Directorate of Oilseeds Research

I 

( ~ ) H. BASAPPA 

N'at~onal Agricultural Technology Project 

Directorate of Oilseeds Research 

(Indian Council of Agricultural Research) 

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, India

¥ 

'iTTlryl 

leAR 

INTEGRATED 

PEST MANAGEMENT 

IN CASTOR 

H.BASAPPA 

National Agricultural Technology Project 

Directorate of Oilseeds Research 

(Indian Council of Agricultural Research) 

Raj endranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030, India 

2003

Citatioll 

Basappa, H. 2003. Integrated Pest Management in Castor 

Directorate of Oil seeds Research, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030, India. VIII, 52 p. 

Cataloguing in publication 

Main entry under the title 

Integrated Pest Management in Castor 

Basappa - Hyderabad; Directorate of Oil seeds Research, 2003. VIII, 52 p. 

I. Integrated Pest Management 2. Castor I. Basappa, H 

UDC 632.9:633.853.55 

Front Cover 

(Anti clockwise) Healthy crop of wilt resistant variety Jyothi with insectivorous bird Black 

Drongo, natural enemies of castor pests, major insect pests and diseases of castor. 

Back Cover 

(Anti clockwise) Ipm farmers field school, hand collection and destruction of egg masses and 

early stage larvae of S.litura and hairy caterpillars, crop rotation of castor after sorghum, inter 

cropping of castor + pigeonpea, tribal farmer examining pheromone trap, woman farmer preparing 

NSKE(5%) and tribal woman farmer in the castor rPM field. 

Acknowledgements 

This publication is funded by National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) under PSR 

Project ROPS-8 "Development ofIPM Modules for Oilseeds and Nutritious Cereals based 

Production System" 

Published by 

The Project Director and Facilitator (ROPS), Directorate of Oil seeds Research 

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030, India 

Printed at 

Balaji Scan Pvt. Ltd., A.C.Guards, Hyderabad. Ph : 23303424, 23303425

FOREWORD 

In Indian agriculture raifed agro ecosystem is very important as it covers more than 65 % of the 

net cultivated area which contributes 44% of the national food production. Among raifed crops grown 

in India oilseed crops are important as 85% of area under oilseeds is under the raifed agro ecosystem. 

Castor is one of the industrially important oilseed crop cultivated world over. India ranks first in both area 

and production in the world. In India castor is cultivated under irrigated conditions in Gujarat state with 

high productivity whereas in Andhra Pradesh it is predominantly grown under rainfed agro-ecosystem 

of Ranga Reddy, Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar districts with poor soil fertility. The productivity of 

castor is low due to several biotic and abiotic factors as production constraints. Severe out break of pests 

and diseases, poor fertility and moisture retention capacity ofthe soil, lack of quality seeds and irrigation 

sources, erratic distribution of rains, poor resource base of farmers are some of the major biophysical and 

socioeconomic constraints in the castor production. Insect pests and di seases are responsible for more 

than 25% losses in castor. Pest management strategies that incorporate knowledge of the insect pest 

alternate hosts, biology, population dynamics, influence of weather parameters on pest and natural 

enemy population, economic injury levels, use of bio control agents, bio pesticides, cultural control and 

judicious use of relatively safer insecticides to bio control agents are important for development of eco 

friendly IPM modules with holistic approach for sustainable castor production. 

Under National Agricultural Technology Project (NATP) "Development of IPM Modules for 

Oilseeds and Nutritious Cereals based Production System (ROPS-8)," bio intensive IPM (BIPM) modules 

and chemical insecticide intensive IPM (CIPM) modules were developed involving locally available low 

cost and no cost IPM components and were validated in the castor fields of farmers by comparing with 

Non IPM module (farmers practice) in large area at different locations in the Ranga Reddy and 

Mahaboobnagar districts. The important feature of this project is that experiments are conducted on 

farmers fields with the farmers participation. Across locations BIPM and CIPM modules were found 

superior over Non IPM modules in keeping pest pop~lation below the threshold level with higher 

economic returns. 

I would like to cOIT.pliment Dr. H.Basappa Senior Scientist (Entomology) and CCPI,ROPS-8 who 

has put his best efforts in tl e development and validation of BIPM and CIPM modules in the traditional 

castor growing rainfed agro ecosystem as well as bringing out this publication reflecting salient findings 

from the project. 

Hyderabad 

December,2003 

~ ~. R-- j0-A_ 

(YSRAMAKRISHNA) 

Agro-Ecosystem Director 

(Rainfed)

PREFACE 

Castor is one of the industrially important non-edible oilseed crops grown in India. Among 

major castor growing countries in the world, India ranks fust with 68% of area and 76% of world castor 

production, respectively. India is first in the world to exploit hybrid vigour in castor for elevating the 

productivity. Though castor productivity in India is more than the world average, there are several 

production constraints in the traditional rainfed castor growing areas of Andhra Pradesh, among them 

insect pests and diseases dominate the scenario. Ccastor semilooper, castor shoot and capsule borer, 

castor wilt and grey rot are of greater economic importance. A wide array of natural enemies are 

associated with castor eco-system which exert greater biological resistance in the succession of the 

pest complex of castor. It is essential to have knowledge- intensive, farmer-based integrated pest 

management (IPM ) approach that encourages natural control of pest populations by anticipating pest 

problems and preventing pests from reaching economically damaging levels. Though effective individual 

plant protection technologies have been developed and the benefits of these can be realized at field level 

only when IPM modules are developed and validated by demonstrating under farmer's conditions. In this 

direction, Directorate of Oil seeds Research, Hyderabad as one of the Co operating centers of PSR project 

''Development of IPM Modules for Oilseeds and Nutritious Cereals based Production System" is 

successful in the development and validation of IPM modules in the castor ecosystem of Mahaboobnagar 

and Rangareddy districts of Andhra Pradesh. Bio intensive !PM (BIPM) module has been developed 

involving low cost !PM interventions considering wide array of natural enemies associated with insect 

pests in the castor ecosystem while chemical insecticide intensive IPM (CIPM) module has been developed 

to tackle pest outbreak situation. The publication on "Integrated Pest Management in Castor" covering 

insect pests, diseases, nematodes, weeds and their management with a holistic approach will be useful 

publication to scientists, developmental and extension officials of public and private sector for effective 

transfer of IPM technology to the large number of castor farmers in the country. 

I congratulate Dr. H.Basappa Senior Scientist (Entomology) and CCPI,ROPS-8 who has made 

commendable efforts in the development and validation of location specific, economically viable and 

socially acceptable IPM modules for castor ecosystem as well as bringing out this publication reflecting 

salient findings from the project in addition to covering information on latest technologies relevant to 

IPM in castor. 

Hyderabad 

December,2003 

c:zJvL_ 

(D.M.Hegde) 

Facilitator (ROPS) and 

Project Director,OOR

Contents 

Page No. 

Introduction 

Principles and Concepts of Integrated Pest Management 

2 

Problems and Approaches in Castor Pest Management 

7 

Development and Validation of IPM Modules in Castor 

39 

Yield and Economics of IPM 

44 

Impact of IPM Progr.amme 

45 

Reccomendations 

46 

Perspective 

References 

47 

49


1. Introduction 

Castor (Ricinus communis L) is one 

of the industrially important non-edible oilseed 

crops of the world. India ranks first among the 

major castor producing countries (Brazil and 

China) in the world with 68% of area and 76% 

of world castor production. Coming out of the 

conventional strategies of castor production 

through. varietal importance, India is first in the 

world to ex.ploit hybrid vigour in castor for 

elevating the productivity. Castor productivity 

in India is more than the world average mainly 

due to higher productivity in Gujarat where 

castor is cultivated under irrigated conditions 

otherwise it is grown in semi-arid and arid 

regions. Castor is grown in all most all states, 

Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tarnilanadu, Rajasthan 

and Karnataka account for about 51,29,6,5 and 

3 per cent of the total area under the crop, 

respectively. Gujarat alone contribute to 83 % 

of the total country's production. Castor oil 

production not only sustains but also has been 

the cause for expansion of industrial growth 

in lubricant, soap and pharmaceutical 

production. Foreign exchange earning by way 

of exporting oil further emphasizes the 

importance of crop to the national economy. 

The exports of castor oil is steadily rising from 

4.4 thousand tonnes valued at Rs. 3.41 crores 

in 1981- 82 to 216 thous: md tonnes val ued at 

Rs.550 crores in 1996-97 and to 244 thousand 

tonnes valued at Rs. 953 crores in 1999-2000 

(DOR, 2003). 

Among biological constraints in 

the castor production, undoubtedly insect 

pests and diseases dominate the scenario. In 

India more than 107 species of insects and 6 

species of mites are recorded on castor at 

different phenological stages of the crop. 

Among them castor semi looper, Achaeajanata 

Linn.; castor shoot and capsule borer, 

Conogathus punctiferalis ( Dichocrosis 

punctiferalis (Guenee»; tobacco caterpillar, 

Spodoptera litura (Fabricius) , leafhopper, 

Empoasca flavescense (Fabricius) and 

whitefly, Trialeurodes ricini (Misra) are of 

greater economic importance. In recent years 

serpentine leafminer, Liriomyza trifolii 

(Burgess) is also becoming serious on the crop. 

Besides, several hairy caterpillars like 

Spilosoma obliqua (Walker), Euproctis spp, 

Pericalia ricini Fabricius, Amsacta albistriga 

Walker, A. moorei Butl. and castor slug 

caterpillar, Parasa lepida c., castor gall fly, 

Asphondylia ricini M., spiny caterpillar, Ergollis 

merione C. and red spider mite, Tetranychus 

telarius L. are also assumed regional 

importance and are sporadic pests. In recent 

years castor inflorescence thrips (Scirtothrips 

dorsalis Hood.) also attained a pest status by 

infesting the crop at flowering stage causing 

considerable loss to the crop specially in 

Gujarat. The· polyphagous pest Helicoverpa 

armigera Hubner also cause considerable 

damage to castor crop by boring castor capsules 

apart from feeding on foliage. In the castor 

ecosystem insect pests are attacked by good 

number of natural enemies among them, egg 

parasitoid, Trichogramma chilonis Ishii; larval 

parasitoid, Microplitis maculipennis Szepligate, 

insect predators, insectivorous birds and some 

of the microbial agents exert greater biological 

resistance in the succession of the pest 

complex. of castor. 

Castor crop is also attacked by more 

than 150 pathogens causing diseases at different 

phenological stages of the crop. Among them, 

seedling blight, Phytophthora parasitica ; wilt,

Tntegrated Pest Management in Castor 

Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Ricin; and gray 

rot, Botrytis ricini Godfrey are of economic 

importance. Following diseases like root rot, 

Alternaria leaf spot, Cercospora leaf spot and 

powdery mildew are miner diseases. Apart from 

insect pests and diseases other pests like 

nematodes and weeds also interfere at different 

growth stages of the crop and reduce the yield 

considerably under severe conditions. For 

developing suitable pest management strategies 

with holistic approach it is essential to 

understand principles and concepts of 

integrated pest management (IPM). 

2. Principles and Concepts of 

Integrated Pest Management 

Man began to protect his crops as soon 

as he started practicing organized agriculture 

and made efforts to protect crops from pests 

by following some plant protection measures 

apart from cultural practices which were more 

or less environmental friendly. Since several 

centuries crude botanical insecticides have been 

used in plant protection and were known in tribal 

or traditional cultures around· the world. 

Botanicals with long hjstories of traditional use 

include neem in India, rotenone in East Asia 

and South America, pyrethrum in Persia (Iran), 

and sabadilla in Central and South America. From 

the late 1800s to the 1940s, botanical insecticides 

were used extensively on several high value fruit 

and vegetable crops and nicotine-based 

insecticides were in use before 1900, whereas 

pyrethrum, rotenone, sabadilla and ryania 

became more popular in the 1930s and I 940s. 

The invention of insecticidal properties 

of D.D.T. by Paul Muller in 1939 and its 

commercial availability in 1940 lead to use of 

eco-destabilizing pesticides as one of the 

important components of intensive agriculture 

at the global level. Due to high residual toxicities 

of DDT other group of insecticides like 

organophosphorus and carbamates were 

introduced during late 60's. During late 70's 

more toxic synthetic pyrethroids were 

introduced in to pest control. The indiscriminate 

use of insecticides particularly the synthetic 

pyrethroids had lead to the development of 

problems of pest resurgence, pest resistance 

to chemical pesticides and secondary pest 

outbreaks, pesticide residue ,contamination of 

environment and health hazards to human 

beings and animals. Hence there is a need for 

suitable and sustainable pest management 

approach in castor ecosystem without impairing 

the resources to attain sustainability in the 

production. Though castor is one of the 

industrially important and export potential 

oilseed crops it is predominantly grown in poor 

soils with low fertility under rainfed agro 

ecosystems in India. In recent years it is also 

cultivated under irrigated conditions and high 

input management in some parts of the country. 

Among insect pests red hairy caterpillar, castor 

semi loper, tobacco caterpillar and capsule borer, 

among diseases wilt and botrytis are 

economically important. Wide array of natural 

enemies like egg parasitoids, larval parasitoids, 

insect and bird predators are associated with 

insect pests of castor apart from 

entomopathogenic microbial agents, which 

exert greater resistance in the succession of 

pests. Hence various facets of pest 

management approaches should therefore be 

suitably engineered to maintain the productivity 

of castor based on local resources, pest resistant 

varieties, agro ecological and bio rational (biopesticides 

and botanicals) approaches as well


as relatively safer pesticides to beneficial fauna 

which will provide an acceptable or affordable 

and dependable Integrated Pest Management 

(rPM) technology. 

2.1. Origin of Integrated Pest 

Management 

The origin of concept of integrated 

control during 1950's was the result of 

problems due to sole reliance on pesticidal 

approach and earlier success of biological 

control methods. Geirer and Clark (1961) 

proposed the idea of managing insect pest 

populations and called the concept as 

"Protective management of noxious species" 

or Pest management for sustainability without 

impairing the ecological balance and the shift 

from the paradigm of pesticidal control to 

natural control has brought in the relevance of 

the concept of IPM. The search for alternatives 

to heavy reliance on chemical pesticides for 

controlling pests gained momentum in the 1960s 

after the publication of Silent Spring (Car on, 

1962), which described health and 

environmental dangers of pesticides use. 

In India, Dr.S.Pradhan, who first 

proposed the integrated pest control, utilising 

the combination of different methods of pest 

control. Later, the concepts of economic 

threshold level (ETL) and economic injury level 

(EIL) to take up decisiv! control measures 

replaced the term "control" with "management". 

The aim was to keep the pests below the ElL 

and manage them without impairing the yields. 

Integrated Pest Management is a pest 

management system that in the context of 

associated environment and population 

dynamics of the pest species, utilises all suitable 

techniques and methods in as compatible 

manner as possible and maintains pest 

populations at levels below those causing 

economic injury (FAO, 1967). USDA defines 

"IPM as a knowledge- intensive, farmer-based 

approach that encourages natural control of pest 

populations by anticipating pest problems and 

preventing pests from reaching economically 

damaging levels". Control of the pest 

populations is achieved using techniques such 

as enhancing natural enemies, planting pest 

resistant crops, cultural management and using 

pesticides as a last resort (Schill horn van Veen 

et at., 1997). The fundamental importance of 

IPM is evidenced in its recent adoption as a 

basic principle of the sustainable agriculture 

movement. The practice of rPM is not always 

consistent with the theory of IPM. Chemical 

pesticides still serve as a first line of defense 

against pests. {PM, in its original sense, as 

"integrated control" or "ecologically based 

management", has not been implemented on a 

wide scale. The most practiced IPM strategies 

have stressed improved pesticide usage based 

on monitoring pest populations and setting 

economic thresholds. However, the global 

community has expressed a willingness to 

reduce its reliance on chemical pesticides and 

to move towards a more balanced approach to 

pest management that relies on cultural, 

biological and bio rational control measures. The 

shift is being driven by the high cost of 

pesticides, increased pest resistance to 

pesticides and the negative impacts of pesticides 

on biodiversity, food and water quality, human 

and animal health (Rola and Pingali, 1993) and 

the environment. As the global economy moves 

towards a free market economy and free trade, 

strict pesticide residue regulations in European 

and North American markets are forcing many 

exporting countries to redesign their pest 

3


management strategies to remain globally 

competitive (Schillhom van Veen et al., 1997). 

2.2. Principles and Concepts 

The IPM system essentially has 3 

components viz., monitoring of pests, 

integration of tactics and decision making and 

implementation strategies. 

2.2.1. Pest monitoring: Monitoring of pests 

is the fundamental tool for pest management 

decisions. Timely and efficient monitoring is 

the foundation of sound IPM programs, without 

which no proper pest management decision can 

be made. Poor decisions can lead to the overuse 

of pesticides to control potential pests. It deals 

with changes in insect distribution and 

abundance and important biotic and abiotic 

factors on pest population build up. New tools 

and techniques for pest diagnostics and 

monitoring are now available to assist in making 

appropriate pest management decisions. 

Pheromone traps allow efficient monitoring of 

selected pests. There is good scope in the 

development and utilisation of pheromones in 

the monitoring of castor semi looper, A.janata 

; castor shoot and capsule borer, C. 

punctiferalis; tobacco caterpillar, S. litura. 

Computer modeling softwares help to identify 

critical control times in pest lifecycles and to 

predict pest outbreaks. Immunoassay and DNA 

tests can be used to give species identification 

of pest organisms. Monitoring is done by 

sampling (estimates) and on the concepts of 

economic injury level and economic threshold 

levels. 

Economic injury level (ElL): The level at 

which the pest population can no longer be 

tolerated and deliberates control action. The 

lowest number of insect that will cause 

economic damage is referred to as economic 

injury level (Pedigo, 1991). Economic injury 

level (ElL) computed for early and late instar 

larvae of castor semilooper, A.janata on castor 

were 1.18 and 0.04, 2.84 and 0.15, 4.01 and 

1.20 and 8.36 and 4.12 larvae per plane 1 at 

30,60,90 and 120 days after sowing CDAS. 

Respectively(Basappa and Lingappa, 200lb). 

Economic damage: The amount of injury 

which will justify the cost of artificial control 

measures. Damage is a measurable loss of host 

utility, most often including quantity, quality and 

aesthetics. As the concept is applied in pest 

management, economic damage begins to 

occur when money required for suppressing 

insect injury is equal to the potential monetary 

loss from a pest population. 

Economic threshold level (ETL): Population 

density at which control measure need to be 

initiated against increasing pest population to 

prevent economic damage. Although expressed 

in insect numbers, ETL is infact a time 

parameter with pest numbers being used as an 

index for when to implement management 

strategies. 

2.2.2. Integration of tactics: .Integration 

involves proper choice of compatible tactics 

and blending them so that each component 

potentials or complements. Some of the 

compatible tactics are a) Host plant resistance 

- biological control, b) Host Plant resistance - 

cultural control, (c) Host plant resistance - 

insecticides, d) Cultural control - Insecticides, 

e) Cultural Control - Biopesticides and f) 

Insecticides - natural enemies. 

2.2.3. Decision making: Pest management 

is a combination of processes that include 

4


decision making, taking action against pests and 

obtaining information to be used in reaching 

these decisions. IPM in reality is farmers 

empowerment and often involves crop 

management and protection with direct and 

indirect measures based on decisions. 

Prevention, observation and intervention at 

appropriate time forms the basis for farmers 

empowerment. 

2.3. The IPM Technologies 

Several technologies are available for 

the implementation of IPM. These are aimed to 

provide an ecologically sound pest management 

programme with suitable use of renewable 

natural resources. 

2.3.1. Host habitat and biological pest 

management: Agriculture is a biologically 

based enterprise its success depends on activity 

of many living organisms that interact with each 

other and their physical environment. Pests and 

their natural enemies are living organisms that 

move between habitats searching for the 

resources in order to survive, grow and 

reproduce. In most cases, chemical pesticides 

are applied without considering the pest's life 

cycle or their impact on other organisms. In 

the search for alternati ves to chemical 

pesticides, more emphasis is placed on the 

natural control of pests using cultural and 

biological means. The habitat surrounding crops 

plays an important role in supporting and 

sustaining important natural enemies. This 

involves modification of the environment to 

lower pest population densities. The strategy 

relies on enriching biodiversity of plant's and 

pest's natural enemies in and around the 

cropping environment. Insects are repelled from 

food source and simultaneously are attracted 

to trap crops. The factors that influence habitat 

and landscape structure on the ecology and 

behavior of the pest and the natural enemy 

populations must be taken into account. Key 

components of the agriculture system to 

enhance biological control are cover crops and 

mixed cropping, crop rotation and sanitation 

of crop residues. In depth knowledge on agro 

ecology, cropping systems, pest and natural 

enemy interactions, interactions of microbes 

and other flora and fauna playa major role in 

developing eco friendly IPM technologies. 

Ecological literacy and proper understanding of 

field crop pest ecology helps the farmer to make 

better management decisions for sustainable 

production of crops. 

2.3.2. Bio-pesticides : Environmentallyfriendly 

bio pesticides including botanicals, Bt 

derivatives, entomopathegenic fungi, nuclear 

polyhedrosis viruses (NPVs) and insect growth 

regulators (IGRs) with insecticidal properties 

are now used in many countries around the 

world. 

Botanicals: Plants are the richest source of 

renewable active chemicals that check insect 

populations. These are secondary metabolites 

which disrupt the fundamental or physiological 

or biochemical process of the insects. As many 

as 2,121 plant species have been reported to 

possess pest control properties, 1,005 species 

have insecticidal, 384 antifeedants, 297 

repellants, 27 attractants and 31 as growth 

inhibitors( Grainge et al.1985) . India has an 

estimated 18 million neem trees with a potential 

of production to the tune of 0.7 million tonnes 

of fruit. It is suggested that on an average four 

grown up neem trees if planted on the border 

of one hectare field should yield neem seeds 

required to protect the crop. More than 70 

5


commercial neem based formulations are 

currently available. Repeated applications due 

to low persistence , low toxicity, rapid 

biodegradability, lack of standardised 'bioassay 

procedures and standard formulations are SOll].e 

of the obstacles which restricted wide spread 

utilisation of these products (Basappa and 

Rajasekhar Reddy, 2003). 

Microbial pesticides: The use of microbial 

pesticides (Bt., entomopathogenic 

fungi,nematodes and viruses) offer vast scope 

for control of pests and avoiding the development 

of resistance. These are more effective when 

used in combination with chemical insecticides. 

Entomopathogenic fungi and bacteria paralyse 

or kill their hosts by adversely affecting growth 

and development of host insects. 

Entomopathogens, Beauveria bassiana and 

Metarrhizium anisopliae are now commercially 

available. Bio prospecting and bacterial 

fermentation processes have allowed many new 

bio pesticides to be developed. Bt. is found 

effective against key pest of castor, A.janata 

and different formulations are commercially 

available but its market share is very negligible. 

The nuclear polyhedrosis virus (NPV) against 

major pests of castor A.janata and S. fitura 

have been found effective. The department of 

biotechnology has provided fmancial support to 

establish units for mass production of NPV at 

SAU's and ICAR institutes. However, specificity 

in action, photo-degradability, low persistence, 

timing of application, difficulties in mass 

production and quality need to be overcome for 

their use on large scale. 

2.3.3. Agricultural biotechnology : In 

agricultural biotechnology, efforts have been 

made to insert desired genes from one organism 

into another to produce genetically engineered 

transgenic plants resistant to specific pests. 

Some of these genetically engineered crop 

varieties are now commercially grown in 

developed countries. Developing countries are 

acquiring these new technologies to enhance 

their agricultural productivity. Host plant 

resistance is deployed as a unique approach to 

pest management with predictable problems. 

There are three areas in molecular techniques 

likely to prove invaluable, viz., the identification, 

quantification and genetic monitoring of pest 

population. The important contribution of biotechnology 

is the capacity to express pesticidal 

proteins within transgenic plants. Transgenic 

plants in tobacco, tomato, potato and cotton 

have already received acceptance and hold 

promise in the management of pests. In India 

efforts are on to produce genetically engineered 

transgenic castor which can be one of the 

strong components of IPM in future. In 

addition, biotechnology can also be employed 

to develop new diagnostic tools that enable 

development of new pest resistant varieties, 

determination of evolutionary status and 

population dynamics, prediction of pest 

outbreaks, accurate identification of pests and 

their natural enemy species and improvement 

in the potentia \ of natural enemies of pests. 

2.4. Policy Framework 

Pesticide use policies are rapidly 

changing worldwide to reduce the reliance and 

availability of chemical pesticides. Treaties and 

conferences, such as GAITIWTO, NAFTA, 

CBD, and UNCED are driving such policy 

changes in both developed and developing 

countries. For example, IPM is the preferred 

strategy for pest management under "Agenda 

21 of the U ni ted Nations Conference on 

Environment and Development (UNCED, 

1992)." In the USA, the Food Quality Protection 

6


Act passed in 1996 will pressure many growers 

to implement IPM practices to cope wIth fewer 

pesticides available for use. Similar legi~fation 

to reduce dependence on chemical pesticIdes 

is under consideration in many countries that 

export agricultural products to the European 

Union, USA and Canada (Schillhom van Veen 

et al .. 1997). In some countries, governmentsupported 

extension services have provided 

scouting. monitoring and forecasting of pest 

outbreaks. They also provided pest management 

education and training of pest management 

personnel and consultants. 

2.5. IPM and Precision 

Agriculture Technology 

Global Positioning Systems (GPS) and 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are 

combined to allow manipulation and analysis 

of large amounts of field speciflc data. Maps 

of pest infestations, pest movements and plant 

nutritional needs can be generated using soil, 

crop, pest scouting, and yield data. The site 

specificity of the map allows the farmer to treat 

only nutrient-deficient or pest-infested areas of 

the field. Thus precision agriculture is moving 

IPM into the 21 st century by combining 

computer and satellite technology into 

agricultural equipment but it is currently a very 

expensive tool to add to rPM systems though it 

is potentially valuable. 

2.6. !PM Information Exchange 

lPM information is disseminated by 

several international organizations such as 

CABI, FAO, UNDP, CGIAR, CICP, IPM-CRSP 

and IPMEurope. IPM education in parts of the 

world such as in Ghana and in Indonesia is being 

given in governmentally sponsored farmer 

schoors. IPM short courses are offered world 

wide by different institutions. There is a large 

volume of IPM information availabLe on the 

'. 

Internet, which also connects IPM practitioners 

to each other worldwide. Along with the 

Internet, emerging information and computer 

technologies, including digital television, 

increasingly powerful computers, new 

software concepts and distance learning via 

satellite promise to revolutionize the practice 

of IPM and information exchange in future. 

3. Problems and Approaches in 

Castor Pest Management 

In Andhra Pradesh, castor is 

predominantly grown in an area of 3.9 lakh ha 

under rain fed agro-ecosystem of Ranga Reddy, 

Nalgonda and Mahaboobnagar districts with a 

production of 1.30 lakh tonnes. Castor is one 

of the important non edible oilseed crops grown 

in this region as a sole crop in marginal and sub 

marginal soils under rainfed condition with low 

productivity of 333kg/ha. Several crops like 

paddy, maize, cotton, sorghum, red gram, 

flowers, fruit crops, pulses, vegetables are 

cultivated by farmers but 'Castor is 

most 

neglected among the crops grown by the 

farmers in this region. The pro uctivity of 

castor is low due to several biotic and abiotic 

factors as production constraints. Severe out 

break of pests and diseases, poor fertility and 

moisture retention capacity of the soil, lack of 

quality seeds and irrigation sources, erratic 

distribution of rains, poor resource base of 

farmers are some of the major biophysical and 

socioeconomic constraints in 

production. 

the castor 

Among biological constraints in the 

production of castor in this region are insect 

7


pests like red hairy caterpillar, castor semi looper, 

capsule borer, tobacco caterpillar and among 

diseases wilt and botrytis are of greater 

economic importance which are responsible for 

more than 25% losses and some times total crop 

loss in this region. 

Initial bench mark survey conducted in 

different villages under Amangal Mandai, 

Mahaboobnagar district, Maheswaram and 

Kandukur Mandai under Ranga Reddy district 

revealed that the majority of farmers are growing 

local varieties, which are susceptible to pests. 

Few farmers grow improved varieties and 

hybrids but many of them use F2 generation 

seeds of hybrids. They sow seeds behind plough 

with very close spacing due to fear of damage 

due to red hairy caterpillar, castor sernilooper 

and wilt disease in the endemic areas. Some 

farmers delay sowing to avoid damage due to 

red hairy caterpillar and semi looper. Several 

farmers they gave up cultivation of castor due 

to severe pest incidence in some villages and 

switched over to other crops like maize, 

vegetables and flowers. Many farmers were not 

following scientific and improved methods of 

cultivation. The initial farmer's perception of pest 

control was using pesticides after noticing 

damage from 20 days onwards till 75 days after 

sowing or leaving with out management if there 

is improper crop stand due to high weed and 

pest intensity . Majority of the farmers they had 

no knowledge of benefits of low cost or no cost 

IPM components like regular crop rotation, seed 

treatment, resistant varieties, hand picking and 

destruction of egg masses as well as early stage 

larvae, use of botanicals, bird perches and 

biological control agents. Most of castor farmers 

are resource poor, marginal and sub marginal 

farmers some of them are tribals. 

Though many researchers have 

investigated several individual pest control 

components which are used in the management 

of pests and diseases of castor but little 

emphasis has been given in the development of 

IPM modules with holistic approach of both 

insect pests and disease management in the 

castor ecosystem. This lead to the genesis of 

idea of development and validation of location 

specific, eco-friendly, economically viable and 

socially acceptable IPM modules for castor 

ecosystem under farmers conditions. Before 

development and validation of IPM modules in 

castor ecosyctem it is essential to have 

knowledge on damage potential and yield losses 

due to insect pests, diseases, nematodes, weeds 

associated with castor and their management 

approches. 

3.1. Damage and Yield losses 

due to Pests of Castor 

Castor crop is attacked by -an array of 

insect pests and diseases which cause 

enormous yield losses. There are very few 

reports on the assessment of Iqsses in castor 

due to pests. Dl'ring severe outbreak of castor 

semi looper ce r. t percent losses have been 

recorded. In \._;ujarat there were reports of 

total loss of castor crop in number of patches 

in castor fields where the leaves were 

completely defoliated by castor semi looper 

(Tahiliani, 1985). The combined loss due to 

semi looper and leaf hopper in GCH-4 and SH- 

41 castor has been estimated to be 13.17 

and 4.69 per cent, respectively, at Palem 

(AP). The total loss in seed yield was 30.96 

and 40.8 per cent, respectively, in RC-8 and 

SH-41 castor due to both semi looper and 

capsule borer at Raichur (Karnataka). Yield loss 

8

ntegrated Pest Management in Castor 

of 19 to 85 per cent has been reported in castor 

due to semilooper and capsule borer, 

respectively(Singh ef al.,1992). In 

Maharashtra, Gaikwad and Bilapate (1992) 

recorded 36.36 per cent reduction in castor 

leaves, 26.35 per cent branches per plant, 

21.32 per cent capsules per bunch and 19.58 

per cent loss in seed yield in unprotected plots 

over protected plots from insecticides. Studies 

on damage potential due to A.}anata were 

carried out at different growth stages of castor 

with differential population of early and late 

instar larvae. There was significantly high 

correlation between larval number and 

defoliation, yield, yield attributes and oil content. 

For every unit increase in early and late larval 

instar, per cent defoliation increased by 2.25 

and 21.73, per cent the reduction in yield was 

1.29 and 23.28 per cent, respectively. Due to 

heavy defoliation and damage to apical part by 

the late instar larvae the death of plants 

increased by 15 per cent with successive 

increase in larval number at 30 days after 

sowing(DAS). Such a phenomenon was not 

evident in respect of early instar. Apart from 

heavy defoliation and apical part damage, 

primary spike damage by the late instar larval 

population was evident at 60 DAS. Among the 

different yield attributes studied the damage 

caused to spike and capsules caused significant 

loss in yield as comparee' to reduction in foliage 

at later stage of the crop (3asappa and Lingappa, 

2001b). 

Many workers have also reported the 

damage caused by polyphagous pest, castor 

semi looper on various crops like pomegranate, 

guava, rose, ber, cocoa, coconut etc. Ismail 

and Salim (1982) noticed damage to cocoa 

leaves and coconut stamens and pistils. It is 

reported to cause considerable damage to ber 

crop by feeding on the foliage and young plants 

of grafted ber as well as pomegranate nursery 

in Rajasthan. During 1986 in TamilNadu, trees 

were uniformly infested and the larvae caused 

complete deflowering, resulting in heavy losses 

to tamerind crop(Ahrned, 1990). In it's adult 

stage, Ajanata moth cause damage by 

puncturing the fruit and desapping of ripening 

fruits of pomegranate ,banana, citrus, grapes, 

guava , mango and orange. Ajanata adult is 

important among fruit sucking moths of 

pomegranate in Maharashtra. It caused damage 

to 57 per cent of riped fruits and 33 per cent 

of unriped fruits along with other fruit sucking 

moths (Mote et al.,1991). 

Among diseases, seedling blight, wilt 

and botrytis/gray rot cause economic loss to 

castor crop. The average economic loss caused 

by seedling blight disease is 10 percent in castor 

(Maiti, et al., 1989). The wilt disease incidence 

was observed to the extent of 20 per cent on 

Gujarat hybrid (Nanda and Prasad, 1974). The 

extent of yield loss depends on the stage of the 

crop at which the plants wilt, 77%, 63% and 

39% at flowering stage ,at 90 days and later 

stages on secondary branches, respectively 

(Pushpavati, 1995). Root rot/charcoal rot is a 

devastating disease in dry land castor belts of 

Andhra Pradesh. The disease is also reported 

from Maharashtra, Gujarat, Bihar and Tamil 

Nadu . The extent of yield loss due to this 

disease in hybrid Gauch-l and Aruna was 

estimated to be 194 and 138 kglha, respectively 

(Das and Prasad, 1989). The gray rot disease 

causes considerable damage and is serious when 

there are heavy and continuous rains during 

spike/capsule formation stage. Yield losses are 

extensive and is a threat to commercial 

9


cultivation of the crop. The disease is restricted 

to few states in India. It is serious in Andhra 

Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Epidemics of gray 

rot occurred in Andhra Pradesh in kharif 1987. 

The disease fa\(ored by heavy rains during 

reproductive stage caused losses up to 100% 

(DOR, 1988). Different pest species damage 

different parts of castor plant. Soil insects, and 

diseases and seedling pests damage roots and 

emeroino 

t::> t::> 

seedlings as well as emerged and 

growing seedlings. Defoliators, sucking pests, 

leaf miners and foliar diseases cause loss in 

food reserves. Inflorescence pests destroy floral 

parts, developing ovaries, capsules, seeds and 

cause direct damage to the crop. Some times 

damage by insects predisposes plants to various 

diseases through affected parts. Brief account 

of major insect pests, diseases, nematodes and 

weeds of castor and their management has been 

discussed as follows. 

3.2. Insect Pests of Castor 

Several species of insects and mites 

are known to attack castor at different 

phenological stages of the crop. Insect pests 

of castor can be grouped in to seedling pests, 

soi l insects, sucking pests, leaf miners, 

defoliators and inflorescence pests. Under 

various major groups of insect pests, 

information on eco biology and pest 

management strategies developed have been 

discussed. 

3.2.1. Seedling pests 

During seedling stage several pests 

have been reported to attack and cause severe 

damage to castor. Some time seedling pests 

like cutworms (Agrotis spp.) and grasshoppers 

(Chrotogonus trachypterus, B. and c.oxypterus 

Blanchard) cause considerable damage to 

seedlings but they are not regular pests. They 

can be managed by proper field sanitation and 

dusting of quinalphos (1.5%) or methyl 

parathion (2%) dusts. At seedling stage red 

hairy caterpillar will cause severe damage to 

castor crop in the endemic areas. 

Red hairy caterpillar: Red hairy caterpillar is 

highly polyphagous and devastating pest in the 

rainfed agro-ecosystem of Andhra Pradesh, 

Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and 

Tamilnadu. At seedling stage it causes enormous 

damage to most of the Kharif crops including 

castor, groundnut, cereals, pulses etc. During 

severe out break of the pest farmers will be 

forced to go for resowing in large areas. It is 

one of the endemic pests and the seasonal out 

break dependents on climatic conditions and 

agriculture practices. The activity of the pest 

will begin with the emergence of moth after 

early mansoon showers during June-July. Adult 

moths of A. albistriga are medium sized with 

white fore wings having brownish streak all 

over and yellowish streak along the anterior 

margin and yellow band on the head. Hind 

winos are white with black marking. Where as 

/::) 

in A. moorei the anterior marginal streak of fore 

wings and the band on head are red in colour. 

Female lays 600-1000 eggs in masses 

on soi l surface, grasses and leaves. The larvae 

hatch out from eggs and feed gregariously by 

scraping the under surface of tender leaf of 

castor and other weeds. Full grown larva is 

having red head, body covered with long dense 

reddish brown hair, interiorly and posteriorly 

black bands enclose a reddish area in the middle. 

The grown up larvae will feed voraciously on 

leaves of castor seedlings leaving behind the 

petiole and midribs of leaves and the main stem 

10


of castor seedling. Some times it feeds tender 

stem of the seedling. After 25-30 days active 

feeding full grown larvae will move towards 

barren lands or undisturbed patches of land and 

bun·ow in the soil and pupate. The pupae remain 

in soil under hibernation till next mansoon 

showers when adult moths emerge. 

11 ') • Successful management of red 

hairy caterpiJlaar needs community approache. 

Killing of moths by attracting to light traps 

(mercury lamp of 250 watts) set immediately 

after first rain and continued for 30-40 days in 

large areas on community basis. Open 3 

fun·ows around the field using bullock drawn 

plough and dust quinalphos (1.5%) or methyle 

parathion(2%) dust in the furrow for controlling 

migrating larvae from barren land in to castor 

field. Twigs of Jatropha, Ipomea and Calofropis 

can be u ed as vegetative traps in the border of 

the field to attract larvae which can be destroyed 

at the end. Sowing of cucumber and cowpea 

along with castor to attract and destroy larvae 

with in the field. Hand picking and destruction 

of egg masses, early stage and grown up larvae 

from castor fields. If there is severe outbreak 

of the pest spray monocrotophos(0.05%) or 

methyl parathion(0.02%) or fenvaIerate(0.02%) 

or quinalphos (0.05%). During early out break 

of A. Janata in the season the grown up larvae 

will also cause sevel e damage to castor 

seedlings by feeding aI: the tender leaves and 

growing part leaving bet ind stem finally which 

leads to death of the plant. 

3.2.2. Soil insects 

Termitei> (Odontotermes obesus ) and 

white grub (Holotrichea consanguinea) cause 

severe damage to seedlings in light soils. They 

damage roots of castor seedlings as well as 

stem portion just above the soil surface. 

\( It l Ol The management of white grub 

needs community approach. As soon as the 

emergence of adults after first mansoon rains 

adult beetles need to be killed by attracting and 

spraying insecticide to host plants. Termites can 

be controlled by destroying queen either by 

digging it out or pouring chlorpyriphos 20 EC 

@ 60 mlll8lit of water. Use fully digested farm 

yard manure(FYM) mixed with wood ash to 

reduce termite incidence (Basappa and 

Rajagopal,1993). Under severe conditions 

drenching of insecticide solution of 

chlorpyriphos (0.05%) around seedlings protect 

the crop from soil insects. 

3.2.3. Sucking pests 

Castor crop is damaged by 

leafhoppers, white flies and thrips apart from 

scale insects and pentotomid bugs . 

Leaf hopper: It is one of the important sucking 

pests on castor which occurs from Nov-Jan. Both 

nymphs and adults suck sap from the under 

sUlface of the leaves due to which leaf margins 

will become yellow then tum brown followed by 

curling. Under severe infestation the leaves dry 

up and become brittle giving a typical "hopper 

bum" symptom.The adults are small and pale green 

in colour, while nymphs are light green. Both adults 

and nymphs move diagonally. The female leaf 

hopper lays 15 to 30 eggs in the veins which will 

hatch in to nymphs with in 7-8 days. The nymphs 

will become adults with in 15 to 20 days. The 

longevity of adults ranges from 10 to 15 days. 

Several genotypes have been 

reported to be resistant to leafhoppers. High 

density of white waxy coating (bloom) on the 

leaf and other parts of the plant has direct effect


on leafhopper population. Generally double and 

triple bloom cultivars are resistant to leaf 

hoppers compared to zero and single bloom 

cultivars Several castor germplasm lines have 

been screened against leafhoppers and identified 

for various levels of resistance which can be 

utilized in the resistant breeding programme. 

Triple bloom hybrids like GCH-4, GAUCH-I, 

DCH-32 and TMVCH-I are resistant to leaf 

hoppers. Spray monocrotophos (0.05%) or 

dimethoate (0.05%) and repeat the spray after 

15 days depending on rebu i Id up of the 

population. 

White fly : It persists throughout the year on 

castor crop the peak activity is reported to be 

January to July. Adult is delicate with milky 

white coating on the body. Nymphs are pale 

yellowish they are oval in shape, translucent 

with waxy projections all round. They remain 

adhere to the lower surface of the leaves. Both 

nymphs and adults suck the sap causing 

yellowing and drying of the affected leaves. If 

the infestation is severe, the vitality of the plant 

is reduced and its vegetative growth is arrested 

resulting in shedding of damaged leaves. The 

insect secrets honey dew which falls on the 

lower leaves and it promotes growth of black 

sooty mould which interferes with 

photosynthesis. The female whitefly lays on 

an average 85- 90 eggs singly on the lower 

surface of tender leaf. The nymph will feed 

actively for about one week and pupates at the 

same place on leaf with waxy margin around 

the pupal body. 

Managcmct : Several castor germ plasm lines 

have been screened against whitefly among 

them,zero and single bloom germplasm lines 

are resistant to wrutefly. Single and double bloom 

varieties are relatively resistant to wrutefly than 

triple bloom castor varieties. Spray 

dimethoate(0.05%) or monocrotophos (0.05%) 

during peak activity of the pest. 

Thrips: On castor crop, thrips specieses like 

S.dorsalis, Astrothrips parvilimbus (Mayet), 

Ayyaria chaetophora Karny, Retithrips syriacus 

(Mayet), Craspedothrips minor (Bagnall) and 

Zaniothrips ricini Bhatti are reported. Among 

them S.dorsalis is important as it is gaining pest 

status in Gujarat. 

The adults are tiny, slender, light yellow 

with fringed wings. The nymphs are wingless. 

Both adult and nymphs feed on terminal leaves 

and floral parts. The nymphs and adults lacerate 

leaves and feed on the oozing plant sap resulting 

white patches which later on turn into brown 

coloured streaks near vei ns. There will be 

curling of leaves and flowers as a result the 

flowers get dried without forming capsules. 

The female inserts eggs in the lower surface 

of the leaves, eggs will hatch in to nymphs with 

in 3 to 5 days. Larva will actively feed for 8 to 

10 days and false to the ground, enters into to 

soil and undergoes moulting to become prepupa. 

The pupal stage lasts for 2-3 days. The total 

life cycle will be completed with in 15-20 days. 

Management: Spray monocrotophos (0.05%) 

or phosalone (0.05%) or dimethoate (0.05%) 

if there is outbreak of the pest. Several scale 

insects also infest castor. both nymphs and 

adults will suck the sap from the stem. It is 

common in perennial castor. 

Red spider mite: The fully developed nymph 

of T. telarius is microscopic and having light 

brown colour with four pairs of legs. All the 

active stages of pest feed on the under surface 

of leaf and breed near the stalk in between the 

main veins. It feeds on the plant fluids by 

12


Castor leaf hopper: (a) adults, nymphs and 

(b) hopper bum 

Leaf hopper resistant and susceptible castor 

(a) accessions and (b) cultivars 

13


Serpentine leaf miner : (a) maggots (b) pupae and 

(c) pink pigmented resistant accession 

Red hairy caterpillar: (a) adult (b) eggs (c) larva and 

(d) vegetative traping of larvae 

Bihar hairy caterpillar: (a) adult (b) early stage larvae 

and (c) late stage larva 

14


inserting the cheliceral sty lets in to leaf tissues 

resulting in to leaf blotching. The infested leaves 

initially exhibit the yellowish speckled 

appearance which later on tum to brown. 

lall a~cment 

: This pest is sporadic and 

reported from a very few locations that too 

during later stage of the crop. Spray dicofol 

(0.05%) or monocrotophos (0.05%) during 

sever infestation. 

3.2.4. Leaf miner 

Serpentine leaf miner: L.trifoLii is a serious 

pest on vegetable, fruit and ornamental crops 

in temperate countries. This pest was first 

reported on castor in 1991 (Laxminarayana et 

al., 1992), the pest is of widespread occurrence 

in all castor growing regions of the country. 

The damage by the pest is characteristic causing 

mines initially in the cotyledonary leaves and 

spreading later to the true leaves. The period 

for one cycle i.e., egg to adult is 14-19 days. 

The egg period was found to last for 2-3 days. 

Newly hatched maggots enter in between the 

epidermal layers and feed by making mines. 

Adults are a small light brown dipterous fly 

while larva is a tiny yellowish maggot. This pest 

damage the foliage by two ways; female causes 

puncture in the leaf with its ovipositor before 

laying eggs, whereas maggot mines the 

mesophy 11 tissues thereby making characteristic 

serpentine mines. After 6-9 days, yellow 

maggots come out of the mines and drop on to 

the soil or remain on the cup shaped leaf for 

pupation. Adult flies emerge from brown puparia 

in 6-7 days. The longevity of adult lasts for 3- 

6 days. The pest forms mines in 20-60 per cent 

of the leaves. It has been recorded on a wide 

range of host plants. 

lanagcmcnt· Satisfactory control of th I f 

. e ea 

mwer could not be achieved with the I 

. . . common y 

used InsectIcIdes like monoCrotophos and 

phosphamidon. Neem seed kernel extract (5%) 

and other neem based formulations were found 

to be effective in reducing the pest population. 

The biological control agents have been 

recorded on the pest. Chrysonotomyia sp. has 

been observed to parasitise both eggs and 

maggots of L.trifoLii . 

3.2.5. Defoliators 

Several defoliators have been reported on castor 

which cause various levels of damaoe at 

'" 

different phenological stage of the crop. Among 

them castor semi looper, A. janata and tobacco 

caterpillar, S. litura, are of greater economic 

importance. Hairy caterpillars, S. ohLiqua, 

Euproctis spp, P. ricini, castor slug caterpillar, 

P. iepida, spiny caterpillar, E. merione as well 

as flea beetles caseworms and leaf weevils are 

defoliators of sporadic in nature with regional 

importance. 

Castor semilooper: Castor semi looper is 

one of the key pests of castor in different 

countries it is distributed from India to Hawaii 

and Eastern Island and from Formosa to New 

Zealand. It is a major defoliator of castor in 

India, Thailand, Malaysia and Australia. It is 

the key pest of castor in the rainfed castor belts 

of Southern India and is also known to Occur 

regularly throughout the country wherever the 

crop is grown. Since castor semi looper is a 

key pest the detailed information on Occurrence, 

host plants, biology, damage potential, bio 

control agents associated, effect of 

biopesticides, chemical insecticides and its 

integrated management has been discussed. 

15


Castor semi looper adult is pale reddish 

brown moth, with black hind wings having a 

medially white and three large white spots on 

the outer margin lays around 450 blue green 

rounded and lidged eggs singly mostly on the 

top second leaf. Eggs will hatch in to larvae 

with in 2 to 5 days. The larval period ranges 

from 11 to 15 days. The larva is a voracious 

feeder on leaves and total defoliation results 

under severe outbreak of the pest. The full 

grown gray larva is a semilooper with black 

head, a red spot on the black loop, red anal 

tubercles has lateral red and brown stripes. 

Pupation takes place in soil/fallen leaves. The 

pupal period losts for 10 to 14 days. Neonate 

larvae nibble only the outer tissues of the leaf, 

second instar damages the leaves by making 

holes and the third and later instars devour 

the green foliage completely leaving veins. 

Seldom excessive defoliation enforces the 

growers to resow or change the crop. 

Defoliation in the early stages restrict the 

growth of the plant and in the later stages 

affect the growth and development of capsules 

and seeds. In heavily infested fields no aerial 

part is left undamaged. Besides castor, the larvae 

also feed on the leaves as well as sprouts of 

pomegranate, ber, rose etc. In it's adult stage, 

the moth suck the sap and damage fruits of 

citrus, guava, pomegranate etc. Thus, in the 

light of multiple types of damage caused by 

the pest, it has assumed serious status in the 

dry land horticultural crops grown adjoining 

castor fields in Andhra Pradesh ,Karnataka and 

Maharasthra states. 

Occurrence of castor semilooper : The regular 

activity of the pest on main crop will begin from 

June and July after heavy rainfall and continuese 

till, the end of September and October. Eggs 

. h middle of May on 

are generally found In t e 

. I I ts Caterpillars in all the 

perenma castor pan, . 

re in the first week of 

stages 0 f growt h oce U 

and the pest outbreak 

J une, J u I y an d A ugus t 

. . A September and October, 

IS common In ugust, 

.. d'-ease from November 

b ut t h e activity ee .. 

onwards. In Saurashtra region of Gujarat, 

lly active during 

the pest was genera . 

.- and contmued up to 

S eptem b er - 0 cto b e.. . 

N b (T h 'I' ' 1985). Dunng offovem 

er a I lan1, 

- d on perennial castor 

season the pest surv1 ve 

... II d I on some field crops. 

Inltla y an ater 

. I I veral weed hosts and self 

h ortlCU tura crops, se 

...,hich served as alternate 

sown crop 0 f castor VT 

hosts after the harvest of the crop in March 

(Basappa and Lingappa, 200 I a). 

-S 

H t C 1 

the main food plant of 

os range: astor . . 

. polyphagous pest It IS 

t h e pest. B elOg a . 

.... e than 80 plant species 

kn own to attac k rna .. 

. I d' 54 . :most of them from India 

mc u 109 species 

h b I . to field crops, horticultural 

w h· IC are e ongmg 

. and weeds (Basappa, 

crops, forest plant specIes 

- looper has also been 

1995) . C astor sem1 

· A all-a on Araucaria 

recor d e d In ustr 

. I .. A-t eX D.Don., Acalypha 

cunntng lamll 1· - . 

"d P' A wilkestana Muel l., 

h ISpl a ,Irm. , - . 

. el- Benth., COdtaCUIII 

A n d rac h ne _ I eCalsTl 

. (L) Crotons sp., Euphorbia 

vanegatum ., 

rurnmondii Boiss .. 

atato f orst.,_ E d 

. ;1'. I-a J.MuelJ., Phyllanthlls 

E xcoecana parvlJo I . 

. b' F M BaiL, Abuttlon sp., 

b rtS anlCUS . - 

· A acia bidwillii Benth., 

GOssyplum sp., C . 

. h .. Book., Mimosa sp., 

A .cunnlng amll 

..r7eJC australis Steinh .. 

E uca I yptus sp., E "~ 

.. . I' Maid and Betche .. 

Macadamta tntegrifo La 

itchi chinensis Sonner.. 

M .tetrap h y II a L ., L 

7' 'b I . T (Edwards, 1978). Nc\\ 

al U us terrestns J..--- . 

'k J h rnu1tifida , Euphorhw 

h osts l I e atrop a 

. I Ph If ; L. US 

gamcu ata, y anL TL 

reticulatus , Sonclllls 

16


Alternate hosts of castor semilooper (a) E.hir/o (b) £.h.\persifo/ia (c) J. lIlullijida leaf and 

(d) inflorescence (e) £. gallicula/a (I) P. reliculalus (g) S. oleraceus and (h) L. rUllcinora 

17


Spiny caterpillar: (a) adult and (b) larvae. 

H. armigea larva damaging (c) leaf and (d) capsule 

Castor capsule borer: (a) adult (b) larva in the 

damaged capsule and (c) on the stem 

18


oleraceus, and Luctuca runcinata were added 

to the list of hosts as new record (Basappa and 

Lingappa, 2001a). 

Life history on different host plants: Several 

workers have studied the life history of 

Ajanata in the laboratory and in the field on 

different host plants (Table 1). Biology on new 

hosts like Jatropha multifida, Euphorbia. 

ganiculata, Phyllanthus reticulatus , Sonchus 

oleraceus, and Luctuca runcinata and two 

already reported hosts like Euphorbia hirta, 

Euphorbia hypersifolia was studied. Castor, the 

principal host, recorded minimum larval and 

total developmental period (TDP), maximum 

larval and pupal weight and high fecundity. 

Larval and total developmental period was 

maximum on P reticulatus followed by P 

maderaspatensis. The next best host plants after 

castor based on TDP were S. oleraceus, L. 

runcinate, J. multifida, E. hirta, E. ganiculata, 

E. hypersifolia and P reticulatu (Basappa and 

Lingappa,200 1 a). 

Natural enemies and their utilization : Wide 

array of bio control agents like parasitoids, 

predators, microbial agents and nematodes have 

been documented by many workers on castor 

semi looper. Parasitoids recorded on castor 

semi looper include 18 species of egg 

parasitoids, 34 species of larval, I species of 

larval-pupal and 2 species of pupal parasitoids. 

In addition to spiders, general insect predators 

like ants, mantids, chrysoperla, reduviid and 

pentatomid bugs as well as Hymenopterans 

(Polystes sp.) have been found to predate on 

castor semilooper. Among entomopathogenic 

microbes, 3 specieses of bacteria, 2 specieses 

each of fungi and baculoviruses , I rickettsia 

like organisms as well as 4 species of 

entomopathogenic nematodes have been 

recorded. Apart from insect predators, several 

specieses of insectivorous birds have been 

reported to predate on castor semi looper. 

Among them, Indian myna (Acridotheres 

tristis(L» , house crow (Corvus splendens 

Vieillot), black drongo (Dicrurus adsinilis Blyth) 

rosy paster (Sternus rose us (L», Green bee eater 

(Merops orientalis), Large Gray Babbler 

(Trudoides malcolm) , and hoopoc (Upupa 

epops Reichenbach) were more efficient in the 

predation of late instar larvae (Basappa,1995). 

Egg and larval parasitoids are most potential 

among entomophagous parasitoids. 

Egg parasitoids : Several egg parasitoids have 

been reported to parasitise eggs of castor 

semi looper. An exotic scelionid egg parasitoid 

,Telenomus sp. obtained from the territory of 

Papua, New Guinea, parasitised 10.6 to 93.4 

per cent eggs of castor semilooper. Thobbi et 

al. (1976) observed 80 per cent egg 

parasitisation by T.proditor in the endemic areas 

of Mahaboobnagar district (AP). In Gujarat 

total natural parasitisation by T.austmliwm, 

Telenomus sp. and Trissolcus sp on Ajanata 

eggs ranged from 44 to 100 per cent in 1974 

and 25 to 92 percent in 1975, respectively 

(Patel and Yadav, I 979).Arnong egg parasitoids, 

T.chilonis is dominant in the castor ecosystem. 

T.chilonis and Telenomus sp. put together 

parasitised 92.22 per cent eggs in Gujarat. 

T.chilonis is involved as one of the components 

of IPM module developed against castor 

semi looper (Basappa and Lingappa, 2002d). 

Larval parasitoids: Castor semilooper larvae 

is attacked by an array of larval parasitoids 

among them M. maculipennis is most potential 

parasitoid in the castor ecosystem. M. 

maculipennis, a braconid, is an internal 

solitary larval parasitoid of early tage larvae. 

19


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The parasitised caterpillar may be seen carrying 

underneath it's anal end a dirty brown 

parasitoid cocoon. The parasitised caterpillar 

does not feed and dies of starvation. Though 

such parasitised caterpillars are seen July 

onwards but are found in large numbers 

generally at the end of the season. The larval 

parasitisation of early stage larvae increased 

from 25 per cent to 80-90 per cent at the end 

of the September under field conditions at 

Palem(AP). There are reports of variable levels 

of parasitisation by this parasitoid at different 

locations like 56.2 per cent at Tindivanam 

(T.N),58-64 per cent at Dharwad,74.2 per cent 

at Raichur, 70-75 per cent at Bangalore 

(Karnataka) and 68.16 and 77.31 per in 

Maharasthra. 

Entomopathoigenic microbial agents : 

Among microbial agents entomopathogenic 

fungi,bacteria,baculoviruses and nematodes 

interfere in the succession of the pest at 

different growth stages. 

Fungi: Green muscardine fungi, Namuraea 

rileyi recorded cent per cent mortality in the 

laboratory (Phadke and Rao, 1978). Dust 

formulations are more effective with cent 

per cent mortality than spray which recorded 

only 30-50 per cent mortality. Relative humidity 

and temperature are the limiting factors in the 

utilization of fungi in the pest management. 

Bacteria: Several research workers have 

evaluated B.thuringiensis (Bt) against castor 

semilooper in the castor ecosystem. Among six 

varieties of B.thuringiensis, variety kurastaki 

was more virulent followed by gallariae and 

berliner. Varieties satta, entamicidus and 

aizawai or endotoxin alone did not exhibit 

pathogenicity to V instar larvae of castor 

semilooper (Deshpande and Ramakrishnan 

,1982). Feeding of thermostable -exotoxin 

of B. thuringiensis variety thuringiensis @ 

100 !!l per larvae caused impairment in growth 

and development of larvae and caused mortality 

(Deshpande and Ramakrishnan, 1983). 

Combined use of bacteria and insecticides : 

Good number of microbial insecticides are 

available today to supplement and even to 

substitute to the use of persistent synthetic 

pesticides. The selectivity of these naturally 

occurring microbial insecticides makes them 

valuable in integrated pest control. In a field 

test in TamilNadu, a dust combination of 

thuricide and insecticide caused highest 

mortality of castor semilooper (Sundar Babu 

et al., 1970). 

Bacillus cereus, locally isolated 

pathogen from castor semi looper was cultured 

on nutrient agar, the identity of which was 

obtained from University of california, USA. 

Pathogenecity of B.cereus was tested against 

Ajanata in laboratory as well as in field. Studies 

were also carried out on the effect of reduced 

dose of insecticides and B.cereus alone and in 

combination apart from interaction between 

B.cereus and insecticides against Ajanata as 

well as its parasitoids.Stock suspension diluted 

to different concentrations ranging from 1.6 to 

32 x 10 8 cells/ml was assayed by leaf dip 

method. Effect of pathogenic bacteria, B.cereus 

increased with increase in concentration. The 

mortality of Ajanata ranged from 0 to 40 per 

cent on first day and was raised to cross 80 

per cent at 19.2 x 10 8 cells/mJ on the 4th day. 

On penultimate day lower concentration of 6.4 

x 10 8 cells/m} was adequate to inflict 60 per 

cent mortality. There was no significant 

difference between combined use of differential 

22

lntegrated Pest Management in Castor 

Castorsemilooper larval parasitoid (a) E. ma"emus maggots, 

cocoons of (b) Rhogas sp. and (c) Charops sp. 

Tobacco caterpillar (a) larva infected with NPY (b) 

egg parasitoid and (c) cocoons of larval parasitoid 

23

Integrated Pc;t Management in Ca. tor 

Red hairy catterpillar (a) parasitised by Cotesia sp. 

and (b) infected with NPV 

Predator (a) Phycetes sp. and (b) Chrysoperla sp. 

on castor semi looper larva 

Redu viid bug predating on (a) late stage larva and (b) 

spider on earl y stage larvae of tobacco caterpillar 

24


doses of B.cereus and endosulfan upto 3 days 

after treatment. However, it became marked on 

the 4th day after treatment at lower dose of 

insecticide. B.cereus alone at both the 3.2 x 10 8 

and 6.4 x 10 8 cells/ml was inferior to reduced 

dose of insecticide alone and in combination 

with B.cereus under laboratory as well as field 

condition. In field and laboratory studies 

application of reduced dose of insecticides first 

followed by application of B. cereus was more 

effective than reversing the sequence and 

application of insecticide and pathogen alone. 

Among eight insecticides tested methomyl, 

profenofos and fen valerate followed by B.cereus 

caused higher mortality. Based on selectivity to 

target pest, safeness to potential parasitoid i.e. 

T.chilonis and M.macuiipennis and cost 

effectiveness, fen valerate (0.0025 %) followed 

by B.cereus (6.4 x 10 8 cells/ml) was most 

promising (Basappa and Lingappa,2003). The 

efficiency of the combination of the two 

ingredients was attributed to efficient 

complementary effects. 

Chemical control of castor semilooper : 

Several synthetic molecules have been 

evaluated by various research workers against 

castor semi looper both under laboratory as well 

as in the field . Intrinsic toxicity of insecticides 

to early and late instar larvae of castor 

semi looper, A. janata revealed that fen valerate 

exerted highest toxicity ,t both 24h and 72h 

intervals of observation, followed by 

profenofos. It was 10 and 11.6 times more 

toxic at 24 h to early stage larvae and 9.9 and 

6.53 times to late stage. Toxicity of profenofos 

to early instar was almost same as methyl 

parathion, but proved 8 times more toxic to 

late instar. With increase in biomass of larvae 

from 65 mg (early instar) to 300 mg (late 

instar), LC50 values also increased in all the 

cases. While the increase in pesticide quantity 

was 6 times more to IV instar in the case of 

fenvalerate and methyl parathion compared to 

early stage at 24h, it was doubled in the 

profenofos. The ratios between stages at 72h 

for the corresponding product were tapered. 

Sensitivity of IV instar to fenvalerate at 72h 

was reduced to maximum (3.5 fold) followed 

by methyl parathion (1.96 fold) and profenofos 

(1.85 fold). 

Alphamethrin had highest toxicity 

(LC50 = 0.00129) at 24h exposure, followed 

by fen valerate and methomyl to IV instar 

larvae of A. janata. Cartap hydrochloride was 

least toxic (0.095). Among the tested 

compounds at 24h, phosalone, carbaryl, 

monocrotophos and quinalphos were also less 

toxic than methyl parathion. At 72h interval, 

alphamethrin, fenvalerate, methomyl, 

profenofos, endosulfan and mixture of 

cypermethrin and profenophos exhibited higher 

toxicity than methyl parathion in the 

descending order of toxicity. Whereas cartap 

hydrochloride was least toxic (0.02422%) to 

A. janata followed by carbaryl, phosalone, 

monocrotophos, quinolphos and acephate in the 

ascending order. As the exposure time increased 

from 24 to 72h, there in LC50 values 

decreased. The reduction was least in 

profenofos (2.09 times) and highest (5.47 

times) in endosulfan.In case of most toxic 

insecticides like alphamethrin and fen valerate, 

the pesticide requirement to cause mortality in 

50 per cent of the population was lowered by 

2.11 and 3.29 times vis-a-vis 4.98 times in the 

recommended insecticide, methyl parathion 

(Basappa and Lingappa, 2002c). In Palem (AP) 

monocrotophos (0.05 %), acephate (0.075 %), 

25


endosulfan (0.07 %), phosalone (0.07 %), 

chlopyriphos (0.04 %), quinalphos (1.5 %) 

dust and methyl parathjon (2 %) dust gave 

97.06, 96.88, 95.52, 98.86,98.89, 94.44 and 

92.37 per cent mortality, respectively (DOR, 

1991). Spray monocrotophos(0.05%) or 

endosulfan(0.07%) if population reaches 4-5 

per plant to keep the pest below economic 

threshold level(ETL) (DOR,2000). 

Botanicals: There is a revival of interest in 

the isolation of active compounds from 

indigenous plants that are toxic to insects ever 

since the discovery of insecticidallantifeedant 

activity in neem seed constituents. Plant 

products have distinct advantage over 

synthetic insecticides since they are easily 

biodegradable, non-persistant. Cierodendrum 

inerme dust at four levels and cold alcohol 

extract (CAE) at three levels with 

Azadirachtin(0.3%) and insecticide, cartap 

hydrochloride were evaluated against A. janata 

and its larval parasitoid, M. macuiipennis under 

field conditions. Azadirachtin(0.3%), C. inerme 

10% CAE and C. inerme dust (100%) were 

as effective as cartap hydrochloride and 

significantly superior to other treatments in 

lowering the pest load. Among botanicals 

highest yield was realised from 

azadirachtin(I068 kg/ha)followed by, C. inerme 

dust (100%)(1057kg/ha) and C. inerme 10% 

CAE (I 050kg/ha). Cartap hydrochloride had 

highest yield (1077kg/ha) among all the 

treatments. However, the yield values were at 

par with each other but superior over other 

treatments and standard check. The increase 

in yield in these treatments over untreated check 

was to the extent of 100 to 130 kg! ha with one 

application. The benefit cost ratio was highest 

in C. inerme dust (100%)(1 :5.75) followed by 

C. inerme dust (10%)(1:4.14) and C. inerme 

dust (15%)(1 :4.02). In contrast, there was net 

loss in C. inerme cold alcohol extract 

treatments with benefit cost ratio reduced to 

decimal value. Azadirachtin and cartap 

hydrochloride had C:B ratio of 1 :2.61 and 

I: 1.96,respectively. Azadirachtin, C. inerme 

10% CAE and C. inerme dust (100%) were 

able to reduce M. macuiipennis cocoon 

number as much as by cartap hydrochloride 

up to 12 DAS. Lower concentrations of C. 

inerme dust (5,10,15%) and C. inerme CAE 

(3,5,10%) formulations were relatively safer 

compared to other botanicals and cartap 

hydrochloride. All the plant products evaluated 

were relatively safe but at higher concentrations 

moderately harmful to parasitoid activity 

directly or indirectly. Safety of the plant 

products to parasitoid increased with decrease 

in toxicant. All the botanicals which are 

effective against pest and safer to natural 

enemies will find a place in the bio intensive 

integrated pest management (BIPM) in the 

castor ecosystem(Basappa and Lingappa, 1999). 

Investigations were also carried out on 

persistent toxicity of botanicals against castor 

sernilooper, A. janata. Based on feeding and 

exposure period promising botanicals like dust 

and cold alcohol extracts (CAE) of C.inerme 

were compared with a commercial neem 

based botanical and a recommended chemical 

insecticide, methyl parathion for their 

persistence in the field. Feeding of treated 

leaves for 24 h, irrespective of exposure 

(weathering) period after treatment, did not 

cause any mortality in all the plant products. 

Successive increase in feeding period increased 

the mortality, when leaves were exposed from 

0-15 days. Maximum mortality was 84.44 per 

26


cent in C. inerme dust (15 %) and C.inerme 

CAE(10 %),followed by neemgaurd(77.78%), 

C.inerme CAE 5 % (75.56%) and C. inerme 

10% dust(71 .11 %) on 9th day of feeding. 

The effectiveness of all botanicals decreased 

with increase in exposure period at all intervals 

of feeding period. In none of the botanicals 

the persistence was beyond 3 days to cause 

75 per cent mortality. In contrast methyl 

parathion which exhibited quick knockdown 

effect inducing 84.44 per cent mortality when 

fed at one hour after treatment for 24 h lost its 

effectiveness gradually to reach 6.67 per cent 

at 15th day of exposure. Similar trend in the 

depletion of effectiveness was evident at 2, 5, 

and 9 days feeding period intervals with 

initial mortality being highest (100%). The 

persistence period of methyl parathion was 15 

days at shortest feeding period of I day 

(Basappa and Lingappa, 2002e). 

Toxicity of synthetic insecticides and bio 

pesticides to natural enemies : Studies on 

the impact of insecticides on the survival and 

multiplication of Trichogramma and M. 

maculipenis received less attention so for as 

castor ecosystem is concerned. However few 

reports are available on M.macuJipennis. 

M.macuJipennis is the most dominant larval 

parasitoid exerting considerable biological 

pressure in the environment. Information on 

the effect of insecticides to this parasitoid is 

lacking totally. Both in laboratory and field 

conditions fenvalerate (dust and spray), 

phosalone, monocrotophos, profenofos and 

acephate proved to be relatively safer to 

developmental stages of T.chilonis,(54 to 86% 

adult emergence) while methyl parathion, 

carbaryl and quinalphos were harmful. 

Phosalone, carbaryl, profenofos, acephate, 

fenvelarate (spray and dust), were relatively 

safer with 70 to 85 % adult emergence from 

treated cocoons whereas methyl 

parathion(5.00% ),alphamethrin (11.67%) and 

quinalphos(33.33%) were highly toxic to 

M.maculipennis. All insecticides were highly 

toxic to adult parasitoids of both T.chilonis and 

M.maculipennis.(Basappa and Lingappa,2002b) 

Toxicity of botanicals was assayed to 

egg parasitoid (T. chilonis) and larval parasitoid 

(M. maculipennis) of castor semilooper,A. 

janata in in vitro and in situ conditions. Dust 

and cold alcohol extract of C. inerme , cold 

alcohol extract of B. glabra ,neem seed kernel 

extract, neem leaf extract and commercial neem 

products were tested and all them were found 

safe to adults of both the parasitoids except 

cold alcohol extracts of C. inerme and B.glabra 

which caused adult mortality ranging from 16.7 

to 40.0 and 18.7 to 38.67 % in T.chilonis as 

well as 23.3 to 43 .3 and 20.0 to 53.3 % in case 

of M.maculipennis ,respectively. Cartap 

hydrochloride was highly toxic to adults of both 

the parasitoids. In all the botanicals, except 

B.glabra (58.7%) the emergence of T.chilonis 

adults was high in the laboratory (80.7 to 

98.0%) and in the field (59.3 to 98.7%). Dust 

formulation of C.inerme and neem leaf extracts 

were safer to parasitoids irrespective of the age 

of the developing parasitoid. The safety of 

botanicals to the developing parasitoids in the 

field parasitised eggs showed similar trends in 

the laboratory. More than 75% adults of 

M.maculipennis emerged from botanicals 

treated cocoons both under laboratory and field 

conditions. All the botanicals tested were safe 

to parasitoids compared to cartap hydrochloride 

which resulted in 18.33 and 66.67 % adult 

emergence in laboratory and field treated 

27


cocoons, respectively. Promising and safer 

botanicals to natural enemies can be used in 

developing bio intensive integrated pest 

management(BIPM ) strategies (Basappa and 

Lingappa, 2002c). 

Integrated management of castor 

semilooper : Information on integrated 

management of Ajanata is scanty. Physical 

control method like hand picking of larvae was 

one of the IPM components which was 

suggested by earlier research workers apart 

from application of chemical insecticides when 

larval population was high. Thobbi (1970) 

observed selective action of carbaryl and 

endosulfan to semi looper sparing it's egg 

parasitoid, Teienomus sp. The selection of 

insecticides for semilooper control, if 

necessary, should be based on the economic 

threshold and the field activity of the most 

potential larval parasitoid M.macuiipennis. The 

pest incidence is influenced by cropping 

systems and production practices. Semilooper 

population was least in castor + redgram 

cropping system (13.7/10 plants) fonowed by 

castor + cowpea (20/ I 0 plants) , castor + 

sunflower (22.7/10 plants), sole crop of castor 

(23.5/10 plants) and highest in castor + 

sesamum intercropping system (33.7/10 

plants). Early sown crop had higher pest 

population than the late sown crop. Pest attack 

was more on the variety 48-1 and least on 

variety Aruna. 

Four integrated pest management 

(IPM) modules were developed by integration 

of chemical insecticides ,bio pesticides and egg 

parasitoid. IPM module I (fenvalerate 0.01 % 

application at 35 days after sowing(DAS) 

followed by azadirachtin 0.3% ·at 60 DAS), 

IPM module II (fenvalerate 0.4% dust at 35 

DAS followed by C. inerme 15% dust at 60 

DAS ),IPM module III ( acephate 0.075% at 

35 DAS followed by fen valerate 0.005 %+ 

B.cereus 3.2x10 8 at 60 DAS) and IPM module 

IV (phosalone 0.07% at 35 DAS followed by 

T. chilonis release @2lakhlha at 60 DAS ) were 

compared with methyl parathion (0.05%) for 

their effectiveness against castor semi looper, 

and safety to its larval parasitoid, M. 

maculipennis. Among four IPM modules 

evaluated, module I proved its superiority in 

suppression of the pest and with moderate 

conservation of natural enemies, with a yield 

of 15.03 qts / ha and C:B ratio of 1 :4.2 followed 

by module II with seed yield of 12.88 qts / ha 

and C:B ratio of 1: 1.37. IPM module III and 

IV had negative C:B ratio of 1 :0.74 and 1:0.34 

with yield of 13.01 and 10.49 qts / ha. 

respectively. During first application all the 

chemical toxicants wiped out the natural 

enemy activity up to 7 days after treatment 

(OAT) with the exception of phosalone that 

recorded some cocoons of M.macuiipennis. 

One to three days after second application! 

release, there was reduction in cocoon number 

in all the treatments except IPM module IV 

where it was illcreased up to 44.1 per cent. 

At 7 OAT par" ltoid cocoons further increased 

in module IV (66.12%), module II (37.82%) 

and module I (1.33%) where as there was 

cocoon reduction to the tune of 41.6 and 97.59 

per cent in module III and recommended 

insecticide methyl parathion, respectively 

(Basappa, and Lingappa 1998). In another study 

IPM package involving release of T.chilonis Ishii 

@ 2 lakh/ha at 30 days after sowing (DAS) 

followed by fenvalerate (.0 1 %) spray at45 DAS 

and second release of T. chilonis @ 3 lakhlha 

at 65 DAS offered good protection to castor 

from A. janata and proved to be cost effective 

28


with highest C:B ratio (1 :4.99) followed by T. 

chilonis @ 2 lakhlha at 30 DAS followed by 

profenofos (0.025%) at 45 DAS and second 

release of T. chilonis @ 3 lakhlha at 65 DAS 

with C:B ratio of I: l.29. Similarly another two 

IPM packages involving mixture of profenofos 

+ cyperrnethrin (0.04%) with two releases of 

T. chiLonis (30 DAS and 65 DAS) and acephate 

(0.075%) with two releases of T. chilonis (30 

DAS and 65 DAS ) proved as effective as 

methyl parathion. M. maculipennis activity was 

higher in plots imposed with rPM packages 

compared to methyl parathion where parasitoid 

activity was completely seized (Basappa and 

Lingappa, 2002d). 

Tobacco caterpillar : It is highly polyphagous 

pest distributed in Asia and Australia. The pest 

appears on castor crop in August and is serious 

from September onwards till November in 

Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Gujarat. It is 

known to feed on more than 65 alternate host 

plants including field and horticultural crops as 

well as wild plants. Castor is one of the highly 

preferred hosts. The moth is stout, dark with 

wavy white markings on the forewings and 

white hind wings, margin having a brown 

colour. It lays eggs in a mass on the under 

surface of leaves and covers them with brown 

hairs. The female lays 500 to 600 eggs which 

will hatch in to larvae with in four to five days. 

The newly hatched larvae feed gregariously on 

a single leaf on a same plant for a short period 

before dispersal. Gregarious form while feeding 

on underside of leaves give "mesh" like 

appearance to leaves which can be easily located 

from a distance and it can be collected and 

destroyed by scouting across the field. The full 

grown larva will feed voraciously on castor leaf 

leaving petiole and stalk. Some times it also 

damages capsules during severe out break of 

the pest. Grown up larva is stout, cylindrical, 

pale greenish brown with dark markings. Some 

have transverse and longitudinal gray and 

yellow bands and others have rows of dark 

spots. It feeds during night time. It pupates in 

the soil in an earthen cocoon. The larval period 

lasts for 2 to 3 weeks. Adult emerges in about 

two weeks, the total life cycle occupies 30 to 

40 days. Migration of grown up larvae in bands 

from one field to another is reported when ever 

severe outbreak of pest was noticed. It will 

complete 7 to 8 generations in a year by 

surviving on various host plants during different 

seasons. 

l\1ana~('ment 

: Monitoring the pest with 

pheromone traps (8-10/ha) helps in timing and 

planning of the management strategies. 

Mechanical collection and destruction of egg 

masses and skelitanised leaves along with fLrst 

and second ins tar gregarious larvae is very 

economic and effecti ve low cost method . 

Natural enemies: In the nature several egg, 

larval and pupal parasitoids have been observed 

to interfere in the succession of the pest at 

different growth stages. Among them, the egg 

parasitoid, Trichogramma evanescens minutum 

larval parasitoids, Apanteles prodeniae, Cotesia 

sp., predatory stink bug, Cantheconidia 

furcellata and pupal parasitoids, Tetrastichus 

ayyari and Trichospilus pupivora are important. 

Several general predators like spiders, 

chrysoperla, predatory bugs,insectivorous 

birds etc. also play important role in the 

suppression of the pest. However, these 

biological agents are not exploited for the field 

use. The microbial agents like Spodoptera NPV 

(SLNPV), entomopathogenic fungi, Nomuraea 

29


rileyi, bacteria, BaciLus thuringiensis and B. 

cereus can also be used for the management of 

this pest in the field condition. 

Botanicals: Spraying neem seed kernel extract 

(5%) may also bring down early instar larvae. 

The leaf extracts of neem and Neerium indicum 

and neem seed kernel extract at 2 and 4%, neem 

seed oil and commercial neem formulations 

were also found to be effective against the pest. 

Chemical control: If there is out break of the 

pest spray insecticides like endosulfan (0.07%) 

or chlorpyriphos (0.05%) or monocrotophos 

(0.05%) (DOR, 2000). 

Bihar hairy caterpillar: Polyphagous pest, S. 

obliqua is infesting co tton ,jute castor, 

groundnut, sunflower, sesame, linseed, pulses 

etc. The pest activity will be more during 

October to November. The larvae defoliate the 

crop and move from one field to another. Adult 

moth with reddish black spots and both the 

pinkish wings with black spots. Female moth 

lays eggs in masses on lower surface of leaf. 

The early stages of the larvae are gregarious 

and give skditanised appearance to the leaf due 

to feeding. The larvae are pale yellow coloured 

with dark yellow hair over the body. The larvae 

become full grown with in 2 to 3 weeks and 

pupate in the soil under dry foliage and debris. 

Management : Mechanical collection and 

destruction of egg masses and skelitanised 

leaves along with first instar gregarious larvae. 

Spray NSKE (5% ) against early stage larvae. 

Under severe outbreak of the pest spray 

endosulfan (0.07%) or monocrotophos (0.05%) 

. or dichlor vos (0.05%) or c hloripyripho 

(0.05%) or dust quinalphos (1.5%). Several 

biological control agents have been recorded 

on this pest. Intercropping of castor with 

pigeon pea will reduce the incidence of the pest 

Hairy catepiUars : Euproctis spp. are highly 

polyphagous in nature and found to infest 

several cultivated crops. Often skin irritation is 

caused due to hairs on the body of the larvae. 

The yellowish moth lays flat, circular, yellowish 

eggs in masses in the under surface of the 

leaves and covers with yellowish hairs. The 

eggs hatch in to larvae with in 3 to 4 days of 

egg laying. Larvae will actively feed 15 to 20 

days. The newly hatched larvae have a congregating 

habit that continues in the mature larvae. 

The grownup larva possess red head with white 

hairs and tuft of hairs arising on warts. The 

larvae mainly defoliates leaves but under severe 

conditions it also feeds on capsules and cause 

considerable loss. The pupae is enclosed in a 

cocoon of yellowish hairs. 

P. ricini is also one of the castor pests 

of minor importance and it also feeds on 

sesame, sunflower, moringa, field bean, cotton, 

banana, pampkin etc. The caterpillars defoliate 

the crop and sometimes feed tender capsules. 

The adult is gray with dark spots on the pinkish 

hind wings. The blackish brown larvae has a 

red head and long thick hairs arising on bluish 

warts found or ;ts body. It pupates in a cocoon 

of silk and hairs. It is naturally regulated by 

Apanteles ricini B. 

Management: Since these pests are sporadic 

and of minor importance the control measures 

may be required if the incidence is severe 

.Regular hand picking and destruction of egg 

masses and congregated larvae will help to keep 

the pest below the threshold level. Spray 

dicWorvos (0.05%) or endosulfan (0.07%) or 

cW orpyriphos (0.05 %) or monocrotophos 

(0.05%). 

30

Tntegrated Pest Management in Castor 

Spiny caterpillar: The spiny caterpillar is one 

of the specific and minor pests of castor which 

occurs during later stage of the crop. Caterpillars 

damage the crop by defoliati ng plants. Adult 

butterfly is brownish with wavy thin lines on 

wings. Female butterfly lays sculptured eggs singly 

on leaves. The caterpillar is green with short 

branched hairs in groups all over its body and it 

measures 30 mm long. It pupates in a brownish 

chrysalis. Chalcid and Brachymeria sp.were 

reponed to parasitise the pupa of spiny caterpillar 

in the nature. Apart from above defoliators sludge 

caterpillars, caseworms, flea beetles and weevils 

also cause defoliation of castor crop but they 

occur during different growth stages of the crop 

causing negligible damage. 

3.2.6. Inflorescence pests 

Several insect pests are reported to 

feed on castor inflorescence. Among them 

shoot and capsule borer is very important pest. 

Other infl orescence pests are castor gall midge, 

capsule pyralid, capsule eucosmid, flower 

thrips, and inflorescence tillips. Polyphagous 

pest like H. armigera will also bore into 

capsules and cause considerable damage to the 

crop. S. fitura, A. janata and hairy caterpillars 

also scrape green matter on the matured 

capsules and eat away i~a tu re capsules under 

severity. 

Shoot and capsule borer : In recent years 

castor shoot and capsule borer is assuming 

the status of major pest of castor in the castor 

growing regions of the country. The pest 

attacks castor from flowering stage onwards. 

It is one of the key pests of castor, which 

normally occurs as shoot borer initially and 

continue until maturity of the capsule. It is 

also known to affect cardamom, ginger, 

turmeric. guava, peache ,cacao, pear, avocado, 

jack. mango, citru , soap nut etc. Adult moth 

is medium sized with a number of small black 

spots on bright orange-yellow wings. It lays 

pinkish flat eggs singly or in groups upto 6 on 

inflorescence and tender capsules as well as 

on other tender parts of the plant. The larva is 

pale greenish with pinkish tinge and fine hairs 

with dark head. The larva may be seen under a 

cover of silk and frass, which extend between 

capsules. It pupates inside the damaged stem, 

peduncle or capsule in a thin silken cocoon. 

The egg, larval, pupal periods losts for 6 to 7, 

12 to 16 and 7 to 10 days, respectively. Larvae 

bore into the tender shoot resulting in the death 

of the terminal shoot. Sometimes the auxiliary 

shoots are also damaged. A mass of excreta is 

seen protruding out of the entrance hole. When 

capsules are infested, the newly hatched larva 

first feeds on the greenish coat of the capsules. 

The Larvae then bores into the beans and 

damages inner contents, single larva damages 

several capsules and web forming also can be 

seen. The pest is generally active and found in 

all stages of development from August to 

March-April, the main castor season, when 4- 

5 overlapping generations are completed. From 

April onwards, the pest occurs on stray castor 

plants and other alternate hosts. 

\Ianagem(.'nt : Varietal differences in susceptibility 

to this pest have been reported by many 

workers. The wartless varieties with loose 

spikes were in general tolerant and the varieties 

possessing moderate to high compact heads 

were susceptible. The varieties having small 

seed size (Aruna) and purple stems were in 

general observed to be resistant compared to 

varieties with bold seeds and green stem (S ingh 

et al., 1977). Patel et at. (1987) also repOlted 

Aruna to be least susceptible compared to GCH- 

4, GAUCH-I, VHB-150 and J-135. The maturity 

and height of the plants did not show any 

relation to the pest infestation. Mechani cal 

31


collection and destruction of attacked shoots 

and capsules and also destruction of attacked 

stray plants during off-season may reduce the 

pest incidence. Many larval and pupal 

parasitoids were reported on this pest. The 

ichneumonid larval parasitoids viz., Diadegma 

ricini, Theronia sp., the braconid parasitoids 

viz., Apanteles sp. and Bracon hebetor are few 

among them. Non of the biological control 

agents have been exploited for the field use in 

the management of castor shoot and capsule 

borer. Insectivorous birds like black drongo, 

Indian myna and bee eater were also found 

predating on larvae present in the frass. 

Since castor shoot and capsule borer 

is an internal feeder effective chemical control 

is difficult. Several insecticides have been 

evaluated under field conditions. Spray 

endosulfan (0.07%) or monocrotophos (0.05%) 

or dust the spike with quinalphos (l.5%) or 

methyl parathion (2%). Spray acephate for the 

effective control of the pest with least toxicity 

to bees and natural enemies (Chakravarthy, 

1999). The pest can be effectively managed by 

spraying insecticides to panicles at flowering 

stage and repeat the spray after 3 to 4 weeks 

depending upon pest load. 

3.3. Diseases of Castor 

Castor crop is attacked by about 150 

pathogens causing diseases at different 

phenological stages of crop. However, only few 

diseases are of economic importance. There 

are castor diseases, which can cause serious 

qualitative and quantitative loss at any stage of 

crop growth, depending on the seasonal 

conditions. These include seedling blight (P. 

parasitica), wilt (F oxysporum f. sp. Ricin) and 

Botrytis / gray rot (B. ricini). Among diseases 

of miner importance but capable of causing 

serious damage to castor under favourable 

conditions are root rot ( Macrophomina 

phaseolina L.), alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria 

ricini Y), cercospora leaf spot (Cercospora 

riciniella ), powdery mildew ( LeveirLula 

tau rica ), rust ( Melampsora ricini) and 

bacterial leaf spot ( Xanthomonas campestris 

pv. ricini). Castor diseases can be broadly 

grouped into seedling diseases, root and stem 

di seases, foliar diseases and inflorescence 

diseases. 

3.3.1. Seedling diseases 

Among seedling diseases in castor most 

damaging diseases are caused to emerging 

seedlings by Phytopthora and Fusarium which 

are economically important. 

Seedling blight : Seedling blight is wide spread 

in Africa and Asia, it survives under wet 

conditions and spread by heavy tropical storms 

whose large rain drops carry zoospores from one 

plant to another plant causing extensive damage 

particularly among immature plants. Prolonged 

cool and wet conditions in the environment cause 

extensive damage. Production of dull green round 

patches on both the surfaces of cotyledonary 

leaves is the earliest symptom in the field. On the 

upper surface of leaves spots are round to irregular 

and show alternate yellow and brown or dark 

brown concentric zones with yellowish green 

haUo in case of older leaves. There will be 

premature shedding of affected leaves under 

severe infestation of the diseases. Infection also 

spreads to petiole base resulting in leaf drop under 

humid conditions. Some times, whitish fungal 

growth is found on the under surface of the spots 

under moist conditions. Under severe conditions 

damage ranges from 30-40%. The average 

economic loss due to the disease is 10% (Maiti, 

et af ., 1989). 

32

Integrated PeM Management in Castor 

t, ( e r Select proper land with good 

drainage and avoid low lying and ill drained 

areas. The disease incidence can be reduced 

by following low cost pest management 

components like seed treatment with 4g of 

Trichoderma viride formulation and 3g metalaxyl 

or thiram or captan or 2g carbendazim per kg 

seed. Soil drenching with copper oxychloride 

@ 3g/l or metalaxyl 2g!1 is also useful. Spray 

copper oxychloride @ 3g per litre water to keep 

the disease below threshold level. 

3.3.2. Root and stem diseases 

Root rot / Charcoal rot: Initially the plant 

shows signs of water shortage within a week 

the leaves and petioles droop down witrun a 

fortnight the infected plant dry up. Dark black 

lesions are seen on the stem near ground level. 

The tap root shows signs of drying and root 

bark hred off easily. Rotting sometimes 

spreads partially above the ground. At an 

advanced stage sclerotial bodies may be seen 

as minute black spots on the surface of woody 

tissues and in pith region. Elongated, irregular 

grayish to brownish black spots are some times 

seen on the stem, petiole and branches. Aerial 

infection is seen in the form of small brown 

depressed lesions on or around the nodes. The 

lesions increase in size by both up and 

downwards resulting in necrotic area. Several 

such lesions often coale -ce and girdle the stem 

causing wilt and leaf drop leaving a bare yellow 

stalk, which ultimately bee omes black. In severe 

infection, entire branch or top of the plant 

withers away. Wilting of leaves starts at the 

apex and progresses downwards. Pith region 

shows brown discoloration due to formation 

of sclerotia. Infected capsules become 

discoloured and drop off easily. In the immature 

seed, mycelium and sclerotia are observed under 

seed coat. Seedling infection is also reported. 

n n The pathogen is soil borne and 

survi ves for long period in the form of sclerotia. 

Seed treatment with thiram @ 3g or 

carbendazim @ 2g per kg seed has been 

recommended for the economic disease 

management. Grow castor varieties like Jyotru, 

Iwala and JHB-665 with certain level of 

resistance. Maintain sufficient soil moisture 

through soil moisture conservation practices 

and irrigation at critical stage. 

Fusarium wilt : Among soil borne and seed 

borne diseases of castor, wilt is very important 

disease, which occurs from seedling stage till 

maturity. The disease appears in patches. When 

seedlings are attacked, cotyledonary leaves turn 

to dull green colour, wither and die 

SUbsequently. Diseased plants are sickly in 

appearance. In general wilt incidence on 

seedling stage is more in the endemic areas. 

Young seedlings at 2-3 leaf stage exhibit 

discolouration of hypocotyls, loss of turgidity 

with or without change in leaf colour. Wilting 

is preceded by production of leaf blight 

symptoms and formation of dark stripes on the 

entire stem upto the infected leaves (Raoof and 

Nageshwar Rao, 1999). Initially necrosis of 

leaves starts from margins later spread to 

interveinal areas and finally it spreads to entire 

leaf. Drooping of plants with few top leaves 

after drying and dropping of all the affected 

lower leaves is a characteristic symptom of wilt 

and ultimately plants die. On the stem a cluster 

of purple coloured sporodochia develop and 

superficial cracks are noticed. Brownish 

discolouration and white cottony mycelial 

growth is seen in the split open stem in pith 

region. 

III '" It: t. The wilt disease can be managed 

by selection of disease free seeds, choosing 

varieties like Jwala, Jyothi, GCH-4, DCH-32, 

33

Integrated PeM Management in Castor 

DCH-I77 ,avoiding water logging, burning of 

crop debris, green manuring, following good 

cultural practices and intercropping 

castor+redgram (l: 1) and crop rotation with 

millets. Seed should be treated with 4g 

Trichoderma viride formulation and 3g thiram 

or 2g carbendazifn per kg seed. 

3.3.3. Foliar diseases 

Alternaria leaf spot : All above ground plant 

parts such as leaves, stem, inflorescence and 

capsules are affected. Earliest symptoms are 

noticed on cotyledons as spots leading to death 

of seedlings. Leaf spots vary in size, light brown 

with concentric rings. In severe infections, 

several spots coalesce to form bigger patches 

resulting in premature defoliation. Invasion of 

inflorescence and capsules under humid 

conditions gives sooty appearance. Diseased 

capsules contain unfilled seeds. Immature 

capsules turn brown and wilt suddenly. Humid 

cloudy weather with temperatures of 16- 20°C 

are favourable for the development of the 

disease. The fu ngus survives on seed and crop 

remains. All aerial parts are affected by the 

disease. 

lanagement : Use of healthy seed and seed 

dressing with captan or thiram 3g/kg seed to 

minimise seed borne inoculum. Foliar spray of 

mancozeb (0.2%) at an interval of J 5 days 

commencing 90 days of crop growth is 

effective. 

Cercospora leaf spot: This disease is wide 

spread at the global level. In India it's severity 

is variable from place to place. Disease is seen 

through out the crop growth period. Initially it 

appears as minute water-soaked lesions with 

brown borders and grayish white center. 

Sometimes the diseased portion of leaf drops 

off causing shot holes. 

1 nagcm 'n Spray copper oxycloride 

(0.3 %) or mancozeb (0.25 %) two to three times 

during cropping season in case of severe 

infection. 

Powdery mildew : Powdery mildew occurs 

during cool winter months. Affected leaves are 

yellowish in colour. Whitish powdery growth 

has been observed on the under surface of 

leaves. Under severe conditions the powdery 

mass may cover the entire leaf. Infected leaves 

turn brown and drop off prematurely and 

ultimately the plants become stunted and 

produce small capsules. The infection is wind 

born. 

lanagelllcnt: When the weather IS 

comparatively dry spray wettable su lphur 

(0.2%) twice at 15 days interval, starting from 

3 months after sowing. 

Rust: At present rust is disease of minor 

importance in India. However earlier it was 

reported to cause severe damage to castor crop 

in Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra and Tamil 

Nadu. Disease incidence is noticed during 

November to December months. Minute raised 

powdery orange yellow pustules appear on the 

lower surface of leaves while the corresponding 

upper surface of the leaf is yellow in colour. 

These uredopustules often occur in groups in 

a concentric fashion and two are more may 

coalesce to form bigger patches. 

lanagcl1l('nt: Dusting 20-30 kg fine sulphur 

powder per hectare or one spray of tridemorph 

(0. 1 %) or mancozeb (0.25%) will minimise 

disease incidence. 

Bacterial leaf spot : The disease occurs from 

cotyledonary to maturity stage if environmental 

conditions are favourable for the bacteria. 

Prolonged rainy seasons may aggravate the 

disease. High soil temperature and moisture 

34


Field view of (a wilt susceptible and (b) resistant (Jyothi) castor crop 

Botrytis affected (a) spikes and (b) field view of damaged crop 

35


Reniform (a) nematode (b) affected and (c) healthy roots of castor 

Management of (a) weeds by (b and c) inter culturing followed by (d) manual weeding 

36


during summer will also be favourable for 

higher disease incidence. The bacterium is seed 

borne. All the above ground plant parts are 

attacked by the bacterium. On cotyledons and 

leaves water-soaked angular spots are 

produced. Leaf symptoms are first noticed at 

the tip which extend to center becoming 

irregularly angular, dark brown to jet black in 

colour. Leaves become brittle and dry up. 

Bacterial exudation in the farm of shining drops 

with small heads are formed on both leaf 

surfaces. 

n It: Spray copper oxychloride 

(0.3%) or streptocycline Ig in 10 ljter water of 

paushamycin (0.025%). 

3.3.4. Inflorescence Diseases 

Botrytis gray mold/gray rot: The disease will 

be severe during spike formation and capsule 

development stage under prolonged monsoon! 

cyclonic rains. Symptoms of the disease can 

be seen on leaves, stem, flowers and capsule 

and prominent on spikes. Brown spots appear 

on the spike or some capsules in the spike 

spreading subsequently to all capsules. Initially 

water-soaked lesions form on the male flowers 

at the base of the spike. These flowers rot and 

are covered by characteristic gray or ash 

coloured growth of the fungus. Subsequently, 

the disease spreads upwards infecting all 

flowers and capsules which are covered by 

the fungus. Yellowish drops of liquid exude 

from these portions which are covered by fluffy 

gray fungal growth. Affected portions break 

off at the point of infection. Infection at 

flowering results in flower rot and affects seed 

filling. Infected spikes become sterile without 

any capsules. Infected capsules rot and shed 

off. Infection spreads to the seed also on which 

black sclerotia develop. Leaves which are in 

contact with the diseased spikes are also 

infected and irregular light brown spots with 

marked borders consisting of grayish fungal 

growth develop. Night temperatures below 22 

DC and continuous rains are highly favourable 

condition for the disease spread. The fungus 

spreads through sclerotia on infected seed and 

crop debris. 

It Selection of varieties such as 

Jwala (48-1) with non-spiny capsules and less 

compact inflorescence, destruction of crop 

debris, adoption of wider spacing in problem 

areas to facilitate aeration. Seed treatment with 

carbendazim @ 2g per kg seed and spraying 

the same chemical @ Ig per liter water 

depending on weather forecast at least 6-8 h 

before rain and repeating the same schedule if 

necessary after rains. Application of 10 kg N/ 

ha after cessation of rains and removal of 

diseased panicles may be useful for the growth 

of panicles that subsequently develop. 

3.4. Nematodes and their 

Management 

The root-knot nematodes, Meloidogyne 

incognita and M. javal1ica and reniform 

nematode, Rotylenchulus reniformis, have been 

reported to be associated with castor in India. 

However, R. renifonnis is the only economically 

important nematode pests of castor. These are 

semi endoparasites affecting root portion of the 

castor plant. The roots covered with numerous 

egg-sacs with soil particles adhered and give a 

dirty appearance. The shoot only shows 

chlorosis and stunted growth and the yield is 

reduced significantly. Estimates in infested 

fields have shown avoidable yield losses up to 

40%, depending upon the nematode population 

density. Some wild castor varieties appear to 

be tolerant as they support very high population 

37


densities of reniform nematodes without 

apparent damage (Gour, 2003). Reniform 

nematode, R. reniformis, have been reported 

to be associated with castor wilt complex 

disease (Chattopadhyay and Reddy, 1995). 

There is lack of information on management 

of nematodes in castor. Summer ploughing, 

application of organic amendments, clean 

cultivation and application of neem cake, 

pongamia cake and mahua cake etc., may bring 

down nematode population. 

3.5. Weeds and their 

Management 

Several weeds have been recorded in 

the castor eco system among them, Axonopus 

compressus, Celosia argentia L., Chenopodium 

album (Lambsquaters), Cynodon dactylon (L), 

Cyperus rotundus L., Euphorbia hirta L., 

Parthenium hysterophorus L. , Portulaca 

oleracea L. , Sonchus oleraceus L., Axonopus 

compressus, Anagallis arvensis L. species were 

major weeds from seedling stage till harvest in 

the castor ecosystem in Mhaboobnagar and 

Ranga Reddy districts of Andhra Pradesh. 

Among weed species recorded C. argentia and 

C. rotundus were found to be more severe. 

In castor on an average 19.4 % yield loss was 

recorded due to weeds. The critical period of 

crop weed competition in castor is reported to 

be 30 to 60 days after sowing. Few promising 

herbicides which can be used in castor 

ecosystem against broad leaved and grassy 

weeds are fluchloralin (1 Kg/ha - pre plant 

incorporation) and pendimethalin (I Kg/ha - 

pre emergence). Against grassy weeds 

metolachlor (1 to 1.5 Kg/ha) can also be used 

as pre emergence herbicide. It is essential to 

have integrated approach including preventive, 

cultural, mechanical, ecological and chemical 

methods in a mutually supported manner in to 

the crop production system with due consideration 

of economic, environmental and ecological 

consequences (Yaduraju and Mishra, 2003). 

During seedling stage inter culturing in both the 

directions reduced weed intensity apart from 

bringing suitable soil condition for crop growth. 

Left over weeds near plants can be removed 

manually. 

3.6. Holistic Integrated Pest 

Management Approach in 

Castor 

IPM is essentially a holistic paradigm 

to pest control that seeks to optimize the use of 

a combination of tactics to manage a whole 

spectrum of pests including insect pests, 

pathogens, nematodes and weeds within a 

particular cropping system keeping in view of 

the economics and ecological balance. For a 

stable and sustainable integrat~d management 

of pests in castor, there is a need to have 

holistic approach in the integrated management 

of entire spectrum of pests including insect 

pests , diseases, nematodes and weeds rather 

than management of individual pest u ing single 

component. In depth knowledge on critical 

stage of the c 'oj) vulnerable to pest attack, eco 

biology of in' ,ct pests, etiology of diseases, 

critical period of crop weed competition, damage 

potential and extent of losses, economic 

threshold levels (BTL), natural enemies and their 

utilization, resistant sources, effective cultural 

as well as mechanical control methods, 

promising botanicals and chemical pesticides. 

Evaluation of these components is most 

needed for effectiveness to pests as well as 

selectivity to natural enemies before formulatin o b 

sound IPM modules or packages involving such 

components to combat pest problem in castor. 

With the participation of farmers in the 

38


development and validation of location specific 

,economically viable and socially acceptable 

integrated pest management (rPM) modules 

(Basappa,2002) an implementable and 

dependable pest management technology can 

be advocated to growers for sustainable 

production of castor crop apart from maintaining 

ecological balance in the castor ecosystem. 

4.0. Development and Validation 

of IPM Modules in Castor 

Farmer participatory adoptive research 

programme under National Agricultural 

Technology Project (NATP) "Development of 

IPM Modules for Oilseeds and Nutritious 

Cereals based Production System (ROPS- 

8)" was implemented in the traditional castor 

belts of Andhra Pradesh. The study area decided 

for the Directorate of Oilseeds Research, 

Hyderabad center was on ''Development and 

Validation of IPM modules in the Castor 

ecosystem under farmers conditions". 

Considering wide array of natural enemies 

associated with different pests in the castor 

ecosystem one bio intensive IPM module 

(BIPM) at ETL and keeping in mind the 

outbreak nature of major defoliator pests of 

castor, two chemical insecticide intensive IPM 

modules (CIPM) with endosulfan (0.07%) and 

monocrotophos (0.05%) were developed and 

validated under farmers conditions by 

comparing with Non rPM module (Farmers 

practice) during 2000-2001. CIPM module with 

monocrotophos was discontinued from 200 l- 

2002 onwards as its effectiveness was similar 

to endosulfan and it was relatively more toxic 

to natural enemies. BIPM and CIPM modules 

were developed involving crop rotation of 

sorghum/maize followed by castor, summer 

ploughing, use of wilt resistant variety Jyothi, 

fixing pheromone traps @ 5/ha for monitoring 

S.litura population, removal of alternate hosts 

of castor semi looper, seed treatment with 

carbendazim @ 2g. /kg of seed, keeping bird 

perches @ 15/ha to attract more predatory 

birds, hand picking and destruction of egg 

masses and early stage larvae of S. litura, S. 

obliqua and other hairy caterpillars, spraying 

of NSKE (5 %), against major defoliators, A. 

janata and S. Litura in BIPM module and 

endosulfan (0.07%) / monocro-tophos (0.05%) 

in CIPM modules, respectively. Carbendazim 

(0.05%) was sprayed as prophylactic measures 

in all the IPM modules against botrytis di ease 

apart from application of N@ lOkg/ha after 

removing botrytis affected spikes. 

4.1. Methodology 

Prior to the implementation of the 

NATP-ROPS-8, initial bench mark survey was 

conducted in the traditional castor growing areas 

consisting of different villages of Amangal 

MandaI under Mahaboobnagar district during 

2000-200 I and Maheswaram as well as 

Kandukur Mandai under Ranga Reddy district 

during 2001-2002. During 2000-2001 three 

rPM modules were developed and validated by 

comparing with Non IPM module (Farmers 

practice) in the farmers castor fields of 

Karkalpahad village and Narlakunta Thanda 

(Tribal village), in Amangal MandaI of 

Mahboobnagar district (A.P.). 

Trials were conducted in five farmers' 

fields and each IPM module was compared 

with Non rPM module. IPM interventions given 

in the Table 2 were imposed at different 

phenological stage of the crop as and when the 

pest and disease incidence reached above the 

economic threshold level (ETL). 

39


Table 2. IPM interventions for the management of pests in castor ecosystem 

Phenological stage 

of crop 

Pre-sowing 

Sowing 

Seedling and Vegetati ve 

Stage 

Vegetative and 

Reproductive Stage 

Reproductive and 

Maturity Stage 

Pest 

Castor semilooper, 

wilt and other pests 

Weeds and 

seedling 

blight 

Red hairy 

caterpi liar, 

castor semi looper, 

tobacco caterpillar 

and weeds 

Castor semilooper, 

tobacco caterpillar 

and botrytis disease 

Castor Capsule 

borer, Bihar 

hairy caterpillar 

and botrytis disease 

Management practices 

i. Identify proper cropping pattern for avoiding pest and 

diseases from previous crop (sorghum/maize after castor). 

tl. Summer ploughing to kill resting stages of insect 

pests, pathogens and to suppress weeds. 

iii. Remove crop residues of previous crops. 

iv. Remove self sown castor and alternate hosts of castor 

semi looper like Euphorbia flina, E.janicuiala etc in the 

tield as well as on the bund. 

v. Select wilt resistant variety i.e. Jyothi (DCS - 9) 

I. Apply recommended fertilizer dose. 

II. Follow square planting and seed treatment with 

carbendazim @ 2g/kg seed. 

I. Vegetative trapping and manual killing of red hairy 

caterpillar. Open furrow around the field and apply 

insecticide dust, methyl parathion (2%) or quinalphos 

( 1.5%). Spray monocrotophos (0.05%) or fenvalerate 

(0.02%) or quinalphos (0.05%) or methyl parathion 

(0.02%) if incidence is severe. 

II. Remove weeds by interculturing in both directions and 

left over weeds manually. 

iii. Spray NSKE (5%) or e ndosu lfan (0.07%) or 

monocrotophos (0.05%) when castor semi looper 

population reaches 4-5 larvae/plant. 

iv. Keep bird perches @ l5/ha to attract predatory birds. 

v. Pheromone traps @ 5/ha for monitoring tobacco caterpi l 

lar population. 

VI. Hand picking and destruction of grown up larvae of 

semi looper and tobaccC' caterpillar as well as egg masses 

and early instar larv. e l)f tobacco caterpill ar 

I. Avoid spraying of Insecticides if larval parasitoid, 

M.maculipennis cocoon number is more than 2 per plant. 

II. Continue hand picking 

III. Spray carbendazim (0.05%) against botrytis as 

prophylactic measure. 

iv. Apply 10 kg nitrogen /ha if there is sufficient moisture 

in the soil after removing botrytis affected spikes 

I. Spray monocrotophos (0.05o/c) against castor capsule 

borer. 

II. Hand picking and destruction of egg masses and early 

stage larvae of Bihar hairy caterpillar and other hairy 

caterpillars. 

Ill. If there is cyclonic rain remove affected spikes and 

spray carbendazim (0.05%) against botrytis. 

40


When the population of major 

defoliator, A. janata was above the economic 

threshold level (ETL), NSKE (5 %) (module 1)/ 

endosulfan (0.07 %)(module II) and 

monocrotophos (0.05%) (module III) were 

imposed during 2000-200 I. Second year (200 1- 

2(02) onwards the project was shifted to Ranga 

Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh. Based on 

the findings of 2000-200 I ,the IPM modules one 

each of BIPM with NSKE (IPM module I) and 

CIPM module with endosulfan (rPM module 

II) were developed and validated under farmers 

conditions by comparing with Non IPM module 

(Farmers practice) in the castor fields of five 

villages involving two farmers in each village 

under Kandakur mandai during 2001-02 and 

four villages under Kandakur mandai, and one 

village under Maheswaram mandai of, Ranga 

Reddy district (A.P.) during 2002-03 season. 

Each module was imposed in a plot size of 1 

acre area in 5 locations (villages) involving 2 

farmers from each village. Treatments were 

imposed at ETL after recording pretreatment 

populations of A. janata and cocoons of its 

larval parasitoid, M. maculipennis. Effect of 

IPM modules and Non-IPM module on potential 

egg parasitoid, Trichogramma spp., larval 

parasitoids, M. maculipennis, Euplectrus 

maternus on semi looper was studied by 

recording percent parasitisation of field 

collected eggs and early instar larvae of 

semi looper which were re lfed in the laboratory. 

Predators like chlysoperla, spiders, mantids and 

Hymenopterans (Polystes spp.) were recorded. 

Apart from recording pretreatment and post 

treatment populations of castor semi looper, 

tobacco caterpiller, Bihar hairy caterpillar, 

castor shoot and capsule borer, natural enemies 

of these pests per plant were also recorded on 

5 plants in 5 quadrates of 25 sq. m. in one acre 

area under each module. Percent incidence of 

diseases like seedling blight, wilt and botrytis 

were also recorded. Yield was recorded by 

marking 200 m 2 area in the center of each IPM 

and farmers practice fields of I acre area and 

worked out yield per hectare. Yield per hectare 

and market price of castor seed of particular 

farmer was considered for working out 

economics. The data related to pest population, 

natural enemies, disease incidence, yield and 

economics were subjected to pooled analysis. 

The illustrations on pest population, natural 

enemies, disease incidence, yield and economics 

were prepared based on mean values of 2000- 

01, 2001-02, 2002-03 (Fig. I to 7) across 

farmers and locations (villages) from Amangal 

Mandai under Mahaboobnagar district and 

Maheswaram as well as Kandukur MandaJ under 

Ranga Reddy district of Andhra Pradesh. 

4.2. Results 

rPM modules involving chemical insecticides 

(CIPM) were more effective in annihilating 

defoliator load compared to Bio intensive IPM 

module with NSKE (5 %) but all the rPM modules 

were superior over Non [PM module (Fig.l). 

6 

I 5 

l' 

'5 3 

I : 

z 

Btifcn spray 1 DAS 3 CAS 7 CAS 

Fig 1. C •• tor •• mllooper population In IPM 

and Non IPM modules 

BIPM module was relatively safer to the 

parasitoids and predators than IPM modules with 

chemical insecticides which intervened with 

natural enemy activities to some extent. rPM 

41


modules were superior over Non IPM module in 

suppressing major defoliator, A. janata population. 

BIPM module was found to be safer to larval 

parasitoid, M. maculipennis compared to CIPM 

and Non IPM module as the number of cocoons 

per plant were relatively more in BIPM module 

indicating parasitoid activity (Fig.2). 

c ' .1.' 

~1 .• 

g ~~ 

~ 1 

'0 0 .• 

t :: 

~ 0.2 

Z 0 

Before spray 1 DAS 3DAS 70AS 

Fig 2. Effect of IPM and Non IPM modules on larval barasitold, 

III. maculopennis population 

In Non IPM module A.janata 

population and M . macuiipennis cocoon 

number was slightly more compared to CIPM 

as some of the farmers did not spray the crop 

which had high pest load and some population 

of natural enemies. The parasitisation of 

A.janata eggs by potential egg parasitoid, 

Trichogramma spp and larvae by larval 

parasitoid, M. macuiipennis and Euplectrus 

matemus was 18,65 and 8 percent in BIPM 

compared to 7,30 and 3 percent in CIPM and 

Non IPM modules ,respectively (Fig.3). 

70 

50 

10 

. T chllOms 

_ AI. maculipenn;s 

• EupleclnJs sP 

!PM Module f (PM Modul. If Non IPM' Modul. 

Fig 3. Paruiti.ation of egg and larval para.ltold In IPM 

and Non IPM modules 

I 

Insect predators like, Chrysoperia and Spider 

acivity was more in BIPM module than CIPM 

and Non IPM modules (Fig.4). 

.. 

10 

~ 9 

.!! 8 

~ 7 

~ 6 

• 

~ 5 

2" • 

o 

! 3 

§ 

Z 

IPM Module I IPM Module II Non IPM Module 

Fig 4. Predators in IPM and Non IPM modules 

In general larval parasitoid, Rhogas 

sp. , Apanteles rufricrus, Charops sp. on 

semi looper and larval parasitoid ,Cotesia spp. 

on S.litum as well as general insect predators 

like ants, mantids, reduviid bugs and 

Hymenopterans (Polystes sp.) activity 

was more in BIPM fields compared to IPM 

module with chemical insecticides and 

Non IPM module. Predatory birds noticed in 

the IPM fields on bird perches include 

Common Myna, Black drongo (predating on 

castor semi looper, tobacco caterpillar and 

capsule borer), Green Bee Eater (castor 

capsule borer and castor semilooper), Crow 

Pheasant (tobacco caterpillar and castor 

semilooper) and House crow (castor 

semilooper tobacco caterpillar and 

white grub). Cattle Egret was also found 

predating on white grubs and semilooper 

during inter cultivation. The predatory 

behaviour of insectivorous birds was also 

studied during 2001-02, 2002-03 

(Table 3). Apart from prafused tree branches 

as bird perches live perches can also be 

maintained by sowing tall sorghum varieties in 

castor (Basappa, 2003). 

42


Table3. Predatory behaviour of insectivorous birds in castor ecosystem 

Name of the bird Predatory habit Nature of visit Active period 

Cattle Egret Ground Gregarious Active during summer ploughing, field 

(Bubulcus ibis) 

operations and inter culturing of crop. Less 

active in standing crop and occasionally use 

bird perches. 

House Crow Ground Gregarious Active during summer ploughing and field 

(Corvus splendens ) and Individual operations. Predate on grown up larvae of 

castor semilooper during out break of the 

pest. Often use bird perches. 

lndian Myna Ground and Gregarious and Active during summer ploughing, predate 

(Acridotheres tristis ) Aerial Pairs on exposed resting stages of pests. Predate 

on castor semi looper, capsule borer and 

tobacco caterpi liar during out break of the 

pest. Frequently use bird perches. 

Black Drongo Aerial Solitary and Actively predate on different pests from 

(Dicrurus adsinilis ) Regular visitor pre sowing till harvest and frequently use 

bird perches. Predate on castor semi looper, 

tobacco caterpillar and capsule borer larvae 

apart from resting stages exposed 

during summer ploughing. 

Green bee eater Aerial Pairs and Seedling stage till maturity. Use bird 

(Merops orientalis) Regular visitor perches. Predate on castor semilooper, 

tobacco caterpi liar and capsule borer. Some 

times predate Hymenopteran beneficial 

organisms. 

Hoopoe Ground Single and Predate on castor semilooper. tobacco 

(Upupa epoops) Pairs caterpillar and other insect pests. 

Large Grey Babbler Ground and Gregarious Predate on castor semilooper, tobacco caterpillar 

(Trudoides malcolmi) Aerial and capsule borer. Often uses bird perches 

Crow Pheasant Ground and Single Predate on grown up larvae of castor 

(Centropers sinensis) Aerial semilooper and tobacco caterpillar .Often 

uses bird perches and small trees in the field 

or on the bund. 

43


In IPM module I and II where wilt 

resistant variety Jyothi (DCS-9) was involved 

as one of the IPM components, the wilt 

incidence was nil compared to Non [PM module 

where the local varieties and improved castor 

variety Kranti were used which are susceptible 

to wilt. Botrytis incidence was low in IPM 

modules compared to Non IPM module due to 

prophylactic spray with carbendazim (0.05%) 

before cyclonic rains. The botrytis incidence 

was completely absent during 2002-03 because 

of faiJure of monsoons in this region after 3 rd 

week of October. Due to seed treatment with 

carbendazim @ 2g1kg seed the average seedling 

blight incidence was less than I % in rPM 

modules compared to more than 4 % in Non 

IPM module (Fig.5). 

20 

II 

_1' 

!! 14 

112 

!! 10 

1 : 

s 4 

o 

IPM Modu~ I IPM Module II Non IPM Module 

Fig 5 . 01 ..... Incldenc. In IPM and Non IPM modules 

5.0. Yield and Economics of IPM 

During 2000-01 yield in the Biointensive 

IPM module (IPM module I) ranged 

from 490 to 762 with a mean of 667 kg /ha 

across the farmers and locations. In IPM 

module I the highest C:B ratio was I: 4.62 and 

the lowest was 1: 2.27 with a mean of I: 3.12. 

In chemo intensive modules yield ranged from 

540 to 725 with a mean of 643 and 520 to 730 

with a mean of 643 and 636 kg/ha in IPM 

module II and ill, respectively. The highest C:B 

ratio of 1: 3.13 and 1: 3.18 and lowest C:B 

ratio of 1: 2.33 and 1: 2.25 with a mean of I: 

2.77 and 2.97 was obtained in IPM modules II 

and III respectively. In case of Non IPM 

module the yield ranged from 400 to 680 with 

a mean of 548 kg/ha and the C:B ratio ranged 

from 1: 1.78 to 2.59 with a mean of 1: 2.25 

(Fig.6 and 7). 

800 

700 

800 

~500 

110 

"400 

... 

~300 

200 

100 

\PM Module' IPM Module tI Non IPM Module 

Fig 6. Casto< yl.1d In IPM and Non IPM module. 

The yield data of 200 1-02 revealed that 

the castor seed yield in the IPM module I ranged 

from 387 to 838 kglha with a mean of 503 kg! 

ha where as in IPM module II it ranged from 

370 to 875 kg/ha with a mean of 493 kg/ha 

compared to Non IPM module which ranged 

from 280 to 775 kglha with a mean of 401 kg! 

ha (Fig. 6). In IPM module I the highest CB 

ratio obtained was I: 2.61 and the lowest was 1: 

1.20 with a mean of I: 1.60. In IPM module II 

the highest C:B ratio was I: 2.60 and the lowest 

was I: 1.08 with a mean of 1: 1.44 whereas in 

Non IPM module it ranged from I :0.99 to 2.23 

with a mean of 1: 1.29 (Fig. 7). 

3.5 

2.5 

2 

1.5 

0.5 

o 

(PM Modu" I 'PM ModuJe II Hon {PM Module 

Fig 7. C: B Rollo In IPM and Non IPM modulo. 

44


Castor seed yield during 2002-03 in the IPM 

module I and II ranged form 394 to 880 and 

393 to 887 kg/ha with a mean of 536 and 542 

kg/ha where as in Non IPM module which 

ranged from 319 to 578 kg/ha with a mean of 

398 kg/ha (Fig. 6). In IPM module I the highest 

C:B ratio obtained was I :5.33 and the lowest 

was 1:2.34 with a mean of 1 :3 .17 . In IPM 

module 11 the highest C:B ratio was I: 5.03 and 

the lowest was 1: 2.31 with a mean of 1:3.04 

whereas in Non IPM module it ranged from 1: 

1.55 to 3.33 with a mean of 1 :2.21 (Fig.7). 

Under Non IPM module in all the three seasons 

put together 20 % of farmers did not spray any 

insecticide, hence there was higher population 

of defoliators and natural enemies as well as 

low yields ranging from 293 to 384 with a mean 

yield of 335 kg/ha. C:B ratio was also low 

ranging from 1: 1.06 to 2.48 with a mean of 

1: 1.59. In Non IPM module 80 % of farmers 

sprayed chemical insecticides but sub lethal or 

over dose or non recommended pesticides or 

improper method of application was common 

in NonIPM module. Yield with insecticide 

ranged from 319 to 775 kg/ha with a mean of 

442 kg/ha and the C:B ratio ranged from 1: 1.07 

to 3.33 with a mean of 1: 1.85. BIPM module 

proved superior followed by IPM module II 

with endosulfan in place of NSKE (5 %) and 

other IPM interventions mentioned in the Table 

2. Bio intensive IPM module with highest C:B 

ratio across locations which brought down the 

pest popUlation below the threshold level and it 

was also relatively safer to natural enemies 

compared to IPM module with chemical 

insecticide( module II) and Non IPM module. 

6.0. Impact of IPM Programme 

Castor is predominantly grown by 

resource-poor farmers under rain fed agroecosystem 

of Ranga Reddy, Nalgonda and 

Mahaboobnagar districts of Andhra Pradesh. 

It is cultivated as a sole crop in marginal and 

sub marginal soils with low productivity due to 

several biotic and abiotic factors as production 

constraints. Severe out break of pests' and 

diseases is very common and more often it leads 

to enormous loss to the crop in this region. 

Awareness has been created in farmers 

about location specific, eco friendly and cost 

effective IPM modules for the management of 

insect pests and diseases of castor. Farmers 

are very much convinced about effective ness 

of certain simple and low cost IPM 

interventions like seed treatment with 

carbendazim @ 2g/K seed, hand picking and 

destruction of egg masses and early stage larvae 

of tobacco caterpillar and other hairy 

caterpillars, use of wilt resistant variety lyothi, 

neem seed kernel extract (NSKE), bird perches, 

prophylactic spray of carbendazim against 

botrytis disease. The impact of programme is 

so strong that not only IPM farmers but other 

farmers also are aware of IPM technology and 

they adopted in their fields after interacting with 

!PM farmers. 

The area under wilt resistant variety 

Jyothi is increasing rapidly in Karkalpahad, 

Narlakunta Thanda and surrounding areas and 

cent percent castor area is under Jyothi variety 

in these villages. This variety has spread to 

surrounding villages as well as in the entire 

Amangal and Kulvakurthy mandals and other 

areas of Mahaboobnagar district. In the 

Kandukur mandai of Ranga Reddy district Jyothi 

variety is grown by many farmers especially in 

villages like Mohammadnagar and Kandukur 

where major castor area is occupied by J yothi 

variety. In surrounding villages there is 

considerable increase in area under Jyothi 

45

lntegratedl>est Management in Castor 

variety. There is lot of demand for seeds of 

Jyothi variety among all the castor varieties 

cultivated in this region. 

High density of neem, pongamia and 

custard apple trees are naturally grown on either 

side of road, in waste lands, on field bunds as 

well as few trees in fields. Natural neem trees 

on either side of road in wastelands on the field 

bunds as well as in the fields of farmers are the 

source for collection of neem seeds/fruits 

during summer months. Farmers are 

preserving neem seeds and using seeds for 

preparing neem seed kernel extract for the 

management of castor pests as well as pests of 

vegetable crops like Helicoverpa on capsicum, 

tomato as well as on flower crops like marigold 

and chrysanthemum. Farmers are well trained 

in the preparation and use of locally available 

botanicals like neem, pongamia and custard 

apple seed extracts for pest management which 

have reduced cost of plant protection apart 

from conserving natural enemies. Keeping bird 

perches (profused tree branches) to attract 

insectivorous birds is another low cost IPM 

component, which is also used on other crops 

like tomato, brinjal and paddy apart from castor. 

The implementation of NATP, ROPS- 

8 has a very good impact on castor farmers in 

the effective management of pests, as they are 

following IPM packages in castor as well as in 

other crops like vegetables, flowers and cereals. 

It is very good indication about the strength of 

IPM modules developed and validated under 

farmers conditions. Apart from significant 

contribution towards increase in the monitory 

benefit by increasing yield and reducing plant 

protection cost, the contribution towards 

environmental protection by way of reducing 

indiscriminate use of pesticides and maintaining 

ecological balance is the qualitative impact 

which can not be directly valued. IPM approach 

is leading to sustainable production of castor in 

tern which may improve the socio economic 

condition of the farmers in this region. The lPM 

technology has been transferred in a limited way 

to farmers during the project period by 

arranging farmers meetings at villages, farmers 

field schools at their fields, frequent interactions 

with farmers groups, inviting farmers to 

participate in field days, distributing technology 

bulletin on lPM in castor in local language 

(Basappa and Chander Rao,2003),field 

demonstrations,frequent coverage in local news 

papers and electronic media. Across farmers 

and locations (villages) on an average 27.95 % 

increase in yield has been recorded in IPM 

castor fields over farmers practice in this region 

which will add about 0.36 lakh tonnes to the 

production with a value of Rs 1.95 corers if these 

IPM technologies are successfully implemented 

in the entire castor area of Andhra Pradesh apart 

from very good impact on ecological balance 

by reducing toxic stress in the en\fironment 

which is very essential for survival of mankind 

and other beneficial organisms. 

7.0. Recomandations 

Majority of castor farmers are resource 

poor marginal and sub marginal farmers some 

of them are tribals hence while developing 

location specific rPM modules there is a need 

to include following low cost or no cost IPM 

interventions like identification of proper 

cropping pattern, summer ploughing, wilt 

resistant castor variety Jyothi, eed treatment 

with carbendazim @ 2g/kg seed, vegetative 

trapping and manual killing of red hairy 

caterpillar, pheromone traps @ 5/ha for 

46


monitoring tobacco caterpillar population, hand 

picking and destruction of egg masses and 

early instar larvae of tobacco caterpillar and 

other hairy caterpillars, avoid spraying of 

insecticides if larval parasitoid 

M.maculipennis cocoon number is more than 

2 per plant, keep bird perches @ 15lha to attract 

predatory birds, spray NSKE (5%) if castor 

semi looper population is 4-5 larvae/plant , 

spray carbendazim (0.05%) against 

botrytis as prophylactic measure and apply 

10 kg nitrogen /ha if there is sufficient 

moisture in the soil after removing affected 

spikes due to botrytis. Various IPM 

interventions need to be imposed at different 

phenological stage of the crop based on the 

damage potential and economic threshold level 

(ETL) of the pest. 

Based on the results of the 

investigations of three seas'ons it was found that 

bio intensive IPM (BIPM) module (IPM module 

I) was superior with highest yield and C:B 

ratio across locations which kept the pest 

population below the threshold level and it was 

also relatively safer to natural enemies compared 

to {PM module with chemical insecticide 

(CIPM) (lPM module II) and Non IPM 

module(Framers practice). Though CIPM 

module is very effective in annihilating pest 

population than BIPM but it interferes in the 

natural enemy activity. BIPM module with 

NSKE (5 %) and above mentioned IPM 

interventions can be implemented if pest load 

is just above the economic threshold level 

otherwise if there is out break of pests CIPM 

module with endosulfan (0.05 %) and above 

mentioned IPM interventions need to be 

implemented to save the crop from potential 

pests. While developing IPM modules to 

manage out break of insect pests other 

insecticides like fenvalerate (spray and dust), 

profenofos and acephate which are proved to 

be relatively less toxic to natural enemies can 

also be involved. 

For the successful implementation of 

IPM technology in castor ecosystem it is 

essential to follow suitable crop management 

practices like proper land preparation and depth 

of sowing, spacing, timely sowing, application 

of recommended quantity ofFYM and fertilizer 

as well as interculturing in both the directions 

to reduce weed intensity apart from labour cost. 

8.0. Perspective 

Population is growing at geometric I 

proportion and the world population is expected I 

to be doubled by 2040. To commensurate the 

food production with the growth of popUlation, I 

I 

new technologies are needed to be implemented 

in the pest management at the same time I 

ecosystems should be conserved. 

Implementation of IPM wil I be critical I 

to enhance our agricultural productivity to feed I 

this population and to manage pests with : 

reduced pesticide inputes while conserving I 

natural resources and environmental quality. I 

I 

Innovative non-chemical tools, strategies and 

approaches will have to be continually developed 

and integrated into existing IPM programs for 

the sustainable production of crops. Such 

developments will require 

continuing ' 

investments from governments, NGOs, private 

sector and 

organizations. 

international development 

Increasingly, the international I 

community is demanding, not only more food, I 

but better quality food, water and environment. I 

I 

I 

i 

47


The challenge will be to educate and 

communicate on a global scale about crops! 

food produced through IPM. IPM-based 

production systems often cannot match the 

quality and quantity of crops produced using 

pesticide-based systems. However, IPM or 

Eco-Iabelling will alJow consumers to 

differentiate between food produced using IPM 

and conventional systems, add value to the 

potentiaJly lower quality IPM products, and 

promote exports to other environmentally 

concerned countries. 

An IPM program may work well in 

one area or ecosystem, but not in another. Pests 

do not respect field, farm or political 

boundaries. Therefore, integrated management 

of pests will require cooperation at the 

community, regional, national and global level. 

National and international trade organizations 

can help foster cooperation between countries. 

Advances in computer and satellite technology 

will help in gathering relevant lPM information 

and facilitating its management, delivery and 

exchange through distance learning and efficient 

communication. 

The development of human resources 

in order to address IPM policy, technical, and 

socio-economic impact issues will be very 

important for sustainable IPM programme. 

Since IPM is a biologically based 

approach its success depends on activity of 

many living organisms that interact with each 

other and their physical environment. In depth 

knowledge on agro ecology, cropping systems, 

pest and natural enemy interactions, interactions 

of microbes and other flora and fauna playa 

major role in developing eco friendly rPM 

technologies. In recent years spike formation 

in castor is coinciding with occurrence of 

cyclonic rains in later part of the monsoon 

which will pre-disposes the crop to botrytis 

disease resulting in total damage to primary and 

secondary spikes leading to reduction in yield. 

Outbreak of key pests like castor semilooper, 

castor shoot and capsule borer and hairy 

caterpillars affect the castor production. There 

is a need to develop castor cultivars resistant 

to major insect pests and diseases which can 

be involved as one of the strong components 

of sustainable rPM programme. By using 

biotechnological tools there is ample scope to 

develop genetically engineered transgenic 

castor cultivars resistant to Lepidopteran key 

pests like castor semi looper; castor shoot and 

capsule borer, tobacco caterpillar and hairy 

caterpillar as well as major diseases like botrytis 

and wilt whi...:h are pr~duction constraints in 

this region. At the Directorate efforts are on 

to produce genetically engineered transgenic 

castor upon success it can be one of the strong 

components oflPM. In addition, biotechnology 

can also be employed to develop new diagnostic 

tools that enahk accurate identification of pests 

and their natu' al enemy species, improvement 

in the potentia' of natural enemies of pests of 

castor crop. 

There is a need to develop farmers 

participatory JPM programme oriented towards 

utilization of both indigenous and improved 

technologies, ecological literacy and proper 

understanding of field crop pest ecology apart 

from knowledge on low cost as well as 

improved IPM interventions which helps the 

farmer to make better management decisions 

for sustainable production of castor crop. 

48


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52

Castor !PM farmers at the Directorate of Oilseeds Research, 

Hyderabad 

Dr. MV. Rao, former Special Director General, lCAR felicitating 

!PM farmer during Kisan Samman Diwas

BSPL, Ph : 23303424/25

Directorate of Oilseeds Research

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