teaching - Earth Science Teachers' Association

teaching 

EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Site Clearance at 

Tedbury Camp, Somerset 

Professor Chris King – a 

Brief Appreciation 

Do Primary Pupils Learn 

More Effectively Through 

Hands-on Experience or 

Teacher Demonstration 

of a Physical Glacier 

Model 

Jurassic Lawn 

Field Safety Training for 

Staff in Geography, 

Earth and Environmental 

Sciences in HE: 

Establishing a 

Framework 

From Russia – by Bus 

Obtaining and Using 

Remotely Sensed 

Imagery for Teaching in 

the Earth Sciences 

Comparison of the New 

GCSE Science 

Specifications for their 

Earth Science Content 

Training Scientists or 

Teaching Science 

Update 2 

Breaking Through New 

Frontiers in Science 

Teaching 

Field-based Learning: A 

Review of Published 

Approaches and 

Strategies 

News and Views 

Reviews 

Diary 

PEST 54 

Magazine of the EARTH SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION 

Volume 31 ● Number 2, 2006 ● ISSN 0957-8005 

www.esta-uk.org

Teaching Earth Sciences: Guide for Authors 

The Editor welcomes articles of any length and nature and on any topic related to 

Earth science education from cradle to grave. Please inspect back copies of TES, 

from Issue 26(3) onwards, to become familiar with the magazine house-style. 

Text 

Please supply the full text on disk or as an email attachment: Microsoft Word is 

the most convenient, but any widely-used wordprocessor is acceptable. Figures, 

tables and photographs must be referenced in the text, but sent as separate jpeg 

or tiff files (see below). 

Please use SI units throughout, except where this is inappropriate (in which case 

please include a conversion table). The first paragraph of each major article should 

not have a subheading but should either introduce the reader to the context of the 

article or should provide an overview to stimulate interest. This is not an abstract in 

the formal sense. Subsequent paragraphs should be grouped under sub-headings. 

To Advertise in 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

References 

Please use the following examples as models 

(1) Articles 

Mayer, V. (1995) Using the Earth system for integrating the science curriculum. 

Science Education, 79(4), pp. 375-391. 

(2) Books 

McPhee, J. (1986 ) Rising from the Plains. New York: Fraux, Giroux & Strauss. 

(3) Chapters in books 

Duschl, R.A. & Smith, M.J. (2001) Earth Science. In Jere Brophy (ed), Subject- 

Specific Instructional Methods and Activities, Advances in Research on Teaching. Volume 8, 

pp. 269-290. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science. 

Figures 

Prepared artwork must be of high quality and submitted on paper or disk. Handdrawn 

and hand-labelled diagrams are not normally acceptable, although in some 

circumstances this is appropriate. Each figure must be submitted as a separate file. 

(not embedded in a Word file) Each figure must have a caption. 

Photographs 

Please submit colour or black-and-white photographs as originals. They are also 

welcomed in digital form on disk or as email attachments: .jpeg format is to be preferred. 

Please use one file for each photograph, to be at 300dpi. Each photograph 

must have a caption. 

Copyright 

There are no copyright restrictions on original material published in Teaching Earth 

Sciences if it is required for use in the classroom or lecture room. Copyright material 

reproduced in TES by permission of other publications rests with the original 

publisher. Permission must be sought from the Editor to reproduce original material 

from Teaching Earth Sciences in other publications and appropriate acknowledgement 

must be given. 

All articles submitted should be original unless indicted otherwise and should 

contain the author’s full name, title and address (and email address where relevant). 

They should be sent to the Editor, 

Cally Oldershaw 

Email: cally.oldershaw@btopenworld.com 

Tel: 07796 942361 



Telephone 

Ian Ray 

0161 486 0326 

www.esta-uk.org 

COPY DEADLINES 

ES 31.3 (PEST 55) 21 May 2006 for 

publication July/August 2006 

TES 31.4 (PEST 56) 25 September 2006 for 

publication November/December 2006 

TES 32.1 (PEST 57) 13 December 2006 for 

publication January/February 2007 

TES 32.2 (PEST 58) 20 February 2007 for 

publication April/May 2007 

WHERE IS PEST 

PEST is printed as the 

centre 4 pages in 

Teaching Earth Sciences.


Site Clearance at 

Tedbury Camp, Somerset 

Professor Chris King – a 

brief appreciation 

Do primary pupils learn 

more effectively through 

hands-on experience or 

teacher demonstration 

of a physical glacier 

model 

Jurassic Lawn 

Field safety training for 

staff in Geography, Earth 

and Environmental 

Sciences in HE: 

establishing a 

framework 

From Russia – by bus 

Obtaining and using 

remotely sensed 

imagery for teaching in 

the Earth Sciences 

Comparison of the new 

GCSE Science 

Specifications for their 

Earth Science content 

Training Scientists or 

Teaching Science 

Update 2 

Breaking through new 

frontiers in science 


Field-based learning: A 

review of published 

approaches and 

strategies 


Reviews 

Diary 

PEST 54 



TEACHING EARTH SCIENCES ● Volume 31 ● Number 2, 2006 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Teaching Earth Sciences is published quarterly by 

the Earth Science Teachers’ Association. ESTA 

aims to encourage and support the teaching of 

Earth sciences, whether as a single subject or as 

part of science or geography courses. 

Full membership is £25.00; student and retired 

membership £12.50. 

Registered Charity No. 1005331 

Editor 


Tel: 07796 942361 

Email: cally.oldershaw@btopenworld.com 

Advertising 

Ian Ray 

Tel: 0161 486 0326 

Email: ianray@ray2003.fsworld.co.uk 

Reviews Editor 

Dr. Denis Bates 

Tel: 01970 617667 

Email: deb@aber.ac.uk 

Council Officers 

Chairman 

Martin Whiteley 

Tel: 01234 354859 

Email: mjwhiteley@yahoo.co.uk 

Secretary 

Susan Beale 

Email: beales.lowrow@virgin.net 

Membership Secretary 

Hamish Ross 

PO BOX 23672 

Edinburgh EH3 9XQ 

Tel: 0131 651 6410 

Email: hamish.ross@education.ed.ac.uk 

Treasurer 

Maggie Williams 

Email: maggiee.williams@tiscali.co.uk 

Primary Co-ordinator 

Niki Whitburn 

Email: farfalle@btinternet.com 

Secondary Co-ordinator 

Chris King 

Email: c.j.h.king@educ.keele.ac.uk 

Higher Education Co-ordinator 

Mike Tuke 

Email: miketuke@btinternet.com 

CONTENTS 

4 From the Editor 

5 Dear Editor 

7 Site Clearance at Tedbury Camp, Somerset 

8 Professor Chris King – Brief Appreciation 

9 Do Primary Pupils Learn More Effectively 

Through Hands-on Experience or Teacher 

Demonstration of a Physical Glacier Model 

Victoria Aldridge 

12 Jurassic Lawn 

Peter Loader 

14 Field Safety Training for Staff in Geography, 

Earth and Environmental Sciences in HE: 

Establishing a Framework 

Pauline Couper and Tim Stott 

20 From Russia – by Bus 

Ted Harris 

21 Obtaining and Using Remotely Sensed Imagery 

for Teaching in the Earth Sciences 

Oliver Tomlinson 

28 Comparison of the New GCSE Science 

Specifications for their Earth Science Content 

Peter Kennett 

36 Training Scientists or Teaching Science 

Update 2 

Alan Richardson 

39 Breaking Through New Frontiers in Science 

Teaching 

Clare Elsley 

40 Field-based Learning: A Review of Published 

Approaches and Strategies 

Victoria Buck 

45 News and Views 

51 Reviews 

52 ESTA Diary 

PEST – Issue 54 – At Home with Earth Science 

Visit our website at www.esta-uk.org 

Contributions to future issues of Teaching Earth 

Sciences will be welcomed and should be 

addressed to the Editor. 

Opinions and comments in this issue are the 

personal views of the authors and do not 

necessarily represent the views of the Association. 

Designed by Character Design 

Highridge, Wrigglebrook Lane, Kingsthorne 

Hereford HR2 8AW 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Front cover 

A stroll in the park 

3 www.esta-uk.org


Science (and minerals) in our lives 

Congratulations 

to Chris King on 

the news of his 

recent promotion 

to Professor. 

It has been another busy time with conferences, 

meetings, reports, funding proposals and of course 

the preparation of this issue of Teaching Earth Sciences. 

I managed to find some time to continue with 

my gemstone writing, and in January completed the 

text for a small reference book on gemstones for the 

general public, and helped with a book for jewellers in 

February. Both should be published later in the year. 

The writing keeps me inside and tied to the computer 

for days on end, so it is quite a relief to get out and get 

some fresh air, even just to work. I managed to visit 

Reading and Cardiff in January and Keele and London 

in February! 

Launch of ESEF-Cymru 

The visit to Cardiff was to attend the launch of the 

Earth Science Education Forum – Cymru, the Welsh 

arm of ESEF, which I helped to organise with the 

Chair of ESEF and the Keeper of Geology at the 

National Museum of Wales. The launch at the 

National Museum of Wales, was a great success, with 

about 70 attendees from schools, museums, examining 

boards, and other educational establishments. 

Following a discussion meeting we moved to the 

large Reardon Lecture Theatre to hear a public lecture 

‘Climate past, present and future’ by Professor 

Paul Pearson of Cardiff University, which was very 

well received. 

Rt Hon Rhodri Morgan AM, the First Minister of 

Wales formally launched ESEF-Cymru with a superb 

speech, which included plenty of references to the geology 

of Wales and its industrial past and natural heritage 

which are also based on its geology. The full speech will 

be available on the ESEF website www.esef.org.uk. 

Following the launch, ESEF-Cymru will do all that 

it can to support and disseminate the teaching of Earth 

science at all levels across Wales. 

Earth Science Education Unit at ASE 

There were record numbers of attendees at the Earth 

Science Education Unit’s (ESEU) Creative Science 

workshops at the Association for Science Education’s 

(ASE) Annual Conference in Reading in January. 

Attendees included biology, physics and chemistry 

teachers, as well as Earth science teachers, tutors and 

researchers from the UK and abroad. ESEU continues 

to go from strength to strength. Since its inception as 

a pilot in 1999, ESEU has presented workshops to 

the teachers of more than a million pupils. Since 

ESEU began work in Scotland in 2003, workshops have 

been presented to more than 1000 primary teachers. 

As in previous years, ESEU shared a stand at the 

conference with ESTA which was popular and ‘flew the 

flag’ for Earth science. 

Keeping an eye on the media 

Have you seen any articles that could be used to grab 

the interest of students The article ‘Saved by ‘sand’ 

poured into the wounds’ caught my attention (see 

news and views page 49). More than 85 per cent of soldiers 

killed in action die within an hour of being 

wounded and most of those probably bleed to death. 

The article mentions new innovations in treating soldiers 

and others who may be injured. One is a porous 

mineral powder (mainly calcium) which is poured 

into the wound, where pores quickly absorb water, 

concentrating the blood’s clotting factors and speeding 

up clotting. Maybe an article such as this could be 

used to initiate debate in the science laboratory or the 

classroom, and to highlight the relevance of science 

(and minerals) in our lives. 

How to read a scientific paper 

As school curricula move towards wanting pupils to be 

able to assess the scientific value of articles in the media 

(for example in newspapers, books and scientific journals 

as well as on television and radio), it may be useful 

to look at the approach taken by Carl-Georg Bank at the 

University of Toronto when teaching Plate Tectonics. 

His summary of the 5-step approach to reading a scientific 

paper includes the following, with questions to ask 

(in italics): 

Reading 

● Skim – fast first reading (focus on title, abstract, intro 

...conclusions). What are the objectives and key points 

of the paper 

● Reflect – what is the hypothesis being tested, what 

about use of data acquisition and use of data Does it 

relate to my question 

● Re-read – focus on points important to you (underline 

and take notes). Which information is important 

for me 

● Critique – good argumentation (weak points, no data 

support...). Are conclusions logical Is the paper 

easy/hard to follow 

● Summarise – as text, diagram or concept map. Neither 

simply a summary nor simply a critique, how 

could I improve on the study 

Writing 

Earth scientists beginning to read scientific articles and 

develop their scientific writing skills may find it useful 

to consider the ‘four Cs’ of scientific writing as suggested 

by the same author: 

● Content (order of key points) 

● Clarity (of sentences) 

● Coherence (of paragraphs and whole text) 

● Craft (correct punctuation, spelling etc.) 


4


Writing a one-page summary, a one-paragraph summary, 

a diagram or a poster of a paper, article or topic, is 

something that I was regularly set as a task both at school 

and university. It helped with the development of key 

skills such as critique and summary, served to focus the 

mind and helped with preparation of assignments and 

revision notes for assessments and examinations. 

For the full article refer to Reading and Writing Taught 

in a Sophomore Course on Plate Tectonics by Carl-Georg 

Bank, Journal of Geoscience Education, pp 25-30, Volume 

54, Number 1, January 2006. www.nagt.org. 

Mnemonic devices for learning Earth science 

How did you learn the facts, and how do you suggest 

your pupils learn lists, for example Mohs’ scale of hardness 

I was in a class where we learnt the Mohs’ scale of 

hardness by rote – having tried out the minerals and 

their ‘scratchability’ on each other (the minerals, not 

my classmates), the desk, the window and just about 

anything else within reach! 

As for the periods, eras and epochs – I just learnt to 

write a list of the first letters and then added the remainder 

of the word. In biology there was GRMFRES 

(growth, reproduction, movement etc.). I have never 

been much good at making up rhymes or word associations 

to remember the information, but maybe 

rhyming couplets, poems, or cartoons work for you A 

couplet for number 10 on the Mohs’ scale of hardness 

that I saw recently and rather liked – speaking as a lady 

who likes diamonds... 

‘Hardest known substance coming in at ten: 

many women get diamonds from their men’ 

This way of learning can also be useful by highlighting 

misconceptions or misunderstandings that the pupils 

have. How creative have you or your students been Do 

get in touch with some of the more memorable devices. 

All clever, sensible, comical or fun ideas will be published 

– at the discretion of the editor! Keep them clean. 

And do keep sending your articles, items for news 

and views, diary dates and letters. 


Editor 

Dear Editor 

Response to Mr Rick Ramsdale re: Geological 

Howlers articles 

I am very sorry you don’t like the recent Geological 

Howler articles. The material was not collated to be a 

damning indictment of the candidates, the intention 

was not to ridicule candidates nor the deliverers of the 

subject. The article was meant to give readers a smile, 

and the intention was meant to be light-hearted. Personally 

I enjoy reading them and while some puzzle me 

others make me laugh – a lot! 

In comparison to the sheer numbers of candidates 

and papers sat each year, the selected responses number 

a very minuscule percentage. Examiners appreciate the 

pressure which candidates are under during the external 

assessment (e.g. spelling mistakes – often are not 

penalised – but they raise a smile in the context – 

recently the use of SPINAL instead of SPINEL!). Many 

of the responses included in the article have stimulated 

thought provoking discussion in the examination team 

meetings and have gone forward to inform future writing 

of questions. 

How do I use the “howlers” I often use them as 

examples with my students, enabling me to more able 

explain misconceptions. Using an example, (e.g. “name 

a type of igneous rock – answers limestone, sandstone”), 

I often play a word association game, e.g. students 

are only allowed to use igneous terminology 

going round every student in the classroom; get it right 

and you drop out of the loop, get it wrong and it comes 

back around to you (when there’s less words left to 

choose from!). 

I do agree with your comments about the title. When 

I was first asked to compile the article time was very 

short (due to my teaching commitments, a tight deadline 

– and trying to have a life!). I stuck with the previous 

title but I am not precious about this and welcome 

suggestions. I suppose the old adage of “you can’t please 

all of the people all of the time” is true! I have had a lot 

of positive verbal comments about the articles at the 

ESTA conference and other gatherings, but if public 

consensus agrees with Rick, then I will keep my human 

desire to giggle and restrain my thoughts to private fora. 

Jo Conway 

Email: jlc@yale-wrexham.ac.uk 

5 www.esta-uk.org


Dear Editor 

Geological Howlers: The next generation, 

arrested evolution or extinction 

Undermining professionalism Holding candidates 

misconceptions up to ridicule. Dear me! Whilst I have 

every respect for Rick Ramsdale’s point of view (TES 

Volume 31, No1 2006) I can’t believe that our little 

“walk on the light side” could be so misinterpreted. 

Undermining professionalism Complete cobblers! 

(to pick up on Rick’s analogy – sorry – couldn’t resist 

that!). All examiners are attempting to do is hold a mirror 

up to colleagues to show what their candidates write 

in exams and enable us to identify in our own teaching 

possible pathways to such misconceptions. How many 

teachers have read or used those examiners’ reports in 

which we religiously point out reoccurring exam errors 

(at the cost of sizable chunks of rain forest) Few I 

would suspect. However, the occasional appropriate 

“howler” included in a lesson (or INSET course) with 

an invite to explain why this was an inappropriate 

response is an excellent method of correcting misconceptions. 

And, yes, they are sometimes very amusing – 

which is why they are chosen for publication and why 

they work so well. 

And is this not what we do all the time in teaching 

when we ask students to evaluate the validity of a daft 

statement that has just been made Why should this 

necessarily be ridicule 

But frankly, I am not really advocating some pseudointellectual 

justification for this sort of material. Why 

can’t they just be taken as they are – a mildly amusing 

set of comments made by students that make some people 

smile. How many of us parents will smile at our 

own children for comments made that show their misunderstanding 

of the complexities of the world in 

which they are growing. To consider this as ridicule is 

itself ridiculous. 

Is it out of place in Teaching Earth Sciences I think not; 

unless humour has become an outdated means of 

putting over a valid teaching point to an intended audience. 

(If you happen to be a 5ft 3 1 / 2 in, middle-aged, 

balding geology teacher you are not really in any position 

to take yourself seriously). This is our magazine 

(despite being open to public scrutiny) and I would 

hope that there would always be room for a “lighter” 

side in an eclectic publication. 

So, as the mistakes conveyed in “howlers” are so self 

evident, I fail to see how a more scholarly article could 

add anything more to this resource. However, I would 

be more than happy if someone would like to act as a 

banker for “exam misconceptions” and to write an 

annual feedback article turning them into a “source of 

professional insight” on concepts that need to be 

addressed in our teaching, as Rick suggests. 

That is unless the readership prefer stasis or indeed 

complete extinction! 

Peter Loader 

Chief Examiner - WJEC AS/A Geology 

Email: peteloader@yahoo.co.uk 

P.S. Did you know that: “Basaltic rock is a lot finer than 

andesitic and more easily inhaled”! 

Peter has kindly sent me an email of his response to my letter, Howlers – The Next Generation. It seems you 

may have received others! Peter and I must agree to differ on Howlers. I remain deeply uncomfortable with 

this anachronism. However, this is as unsurprising as it is irrelevant. In a vital group of professionals this sort 

of thing is to be expected. 

The question still remains: If Howlers should be used to support more effective teaching then how should 

Howlers, The Next Generation, be organised Peter seems generally supportive of the idea. Anyone out there 

got any more thoughts 

Rick Ramsdale 

Email: rick.ramsdale@btinternet.com 

PS. Earth Science Risk Assessment: “Inhaling basalt can seriously damage your pupils (or at least make your 

eyes water)”. 


6


Site Clearance at Tedbury Camp, Somerset 

Readers might be interested to know that the 

important geological locality at Tedbury Camp, 

near Frome in Somerset, has been partially 

cleared in recent months. This site has tremendous 

educational value, not least because it exposes an angular 

unconformity between the Carboniferous Limestone 

and overlying Jurassic Inferior 

Oolite. Furthermore, it is safe and 

relatively accessible – an ideal place 

for school groups, university students 

and interested members of 

the public to visit. 

Since the time that Tedbury 

Camp was first popularised 

through the publication of New 

Sites for Old – a student’s guide to the 

geology of the east Mendips (Duff et al. 

1985), the former quarry had 

become much overgrown. The 

recent clearance effort removed 

many of the silver birches from the 

Jurassic faces and cleared four sections 

(two in the Jurassic, two in the 

Carboniferous) of vegetation, rubble and litter. The 

upper part of the path from Great Elm pond was 

improved and small areas of the unconformity surface 

were treated with patio cleaner to make them easier to 

inspect. As a bonus, one of the team found a well preserved 

echinoid in the Inferior Oolite which served to 

redouble everybody’s efforts just as the enthusiasm for 

digging was beginning to wane! 

This work was undertaken by a group of conservationists 

from Frome College under the guidance of Dr 

Martin Whiteley, Chairman of the Earth Science Teachers’ 

Association, and Dr Gill Odolphie, 

Teacher Warden from the East 

Mendip Study Centre. Further 

activity is planned during 2006 in an 

effort to enhance the educational 

value of Tedbury. This includes a 

site visit for teachers attending the 

ESTA Conference in September 

and the production of web-based 

teaching and learning materials that 

provide a modern synthesis of what 

can be seen in the area. 

The Somerset Geology Group 

would like to host an informal 

Friends of Tedbury Camp Quarry 

Group. This would serve to circulate 

news and discussions on interpretation 

to those who are interested in the locality. 

Please contact Hugh Prudden if you would like to participate 

(hugh@hughprudden.wanadoo.co.uk). 

Martin Whiteley 

ESTA Chairman 

7 www.esta-uk.org


Professor Chris King – Brief Appreciation 

PETER KENNETT 

Figure 1 

Chris also shakes 

Scotland 

Figure 2 

Chris stirs things 

up at Keele 

The whole of ESTA will surely be rejoicing at the 

news of Chris’ elevation to a Professorship. So 

far as we know, this is the first in Earth Science 

Education in this country. 

Chris had already begun to make an impact on 

education whilst on his PGCE course at Keele, in 

1977, under David Thompson, when David was 

heard to comment that he had a brilliant student on 

the course that year, who would certainly soon be 

making his mark. 

Chris was appointed to teach A level Geology at 

Altrincham Boys’ Grammar School in 1978 and made 

his first contribution to Geology Teaching (the precursor of 

Teaching Earth Sciences) in June 1980, with an article on 

“Georiddles” – no, not a cheap plastic sieve, but a geological 

puzzle with which he had teased his 6th Formers! 

This has subsequently been followed by countless articles, 

ranging from the sheer fun of “Graptolobics”, and 

many influential papers on the science curriculum at 

both national and international level. 

Chris held several roles at Altrincham, whilst at the 

same time, the National Curriculum, Mk I appeared. 

Chris immediately became involved, up to the hilt, 

with attempts to knock the politicians’ view of the 

Earth into more realistic shape, and also to counter, in 

the most diplomatic way, those who sought to strangle 

the inclusion of Earth Science at birth. This resulted in 

what became known at the former National Curriculum 

Council’s offices as “The King Fax”, as messages 

whizzed to and fro, trying to meet the incredibly short 

time scales allowed for development of the Curriculum 

and all the syllabuses, sorry, specifications, which 

flowed from it. What’s new! 

Chris also co-edited ESTA’s Science of the Earth series, 

trying all the time to second-guess which way the revisions 

of the National Curriculum would go, in an effort 

to keep up to date. 

Having inspired many a 

student to enjoy Geology 

at Altrincham, Chris 

duly followed his old 

mentor at Keele, as a 

Lecturer in Science 

Education, when David 

Thompson retired in 

1996. Chris built on 

Keele’s already excellent 

record for training Earth 

scientists and others to 

become effective science 

teachers, but also began 

to develop fresh ideas, 

most of which, we 

gather, come to him in 

the bath! Among these was the initiation of the Earth 

Science Education Unit (ESEU) in 1999, with the 

enthusiastic support of UKOOA. The ESEU began 

with Chris being allowed one day per week, assisted 

by one retired old geology teacher and a teacher seconded 

for two days a week from her own college. It 

has now grown to cover the whole of mainland UK, 

with a team of about 50 trained Facilitators, and to a 

large extent represents ESTA’s main input into science 

education for 11 to 16 year-olds. 

More recent developments have included the foundation 

of the Science Learning Centres, and it is thanks 

largely to Chris’ untiring efforts in promoting his own 

Department’s bid that Keele is now the main centre for 

the West Midlands. 

It would probably take a search through ESTA’s 

archives to ascertain the number of years during which 

Chris has been repeatedly re-elected to serve on Council, 

but it is a lot. Chris’ sterling work has already been 

recognised by ESTA by his being made Chairman in 

1990-92, and an Honorary Life Member in 1994. The 

Geological Society bestowed their Distinguished Service 

Award Medal on him in 2003. 

Those of us who liaise closely with Chris are aware 

of just how hard he works, and since the computer 

clock never lies, we know at what time of the night he 

prefers to send out his emails! All of these messages 

demonstrate his grasp of a situation and his visionary 

attitude, and yet they are always just as encouraging and 

cheerful as the man himself. In spite of this punishing 

routine, Chris manages to find time to devote to his 

family and to the life and activities of his local church. 

Indeed he has even been known to read books, some of 

them not actually about geology! 

In an earlier existence, Chris worked as a diamond 

prospector in southern Africa. He tells how he found 

minerals related to diamonds in ancient sandstones and 

used the palaeocurrent directions to work out where 

the currents came from. This in turn led to the discovery 

of a diamond pipe, and to the development of a productive 

mine. 

ESEU Facilitators have become used to telling each 

others’ stories to try to enthuse science teachers, but 

when this one is related, the teachers express 

incredulity and say, “You mean to tell me that he left 

that and went into teaching...!” 

Indeed, Chris’ interests in the International scene 

led to him becoming closely involved with the setting 

up of the International Geoscience Education Organisation 

(IGEO), and its triennial conferences. 

Many of us have reason to be grateful that Chris did 

just that, and would wish him a really rewarding and 

happy time in his new role. As one “old” ESTA member 

always says, “Keep up the good work, Chris!”. 


8


Do Primary Pupils Learn More Effectively 

Through Hands-on Experience or Teacher 

Demonstration of a Physical Glacier Model 

VICTORIA ALDRIDGE 

Physical models are a significant part of Earth Science teaching; but what difference does it make 

whether the teacher demonstrates the model or the pupils use their own It has been shown that 

our understanding of how learners prefer to receive information, whether it’s visually, audibly or 

kinaesthetically, is related to how effective classroom practice can be, and that knowing and 

catering for different learning styles within a class can boost the overall attainment of the pupils. 

For these reasons, experiential learning approaches 

(pupils using their own physical models) might be 

expected to produce different outcomes from 

expositional approaches (teacher demonstration of physical 

models). This small-scale action research project 

tested this in a limited way. One primary school (P5) 

class received a lesson on glaciers from a teacher using a 

glacier model for demonstration. The other class 

received the same lesson but were allowed to work in 

small groups and create their own glacier model. The 

results do not suggest that the experiential approach 

results in higher attainment scores for knowledge and 

understanding, but that there are more significant factors 

involved. While these factors are likely to include taking 

account of learning styles, this is not simply achieved by 

a preference for experiential over expositional activity. 

The difference between experiential and expositional 

approaches may be crucial in terms of other purposes and 

outcomes however, including how the pupils themselves 

understand the purpose of the lesson. 

Learning Styles 

Over the past few decades extensive research has taken 

place into our understanding of the learning process. In 

particular, research on learning styles has enhanced 

understanding. “When there is a mismatch between the 

preferred learning style of the student and that of the 

teacher, there is every likelihood of underachievement, 

boredom and even misbehaviour. In general terms, 

schools cater better for visual and auditory learners” 

(Hughes & Vass 2001). 

The VAK (Visual Auditory Kinaesthetic) classification 

method is one way of identifying how our learners 

prefer to receive information. Visual learners prefer to 

‘see it’, auditory learners prefer to ‘hear it’, whereas 

kinaesthetic learners prefer to ‘do it’ (CEC, 2002). This 

study asks whether a lesson aimed at including all VAK 

approaches is more effective than one that uses visual/ 

auditory engagement only. 

Experiential (Hands-On) vs Exposition 

(Demonstrative) Approaches 

The Association for Experiential Education (AEE) 

defines experiential learning as “...a process through 

which a learner constructs knowledge, skill and value 

from direct experience” (www.aee.org/ndef.html). 

Reece & Walkers (1997) stated that “The key to effective, 

long term learning is based upon experiential 

learning which has the following features: personal 

involvement, stimulation of feelings and thinking, self 

initiation and self-evaluation... Active learning by doing 

is seen as the key”. 

If pupils are personally involved in a practical task 

alongside others, they are more likely to be involved in 

discussion about the task, construct it through personal 

experience and, especially for science, model processes 

of investigation and enquiry. Practical work assists these 

processes greatly (Harlen 1999; Hodson 1992) by 

involving the full VAK range of learning styles. 

However there is also research that challenges the 

importance of practical activity (Wurdinger & Priest, 

1999). Demonstrating a lesson (typically accommodating 

visual and auditory learning styles) can be just as 

effective in terms of interest and motivation, according 

to Harlen (1999), and positive pupil reaction is determined 

as much by teacher style (Tobin and Fraser, 

1987). Moreover, learners can be de-motivated if practical 

work does not give them a sense of achievement, 

either due to the complexity of the practical experiment, 

its ‘failure’, and/or a combination of irrelevance 

and frustration. 

Moreover, practical activity is perceived to be 

“expensive” and so its disputed value is significant. In 

Mitchell’s (1987) study of the importance of experiential 

education with bilingual students, for example, 

teachers agreed that practical experiential learning was a 

great idea in principle but noted difficulties such as 

time, space, differentiation of ability and bilingual competence. 

They also defended book-based work as an 

equally valid method of learning. 

This all rather suggests that it is of greater importance 

to focus on purposes and outcomes, including in 

terms of learning styles, than it is to simply endorse or 

rely on a particular approach (e.g. exposition versus 

experience). Gardner & Gauld (1990) maintain that 

what learners actually “like” about practical activities is 

9 www.esta-uk.org


Figure 1 

Flour ‘mountain’ 

with syrup 

‘glacier’. 

Table 1: 

Whole class 

averages 

not related to what they learn, but to the “opportunity 

to engage in the variety of active learning methods, to 

interact more freely with the teacher and with other 

pupils, and to pace the work as it suits them, that 

appeals, rather than the opportunity to conduct practical 

investigations”. Experiential practical activity is 

valuable as long as its purpose is clear and it does not 

obscure understanding, if understanding is the purpose. 

This study compares experiential and expository 

approaches with lessons that are otherwise controlled in 

respect of planned purpose, structure and teacher style. 

Methodology 

Two Scottish primary five classes (labelled here “P5- 

expositional” (23 pupils) and “P5-experiential” (22 

pupils)) took part in separate lessons about glaciers. The 

lesson content, teacher and outcomes were the same for 

each class, except whether the physical model was used 

in exposition or experientially. Both lessons involved a 

four phase model (Overview, Input, Process, Review) 

including: 

● Explanation of the formation and movement of 

glaciers 

● Definitions for new vocabulary 

● Illustration using photographs 

● The modelled activity 

● A worksheet to assess knowledge and understanding 

In the physical modelling phase of the lessons, the 

teacher demonstrated the glacier model to the whole of 

P5a Exposition 

Worksheet (mark out of 16) 9.23 10.66 

Worksheet (mark out of 16) 

(Six weeks later) 

6.77 8.38 

Difference in scores -2.46 -2.28 

P5b Experiential 

the P5-expositional class, whereas the P5-experiential 

class handled the same glacier models in small groups 

of four or five. The teacher did not demonstrate the 

model for the latter group but instructed the pupils 

how to carry out the activity. 

The model consisted of emptying a bag of flour into 

a tray to create a “mountain”. The pupils examined the 

“mountain” and pointed out any particular features 

such as boulders, cliffs, cracks and the characteristics of 

the surface (typically uneven and not smooth). Next a 

tin of syrup was emptied over the top of the flour 

mountain and this demonstrated the path of a “glacier”, 

eroding and smoothing the landscape. This activity has 

a number of variants, including the use of sawdust for 

example. However, the surface of a flour mountain 

responds very visibly to the passage of the glacier (Figure 

1), and it is very easy to see the processes of erosion 

through the syrup and is unexpectedly easy to clear up. 

The pupils in P5-expositional were allowed to view 

the model closer in small groups of five, after the glacier 

had stopped moving. The pupils in P5-experiential 

were able to observe their own models close up 

throughout and also got to view the other glacier models 

in their classroom. In both classes the pupils were 

encouraged to identify the glacier features and to discuss 

their findings with their peers. 

Both classes completed individual glacier worksheets 

to assess the knowledge and understanding 

gained by each pupil. The worksheet was completed 

again 6 weeks later in order to assess the retention of 

knowledge. An additional question was added to this 

second worksheet in order to assess understanding with 

new input material (responding to unseen photographs). 

A sub-sample of both classes was also interviewed 

after the glacier lesson. 

Results 

Table 1 shows the class-averaged scores from the worksheets, 

excluding the additional question. Knowledge 

and understanding, as measured by these worksheets, 

reduced over the six week interval for both classes. 

Seventeen out of 23 pupils in P5-expositional scored 

lower on the second worksheet (six weeks after the lesson) 

than they did on the first worksheet (at the end of 

the lesson). Eighteen out of 22 pupils in the P5-experiential 

class also scored lower. Table 1 shows that P5- 

experiential pupils obtained a slightly higher average 

score in each worksheet than P5-expositional pupils. 

The pupils in P5-experiential also had a slightly lower 

average drop in scores between the two worksheets. 

An extra question was added to the second worksheet 

which asked the pupils to compare two photos; one of 

recent glacier moraine and one of an older glacier 

moraine. The pupils were asked, “How do we know that 

one of these photos shows moraine from a recent glacier” 

(Moraines were discussed generally in the original 

lesson in the context of those that appeared on the physical 

model). This question was added to the second 


10


worksheet in order to assess pupil understanding in the 

face of new input, as opposed to recall. No difference in 

understanding was noted between the two classes. 

Four mixed-ability pupils from each class were also 

interviewed after the lesson. The pupils were asked a 

number of questions. The answers given by the pupils 

displayed a very similar level of understanding between 

the two classes. However, when asked what the 

favourite part of the lesson was P5-expositional said 

“the worksheet” and P5-experiential said “pouring the 

syrup on”. Both classes were very positive during the 

interview and couldn’t think of any improvements that 

could have been made to the lesson. 

Discussion and Conclusion 

The results show slightly higher knowledge and understanding 

scores for pupils who engaged more experientially 

and using a greater part of the VAK learning style 

range. It could be argued that a hands-on activity used 

in order to enhance a lesson is beneficial in helping 

pupils to learn slightly more efficiently. 

However the results are not very different and the 

difference is certainly not statistically significant, and so 

could be attributed to random variation or even to 

minor systematic variation in factors such as the age 

profiles of the class or other dimensions of class ability. 

This lack of difference is itself important. The two sets of 

pupils had substantially different learning experiences 

within the controlled situation of identical lesson models, 

intended purposes and teacher. The absence of significant 

differences between the expository and 

experiential approaches suggests that there are more 

important factors involved in retaining knowledge and 

understanding than the use of expositional or experiential 

models designed to facilitate the use of different 

ranges of VAK learning styles. It may not be the handson 

approach to a physical model that is relevant but the 

complete learning and teaching process (for example 

the four phase lesson model) that surrounds it. 

For hard-pressed primary teachers of Earth science 

this is important because of the time and cost implications 

of using physical models. For some planned purposes 

(in this case the development and retention of knowledge 

and understanding exclusively) it appears not to 

matter much whether the pupils’ engagement is experiential 

or expository. More important factors appear to 

be involved in the delivery of those purposes, at least 

within the constraints of this study. However it is 

important to note that the very act of planning those 

purposes is probably an important factor itself. Moreover, 

the difference between experiential and expositional 

use of models may be very significant in relation 

to other purposes (if planned) or unintended outcomes 

(if not). The development of skills and the so-called 

‘soft’ or ‘affective’ outcomes of working socially in 

independent teams are obvious examples that were not 

studied here. 

Finally, the difference between what the interviewed 

pupils from each class thought was best about the lesson 

– “pouring the syrup on” versus “the worksheet” – 

might hint intriguingly at their own varied understandings 

concerning the purposes of the lesson. “Pouring 

syrup on” is enjoyable for less achievement-driven reasons 

than doing a worksheet is. Does this suggest that, 

for the pupils, the kind of activity might describe the purpose 

of the lesson, rather than the purpose of the lesson determining 

the activity 

Victoria Aldridge 

Email: victoriaaldridge@yahoo.co.uk 

References: 

www.aee.org/ndef/html 

City of Edinburgh Council (2002) ‘Learning For All’ 

p21-23 

Gardner, P. & Gauld, C. (1990) Labwork and Student’s 

attitudes. In: Hegarty-Hazel, E. (Ed) ‘The Student 

Laboratory and the Science Curriculum’. 

London: Routledge. 

Harlen, W. (1999) The Role of Practical Work In: 

‘Effective Teaching of Science: A Review of Research’. The 

Scottish Council for Research in Education 

Hodson, D. (1992) ‘Assessment of practical work: some 

considerations in philosophy of science’. Science and 

Education, (1):115-144 

Hughes, M. & Vass, A. (2001) ‘Strategies for Closing the 

Learning Gap’. Network Educational Press. 

Mitchell, R. (1987) ‘Implementing a child-centred approach 

to primary schooling in a bilingual setting’. The Scottish 

Council for Research in Education. 

Tobin, K. & Fraser, B. J. (Eds) (1987) ‘Exemplary 

Practice in Science and Mathematics Education’. 

Perth: Curtin University of Technology. 

Wurdinger, S. & Priest, S. (1999) ‘Integrating Theory 

and Application in experiential learning’ In: Miles, J. & 

Priest, S. (Eds) ‘Adventure programming’ State College, 

Victoria Aldridge is a former Development Officer for Scottish 

Earth Science Education Forum & City of Edinburgh Council, 

now working in Malaysia. The work described is part of an 

action research project undertaken as a primary school teacher 

in City of Edinburgh Council. 

11 www.esta-uk.org


Jurassic Lawn 

PETER LOADER 

It is said that I will do more or less anything to promote geology at my school and boost numbers, 

but the observation of one of my colleagues – “he’s got the only department where a dinosaur on 

the staff would be a positive advantage”– rather started a chain of events that resulted in just 

that! Well virtually! 

Figure 1 

A stroll in 

the park 

Following research into an A level question 1 on 

dinosaur trackways, I realised that if I could not 

find a dinosaur then perhaps one could find, or at 

least search for, me. So at the last ESTA conference 

(have you been lately; well worth it) I purchased a reasonably 

priced replica Iguanadon hind-footprint from 

those nice people at GeoEd Ltd., and set to work tracing 

out a set of sturdy footprints in plywood (care of 

maintenance support – thanks Terry!). 

Research on real trackways 2 suggests that the length 

of the hind footprint is approximately one quarter of 

the hip height of the original animal. (i.e. 4 x footprint 

length = hip height). This gives a rough measure of 1.6 

metres for my little monster and an overall height of 

about 4 metres. The stride length is clearly a function of 

the speed of movement and gait (Figure 1). This relationship 

between size and stride length is termed the 

relative stride length (SL/h), where SL represents 

length of stride and h the height at the dino’s hip. 

Gaits are generally given as the ratio of stride length 

and hip height (SL/h) and show if the animal was walking, 

trotting or running (see key below). 

I decided that, as my dino-friend would be crossing 

the Rector’s Lawn (a privilege reserved exclusively for 

the staff, and Rector, of course!) – then he/she had better 

be walking or they might get a two hour “afterschool” 

(detention) rather than just the one. When 

everyone had left for the October half term holiday, I 

was spotted by a recalcitrant detainee jumping from 

one foot to another in the vain attempt to simulate the 

stride pattern of a 5 tonne herbivore ambling across 

Figure 1 

2 

metres 

1 

Right 

hand 

print 

SL 

0 

FL 

Left 

hand 

print 

Key 

FL - hind-foot print length 

SL - stride length of either left/right foot 

h(hip height) = 4 x foot print length (FL) 

Relative stride length (SL/h) is used to determine gait 

– whether the animal is 

Walking – (SL/h< 2.0) 

Trotting – (SL/h>2.0 and =2.9) 


12


the edge of the lawn and disappearing into the bushes! 

Satisfied with the accuracy of my measurements (and 

the visual effect from any overlooking rooms) the 

footprints were positioned across the lawn making 

sure not to mix up left from right prints (they are 

reversible!). Each was held down by a couple of bricks 

and a memo delivered to the caretaker as to the possible 

health and safety implications of “messing with my 

scientific investigation”. Though it was tempting to 

return to school during the half-term(!) I decided to 

wait the week out and was rewarded with some excellent 

“lawn-kill” footprints, which even in January are 

still just about visible. 

These are ideal as a teaching aid for my A level students 

to enable us to simulate the collection of the 

dinosaur morphology and function data required by 

our specification. Interest was also shown by the more 

enquiring minds of my Middle School charges and I 

gladly agreed to add to our “gifted and talented” provision 

(see photos) in the hope of future reward. The 

effect on the first Open Day after half-term was all that 

I could have wanted. Prospective students of all ages 

were seen dragging their parents to the scene of my 

crime in order to answer a “Treasure Hunt” question 

given on arrival at school and gain a chocolate dinosaur 

prize for their efforts. 

But what of the little prep girl who was reported to 

be traumatised by the thought of a dinosaur hiding in 

the bushes. “Don’t worry”, reassured her 6-year old 

brother, “Iguanodons are herbivores”! So yet another 

potential geologist went away quite happy! 

Just like me! 

Pete Loader 

“Dino-Master”, St. Bede’s College, Manchester 

Email: peteloader@yahoo.co.uk 

Figure 2 

Getting the measure of the beast 

References 

1 

WJEC GL4 2005, Q1 

2 

http://palaeo.gly.bris.ac.uk/Palaeofiles/ 

Tracks/default.html 

Figure 3 

It went that way! 

13 www.esta-uk.org


Field Safety Training for Staff in 

Geography, Earth and Environmental 

Sciences in HE: Establishing a Framework 

PAULINE COUPER AND TIM STOTT 

The need for, and requirements of, staff development opportunities in fieldwork leadership for 

Higher Education staff have been explored by consultation with representatives of subject 

organisations and the Outdoor community. 

This article summarises the outcomes of that consultation 

(a full report is available on request). 

Currently available opportunities for relevant 

training are identified, and a ‘framework’ for considering 

staff development is proposed. This includes a list 

of the competencies that it is suggested field leaders 

should endeavour to develop. This list is intended to be 

a facilitative tool, for example in assisting self-assessment 

of development needs. Finally, a number of 

avenues for further work are recommended in order to 

provide increased support for HE staff involved in leading 

fieldwork. 

Introduction 

This project was established to enable the HE Geography, 

Earth and Environmental Science (GEES) community 

to learn from the expertise of the Outdoor 

(mountaineering/outdoor pursuits) community in 

relation to issues of fieldwork safety. Fieldwork often 

takes place in potentially hazardous locations, including 

rivers, woodlands, coastal/tidal locations, moorland and 

mountains and urban areas. 

HE subject organisations and outdoor organisations 

were invited to be involved in a consultation (either 

through meetings or electronic communication) to 

investigate the need for, and requirements of, staff 

development opportunities in the safe management of 

fieldwork specifically tailored to Higher Education. 

This article summarises the key findings, with a full 

report available on request. 

Fieldwork has long been recognised as playing a central 

role in GEES subjects (Kent et al., 1997; Williams et 

al., 1999; Fuller et al., 2003), often occurring in potentially 

hazardous locations. A growing literature on fieldwork 

pedagogy (e.g. Gold et al., 1991; Kent et al., 1997; 

Warburton et al., 1997; Livingstone et al., 1998; Andrews 

et al., 2003; Boyle et al., 2003; Fuller et al., 2003; King, 

2003) often recognises field safety as being of paramount 

importance (e.g. Gold et al., 1991). However, 

discussion tends to be: a) limited, often only making 

brief reference to risk assessment, and; b) largely 

focused on methods of encouraging students’ awareness 

of safety (Francis and Wignall, 1997; Gaskarth, 

1997; Sutcliffe and Grocott, 1997; Woodcock, 1997) 

rather than considering the staff experience or competence 

that such teaching is based on. Fieldwork safety 

guidance is available in both national (e.g. CHUGD, 

undated; ESTA, undated; Nichols, 1990; CVCP, 1995; 

AUCL, 1996) and departmental guidelines (online 

examples of the latter include those of the Department 

of Earth Sciences at University College London and the 

Geography Department at Exeter University), but 

these are predominantly, if not wholly, recommendations 

for the establishment of procedural systems 

designed to ensure the safe execution of fieldwork. 

Undoubtedly such systems are essential, but a ‘checklist’ 

approach to complying with them would not necessarily 

ensure effective, safe leadership of fieldwork. In 

particular, such guidelines are often limited in their 

consideration of what actually happens in the field, 

emphasizing pre-field visit procedures and the establishment 

of precautionary incident management procedures, 

and post-visit review. Arguably, competent 

leadership whilst in the field, and the on-going decision-making 

involved in this (Outdoor Education 

Advisor’s Panel, 2004), “is the most important safety 

factor of all” (DfES, 1989: 4). 

The Outdoor community has considerable expertise 

in leading groups of all ages in much the same environments, 

and in training others to lead groups in these 

environments, with participant safety and risk management 

(rather than simply risk assessment) to the fore. 

The emphasis here is on a continuous process of risk 

management and leadership, from pre-visit risk assessment 

and establishment of necessary protocol, through 

effective group leadership incorporating continuous 

assessment of, and adaptation to risk, through to post 

field visit review. Outdoor leadership literature (e.g. 

Ogilvie, 1993; Langmuir, 1995; Graham, 1997; Long, 

2004) thus considers not just safety procedures and the 

necessary technical skills, but also the ‘soft skills’ of 

group leadership. Outdoor leadership courses – such as 

the Walking Group Leader and Mountain Leader 

schemes – are likely to be too in-depth for most GEES 

subject staff, but the higher education community 

could clearly learn from the expertise of the outdoor 

community. 

The need for staff development opportunities has 

been apparent throughout the discussions, with suggestions 

that some (particularly new) staff feel unprepared 


14


when leading fieldwork. Opportunities for gaining 

experience may be limited (e.g. 14 days a year or less) 

and so the chance to learn from ‘outdoor professionals’ 

would be welcomed. However, some concerns were 

expressed, particularly in relation to the establishment 

of a qualification. If this were then seen as a requirement 

for staff leading fieldwork, it was suggested that 

the effect may be to decrease the opportunities for students 

to participate in fieldwork, rather than enhance 

provision. It should be noted here that the Government’s 

‘Better Regulation Task Force’ takes the view 

that regulation should be used only as a last resort, stating 

that “perhaps people don’t need to be told what to 

do if they’re given the right information to help them 

take their own decisions” (Better Regulation Task 

Force, 2003: 3). Although written within the context of 

statutory regulatory intervention, the notion is central 

to this project: that providing individuals in HE with 

the opportunity to learn more about, and develop their 

expertise and confidence in the successful management 

of fieldwork will be more effective in enhancing provision 

than would a requirement of staff to ‘jump 

through hoops’ in an instrumental manner. In essence, 

this requires a recognition that risk can never be eliminated, 

but can be managed – a position clearly stated by 

the Health & Safety Executive and key to their current 

‘risk debate’ (Health & Safety Executive, 2005a; 2005b). 

Currently Available Opportunities 

A range of opportunities for relevant training currently 

exists (Table 1), many of which are in ‘outdoor leadership’ 

rather than ‘fieldwork leadership’, and not specifically 

tailored to a HE context. However, such schemes 

may be of value in providing ‘models’ of training and 

assessment that the GEES community may consider 

adapting, and in providing alternative means of developing 

and demonstrating relevant competence. 

A Framework for Staff Development 

It was suggested that the primary function of a framework 

for staff development should be: to promote the 

safe management of field-based experiential learning in 

the Geography, Earth and Environmental Science disciplines 

in Higher Education, in order to maximise the 

learning experience of students. 

In this context, ‘promote’ should be interpreted to 

mean both; a) encouraging and enabling individual 

staff members to develop competence and confidence 

in managing fieldwork safely; and b) to ‘publicise’ the 

collective competence of the GEES community, 

thereby encouraging the confidence of HE managers 

(and health and safety officers) in fieldwork and thus 

fostering continued support for field-based experiential 

learning. 

It is here suggested that a ‘framework for staff devel- 

Table 1: 

Currently available 

staff development 

opportunities. 

Scheme Administering Organisation Notes 

Mountain Leader Mountain Leader Training UK These cover competencies applicable to fieldwork, particularly in 

remote areas, providing national recognition of such 

Walking Group Leader 

Mountain Leader Training UK 

competencies. They go beyond the requirements of most HE staff 

and take considerable personal commitment. 

Level 2 Basic Expedition Leader 

Award 

Sports Leaders UK 

For lowland, rural areas. This award does not cover high hills, 

moorland or mountainous terrain. 

Group Leader Training Local Education Authorities For school staff leading minors. 

OCR Level 3 Certificate in Off-Site 

Safety Management 

OCR exam board 

Targeted at ‘adults working with young people’. 

Accredited Practitioner of the 

Institute of Outdoor Learning 

New Lecturer Workshop 

Health & Safety on Fieldwork 

BSES Leadership Training Course, 

incorporating NVQ Level 3 in 

Leadership and Management 

Training in safety issues tailored 

to departmental requirements 

Institute of Outdoor Learning 

HE Academy Subject Centre for 

Geography, Earth & 

Environmental Sciences 

Field Studies Council 

BSES Expeditions 

Marlin Training 

Primarily aimed at leaders working in the outdoor industry, it 

emphasizes that candidates should have experience in leading a 

range of client groups. 

Includes some consideration of fieldwork. 

4-week training course including overseas expedition. 

15 www.esta-uk.org


Table 2: Framework for Staff Development 

A: DESIRABLE COMPETENCIES FOR FIELD LEADERSHIP 

The competencies listed below are suggested to be those that it is desirable for field leaders to endeavour to develop. 

The list is not intended to be prescriptive, and could be used, for example, as an aid to self-reflection and the identification of 

development needs. 

1. Pre-fieldwork planning 

Staff should be familiar with the planning responsibilities of the field course leader, and capable of thorough preparation of the event. 

1.1 Field trip planning 

Staff should: 

a. be clear about the pedagogical aims of, and reasons for, the field visit, ensuring they are appropriate to the student cohort; 

b. ensure that the field visit is organised in accordance with the guidelines and requirements of the department or institution; 

c. complete detailed preparations; plan the venue, negotiate access, obtain relevant weather and tide forecasts, arrange transport; 

d. ensure the students involved are thoroughly briefed; students should understand the purpose of the activity, what to expect 

of the visit, and what is expected of them. 

1.2 Risk assessment prior to fieldwork 

Staff should: 

a. understand the difference between generic risk assessment, event-specific risk assessment, and on-going risk assessment and 

management; 

b. aim to promote a culture of risk awareness, risk assessment and risk management among students, involving students in risk 

assessment whenever possible; 

c. be aware of hazards specific to the environment in which the visit is to take place; 

d. be aware (as far as available evidence allows) of the most hazardous aspects of fieldwork. 

2. On-site aspects of field leadership 

Fieldwork should be a safe, enjoyable, educational experience for students. Staff should endeavour to: 

a. manage the group effectively by setting realistic targets, reviewing and revising them if necessary, performing ongoing risk assessments, 

and maintaining effective communication with students as appropriate to the form of fieldwork being undertaken; 

b. develop a reflective, flexible approach to leadership; 

c. develop effective group management and supervision skills; 

d. have in place clear guidelines for remote working of students where appropriate. 

3. Incident management 

The department and institution providing fieldwork opportunities should have established procedures for dealing with incidents. 

Staff involved in fieldwork should: 

a. be thoroughly conversant with these procedures in order to implement them in stressful circumstances if necessary; 

b. ensure that students working remotely are conversant with relevant procedures; 

c. hold a current first aid qualification. 

4. Post-fieldwork review 

Post-event review should be an integral part of fieldwork, and should: 

a. include review of the pedagogical effectiveness of the activity; 

b. include review of the management of the group and event in relation to both pedagogy and the safety of participants; 

c. lead to enhancement of practice. 

5. Throughout all of the above, staff involved in fieldwork: 

a. should endeavour to develop an awareness of their own competence/limitations; 

b. would benefit from familiarity with the legal responsibilities of field staff towards individual students and the group as a 

whole, including in ‘down-time’ on residential fieldwork; 

c. should be mindful of the responsibilities of field staff towards each other, land/property owners and managers, the general 

public, the environment, and the HE community; 

d. should be aware of current best practice in managing adult groups, particularly in ‘down-time’ on residential fieldwork. 


16


Table 2: Framework for Staff Development Cont. 

B: MECHANISMS BY WHICH SUCH COMPETENCIES MAY BE DEMONSTRATED 

The Health & Safety Executive recognise four mechanisms for the demonstration of competence: 

i. Holding a national qualification 

At present there is no national, fieldwork-related qualification tailored to a higher education context. 

ii. Holding an equivalent qualification 

Equivalent qualifications, ideally nationally recognised (or equivalent overseas qualifications), such as those listed in Table 1 may 

provide evidence of competence in some (perhaps all) of the areas listed above. 

iii. Undertaking suitable in-house training 

In-house training offered by institutions may provide evidence of competence in some (perhaps all) of the areas listed above. 

iv. Demonstrating competence developed through experience 

Staff should be encouraged to maintain a reflective log of their fieldwork/field leadership experience, as evidence of competence 

developed through accumulated experience. 

opment’ should consist of: 

i) A statement of the desirable competencies, which 

field leaders should endeavour to develop; 

ii) A statement of the mechanisms by which such 

competencies may be recognised. 

Such a framework should facilitate staff development at 

all career stages (including postgraduate), recognise and 

emphasize the value of continuing experience and 

development, encourage the dissemination of good 

practice, and allow recognition of relevant qualifications 

and experience obtained from outside the HE sector 

(such as those listed in Table 1). 

The framework proposed in Table 2 integrates pedagogy 

and fieldwork safety, something that those 

involved in the consultation agreed was essential. Both 

are dependent on effective group management before, 

during and after a field visit, and both benefit from a 

reflective approach. The educational purpose of fieldwork, 

in both generic and event-specific contexts, is 

central to the management of any visit and provides the 

justification for undertaking the activity. 

It was also felt that a reflective approach to leading 

fieldwork should be encouraged. This will help to facilitate 

the development of self-awareness of staff competence 

in managing and leading fieldwork, increasing the 

likelihood that individuals will recognise their responsibilities 

and limitations, and work within these. 

Practicalities of Provision 

A number of options for the delivery of staff development 

opportunities could be considered, for example: 

i) A single, nationally recognised training course specific 

to leading students in HE fieldwork; 

ii) An agreed curriculum, that could be delivered in 

multiple locations; 

iii) A variety of courses tailored to, for example, different 

levels of experience or different environments; 

iv) Recommended use of already existing training 

(such as those identified in Table 1); 

v) A package of ‘good practice’ guidance that staff are 

recommended to follow. 

Maximum flexibility is desirable, and a combination 

of options (for example, options iii, iv and v above) 

may be the most effective. In particular, any courses 

that are offered should be available in multiple locations 

across the UK to ensure accessibility to all HE 

institutions. The consultation group was of the opinion 

that training opportunities should incorporate 

practical elements (e.g. simulation), and that a reflective 

log would be a useful staff development tool, in 

encouraging continued development and enabling 

experience to be recognised. 

Ideally, staff development opportunities should be 

available to cover all aspects of fieldwork in all environments. 

Discussion revealed that ‘down-time’ in 

residential field visits is a particular area of concern, as 

is the transport of students to and from sites (specifically 

the issue of staff driving minibuses). Such concerns 

clearly need to be addressed, and it is likely that 

further investigation of these issues will be required 

in order to provide a solid evidence base from which 

to address them (see below). It should also be recognised 

that fieldwork is undertaken in a wide range of 

environments, from remote mountainous areas to 

urban locations. Both the commonalities (for example, 

students working in unfamiliar locations) and the 

differences (such as remote fieldwork compared to 

city locations) between work in these environments 

should be catered for. 

A package of good practice could be the first step 

towards the provision of staff development opportunities. 

The experience of the outdoor industry is that any 

legal proceedings arising from accidents are judged 

against good practice, and clarity regarding what the HE 

17 www.esta-uk.org


GEES community considers to be good practice in 

fieldwork would thus be of benefit. 

The consultation group is clear that the provision 

of staff development opportunities is a priority, and 

whilst there is some support for providing the option 

of associated assessment, this is of secondary importance 

at this stage. However, if assessment were to 

occur, this should be an assessment of competence 

undertaken by someone more experienced than the 

candidate being assessed. The mechanism of such 

assessment would be crucial to the credibility and success 

of the scheme. It is thus recommended that any 

assessment or qualification should take into account 

the four mechanisms of demonstrating competence 

that are recognised by the Health and Safety Executive 

(and outlined in Table 2). 

Further Research Required 

A strengthening of the ‘evidence base’ on which decisions 

about fieldwork are made would be of value, both 

in managing fieldwork and in addressing the concerns 

of individuals and institutions responsible for fieldwork 

provision. Aspects for further research include: 

1. Identification and dissemination of good practice, in 

both individual and departmental/institutional practice. 

2. Identification of the ‘most dangerous’ aspects of 

fieldwork, where most accidents and/or near-misses 

occur, in order to focus concerns more effectively. 

3. Identification of restrictions or limitations on fieldwork, 

and reasons for these. 

The GEES community could learn from the wealth of 

individual experience that exists by pooling resources, 

sharing examples of good practice but also recording 

and sharing the ‘near-misses’. Concerns regarding fear 

of reprisal (either personal, or restrictions to future 

fieldwork) would need to be addressed in order to 

facilitate this, but an anonymous web-based repository 

may be one way of encouraging the necessary cultural 

shift. 

Finally, building on the work suggested above, 

sound information, advice and examples of good practice 

should be available for departments and institutions 

to encourage the continued provision of 

experiential learning opportunities. The risks of fieldwork 

need to be realistically assessed, encouraging 

recognition that ‘accidents do happen’ (risk can be 

managed but never eliminated) and that staff need 

support and protection in such circumstances, but that 

the occurrence of accidents is rare. Clear information 

regarding the legal responsibilities of staff towards 

students during fieldwork is required, to provide reassurance 

for individuals, departments and institutions 

that they are meeting their obligations. Recommendations 

should include the retention of high staff-student 

ratios on fieldwork in spite of cost implications. 

A high staff-student ratio allows new staff to benefit 

from accompanying more experienced personnel, and 

thus facilitates ‘mentoring’ in the development of field 

leaders. Most importantly, it is essential to encourage 

recognition that providing opportunities for fieldbased 

experiential learning in HE is in itself good 

practice. A body of literature supporting this already 

exists (Boyle et al., 2003). 

This combination of developing a sound body of 

‘evidence’ of fieldwork practicalities, and providing 

clear, reliable information based on this evidence, 

should go some way towards addressing the many concerns 

associated with fieldwork and hence contribute to 

ensuring that students continue to have opportunities 

for field-based experiential learning. 

Conclusions 

Arguably, dialogue about, reflection on, and awareness 

of fieldwork safety issues should be encouraged. This 

requires the development of an evidence base, good 

practice recommendations established from this, and 

facility for the dissemination and discussion of both 

good practice and near misses. 

Publicising the desirable staff competencies for field 

leaders recommended here should assist staff in assessing 

their own development needs. Any professional 

development opportunities made available specifically 

for GEES staff should be focused around these competencies. 

If, or when some assessment of competence is 

deemed necessary, this competence should be demonstrated 

through any of the four mechanisms recognised 

by the Health & Safety Executive. 

Finally, the evidence base referred to above should be 

used to increase awareness among HE managers, health 

and safety officers, and any other relevant parties, of the 

professional competence of GEES staff in leading fieldwork, 

thus helping to maintain the central role of fieldwork 

in the student experience in GEES disciplines. 

Pauline Couper 

The College of St Mark & St John, Plymouth 

Email: pcouper@marjon.ac.uk 

Tim Stott 

Liverpool John Moores University 

Email: t.a.stott@livjm.ac.uk 

Acknowledgements: Original article published in Planet Issue 

16, the publication of the Higher Education Academy Subject 

Centre for Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences (GEES): 

http://www.gees.ac.uk/pubs/planet. 

This project was funded by the Higher Education Academy 

Subject Centre for Geography, Earth and Environmental 

Sciences (GEES). We are grateful to all those who contributed 

to the consultation, particularly the individuals who gave up 

their time to attend meetings. 


18


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Stott, TA (2003) Carrying out pedagogic research into 

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C; Nash, R; Rawlinson, S; Turner, A. & Wurthman, S. 

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I. & Unwin, D. (1991) Teaching Geography in 

Higher Education: A Manual of Good Practice. Oxford: 

Blackwell. 

Graham, J. (1997) Outdoor Leadership: Technique, Common 

Sense and Self-Confidence. Seattle: The Mountaineers. 

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22/09/05]. 

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http://www.hse.gov.uk/sensiblehealthandsafety/ 

keymessages.htm [Accessed 22/09/05]. 

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Fieldwork in geography teaching: a critical review of 

the literature and approaches. Journal of Geography in 

Higher Education. 23 (3): 313-332. 

King, H. (2003) Enhancing fieldwork quality through 

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UK. 

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19 www.esta-uk.org


From Russia – by Bus 

TED HARRIS 

Roderick Murchison was one of the forefathers of modern geology. In Scotland, the land of his 

birth, he is relatively unknown. But 3000 miles away in the Russian city of Perm, he is a well 

known and respected figure, so much so that Russian schoolchildren there have been studying 

the life and work of this nineteenth-century geologist. 

Figure 1 

Keith Westhead 

piping the group 

from Perm into 

Murchison House. 

PHOTO FERGUS MACTAGGART 

BGS © NERC. 

Murchison was born at Tarradale House, Muir 

of Ord in the Scottish Highlands and served 

in the Peninsular Wars before taking an interest 

in geology. In 1841 Czar Nicholas I commissioned 

him to report on the mineral wealth of Russia and so 

began his travels, in the course of which he would cover 

over 14 000 miles. As a result of his surveys and mapping, 

he defined the geological period known as the 

Permian (290 to 245 million years ago), which he 

named in honour of the city of Perm. 

In 1845, Czar Nicholas bestowed upon him a Russian 

knighthood. Queen Victoria later made Murchison 

a baron and, during the course of his lifetime, he 

received a further seventeen major awards from governments 

and scientific societies across the world, 

eventually becoming Director-General of the British 

Geological Survey. 

Murchison wrote an account of his travels in Russia 

as a popular geological ‘travelogue’ but never saw it 

published. It was finally published, by the BGS, in 2005 

under the title Murchison’s Wanderings in Russia, 

complete with colour reproductions of Murchison’s 

original geological map and cross-sections. 

In December 2005, a group of 24 schoolchildren 

aged between 13 and 15 and their three teachers began 

an arduous overland journey by bus to visit the place of 

his birth in Scotland. The school board in Perm had 

part-funded the journey after the pupils’ project on 

Murchison won a schools competition. The BGS in 

Edinburgh became involved in the early stages of planning 

for the trip and helped to arrange a programme of 

activities for the young visitors. 

The trip included a visit to Tarradale House, now in 

private hands. The owners opened the house to the 

group and the local community provided a hot meal 

and some Scottish entertainment for the young visitors 

at the nearby community centre. 

While in Edinburgh, the BGS held a reception (at 

their office, Murchison House, named after the great 

man) for the group. The children presented the Survey 

with an engraved plaque, commemorating Murchison 

and his work in Russia, similar to one erected at their 

school in Perm. Dr Martin Smith, the BGS head-ofstation 

in Edinburgh, presented the group with a copy 

of Wanderings in Russia and a suitably inscribed piece 

of Permian sandstone. Also at the reception were members 

of the Scotland-Russia Forum and the Russian 

Consul in Edinburgh, Mr Nikita Matkovski. 

Afterwards, the group chatted with staff, who had 

welcomed them into the building to the sound of the 

bagpipes, and then left, heading for Stratford-upon- 

Avon and the theatre before making the return trip 

home. During their trip the group made links with 

schools in Edinburgh, Muir of Ord and Dingwall, and in 

Fortrose Academy, sixth-year pupils learning Russian are 

already planning an exchange visit to Perm later this year. 

Ted Harris 

Email: tjh@bgs.ac.uk 

Figure 2 

The children holding facsimiles of Murchison’s maps and other historical documents at Murchison House in Edinburgh. Standing behind 

the children are Martin Smith, BGS head of station (left) and Ted Harris, BGS schools liaison in Scotland (centre by bust of Murchison), 

Neville Long, of the Scotland-Russia Forum, and Nikita Matkovski, Russian Consul in Edinburgh (both to right). The children’s teachers are 

(left to right) Olga Shibanova (to left of Martin Smith), and Olga Yakovleva and Nataliya Kurdina (both to right of Ted Harris). 

PHOTO FERGUS MACTAGGART BGS © NERC. 


20


Obtaining and Using Remotely Sensed 

Imagery for Teaching in the Earth Sciences 

OLIVER TOMLINSON 

Satellite based Earth imaging systems provide an overview of large (even continental) areas of the 

Earth’s surface and from a perspective which can give insight and show features not obviously 

apparent on the ground. They can provide very detailed large scale imagery of specific locations as 

well as allow the analysis of areas which are inhospitable, difficult to reach or are politically unstable. 

One of course needs to differentiate between passive 

and active imaging systems. Passive systems 

simply record reflected solar and/or 

emitted electromagnetic energy from the Earth’s surface, 

typically in the visible, reflected infrared and thermal 

infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. 

In contrast, active imaging systems emit a beam of 

energy (typically in the microwave region of the electromagnetic 

spectrum) which interacts with the Earth’s 

surface and then they record some part of the returned 

signal. Active imaging systems are commonly termed 

imaging radar and have some advantages over their passive 

counterparts. However this article will focus on 

passive imaging systems, as such imagery is more 

widely available (especially for free) and is less complicated 

in terms of interpretation, processing and theoretical 

physics. 

The mineral and oil industries have long used satellite 

imagery to help find potential locations of new mineral 

or oil reserves – especially in hard to reach and 

inhospitable areas. Specialists in this area are often looking 

for certain tell tale features in an image. This may be 

related to looking at the faults/lineaments present in a 

region or spectral analysis of the overlying vegetation. 

The latter is termed geo-botany, and may involve looking 

for deviations from what are considered normal 

spectral reflectance curves for a vegetation cover type 

which can be caused by high levels of certain minerals 

(such as copper ore). In terms of geological mapping, 

though much information on lithology can be obtained 

from single band images, especially in the 1.6 - 2.2µm 

(reflected infrared) region of the spectrum, it is multispectral 

imagery covering arid/semi-arid areas (where 

ground cover is low) which commonly show an amazing 

correspondence with published geological maps. 

Lastly, those working in the field of geological hazards 

can also benefit from the use of such imagery. For 

example volcanoes are easily seen in such imagery and 

can be studied from a safe distance. Imagery can be used 

to identify/map different lava types and material from 

previous eruptions, perhaps as the basis for a hazard 

map of the region, while imagery from the reflected and 

thermal infrared parts of the spectrum can be used to 

monitor an ongoing eruption. 

The purpose of this article however is not to teach 

you what you as Earth scientists already know, or provide 

an overview of remote sensing theory, but to 

make you aware of how easily such satellite imagery 

and associated computer based viewing and processing 

tools can be obtained (for free) and used in the 

classroom, even if just in hard copy (printed) format, 

given access to a computer with a broadband internet 

connection (or better). 

Image Resolution 

A vast array of imaging systems are currently in orbit 

around the Earth. The imagery from these systems can 

be described according to their resolving power or resolution: 

Spatial, Spectral, Temporal and Radiometric 

resolution. As with maps, one generally selects an imaging 

system which has an appropriate resolution in relation 

to the topic or phenomena being studied. If you are 

unfamiliar with the concept of image resolution, then 

Mather (2004) provides a good explanation, as do several 

of the web sites considered at the end of this article. 

Overview of selected satellite imaging systems 

for which free data is available 

The Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer or 

AVHRR i instrument is carried on-board the NOAA 

(POES) series of satellites. A single AVHRR instrument 

images the entire Earth in a 24 hour period, but several 

AVHRR instruments are currently in operation. The 

basic technical specification of the AVHRR instrument 

is summarised in Table 1. While initially designed as a 

meteorological instrument, the AVHRR has great benefit 

to geological studies, especially in arid and semi arid 

areas. Figure 1 shows a false colour composite of an 

AVHRR image for Morocco and much of NW Africa 

and it clearly shows a number of large geological and 

geomorphological formations. It is argued by Short 

(2005) and others, that the availability of such macro 

scale remotely sensed imagery led to the development 

of a new sub-field of Earth Science called ‘mega-geomorphology’. 

AVHRR imagery is useful for applications such as fault 

mapping and volcano monitoring. NOAA even operates 

a web site dedicated to the monitoring of volcanos using 

satellite imagery (http://www.osei.noaa.gov/ Events/Volcano). 

Lithology in AVHRR imagery is often assessed on 

the basis of night time thermal differences between its 

two long wave thermal bands (bands 4 & 5). The short 

21 www.esta-uk.org


Table 1: 

Spatial, spectral, 

temporal and 

roadiometrics 

resolution of 

selected passive 

satellite imaging 

systems. 

(SOURCE: INFORMATION 

COLLATED FROM ITC, 2005) 

NOAA AVHRR/2 

SPOT Vegetation (VGT) 

Revisit 24 hours Revisit 24 hours 

Swath 2700km Swath 2,250km 

Spatial Resolution 1100m Spatial Resolution 1000m 

Radiometric Resolution 10 bit [1024 levels] Radiometric Resolution 10 bit [1024 levels] 

Band 1 0.58 - 0.68µm Visible Red Band 0 0.43 - 0.47µm Visible Blue 

Band 2 0.72 - 1.10µm Near IR Band 2 0.61 - 0.68µm Visible Red 

Band 3 3.55 - 3.93µm Thermal IR Band 3 0.78 - 0.89µm Near IR 

Band 4 10.30 - 11.30µm Thermal IR Band 4 1.58 - 1.75µm Middle IR 

Band 5 11.50 - 12.50µm Thermal IR 

Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) 

Landsat Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) 

Revisit 16 days Revisit 16 days 

Swath 185km Swath 185km 

Spatial Resolution 30m* Spatial Resolution 30m* 

Radiometric Resolution 8 bit [256 levels] Radiometric Resolution 8 bit [256 levels] 

Band 1 0.45 - 0.52µm Visible Blue Band 1 0.45 - 0.52µm Visible Blue 

Band 2 0.52 - 0.60µm Visible Green Band 2 0.52 - 0.60µm Visible Green 

Band 3 0.63 - 0.69µm Visible Red Band 3 0.63 - 0.69µm Visible Red 

Band 4 0.76 - 0.90µm Near IR Band 4 0.75 - 0.90µm Near IR 

Band 5 1.55 - 1.75µm Middle IR Band 5 1.55 - 1.75µm Middle IR 

Band 7 2.08 - 2.35µm Middle IR Band 7 2.08 - 2.35µm Middle IR 

Band 6 10.40 - 12.50µm Thermal IR (*120m) Band 6 10.40 - 12.50µm Thermal IR (*60m) 

Note: IR = Infrared Band 8 0.52 - 0.90µm Pan Visible (*15m) 

wavelength thermal channel (band 3b) of the AVHRR3 

instrument is also valuable in that it can be used to detect 

lava flows, lave tubes and lava lakes. 

Processed AVHRR data of value to Earth surface 

studies is available however this data generally requires 

the use of an image processing (IP) package to read the 

data and generate the images. One of the best sources of 

global AVHRR data is the USGS EROS Global Land 1- 

KM AVHRR project [http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/1KM/ 

comp10d.asp]. This site provides access to global 

mosaics of AVHRR data from 1992-1996. The imagery 

is in the form of 10 day composites (i.e. each image is 

derived from the average reflectance from a series of ten 

individual daily images). To access the imagery, you 

define an area of interest using lat/lon and then select 

the individual AVHRR channel (or other derived product) 

to download and at what spatial resolution ii . 

Figure 1 was created by downloading data from the 

1KM AVHHR project and importing it into the Multi- 

Spec processing package. 

This data source is easy to use though the currency iii 

of the imagery may be an issue for some applications, 

and you have to repeat the download process for each 

band of imagery you want. The biggest hurdle is learning 

how to import and display the data in an image processing 

package iv . If you find this hurdle to big to 

overcome, then you may wish to consider Landsat 

imagery or NASAs World Wind Application. 

The Landsat programme was the first terrain imaging 

programme designed specifically for the regular and predictable 

large scale (and at the time, high spatial resolution) 

imaging of the Earth’s surface. Operated by the 

U.S. government, Landsat 1 was launched back in 1972. 

The Thematic Mapper (TM) debuted on board Landsat 

4 in 1982 and its technical details are shown in Table 1. 

Band 7 was added rather late in the development of the 

TM programme at the behest of the geological community 

(hence why it is out of sequence given its waveband 

sensitivity), because this spectral region is quite 

good for mineral identification. The relatively high spatial 

and spectral resolution of the Landsat TM made it 

very useful across a large spectrum of applications and 

it became the main work horse of remote sensing. In 

the late 90s the TM was improved and relaunched as 

the ETM aboard Landsat 6. However Landsat 6 never 

made orbit and so the ETM instrument only started 

imaging the Earth with the launch of Landsat 7 in 1999. 

Table 1 includes the technical specifications for the 

ETM instrument. The ETM is much the same as the 

TM instrument, except the thermal channel now has a 

60m resolution and a broad visible panchromatic channel 

has been added with a 15m resolution. Raw TM & 

ETM data for processing are generally quite expensive, 

but cheap or even free imagery can be obtained from a 

number of sources. Today the TM & ETM imaging systems 

would be considered moderate resolution imaging 

systems, but the imagery they produce is very 

valuable and suitable for a large range of applications. 

The best single global source of free TM & ETM 

imagery is NASA’s Applied Sciences Directorate Landsat 

Mosaic [https://zulu.ssc.nasa.gov/mrsid/]. NASA’s 

Landsat mosaic web site is a free Landsat TM/ETM 

image archive of global coverage (excluding the polar 

regions) in MrSID v format. A free MrSID plug-in for 

your web browser can be obtained from LizardTech 

(www.lizardtech.com). Once the site is loaded in a 

browser, you select images using a map interface. You 

zoom in to your area of interest and then can view 


22


Figure 1: 

AVHRR/2 composite image of NW Africa. Low spatial resolution imagery such as this is excellent for regional and continental scale 

studies and shows a considerable amount of geological /geomorphological detail, especially in arid / semi arid areas as shown here. The 

dune seas (ergs), plateaus and massif features stand out quite clearly, as do the High and Anti Atlas mountain ranges. Complex folding 

is also evident in places and possible faults can also be traced (more easily visible when viewed on a computer screen). The band to 

colour gun assignment of the composite is RGB=AVHRR bands 3, 2 & 1 respectively. Densely vegetated areas appear green, dune seas 

appear as a light beige and salt depressions (such as those of the Grand Erg Occidental) are a bluish-white (not to be confused with the 

darker bluishwhite colour seen in the North and over the Atlas, which is cloud and / or snow). The major geological features such as the 

Yetti Eglab Massif are shown in red. 

AVHRR/2 DATA COURTESY OF THE U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY (HTTP://EDCSNS17.CR.USGS.GOV/1KM/COMP10D.HTML) 

and/or download the TM or ETM image of that area. If 

downloading, please note the TM files are ~32Mb 

each, while the ETM files are ~ 150Mb each). The 

images are already in a false colour composite format 

(i.e. you don’t have access to the original individual 

image bands as you do with the 1KM AVHRR project) 

and are in UTM projected co-ordinates vi . The ETM 

images (circa 2000) are RGB=742 (Middle IR, Near IR 

and Visible Green), but each band of the composite has 

been ‘pan sharpened’ using the ETMs 15m panchromatic 

channel – this effectively means the imagery is at 

~ 15m spatial resolution and accounts for the whopping 

150Mb file sizes. The TM images (circa 1990) are 

also RBG=742, but because they are not pan sharpened, 

spatial resolution remains at about 30m and file 

sizes are a lot more reasonable. If you have access to a 

GIS, then because the data is projected, you can use the 

GIS to re-project the data for integration with other 

data sets if need be (e.g. OSGB). While MrSid is an odd 

format, if you have an application which reads MrSid 

format, viewing and using such imagery is very easy. 

Figure 2 shows an extract from the ETM (2000) 

mosaic (tiles N-29-25 & N-29-30) which centres on a 

Hercynian Massif formation in the Anti Atlas to the 

East of Tiznit (South of Agadir), Morocco and the corresponding 

extract from the 1:500,000 geology sheet for 

the same area. The match between the features in the 

image and the units and their boundaries on the geology 

map is clearly apparent and underlines the value of 

such imagery to Earth scientists. The match with larger 

scale geology maps is equally good. 

Other moderate spatial resolution imagery can be 

obtained which is technically free, but you have to pay 

an administration charge which though not expensive 

may be beyond the budgets of some. Perhaps the best 

example is the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission 

and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER). ASTER is a 

14 channel imaging system on NASA’s Terra satellite. 

ASTER imagery is sub classified by its spatial resolution 

and spectral range: 

● VNIR – Bands 1-3: 4 Visible and near IR channels at 

15m spatial resolution 

● SWIR – Bands 4-9: 6 Near IR channels at 30m spatial 

resolution 

● TIR – Bands 10-14: 5 thermal channels at 90m spatial 

resolution 

An $80US processing charge is levied for each ASTER 

scene (granule) if you want to download via FTP (it is 

more expensive if you want imagery on media). ASTER 

imagery can be browsed and ordered via the USGS/ 

NASA Earth Observation System Data Gateway 

(http://edcimswww.cr.usgs.gov/pub/imswelcome). 

From a geological point of view, VNIR imagery provides 

a 100% improvement on Landsat TM imagery, 

while the SWIR provides more spectral discrimination 

in the short wave infrared useful for mineral discrimination. 

ASTER imagery however is only available in 

HDF format which many IP software packages, especially 

older ones, cannot read. 

Overview of selected free PC based image 

viewing and image processing packages 

Image viewers are the simplest to use, but cannot easily 

be used to read in raw data such as that from the 

AVHRR archive. However they are very good for 

23 www.esta-uk.org


Figure 2: 

Tiled Landsat 7 ETM composite image of a Hercynian Massif in the Anti Atlas (East of Tiznit), Morocco and associated geology map 

extract. The ETM composite (2000) shows a Hercynian massif (located at ~9°W 30°N). The features and colouring in the image can be 

seen to closely match the geological units shown on the geology map. Lineaments and patterns of folding are also clearly visible. The 

image above was created by tiling two ETM (2000) images (N-29-25 & N29-30) using Lizardtech’s GeoExpress View application. The area 

of interest was then zoomed into and saved as a separate TIF file. A horizontal line of contrast difference in the top left is the only real 

clue as to where one tile ends and the other begins. 

ETM DATA COURTESY OF NASA (HTTPS://ZULU.SSC.NASA.GOV/MRSID/). GEOLOGY MAP SOURCE: CARTE GEOLOGIQUE DU MAROC, MARRAKECH SHEET, 1:500,000 (1957). 

MrSID imagery. For those who want to do more than 

browse or print imagery, consider one of the image processing 

applications, but note a greater level of technical 

knowledge is required to use them. 

Because the Landsat archive imagery is in MrSID 

format, an image viewer capable of reading MrSID 

images is needed vii . Two such image viewing packages 

are described next and while they are very similar in 

many respects, there are some important differences. 

Leica’s ViewFinder (formerly ERDAS ViewFinder) 

[http://www.gis.leica-geosystems.com/Products/Imagine/downloads/viewfinder.asp] 

can read a range of standard 

satellite image formats (but not HDF format). It is 

nice and easy to use viewer, especially for multi-spectral 

imagery. It allows files to be saved to TIF (for use in a 

standard graphics program) or Erdas Imagine formats 

(for use in IP software). Because the Landsat MrSID 

imagery is geo-coded, this application will also allow 

you to measure distances and calculate areas (using an 

overlay layer). It can also perform simple processing 

(histogram stretching and spatial filtering). On the 

down side it has no print capability, but it does allow 

you to copy the contents of the main window to the 

clipboard for pasting into other applications. 

Lizardtech’s GeoExpress View [http://www.lizard 

tech.com]. Lizardtech are the company who developed the 

MrSID format. As well as providing an MrSID image 

plug-in for web browsers, they also have a standalone 

viewer – GeoExpress View. This software is more limited 

that Leica’s ViewFinder in terms of the image formats it 

recognises (TIF and MrSID only) and the image processing 

it is capable of. On the plus side you can tile adjacent 

images (if geo-referenced) and print from within the 

application (it prints whatever is in the window with a 

scale, so can print whole images or just sub sections). As 

well as allowing you to measure distances and areas, it also 

allows you to place annotation over the image (text and 

drawing), which is useful for hi-lighting features. It can 

export images to several graphics formats (either the 

whole image or a selected area) and it also allows window 

snapshots to the clipboard. The real problem is that you 

can only use it for 30 minutes at a time and then have to 

restart it (a limitation of the free version of this application). 

However you can save your projects, so you can pick 

up where you left off each time your time expires. Note: 

when using this application, you have to start a new project 

before you can open an image file. 

When considering satellite imagery and image viewing 

software, one cannot ignore the fantastic ‘World 

Wind’ application recently developed by NASA 

(http://worldwind.arc.nasa.gov). World Wind is a tool 

for exploring all of/any part of the Earth in 3D using 

satellite imagery, while via its ‘scientific visualisation 

studio’ it provides a fantastic perspective on topics from 

African wild fires to volcanic activity. The imagery is 

part of the application, in that when you zoom in to the 

Earth, it automatically pulls imagery relevant to that 

location from the web and displays it. The closer in you 

zoom to a location, the more detailed the imagery 

becomes. This means you don’t have to mess about 

downloading separate images and software to display 

them. On the down side, the initial download is quite 

large (45MB) and the application needs an internet 

connection (broadband or better) when it is being used. 

It primarily uses NOAA AVHRR and Landsat7 ETM 

imagery as the main means of representing the surface 

of the Earth, but for some locations other imagery (e.g. 

MODIS) is also available. For the USA, ortho-rectified 

vertical aerial photographs are available which show a 

stunning level of detail. The application is not unlike 

using a flight simulator to navigate to your location of 

choice and fly around it, exploring it from different perspectives. 

Figure 3 shows a screen shot from the World 

Wind application looking north towards Agadir & the 


24


High Atlas, Morocco. As part of the Geography degree 

at Derby, The World Wind application is used to help 

familiarise students with the environment around 

Agadir prior to their field visit. 

As far as IP software goes, the packages considered 

are free, easy to install and come with a good set of tutorials 

(though may take some time to download and 

learn how to use!). They do vary in their complexity 

(and they are ordered from simple to complex). All 

however could be used to teach IP in the classroom. 

BILKO [www.soc.soton.ac.uk/bilko/index. php]. 

Bilko was written by UNESCO and is a non-commercial/teaching 

application. It is PC based and comes with 

its own tutorials on basic image processing which are 

quite well written (though have a coastal / marine bias 

as that is the topic of study for which Bilko was developed). 

Bilko has good image import capabilities 

(including HDF files), but is a little limited in terms of 

image processing and export capabilities. 

MultiSpec [http://dynamo.ecn.purdue.edu/~biehl/ 

MultiSpec]. MultiSpec is a non-commercial / teaching 

package developed at Purdue University. Versions are 

available for MAC and PC based systems. MultiSpec 

comes with some sample imagery / tutorials. MultiSpec 

can read a number of image formats (including HDF 

and ERDAS) and is reasonable for processing and 

exporting imagery. 

TNTLite [www.microimages.com/tntlite]. TNTLite 

is a free (but cut down) version of a commercial image 

processing package called TNTmips. As such it is limited 

in certain ways (it will only read / display relatively 

small file sizes and you cannot export files). Again, tutorial 

and sample image files can also be downloaded. Versions 

for MAC, PC, Linux & SUN systems are 

available (as are different language versions). While 

image export has been disabled, this software is otherwise 

very comprehensive. Those with no image processing 

experience may find it a little complicated and 

may be better trying one of the other packages first. It 

can read imagery of nearly every format, including 

MrSID and HDF. 

Figure 3: 

Screen shot from NASA’s World Wind Application. The view is looking north towards the High Atlas mountains from a position just to the 

west of the Hercynian Massif from Figure 2. Much of the top left quarter of Figure 2 is visible in this view. We again have Landsat ETM 

imagery, but this time it is draped over elevation data and place names are added by World Wind. Integrating the satellite imagery with 

elevation data greatly aids interpretation as it provides a context for the features (and their boundaries) depicted in the image. The City 

of Agadir is at the base of the High Atlas (top left). The Souss Valley is shown running from the top right in a SW direction toward the 

sea (between the High Atlas in the background and the Anti Atlas to our East). In the foreground is the Youssef Ben Tachfine reservoir 

which is fed from the Anti Atlas. Running north from the bottom of the view (across the dam of the reservoir) is the first Anti Atlas 

mountain ridge, the steeply inclined bedding planes of which are clearly visible on its Western slope and help identify the feature as 

being sedimentary in origin. 

SOURCE: NASA WORLD WIND (HTTP://WORLDWIND.ARC.NASA.GOV/) 

25 www.esta-uk.org


Useful web based resources in Remote Sensing 

(Theory & Application) 

The nature of remote sensing and image processing 

means that there are a lot of resources on the internet 

which look at both theory and application. A brief 

overview of some of the best places to start is considered 

here: 

Remote Sensing Core Curriculum (RSCC) [www.rs-c-c.org]. 

The American Society of Photogrammetry 

and Remote Sensing (ASPRS) site includes resources 

which cover theory and application as well as having a 

number of tutorials which can be downloaded and 

undertaken. Content is quite broad and though there is 

little which is specific to geological remote sensing, it still 

makes an excellent on-line text book. 

NASA’s Remote Sensing Tutorial by Nicholas Short 

[http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov] vii is another excellent educational 

resource which covers the history, theory and 

application of remote sensing. This site has a number of 

dedicated sections on applications in geology & megageomorphology. 

This site also has its own associated 

free PC based IP software called PIT (Photo Interpretation 

Tool) and the site has chapters covering the 

installation and use of PIT for image display & processing. 

PIT comes with some sample images and is a useful 

companion to the site. This is an award winning 

introductory resource to the topic of remote sensing. 

Canadian Remote Sensing Society (CRSS) 

www.ccrs.nrcan.gc.ca/ccrs/com/crss/crss_e.html]. 

The CRSS site gives access to a number of different 

types of information. From a learning resource point 

of view, click on the Learning tab (www.ccrs.nrcan. 

gc.ca/ccrs/learn/learn_e.html) where you will find 

the Remote Sensing Tutorial. This is another comprehensive 

on-line text book covering remote sensing 

theory and application. The fundamentals section is 

very good and there is a dedicated section on applications 

in geology. The site also includes a lot of information 

on active (radar) imaging (primarily because 

of Radarsat – A Canadian government operated imaging 

radar). There are also teachers notes and a number 

of exercises which can be downloaded (for both 

passive and active imaging systems). Many of these 

tutorials are designed as hard copy exercises, so no IP 

software is required. 

The ITC Database of Satellites and Sensors 

[www.itc.nl/research/products/sensordb/searchsat.asp 

x]. This ITC (International Institute for Geo-Information 

Science and Earth Observation) site is very useful 

when you are researching about different remote sensing 

satellites and sensors. While it is not the only site of 

this sort, it is arguably the best. It provides history and 

technical information on each satellite and sensor as 

well as links to resources about each one. Such web 

based resources on satellites and sensors are always 

more up to date than text books. 

Conclusion 

In recent years NASA have emerged as a key resource 

provider for those wishing to learn about and use satellite 

imagery. Their provision of easily readable and high 

quality imagery such as the MrSID format TM & ETM 

imagery coupled with the outstanding World Wind 

Application and on-line remote sensing tutorial mean 

that you no longer have to be an image processing 

expert to use satellite imagery in teaching activities. If 

access to a computing lab is problematic, hard copy 

exercises can easily be generated (with MS PowerPoint 

or Word) which are low cost yet valuable means of 

introducing remote sensing into the class room ix . 

Where access to a computing lab is possible, the amount 

of good quality software, imagery and training materials 

means that you can teach remote sensing without 

having to make any costly data, textbook or software 

license purchases. 

References 

ITC – International Institute for Geo-Information 

Science and Earth Observation (2005) Database of 

Satellites and Sensors [on-line]. Available from: 

www.itc.nl/ research/products/sensordb/ 

searchsat.aspx (Accessed on 16/11/2005). 

Mather, P. (2004) Computer Processing of Remotely-Sensed 

Images. Chichester: Wiley. 

NASA Applied Science Directorate (2005) 

Landsat Mosaic Data [on-line]. 

Available from: https://zulu.ssc.nasa.gov/mrsid 

(Accessed on 16/11/2005). 

Short, N. (2005) The Remote Sensing Tutorial [on-line]. 

Available from: http://rst.gsfc.nasa.gov 

(Accessed on 16/11/2005). 

Oliver Tomlinson 

Senior Lecturer in Remote Sensing & GIS 

Geography, Earth, Environment & Sport (GEES) 

University of Derby 

Kedleston Road 

Derby 

DE22 1GB 

Email: o.j.tomlinson@derby.ac.uk 


26


i While generically referred to as the AVHRR, there 

are actually two versions of this instrument. The 

now older AVHRR/2 (which is described here) was 

carried on NOAA-10 - NOAA-14. The newer 

AVHRR/3 as carried on the current NOAA satellites 

has an extra NIR channel, but is the same in 

other respects. 

ii You can choose any resolution between 1km and 

16km. 

iii If you need more recent imagery of this type, then 

consider using VGT imagery. The Vegetation (or 

VGT) is a 4 channel imaging system carried on the 

SPOT series of satellite since 1998. The VGT collects 

imagery much the same as the AVHRR in 

terms of swath, spectral and spatial resolution, 

though the focus of the VGT project is terrestrial 

rather than meteorological. Table 1 includes a summary 

of the VGT’s technical details for comparison 

with the AVHRR. VGT imagery can be obtained 

from the Free VGT Image Archive (http://free.vgt. 

vito.be/) and the newest imagery is only ever 3 

months old. 

iv The AVHRR data is typically 16bit signed integer. 

If using a PC, specify a byte order of least significant 

byte first – LSB (i.e. Intel rather than Motorola 

byte order) and a compression type of none. While 

the extension is default to .dat, the data is in BSQ 

format with no header. Reference to ‘samples’ in 

image size means columns. Print out the information 

from the download verification page, as it is 

needed when importing it into IP software. 

v MrSID formatted data can be read by some IP software 

packages, but not by many general graphics 

applications. However, you can download freeware 

MrSID compatible image viewers which will allow 

you to view, zoom, roam and print out such 

imagery. See section on free image viewing software 

for more details. 

vi UTM – Universal Transverse Mercator is a global 

planar / Cartesian co-ordinate system. 

vii Users of ESRIs ArcView & ArcGIS applications 

please note that these applications can read MrSid 

imagery, though you may have to load the appropriate 

extension first. 

viii An alternative URL for this site is: 

http://www.sbg.ac.at/geo/idrisi/remote_sensing_t 

utorial/rst.gsfc.nasa.gov/ 

ix I print out imagery using the fairly humble inkjet 

printer on my desk using either photographic or 

bright white (chalk coated) paper. Photo paper produces 

superb results, but I use chalk coated where 

students get to keep the prints afterwards. 

27 www.esta-uk.org


Comparison of the New GCSE Science 

Specifications for their Earth Science Content 

PETER KENNETT, ON BEHALF OF THE EARTH SCIENCE EDUCATION UNIT 

These new specifications for the General Certificate in Secondary Education (GCSE) in science will 

apply to teaching starting in September 2006, for first examination in 2007. 

The Qualifications and Curriculum Authority 

(QCA) Criteria for Science 

The new proposals are based upon a revised programme 

of study for Science at Key Stage 4 (14 - 16 year 

olds) published by QCA in 2004 (available on the QCA 

website). The Programme of Study is mirrored by the 

GCSE Criteria for science (QCA website). These provide 

for: 

● GCSE Science (replacing Science, Single Award) 

● GCSE Additional Science (giving the equivalent of 

Science, Double Award, when taken with the above) 

● GCSE Extension Units, to allow for qualification in all 

3 separate sciences – Biology, Chemistry and Physics 

● GCSE Applied Science (offered either as Additional 

Applied Science worth one GCSE or as a Double 

Award Applied Science GCSE). 

The chart provided by EDEXCEL explains the relationship 

between these (apart from Applied Science). 

There is no change to the Programmes of Study at 

Key Stages 1 to 3 (for 5 - 14 year olds). The new programmes 

of study from QCA are divided into five categories 

(four in the previous version): 

● How science works (replacing “Sc1”) 

● Organisms and health 

● Chemical and material behaviour 

● Energy, electricity and radiations 

● Environment, Earth and universe 

How Science Works 

The skills, knowledge and understanding of how science 

works. The main headings are: 

1. Data, evidence, theories and explanations 

2. Practical and enquiry skills 

3. Communication skills 

4. Applications and implications of science 

Earth science applications can be found for all of the 

statements itemised under the above headings. 

Breadth of Study 

Organisms and health (largely biology) 

The statement with most relevance to Earth science is: 

“Variation within species can lead to evolutionary 

changes and similarities and differences between 

species can be measured and classified.” 

Chemical and material behaviour (largely chemistry) 

An Earth application could be implied from the statement, 

“New materials made from natural resources by 

chemical reactions”. 

Energy, electricity and radiations (largely physics) 

Examples from the Earth could be used to exemplify 

“energy transfers...”: also, “Radiations...”. 

Environment, Earth and Universe 

This contains the “obvious” Earth science, i.e. “The 

surface and atmosphere of the Earth have changed since 

the Earth’s origin and are changing at present”. Also 

covered are environmental issues, “The effects of 

human activity on the environment can be assessed 

using living and non-living indicators”. 

Specification design 

GCSE Science GCSE Additional Science Extension Units 

UNIT B1 UNIT B2 UNIT B3 GCSE Biology 

UNIT C1 UNIT C2 UNIT C3 GCSE Chemistry 

UNIT P1 UNIT P2 UNIT P3 GCSE Physics 


28


Earth Science Content of the New GCSE 

Specifications 

The following notes have been compiled by trawling 

through the specifications provided by the four Awarding 

Bodies (that used to be called Examining Boards) 

for England and Wales. 

For each Body, the tables show: 

In normal type – content which would normally be 

regarded as earth science, quoted verbatim; 

In italics – content which is arguably more marginal to earth 

science, shown in summary only. 

Most of the specifications show requirements at both 

Foundation and Higher level, resulting in some apparent 

repetition seen in parts of the tables. 

With the exception of the WJEC, there seems to be 

little or no additional earth science in the specifications 

for the separate subject GCSEs in Biology, Chemistry 

and Physics. 

AQA (Science A, 86 pages) 

GCSE Science A and B (The specifications for Science A and Science B are identical: it is the assessment method that varies) 

Part of Specification 

Candidates should use their skills, knowledge 

and understanding of how science works: 

Students’ skills, knowledge and understanding of how science 

works should be set in these substantive contexts: 

Biology 1b – Evolution 

and Environment 

Chemistry 1a – 

Products from Rocks 

Chemistry 1b – Oils, 

Earth and Atmosphere 

Physics 1a. 1b 

to suggest reasons why scientists cannot be 

certain about how life began on Earth; 

to interpret evidence relating to evolutionary 

theory; 

to suggest reasons why Darwin’s theory of 

natural selection was only gradually accepted; 

to identify the differences between Darwin’s 

theory of evolution and conflicting theories. 

to explain why the theory of crustal movement 

(continental drift) was not generally accepted 

for many years after it was proposed; 

to explain why scientists cannot accurately 

predict when earthquakes and volcanic 

eruptions will occur; 

to explain and evaluate theories of the changes 

that have occurred and are occurring in the 

Earth’s atmosphere. 

Fossils provide evidence of how much (or how little) different 

organisms have changed since life developed on Earth 

The theory of evolution states that all species of living things have 

evolved from simple life-forms which first developed more than three 

billion years ago. 

Waste disposal (could include landfill) 

The “greenhouse effect” 

Sustainable development 

Limestone, metal ores and fuels – environmental, social and economic 

effects of exploitation: products made from geological resources 

The Earth consists of a core, mantle and a crust. 

Scientists once thought that the features of the Earth’s surface were 

the result of the shrinking of the crust as the Earth cooled down 

following its formation. 

The Earth’s crust and the upper part of the mantle are cracked into a 

number of large pieces (tectonic plates). Convection currents within 

the Earth’s mantle, driven by heat released by natural radioactive 

processes, cause the plates to move at relative speeds of a few 

centimetres per year. 

The movements can be sudden and disastrous. Earthquakes and/or 

volcanic eruptions occur at the boundaries between tectonic plates. 

For 200 million years, the proportions of different gases in the 

atmosphere have been much the same as they are today. 

During the first billion years of the Earth’s existence there was intense 

volcanic activity. This activity released the gases that formed the early 

atmosphere and water vapour that condensed to form the oceans. 

Some theories suggest that during this period, the Earth’s 

atmosphere was mainly carbon dioxide and there would have been 

little or no oxygen gas (like the atmospheres of Mars and Venus 

today). There may have also been water vapour, and small 

proportions of methane and ammonia. 

Plants produced the oxygen that is now in the atmosphere. 

Most of the carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air gradually 

became locked up in sedimentary rocks as carbonates and fossil 

fuels. 

Nowadays the release of carbon dioxide by burning fossil fuels 

increases the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. 

Heat loss (could involve plutonic v. volcanic environments) 

Energy sources – coal, oil, gas, nuclear 

Renewable energy, including geothermal: impact on environment 

Half-life (could be related to radioisotopic dating) 

29 www.esta-uk.org


AQA (92 pages) – GCSE Additional Science 


Topic 

Biology B2, Chemistry 

C2, Physics P2 

No topics involving Earth science seem to be included. 

Edexcel (180 pages total) – GCSE Science 

Part of Specification Learning outcomes 

B1a: Topic 1 – 

Environment 

C1a: Topic 6 Making 

Changes 

C1b: Topic 7 – There’s 

One Earth 

P1b: Topic 11 – Now 

You See It, Now You 

Don’t 

explain that fossils provide evidence for evolution; 

discuss why Charles Darwin experienced difficulty in getting his theory of evolution through natural selection accepted 

by the scientific community in the 19th century. 

Extraction of metals from ores 

discuss how the composition of the Earth’s atmosphere and its temperature have varied over different time scales; 

Global warming; sustainability; useful substances from sea water & rock salt. 

Describe the similarities between longitudinal and transverse waves...including seismic waves... 

suggest reasons why scientists find it difficult to predict earthquakes and tsunami waves, given appropriate data; 

use data about seismic waves passing through the Earth to draw conclusions about the types of materials that are 

found in the planet’s interior. 

EDEXCEL – GCSE Additional Science 

Part of Specification Learning outcomes 

P2: Topic 11 – Putting 

Radiation to Use 

P2 Topic 12 – Power of 

the Atom 

Recognise that scientific conclusions, such as those from radioactive dating, often carry significant uncertainties. 

Discuss the origin of the background radiation from Earth and space. 

Explain that the Earth’s atmosphere and magnetic field protects it from radiation from space. 

Describe a simple decay series starting from the daughter products of U-235. 

Explain that the products of nuclear fission are radioactive and discuss the long-term possibilities for storage/disposal 

of nuclear waste. 

OCR – GCSE (Gateway) Science (134 pages) 

Part of Specification Statement 

P1: Energy for the 

Home 

B2: Understanding our 

Environment 

Describe earthquakes as producing shock waves which can cause damage, and be detected by seismometers 

describe that earthquakes produce shock waves, which can also travel inside the Earth 

State that there are two types of seismic waves 

● longitudinal P waves travel through both solids and liquids and travel faster than S waves; 

● transverse S waves which travel through solids but not through liquids. 

Describe how seismic waves transmitted through the Earth can be used to provide evidence for its structure 

● P waves travel through solid and liquid rock (i.e. all layers of the Earth); 

● S waves cannot travel through liquid rock (i.e. the outer core). 

State that fossils can provide evidence for living organisms from long ago. 

Explain that animals and plants can change over long periods of time and that fossils provide evidence for this 

Describe how the relative position of fossils in rock layers can be used to show evolutionary changes during long 

periods of time. 

Describe how organisms may have become fossilised: 

● hard body parts (shells, bones, leaves) covered in sediment, gradual replacement by minerals; 

● casts / impressions; 

● preservation in amber, peat bogs, tar pits, ice. 

Explain that the fossil record is incomplete: 

● some body parts, particularly soft tissue, decay so do not fossilise; 

● fossilisation rarely occurred; 

● fossils not yet discovered. 

Interpret data on the evolution of an organism such as the horse 

Explain that the fossil record has been interpreted differently over time (eg creationist interpretation). 

Explain that when environments change some animal and plant species survive or evolve but many become extinct. 


30


OCR – GCSE (Gateway) Science (134 pages) Continued 


Statement 

C2: Rocks and Metals construction materials, including those manufactured from rocks in the Earth’s crust: 

State that some rocks are used to construct buildings: 

● granite, limestone and marble. 

Describe that marble is much harder than limestone and that granite is harder than marble. 

Explain why granite, marble and limestone have different hardnesses 

● limestone is a sedimentary rock 

● marble is a metamorphic rock made by the action of high pressures and temperatures on limestone 

● granite is an igneous rock. 

State that limestone and marble are both forms of calcium carbonate 

environmental problems resulting from quarrying 

C2: Rocks and Metals Describe the structure of the Earth as a sphere with a thin rocky crust, mantle and core 

State that the Earth’s core contains iron 

State that the movement of tectonic plates results in volcanic activity and earthquakes 

Describe the outer layer of the Earth (lithosphere) as oceanic plates under oceans and continental plates forming 

continents. 

Describe the lithosphere as the (relatively) cold rigid outer part of the Earth that includes the crust and the outer part of 

the mantle. 

Explain that tectonic plates are found on top of the mantle because they are less dense than the mantle. 

Explain the problems of studying the structure of the Earth. 

Describe the mantle as the zone between the crust and the core and that it is relatively cold and rigid just below the 

crust but hot and non-rigid and so able to flow at greater depths. 

Describe the theory of plate tectonics: 

● energy transfer involving convection currents in the largely solid mantle causing the plates to move slowly; 

● oceanic plates are more dense than the continental plates; 

● collision between oceanic and continental plates leads to subduction and partial remelting (oceanic goes underneath 

continental). 

Describe in simple terms the development of the theory of plate tectonics. 

Describe how molten rock can find its way to the surface through weaknesses in the crust. 

Explain that magma from the mantle must have a density less than that of the crust in order to rise through it. 

State that igneous rock is made when molten rock cools down. 

Describe magma as molten rock beneath the surface of the Earth. 

Describe lava as molten rock that erupts from a volcano. 

State that some of the rock on the Earth’s surface has been formed by volcanic activity. 

Describe that some volcanoes give runny lava, some give thick lava violently and catastrophically. 

Explain how the size of crystals in an igneous rock is related to the rate of cooling of molten rock: 

● iron-rich basalt and its coarse equivalent gabbro; 

● silica-rich rhyolite and its coarse equivalent granite. 

State that magma can have different compositions and that this affects the rock that forms and the type of eruption, 

limited to: 

● iron-rich basalt (runny and fairly ‘safe’) 

● explosive silica-rich rhyolite (producing pumice and volcanic ash and bombs, sometimes with graded bedding). 

Describe that some people choose to live near volcanoes because volcanic soil is very fertile. 

Describe that geologists study volcanoes to be able to predict future eruptions and to reveal information about the 

structure of the Earth. 

Describe that geologists are now able to better predict volcanic eruptions but not with 100% certainty. 

Describe how the present day atmosphere evolved: 

● original atmosphere came from gases escaping from the interior of the Earth; 

● photosynthesis by plants increases the percentage of oxygen until it reached today’s level. 

Describe one possible theory for how the atmosphere evolved: 

● degassing from the Earth’s crust; 

● initial atmosphere of ammonia and carbon dioxide; 

● formation of water; 

● development of photosynthetic organisms; 

● increase in oxygen and nitrogen levels; 

● lack of reactivity of nitrogen. 

31 www.esta-uk.org


OCR – GCSE (Gateway) Science (134 pages) Continued 


P2: Living for the future Describe: the shape of the Earth’s magnetic field; ... 

Describe that: 

● the earth is surrounded by a magnetic field; 

● magnets have a north and south pole; 

● the Earth’s core contains a lot of molten iron; 

● a plotting compass shows the direction of a magnetic field. 

OCR – GSCE (Gateway) Additional Science (136 pages) 


Statement 

P4: Radiation for Life Describe background radiation and state that it is caused by radioactive substances in rocks and soil and by cosmic rays. 

Recall that radioactivity can be used to date rocks. 

Explain how the radioactive dating of rocks depends on the calculation of the uranium/lead ratio. 

Investigate the variation of background radiation with location 

Explain how the idea of half life is used to date artefacts in archaeology. 

Recall that measurements from radioactive carbon can be used to find the date of old materials. 

Explain how measurements of the activity of radioactive carbon can lead to an approximate age for different materials: 

● the amount of carbon 14 in the air has not changed for thousands of years; 

● when an object dies (e.g. wood) gaseous exchange with the air stops; 

● as the carbon 14 in the wood decays the activity of the sample decreases; 

● the ratio of current activity from living matter to the activity of the sample leads to a reasonably accurate date. 

Describe and recognise that radioactivity decreases with time 

Describe radioactive substances as decaying naturally and giving out nuclear radiation in the form of alpha, beta and 

gamma. 

Explain and use the concept of half life 

Interpret graphical or numerical data of radioactive decay 

OCR - 21st Century Science (100 pages) 


P1: The Earth in the 

Universe 

Recall that rocks provide evidence for changes in the Earth (erosion and sedimentation, fossils, folding, radioactive 

dating, craters); 

understand that continents would be worn down to sea level, if mountains were not being continuously formed; 

understand that the rock processes seen today can account for past changes; 

understand that the Earth must be older than its oldest rocks, which are about 4 thousand million years old; 

label on a given diagram of the Earth its crust, mantle and core; 

recall that the Solar system was formed over very long periods from clouds of gases and dust in space, about 5 

thousand million years ago; 

discuss the probability and possible consequences of an asteroid colliding with the Earth, including the extinction of 

the dinosaurs; 

recall Wegener’s theory of continental drift and his evidence for it (geometric fit of continents and their matching fossils, 

mountain chains and rocks); 

understand how Wegener’s theory accounted for mountain building; 

recall reasons for the rejection of Wegener’s theory by geologists of his time (movements of continents not detectable, 

Wegener an outsider to the community of geologists, too big an idea from limited evidence, simpler explanations of the 

same evidence); 

understand that seafloor spreading is a consequence of movement of the solid mantle; 

recall that seafloors spread by about 10 cm a year; 

understand how seafloor spreading produces a pattern in the magnetism recorded in ocean floors, limited to reversals 

of the Earth’s magnetic field and solidification of molten magma at oceanic ridges; 

recall that earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountain building generally occur at the edges of tectonic plates; 

understand how the movement of tectonic plates causes earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain building and contributes to 

the rock cycle; 

recall some actions that public authorities can take to reduce damage caused by geohazards. 


32


OCR – 21st Century Science (100 pages) Continued 


Statement 

B3: Life on Earth recall that the many different species of living things on Earth (and many species that are now extinct) evolved from very 

simple living things; 

recall that life on Earth began about 3500 million years ago; 

understand that evidence for evolution is provided by fossils and from analysis of similarities and differences in DNA of 

organisms; 

P3: Radioactive Materials 

understand the meaning of the term half life; 

understand that radioactive elements have a wide range of half life values; 

carry out simple calculations involving half lives; 

OCR – 21st Century Additional Science (84 pages) 


C5: Chemicals of the 

Natural Environment 

Statement 

recall that the earth’s lithosphere (rigid outer layer of the Earth made up of the crust and the part of the mantle just 

below it) is made up of a mixture of minerals; 

recall that silicon, oxygen and aluminium are very abundant elements in the crust; 

be able to interpret data about the abundance of elements in rocks; 

recall that much of the silicon and oxygen is present in the Earth’s crust as the compound silicon dioxide; 

recall the properties of silicon dioxide ( e.g. hardness, melting point, conductivity and solubility in water); 

explain the properties of silicon dioxide in terms of a giant structure of atoms held together by strong covalent bonding... 

understand that silicon dioxide is found as quartz in granite, and is the main constituent of sandstone; 

understand that some minerals are valuable gemstones because of their rarity, hardness and appearance; 

Metals from ores 

Welsh Board – GCSE Science (87 pages total) – WJEC Table X 


B1: Topic 3 Evolution Examine evidence and interpret data about how organisms and species have changed over time. Suggest reasons why 

species may become extinct. 

Discuss the controversy surrounding the acceptance of the theory (i.e. Darwin’s theory of evolution). 

C1 Topic 3: Using 

chemical reactions to 

make new materials 

C1 Topic 6: The 

production and use of 

fuels 

Useful products from raw materials from the earth, sea and air 

Environmental impact of burning fossil fuels 

C1: Topic 7 Evolution 

and maintenance of the 

atmosphere 

investigate data on the composition of the atmosphere over geological time in order to draw conclusions about the 

changes in composition that have taken place. 

be aware of the accepted explanations for the origin of the atmosphere and the changes that have occurred over 

geological time. 

Global warming 

C1: Topic 8 Geological 

Processes 

P1 Topic 4:Energy, 

temperature & the 

transfer of heat energy 

a) use the development of the theory of continental drift to display their understanding that observations, through 

creative thought, lead to an idea to explain them but the explanation may not be accepted until sufficient evidence 

exists, as follows: 

● In 1915, Alfred Wegener suggested that the Earth’s continents were once joined and had moved apart to their present 

positions; 

● He based his idea on the close fit of coastlines, and the similar patterns of rocks and fossils, of continents separated 

by large oceans; 

● He was unable to convincingly explain how the continents could move; 

● The current theory of plate tectonics became widely accepted in the 1960’s, by which time other scientists had found 

evidence to show that it is the Earth’s plates that move and that they do so as a result of convection currents in the mantle. 

b) use evidence about the location of earthquakes and volcanoes to appreciate that the Earth’s lithosphere is 

composed of a number of large pieces called plates, which are moving very slowly, and know that this movement drives 

the rock cycle. 

c) know that rocks can be: 

● formed where tectonic plates move apart and magma rises to fill the gap producing new igneous rock 

● deformed and/or recycled where tectonic plates move towards each other, driving down the denser plate which may 

melt to form magma that on cooling forms igneous rock 

Transfer of heat energy 

33 www.esta-uk.org


WJEC - GCSE Additional Science 


P2 Topic 1: Radioactive 

Emissions 

P2 Topic 2: The Half 

Life of Radioactive 

Materials 

Statement 

Be aware of the dangers associated with radon in the home and use secondary sources to investigate the geographical 

distribution of radon affected houses, and the measures that can be taken against radon 

Radioactive decay simulations and calculations 

WJEC - GCSE Chemistry (Separate Subject) 


C3 Topic 4: Limestone 

Statement 

Uses of limestone and social, economic and environmental effects of limestone quarrying 

WJEC - GCSE Physics (Separate Subject) 


P3 Topic 5: Seismic 

waves 

Statement 

Understand the properties of seismic P-waves, S-waves and surface waves, in terms of their nature, speed and ability to 

penetrate different materials 

Select and use the equation; Speed = Distance/time in the context of seismic waves 

Interpret the information on simplified seismic records, including the lag time and the presence or not of S-waves to 

reveal information about the location of an earthquake 

Know how the study of seismic records, including the identification of an S-wave shadow zone, has enabled geophysicists 

to investigate the structure of the Earth, leading to a model of a solid mantle and a liquid core 

The contrast between the Bodies is perhaps most marked in the sections dealing with Plate Tectonics, summarised 

from the above tables in the table on page 35. 

Conclusion 

The statements in the revised National Curriculum for 

Science for Key Stage 4 may have become shorter, but 

the amount of paper needed to express the requirements 

in terms of GCSE qualifications seems to have 

multiplied considerably! 

It would appear that the Earth science opportunities 

for delivering “How science works” have been 

enhanced, with frequent references to Darwin and 

Wegener, and the ways in which their theories were 

expounded and tested. An Earth science specialist 

working in a school should have a great opportunity to 

offer technical help to the science department in these 

respects. 

There are clearly huge differences in the amount of 

Earth science included by the different specifications. 

Although teachers are at liberty to develop each specification 

as much as they wish, there is always a tendency 

for those who are reluctant to cover the Earth science to 

teach the absolute minimum. There is thus a need to 

choose one’s specification carefully, and again, for Earth 

science teachers to make their voice heard in their science 

departments. 

Although fieldwork does not seem to be expressly 

mentioned in any of the specifications, it is clearly 

encouraged in “How science works”, as part of data 

gathering, and at the very least, students should be 

encouraged to look out of the window (officially!) and 

observe what is going on around them. The 2006 ASE 

Conference tried to encourage “Science out of doors” 

and hopefully Earth science teachers will be keen to 

spread the word. 

References 

This exercise was initiated following the receipt of a 

summary of the specifications prepared by Ruth 

Richards, which helpfully paved the way. 

The QCA website contains: 

Briefing papers about the revised Science curriculum 

– www.qca.org.uk/science 

Programme of Study for Science – 

http://www.qca.org.uk/10340.htm 

Science Criteria – http://www.qca.org.uk/11881.html 

The specifications are available from each of the 

Awarding Bodies, on paper or as downloadable pdf 

files. Their websites are as follows: 

Assessment and Qualifications Alliance: 

www.aqa.org.uk 

EDEXCEL Foundation: www.edexcel.org.uk 

Oxford, Cambridge and RSA: www.ocr.org.uk 

Welsh Joint Education Committee: www.wjec.co.uk 

Peter Kennett 

Email: peter.kennett@tiscali.co.uk 


34


Plate tectonics in the new GCSE Specifications 2007/8 

Awarding Body 

Topic 

OCR: 

(Gateway) 

OCR: 

(21st C) 

AQA: WJEC: EDEXCEL 

Crust, mantle, core 

Plate = crust + upper mantle 

Lithosphere named as such 

X X X X 

X X X 

X X X 

Plate density & subduction 

X 

X 

Convection in mantle 

X X X 

Heat from radioactive decay 

(X) 

X 

Partial melting of subducting plate 

Rising of lower density magma 

Volcanoes – contrasts in lava type 

X X X 

X X X 

X 

Prediction of volcanoes and 

earthquakes X (X) X X 

Plate margins and volcanoes & 

earthquakes X X X X 

P and S seismic waves – 

characteristics X X (Ph) X 

Surface seismic waves 

X (Ph) 

Evidence of Earth’s interior from P & S 

waves X X (Ph) X 

Earth’s magnetic field 

X 

(X) 

Continental drift theory 

Shrinking apple theory 

(X) X X X 

X 

Wegener named & debate at time 

Sea-floor spreading 

Magnetic patterns at oceanic ridges 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Rate of plate movement 

X X X X 

Plate tectonics and the rock cycle 

X 

X 

Beware! Some Awarding Bodies put Plate Tectonics in “Physics”, others 

in “Chemistry”. All Awarding Bodies cover evolution. None mention 

geographical isolation of species as a result of plate tectonics, but it is 

an important part of the story. 

x = topic covered 

(x) = topic touched on only 

(Ph) = covered in Physics (separate subject only) 

No detailed survey of the Applied Specifications was undertaken, but a 

quick review showed that several of them do bring in some Earth 

science, mostly recapitulating the content of the GCSE Science 

Specifications tabulated above. 

35 www.esta-uk.org


Training Scientists or Teaching Science 

Update 2 

ALAN RICHARDSON 

In less than 18 months many of us will be facing the prospect of selecting and introducing a new 

A level specification to our Geology students. I was therefore glad to find Cathie and Mike Brookes 

keeping alive the debate about the future direction of the qualification in the last edition of TES. 

At the time I wrote some first suggestions for the 

structure and content of a new specification, the 

process of drafting the new QCA subject criteria 

had not begun and the only information available 

was that we were likely to be limited to four modules. 

While the proposals were written up by me, they were 

the result of the deliberations of an ESTA working 

party, and while I may have added some embellishments 

of my own, I did not diverge significantly from 

the consensus views of the group. For those of you 

unfamiliar with the articles, the proposals may be simply 

summarised thus: the AS course should establish 

the global geological context through the interpretation 

of geological evidence for Earth structure and plate tectonics, 

and should then focus on the skills (practical and 

intellectual), knowledge and understanding that would 

equip the average 17 year-old AS student to record and 

interpret a wide range of exposures in England and 

Wales at an appropriate level. The second year should 

then build on these foundations, developing topics, to a 

level commensurate with the cognitive skills expected 

of an 18 year old A2 student, and applying them to a 

number of optional themes. 

Talking to current teachers of either of the extant 

specifications, one theme repeatedly surfaces: in order 

to make sense of some AS topics, elements of A2 have 

to be introduced in the first year, as fundamental topics 

are split between the specifications for the two years. 

The AS is already overloaded with factual content, and 

all too often, the cultivation of understanding must give 

way to coverage of content. 

While Cathie and Mike Brookes assert that any part 

of the current WJEC AS/A specification can be 

addressed through my suggested ‘ODST’ approach 

(wherein O = Observation: collection and recording of 

data; D = Deduction: analysis and interpretation of 

data; S = Synthesis: producing a model to account for 

the observations and deductions; T = Testing, by predicting 

the outcome of further observations), this is 

only universally possible if the A level course is delivered 

as a two-year course assessed by terminal examination. 

If the modular approach is followed, the 

conceptual background and the evidence for many phenomena 

described in the AS course have to be postponed 

until they are mandated by A2 modules. When 

ocean crust structure is lodged in a second year WJEC 

option module, models of MOR magma chambers are 

a compulsory A2 topic, and sea-floor spreading a first 

year topic, it is difficult to start with the evidence and 

follow through to synthesis. Conversely, the collecting 

of textural and mineralogical data from clastic sedimentary 

rocks must seem arcane to AS students when they 

have to wait until A2 for a discussion of the factors that 

influence maturity. However, this pales into insignificance 

against the OCR scheme in which Petrology is an 

A2 module, but the applied unit Economic and Environmental 

Geology is AS. 

The ESTA working party suggested that one of the 

AS modules in a new specification (our so-called Local 

Themes) be devoted to mineralogy, igneous processes 

and petrology, surface processes and sedimentary 

petrology, the basics of metamorphism (sufficient to 

understand the overall picture of the rock cycle), and 

introductory structural geology. It was not intended 

that this simply be a reworking of the current content of 

the WJEC AS level (or for that matter the OCR specification). 

Rather, it was intended that by placing applied 

geology (in the form of the current WJEC Unit 3: Geology 

and the Human Environment, or the economic geology 

of the OCR) in the second year, igneous and 

sedimentary topics could be more thoroughly developed 

in the first year, incorporating those aspects currently 

dealt with at A2. 

I am criticised for only listing the ‘topic/knowledgebased 

content’, and failing to describe the ‘basic toolkit’ 

that lies at the centre of my philosophy. The article was 

not intended to be a draft specification: the intention 

was to flag up to the examination boards some of the 

issues that a growing number of teachers and lecturers 

would like the specification writers to address when 

they begin their planning. It was hoped that there was a 

shared understanding as to what skills were expected of 

an A level student by the end of a full A level course, and 

that the division of topics between AS and A2 could be 

rearranged in such a way as to develop those skills at an 

earlier date. 

Similarly, when it comes to issues of assessment, the 

working party were aware that some criteria were likely 

to change in the light of government policy and QCA 

guidelines, but it didn’t seem unreasonable for us to 

comment on the content, sequencing and philosophy, 

in the hope that those with the necessary experience 

and expertise could marry these up with the relevant 

criteria as they were published. If we had held back 


36


until they were available, there would not have been time for 

this productive debate. However, if the examination board to 

which I subscribe published ‘Replies to the Joint Standing 

Committee’ in response to the comments of exam centres, as 

other boards still seem to do, fellow professionals would find 

a wealth of commentary on recent assessments. Unfortunately 

such comments are dealt with on a one to one basis and 

never feed in to wider debate. 

While I think there is still a role for objective questions 

(multiple choice, multiple completion, assertion/reason) in 

sampling knowledge and understanding across the specification, 

I recognise they take a long time to write. The current 

style of questions, each with a well-developed incline of difficulty, 

while not covering such a wide breadth of topics, can 

discriminate well, provided the specification is sufficiently 

unambiguous to ensure that examiners and teachers interpret 

it in the same way. When practical exams were of three hours 

duration, they offered the examiners an opportunity to fairly 

sample a student’s understanding of a wide range of topics. 

Since external constraints shortened all exams, the scope of 

the practical has been greatly reduced. The changes imposed 

on the length of exams also modified one important variable 

that often passes unnoticed: the scoring rate. In the three 

hour exams of the 1990s students had to score at a rate of one 

mark every 1.8 minutes. In the current WJEC GL1 exams, 

the rate is one mark every minute. Whatever system of assessment 

we move towards, I would like to see students given a 

little more time to think about their responses. 

Many may disagree, but I do not think coursework investigations 

are appropriate at AS. I would hope that by the end 

of the AS year students would be in a position to undertake 

a set investigation, but by then it is too late as their work 

must be assessed and delivered to the boards by early in 

May. With large group sizes in AS, scant resources and students 

only in the process of grasping the basics of the subject, 

teachers often find themselves teaching outside the 

specification to address the requirements of a specific investigation. 

Surely it is better to use the first year to engender 

skills that have wide applicability, and then develop and 

apply them in the second year. 

The working party had no specific information as to the 

future of coursework, apart from the general notion that the 

government was moving away from it. Our suggested A2 

options (in the proposed Module 4 – Application) were discussed 

against that backdrop. I am confident that it was the 

unspoken consensus of the group, that we all aspire to equipping 

students with the skills to document and interpret exposures 

with both confidence and competence, and that field 

work is the only way to achieve that. The option modules we 

suggested (A – Geological Evolution of Britain; B - Modern Geological 

Processes; C – Geological Hazards; D – Economic Geology, 

and a personal retrospective suggestion: E – Earth Systems and 

Environmental Change) were identified as routes by which the 

accumulated understanding of the first three modules could 

be applied to a choice of topics that would suit the full range 

of expertise, training and interests of the incredibly diverse 

group of professionals who deliver A level Geology courses. I 

would hope that the delivery of any one of them would 

include significant time in the field. If coursework is preserved, 

the way in which it affects these suggestions will 

depend on whether it is one of two A2 modules or one of 

three. Until we know more it would seem pointless to modify 

our suggestions, except to say that for such a small cohort 

of students, it may be difficult for one board to offer such a 

wide range of options. Cathie and Mike ask whether the 

module title ‘Application’ is intended to imply ‘application of 

knowledge, understanding and skills... applied to a ‘new’ 

topic’ (as in Options A and B), or ‘application of geological 

information to ‘wider world’ issues’ (as in Options C and D). 

Similar options coexist in the current WJEC specification, 

and I am not sure where the distinction lies. In all four 

options existing knowledge, understanding and skills would 

be applied in the context of the module, and new knowledge 

would be added. The possible objections cited were: 

● The option modules would constitute so much of the A2 

as to undermine comparability of standards of achievement 

between students. 

Under the current WJEC specification 30% of the A2 marks 

come from an infinite variety of Personal Investigations, and 

a further 40% from two units (‘Themes’) chosen from four 

options. So at present, under the WJEC specification, A2 students 

only gain 30% of their marks from identical assessments. 

It would be no less with the proposed options. 

● The content of A2 would be very narrow with only one of 

these themes (options) completed. 

One simple answer would be to require two to be selected as 

at present. However, since to my knowledge Geology is not a 

pre-requisite for any undergraduate course, I would have 

thought that the factual content of the context in which students 

were trained to apply the geological skills and knowledge 

gained in the first three modules was of less importance 

than the ability of the teacher to make the process both challenging 

and interesting. If the teacher has a passion for a particular 

field of Geology, this seems to be the arena in which to 

exploit it in inspiring students. 

Cathie and Mike ask whether ‘volcanic and earthquake 

hazards’ could be incorporated into the working party’s 

Global Themes AS module. In order to understand the evidence 

for Earth structure, students must first understand 

seismic wave propagation, and clearly seismic evidence is key 

to understanding tectonic activity. My opinion is that students 

should learn about recent volcanic activity to provide 

models for the interpretation of past volcanic activity, and 

should understand the links between tectonic processes, 

magma types and styles of eruption. These things should be 

in the AS course. However, I have current students who have 

covered the effects of volcanoes and earthquakes on human 

societies at school, and then do it again in second year A level 

Geography. Even though earthquakes and volcanoes are popular 

topics, many students baulk at the prospect of reworking 

the human aspects again. Geologists do not decide where settlements 

are going to be built, neither do they design hazard 

resistant buildings. I see their role as advising the planners 

and engineers, and in order to do so, they need detailed 

37 www.esta-uk.org





knowledge and thorough understanding of rocks and 

geological processes. Under the current WJEC specification, 

much of the applied Geology in Geology and the 

Human Environment has to be taught on the back of necessarily 

superficial geological knowledge. 

The suggestion that the bulk of metamorphic 

petrology be pushed back to the second year was not 

my own, but I quickly embraced it. The reasoning was 

not that it was ‘considered more difficult’ (the level of 

difficulty is, after all, determined by the complexity of 

the questions set by the examiners). Metamorphic 

rocks are formed by the alteration of igneous or sedimentary 

rocks, so students have to understand the latter 

groups first, before they can interpret the changes 

resulting from metamorphism. If we are going to 

move all aspects of igneous and sedimentary petrology 

into the AS modules, they can only be accommodated 

by moving something out. Most AS field work is done 

by means of day trips: the bulk of residential field 

courses are offered to A2 students. Since the majority 

of exposures in England and Wales are of igneous or 

sedimentary rocks (or if they are metamorphic, of 

such low grade that they can still be interpreted in 

terms of their igneous or sedimentary origins), centres 

would not be compromised in their ability to offer 

students field visits to localities at which they could 

apply the compulsory elements of their AS training. 

For A2 students lucky enough to be offered more 

exotic destinations, encompassing metamorphic terrains, 

a more detailed knowledge of metamorphism 

becomes appropriate. It should be borne in mind that 

some basics of metamorphism would have to remain 

in the AS year to complete the rock cycle and to 

explain alteration adjacent to intrusions. 

The responses from HE were elicited by e-mailing 

the original article and simply inviting comments. I 

approached a few academics who I knew personally, and 

then blanketed all those staff I thought likely to be 

involved in undergraduate teaching in a very limited 

number of Earth Science departments. Existing specifications 

were not circulated. I am unable to answer 

Cathie and Mike’s other questions, but rather than seeing 

the comments as a backward-looking criticism of 

existing specifications, I would rather we look at them 

as a set of criteria that we should seek to fulfill through 

those students who do complete an A level Geology 

course offered under any specification. 

Extinction or evolution I say evolution every time, 

but please can we have punctuated equilibrium rather 

than excruciating gradualism However, this may all 

become academic, unless the QCA firmly embraces a 

set of criteria that allows petrology to be accommodated 

in the first year and applied geology in the second. 

Whatever directions the two boards take in the 

development of their respective specifications, we must 

hope that on this occasion we receive them both in sufficient 

time to decide which one to opt for before we 

have to start teaching the course. 

Alan Richardson 

Email: arichardson@halesowen.ac.uk 

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Teaching Earth Sciences - serving the Earth Science Education Community 


38


Breaking Through New Frontiers in Science Teaching 

CLARE ELSLEY 

The Science Learning Centres network has been up and running for just over a year, and has received tremendous 

feedback from the teachers and technicians who have attended its courses. 

The network is a £51 million collaborative 

initiative by the Department 

for Education and Skills and the 

Wellcome Trust with an ambitious agenda 

– to inject inspiration and innovation into 

science teaching to help those working in 

the sector become world leaders in science 

education by 2015. 

The network, which is made up of nine 

regional centres and a national centre, 

provides professional development 

opportunities across all areas of science 

education, from primary to post-16. The 

network’s key aim is to support teachers 

and technicians in the delivery of exciting, 

relevant, cutting edge science teaching to 

ensure students are equipped with the 

knowledge and understanding they need, 

both as scientists and citizens of the 

future. Reinvigorating and reconnecting 

teachers with their subjects is high on the 

agenda. Many teachers are drawn to science 

by the excitement of its potential but 

within the everyday practicalities of teaching 

it can be difficult for them to keep up 

with developments at the forefront of science 

and find the time to translate these 

into lessons that meet curriculum and 

timetable demands. 

The regional centres run a range of 

courses in Earth sciences. There are 

courses aimed at particular stages of the 

curriculum, for example “Teaching Rocks 

and Soils at KS2 Using Your Environment”, 

which is being run by the Science 

Learning Centre North East in March and 

“Dynamic Earth: Practical Approaches to 

Earth Science at KS4” which is being run 

by the Science Learning Centre South 

West in July. Others are more general and 

bring together a wider age range, such as 

“Teaching the Dynamic Earth: Earth 

Processes and the Rock Cycle” which is 

being run by the Science Learning Centre 

West Midlands in March and is aimed at all 

secondary level teachers. It’s early days for 

many of these courses, which are running 

for the first time this year. 

When taken “on the road”, that is, 

offered as either part of a bespoke package 

for a particular school, or offered for 

INSET days these sorts of courses have 

been well received by those teaching in the 

earth science arena. “Teachers have been 

very receptive to our courses,” says Caron 

Staley, Centre Co-ordinator at the Science 

Learning Centre South West. “But we do 

have some difficulty in filling booked 

courses which require teachers to take time 

out of school. Unfortunately it’s the same 

across all subject areas as schools are finding 

it difficult to release their staff for professional 

training.” Despite the barriers to 

teachers taking up professional development 

opportunities, most of those that 

have taken time out would agree that the 

investment is worth it. 

“I was attracted to the course because I 

teach AS level on my own,” says one 

teacher who attended a course aimed at 

those new to teaching A and AS level Biology. 

“But I now have a better knowledge 

and more positive approach to practical 

work. We’ve done some successful experiments 

and that’s what students want or 

they lose interest very quickly. I’ll definitely 

be coming to more courses and will 

persuade other staff to come.” 

For more information about the Centres, courses running in your area and discount 

incentives available to you, please see www.sciencelearningcentres.org.uk or contact 

your local centre directly: 

National Science Learning Centre 

Email nslc-enquiries@york.ac.uk 

Tel: 01904 328300 

Science Learning Centre North East 

Email: slc.northeast@durham.ac.uk 

Tel: 0191 370 6200 

Science Learning Centre North West 

Email: slc.northwest@mmu.ac.uk 

Tel: 0161 247 2944 

Science Learning Centre Yorkshire and 

the Humber 

Email: yhslc@shu.ac.uk. 

Tel: 0114 225 4891 

Science Learning Centre East Midlands 

Email: emslc@le.ac.uk 

Tel: 0116 252 3771 

The development of the network has 

been ongoing since late 2004 and is now 

complete. The most recent centre to open 

is the National Centre in York, which 

welcomed its first cohort in November 

2005. The National Centre co-ordinates 

the network and offers longer, more indepth 

residential courses to support those 

offered by the regional Centres. Each of 

the Centres is closely involved in working 

with teachers and organisations in their 

region to meet the needs and aspirations 

of the science education community, and 

courses offered are continually monitored 

to ensure they are fulfilling those needs. 

With input from heads, teachers, technicians 

and classroom assistants, the Science 

Learning Centres aim to be more 

than deliverers of professional development. 

They are a focus for science educators 

and provide a hub for teachers to 

share methods, test new ideas and access a 

wide range of resources all designed to 

support syllabus demands and national 

education strategies. 

Clare Elsley 

Director, Campuspr Ltd 

Email: clare@campuspr.co.uk 

Science Learning Centre West Midlands 

Email: enquiries@slcwm.keele.ac.uk 

Tel: 01782 584429 

Science Learning Centre East of England 

Email: slc.EastEngland@herts.ac.uk 

Tel: +44 (0)1992 503498 

Science Learning Centre London 

Email: slclondon@ioe.ac.uk 

Tel: 020 7612 6325 

Science Learning Centre South East 

Email: slcse@soton.ac.uk 

Tel: 023 8059 8810 

Science Learning Centre South West 

Email: info@slcsw.org.uk 

Tel: 0845 345 3344 

39 www.esta-uk.org


Field-based Learning: A Review of 

Published Approaches and Strategies 

VICTORIA BUCK 

“If facilitated appropriately, fieldwork provides an invaluable opportunity for students to develop 

many skills both ‘generic’ and geological”, King (1998) 

Introduction 

In September 2003 an overhaul of AS and A2 GCE Geology 

course at York College was proposed: the primary 

objective was the development and instigation of a fully 

self-taught effective program of field work that would 

ultimately lead to improved field and laboratory based 

synoptic practical coursework module results. In addition, 

it was also intended that some minor delivery problems, 

which were highlighted during observation of 

teaching and learning (OTL), would be addressed: 

namely that of unreasonable expectations being placed 

on students in terms of psycho-motor and cognitive 

skills learning. In order to proactively turn what could 

have been identified as a potentially negative student 

learning experience into a positive one for an often 

highly differentiated group, an investigation of fieldwork 

teaching approaches and strategies was undertaken. 

There is a wealth of available literature pertaining to 

the positive contribution fieldwork has to affective learning 

(social and self development) in the compulsory education 

sector (Key stages 3 & 4 (Foskett and Nundy 

2001)). However, published research on the actual 

approaches and strategies in post compulsory education 

(Further and Higher Education) field based teaching is 

not quite so easy to obtain and as such this review is presented 

as a starting point for newly qualified teachers and 

postgraduate students who may be embarking upon field 

based learning as a provider for the first time. It does not 

claim to be exhanustive, indeed it is focused around the 

proceedings of a Learning and Teaching Skills Network 

(LTSN) conference in the Geography, Environmental 

and Earth Sciences division (GEES). Many of the papers 

are centred on inaugural university fieldwork (i.e. first 

year undergraduate), but given similarity of the learning 

aims and outcomes between A Level fieldwork and first 

year undergraduates this was not thought to be a problem 

and indeed provided useful material that could be used in 

planning possible improvements to A2 fieldwork in 

preparation for university. 

Observations during field sessions carried out by 

York College AS/A2 geography students at the Field 

Studies Council Centre, Blencathra, Cumbria (2002, 

2003), together with informal discussion groups and 

questionnaires from both Geography and Geology students 

provided valuable insights into possible improvements. 

Two main findings, centred on the students 

inability to integrate the fieldwork into specification 

topics both before and after the field excursion and the 

students’ perspective on the traditional ‘boring’ and 

potentially useless ‘Cook’s Tour’ approach. 

Review of Literature 

The positive benefits of field based learning in the form 

of ‘fieldwork’ have been praised from a variety of angles 

for some time. As early as 1956, Bloom was citing ‘the 

acquisition of higher orders of thinking’ (in King 2001) 

whilst more recently Lonergan and Andresen (1988, in 

King 2001) expounded the ‘uniqueness’ of the experience 

as promoting originality, holism and integration in 

the learning forum. Nundy and Foskett (2001) go further 

and provide a persuasive argument in the form of a 

positive correlation between cognitive scores and value 

of self for groups of compulsory sector learners who 

had a significant component of field based learning in 

the spatial sciences, specifically geography. To many, 

however it is simply accepted that field-based learning 

is a ‘good thing’ because of the unusual and distinctive 

nature of the learning ‘episode’. However, without 

careful selection of the approach and teaching strategies 

there is a danger that A, and especially AS, Level students 

(usually 16 - 18 year olds) will fail to transfer the 

learning from one entity to another due to the learning 

experience being ‘too distinctive’ (McPartland & Harvey 

1987). This then results in the failure to integrate 

effectively the unique insights that come from fieldwork 

into the examination responses. Paradoxically, in the 

same article McPartland and Harvey (1987) also suggest 

that fieldwork is not distinctive enough, and that frequently 

fieldwork aims only to reinforce theory studied 

in the classroom with no new insights for learners thus 

leading to the loss of a range of valuable learning opportunities. 

Hawley (1996) notes that there is ‘no automatic 

osmosis of information from the field into the 

students’ heads’. More importantly, Hawley notes that 

familiar classroom techniques do not necessarily prove 

effective to extract maximum benefit in a field setting 

(Hawley 1996). 

It is, therefore, clear from the available literature that 

there are two closely allied factors involved in effective 

field-based teaching: the first is the approach to the teaching 

experience, the second is the choice of teaching strategies 

employed. 

Fieldwork: the Approach 

It is worth noting here that within the literature there 

appears to be some variability in the terminology used 


40


in discussing the theory of teaching and learning in the 

field. Various authors appear to use the terms ‘fieldwork 

approach’ and ‘fieldwork type’ interchangeably. For the 

purposes of this work, approach and type have been 

assimilated under ‘approach’ where approach can be 

more easily understood as the framework within which 

each learning experience, whether field or class based, 

will sit. Hawley (1998) suggests that the choice of 

approach will be influenced by a range of internal and 

external factors acting upon both parties, i.e. the learner 

and provider, and the environment in which the learning 

will take place, and lists the following as needing 

consideration: 

● the educational philosophy of the individual leader 

and the department; 

● the learning aims and objectives of the fieldwork; 

● the knowledge, experience and intuition of the 

leader/teacher/provider; 

● the experience and learning needs of the learners; 

● and, the nature of the field location(s). 

When planning an approach to fieldwork, tutors are 

essentially selecting from a ‘tool kit’ of activities each of 

which take different forms and require differing levels of 

student/staff involvement. Kent et al, (1997) describe the 

nature of activity in the field as ‘falling somewhere on the 

two continua’ of observation or participation, and dependency 

or autonomy. Clearly, this is not exclusive to fieldbased 

learning having been established in class-based 

pedagogy (Robert in Kent et al, 1996). However, it is 

important that the selected range of activities allow for 

fluidity of approach due to the highly dynamic nature of 

the field laboratory. Irrespective of the range of vocabulary 

used by different researchers it is essentially staff/student 

ratio of dependency or participation that is used as 

the basis of most classification systems and which has 

been used by Bland et al, (1996) to identify three broad 

fieldwork genres illustrated in Figure 1. 

complex theoretical descriptions without evidence of 

reasoning or independent observations, thought or 

judgement. Referring directly to geographical fieldwork, 

Job (in Kent et al 1996) points out that it is easy to 

criticise past strategies from a present-day pedagogic 

standpoint and that there are positive aspects to what is 

now considered a ‘traditional’ or outdated approach 

summarised as ‘acquiring the skills to ‘read’ and interpret 

a landscape in its wholeness and thereby to grasp 

something of the essence of ‘place’’. 

Teacher as Provider 

Hawley’s ‘Investigative’ approach (1996), Thompson’s 

categories B and C (1974), Compiani and Carneiro’s 

Training and Motivating excursions (in Hawley 1998); 

and Bland et al’s (1996) Investigation, all list active seeking 

and operation of instruments and scientific apparatus 

as defining characteristics. Additionally, the use of a limited 

number of well chosen localities where learners can 

substantiate and develop theories and the techniques of 

the measuring process is highlighted as being a particular 

advantage of this approach. The ratio of teacher learner 

activity would be hovering around 50:50 where the 

responsibility for learning shifts to and from each party 

throughout the learning episode and in response to 

internal and external factors, i.e. providing new instruments/equipment, 

correcting technical skills or bringing 

learners ‘back on task’ following a distraction. Learner 

activities are essentially skills-orientated (psycho-motor 

and cognitive) including observing; measuring; and, 

hypothesis testing (even where the hypothesis is preprovided 

by the teacher). The learning episode is essentially 

participatory and activity-based, but there is no 

abdication of responsibility by either party. 

Teacher as Guide 

More generally known as the ‘Enquiry’ approach 

(Bland et al, 1996), this group also, rather confusingly, 

Figure 1 

The broad 

classification of 

fieldwork genres 

based on the ratio 

of staff/learner 

input and type of 

activity (adapted 

from Kent et al, 

1996 and Kent et 

al, 1997). 

Teacher as Expert 

The ‘Cook’s Tour’ (Hawley 1996; King 1998;) aka ‘Category 

A’ (Thompson 1974); ‘Illustrative’ (Compiani 

and Carneiro in Hawley 1998); ‘Look & See’ (Bland et 

al, 1996), or ‘The Field Excursion’ (Job in Kent et al, 

1996) all have the distinctive characteristics of being 

learner passive, factual, knowledge prescriptive, observation 

orientated, and generally non participatory by 

learners. This approach is usually characterised by a 

large number of localities where explanations are certain, 

definite, and with specific emphasis on learners 

‘acquiring’ knowledge/information through learner 

activities such as listening; drawing, photographing, 

noting, and generally ‘eye-balling’ i.e. seeing as much 

variety as possible. Thompson (1974) notes that this 

approach is one of hastily widening knowledge, whilst 

Hawley (1996) notes educational limitations including 

‘inappropriate use [and spelling due to not hearing 

properly] of geological terminology’ and learner use of 

AUTONOMY 

DEPENDENT 

TEACHER LED 

TEACHER AS 

PROVIDER 

OBSERVATION 

TEACHER AS 

GUIDE 

PARTICIPATION 

41 www.esta-uk.org


includes Compiani and Carneiro’s ‘Investigating’ and 

‘Inducing’ excursions (in King 1998) and Thompson’s 

category D (1974). The emphasis is on the teacher as 

guide or facilitator with the ratio of teacher learner 

activity heavily weighted towards the learner but variable 

depending upon learner age group and environment. 

The number of localities covered in any one day 

is reduced down usually to just one or two good 

‘learner’ sites as opposed to numerous complex ‘type’ 

sites. The characteristics of this approach are interactive 

learner centred, learner led, interpretative, evaluative, 

discovery-based activities. Essentially wholly participatory 

in accordance with learner age and experience and, 

crucially, open ended to allow links to post field learning. 

Activities that encourage initial hypothesis formulation 

and testing with problem solving and 

decision-making should feature heavily perhaps with a 

prior (virtual) feasibility study. Clearly, this type of 

approach requires meticulous teacher planning and 

careful selection of teaching strategies as without such, 

there could be a natural tendency to abdicate responsibilities 

or revert back to a teacher led approach in which 

the quieter learner can hide passively in a learning 

episode that is frequently dominated by the ‘pushier’ 

often more vocal learners. 

As noted above, the approach to teaching is the 

framework within which the learning episode takes 

place and it is reasonable to conclude that the approach 

adopted for any field trip should be informed by the 

learning aims, objectives and outcomes of each particular 

group. Objectives should be stated in terms of what 

students should be able to do at the end of the fieldwork 

that they could not do at the beginning (Thompson 

1982). Using this straightforward premise, it can be said 

that no single fieldwork approach is universally ‘right’ 

or ‘wrong’, simply preferable for a given group of learners 

at a given stage in their course or educational career. 

Neither should there be any barriers to mobility within 

the fieldwork, such that a field course could comprise 

elements from each approach, again depending upon 

the learning objectives not just of the field course, but 

also of each particular day or activity. For example a 

purely enquiry-based approach may be unsuitable for a 

group that has no prior experience of the field, i.e. the 

initial maiden excursion of the GCSE/AS geology 

course. Maximum learning benefit in terms of learning 

outcomes might better be served with the first half of 

this one day field trip as a teacher led ‘Cook’s Tour’ type 

approach where the students observe the diversity of 

the geological or natural environment and actively listen 

to the ‘stories’ that can be excised from the evidence 

(Richardson 2005). It is perhaps important to note that 

it is the choice of an effective teaching strategy that will 

be of paramount importance in this instance as 

extended verbal exposition is sure to enhance student 

daydreaming. The second half of the day can then 

progress into a more investigative approach, going back 

over the sites that were used in the first half of the day 

with the learners provided with specific ‘tasks’ or activities 

that will positively reinforce through self discovery 

the information that has already been outlined in the 

initial ‘Cook’s Tour’. Again the teaching strategy should 

be carefully selected to meet the needs of the learners 

and the locality within which they are operating. 

In summary, it can be said that fieldwork, whether a 

short visit or longer residential, should comprise of a 

number of teaching approaches matched closely to the 

learning aims, objectives and outcomes for each group 

of learners. Within this context it is essential to link the 

fieldwork with class-based learning approaches both 

before and after the event, thus giving fieldwork an 

integral place in the progression of learning within the 

course as a whole. 

Fieldwork: Teaching Strategies 

As noted above, familiar classroom techniques do not 

necessarily prove effective in extracting maximum benefit 

in a field setting (Hawley 1996). Therefore, as with 

approach, it is important to consider the teaching strategies 

in terms of the learners within the group and select 

those which will meet the learning objectives and aims 

for the day (or half day) in terms of providing the maximum 

learning opportunities for the entire range of 

learners (Special Educational Needs and Disabilities 

Act 2001 (SENDA) and the Gifted and Talented not 

withstanding). 

Cox & Harper (2000) tabulate Minton’s list of teaching 

strategies as grading from those with total teacher 

control through to those with total learner control. 

They highlight that the passing over of ‘control’ from 

teacher to learner should not be used (by the teacher or 

learner) as an abdication of duty or responsibility for 

either teaching or learning. Further, they emphasise 

that the learners experience and psychological safety is 

at ‘all times’ the responsibility of the tutor and should 

be paramount in planning of sessions. Therefore, it is 

imperative that the most effective teaching strategy, in 

terms of learning outcomes, should be selected for each 

specific teaching context, including field based learning. 

However, it is also essential that the teacher is comfortable 

with the strategies selected and that to seek a 

rigid formulaic ‘right’ approach is erroneous, in so 

much as this will not take into account the range of differentiation 

of learners within any given group or the 

ability of the tutor in effective delivery. The teacher 

should, therefore, be not only comfortable with the 

strategies selected, but also strive for a range that will 

arouse interest, maintain attention and ‘work best’ for 

the diversity of learners that they will encounter. 

Thompson (1974) lists six possible teaching strategies 

for the field including lecturette, question and 

answer, through making notes and sketches from 

observations to investigation following detailed 

instructions. Again, there is some confusion over the 

terms approach and actual teaching methods used. 

However, the selections of teaching strategies such as 


42


those listed by Minton 1974 (in Cox & Harper 2001: 

49) should be inherently linked to the cumulative 

objectives of the fieldwork. Again there is no reason to 

pre-select a ‘cocktail’ of strategies then stick rigidly to 

these throughout – it may be that even after planning a 

session a switch would be necessary if the strategy chosen 

was not providing the learning objective that would 

ultimately meet the educational aims. 

What is certain is that the long periods of verbal 

exposition is least liked by learners at any point in their 

educational/academic career. To choose to talk at length 

and require that learners actively ‘listen’ would indeed 

defeat the objective of the fieldwork in terms of experiential 

learning (this is not entirely associated to cold wet 

conditions, sun and heat has the same effect). However, 

mixing small chunks of verbal exposition, with the correct 

intonations and actions, can be used effectively to 

convey instructions and important safety information. 

Sequential questions are better written in field sheets 

and work books as methods of guiding students to a 

meaningful conclusion (Gill, in King 1998) – again this 

is preferable to verbal exposition as students move at 

different speeds in the field and to force a new concept 

when the ground work is incomplete can – and will – 

lose students thus acting as a strong demotivator. 

Clearly, the time available is not endless and learners (of 

any age) need to be kept ‘on task’ especially as the field 

can offer so many more distractions. 

“The selection of the strategy should not only relate to the learning 

aims and objectives but should contain group work, demonstration, 

one to one through the use of resource based learning 

such as work books’ 

(Gill, in King 1998). 

York College Field-based Learning 

In light of the literature review and the learner feedback 

a new sequence of field-based learning and delivery has 

been adopted at York College where the fluidity of 

staff/learner ratio of dependency or participation 

directly relates to the ability of the group. The number 

of field-based learning days adopted is in line with the 

recommendations of the WJEC GCE Geology Specification 

and in consideration of the overall cost to learners, 

especially where learners are also taking other 

subjects, such as geography, which have a fee paying 

residential component to the course. In the AS year, 

learners have three one day excursions to local sites (i.e. 

within 2 hours drive of the centre), in the A2 year learners 

have a long techniques based residential (6 days) and 

a shorter coursework based residential (3 days) both 

based at the Field Studies Council Centre Blencathra, at 

Threlkeld, Cumbria. 

Throughout the course the sequence moves from 

predominantly teacher-led, learner dependent and primarily 

observational in the inaugural AS day trip 

(within the first three weeks of students taking up the 

new subject), to primarily learner participatory, semiautonomous, 

with teacher as guide and health and 

safety official in the A2 coursework excursion which is 

the last field excursion prior to the summative assessments 

of the course. It should be highlighted that a full 

enquiry approach at this level is only adopted in the 

final assessed coursework element, but that the learners 

are being ‘trained’ in this approach and techniques necessary 

for active learning from the outset in the inaugural 

session. 

Within this dynamic approach in terms of tutor – 

learner input a relatively standardised format of a discrete 

‘mini’ project/investigation is adopted for all field 

based activities. All learners, irrespective of the level, go 

through the same process of initial hypotheses building 

or question formulation (spring boards) and final conclusion 

and discussion (nets). The free flying, – hopefully 

exciting discovery section – is the experiential 

learning element and should be primarily student activity 

based, with doing and reflecting playing an 

enhanced part. In the field teachers act as guides and 

‘technical assistants’ to ensure that enough data is collected 

to provide a useful analysis, conclusion and evaluation. 

Given the range of abilities within a group and, 

to allow for differentiation, the teacher should move 

fluidly through a range of strategies whilst the learner is 

on task – demonstration or instructions might need to 

be duplicated for those who a) did not hear properly the 

first time, b) did not understand in the first run 

through, or c) have a lower confidence level and simply 

need assurance. Instructions and safety briefs are normally 

delivered through verbal exposition in the field, 

and are supported with printed materials prior to the 

field visit. Tutors need to be aware of ‘drifting’ which in 

my experience comes directly after lunch, and which 

may require intervention to bring learners back on task. 

Using this approach and format, cognitive skills are 

taught along side psycho-motor with small group work 

data collection (teams of three) to allow for self discovery 

to resolve problems. Prior teaching of the topics in 

class based environments (with verbal exposition and 

resource based activities) provide the primary spring 

boards for the field work and post fieldwork consolidation 

in the form of class based question and answer sessions, 

possibly using past exam materials, and use of the 

‘mini’ projects format for the basis of the exam board 

assessed coursework module using the data collected 

provides the nets to fully integrate the learning into the 

specification delivery. 

In summary, positive influence of fieldwork upon 

learner understanding and skills training can and 

should be used where emphasis is placed on affective 

(i.e. learning related to attitudes and values) and 

enquiry or discovery based learning. The approaches 

and strategies noted from the York College experiences 

are not new, and are not written up as an exemplar for 

all field based learning, rather as an example of how 

field based learning must be dynamic in approach and 

fluid in delivery in order to ensure that learners remain 

43 www.esta-uk.org


engaged and able to embed their experiences into the 

overall specification delivery. Learning objectives need 

to be predetermined, with learning outcomes clearly 

identified via a series of tasks that are both achievable 

and effective in terms of data collection. 

Acknowledgements 

This work is the result of ongoing discussions with a 

number of teachers from a number of disciplines at 

York College and specifically Alan Richardson at Halesowen 

College. Additional comments on the original 

draft were gratefully received from Chris King and 

Peter Kennett. 

Victoria Buck 

Email: vctbc@aol.com 

References 

Bland, K. et al, (1996) Fieldwork, pp 165 - 175 in Bailey, 

P. & Fox, P. (eds) Geography Teachers’ Handbook, Sheffield 

: The Geographical Association 

Bloor, M. & Lahiff, A. (2000) Perspectives on Learning 

Greenwich, London Greenwich University Press. 

Cox, A. & Harper, H. (2000) Planning Teaching and 

Assessing Learning. Greenwich, London Greenwich 

University Press. 

Field Studies Council www/field-studies-council.org 

Gould, M. & Lahiff, A. (2001) Equality, Participation, & 

Inclusive Learning. Greenwich, London Greenwich University 

Press. 

Groves, B. (1989) A survey of GCSE geology teachers 

and their attitudes to fieldwork. Teaching Earth Sciences; 

Journal of the Earth Science Teachers Association 14.2: 46- 50. 

Hall, L. & Marsh, K. (2000) Professionalism, Polices & Values. 

Greenwich, London Greenwich University Press. 

Hawley, D. (1996) Changing Approaches to teaching 

Earth-science fieldwork: pp 243-253 in Stow, D. A. V & 

McCall, G. H. J (eds) Geoscience Education and training in 

Schools, Universities, for industry and Public Awareness Rotterdam: 

A.A Balkema. 

Kent, A. et al, (1996) Geography in Education: viewpoints on 

Teaching and Learning Cambridge University Press. 

Cambridge. 

Kent, et al, (1997) Fieldwork in Geography Teaching: a 

critical review of the literature and approaches. Journal 

of Geography in Higher Education, 21, (3), 313 - 332. 

King, H. (1998) ed. UK Geosciences Fieldwork Symposium: 

Proceedings. 

Nundy, S. & Foskett, N. (2001) Raising achievement 

through the environment: The case for fieldwork & field centres. 

National Association of Field Studies Officers 

(NAFSO). 

McPartland, M. & Harvey, P. (1987) A Question of 

fieldwork. Teaching Geography 12 (4). 162 - 164. 

National Association of Field Studies Operators 

www.nafso.org.uk. 

Richardson, A. (2005) Training scientists or teaching 

about science Teaching Earth Sciences; Journal of the Earth 

Science Teachers Association 30.3: 20-24. 

Thompson, D. B. (1974) Types of Geological Fieldwork 

in Relation to Objectives of Teaching Science. 

Geology, 6, 52 - 61. 

Thompson, D. B. (1982) On discerning the purposes of 

Geological Fieldwork. Geology Teaching, 7 (2), 59 - 65. 

Web, E. et al, (2001) Teaching Your Specialism Study Guide 

Greenwich University. Greenwich. London. 

York, P. G. (1992) Fieldwork in Class Teaching Earth Sciences: 

Journal of the Earth Sciences Association 17.4: 143 - 144. 


44



UKRIGS Education Project 

Update – Earth Science On-site 

Baginton gravels – Baginton sands – 

Thrussington Till sequence is exposed 

and is being conserved. Teaching 

materials - levels undecided. 

Work on the Project continues apace, with 

the help of local RIGS Groups and ESTA 

members. We still need people with 

knowledge of specific sites to help with 

the writing and to look over drafts as the 

work progresses. Expenses are paid! 

Progress on 2005-06 Sites: 

1. South Elmsall Quarry SSSI, nr 

Doncaster, West Yorkshire. 

This is in the Magnesian Limestone, 

Permian. It shows reef structures in the 

dolomitic limestone. Teaching materials 

for Key Stage 4 [Upper Secondary/ 

GCSE] level are expected to be on the 

website in early March. No KS 2 or 3 

materials are planned for this site. 

2. Dryhill Picnic Site RIGS, nr 

Sevenoaks, Kent. 

This is in the Hythe Beds, Lower 

Greensand, Cretaceous. It has gently 

folded hard limestones [Kentish rag] and 

soft sandstones [hassock]. Teaching 

materials for KS 3 and 4 are expected to 

be on the website by the end of March. 

KS 2 materials are being trialled. 

3. Ercall Quarries SSSI, Telford, 

Shropshire. 

The features of this extensive site include 

the unconformity between Precambrian 

igneous rocks and Cambrian marine 

sediments, with later intrusions and 

faults. Teaching materials for KS 3 and 4 

are expected to be on the website in 

April. KS 2 materials are being written. 

4. Barrow Hill RIGS, Dudley, West 

Midlands. 

This is a dolerite intrusion into Coal 

Measures. It shows columnar jointing 

and contact with overlying sedimentary 

rocks. Teaching materials for KS 3 and 

KS 2 are being written. No KS4 

materials are planned. 

Sites planned for 2006-07: 

The last two sites have not yet been 

assessed by members of the Project team. 

5. Tedbury Camp Quarry RIGS and 

Vallis Vale SSSI, Frome, Somerset. 

Both quarries show the angular 

unconformity between the Carboniferous 

Limestone and Inferior Oolite, with the 

eroded platform extensively burrowed by 

worms. Teaching materials are planned 

for KS 2 3 & 4, based mainly on Tedbury. 

It is hoped to have some materials for this 

site ready for the visit by delegates from 

the ESTA Conference, on 17th 

September 2006. 

6. Wood Farm Quarry RIGS, adjacent to 

Ryton Pools Country Park RIGS, 

Bubbenhall, Warwickshire. 

A Quaternary channel fill in the 

7. Mosedale Quarry RIGS and School 

House Quarry, Mungrisedale, Penrith, 

Cumbria. 

Mosedale Quarry is in the Carrock Fell 

Gabbro. School House Quarry is in the 

Loweswater Flags [Skiddaw Formation] 

with dolerite dykes. Teaching materials – 

levels undecided. 

8. Meldon Aplite Quarries SSSI, 

Okehampton, Devon. 

The 20m dyke of aplite has 

metamorphosed the Carboniferous 

rocks. There is a wide variety of rock and 

mineral types present. Teaching materials 

– levels undecided. 

Acknowledgement: 

The UKRIGS Education Project is 

funded by Defra’s Aggregates Levy 

Sustainability Fund (ALSF), 

administered by English Nature. 

John R Reynolds, 

Email: jr.reynolds@virgin.net 

Alan Cutler, 

Email: acutler@btconnect.com 

Rick Ramsdale – Education Officer, 

Email: rickramsdale@btinternet.com 

UKRIGS Education 

contact: education@ukrigs.org.uk 

UKRIGS website: 

www.ukrigs.org.uk Click on Education. 

The Biggest and the Baddest 

A team from the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan has 

revealed what may be the biggest and the baddest dinosaur, so 

far. Until 10 years ago, Tyrannosaurus rex was thought to be the 

largest meat-eating dinosaur at 42ft. This was followed by the 

discovery of the Gigantosaurus, another meat-eater measuring 

in at 45ft. Now, the even larger Spinosaurus at 56ft, has been 

discovered in Milan, by a team re-examining fossils found by 

a team from Beijing Institute of Vertebrate Palaeontology and 

Palaeoanthropology, who were working in the fossil-rich 

Junggar basin, in NW China. Two specimens were found, 

each with the distinctive tyrannosaur traits and with a crest on 

the skull. 

From an article by Julie Wheldon in the Daily Mail 9 Feb 2006 

45 www.esta-uk.org



ESRC Research Studentship in Geoscience 

Education 

The research will be carried out in the 

context of the UNESCO World Heritage 

Site (Jurassic Coast) and will be of interest 

to teachers and other educationalists in 

the fields of geography or geoscience education, 

depending on the project’s agreed 

focus. The student will work alongside 

myself, local schools and other organisations 

in formal, non-formal and informal 

education (notably the Jurassic Coast 

Education Working Group, Science 

Working Group and the various schools 

and field study centres along the Jurassic 

Coast) to carry out the investigation, to be 

selected from the list below. As necessary, 

the student may also liaise with UK and 

international colleagues, for example, in 

the International Geoscience Education 

Organisation. 

The research focus will be negotiated 

with the successful applicant and will be 

selected from the following, although 

there is scope for combining several of 

these into a single topic. Each is given as 

a research field, with one example of an 

appropriate research question. 

1. Perceptions and misconceptions of 

geological (deep) time, linking with 

my current research within and 

beyond the Jurassic Coast. 

● What are the perceptions of deep 

time held by Jurassic Coast visitors, 

of all ages, and how can Jurassic 

Coast phenomena be used to 

enhance an understanding of 

deep time 

2. Visitors’ perceptions of Jurassic Coast 

natural phenomena: going well 

beyond geological time. 

● How do visitors and potential 

Jurassic Coast visitors perceive the 

range of natural phenomena in 

relation to their own lives 

3. Public/children’s understanding of the 

Jurassic Coast designation, its natural 

features and geological and 

geomorphological history. 

● What is the current level of 

scientific understanding held by 

Jurassic Coast visitors in relation to 

its geological and geomorphological 

histories and what are the 

implications of this for Jurassic 

Coast managers and educators 

4. Efficacy of interpretation strategies on 

the Jurassic Coast: a major 

opportunity to work on some rapidlydeveloping 

strategies. 

● How effective are current Jurassic 

Coast interpretation strategies in 

achieving their stated aims and how 

can those strategies be improved 

5. The impact of visitors – including 

possible increases in visitor numbers – 

on the Jurassic Coast and the 

implications that these have for 

sustainable development. 

● What have been the major impacts 

of UNESCO designation and what 

are the likely future impacts if 

visitor numbers increase 

6. The nature and meaning of children’s 

interests, within or beyond 

geoscience, and their relevance for 

teaching and learning. 

● How can children’s individual and 

situational interests be enhanced 

through activities based on Jurassic 

Coast phenomena and what can 

we learn about interest theory by 

developing and evaluating such 

activities 

It is likely that geological time or 

children’s geoscience interests will figure 

in the research focus, building on work 

done at Exeter and elsewhere in these 

two fields in recent years, within and 

beyond Jurassic Coast schools. This 

research is set to expand after an 

international workshop to be held in 

Exeter in June 2006. This will lead to a 

3-year international study of geological 

time perception, with the UK element 

including the Jurassic Coast as a key 

context. The student would have the 

benefits of participating in a large 

international project investigating the 

nature and implications of existing deep 

time perceptions for a range of sectors of 

society, with potential implications for 

educators and policy-makers. 

For further details of this ESRC 

Research Studentship in geography or 

geoscience education, please contact: 

Dr Roger Trend 

Senior Lecturer in Education 

University of Exeter 

Email: R.D.Trend@exeter.ac.uk 

Tel: 01392 264768 


46


The Earth Lab is opening for 

school groups and families 

The Earth Lab at the Natural History 

Museum was opened in 1998 for 

amateur geologists and local groups to 

use as a drop-in centre. Recent changes 

have meant that schools groups can now 

book to use the laboratory which is fitted 

with microscopes, reference books, 

computer databases and reference 

specimens see (www.nhm.ac.uk). 

You may wish to use the Earth lab to 

identify your own specimens, or if you 

prefer, do contact the experts for their 

advice. Both the Mineralogy Department 

and the Palaeontology Department have 

Enquiries Officers, and specimen 

identification for the general public (up 

to 10 specimens) is free - though there 

may be a cost if the identification needs a 

significant amount of staff time. Contact 

Peter Tandy 020 7942 5482 in the 

Mineralogy Department, or email 

palaeo-enquiries@nhm.ac.uk for a fossil 

enquiry. 

From an article by Diana Clements in GA, 

the magazine of the Geologists’ Association 

Learning in the ‘Outdoor Classroom’ 

Results from a study funded by the Department for Education and Skills (DfES), the 

Countryside Agency, and the Farming and Countryside in Education (FACE) have 

been published in a report which is available on the Growing Schools website 

www.teachernet.gov.uk/growingschools/support/detail.cfmid=25. The main reasons 

for schools using the ‘outdoor classroom’ were grouped under five headings: 

● The intrinsic value of the experience; 

● The actual outdoor context; 

● The opportunities to use teaching approaches that complement education in the 

classroom; 

● The opportunity to integrate a range of ideas; 

● The learning itself. 

Benefits for teachers and pupils are outlined and suggestions on how outdoor 

learning can be integrated with the school curriculum. The importance of ‘outdoor 

learning’ will be well known and appreciated by most Earth scientists, though often 

it is lack of understanding and support from colleagues and employers that restricts 

teachers from taking pupils out of the classroom. Check out the website, maybe 

the report will support your argument for increasing or re-instating field trips and 

outdoor learning in your school. 

Ed 

New Orleans Poll 

In December, Geotimes asked its readers: What do you think is the most significant 

Earth science news story of the year (2005) The results were as follows: 

Climate change . . . . . . . . . . . . .34% 

Hurricane Katrina . . . . . . . . . . .29% 

Kashmir earthquake . . . . . . . . . .21% 

High energy prices . . . . . . . . . . .15% 

Space shuttle launch . . . . . . . . .1% 

Geotimes online polls can be seen on www.geotimes.org 

Ed 

Ecton to come 

alive again! 

All the many members of ESTA who 

have fond memories of exciting times 

spent at Ecton, up the hill and down 

the historic copper mine, will be 

delighted to hear of the progress now 

being made to re-starting educational 

courses. Ecton Hill Field Studies 

Association is looking to training 

some new tutors as well as bringing 

several of our old-stagers back into 

harness! This will take time, and it is 

likely that courses for A level 

students will re-start in 2007. A new 

administrative structure needs to be 

put in place, with booking system 

and contact point. 

Look out for a longer article in a 

future issue of TES which will give 

more information. 

Alastair Fleming 

fleming.a.z@btinternet.com 

Gifted and 

talented in 

science 

The National Academy for Gifted 

and Talented Youth (NAGTY) ‘has set 

up a series of think-tanks in order to 

explore subject-specific issues and 

ways of maximising opportunities for 

students who show particular aptitude 

and ability in specific subject 

disciplines’ – i.e. one or more 

sciences. If you would like to know 

more about these plans, wish to 

contribute to the discussion or share 

ideas for working with more able 

students, please contact 

info@ase.org.uk. If you are not yet a 

member of ASE, do check out their 

website www.ase.org.uk and join up. 

Ed 

47 www.esta-uk.org



The National Trust Guardianship Scheme 

Have you thought of applying for a 

National Trust Guardian Scheme for 

your school 

The Guardianship programme is an 

expanding network of both primary and 

secondary schools working with a 

particular National Trust property. The 

programme was launched more than 15 

years ago and continues to go from 

strength to strength. 

Guardianship schools develop a close, 

mutually beneficial relationship with 

their local National Trust site. They 

work with staff to develop an active and 

imaginative programme to bring the 

national curriculum alive. 

In particular schools gain first hand 

experience of environmental and 

conservation work, while having lots of 

fun along the way. 

Guardianships allow students to: 

● Undertake a range of practical activities 

that support the national curriculum. 

● Be involved in environmental and 

conservation work. 

● Explore their ‘local environment’ and 

make full use of their local National 

Trust site. 

● Build awareness, interest and responsibility 

for their environment. 

See www.nationaltrust.org.uk/main/ 

w-chl/w-schools/w-schools-guardian 

ships.htm for more details. 

Ed 

Use your camera and encourage your students to use theirs 

Visions of Science is a photographic awards scheme organised 

by Novartis Pharmaceuticals to encourage ongoing discussion 

about science. 

So, what is a Vision of Science To the judges of the 

Awards, a Vision of Science is an attention-grabbing image 

that gives new insight into the world of science and the 

workings of nature. It may show something never seen 

before, it may explain a scientific phenomenon, it may 

illustrate scientific data or it may simply be an image that 

shows the beauty of science. The panel of judges includes 

scientists, photographers and picture editors. 

Visions of Science is organised by Novartis Pharmaceuticals. 

The Daily Telegraph is the key media partner. The category 

prize money of £7,000, together with support and advice 

comes from the Science Photo Library. Special awards this year 

have been sponsored by the Institute of Physics, the BMJ, 

Science Learning Centres and Kodak Ltd. 

Details of the 2006 Novartis and The Daily Telegraph Visions of 

Science Photographic Awards will soon be available on the website 

www.visions-of-science.co.uk 

Evolution and/or intelligent design in the 

US curriculum 

‘A Pennsylvania (US) judge ruled (20 

December 2005) that the Dover Area 

School District’s science curriculum , 

which required the presentation of 

intelligent design (ID) – the belief that 

the complexity of life is evidence that a 

superior intellect must have designed it 

– as an alternative to evolution, is 

unconstitutional.’ 

The Kitzmiller et al. v. Dover trial 

began on 26 September, after parents 

sued the school district, which had 

required teachers to read a statement 

about ID prior to discussions of 

evolution in high school biology 

classes. This was the first federal case 

to challenge ID and it failed. Judge 

John E Jones III ruled in favour of the 

plaintiffs, saying that intelligent 

design is a religious idea and not a 

science, stating that ‘We find that 

while ID arguments may be true, a 

proposition on which the court takes 

no position, ID is not science’. He 

also said that Dover Area School 

District teachers may not ‘disparage 

the scientific theory of evolution’ and 

may not ‘refer to a religious, 

alternative theory known as ID’. 

Part of the argument against ID, 

was that ID was simply a new label 

for creationism. The book Of Pandas 

and People was given as an example of 

this. Following a ruling by the 

Supreme Court in 1987 that creation 

science could not be taught in public 

schools, all occurrences of the word 

‘creationism’ in Of Pandas and People 

were replaced with ‘intelligent 

design’. Two weeks after the 

judgement, Dover schoolboard 

members voted to officially remove 

ID from its curricula. 

From an article by Kathryn Hansen 

in Geotimes (published by the 

American Geological Institute), 

February 2006 pp 8-10. 


48


Saved by ‘sand’ poured into the 

wounds 

‘The material, called QuikClot, which is 

issued routinely to police officers in 

Hillsborough county, Florida, was 

developed for the US military to cut 

down the number of soldiers who bleed 

to death on the battlefield. More than 85 

per cent of soldiers killed in action die 

within an hour of being wounded. 

Improved haemorrhage control “could 

probably save 20 per cent of the soldiers 

who are killed in action”, says Hasan 

Alam, a trauma surgeon at Massachusetts 

General Hospital in Boston.’ 

‘The porous mineral powder is poured 

into the wound, where pores quickly 

absorb water, which concentrates the 

blood’s clotting factors and so speeds up 

clotting. QuikClot releases heat when 

positively charged calcium ions in its 

pores react with water molecules. The 

safety problem in the way of QuikClot’s 

wider use arises because of the large 

amount of heat the material releases when 

it absorbs water, sometimes enough to 

cause second-degree burns. In the face of 

a life-threatening injury, this may be a 

price worth paying.’ Another company, ‘is 

building on this work to develop new 

materials to control bleeding during 

surgery. For a material to be most 

effective it must have a large surface area 

like QuikClot, and since calcium acts as a 

cofactor in many clotting reactions some 

calcium ions must be present.’ 

Google Mars 

‘The team’s new material, a bioactive 

glass made of silica and calcium, has 

larger pores than QuikClot and a 

different consistency. Its large surface 

area, and efficiency in releasing calcium 

ions, makes it clot blood even faster. The 

large pores allow bigger molecules, such 

as enzymes found in the blood’s clotting 

cascade, to be incorporated in the 

material and released into the wound, 

which could further improve clotting. 

Unlike QuikClot, which is hard to 

make in anything but powder form, the 

bioglass can be squeezed out of a 

syringe, like a paste, which would be 

easier to apply during surgery. Bioglass 

can also be left in the body after surgery, 

where it will eventually be absorbed – 

unlike the QuikClot particles, which 

have to be removed from the wound 

after bleeding has stopped, a fiddly and 

time-consuming process. Meanwhile 

Z-Medica is hoping that its new, safer 

version of QuikClot will be taken up not 

only by surgeons and emergency crews, 

but also by individuals. “Ultimately, we 

hope everybody will have a first-aid kit 

with a pack in their car,” says Huey.’ 

From New Scientist Print Edition, for the full 

article see www.newscientist.com/article/ 

mg18925435.800-saved-by-sand-pouredinto-the-wounds.html 

article by Jessica Marshall 16 March 2006 

Following on from Google Earth and Google Moon, there will soon be Google 

Mars. Detailed maps have been made from images taken by NASA’s orbiting 

satellites Mars Odessey and Mars Global Surveyor which will be available, along with 

locations of NASA rovers Spirit and Opportunity. You will also be able to check 

out the estimated spot where the British lander Beagle 2 was lost. 

From an article by Oliver Stallwood in Metro 15 March 2006 

EARLY NOTICE – ESTA Annual Conference 

15-17th September 2006 – Bristol 

Dinosaurs have 

growth rings 

The bones of Plateosaurus engelhardti 

had growth rings similar to those of 

trees, with increased growth during 

times of plenty, when climates were 

favourable and food abundant, and 

less during less favourable times. 

Modern cold-blooded reptiles do 

the same. 

From an article by Sander and Klein in 

Science, 16 December 2005. 

London Outdoor 

Science 

If you are teaching in the London 

boroughs of Camden, Hackney, 

Islington, Tower Hamlets or 

Newham and are interested in the 

development of fieldwork in key 

stage 4 science teaching or would 

like help in your school, contact: 

Melissa Glackin, the London 

Outdoor Science project officer at 

outdoorscience@field-studies-council.org. 

CO 2 levels hit 30 

million year high 

Carbon dioxide levels in the 

atmosphere rose last year atone of 

the fastest rates ever recorded. They 

climbed to 381 parts per million 

(ppm) – 100 ppm above the average 

in the pre-industrial age. The new 

figures were produced by the US 

national Oceanic and Atmosphere 

Administration, which warned that 

carbon dioxide levels were rising at 

twice the rate of 30 years ago. Sir 

David King, the Government’s Chief 

Scientific Adviser said “That’s higher 

than we’ve been for over a million 

years, possibly 30 million years. 

Mankind is changing the climate”. 

See www.noaa.gov 

49 www.esta-uk.org



Prehistoric Life 

Check out the latest on the BBC website 

which may be helpful when teaching 

about evolution, extinction and 

prehistoric life. There is a fun game for 

children (and adults) called ‘Fakes and 

Mistakes – Can you spot a fake’ – you 

can take a photo quiz where you try to 

spot prehistoric fakes and mistakes 

amongst legitimate finds or suggest your 

pupils have a go, maybe even set it as 

part of a homework assignment. Related 

links include: 

● Making fossils – where you can ‘see 

how a flesh and blood creature can turn 

into a fossil’ 

● Baryonyx mystery – ‘have you got the 

palaeontology skills to uncover the 

truth’ 

● Who dung it – ‘can you match the 

poop with the poopetrator’ 

Apart from the language (aimed at the 

youngster), the only downside is that 

you will need the Flash 6 or above plugin 

to play this game, but this is free and 

can be downloaded from the website. 

See www.bbc.co.uk/sn/prehistoric_life 

Ed 

Celebrations 

The Annual General 

Meeting of the Association 

of UKRIGS Groups on 

23rd September is to be 

followed by a field trip as 

part of the Wren’s Nest 50th 

Anniversary Celebrations. 

See www.ukrigs.org.uk 

EARLY NOTICE 

Women in 

Geoconservation 

The History of Geology Group of the 

Geological Society of London is 

organising a conference on the History 

of Geoconservation to take place in 

London in November. Cynthia Burek 

has been working on the role of 

women in the history of geological 

work and would like to ask two 

questions: Do you think women 

played a significant role in the history 

of Geoconservation If so, can you 

think of any examples 

Please contact Cynthia at 

c.burek@chester.ac.uk. 

ESTA Annual Conference 

15-17th September 2006 – Bristol 


50


Reviews 

Teach yourself Geology. David A. Rothery Hodder & Stoughton 2003. ISBN 0-340-86753-1 paperback. £8.99. 261pp. 

This book is one of a ‘teach yourself ’ 

series of books. Consequently it is 

constrained in style by the editors of the 

‘teach yourself ’ series. This style can be 

quite annoying, particularly the use of 

initial lower case letters for formal 

names. This is rather disappointing for a 

series whose purpose is the education of 

the general public. However, the layout 

of the book makes it easy to follow. 

The book is organised into chapters 

that may be read independently and in 

any order. Each chapter is preceded by a 

very brief summary to make easy access 

to whatever is being sought. The 

chapters cover a range of broad subjects 

including: the structure and composition 

of the earth; earthquakes; tectonics; 

volcanoes; igneous intrusions; 

metamorphism; erosion and transport; 

deposition of sedimentary rocks; 

deformation; physical resources; fossils; 

earth history; planetary geology; and 

fieldwork. There are also appendices on 

mineral identification and rock 

classification and an extensive glossary. 

This series of books are not really for 

academic use in schools and higher 

education establishments, but rather for 

the general public, and it is well suited to 

that purpose in terms of price and 

accessibility; it is inexpensive and easy to 

read and follow. However, for someone 

taking an interest in geology through 

becoming interested in rocks it lacks a 

certain amount of detail. The emphasis 

in this book is rather global in 

perspective: there is a lot of detail on the 

structure of the earth, tectonics etc., but 

it is a bit thin when it comes to 

classifying and identifying rocks. 

That said it is a good investment for 

any taking up an interest in geology; 

however, I feel it is not really aimed at 

being a school text book. 

Charlie Bendall 

Institute of Geography and Earth Sciences 

University of Wales Aberystyth 

Mesozoic and Tertiary Fossil Mammals and Birds of Great Britain. M.J. Benton, E. Cook and J.J. Hooker. 

JNCC 2006. ISBN 1-86107-480-8 £55. 

Mammals and birds are one of the most 

conspicuous parts of the modern fauna, 

but in evolutionary terms, they are 

relative newcomers to life on Earth. 

Nevertheless, we know that these groups 

have a long geological history in Britain, 

because our fossil record provides rare 

remains of ancient mammals and birds, 

which have helped us to understand 

their evolution and the environments in 

which they lived. Our mammal 

ancestors – the early mammals – 

originated in the Triassic Period, part of 

the Mesozoic Era, over 225 million years 

(Ma) ago, and the first birds arose in the 

Jurassic Period, over 150 Ma. A new 

book, published by JNCC, charts the 

evolution of early mammals and birds, as 

represented by the sites in Britain that 

have yielded important fossils. Mesozoic 

and Tertiary Fossil Mammals and Birds of 

Great Britain is volume number 32 in the 

Geological Conservation Review Series, 

which describes Britain’s finest 

geological sites. It will be followed by a 

book on Pleistocene vertebrates (‘Ice 

Age’ faunas, such as mammoths and 

woolly rhinos) this year. 

By registering a pre-publication order with 

JNCC’s distributors, a saving of up to 20% 

can be made on forthcoming GCR titles – for 

details, and ordering information, contact 

NHBS Ltd www.nhbs.com 

Involving People in Geodiversity. JNCC and English Nature. Free booklet 

The booklet provides a summary of the 

discussions and conclusions of a two-day 

workshop held to mark the end of the 

conference, organised by English Nature, 

Dorset County Council and JNCC. 

The workshop addressed ways of 

promoting geodiversity and geological 

conservation, and provided delegates 

with the opportunity to share their 

experiences through the presentation and 

discussion of case studies and examples, 

and to recommend successful strategies 

to involve people in geodiversity. 

The importance of geodiversity and its 

benefits to people are often overlooked. 

Not only does geodiversity offer practical 

benefits, through the provision of 

resources and materials such as coal, iron 

and building stone, it also shapes the 

landscape, influencing the habitats and 

species surrounding us and creating 

scenery and geological attractions. 

Geodiversity has an educational value, 

allowing us to understand the evolution 

and history of the planet, and to interpret 

present and future processes by 

reconstructing the past. It also has a 

cultural role to play, via its inspiration to 

art, and in providing a sense of place and 

identity for local communities. 

The case studies and discussions 

demonstrated that much innovation is 

being used to interest and involve people 

in geodiversity, and that the audience can 

include everybody, from the general 

public, children, families, schools and 

local communities, to land owners, hotel 

managers, local councillors and 

politicians. 

Copies of the booklet can be obtained by 

contacting GeoConference@jncc.gov.uk, and 

further information can be found at: 

www.geoconservation.com/ehwh/ 

conference/ipg.htm 

Contact file: Emma Durham GCR 

Production Editor 

Tel: +44 (0) 1733 866908 

Email: emma.durham@jncc.gov.uk 

51 www.esta-uk.org


ESTA Diary 

MAY 

6 & 7 May 

Rock’n’Gem Show 

Alexandra Palace, Wood Green, London 

Contact: www.rockngem.co.uk 

13 May 

Rockwatch Fieldtrip to explore the Geology of 

Warwickshire 

Contact: www.rockwatch.org.uk 

18 & 19 May 

Teaching Practical Geology 

Inset course for ‘A’ Level Geology teachers 

University of Liverpool 

Contact: bamberi@liv.ac.uk 

JUNE 

3 & 4 June 


Kempton Park Racecourse, 

Staines Road East (A308), 

Sunbury on Thames, West London 


10 & 11 June 


Norfolk Showground, 

Costtessy, 

Norwich (off A 47) 


17 June 

Fieldtrip: Fossils of the Middle Jurassic 

Northamptonshire/Buckinghamshire borders 


JUNE 

17 & 18 June 


Newcastle Racecourse, 

High Gosforth Park, 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 


JULY 

1 July 

Fieldtrip to Wren’s Nest Nature Reserve and 

Canal Boat trip 

Near Dudley, West Midlands 


ESTA A-Level Workshop 2006 – 13th May 2006 

Location – Keele University (depending on “epicentre” of delegates) 

Outcomes – Discussion and production of materials on: 

● ‘Selling A level Geology to the Senior Management Team’ 

● ‘How can we sell Geology in our school/college more effectively 

● ‘What can I do with my A level Geology – Career implications’ 

● ‘Workable A level laboratory investigations’ 

● ‘Specification review – consultation on draft criteria’ 

Cost: Funded by ESTA and open to all ESTA members 

If you would like to be involved contact the project leader – Pete Loader. Email: peterloader@yahoo.co.uk 

ESTA Course and Conference 2006 

Will be held in the Earth Science Department at Bristol University on 15-17 September 2006. 

Email: mjwhiteley@yahoo.co.uk 


52

THEMATIC TRAILS 

These guides are full of serious explanation, yet challenge us to question and interpret what we see. 

The reader is encouraged to observe, enquire and participate in a trail of discovery. Each trail is an 

information resource suitable for teachers to translate into field tasks appropriate to a wide range of ages. 

LANDSCAPES 

GEOLOGY AT HARTLAND QUAY 

Alan Childs & Chris Cornford 

In a short cliff-foot walk, along the beach at Hartland Quay, visitors are provided with a 

straightforward explanation of the dramatically folded local rocks and their history. 

Alternate pages provide a deeper commentary on aspects of the geology and in 

particular provide reference notes for students examining the variety of structures 

exhibited in this exceptionally clear location. A5. 40 pages. 47 figs. 

ISBN 0-948444-12-6 Thematic Trails 1989. £2.40 

THE CLIFFS OF HARTLAND QUAY 

Peter Keene 

On a cliff-top walk following the Heritage Coast footpath to the south from Hartland 

Quay, coastal waterfalls, valley shapes and the form of the cliffs are all used to 

reconstruct a sequence of events related to spectacular coastal erosion along this coast. 

A5. 40 pages. 24 figs. 


LYN IN FLOOD, Watersmeet to Lynmouth 

P. Keene & D. Elsom 

A riverside walk from Watersmeet on Exmoor, follows the East Lyn downstream to 

Lynmouth and the sea. The variety of physical states of the East Lyn river is explained 

including spate and the catastrophic floods of 1952. A5. 48 pages. 36 figs. 


THE CLIFFS OF SAUNTON 

Peter Keene and Chris Cornford 

“If you really want explanations served up to you... then go elsewhere, but if you want 

to learn, by self-assessment if you like, start here. Ideally you should go there, to 

Saunton Sands, but it’s not absolutely necessary. The booklet is so cleverly done that 

you can learn much without leaving your armchair. Not that we are encouraging such 

sloth, you understand.” (Geology Today). A5. 44 pages. 30 figs. 

ISBN 0-048444-24-X Thematic Trails 1995. £2.40 

SNOWDON IN THE ICE AGE 

Kenneth Addison 

Ken Addison interprets the evidence left by successive glaciers around Snowdon 

(the last of which melted only 10,000 years ago) in a way which brings together the 

serious student of the Quaternary Ice Age and the interested inquisitive visitor. 


ISBN 0-9511175-4-8 Addison Landscape Publications. 1988. £3.60 

THE ICE AGE IN CWM IDWAL 

Kenneth Addison 

The Ice Age invested Cwm Idwal with a landscape whose combination of glaciological, 

geological and floristic elements is unsurpassed in mountain Britain. Cwm Idwal is 

readily accessible on good paths within a few minutes walk of the A5 route through 

Snowdonia. A5. 21pages. 16 figs. 

ISBN 0-9511175-4-8 A. L. P. 1988. £3.60 

THE ICE AGE IN Y GLYDERAU AND NANT FFRANCON 

Ice, in the last main glaciation, carved a glacial highway through the heart of Snowdonia 

so boldly as to ensure that Nant Ffrancon is amongst the best known natural landmarks 

in Britain. The phenomenon is explained in a way that is understandable to both 

specialist and visitor. A5. 30 pages. 21 figs. 

ISBN 0-9511175-3-X A.L.P. 1988. £3.60 

ROCKS & LANDSCAPE OF ALSTON MOOR 

geological walks in the Nent Valley. Barry Webb & Brian Young (Ed. Eric Skipsey). On 

two walks in the North Pennines landscape, the authors unravel clues about how 

today’s rocks, fossils and landscape were formed and how men have exploited the 

geological riches of Alston Moor.’ A5. 28 pages, 40 figs. 

Cumbria Riggs 2002. £2.00 

CITYSCAPES 

BRISTOL, HERITAGE IN STONE 

Eileen Stonebridge 

The walk explores the rich diversity of stones that make up the fabric of the City of 

Bristol. The expectation is that as the building stones become familiar, so comes the 

satisfaction of being able to identify common stones and their origin, perhaps before 

turning to the text for reassurance. A5. 40 pages. 60 figs. 

ISBN 0948444-36-3 Thematic Trails 1999. £2.40 

BATH IN STONE a guide to the city’s building stones 

Elizabeth Devon, John Parkins, David Workman 

Compiled by the Bath Geological Society, the architectural heritage of Bath is explored, 

blending the recognition of building stones and the history of the city. A very useful 

walking guide both for visiting school parties, geologists and the interested nonspecialist 

visitor. A5. 48 pages. 36 illustrations. 

ISBN 0948444-38-X Thematic Trails 2001. £2.40 

GLOUCESTER IN STONE, a city walk – Joe McCall 

This booklet was compiled by the Gloucestershire RIGS Group as an introduction to 

the geology of the city. Four compass-point streets radiate from Gloucester city centre. 

The first short walk, Eastgate Street, is, in essence a mental tool-kit for identifying 

some local common building stones and their history - a skill which can then be applied 

to any of the three following compass direction walks. 

A5. 40 pages. 39 illustrations. 

ISBN 0948444-37-1 Thematic Trails 1999. £2.40 

GEOLOGY AND THE BUILDINGS OF OXFORD 

Paul Jenkins 

The walk is likened to a visit to an open air museum. Attention is drawn to the variety 

of building materials used in the fabric of the city. Their suitability, durability, 

susceptibility to pollution and weathering, maintenance and replacement is discussed. 



EXETER IN STONE, AN URBAN GEOLOGY 

Jane Dove 

“Directed at ‘the curious visitor and interested non-specialists’, Thematic Trails Trust 

publications incorporate and translate professional knowledge from the academic 

literature to which members of the general public don’t have ready access....Exeter in 

Stone is a fine addition to the ever-expanding list of booklets on the building stones of 

British towns and cities.” (Geology Today). A5. 44 pages. 24 illustrations. 


GUIDE TO THE BUILDING STONES OF HUDDERSFIELD 

Two walks in central Huddersfield examine decorative polished building stones that 

have been brought into Huddersfield from many parts of the world to enhance the 

commercial and public buildings of the city. Huddersfield Geology Group. 

A5. 12 pages. 23 illustrations. £2.00 

COASTAL EROSION AND MANAGEMENT 

WESTWARD HO! AGAINST THE SEA 

Peter Keene 

This ‘case study’ examines the history of coastal erosion at Westward Ho! and the 

many strategies for coastal defence adopted and discarded over the last 150 years. 



DAWLISH WARREN AND THE SEA 

Peter Sims 

Within living memory Dawlish Warren in South Devon has dramatically changed its 

shape several times. A shoreline walk explains the nature and history of dynamic coastal 

change and its implications for both short-term and long-term coastal management. 


ISBN 0-948444-13-4 Thematic Trails 1988-98. £2.40 

These titles are selected from over 100 guides published or marketed by the educational charity Thematic Trails. 

For a free catalogue e-mail keene@thematic-trails.org 

(Tel:01865-820522 Fax: 01865-820522) or visit our web site: www. thematic-trails.org 

Address ORDERS to THEMATIC TRAILS, 7 Norwood Avenue, Kingston Bagpuize, Oxon OX13 5AD. 

Use an educational address and quote your ESTA membership number to qualify for a 15% educational discount. 

Orders for five or more items are post free. Thematic Trails is registered charity No. 801188. 

53 www.esta-uk.org

ADVERTISING IN “TEACHING EARTH SCIENCES” 

THE MAGAZINE OF THE EARTH SCIENCE TEACHERS’ ASSOCIATION 

The readership consists of dedicated Earth science 

teachers in:- 

● Primary schools 

● Secondary schools 

● Departments of Earth sciences, geography and 

geology in colleges and universities. 


EARTH 

SCIENCES 

Teaching Earth Sciences is the only UK magazine that 

specialises in the teaching of Earth Sciences. 

It is published quarterly. Advertising in the magazine 

is offered at competitive rates as follows: 




1. PAGE ADVERTISING 

1 ISSUE 2 ISSUES 3 ISSUES 4 ISSUES 

Full A4 Page £120 £200 £275 £340 

Half page £75 £140 £180 £210 

The price to include type setting if necessary 

2. INSERTS 

These are charged at £100 per issue for sheets up to A4 size. For inserts larger than 

A4 please contact the Advertising Officer (see p3 for details). Upon confirmation, 

please send inserts to: 

FAO: Mike Greene, ABC Printers, Lugg View Industrial Estate, 

Moreton-on-Lugg, Herefordshire HR4 8DP 

REQUESTS TO ADVERTISE 

Your request for advertising space should be sent to the Advertising Officer at 

the address on p3. Your request should indicate the volume(s) and issues in which 

you wish to advertise. (The next available issue is volume TES 31.3 copy deadline 21 

May for publication July/August 2006) 

You should include your advertisement copy (or copy of insert) and state any 

additional requirements. 

An invoice and voucher copy will be sent to you upon publication. 


54

Contents 

Authors 

ESTA TEACHING MATERIALS 

These materials include teacher notes and worksheets and they are copyright free for classroom use. 

Enquiries and orders to earthscience@macunlimited.net 

PRIMARY 

Useful as part of Literacy and Numeracy Hour, with themes that can be developed further in KS2 Science 

Working with Soil 

This new resource includes a booklet, Waldorf the Worm, relating the story 

of a family of worms, together with supporting activities and worksheets. 

Working with Rocks 

This pack contains Christina’s Story, which tells the tale of a marble gravestone, 

together with supporting activities and worksheets. Sixteen full colour postcards 

depicting common building and ornamental stones are also included. 

Hidden changes in the Earth: an introduction to metamorphism (2001) 

Magma: an introduction to igneous processes (2002) 

£6.00 + p&p 

£6.00 + p&p 

£2.00 + p&p 

£2.00 + p&p 

The Dynamic Rock Cycle is a comprehensive teaching pack, full of interesting activities and experiments. It 

addresses weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, compaction and cementation, plus selected igneous 

and metamorphic processes. The pack forms the basis of the workshops offered by the Earth Science Education 

Unit. It is freely downloadable from their website (www.earthscienceeducation.com) 

SoE1: Changes to the atmosphere (1995) 

SoE2: Earth’s structure and plate tectonics (1996) 

SoE3: Rock formation and deformation (1998) 

● The Map . .inside cover 

● Information . . . . . . . . . . . . .pages 1 - 3 

● How to Use the Work Sh ets . . . . .page 4 - 6 

● Science Activities and Work Sh ets .pages 7 - 16 

● Literacy Activities and Work Sh ets . .pages 17 - 26 

● Numeracy Activities and Work Sh ets . . . . . . .pages 27 - 30 

KEY STAGE 3 

Devised to introduce Earth science to pupils as part of the Science & Geography Curriculum 

KEY STAGE 4 

Investigating the Science of the Earth: practical activities for KS4 and beyond 

£2.50 + p&p 

£2.50 + p&p 

£2.50 + p&p 

The Plate Tectonics Interactive and Investigating the Changing Earth and Atmosphere focus on GCSE 

Science syllabuses. These packs underpin the Earth Science Education Unit workshops and are freely 

downloadable from their website (www.earthscienceeducation.com) 

PRACTICAL KITS 

High quality specimens representing real value-for-money. For further details contact jr.reynolds@virgin.net 

Fossils: Twelve representative replica fossils and data sheet in boxed set £17.00 + p&p 

Rocks: Reference Kit comprising 15 large samples, with worksheets and notes £20.00 + p&p 

Class Kit with 6 sets of 15 medium-size samples, with worksheets and notes £60.00 + p&p 

WALL MAPS 

Geological maps of the UK and the World. For further details contact earthscience@macunlimited.net 

Working 

With 

Soil 

This pack was wri ten and developed by members of the ESTA Primary Commi t e. 

Waldorf the Worm 

NEW 

Ordnance Survey United Kingdom Geology Wall Map (1:1million, flat or folded) 

Open University/Esso World Geology Map (1:30million, flat or folded) 

£4.00 + p&p 

£6.50 + p&p 

All kits supplied plus postage at cost. Enquiries to earthscience@macunlimited.net 

55 www.esta-uk.org

teaching - Earth Science Teachers' Association

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