex. segregated restaurant/white patrons). Ask them to create a caption that might accompany 

the photo in a magazine of the time period. Students share their captions. 

M 

Lead a Socratic Seminar on a photo. In middle of seminar, present another photo showing same ‘event’ 

with different perspective (segregated restaurant/African-American patrons). Continue seminar, now 

comparing two photos. 

M 

Introduce a representative photo and one with another point of view. Lead students in 4-part art criticism 

process (describe, interpret, analyze, evaluate), which will get them into the history depicted, the 

human subject, what the photographer wanted us to see, ... 

T 

Complete Historical Analysis sheet (looking at stakeholders’ perspectives and outcomes of event) 

M 

Compare and contrast photo with text information (Venn diagram - primary/secondary sources). Continue 

these comparisons with most photos. 

M 

Self-evaluation. Exhibit display (“gallery walk”). Analysis of peer’s selections. 

M 

Daily journal entries. Prompt: Reflect on the event, considering different perspectives and your own 

personal connection. Share in small groups. 

A 

ACQUIRE KNOWLEDGE ABOUT AND FOR THE UNIT 

Post and discuss essential questions and understandings. 

Introduce Performance Task 1: Take a Walk in Someone Else’s Shoes. Discuss rubric. 

Present and discuss exemplar for Task 2. Discuss rubric. Time to begin task. 

Facilitate SQ3R of textbook (and/or other resource) information regarding topic. 





Transfer 




Meaning 









Coding 

Evaluative 

Criteria 










Coding 



Progress 

Monitoring 



Four Types of Goals 

Consider these four goal types – Knowledge (K), Skill (S), Understanding (U), and 

Transfer (T) – for the same academic topic, to illustrate the value of these distinctions 

(i.e. to help you with your meaning-making). 

HISTORY 

Topic: The Declaration of Independence 

• Know the names of the writers of the Declaration of Independence (K). 

• Use your research skill to learn about one of the signers of the Declaration (S). 

• Analyze the Declaration in terms of the historical context and its “audience” and 

“purpose” to develop a thesis. (U) 

• Apply your analysis to role-play a signer of the Declaration in a simulated town 

meeting where you explain your decision to your townspeople and are prepared to 

respond to criticism of your stance. (T) 

WORLD LANGUAGE 

Topic: Beginning Spanish 

• Know the most common phrases related to asking directions. (K) 

• Use your emerging skill with the present tense (and your knowledge of common 

phrases) to translate simple teacher prompts that begin Donde esta... (S) 

• A student argues: “One past tense is enough, and it’s too hard to learn two! Why 

bother” Write a letter, make a podcast, or create a YouTube video to explain why 

having different past tenses is needed for precise communication in Spanish. (U) 

• Role play: You must ask about various trains that have departed and will soon depart, 

in a simulation of being in a crowded train station with little time. Some speakers will 

speak more quickly and idiomatically than others. (T) 

MATHEMATICS 

Topic: Linear relationships in Algebra 

• Know the meaning of “slope” and that y=mx+b. (K) 

• Graph various linear pairs. (S) 

• Explain, in general terms, how linear relationships help anyone find the price point 

but are not likely to help you predict sales. (U) 

• Use linear equations and real data to help you determine the price point for selling 

store-bought donuts and homemade coffee at athletic events in order to make a profit 

for a fundraiser. (T) 



Stage 3: Instruction and Learning Activities. 

A = acquiring basic knowledge and skills M = making meaning T = transfer 

1. Begin with an entry question (Can the foods you eat cause zits) to hook students into 

considering the effects of nutrition on their lives. M 

2. Introduce the essential questions and discuss the culminating unit performance tasks (Chow 

Down and Eating Action Plan). M 

3. Note: Key vocabulary terms are introduced as needed by the various learning activities and 

performance tasks. Students read and discuss relevant selections from the Health textbook 

to support the learning activities and tasks. As an on-going activity students keep a chart of 

their daily eating and drinking for later review and evaluation. A 

4. Present concept attainment lesson on the food groups. Then, have students practice categorizing 

pictures of foods accordingly. M 

5. Introduce the Food Pyramid and identify foods in each group. Students work in groups to 

develop a poster of the Food Pyramid containing cut-out pictures of foods in each group. 

Display the posters in the classroom or hallway. A 

6. Give quiz on the Food groups and Food Pyramid (matching format). E 

7. Review and discuss the nutrition brochure from the USDA. Discussion question: Must everyone 

follow the same diet in order to be healthy A M 

8. Working in cooperative groups, students analyze a hypothetical family*s diet (deliberately 

unbalanced) and make recommendations for improved nutrition. Teacher observes and coaches 

students as they work. M T 

9. Have groups share their diet analyses and discuss as a class. M 

(Note: Teacher collects and reviews the diet analyses to look for misunderstandings needing 

instructional attention.) 

10. Each student designs an illustrated nutrition brochure to teach younger children about the 

importance of good nutrition for healthy living and the problems associated with poor eating. 

This activity is completed outside of class. M T 

11. Show and discuss the video, Nutrition and You. Discuss the health problems linked to poor eating. 

A 

12. Students listen to, and question, a guest speaker (nutritionist from the local hospital) about 

health problems caused by poor nutrition. A 

13. Students respond to written prompt: Describe two health problems that could arise as a result 

of poor nutrition and explain what changes in eating could help to avoid them. (These are collected 

and graded by teacher.) A 

14. Teacher models how to read and interpret food label information on nutritional values. Then, 

have students practice using donated boxes, cans and bottles (empty!). A 

15. Students work independently to develop the 3-day camp menu. T 

16. At the conclusion of the unit, students review their completed daily eating chart and self assess 

the “healthfulness” of their eating. Have they noticed changes Improvements Do they 

notice changes in how they feel and/or their appearance M T 

17. Students develop a personal “eating action plan” for healthful eating. These are saved and presented 

at upcoming student-involved parent conferences. T 

18. Conclude the unit with student self evaluation regarding their personal eating habits. Have 

each student develop a personal action plan for their “healthful eating” goal. M T 



Performance Tasks: 

Coding Assessments Using A - M - T 

Example - unit on Nutrition - grades 5-6 

You Are What You Eat – Students create an illustrated 

brochure to teach younger children about the importance of 

good nutrition for healthful living. A, M, T 

Chow Down – Students develop a 3-day menu for meals and 

snacks for an upcoming Outdoor Education camp experience. 

They write a letter to the camp director to explain why 

their menu should be selected (by showing that it meets the 

USDA Food Pyramid recommendations, yet tasty enough for 

the students). A, T 

Other Evidence: 

(e.g., tests, quizzes, prompts, work samples, observations, etc.) 

Quiz 1 - the food groups and the USDA Food Pyramid 

A 

Quiz 2 - read nutrition information on food labels 

A 

Prompt - Describe two health problems that could arise as 

a result of poor nutrition and explain how these could be 

avoided. A, M 

Self Assessment - To what extent are you “eat healthy” 

now (at the end of unit compared to the beginning) What 

specific actions can you take to improve your nutrition T 



Learning Goals and Teaching Roles 

ACQUIRE MAKE MEANING TRANSFER 

This goal seeks to help 

learners acquire factual 

information and basic 

skills. 

This goal seeks to help students 

construct meaning (i.e., come to an 

understanding) of important ideas 

and processes. 

This goal seeks to support 

the learner’s ability to 

transfer their learning 

autonomously and effectively 

in new situations. 

Direct Instruction 

In this role, the teacher’s 

primary role is to inform 

the learners through explicit 

instruction in targeted 

knowledge and skills; 

differentiating as needed. 

Strategies include: 

m diagnostic assessment 

m lecture 

m advanced organizers 

m graphic organizers 

m questioning (convergent) 

m demonstration/modeling 

m process guides 

m guided practice 

m feedback, corrections, 

m differentiation 

Facilitative Teaching 

Teachers in this role engage the 

learners in actively processing information 

and guide their inquiry into 

complex problems, texts, projects, 

cases, or simulations; differentiating 

as needed. 


m diagnostic assessment 

m using analogies 

m graphic organizers 

m questioning (divergent) & probing 

m concept attainment 

m inquiry-oriented approaches 

m Problem-Based Learning 

m Socratic Seminar 

m Reciprocal Teaching 

m formative (on-going) assessments 

m understanding notebook 

m feedback/ corrections 

m rethinking and reflection prompts 

Coaching 

In a coaching role, teachers 

establish clear performance 

goals, supervise 

on-going opportunities 

to perform (independent 

practice) in increasingly 

complex situations, provide 

models and give ongoing 

feedback (as personalized 

as possible). They 

also provide “just in time 

teaching” (direct instruction) 

when needed. 


m on-going assessment, 

m providing specific 

feedback in the context 

of authentic application 

m conferencing 

m prompting self assessment 

and reflection 

Three Interrelated 

Learning Goals → 

Teacher Role/ 

Instructional 

Strategies 

Note: Like the above 

learning goals, these 

three teaching roles 

(and their associated 

methods) work 

together in pursuit 

of identified learning 

results. 


Three Interrelated 

Note: Not every 

learner action will 

be applicable to 

every situation. 

Nonetheless, these 

are the kinds of 

learner actions 

needed to achieve 

the various learning 

results. 

Learning Goals and Student Actions 

In order to acquire knowledge 

and skills, learners need to: 

m listen, read, and view 

carefully 

m respond 

m take notes 

m ask questions 

m use mnemonics 

m link to prior knowledge 

m compare 

m create non-linguistic 

representations 

m rehearse/practice 

m complete classwork and 

homework 

m self assess 

m set learning goals 

m employ productive 

habits of mind 

In order to make meaning (i.e., 

come to an understanding) of 

important ideas and processes 

learners need to: 

m listen, read, and view 

critically 

m respond thoughtfully 

m take reflective notes 

m critically question 

m compare 

m make inferences 

m create analogies 

m make connections 

m create non-linguistic representations 

m rehearse/practice mindfully 

m self assess 

m reflect on their understanding 

m rethink ideas 

m set learning goals 

In order to develop the capac 

ity to transfer their learning, 

students need to: 

m apply their learning in novel 

and increasingly complex 

situations. 

m observe the results 

m listen to and act on feedback 

m engage in focused practice 

m visualize performance 

m re-try 

m refine 

m rethink action 

m revise 

m reflect on performance 

m employ productive habits of 

mind 


ACQUIRE MAKE MEANING TRANSFER 

Learning Goals → 



Meaning Making - Activating Prior Knowledge 

What comes to mind when you think of Westward Expansion 

What do you know about how the pioneers lived on the prairie 

Use the web below to list (or draw) your ideas. 

Summarize your ideas in a few sentences below. 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________ 

_____________________________________________________________________ 



Meaning Making - Vocabulary 

Term: My Understanding: 1 2 3 4 

Describe: 

Make a drawing or visual representation: 

Source: Marzano and Pickering, Building Academic Vocabulary, ASCD, p. 19 



Meaning Making - Categorizing & Inferencing 

The following terms were commonly used during the pioneer era. What can we infer about 

pioneer life (i.e., the journey west and settlement on the prairie) by examining these terms 

hearthstone 

Common Pioneer Terms 

windmill 

*activity adapted from Dr. Barry Beyer 

whicker 

gopher 

woodchuck 

bonnet 

squall 

mica 

petticoat 

tumbleweed 

pitchfork 

lantern 

zinnias 

ladder 

biscuit 

kettle 

axe 

overalls 

wagon 

hammer 

saw 

paddock 

nasturtiums 

horses 

meadowlark 

hailstones 

harvest 

churn 

suspenders 

plow 

Inferences about pioneer life: 



Making Meaning - 

From “Facts” to “Big Ideas” 

Group the pioneer terms into “big ideas” (concepts) by listing the terms that 

belong together and then create a label for them. 



Meaning Making - Adding Up the Facts 

Use the following worksheet to look at a set of facts or data together. What 

inferences can you make or conclusions can you draw from “adding up the facts” 

Early settlers lived in sod houses. 

Many pioneers, especially children, died 

from disease. 

The pioneers had to grow, or hunt for, their food. 

Often, they went hungry. 

Much hard work was required to settle new 

land - clearing fields, constructing shelter, etc. 

✙ 

Settlers faced attacks by Native American 

tribes on whose lands they travelled or settled. 

C 

o 

n 

c 

l 

u 

s 

i 

o 

n 



From Concepts to Hypotheses 

What inferences can you make or conclusions can you draw from about pioneer life 

and Westward expansion How can you further test these hypotheses 

☞ 

HYPOTHESES/INFERENCES: 



Making Meaning - Perspective Chart 

Use the following chart to examine different perspectives on an issue or topic. 

eager, risk-taking pioneers 

railroad executives 

We need to expand our customer base by 

enticing people to move to the West. 

The West offers the promise of great 

freedom and opportunity. The potential 

rewards are worth the challenges 

of moving. 

Topic or issue: 

Westward expansion 

and settlement 

of the West 

The white settlers are 

moving on to our lands and 

competing with us for nature’s resources. 

All we do is work from sunrise to sundown. 

Life here is so hard. Why did we 

have to move here 

settler’s children 

Native Americans living on the plains 



Meaning Making – “Big Idea” Table 

Use the following organizer to help identify the “big idea(s)” based on specific facts and details. 

“A Voyage to Lilliput”, Book 1 of Gulliver’s Travel’s, satirizes political 

figures and situations in England during Jonathon Swifts’ political 

career (1708-1715). 

Catholics vs. 

Protestants 

• There were 

senseless 

disputes over 

which end of 

an egg should 

be broken. 

• War has 

raged for 

“six and 

thirty 

moons.” 

political 

persecution 

• Gulliver fled 

to Blefescu 

after the 

Articles of 

Impeachment 

were filed 

against him. 

• Bolingbroke 

fled to France 

after threat 

of prison. 

Walpole’s 

leadership 

• The Flimnax 

leaders were 

chosen based 

on their skill in 

rope jumping. 

• Walpole 

gained control 

through 

bribery and 

corruption. 

English political 

process 

• satirized 

through 

Lilliputian 

elections 

• Rope jumping 

and stick 

competitions – 

insignificant 

ceremonies 

which obscured 

the real issues. 

Gulliver’s 

Travel’s 

p. 60 

Encyclopedia 

Brittanica 

Vol. 2, p. 1204 

J. Swift: An 

Introductory 

Essay p. 134 

J. Swift: An 

Introductory 

Essay p. 135 

facts & examples “big idea” 

source 



Meaning Making - Inferences about Character 

Use the following Character Trait map to help understand a character based on 

patterns of action or behavior. 

actions 

• He travels alone. 

• He feels that people 

are against him. 

actions 

• He won’t accept job 

from Charlie. 

• He doesn’t want to 

admit failures. 

alienated 

proud 

traits 

character 

Willie Loman 

traits 

confused 

weak 

actions 

• He contradicts 

himself. 

• He engages in 

fantasy. 

actions 

• He was afraid to 

stand up to his boss. 

• He attempted 

suicide. 



Making Meaning – Comparison Diagram 

Use the following diagram to help you compare two things according to identifed dimensions. 

TUNDRA DESERT 

Dimensions for 

Comparison: 

Unique Characteristics Similar to Both Unique Characteristics 

frigid 

CLIMATE 

temperatures harsh, inhospitable 

hot and dry 

perma frost treeless plain 

sand 

TOPOGRAPHY 

minimal 

(unable to survive) 

VEGETATION 

oil, natural gas 

NATURAL 

RESOURCES 

few permanent 

residents, nomads 

POPULATION 



Making Meaning – Frayer Diagram 

Essential Charateristics + Non-Essential Charateristics – 

• on-going as part of instruction 

• provide feedback to teachers and 

learners 

• inform needed adjustments 

• guide differentiation 

• not graded 

• teacher observation 

• oral questioning 

• exit cards 

• weekly letter 

• scrimmage 

• dress rehearsal 

formative 

assessment 

- whole group or individual 

- final exam 

- state test 

- senior project 

- AP/IB exam 

- the game 

- the play 

Examples + Non-Examples – 



Making Meaning – Rethinking 

Examples of the “R” 

Rethink 

Revise/Refine 

Help students rethink by having them: 

❏ shift perspective 

❏ reconsider key assumptions 

❏ confront alternative versions of... 

❏ take the role(s) of... 

❏ play “Devil’s advocate” 

❏ re-examine the argument/evidence 

❏ conduct research 

❏ consider new information 

❏ rethink the naive idea that... 

❏ argue/debate 

❏ confront surprises/anomalies 

Provide opportunities for students to 

revise and refine their work through: 

❏ drafting and editing sessions 

❏ peer critiques 

❏ rehearsals 

❏ peer response groups 

❏ practice sessions 

❏ self assessment 

R 

Reflect 

Encourage students to reflect through the use of: 

❏ reflective journals and think logs 

❏ regular self assessments 

❏ metacognitive prompts 

❏ think-alouds 

❏ I-Search papers 



Making Meaning – Rethinking 

Rethink and revise – Use the following idea starters to generate one or more ideas for 

helping students “rethink what they thought they knew” about the key ideas. 

help students rethink 

friendship 

by having them... 

re-tell the “Spring” epsiode from the point of view of 

❏ shift perspective... 

Toad 

❏ reconsider key assumptions... 

about friendship (e.g., Friends must like the 

same things you do.) 

❏ revise, based on feedback... 

❏ confront alternative versions of... 

❏ make the strange familiar by... 

❏ make the familiar strange by... 

reading stories about unfriendly people who 

became fast friends 

❏ take the role(s) of... 

someone who has to choose between two friends 

❏ play “Devil’s advocate”... 

the saying, “the enemy of enemy is my friend” 

❏ re-examine the argument/evidence/view that... 

❏ review the apparent truth/error... 

Frog is Toad’s “true” friend in 

the story 

❏ conduct research... 

❏ consider new information... 

about your classmates’, your parents’ and your 

teachers’ views about friendship 

❏ rethink the naive idea that... 

friends are the people you hang around 

❏ argue... 

Frog’s case in a simulated trial 

❏ confront such surprises/anomalies as... 

❏ see the problems/weaknesses in... 

so-called friends acting in an 

unfriendly way and vice versa 



Our challenge is to develop players that are: 

Technically and Tactically Sound, Composed, Creative Risk Takers 

They should “Own the Game” and are focused on solving the problems that the game 

presents, instead of primarily thinking about coach imposed solutions to the game. 

EVOLVING COACHES –> EVOLVING PLAYERS 

In order to affect change on the players a shift in coaching methodology may need to take place. The 

development of creative, intuitive players is greatly impacted by coaching style and demands. When 

conducting training sessions, there needs to be a greater reliance on game oriented training that is 

player centered and enables players to explore and arrive at solutions while they play. This is in contrast 

to the “coach centered” training that has been the mainstay of coaching methods over the years. 

GAME CENTERED TRAINING DEFINED 

“Game centered training” implies that the primary training environment is the game as opposed to 

training players in “drill” type environments. This is not to say that there is not a time for a more 

“direct” approach to coaching. At times, players need more guidance and direction as they are developing. 

However, if the goal is to develop creative players who have the abilities to solve problems, 

and interpret game situations by themselves, a “guided discovery” approach needs to be employed. 

This approach taps in to certain essentials that are always present within the team. Players want to 

play and enjoy playing the game first and foremost. Since the “game” is used in training, this allows 

for players to be comfortable with the pace, duration, and physical and mental demands that the 

game provides. The reason why the players play is because they enjoy the game. They have a 

passion for the game. This is where they find and express their joy and creativity. 

DRILLS 

Many “drills” are not realistic. Therefore, players find it difficult to transfer the things learned in 

“drill” environments to the game itself. This is not to say that “drills” that closely replicate one aspect 

of the game should not be used in training. Dynamic, demanding, “drill” environments, used at 

the beginning of the training times, often prepares the players to play the game as it breaks down the 

more complicated “picture” that the game provides in to manageable pieces. However, care must be 

given to making sure that the “drill” is active, and mirrors the demands found in the game. 

CONTINUOUS PLAY IN TRAINING 

Reflects the real game. Demands rhythm. The players can not go “all out” for an entire 90 minute 

stretch. They need to know how to control the rhythm of the game so that they can last the entire 

time. Demands focus. Players must stay focused for lengths of time, just like they need to do during 

the game. 

In order to have continuous play during training, the coach must coach “in the flow” of the game, 

and not interrupt play with stoppages to make coaching points. 



Transfer – Problem-Solving Strategies Wheel 

Effective problem solvers use the following strategies when they’re stuck. 

Restate the goal. 

Identify what you know 

and what you need 

to find out. 

Relate this problem 

to similar problems. 

Represent the 

problem visually. 

Use a diagram. 

Look for patterns. 

Work backward 

from the end result. 

Try systematic 

trial and error 

(guess and check). 



Degree of Transfer Rubric 

3 

2 

1 

THE GAME – The task is presented without cues as to how to approach or 

solve it, and may look unfamiliar or new. Success depends upon a creative 

adaptation of one’s knowledge, based on understanding the situation and 

the adjustments needed to achieve the goal - “far transfer.” No simple recall 

or “plugging in” will work, and the student who learned only by rote will 

likely not recognize how the task taps prior learning and requires adjustments. 

Not all students may succeed, therefore, and some may give up. 

• In a writing class, students are given a quote that offers an intriguing and unorthodox 

view of a recently-read text, and are simply asked: “Discuss” 

• In a math class, students must take their knowledge of volume & surface area to 

solve a problem like: “What container shape permits the greatest volume of M & Ms 

to be packed in the least amount space for cost-effective and safe shipping” 

GAME-LIKE – The task is complex but is presented with sufficient clues/ 

cues meant to suggest the approach or content called for (or to simplify/ 

narrow down the options considerably). Success depends upon realizing 

which recent learning applies, and using it in a straightforward way – “near 

transfer.” Success depends on figuring out what kind of problem this is, and 

with modest adjustments using prior procedures and knowledge to solve it. 

• Writing: same as above, but the directions include remnders of what a good essay 

should include, and what ideas and skills apply. 

• Mathematics: the above problem is more simplified and scaffolded, by the absence 

of a specific context, and through cues provided about the relevant procedures 

DRILL – The task looks familiar and is presented with explicit reference to 

previously studied material and/or approaches. Minimal or no transfer is 

required. Success requires only that the student recognize, recall and plug in 

the appropriate knowledge/skill, in response to a familiar (though perhaps 

slightly different) prompt. Any transfer involves dealing with only altered 

variables or details different from those in the teaching examples; and/or in 

remembering which rule applies from a few obvious recent candidates. 

• Writing: the prompt is a just like past ones, and the directions tell the student what 

to consider, and provide a summary of the appropriate process and format. 

• Mathematics: the student need only plug in the formulae for spheres, cubes, 

pyramids, cylinders, etc. to get the right answer to a de-contextualized problem. 



Encouraging Self Assessment and Reflection 

The following questions may be used as prompts to guide student self evaluation and reflection. 

• What do you really understand about _________ 

• What questions/uncertainties do you still have about _________ 

• What was most effective in _________ 

• What was least effective in _________ 

• How could you improve_________ 

• What would you do differently next time 

• What are you most proud of 

• What are you most disappointed in 

• How difficult was _________ for you 

• What are your strengths in _________ 

• What are your deficiencies in _________ 

• How does your preferred learning style influence _________ 

• What grade/score do you deserve Why 

• How does what you’ve learned connect to other learnings 

• How has what you’ve learned changed your thinking 

• How does what you’ve learned relate to the present and future 

• What follow-up work is needed 

• other: __________________________________________ 



Analytic Rubric for Graphic Display of Data 

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ______________ _________________________ 

title labels accuracy neatness 

weights – 

3 

2 

The graph contains 

a title that clearl 

and specifically 

tells what the data 

shows. 

The graph contains 

a title that generally 

tells what the data 

shows. 

All parts of the graph 

(units of measurement, 

rows, etc.) are correctly 

labelled. 

Some parts of the graph 

are inaccurately labelled. 

All data is accurately 

represented on the graph. 

Data representation 

contains minor errors. 

The graph is very 

neat and easy to 

read. 

The graph is generally 

neat and readable. 

1 

The the title does 

not reflect what the 

data shows OR the 

title is missing. 

Only some parts of 

the graph are correctly 

labelled OR labels are 

missing. 

The data is inaccurately 

represented, contains major 

errors, OR is missing. 

The graph is sloppy 

and difficult to 

read. 

Goals/Actions: 



Performance List for Cooperative Learning 

Primary Level 

Terrific 

O.K. 

Needs 

Work 

1. Did I do my job in my 

group 

2. Did I follow directions 

3. Did I finish my part on 

time 

4. Did I help others in 

my group 

5. Did I listen to others 

in my group 

6. Did I get along with 

others in my group 

7. Did I help my group 

What will you try to do better the next time you work in a group 



Teaching and Assessing for Understanding – 

Observable Classroom Indicators 

To what extent are... 

1. Instruction and assessment focused on “big ideas” 

and essential questions based on established standards/outcomes 

2. Essential questions posted and revisited throughout a unit 

3. Pre-assessments used to check students’ prior knowledge and 

potential misconceptions regarding new topics of study 

4. Opening ”hooks” used to engage students in exploring the big 

ideas and essential questions 

5. Students’ understanding of the “big ideas” and core processes 

assessed through authentic tasks involving one or more of the six 

facets 

6. Evaluations of student products/performances based upon 

known criteria/rubrics, performance standards, and models 

(exemplars) 

7. Appropriate instructional strategies used to help learners’ 

acquire knowledge and skills, make meaning of the big ideas, 

and transfer their learning 

8. Students given regular opportunities to rethink, revise and 

reflect on their work based on feedback from on-going (formative) 

assessments 

9. The students expected to self-asses/ reflect on their work/learning 

and set goals for improvement 

10. Other: _____________________________________ 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 

4 3 2 1 



Looking for Learning – 

Evidence of Meaning Making and Transfer 

We look for evidence of students’ understanding in their products and performances. 

In addition, the following indicators may be observed or revealed through interviews. 

and responses to questions. 

Understanding is revealed when students can effectively: 

– explain the key ideas (concepts and principles, processes, strategies) in their own 

words and ways (e.g., visually). 

– provide new examples of a concept or process; make apt analogies. 

– interpret (make meaning of) data, a text, experiences. 

– support and justify their answers. 

– apply their learning to a new situation or problem; i.e., transfer their learning. 

– identify and correct common errors and misconceptions 

– distinguish and describe different points of view on an issue or different approaches 

to accomplishing a task; explain how someone else might think or feel differently 

from them. 

– describe their learning styles and strengths and weaknesses as learners. 

– self-assess their performance and set personal improvement goals. 

– reflect on the meaning and significance of their learning experiences. 

Other: ______________________________________________________________ 

Other: ______________________________________________________________ 



Pre-Assessment: 

Differentiating Instruction 

• How will you diagnose students prior knowledge and skill levels 

❏ K-W-L chart 

❏ pre-test 

❏ skills check 

❏ misconceptions check 

❏ infomal Q & A 

❏ Other: ____________________ 

Differentiation Plan: 

• Based on pre- and ongoing assessments, what and how will you differentiate 

Content – Input 

❏ Use varied materials (e.g., texts for different reading levels, audio-visuals). 

❏ Use varied teaching methods/strategies (e.g., manipulatives, group activities). 

❏ Target instruction to readiness levels (e.g., directed skill teaching, enrichments). 

❏ Provide scaffolded support (e.g., graphic organizers, step-by-step process guide) 

❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ 

Process 

❏ Use flexible groupings (e.g., skill groups, interest groups). 

❏ Use varied teaching methods/strategies (e.g., manipulatives, group activities). 

❏ Create learning stations (e.g., self-paced centers, computer-based tutorials). 

❏ Establish learning contracts (e.g., self-directed practice, independent project). 

❏ Allow student self assessments and goal setting (based on established criteria). 

❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ 

Product 

❏ Provide tiered assigments/tasks using the G.R.A.S.P.S. elements. 

❏ Allow appropriate student choices (e.g., product TIC-TAC-TOE, interest based). 

❏ Other: _________________________________________________________ 



Differentiating Instruction and Assessment 

In some cases, you may need to modify a learning or assessment task to 

accommodate the needs of students. The following lists provide general 

and subject-specific suggestions. 

General 

___ Review the task to determine if students have 

been taught the necessary concepts and skills. 

Provide 

targeted instruction as needed. 

___ Determine if the task is too difficult in its present 

form and if the time frame is appropriate. 

___ In the presentation of a task, try to stay within 

the framework of the established daily classroom 

routine. 

___ Arrange for special grouping or seating (e.g., in 

the front of room, at a carrel, near someone helpful). 

___ Prepare students for a change in the daily 

routine by explaining any unusual procedures so 

that students know what to expect. 

___ State the directions in a clear, concise manner. 

Rephrase the directions if necessary. Focus the 

student’s attention on important details. 

___ Provide large print materials for visuallyimpaired 

students. 

___ Sign directions for hearing-impaired students. 

___ Check to see if students understand by asking 

them to repeat or rephrase the directions. 

___ Write the directions on the board or on paper 

so that students can refer to them when needed. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 




Notes 

___ Provide choices (e.g., product, process, audience) 

for an open-ended task. 

___ In a multi-step activity, simplify the task by 

providing instruction for one part at a time. Have 

students complete that part of the activity before 

you 

provide instruction for the next part of the activity. 

___ Adjust the timing of the task to allow extra process 

ing and response time. 

___ Provide periodic breaks. 

___ Administer the activity over several days. 

___ Assist students with organization of work on 

paper. 

___ Provide assistance to those students who require 

help with materials or equipment used in the 

task. For 

example, you may need to precut materials or set 

up equipment. 

___ Structure cooperative groups to maximize student 

success. 

___ Circulate about the room, inconspicuously providing 

assistance to students. 

___ Provide immediate feedback when tasks are 

completed. 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 




Reading 

___ Select simplified reading material on the same 

topic. 

___ Ask specific questions to guide the students’ 

reading. 

___ Use graphic organizers to provide visual overviews 

and show meaningful connections. 

___ Assign reading in advance to give students an 

opportunity to preview material. This will increase 

opportunities for students to be more actively involved 

during class activities. 

___ Use a colored highlighter to mark important 

ideas, significant names, and terms. 

___ Prepare tape-recorded text segments to provide 

overviews and summaries. 

___ Encourage students to formulate questions and 

make and validate predictions while reading. 

___ Use mental or visual imagery to enhance the 

student’s ability to recall information. 

___ Teach students cues (e.g., headings, captions, differentiated 

print, introductory and summary paragraphs) 

for recognizing features of expository text 

structure. 

___ Provide assistance in organizing information. 

___ Encourage students to rehearse important information 

read by retelling, paraphrasing, or summarizing. 

___ Check for understanding after reading. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 




Writing 

___ Keep directions short and simple. Condense 

lengthy written directions by writing them in brief 

steps. 

___ Give students the opportunity to talk about their 

ideas before writing. 

___ Encourage students to select the method of writing 

(cursive or manuscript) that is most comfortable for 

them. 

___ Brainstorm vocabulary that could be incorporated 

in written work. 

___ Reduce the amount of written work. Have students 

dictate some responses orally. Allow students 

to dictate into a tape recorder. 

___ Permit students to include pictures, drawings, 

and diagrams as part of their written products. 

___ Have students write on every other line of the 

paper. 

___ Allow students to use a computer, typewriter, or 

tape recorder to reduce paper/pencil tasks. 

___ Provide a proofreading checklist. 

___ Allow students additional time to complete written 

assignments. 

___ Allow students to list components/concepts, 

rather than write complete paragraphs. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 




___ Model and encourage the use of reference 

materials such as word banks, word walls, graphic 

organizers, or dictionaries. 

___ Use peer support for generating and brainstorming 

ideas during the prewriting and revision stages of writing. 

___ Structure opportunities for students to verbalize ____________________ 

(pre-writing) on a one-to-one basis and in small groups. 

____________________ 

___ Provide a picture, title, topic sentence, or other 

prewriting activity to help students begin creative writing. 

____________________ 

____________________ 

___ Give students a guide for structuring writing by 

providing an organizational format (e.g., graphic organizer). 

____________________ 

____________________ 

Mathematics/Science 

____________________ 

___ Use concrete objects and manipulatives to teach 

abstract concepts (e.g., weight, width, energy, shape, ____________________ 

dimension, force). 

____________________ 

___ Provide students with a list of steps necessary to 

complete an activity or the entire task. 

___ Teach and model problemsolving strategies (e.g., 

____________________ 

using pictorial representation, tallying, charting, simplifying 

the 

____________________ 

problem). 

___ Post a basic problem-solving sequence chart to 

post in the room. For example: 1. Read the problem. 

2. Identify the key words. 3. Identify the operation. 

4. Write the number sentence. 5. Solve the problem. 

6. Check your work. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 




Mathematics/Science (continued) 

___ Check students’ understandings of key vocabulary 

and skills. 

___ Have students restate the problem/task in their 

own words. 

___ Assist students in breaking complex problems/ 

tasks into specific steps or sub-parts. 

___ Use color coding to help students distinguish 

math/science symbols and operations/processes. 

___ Allow students to use calculators to perform 

calculations to drill problems as a means of demonstrating 

that they know the appropriate operation. 

___ Have students verbalize steps as they work in 

order to help them monitor their progress and identify 

errors. 

___ Use color coding to help students distinguish 

math/science symbols and operations/processes. 

___ Allow students to use calculators to perform 

calculations to drill problems as a means of demonstrating 

that they know the appropriate operation. 

___ Have students verbalize steps as they work in 

order to help them monitor their progress and identify 

errors. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 



Challenging High Achievers 

In some cases, you may need to modify the curriculum activities or performance 

tasks to provide greater challenge for high achieving students or those 

learners with exceptional potential. The following lists provide general suggestions 

for enriching learning activites and assessment tasks for the highly able. 

___ Provide extension activities and assignments 

to students who have demonstrated mastery of the 

basic curriculum mateial. 

___ Provide more sophisticated resources (e.g., 

texts, primary sources, websites) on the same topic. 

___ Use Socratic questioning to push students’ 

thinking (e.g., play Devil’s advocate) when exploring 

essential questions and challenging tasks. 

___ Present more open-ended and authentic tasks 

or problems with minimal cues or scaffolds. 

Encourage high-achievers to use creative, “out-ofthe-box 

thinking” when tackling challenging tasks. 

___ Use the GRASPS format to adjust student Role, 

Audience, Situation, and Products/Performances to 

provide greater challenge. 

Notes 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

___ Encourage students to explore topics, issues 

and problems through the six facets of understanding. 

___ Allow gifted learners to propose and conduct 

independent or small-group inquiry/research projects. 

___ Allow student’s appropriate choices regarding 

content, process and product/performance. 

___ Provide self-paced, contract-based learning 

options for high achievers. 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 

____________________ 



Three Types of Classroom Assessments 

Stage 3 – 

Assessment for Learning 

Diagnostic Formative 

Stage 2 – 

Assessment of Learning 

Summative 

assessment that precedes instruction 

to check students’ prior knowledge 

and identify misconceptions, interests, 

and/or learning style preferences 

Diagnostic assessments provide information 

to assist teacher planning and 

guide differentiated instruction. 

Examples: pre-test, student survey, 

skills check, K-W-L 

ongoing assessments that provide 

information to guide teaching and 

learning for improving learning 

and performance 

Formative assessments include 

both formal and informal methods. 

Examples: quiz, oral questioning, 

observation, draft work, “think 

culminating assessments conducted 

at the end of a unit, course, or grade 

level to determine the degree of 

mastery or proficiency according to 

identified achievement targets 

Summative assessments are evaluative 

in nature, generally resulting in 

a score or a grade. 

Examples: test, performance task, 

final exam, culminating project or performance, 

work portfolio 



Sources of Assessment Evidence: Self Assessment 

Directions: Use the following scale to rate your “level of use” of each of the following assessment 

tools (at the classroom, school or district level). What do the survey results suggest What patterns 

do you notice Are you collecting appropriate evidence for all the desired results, or only those that 

are easiest to test and grade Is an important learning goal “falling through the cracks” because it is 

not being assessed 

4 = Frequent Use 

3 = Use Sometimes 

2 = Occasional Use 

1 = Do Not Use 

______ 1. selected-response format (e.g., multiple-choice, true-false) quizzes and tests 

______ 2. written/oral responses to academic prompts (short-answer format) 

______ 3. performance assessment tasks, yielding: 

____ extended written products (e.g., essays, lab reports) 

____ visual products (e.g., Power Point show, mural) 

____ oral performances (e.g., oral report, foreign language dialogues) 

____ demonstrations (e.g., skill performance in physical education) 

______ 4. long-term, “authentic” projects (e.g., senior exhibition) 

______ 5. portfolios - collections of student work over time 

______ 6. reflective journals or learning logs 

______ 7. informal, on-going observations of students 

______ 8. formal observations of students using observable indicators or criterion list 

______ 9. student self-assessments 

______10. peer reviews and peer response groups 

______ Other: _____________________________________________________ 



Constructing a Performance Task Scenario 

(G.R.A.S.P.S. - mathematics example) 

Goal: 

• The goal (within the scenario) is to minimize costs for shipping 

bulk quantities of M&Ms. 

Role: 

• You are an engineer in the packaging department of the M&M 

Candy Company. 

Audience: 

• The target audience is non-engineer company executives. 

Situation: 

• You need to convince penny-pinching company officers that your 

container design will provide cost-effective use of the given materials, 

maximize shipping volume of bulk quantities of M&Ms, and 

be safe to transport. 

Product/Performance and Purpose: 

• You need to design a shipping container from given materials for 

the safe and cost-effective shipping of the M&Ms. Then you will 

prepare a written proposal in which you include a diagram and show 

mathematically how your container design provides effective use 

of the given materials and maximizes the shipping volume of the 

M&Ms. 

Standards & Criteria for Success: 

• Your container proposal should... 

- provide cost-effective use of the given materials 

- maximize shipping volume of bulk quantities of M&Ms 

- be safe to transport 

• Your models must make the mathematical case. 




(G.R.A.S.P.S. - social studies example) 

Goal: 

• Your goal is to help a group of foreign visitors understand the key 

historic, geographic and economic features of our region. 

Role: 

• You are an intern at the Regional Office of Tourism. 

Audience: 

• The audience is a group of nine foreign visitors (who speak 

English). 

Situation: 

• You have been asked to develop a plan, including a budget, for a 

four-day tour of the region. Plan your tour so that the visitors are 

shown sites that best illustrate the key historical, geographic and 

economic features of our region. 


• You need to prepare a written tour itinerary and a budget for 

the trip. You should include an explanation of why each site was 

selected and how it will help the visitors understand the key 

historic, geographic and economic features of our region. Include a 

map tracing the route for the tour. 

[Optional: Provide a budget for the trip.]* 


• Your proposed tour plan needs to include... 

- an itinerary and route map 

- the key historical, geographic and economic features 

of the region 

- a clear rationale for the selected sites 

*- accurate and complete budget figures 




(G.R.A.S.P.S.) 

Consider the following set of stem statements as you construct a scenario for a performance task. 

Refer to the previous idea sheets to help you brainstorm possible scenarios. (Note: These are idea 

starters. Resist the urge to fill in all of the blanks.) 

Goal : 

• Your task is ________________________________________________________________________ 

• The goal is to ______________________________________________________________________ 

• The problem/challenge is_____________________________________________________________ 

• The obstacle(s) to overcome is (are) ____________________________________________________ 

Role: 

• You are ___________________________________________________________________________ 

• You have been asked to ______________________________________________________________ 

• Your job is ________________________________________________________________________ 

Audience: 

• Your client(s) is (are) ________________________________________________________________ 

• The target audience is _ ______________________________________________________________ 

• You need to convince _ _______________________________________________________________ 

Situation: 

• The context you find yourself in is ______________________________________________________ 

• The challenge involves dealing with ____________________________________________________ 


• You will create a ____________________________________________________________________ 

in order to ________________________________________________________________________ 

• You need to develop ________________________________________________________________ 

so that ___________________________________________________________________________ 


• Your performance needs to ____________________________________________________________ 

• Your work will be judged by __________________________________________________________ 

• Your product must meet the following standards ___________________________________________ 

• A successful result will _______________________________________________________________ 

__________________________________________________________________________________ 



Possible STUDENT ROLES and AUDIENCES 

KEY: ROLES = R and AUDIENCES = A 

___ actor 

___ advertiser 

___ anthropologist 

___ artist/illustrator 

___ astronaut 

___ author 

___ biographer 

___ board member 

___ boss 

___ boy/girl scout 

___ businessperson 

___ candidate 

___ carpenter 

___ cartoon character 

___ cartoonist 

___ caterer 

___ celebrity 

___ chairperson 

___ chef 

___ choreographer 

___ CEO 

___ coach 

___ community members 

___ composer 

___ clients/customer 

___ construction worker 

___ dancer 

___ designer 

___ detective 

___ doctor 

___ editor 

___ elected official 

___ embassy staff 

___ engineer 

___ ethnographer 

___ expert (in ________) 

___ eye witness 

___ family member 

___ farmer 

___ filmmaker 

___ firefighter 

___ forest ranger 

___ friend 

___ geographer 

___ geologist 

___ government official 

___ historian 

___ historical figure 

___ illustrator 

___ intern 

___ interviewer 

___ inventor 

___ judge 

___ jury 

___ lawyer 

___ library patron 

___ literary critic 

___ lobbyist 

___ meteorologist 

___ museum director/ 

curator 

___ museum goer 

___ neighbor 

___ newscaster 

___ novelist 

___ nurse 

___ nutritionist 

___ panelist 

___ parent 

___ park ranger 

___ pen pal 

___ photographer 

___ pilot 

___ playwright 

___ poet 

___ policeman/ 

woman 

___ pollster 

___ radio listener 

___ reader 

___ reporter 

___ researcher 

___ reviewer 

___ sailor 

___ school official 

___ scientist 

___ ship’s captain 

___ social scientist 

___ social worker 

___ statistician 

___ storyteller 

___ student 

___ taxi driver 

___ teacher 

___ t.v. viewer 

___ tour guide 

___ trainer 

___ travel agent 

___ traveler 

___ t.v./movie 

character 

___ tutor 

___ viewer 

___ visitor 

___ web designer 

___ zoo keeper 

Other: _________ 



Possible Products and Performances 

Make sure that the selected product and performance options will provide appropriate 

evidence of the desired knowledge, understanding, proficiency. 

Written Oral Visual 

❍ advertisement 

❍ biography 

❍ blog 

❍ book report/review 

❍ brochure 

❍ crossword puzzle 

❍ editorial 

❍ essay 

❍ field guide 

❍ historical fiction 

❍ journal 

❍ lab report 

❍ letter 

❍ log 

❍ magazine article 

❍ memo 

❍ newscast 

❍ newspaper article 

❍ play 

❍ poem 

❍ position paper/ 

policy brief 

❍ proposal 

❍ research report 

❍ screen play 

❍ script 

❍ story 

❍ test 

❍ Tweet 

❍ audiotape 

❍ conversation 

❍ debate 

❍ discussion 

❍ dramatization 

❍ dramatic reading 

❍ infomercial 

❍ interview 

❍ radio script 

❍ oral presentation 

❍ oral report 

❍ poetry reading 

❍ podcast 

❍ puppet show 

❍ rap 

❍ skit 

❍ speech 

❍ song 

❍ teach a lesson 

❍ other: _______________ 

❍ other: _______________ 

❍ advertisement 

❍ banner 

❍ book/CD cover 

❍ cartoon 

❍ collage 

❍ computer graphic 

❍ data display 

❍ design 

❍ diagram 

❍ display 

❍ drawing 

❍ Face Book/My 

Space page 

❍ flowchart 

❍ flyer 

❍ game 

❍ graph 

❍ map 

❍ model 

❍ Power Point show 

❍ photograph(s) 

❍ questionnaire 

❍ painting 

❍ poster 

❍ scrapbook 

❍ sculpture 

❍ storyboard 

❍ videotape 

❍ web site 



Allowing Student Choice in Products 

The following Tic-Tac-Toe Chart offers a practical technique for allowing appropriate 

student choice regarding the product(s) and/or performance(s). The teacher may 

structure the options while allowing students to choose from the various columns. 

Product Tic-Tac-Toe Chart 

ESSAY 

ORAL 

REPORT 

POSTER 

RADIO 

SCRIPT 

FREE 

CHOICE 

COMIC 

STRIP 

LETTER 

ROLE PLAY 

ILLUSTRATED 

BROCHURE 



Criteria & Rubric Ideas 

By what criteria should understanding performances be assessed The challenge in answering 

is to ensure that we assess what is central to the understanding, not just what is easy to score. In addition, 

we need to make sure that we identify the separate traits of performance (e.g. a paper can be 

well-organized but not informative and vice versa) to ensure that the student gets specific and valid 

feedback. Finally, we need to make sure that we consider the different types of criteria (e.g. the quality 

of the understanding vs. the quality of the performance in which it is revealed). Ideas for criteria 

and rubrics are provided on the next three pages; sample rubrics follow. 

Four types of performance criteria (with sample indicators) 

content 

process 

quality 

result 

Describes the degree of 

knowledge of factual infomation 

or understanding 

of concepts, 

principles, and processes. 

Describes the degree 

of skill/proficiency. 

Also refers to the effectiveness 

of the process 

or method used. 

Describes the 

degree of quality 

evident in 

products and 

performances. 

Describes the overall 

impact and the 

extent to which 

goals, purposes, or 

results are achieved. 

accurate 

appropriate 

authentic 

complete 

correct 

credible 

explained 

justified 

important 

in-depth 

insightful 

logical 

makes connections 

precise 

relevant 

sophisticated 

supported 

thorough 

valid 

careful 

clever 

coherent 

collaborative 

concise 

coordinated 

effective 

efficient 

flawless 

followed process 

logical/reasoned 

mechanically correct 

methodical 

meticulous 

organized 

planned 

purposeful 

rehearsed 

sequential 

skilled 

attractive 

competent 

creative 

detailed 

extensive 

focused 

graceful 

masterful 

organized 

polished 

proficient 

precise 

neat 

novel 

rigorous 

skilled 

stylish 

smooth 

unique 

well-crafted 

beneficial 

conclusive 

convincing 

decisive 

effective 

engaging 

entertaining 

informative 

inspiring 

meets standards 

memorable 

moving 

persuasive 

proven 

responsive 

satisfactory 

satisfying 

significant 

useful 

understood 



On-Going Assessments of Understanding 

The following informal assessment techniques provide a quick check of student understanding 

and reveal existing misconceptions. 

Hand Signals 

Ask students to display a designated hand signal to indicate their understanding of a designated concept, 

principle, or process: 

1. I understand _____________ and can explain it (e.g., thumbs up) 

2. I do not yet understand __________________ . (e.g., thumbs down) 

3. I’m not completely sure about _____________ . (e.g., wave hand) 

I.Q. Card (“Ticket to Leave”) 

Periodically, distribute index cards and ask students to complete as follows: 

Side 1—Based on our study of (unit topic), list a “big idea” that you understand in the form 

of a summary statement. 

Side 2—Identify something about (unit topic) that you do not yet fully understand (as a 

statement or a question). 

Question Box/Board 

Establish a location (e.g., question box, bulletin board, e-mail address) where students may leave or 

post questions about concepts, principles, processes that they do not understand. (This technique may 

be helpful to those students who are uncomfortable admitting publicly that they do not understand.) 

Analogy Prompt 

Periodically, present students with an analogy prompt: 

(designated concept, principle, or process) is like _______________ because___________. 

Web/Concept Map 

Ask students to create a web or concept map to show the elements or components of a topic or 

process. This technique is especially effective in revealing if students understand the relationships 

among the elements. 

One-Minute Essay 

Periodically, have students complete a brief “essay” summarizing what they think they understand 

about a given topic. 

Misconception Check 

Present students with common or predictable misconceptions about a designated concept, principle, 

or process. Ask them to agree or disagree and explain their response. (The misconception check can 

also be presented in the form of a multiple-choice or true-false quiz.) 



Characteristics of the Best Learning Designs... 

(based on surveys of K-16 faculty throughout the nation) 

Expectations the best learning designs... 

• provide clear learning goals and performance expectations. 

• cast learning goals in terms of genuine/meaningful performance. 

• frame the work around genuine questions & meaningful challenges. 

• show models/exemplars of expected performance. 

Instruction in the best learning designs... 

• the teacher serves as a facilitator/coach to support the learner. 

• targeted instruction and relevant resources are provided to “equip” students for 

expected performance. 

• the textbook serves as one resource among many (i.e., text is resource, not syllabus). 

• the teacher “uncovers” important ideas/processes by exploring essential 

questions and genuine applications of knowledge and skills. 

Learning Activities in the best learning designs... 

• individual differences (e.g., learning styles, skill levels, interests) are accommodated 

through a variety of activities/methods. 

• there is variety in work, methods and students have some choice (e.g., opportunities 

for both group and individual work). 

• learning is active/experiential to help students “construct meaning”. 

• cycles of model-try-feedback-refine anchor the learning 

Assessment in the best learning designs... 

• there is no mystery as to performance goals or standards. 

• diagnostic assessments check for prior knowledge, skill level, and misconceptions. 

• students demonstrate their understanding through “real world” applications 

(i.e., genuine use of knowledge and skills, tangible product, target audience). 

• assessment methods are matched to achievement targets. 

• on-going, timely feedback is provided. 

• learners have opportunities for trial and error, reflection and revision. 

• self-assessment is expected. 

Sequence & Coherence the best learning designs... 

• start with a “hook”, immerse the learner in a genuine problem/issue/challenge. 

• move back and forth from whole to part, with increasing complexity. 

• scaffold learning in “do-able” increments. 

• teach as needed; don’t over-teach all of the “basics” first. 

• revisit ideas – have learners rethink and revise earlier ideas/work. 

• are flexible (e.g., respond to student needs; revise plan to achieve goals). 



Analyzing Current Practices Against Best Learning Designs 

3 = consistently 2 = sometimes 1 = rarely/never 

Expectations To what extent does my/our designs... 

• provide clear learning goals and performance expectations (i.e., no mystery for learners) 

• cast learning goals in terms of genuine/meaningful performance 

• frame the work around genuine questions & meaningful challenges 

• show models/exemplars of expected performance 

3 2 1 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

Instruction To what extent does my/our teaching... 

• provide targeted instruction and relevant resources to “equip” students for expected performance 

• use the textbook as one resource among many (i.e., the textbook is a resource, not the syllabus) 

• help “uncover” important ideas/processes by exploring essential questions 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

Learning Activities To what extent does my/our learning activities... 

• address individual differences (e.g., learning styles, skill levels, interests) through a variety of 

activities/methods (vs. “one size fits all”) 

• provide variety in work, methods and students have some choice (e.g., opportunities for both group 

and individual work) 

• include inquiry/experiential opportunities to help students “make meaning” for themselves 

• incorporate cycles of model-try-feedback-refine learning experiences 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

Assessment To what extent does my/our assessments... 

• provide appropriate measures of all of the learning goals 

• ask students to demonstrate their understanding through “real world” applications 

• provide on-going, timely, and descriptive feedback to learners 

• include opportunities for trial and error, reflection and revision 

• allow self-assessment by the learners 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

Sequence & Coherence To what extent does my/our designs... 

• include pre-assessments to check for prior knowledge, skill level, and misconceptions 

• begin with a “hook” (e.g., immerse the learner in a genuine problem/issue/challenge) 

• move back and forth from whole to part, with increasing complexity 

• scaffold learning in “do-able” increments 

• revisit important ideas/questions and allow learners to rethink and revise earlier ideas/work 

• remain flexible (e.g., to respond to student needs; allow revisions to achieve goals) 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 

o o o 



Synthesizing Activity 

Directions: 

INDIVIDUALLY... Review your handouts and notes. Identify 2-3 useful 

and/or interesting ideas gained as a result of attending this session. 

WITH YOUR GROUP... Share your interesting/useful 

ideas with group members and listen to theirs. Add to 

your list in the space below.

Joint Presentation with Judy Willis - NESA

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