Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation - Aerospace Medical Association
Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation - Aerospace Medical Association
Fatigue Countermeasures in Aviation - Aerospace Medical Association
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POSITION PAPER<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> <strong>Countermeasures</strong> <strong>in</strong> <strong>Aviation</strong><br />
John A. Caldwell , Melissa M. Mallis , J. Lynn Caldwell ,<br />
Michel A. Paul , James C. Miller , and David F. Neri<br />
for the <strong>Aerospace</strong> <strong>Medical</strong> <strong>Association</strong> <strong>Fatigue</strong><br />
<strong>Countermeasures</strong> Subcommittee of the <strong>Aerospace</strong><br />
Human Factors Committee<br />
C ALDWELL JA, M ALLIS MM, C ALDWELL JL, P AUL MA, M ILLER JC,<br />
N ERI DF, A EROSPACE M EDICAL A SSOCIATION A EROSPACE F ATIGUE C OUN-<br />
TERMEASURES S UBCOMMITTEE OF THE H UMAN F ACTORS C OMMITTEE . <strong>Fatigue</strong><br />
countermeasures <strong>in</strong> aviation. Aviat Space Environ Med 2009;<br />
80:29 – 59.<br />
Pilot fatigue is a significant problem <strong>in</strong> modern aviation operations,<br />
largely because of the unpredictable work hours, long duty periods, circadian<br />
disruptions, and <strong>in</strong>sufficient sleep that are commonplace <strong>in</strong> both<br />
civilian and military flight operations. The full impact of fatigue is often<br />
underappreciated, but many of its deleterious effects have long been<br />
known. Compared to people who are well-rested, people who are sleep<br />
deprived th<strong>in</strong>k and move more slowly, make more mistakes, and have<br />
memory difficulties. These negative effects may and do lead to aviation<br />
errors and accidents. In the 1930s, flight time limitations, suggested layover<br />
durations, and aircrew sleep recommendations were developed <strong>in</strong><br />
an attempt to mitigate aircrew fatigue. Unfortunately, there have been<br />
few changes to aircrew schedul<strong>in</strong>g provisions and flight time limitations<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce the time they were first <strong>in</strong>troduced, despite evidence that updates<br />
are needed. Although the scientific understand<strong>in</strong>g of fatigue, sleep, shift<br />
work, and circadian physiology has advanced significantly over the past<br />
several decades, current regulations and <strong>in</strong>dustry practices have <strong>in</strong> large<br />
part failed to adequately <strong>in</strong>corporate the new knowledge. Thus, the<br />
problem of pilot fatigue has steadily <strong>in</strong>creased along with fatigue-related<br />
concerns over air safety. Accident statistics, reports from pilots themselves,<br />
and operational flight studies all show that fatigue is a grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
concern with<strong>in</strong> aviation operations. This position paper reviews the relevant<br />
scientific literature, summarizes applicable U.S. civilian and military<br />
flight regulations, evaluates various <strong>in</strong>-flight and pre-/postflight<br />
fatigue countermeasures, and describes emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies for detect<strong>in</strong>g<br />
and counter<strong>in</strong>g fatigue. Follow<strong>in</strong>g the discussion of each major<br />
issue, position statements address ways to deal with fatigue <strong>in</strong> specific<br />
contexts with the goal of us<strong>in</strong>g current scientific knowledge to update<br />
policy and provide tools and techniques for improv<strong>in</strong>g air safety.<br />
Keywords: alertness , sleep , hypnotics , stimulants , flight time regulations ,<br />
duty time regulations , susta<strong>in</strong>ed operations .<br />
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES IN AVIATION:<br />
OUTLINE OF CONTENTS<br />
I. Description of the Problem<br />
II. Current Regulations, Practices, and an Alternative Approach<br />
a. Crew Rest Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
b. Flight and DutyTime Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
c. <strong>Fatigue</strong> Risk Management System (FRMS): An Alternative<br />
Regulatory Approach<br />
d. Ultra-Long-Range Flights: A Nontraditional Approach<br />
Position Statement on Crew Rest, Flight, and Duty Time Regulations<br />
III.<br />
In-Flight <strong>Countermeasures</strong> and Strategies<br />
a. Cockpit Napp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
b. Activity Breaks<br />
c. Bunk Sleep<br />
d. In-Flight Roster<strong>in</strong>g<br />
e. Cockpit Light<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Position Statement on the Use of In-Flight <strong>Countermeasures</strong><br />
IV. Pre-/Postflight <strong>Countermeasures</strong> and Strategies<br />
a. Hypnotics<br />
Position Statement on the Use of Hypnotics<br />
b. Improv<strong>in</strong>g Sleep and Alertness<br />
i. Healthy Sleep Practices<br />
ii. Napp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
iii. Circadian Adjustment<br />
iv. Exercise<br />
v. Nutrition<br />
Position Statement on Improv<strong>in</strong>g Sleep and Alertness<br />
c. Non-FDA-Regulated Substances<br />
Position Statement on Non-FDA-Regulated Substances<br />
V. New Technologies<br />
a. On-L<strong>in</strong>e, Real-Time Assessment<br />
b. Off-L<strong>in</strong>e <strong>Fatigue</strong> Prediction Algorithms<br />
Position Statement on New Technologies<br />
VI. Military <strong>Aviation</strong><br />
a.<br />
b.<br />
Relevant Regulations and Policies<br />
Crew Rest and Duty Limitations<br />
Stimulants/Wake Promoters<br />
c.<br />
Position Statement on the Use of Stimulants to Susta<strong>in</strong> Flight<br />
Performance<br />
d. Sleep-Induc<strong>in</strong>g Agents<br />
Position Statement on the Military Use of Sleep-Induc<strong>in</strong>g Agents<br />
e. Nonpharmacological <strong>Countermeasures</strong> and Strategies<br />
VII. Conclusions and Recommendations<br />
I. DESCRIPTION OF THE PROBLEM<br />
Pilot fatigue is a significant problem <strong>in</strong> modern aviation<br />
operations, largely because of the unpredictable<br />
work hours, long duty periods, circadian disruptions,<br />
This Position Paper was adopted by the <strong>Aerospace</strong> <strong>Medical</strong> <strong>Association</strong>.<br />
It was prepared by a special subcommittee of the <strong>Aerospace</strong> Human<br />
Factors Committee chaired by Dr. David Neri and consist<strong>in</strong>g of<br />
the authors. The paper is <strong>in</strong>tended to review the relevant literature,<br />
describe fatigue-related issues and challenges, summarize applicable<br />
regulations, and present the <strong>Association</strong>’s position with respect to fatigue<br />
countermeasures.<br />
This manuscript was received and accepted for publication <strong>in</strong> September<br />
2008 .<br />
Address repr<strong>in</strong>t requests to: J. Lynn Caldwell, Ph.D., Air Force Research<br />
Laboratory, Human Effectiveness Directorate, Wright- Patterson<br />
AFB, OH 45433; lynn.caldwell@wpafb.af.mil<br />
Repr<strong>in</strong>t & Copyright © by the <strong>Aerospace</strong> <strong>Medical</strong> <strong>Association</strong>, Alexandria,<br />
VA.<br />
DOI: 10.3357/ASEM.2435.2009<br />
<strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009 29
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
and <strong>in</strong>sufficient sleep that are commonplace <strong>in</strong> both civilian<br />
and military flight operations ( 147 , 186 ). The full<br />
impact of fatigue is often underappreciated, but many<br />
of its deleterious effects have long been known. L<strong>in</strong>dberg<br />
recognized the detrimental consequences of long duty<br />
hours (and long periods of wakefulness) on flight performance<br />
back <strong>in</strong> the 1920s and scientists began to appreciate<br />
the negative impact of rapid time zone transitions<br />
<strong>in</strong> the early 1930s ( 134 ). Compared to people who<br />
are well-rested, people who are sleep-deprived th<strong>in</strong>k<br />
and move more slowly, make more mistakes, and have<br />
memory difficulties. These negative effects may and do<br />
lead to aviation errors and accidents. In the long term,<br />
the irregular schedules worked by many aircrews dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a career may lead, as they do for shift workers, to<br />
higher <strong>in</strong>cidences of stomach problems (especially heartburn<br />
and <strong>in</strong>digestion), menstrual irregularities, colds,<br />
flu, weight ga<strong>in</strong>, and cardiovascular problems.<br />
In the 1930s, flight time limitations, suggested layover<br />
durations, and aircrew sleep recommendations were developed<br />
<strong>in</strong> an attempt to mitigate aircrew fatigue. Unfortunately,<br />
there have been few changes to aircrew<br />
schedul<strong>in</strong>g provisions and flight time limitations s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the time they were first <strong>in</strong>troduced. To add further complexity,<br />
schedul<strong>in</strong>g and flight time regulations vary<br />
among different countries.<br />
Although scientific understand<strong>in</strong>g of fatigue, sleep,<br />
shift work, and circadian physiology has advanced significantly<br />
over the past several decades, current regulations<br />
and <strong>in</strong>dustry practices have <strong>in</strong> large part failed to<br />
adequately <strong>in</strong>corporate the new knowledge ( 67 ). Thus,<br />
the problem of pilot fatigue has steadily <strong>in</strong>creased along<br />
with fatigue-related concerns over air safety. Accident<br />
statistics, reports from pilots themselves, and operational<br />
flight studies all show that fatigue is a grow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
concern with<strong>in</strong> aviation operations.<br />
Long-haul pilots frequently attribute their fatigue to<br />
sleep deprivation and circadian disturbances associated<br />
with time zone transitions. Short-haul (domestic) pilots<br />
most frequently blame their fatigue on sleep deprivation<br />
and high workload ( 28 ). Both long- and short-haul<br />
pilots commonly associate their fatigue with night<br />
flights, jet lag, early wakeups, time pressure, multiple<br />
flight legs, and consecutive duty periods without sufficient<br />
recovery breaks. Corporate/executive pilots experience<br />
fatigue-related problems similar to those reported<br />
by their commercial counterparts. However, aga<strong>in</strong>, they<br />
most frequently cite schedul<strong>in</strong>g issues (multi-segment<br />
flights, night flights, late arrivals, and early awaken<strong>in</strong>gs)<br />
as the most noteworthy contributors ( 179 ). Weather, turbulence,<br />
and sleep deprivation, <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with<br />
consecutive and lengthy duty days, time zone transitions,<br />
and <strong>in</strong>sufficient rest periods, are blamed as well.<br />
Despite the many differences between civilian and military<br />
aviation operations, surveys of military pilots generally<br />
support the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs obta<strong>in</strong>ed from the commercial<br />
sector. U.S. Army helicopter pilots and crews<br />
frequently blame <strong>in</strong>adequate sleep and/or <strong>in</strong>sufficient<br />
sleep quality for impaired on-the-job alertness, and like<br />
their commercial counterparts, they <strong>in</strong>dicate that fatigue<br />
<strong>in</strong> general is a significant problem ( 51 ). U.S. Air Force pilots<br />
report the same problems ( 130 ). Noteworthy fatigue<br />
factors <strong>in</strong>clude schedul<strong>in</strong>g issues (frequently chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
work/rest periods, operat<strong>in</strong>g at night, etc.) and uncomfortable<br />
sleep conditions (lead<strong>in</strong>g to sleep deprivation).<br />
U.S. Navy fighter pilots deployed <strong>in</strong> Operation Southern<br />
Watch <strong>in</strong> 1992 commonly compla<strong>in</strong>ed that sleep restriction<br />
aboard aircraft carriers led to somatic compla<strong>in</strong>ts,<br />
alertness difficulties, and general performance<br />
degradations ( 18 ). U.S. Air Force F-15 pilots <strong>in</strong> Operation<br />
Desert Storm <strong>in</strong>dicated that around-the-clock task<br />
demands, m<strong>in</strong>imal rest periods, consecutive duty days,<br />
circadian disruptions, and sleep deprivation were commonplace<br />
( 58 ), as did F-16 pilots ( 189 , 190 ). U.S. Air Force<br />
C-141 pilots <strong>in</strong> Operation Desert Storm likewise compla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
that <strong>in</strong>sufficient sleep and lengthy flight times<br />
were primarily responsible for <strong>in</strong>creased fatigue ( 147 ).<br />
Duty times and aircrew fatigue will cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be a<br />
challenge <strong>in</strong> both scheduled passenger airl<strong>in</strong>es (major,<br />
national, commuter) and cargo operations, especially<br />
with the advent of ultra-long-range (ULR) aircraft (i.e.,<br />
. 16-h block-to-block). Both Boe<strong>in</strong>g and Airbus are currently<br />
manufactur<strong>in</strong>g ULR aircraft. These aircraft have<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> operations with longer duty periods than those<br />
encountered <strong>in</strong> current domestic and <strong>in</strong>ternational<br />
flights. They will also <strong>in</strong>crease the demands for crews to<br />
work nonstandard and nighttime duty schedules. Thus,<br />
an important question for ULR operations is whether<br />
the stra<strong>in</strong>s imposed by the extension of flight duty hours<br />
beyond the limits commonly flown will effectively be<br />
mitigated by the standard fatigue countermeasures,<br />
which <strong>in</strong> part have been responsible for the acceptable<br />
safety record of exist<strong>in</strong>g flight operations. Without<br />
proper management, ULR operations may exacerbate<br />
the fatigue levels that have already been shown to impair<br />
safety, alertness, and performance <strong>in</strong> exist<strong>in</strong>g flight<br />
operations ( 143 ).<br />
Clearly, fatigue is not a one-dimensional phenomenon,<br />
but rather the product of several factors related<br />
to physiological sleep needs and <strong>in</strong>ternal biological<br />
rhythms. In spite of its complex nature, the operational<br />
causes of fatigue are strik<strong>in</strong>gly consistent across diverse<br />
types of aviation operations. The consequences of aircrew<br />
fatigue are consistent as well.<br />
From a physiological perspective, both simulator and<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight studies have documented that fatigue impairs<br />
central nervous system function<strong>in</strong>g. Cabon and colleagues<br />
( 37 ) demonstrated that long-haul pilots were<br />
particularly susceptible to vigilance lapses dur<strong>in</strong>g low<br />
workload periods, and that such lapses could simultaneously<br />
appear <strong>in</strong> both crewmembers fly<strong>in</strong>g the aircraft<br />
at the same time (an obvious safety concern). In one of<br />
the crews evaluated, both the pilot and the copilot evidenced<br />
periods of <strong>in</strong>creased slow-wave electroencephalography<br />
(EEG) activity (<strong>in</strong>dicative of sleep<strong>in</strong>ess) by the<br />
4th and 5th hour of a lengthy flight. Wright and McGown<br />
( 232 ) found that pilot microsleeps occurred most frequently<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the cruise portion of long-haul operations<br />
(<strong>in</strong> the middle-to-late segments of the flight) and<br />
that microsleeps were more than n<strong>in</strong>e times as likely<br />
30 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g nighttime flights compared to daytime flights.<br />
Most of these lapses go unnoticed by the affected crewmembers.<br />
Samel and colleagues ( 187 ) essentially confirmed<br />
the EEG results from Cabon et al. ( 37 ) and Wright and<br />
McGown ( 232 ) by show<strong>in</strong>g that, <strong>in</strong> general, spontaneous<br />
microsleeps <strong>in</strong>creased with <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g flight duration.<br />
Also, nighttime flights were aga<strong>in</strong> found to be more<br />
problematic than daytime flights. Rosek<strong>in</strong>d et al. ( 177 )<br />
documented the presence of physiological micro-events<br />
(slow bra<strong>in</strong> activity and eye movements) even dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the period from top-of-descent to land<strong>in</strong>g. In one group,<br />
87% of the pilots experienced at least one microsleep<br />
greater than 5 s <strong>in</strong> duration, and on average, the pilots<br />
experienced six microsleeps dur<strong>in</strong>g the last 90 m<strong>in</strong> of<br />
the flight. In addition to microsleeps and lapses, many<br />
pilots admit to hav<strong>in</strong>g fallen asleep <strong>in</strong> the cockpit. Of the<br />
1424 flightcrew members respond<strong>in</strong>g to a NASA survey<br />
of fatigue factors <strong>in</strong> regional airl<strong>in</strong>e operations, 80% acknowledged<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g “ nodded off ” dur<strong>in</strong>g a flight at<br />
some time ( 55 ). For corporate/executive airl<strong>in</strong>e operations,<br />
71% of 1488 flightcrew survey respondents reported<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g nodded off dur<strong>in</strong>g flight ( 175 ).<br />
From a safety perspective, improperly managed fatigue<br />
poses a significant risk to crew, passengers, and<br />
aircraft. A National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)<br />
study of major accidents <strong>in</strong> domestic air carriers from<br />
1978 through 1990 <strong>in</strong> part concluded that “ … Crews<br />
compris<strong>in</strong>g capta<strong>in</strong>s and first officers whose time s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
awaken<strong>in</strong>g was above the median for their crew position<br />
made more errors overall, and significantly more procedural<br />
and tactical decision errors ” ( 139 , p. 75). Kirsch<br />
( 103 ) estimated that fatigue may be <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> 4 – 7% of<br />
civil aviation mishaps, data from the U.S. Army Safety<br />
Center suggest fatigue is <strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> 4% of Army accidents<br />
( 48 ), and statistics from the Air Force Safety Center<br />
blame fatigue, at least <strong>in</strong> part, for 7.8% of U.S. Air Force<br />
Class A mishaps ( 124 ). Furthermore between 1974 and<br />
1992, 25% of the Air Force’s night tactical fighter Class A<br />
accidents were attributed to fatigue and from 1977 to<br />
1990, 12.2% of the U.S. Navy’s total Class A mishaps<br />
were thought to be the result of aircrew fatigue ( 166 ). *<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> <strong>in</strong> aviation is a risk factor for occupational<br />
safety, performance effectiveness, and personal wellbe<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
The multiple flight legs, long duty hours, limited<br />
time off, early report times, less-than-optimal sleep<strong>in</strong>g<br />
conditions, rotat<strong>in</strong>g and nonstandard work shifts, and<br />
* Although differences exist between civil and military operations, it<br />
is clear similar factors and conditions lead to fatigue <strong>in</strong> both civilian<br />
and military aviation environments and fatigue mitigation strategies<br />
for both contexts should be scientifically based. Understandably, however,<br />
different regulations and operational considerations have resulted<br />
<strong>in</strong> fatigue countermeasure approaches that differ <strong>in</strong> important ways.<br />
For example, a variety of pharmacological countermeasures have been<br />
approved for use <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> circumstances by U.S. military aviators but<br />
not by civilian aviators. The current prohibition regard<strong>in</strong>g use of pharmacological<br />
countermeasures by civilian pilots can be attributed to<br />
safety concerns and issues of adequate policies for oversight. The military<br />
services have addressed these issues through targeted research,<br />
explicit policies on medical oversight, and recognition of the sometimes<br />
overrid<strong>in</strong>g importance of operational considerations (e.g.,<br />
NAVMED P-6410). The use of pharmacological countermeasures to<br />
fatigue <strong>in</strong> civilian (but not military) pilots is addressed <strong>in</strong> this paper.<br />
jet lag pose significant challenges for the basic biological<br />
capabilities of pilots and crews. Humans simply were<br />
not equipped (or did not evolve) to operate effectively<br />
on the pressured 24/7 schedules that often def<strong>in</strong>e today’s<br />
flight operations, whether these consist of shorthaul<br />
commercial flights, long-range transoceanic operations,<br />
or around-the-clock military missions. Because of<br />
this, well-planned, science-based, fatigue management<br />
strategies are crucial for manag<strong>in</strong>g sleep loss/sleep debt,<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ed periods of wakefulness, and circadian factors<br />
that are primary contributors to fatigue-related flight<br />
mishaps ( 178 ). These strategies should beg<strong>in</strong> with regulatory<br />
considerations, but should <strong>in</strong>clude <strong>in</strong>-flight countermeasures<br />
as well as both pre- and postflight <strong>in</strong>terventions.<br />
The risks and benefits of each technique should be<br />
carefully considered and balanced.<br />
In the follow<strong>in</strong>g sections, this position paper will summarize<br />
relevant U.S. civilian and military flight regulations,<br />
evaluate various <strong>in</strong>-flight and pre-/postflight fatigue<br />
countermeasures, and describe emerg<strong>in</strong>g technologies for<br />
detect<strong>in</strong>g and counter<strong>in</strong>g fatigue. † Follow<strong>in</strong>g each major<br />
section, position statements and recommendations will be<br />
provided for address<strong>in</strong>g fatigue <strong>in</strong> that specific context.<br />
II. CURRENT REGULATIONS, PRACTICES, AND<br />
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH<br />
a. Crew Rest Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
The Federal <strong>Aviation</strong> Adm<strong>in</strong>istration (FAA) regulates<br />
crew rest for commercial aviation ( 1 ) <strong>in</strong> documents previously<br />
referred to as Federal <strong>Aviation</strong> Regulations<br />
(FARs) and renamed the Code of Federal Regulations<br />
(CFRs). Crew rest, as def<strong>in</strong>ed by the CFRs, is any time<br />
that a crewmember is free from all duties and responsibilities,<br />
<strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g fly<strong>in</strong>g and adm<strong>in</strong>istrative work. The<br />
FAA places strict limitations on m<strong>in</strong>imum crew rest periods.<br />
The m<strong>in</strong>imum mandatory rest period for both<br />
nonaugmented and augmented flightcrews is 10 h prior<br />
to a duty period. (An augmented flightcrew is composed<br />
of more than the m<strong>in</strong>imum number required to operate<br />
the aircraft.) Nonaugmented crews are also required to<br />
have a m<strong>in</strong>imum 10-h rest period after the duty period<br />
ends. It is important to note that this 10-h rest period <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
local travel time to and from a place of rest (but<br />
not the time required to preposition a crew). Includ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
travel time as part of the mandatory rest time between<br />
flights reduces the time that flightcrew have available<br />
for un<strong>in</strong>terrupted sleep periods. Therefore, flightcrews<br />
often fail to obta<strong>in</strong> 8 h of un<strong>in</strong>terrupted sleep. For example,<br />
if the crew were to land at the dest<strong>in</strong>ation airport<br />
and the hotel where they planned to obta<strong>in</strong> their crew<br />
rest was a 1-h drive away, the travel between the airport<br />
and hotel (<strong>in</strong> both directions) would total 2 h and be<br />
† U. S. civilian and military flight regulations were utilized due to<br />
space limitations and because of ready access compared to the correspond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sets of <strong>in</strong>ternational regulations. While a full discussion <strong>in</strong><br />
the context of the many <strong>in</strong>ternational regulations is outside the scope<br />
of this paper, the proposed countermeasure approaches have broad<br />
applicability given their basis <strong>in</strong> human physiology.<br />
<strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009 31
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
considered part of their rest time. Therefore, they would<br />
have 8 h maximum <strong>in</strong> the hotel to obta<strong>in</strong> recovery sleep,<br />
eat, and attend to personal needs. It is highly unlikely<br />
the crew would have the opportunity to obta<strong>in</strong> a m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
8- to 8.25-h sleep period, the average sleep need<br />
for an adult ( 222 ). However, for augmented crews, the<br />
rest period after duty is 12 h and is extended to 18 h for<br />
multiple time zone flights. While the extended time period<br />
is an improvement, it should be noted that none of<br />
the rest period guidel<strong>in</strong>es account for the tim<strong>in</strong>g of sleep<br />
with respect to circadian phase, despite the fact sleep<br />
propensity varies significantly with time of day, mak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sleep obta<strong>in</strong>ed dur<strong>in</strong>g the subjective daytime shorter, of<br />
poorer quality, and less restorative than nighttime sleep<br />
( 6 ). Instead, rest period durations are constant and <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
of time of day.<br />
b. Flight and Duty Time Guidel<strong>in</strong>es<br />
In addition to specify<strong>in</strong>g crew rest times, the FAA regulates<br />
crew flight and duty time for commercial aviation<br />
( 1 ). Flight time duty limitations for the major airl<strong>in</strong>es are<br />
covered <strong>in</strong> CFRs Part 121 and <strong>in</strong> Part 135 for commuter<br />
airl<strong>in</strong>es ( 2 , 3 ).<br />
Flight time is the time between “block-out” and<br />
“ block-<strong>in</strong> ”. Flight time beg<strong>in</strong>s when the aircraft moves<br />
from its parked position and ends when the plane is<br />
parked at its dest<strong>in</strong>ation. Although flight time and the<br />
workload endured throughout the flight are important,<br />
total duty time should be considered also when determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
an <strong>in</strong>dividual’s level of alertness. Flight time is a<br />
subset of duty time. Duty time is longer and <strong>in</strong>cludes the<br />
time period between when pilots report for a flight and<br />
when they are released after a flight. Therefore, it <strong>in</strong>cludes<br />
any adm<strong>in</strong>istrative work required by the airl<strong>in</strong>e.<br />
Maximum allowable flight time and duty time differ for<br />
nonaugmented and augmented crews (flight time: 10 h<br />
vs. 12 h and duty time: 14 h vs. 16 h). However, the augmented<br />
crews are limited to 8 h on the flight deck and<br />
are provided rest facilities for <strong>in</strong>-flight rest opportunities.<br />
Although maximum duty time is 2 h longer for augmented<br />
crews than nonaugmented crews, maximum<br />
flight time additive over 1 wk, 1 mo, and 1 yr are the<br />
same. These limits are summarized <strong>in</strong> Table I .<br />
An exam<strong>in</strong>ation of crew duty and rest guidance for<br />
commercial versus military aviation operations reveals<br />
fewer similarities than differences. The primary similarity<br />
is the requirement for the atta<strong>in</strong>ment of 8 h of<br />
sleep, but this is far from a hard-and-fast rule. There<br />
are usually detailed guidel<strong>in</strong>es for the manner <strong>in</strong> which<br />
shorter sleep durations will be handled <strong>in</strong> civil flight<br />
operations (e.g., by requir<strong>in</strong>g a shorter subsequent duty<br />
period or a longer recovery period). In most cases,<br />
s<strong>in</strong>gle-pilot operations are more restrictive than dualpilot<br />
or augmented crew operations. Especially with<br />
regard to long-haul flights, careful consideration must<br />
be given to crew duty time, onboard rest schedul<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
layover sleep opportunities (e.g., duration and recommended<br />
tim<strong>in</strong>g), and recovery sleep after return<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
domicile.<br />
TABLE I. CFRS FOR MINIMUM REST PERIODS AND MAXIMUM<br />
FLIGHT AND DUTY PERIODS FOR BOTH NONAUGMENTED AND<br />
AUGMENTED CREWS.<br />
Non-Augmented<br />
Crew (S<strong>in</strong>gle- or<br />
Two-Pilot Crew)<br />
Augmented Crew<br />
M<strong>in</strong>imum preduty<br />
10 h 10 h<br />
rest period<br />
M<strong>in</strong>imum postduty<br />
rest period<br />
10 h 12 h<br />
18 h for multiple time<br />
zones<br />
Maximum flight time 10 h 12 h<br />
Maximum duty time 14 h 16 h<br />
Maximum duty time;<br />
30 h 30 h<br />
1 wk<br />
Maximum duty time;<br />
100 h 100 h<br />
1 mo<br />
Maximum duty time;<br />
1 yr<br />
1400 h 1400 h<br />
c. <strong>Fatigue</strong> Risk Management System (FRMS): An<br />
Alternative Regulatory Approach<br />
Each <strong>in</strong>dividual type of aviation operation offers its<br />
own complexity, whether it be work<strong>in</strong>g extended duty<br />
days, cross<strong>in</strong>g multiple time zones, sleep<strong>in</strong>g at adverse<br />
circadian times, or perform<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g a circadian nadir.<br />
These are just a few examples of the physiologically<br />
relevant factors that are unique to every schedule.<br />
They are also affected by specific organizational needs<br />
and airport operat<strong>in</strong>g requirements. The comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
of these factors requires a new approach that addresses<br />
operations on an <strong>in</strong>dividual case basis and also allows<br />
for operational flexibility. One option for approach<strong>in</strong>g<br />
this is by address<strong>in</strong>g both physiological and operational<br />
factors as part of a <strong>Fatigue</strong> Risk Management<br />
System (FRMS). A multicomponent FRMS program,<br />
with a scientific foundation, helps ensure that performance<br />
and safety levels are not compromised by offer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
an <strong>in</strong>teractive way to safely schedule and conduct<br />
flight operations on a case-by-case basis. <strong>Fatigue</strong> risk<br />
management systems offer an alternative approach to<br />
traditional prescriptive duty and flight time limitations<br />
and rest time regulations currently enforced by the<br />
FAA.<br />
An FRMS is an evidence-based system for the measurement,<br />
mitigation, and management of fatigue<br />
risk. It <strong>in</strong>cludes a comb<strong>in</strong>ation of processes and procedures<br />
that are employed with<strong>in</strong> an exist<strong>in</strong>g Safety<br />
Management System ( 195 ). It is a nonprescriptive<br />
way to monitor fatigue risk associated with aviation<br />
operations.<br />
Multiple groups worldwide are recommend<strong>in</strong>g some<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum requirements for an effective FRMS. Two examples<br />
of recommendations are provided below.<br />
The U.S.-based Flight Safety Foundation has suggested the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imum activities as part of an effective FRMS ( 140 ):<br />
• Develop a fatigue risk management policy;<br />
• Formalize education/awareness tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g programs;<br />
• Create a crew fatigue-report<strong>in</strong>g mechanism with associated<br />
feedback, procedures, and measures for monitor<strong>in</strong>g fatigue<br />
levels;<br />
32 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
• Develop procedures for report<strong>in</strong>g, <strong>in</strong>vestigat<strong>in</strong>g, and record<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>cidents <strong>in</strong> which fatigue was a factor;<br />
• Implement processes and procedures for evaluat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
on fatigue levels and fatigue-related <strong>in</strong>cidents, implement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong>terventions, and evaluat<strong>in</strong>g their effects.<br />
The Civil <strong>Aviation</strong> Safety Authority <strong>in</strong> Australia has def<strong>in</strong>ed impact<br />
areas that an FRMS must consider ( 13 ):<br />
• Sleep opportunity provided by schedules;<br />
• Sleep obta<strong>in</strong>ed by personnel to <strong>in</strong>dicate fitness for duty;<br />
• Hours of wakefulness;<br />
• Circadian factors;<br />
• Sleep disorders;<br />
• Operational demographics.<br />
Other organizations are already test<strong>in</strong>g the effectiveness<br />
of these approaches. One of the more commonly<br />
known efforts is easyJet’s implementation of an FRMS<br />
as part of their Systems Integrated Risk Assessment<br />
(SIRA). Prelim<strong>in</strong>ary results have demonstrated its effectiveness<br />
at reduc<strong>in</strong>g fatigue ( 200 ). With<strong>in</strong> the U.S.,<br />
the Flight Safety Foundation (FSF) has suggested that<br />
an FRMS approach be used for ultra-long-range operations<br />
( 83 ). Their specific recommendations are described<br />
<strong>in</strong> more detail <strong>in</strong> Section d , below. FRMS programs<br />
are not only be<strong>in</strong>g explor ed <strong>in</strong> flightcrew<br />
operations but are be<strong>in</strong>g used by Transport Canada<br />
with Canadian aircraft ma<strong>in</strong>tenance eng<strong>in</strong>eers ( 26 ). The<br />
International Civil <strong>Aviation</strong> Organization (ICAO) is <strong>in</strong><br />
the process of compil<strong>in</strong>g a report with the recommended<br />
components of a FRMS. The FAA is also explor<strong>in</strong>g<br />
ways to implement effective FRMS based programs<br />
<strong>in</strong> operations where fatigue has been identified<br />
as an <strong>in</strong>herent risk.<br />
d. Ultra-Long-Range Flights: A Nontraditional Approach<br />
Ultra-long-range (ULR) aircraft will extend the longest<br />
flight duty days from 14 – 16 h to 201 h. Current<br />
CFRs do not address this 4- to 6-h <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> flight<br />
duration. Consequently, there are no crew rest, flight<br />
time, or duty time regulations specific to ULR<br />
operations.<br />
In anticipation of the physiological challenges associated<br />
with proposed ULR flights, the Flight Safety<br />
Foundation, Airbus, and Boe<strong>in</strong>g conducted four ULR<br />
Crew Alertness workshops that <strong>in</strong>volved both scientific<br />
experts and aviation operational groups from<br />
throughout the world. These workshops were <strong>in</strong>teractive,<br />
allow<strong>in</strong>g for focused discussions of the operational<br />
and technological issues associated with ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
maximal alertness levels dur<strong>in</strong>g ULR operations<br />
( 83 ). However, the workshops not only identified the<br />
issues, but, with the guidance of the Steer<strong>in</strong>g Committee,<br />
developed common methods and approaches to<br />
reduce errors, <strong>in</strong>cidents, and accidents <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g fatigue.<br />
The recommendations were largely based on an<br />
FRMS program and <strong>in</strong>cluded three ma<strong>in</strong> components:<br />
1) development of a fatigue risk management policy;<br />
2) formation of a <strong>Fatigue</strong> Management Steer<strong>in</strong>g Committee;<br />
and 3) implementation of education and tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
programs. Other important recommendations from<br />
the workshop subgroup meet<strong>in</strong>gs <strong>in</strong>cluded the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g:<br />
•<br />
•<br />
Mandatory <strong>in</strong>-flight rest periods (not optional for flightcrew);<br />
Identification of departure w<strong>in</strong>dows that consider delays (not<br />
exceed<strong>in</strong>g a specified duration) and approaches to handle such<br />
disruptions;<br />
Inform<strong>in</strong>g flightcrew 36 to 48 h prior to departure of scheduled<br />
on-board bunk sleep periods;<br />
Recurr<strong>in</strong>g validation of schedules us<strong>in</strong>g both objective and<br />
subjective measures to <strong>in</strong>form management of necessary schedule<br />
changes.<br />
•<br />
•<br />
The FAA is currently us<strong>in</strong>g a case-by-case approach<br />
to approve ULR city pairs. They are approv<strong>in</strong>g these<br />
operations by issu<strong>in</strong>g a nonstandard operations specification<br />
paragraph, (OpSpec A332) “ Ultra Long Range<br />
(ULR) Flag Operations <strong>in</strong> Excess of 16 Hours Blockto-Block<br />
Time ” to air carriers <strong>in</strong>tend<strong>in</strong>g to conduct<br />
ultra-long-range operations. This paragraph conta<strong>in</strong>s<br />
requirements designed to “ optimize opportunities for<br />
flightcrew members to obta<strong>in</strong> adequate rest to safely<br />
perform their operational duties dur<strong>in</strong>g all phases of<br />
this ULR trip sequence. ” OpSpec A332 has already<br />
been issued to one air carrier.<br />
As detailed <strong>in</strong> OpSpec A332, carriers propos<strong>in</strong>g a ULR<br />
city pair are requested to present a route-specific plan to<br />
the FAA. The FAA reviews the routes, from both a scientific<br />
and operational perspective, and carefully considers<br />
duty times, flight times, and rest periods to assess the<br />
opportunities available for rest and recovery periods <strong>in</strong><br />
preparation for, dur<strong>in</strong>g, and after scheduled ULR flights.<br />
The carrier is also requested to provide details of the onboard<br />
rest scheme, plans to assure preduty m<strong>in</strong>imum<br />
rest periods and a method for address<strong>in</strong>g delays and<br />
cancellations. After a careful review process, the FAA determ<strong>in</strong>es<br />
the safety of the proposed city-pair plan and<br />
subsequently authorizes the carrier to fly the route. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
issu<strong>in</strong>g the orig<strong>in</strong>al OpSpec A332, the FAA also considers<br />
predicted crew performance levels us<strong>in</strong>g the SAFTE<br />
model (101), a scientifically based model<strong>in</strong>g approach,<br />
<strong>in</strong> its evaluation of the proposed ULR operation. It can<br />
be an iterative process and require multiple changes <strong>in</strong><br />
the proposed plan before approval is given. Other requirements<br />
of OpSpec A332 <strong>in</strong>clude both subjective and<br />
objective data collection dur<strong>in</strong>g the ULR route with<strong>in</strong><br />
180 d of authorization for carriers to validate the effectiveness<br />
of the fatigue mitigation strategies <strong>in</strong>cluded <strong>in</strong><br />
OpSpec A332. The FAA requires that all ULR assigned<br />
crewmembers receive education and city-pair specific<br />
route guides that <strong>in</strong>clude suggested practices for maximiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
total sleep times dur<strong>in</strong>g ULR operations.<br />
Position Statement on Crew Rest, Flight, and Duty<br />
Time Regulations<br />
The prescriptive rule-mak<strong>in</strong>g approach commonly<br />
used by regulatory agencies to regulate crew rest and<br />
flight and duty times is not derived from the foundational<br />
scientific research address<strong>in</strong>g the <strong>in</strong>teraction of<br />
sleep and circadian processes and their effects on performance.<br />
The risks associated with nonscience-based regulatory<br />
approaches may have been unknown <strong>in</strong> the<br />
1930s when flight and duty time limits were first addressed.<br />
At the time, research document<strong>in</strong>g the performance<br />
and alertness decrements associated with sleep<br />
<strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009 33
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
loss and circadian disruption was limited and it seemed<br />
sufficient to ensure safety via agreements between<br />
flightcrew and management. However, with the demands<br />
of 24/7 aviation operations, it has become <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>gly<br />
apparent that such prescriptive approaches<br />
do not address <strong>in</strong>herent sleep and circadian challenges<br />
nor do they provide operational flexibility.<br />
The current FAA prescriptive regulations address<br />
duty time equally across all hours of the day (e.g., 8 h of<br />
nighttime flight duty is implicitly considered to be no<br />
more fatigu<strong>in</strong>g than 8 h of daytime flight duty). However,<br />
a scientifically <strong>in</strong>formed regulation would consider<br />
circadian placement or time of day when establish<strong>in</strong>g<br />
work duty limits. It would also consider circadian variables<br />
when identify<strong>in</strong>g the placement of opportunities<br />
for rest and sleep.<br />
One example that clearly shows that regulatory limitations<br />
are arbitrarily chosen and are not <strong>in</strong>formed by<br />
the scientific research is the regulation specify<strong>in</strong>g maximum<br />
yearly flight times. The maximum flight time/year<br />
is 1400 h <strong>in</strong> the United States but is 900 h <strong>in</strong> Australia<br />
( 12 ). If the establishment of yearly flight time limits considered<br />
human physiology and had a foundation <strong>in</strong> relevant<br />
sleep and circadian science, it would be expected<br />
that these limits would be similar among countries.<br />
However, this is not the case. Based on this 500 h difference,<br />
U.S.-based pilots are authorized to fly up to 64%<br />
more hours than Australia-based pilots.<br />
Address<strong>in</strong>g fatigue as part of a scientifically based,<br />
comprehensive safety management system can help to<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imize the risk associated with current and future<br />
aviation operations. An FRMS offers a way to more<br />
safely conduct flights beyond exist<strong>in</strong>g regulatory limits<br />
and should be considered an acceptable alternative to<br />
prescriptive flight and duty time and rest period<br />
regulations.<br />
III. IN-FLIGHT COUNTERMEASURES AND<br />
STRATEGIES<br />
In-flight countermeasures discussed <strong>in</strong> this section <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
the follow<strong>in</strong>g: a) napp<strong>in</strong>g on the flight deck (cockpit<br />
napp<strong>in</strong>g); b) tak<strong>in</strong>g a break <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g change <strong>in</strong> posture,<br />
mild physical activity, and <strong>in</strong>creased social<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction (activity breaks); c) bunk sleep on long-haul<br />
and ULR flights; d) <strong>in</strong>-flight roster<strong>in</strong>g approaches on<br />
long-haul and ULR flights; and e) <strong>in</strong>creased exposure to<br />
available flight-deck light<strong>in</strong>g. While not all are either<br />
currently sanctioned or even frequently utilized, the list<br />
is <strong>in</strong>tended to be <strong>in</strong>clusive and address the gamut of<br />
possible fatigue countermeasures for pilots operat<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
a restrictive environment acknowledg<strong>in</strong>g the need for<br />
safety and operational effectiveness at all times.<br />
a. Cockpit Napp<strong>in</strong>g<br />
In situations where some sleep is possible but the<br />
amount of sleep is limited, napp<strong>in</strong>g is the most effective<br />
nonpharmacological technique for restor<strong>in</strong>g alertness.<br />
There is an abundance of evidence that a nap taken dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
long periods of otherwise cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness<br />
is extremely beneficial ( 22 , 23 , 74 , 128 , 171 , 174 , 217 , 221 ).<br />
How ever, while naps can be used as a preventive countermeasure<br />
<strong>in</strong> preparation of an upcom<strong>in</strong>g duty schedule<br />
or dur<strong>in</strong>g layover periods ( 176 ; see section IV.b.ii),<br />
cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g is not currently sanctioned by the<br />
FAA.<br />
A direct exam<strong>in</strong>ation of the effectiveness of a 40-m<strong>in</strong><br />
cockpit nap opportunity, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> an average 26-m<strong>in</strong><br />
nap, revealed significant improvements <strong>in</strong> subsequent<br />
pilot physiological alertness and psychomotor performance<br />
( 177 ). Pilots <strong>in</strong> this study were assigned to either<br />
a rest group or a no-rest group. The rest group was allowed<br />
a planned, 40-m<strong>in</strong> nap dur<strong>in</strong>g a low workload<br />
portion of the flight. The no-rest group ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed their<br />
usual flight duties and were not allowed a nap period.<br />
Physiological data showed more alertness <strong>in</strong> the rest<br />
group dur<strong>in</strong>g the last 90 m<strong>in</strong> of flight than <strong>in</strong> the no-rest<br />
group. Reaction time and lapse data (failures to respond)<br />
from the Psychomotor Vigilance Test (PVT) <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
faster responses and fewer lapses <strong>in</strong> the rest group than<br />
<strong>in</strong> the no-rest group.<br />
These naps virtually elim<strong>in</strong>ated the <strong>in</strong>advertent lapses<br />
<strong>in</strong> alertness immediately prior to land<strong>in</strong>g present <strong>in</strong> the<br />
control group. Furthermore, <strong>in</strong>-seat cockpit naps have<br />
been authorized for use <strong>in</strong> a number of foreign air carriers<br />
(e.g., Air Canada, Air New Zealand, British Airways,<br />
Emirates, F<strong>in</strong>nair, Lufthansa, Swissair, Qantas; 92 ) without<br />
produc<strong>in</strong>g adverse effects. Survey results <strong>in</strong>dicate<br />
U.S. commercial pilots are, <strong>in</strong> fact, already utiliz<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>seat<br />
cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g strategies. In the NASA regional<br />
airl<strong>in</strong>e operations survey, 56% of flightcrew respondents<br />
reported they had been on a flight dur<strong>in</strong>g which arrangements<br />
had been made for one pilot to sleep <strong>in</strong> the<br />
seat dur<strong>in</strong>g the segment ( 55 ). For flightcrew respond<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to the corporate/executive flight operations fatigue survey,<br />
the number was 39% ( 175 ). In an earlier long-haul<br />
study ( 87 ), flightcrew were observed napp<strong>in</strong>g 11% of the<br />
available time with an average duration of 46 m<strong>in</strong> (range:<br />
10 – 130 m<strong>in</strong>). F<strong>in</strong>ally, accord<strong>in</strong>g to a National Sleep Foundation<br />
poll ( 141 ) <strong>in</strong> which respondents from the general<br />
public were asked to rate their level of agreement with<br />
the statement “ An airl<strong>in</strong>e pilot who becomes drowsy<br />
while fly<strong>in</strong>g should be allowed to take a nap if another<br />
qualified pilot is awake and can take over dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
nap, ” the vast majority of respondents (86%) said that<br />
they completely or mostly agree with this statement,<br />
with more than one-half (57%) say<strong>in</strong>g that they completely<br />
agree.<br />
b. Activity Breaks<br />
Short breaks can serve to <strong>in</strong>crease alertness by reduc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the monotony of a highly automated cockpit environment<br />
through conscious disengagement with the fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
task and, possibly, by allow<strong>in</strong>g mild physical activity,<br />
depend<strong>in</strong>g on the type of break and the behaviors allowed<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the break. Although not as effective as<br />
some other countermeasures reviewed <strong>in</strong> this paper,<br />
there are anecdotal reports from pilots <strong>in</strong>dicat<strong>in</strong>g that<br />
34 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
many take brief, out-of-the-seat breaks as a fatigue<br />
countermeasure.<br />
Currently, the CFRs mandate a pilot rema<strong>in</strong> seated<br />
through the flight, with few exceptions. ‡ Nevertheless,<br />
activity breaks that allow a pilot to change posture by<br />
gett<strong>in</strong>g up out of the cockpit seat and walk<strong>in</strong>g or otherwise<br />
physically mov<strong>in</strong>g while engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>creased social<br />
<strong>in</strong>teraction can <strong>in</strong>crease alertness levels for brief periods.<br />
In a study directly address<strong>in</strong>g the effects of<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight activity breaks, pilots flew a 6-h uneventful<br />
nighttime flight (~0200 to 0800) <strong>in</strong> a high-fidelity Boe<strong>in</strong>g<br />
747-400 flight simulator after hav<strong>in</strong>g been awake 18 to<br />
20 h ( 144 ). Pilots <strong>in</strong> the treatment group were provided<br />
a 7-m<strong>in</strong> break every hour, at which time they exited the<br />
simulator and walked to a pilot brief<strong>in</strong>g room where<br />
they could also engage <strong>in</strong> conversation with an experimenter.<br />
The control group received a s<strong>in</strong>gle break midflight.<br />
The group that received hourly breaks showed<br />
significantly less physiological sleep<strong>in</strong>ess up to 15 m<strong>in</strong><br />
after the 7-m<strong>in</strong> break and significantly greater subjective<br />
alertness up to 25 m<strong>in</strong> postbreak. However, performance<br />
on the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT), taken<br />
15 m<strong>in</strong> after the break, showed no significant differences.<br />
Nor were there significant differences <strong>in</strong> subjective<br />
alertness and sleep<strong>in</strong>ess 40 m<strong>in</strong> after the break. The<br />
beneficial subjective and physiological effects of the<br />
breaks were most pronounced around the low po<strong>in</strong>t <strong>in</strong><br />
body temperature (i.e., circadian trough). Matsumoto<br />
and colleagues showed similar results but volunteers<br />
were provided a 15-m<strong>in</strong> walk<strong>in</strong>g break at a leisurely<br />
speed ( 129 ). Subjects underwent the same sleep deprivation<br />
protocol two times: one with light exercise (i.e.,<br />
walk<strong>in</strong>g breaks) and the other without exercise. Reductions<br />
<strong>in</strong> subjective sleep<strong>in</strong>ess were seen up to 15 m<strong>in</strong> after<br />
the walk<strong>in</strong>g breaks; however, there were no significant<br />
differences <strong>in</strong> performance measures. Sleep<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
rat<strong>in</strong>gs were significantly greater when breaks were not<br />
taken.<br />
The beneficial effects of breaks are <strong>in</strong> part due to postural<br />
changes that occur when a pilot temporarily hands<br />
off flight-related tasks. There are consistent results from<br />
laboratory-based sleep deprivation research exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
the effects of posture. In one study, subjects who underwent<br />
20 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness showed <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
EEG arousal, decreased reaction times and <strong>in</strong>creased attention<br />
when complet<strong>in</strong>g the PVT while stand<strong>in</strong>g, compared<br />
to when seated ( 49 ). In another total sleep deprivation<br />
laboratory protocol of 40 h, changes <strong>in</strong> body<br />
posture improved alertness levels dur<strong>in</strong>g the circadian<br />
trough ( 64 ).<br />
‡ Note that the Code of Federal Regulation 121.543 specifies that “ …<br />
Except as provided <strong>in</strong> paragraph (b) of this section, each required<br />
flightcrew member on flight deck duty must rema<strong>in</strong> at the assigned<br />
duty station with seat belt fastened while the aircraft is tak<strong>in</strong>g off or<br />
land<strong>in</strong>g, and while it is enroute. (b) A required flightcrew member<br />
may leave the assigned duty station - (1) If the crewmember’s absence<br />
is necessary for the performance of duties <strong>in</strong> connection with the operation<br />
of the aircraft; (2) If the crewmember’s absence is <strong>in</strong> connection<br />
with physiological needs; or (3) If the crewmember is tak<strong>in</strong>g a rest period,<br />
and relief is provided … ”<br />
What about a break <strong>in</strong> which the pilot briefly disengages<br />
from the fly<strong>in</strong>g task (which may <strong>in</strong>volve only<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>struments) dur<strong>in</strong>g the cruise portion of<br />
the flight but does not leave the seat Even if there is no<br />
associated <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> physical activity, several studies<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicate an improvement <strong>in</strong> alertness and performance<br />
simply associated with a cognitive break from cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
tasks. A recently published study evaluated the effects<br />
of <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the total break time received by <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
perform<strong>in</strong>g data entry, a task that can be<br />
monotonous and bor<strong>in</strong>g ( 86 ). Four 5-m<strong>in</strong> supplemental<br />
breaks were added to the already scheduled two 15-m<strong>in</strong><br />
breaks <strong>in</strong> a workday. The data entry workers were studied<br />
for 4 wk <strong>in</strong> each of the break conditions (i.e., 30-m<strong>in</strong><br />
total and 50-m<strong>in</strong> total). Results showed the additional 20<br />
m<strong>in</strong> of break time, <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to the workday, was<br />
associated with significantly faster data entry speeds<br />
(without a loss of productivity) and reductions <strong>in</strong> reports<br />
of physical discomfort.<br />
Data have shown that breaks also can have positive<br />
effects when <strong>in</strong>dividuals are experienc<strong>in</strong>g partial or total<br />
sleep loss. In two different total sleep deprivation<br />
protocols, rang<strong>in</strong>g from 54 h to 64 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals who received five 20-m<strong>in</strong> rest breaks<br />
showed improvements <strong>in</strong> performance, alertness, fatigue,<br />
and overall mood when compared to those who<br />
received no breaks ( 96 ). These beneficial effects also<br />
translate to actual aviation environments where rest<br />
breaks have been shown to help military pilots work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
susta<strong>in</strong>ed operations overcome <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g sleep<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
and fatigue levels ( 7 ).<br />
Whether engag<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> a break <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g activity or<br />
simply tak<strong>in</strong>g advantage of the opportunity to disengage<br />
from the current task, the available data suggest<br />
that the result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> social <strong>in</strong>teraction often accompany<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a work break can play a role <strong>in</strong> ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
alertness, especially dur<strong>in</strong>g the early morn<strong>in</strong>g hours<br />
around the circadian nadir ( 64 ). However, despite substantial<br />
evidence that breaks are beneficial, it should be<br />
noted that the f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs are not universally positive. For<br />
<strong>in</strong>stance, <strong>in</strong> a study of <strong>in</strong>dustrial eng<strong>in</strong>eers, Tucker,<br />
Folkard, and Macdonald ( 208 ) found that, follow<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
15-m<strong>in</strong> break after 2 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous work, the risk of<br />
on-the-job mishaps <strong>in</strong>creased approximately l<strong>in</strong>early<br />
across the next 2 h such that it doubled dur<strong>in</strong>g the last<br />
30-m<strong>in</strong> period of the 2 h. Clearly, the decision whether<br />
or not to utilize rest breaks must take <strong>in</strong>to account the<br />
context <strong>in</strong> which they are be<strong>in</strong>g considered, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the nature of the task itself.<br />
c. Bunk Sleep<br />
It was concluded dur<strong>in</strong>g the ULR Crew Alertness<br />
workshops that ensur<strong>in</strong>g adequate bunk sleep is one of<br />
the most important <strong>in</strong>-flight countermeasures that can<br />
be implemented to address sleep loss and circadian disruption<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g extended aviation operations ( 83 ).<br />
Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g sleep addresses the underly<strong>in</strong>g physiology of<br />
sleep loss and is the only way to reverse cumulative<br />
sleep debt. Importantly, it is an operationally feasible<br />
<strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009 35
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
approach to address sleep loss associated with extended<br />
hours of wakefulness, cross<strong>in</strong>g multiple time zones, and<br />
fly<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g nighttime hours.<br />
In-flight bunk sleep periods can be challeng<strong>in</strong>g because<br />
they need to be scheduled <strong>in</strong> consideration of operational<br />
demands and be of a duration that allows all<br />
crewmembers to receive ample rest periods to ensure<br />
the safety of the flight. The body is programmed for two<br />
periods of sleep<strong>in</strong>ess throughout the day with the maximum<br />
sleep propensity occurr<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the early morn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
hours (<strong>in</strong> the latter half of the habitual sleep episode)<br />
and a second period of <strong>in</strong>creased sleep propensity occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
<strong>in</strong> midafternoon ( 65 , 213 ). Therefore, crews can<br />
estimate the times dur<strong>in</strong>g a flight at which there is an <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
risk of <strong>in</strong>advertent sleep<strong>in</strong>ess, and these are the<br />
best times (from a circadian standpo<strong>in</strong>t) to schedule <strong>in</strong>flight<br />
bunk sleep opportunities. If flight demands permit,<br />
utiliz<strong>in</strong>g these periods of <strong>in</strong>creased physiological<br />
sleep propensity will help to <strong>in</strong>crease both the quantity<br />
and quality of bunk sleep, subsequently reduc<strong>in</strong>g physiological<br />
sleep<strong>in</strong>ess across the flight ( 53 , 63 , 65 ). Unfortunately,<br />
bunk rest periods often unavoidably end up at<br />
less than optimal times because of a crewmember’s job<br />
responsibilities. The signal or drive for wakefulness<br />
from the circadian clock <strong>in</strong>creases throughout the wak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
day with a peak occurr<strong>in</strong>g several hours before habitual<br />
bedtime ( 111 ). Thus, try<strong>in</strong>g to advance sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation<br />
to a few hours before habitual bedtime will likely<br />
result <strong>in</strong> difficulty with sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation and reduced<br />
sleep duration.<br />
Research has shown that environmental factors <strong>in</strong> the<br />
bunk facilities can help to promote good sleep. A survey<br />
study conducted by NASA showed that the most common<br />
factors to <strong>in</strong>terfere with bunk sleep are ambient<br />
temperature, noise <strong>in</strong> the galley, and background light<strong>in</strong>g<br />
( 179 ). These are all environmental issues that can be<br />
addressed <strong>in</strong> the design of bunk facilities. Pilots also <strong>in</strong>dicated<br />
that mak<strong>in</strong>g the sleep<strong>in</strong>g quarters more private<br />
and the use of comfortable bedd<strong>in</strong>g and blankets help to<br />
promote the quantity and quality of their sleep.<br />
d. In-Flight Roster<strong>in</strong>g<br />
In-flight roster<strong>in</strong>g, although not commonly discussed<br />
as a fatigue countermeasure, can be used to m<strong>in</strong>imize fatigue.<br />
It refers to the schedul<strong>in</strong>g of flightcrew to assigned<br />
positions on the flight deck, free<strong>in</strong>g other flightcrew to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>-flight rest or bunk sleep. In-flight roster<strong>in</strong>g is<br />
directly related to the crew complement, or number of<br />
pilots assigned to the flight and is determ<strong>in</strong>ed — <strong>in</strong> advance<br />
— dur<strong>in</strong>g the schedul<strong>in</strong>g process. Research has<br />
shown that performance beg<strong>in</strong>s to deteriorate after 18 to<br />
20 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness with all aspects of cognitive<br />
function<strong>in</strong>g and mood be<strong>in</strong>g affected ( 24 ). Also,<br />
shift worker studies generally <strong>in</strong>dicate that long duty<br />
hours <strong>in</strong>crease the <strong>in</strong>cidence of physical compla<strong>in</strong>ts, the<br />
use of unhealthy cop<strong>in</strong>g behaviors such as smok<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
poor diet, domestic problems, and possibly musculoskeletal<br />
disorders. Furthermore, work<strong>in</strong>g shifts longer<br />
than 8 to 9 h is thought to <strong>in</strong>crease the probability of<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g accidents or mak<strong>in</strong>g errors ( 84 , 198 ). It has been<br />
shown specifically <strong>in</strong> aviation that when the “ time s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
awaken<strong>in</strong>g ” extends beyond the median for crew position,<br />
there is an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> overall errors ( 139 ). Therefore,<br />
a sufficient number of crewmembers is necessary to provide<br />
multiple opportunities for rest.<br />
Proper <strong>in</strong>-flight roster<strong>in</strong>g can help to m<strong>in</strong>imize extended<br />
wakefulness and m<strong>in</strong>imize fatigue by ensur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that at least one crewmember is always rested. Importantly,<br />
it allows for schedul<strong>in</strong>g of bunk sleep <strong>in</strong> a way<br />
that m<strong>in</strong>imizes the hours of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness for<br />
the land<strong>in</strong>g pilots and utilizes crewmembers who are<br />
well rested dur<strong>in</strong>g other critical phases of flight. However,<br />
this approach only works if crew roster<strong>in</strong>g is considered<br />
<strong>in</strong> the plann<strong>in</strong>g stages of the flight, the crew is<br />
educated about the roster<strong>in</strong>g approach, and the crew adheres<br />
to the plan dur<strong>in</strong>g the flight.<br />
No studies have evaluated, <strong>in</strong> the context of extended<br />
aviation operations, the specific number of crewmembers<br />
needed to ensure adequate sleep opportunities to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> performance and safety. Simply add<strong>in</strong>g crewmembers<br />
without a sound evidence-based plan of how<br />
this will improve the situation is not a valid approach.<br />
Simply provid<strong>in</strong>g pilots more opportunity to sleep does<br />
not ensure they will sleep longer. One study showed<br />
that when flightcrews were given a 5-h bunk sleep opportunity<br />
they averaged approximately 3 h ( 97 ). Another<br />
study found that flightcrews who were provided<br />
with a 7-h sleep opportunity obta<strong>in</strong>ed only 3 h 25 m<strong>in</strong> of<br />
bunk sleep ( 194 ).<br />
e. Cockpit Light<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Much is now known about the use of properly timed<br />
bright light to shift human circadian rhythms. The use<br />
of bright light as an aid to circadian adjustment pre- and<br />
postflight is discussed <strong>in</strong> Section IV.b.iii. However, while<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigated to a lesser extent, light also appears to have<br />
an acute, immediate, alert<strong>in</strong>g effect on mood and performance<br />
<strong>in</strong>dependent of its circadian phase-shift<strong>in</strong>g properties.<br />
A recent review of the literature on the acute alert<strong>in</strong>g<br />
effects of light ( 38 ) shows it to be a potentially useful<br />
countermeasure at night where conditions allow its use.<br />
Light’s alert<strong>in</strong>g effects are often believed to be tied to its<br />
suppression of melaton<strong>in</strong>, which is ord<strong>in</strong>arily released <strong>in</strong><br />
the mid to late even<strong>in</strong>g. Hence light has the potential to<br />
mitigate the usual alertness and performance decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
seen <strong>in</strong> the nighttime hours, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g on the flight deck.<br />
How much light is needed Cajochen et al. ( 40 ) showed<br />
measurable <strong>in</strong>creases <strong>in</strong> subjective alertness and reductions<br />
<strong>in</strong> slow eye movements with room light levels<br />
(100– 200 lux). Short wavelength light appears to have<br />
the greatest alert<strong>in</strong>g effect ( 122 ), with the spectrum of<br />
typical room light conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g enough energy <strong>in</strong> the<br />
shorter wavelengths to be effective. There is also some<br />
evidence that the alert<strong>in</strong>g effects of light are <strong>in</strong>dependent<br />
of the time of day, lead<strong>in</strong>g to the possibility of employ<strong>in</strong>g<br />
light dur<strong>in</strong>g the daytime to improve alertness<br />
and performance <strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong>dividuals impaired due to prior<br />
sleep deprivation ( 38 ).<br />
36 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
Capitaliz<strong>in</strong>g on the immediate, direct alert<strong>in</strong>g effects of<br />
light for fatigued flightcrew is particularly appeal<strong>in</strong>g because<br />
the flight-deck environment with its high automation<br />
level, limited opportunities for physical activity or<br />
social <strong>in</strong>teraction, steady background noise, and low<br />
nighttime light levels creates a sett<strong>in</strong>g ripe for boredom,<br />
complacency, attentional lapses, sleep<strong>in</strong>ess, and performance<br />
decrement. Adjust<strong>in</strong>g the light level is one of a limited<br />
number of possible environmental manipulations.<br />
Provided <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the flight-deck light level at night to<br />
at least 100 lux (room light level) does not <strong>in</strong>terfere with<br />
flightcrew performance or visual requirements (e.g., dark<br />
adaptation level, or ability to see outside the cockpit),<br />
such light manipulation represents a potentially beneficial<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight countermeasure. While additional research<br />
is needed to more fully characterize the acute effects of<br />
light on both daytime and nighttime alertness and performance,<br />
it should be noted that <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the light level is<br />
almost certa<strong>in</strong> to have an effect on circadian phase ( 38 ),<br />
though it may be slight depend<strong>in</strong>g on the tim<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Position Statement on the Use of In-Flight<br />
<strong>Countermeasures</strong><br />
All of the <strong>in</strong>-flight countermeasures described above<br />
clearly have a place <strong>in</strong> susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the alertness and performance<br />
of aviation personnel. However, the manner <strong>in</strong><br />
which these strategies are employed should be based on<br />
the currently available scientific knowledge and should<br />
be implemented only after thoughtful consideration.<br />
We recommend the authorized use of <strong>in</strong>-seat cockpit<br />
napp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> commercial flight operations, under appropriate<br />
circumstances, with appropriate safeguards, and<br />
<strong>in</strong> accordance with clear guidel<strong>in</strong>es to ensure operational<br />
safety. Cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g should be viewed as a<br />
risk management tool. Naps have been shown to significantly<br />
improve alertness and performance <strong>in</strong> groundbased<br />
and <strong>in</strong>-flight studies, and naps can help susta<strong>in</strong><br />
aircrew performance dur<strong>in</strong>g situations <strong>in</strong> which unexpected<br />
delays require the postponement of the next consolidated<br />
sleep opportunity. In addition, naps can improve<br />
alertness dur<strong>in</strong>g circadian low po<strong>in</strong>ts, especially<br />
when schedule rotations or rapid time zone transitions<br />
require that work hours extend <strong>in</strong>to the pilot’s subjective<br />
nighttime. In-seat cockpit naps have been proven<br />
safe and effective. However, despite the beneficial effects<br />
of these naps, they should not be used as a replacement<br />
for <strong>in</strong>-flight bunk sleep dur<strong>in</strong>g long-haul operations.<br />
Furthermore, <strong>in</strong>-seat cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g should be<br />
utilized only when everyone on the flight deck concludes<br />
that this strategy is necessary to enhance the<br />
safety of flight operations. The duration of these naps<br />
should not exceed 40 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to avoid excessive<br />
postnap grogg<strong>in</strong>ess (sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia). In a NASA study<br />
( 177 ), a 40-m<strong>in</strong> nap opportunity resulted <strong>in</strong> 26 m<strong>in</strong> of actual<br />
sleep. The short duration of the nap probably m<strong>in</strong>imized<br />
sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia due to the fact that only 8% of the<br />
participants reached slow-wave sleep (which has been<br />
associated with sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia). Accord<strong>in</strong>g to D<strong>in</strong>ges ( 65 ),<br />
after 18 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness, the latency to slow<br />
wave sleep is approximately 30 m<strong>in</strong>. Therefore, dur<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
nap opportunity of 40 m<strong>in</strong>, it is unlikely most people<br />
will fall asleep fast enough to obta<strong>in</strong> more than 30 m<strong>in</strong><br />
of sleep, and dur<strong>in</strong>g that 30 m<strong>in</strong> of sleep, enter <strong>in</strong>to slow<br />
wave. Other studies have also shown m<strong>in</strong>imal sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia<br />
effects with naps less than 30 m<strong>in</strong> ( 30 , 204 ).<br />
We recommend the use of <strong>in</strong>-flight activity breaks <strong>in</strong><br />
commercial flight operations, under appropriate circumstances,<br />
with appropriate safeguards, and <strong>in</strong> accordance<br />
with clear guidel<strong>in</strong>es to ensure operational safety.<br />
As with cockpit naps, such breaks should be viewed as<br />
a risk management tool. In a cockpit environment, which<br />
can be conducive to sleep, breaks associated with mild<br />
physical activity and <strong>in</strong>creased social <strong>in</strong>teraction or even<br />
just temporary disengagement from monotonous tasks,<br />
have been shown to temporarily boost alertness. When<br />
us<strong>in</strong>g breaks as a fatigue countermeasure, it is recommended<br />
that shorter breaks (i.e., 10 m<strong>in</strong>) be used hourly<br />
or more frequently as opposed to longer breaks, which<br />
can be relatively <strong>in</strong>frequent.<br />
The use of bunk sleep and <strong>in</strong>-flight roster<strong>in</strong>g go hand<strong>in</strong>-hand<br />
when used as a fatigue mitigation strategy.<br />
Schedul<strong>in</strong>g practices should always take <strong>in</strong>to account<br />
the research on both sleep and circadian process when<br />
schedul<strong>in</strong>g critical phases of flight as well as <strong>in</strong>-flight<br />
sleep opportunities. S<strong>in</strong>ce the development of the roster<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pattern should help m<strong>in</strong>imize fatigue dur<strong>in</strong>g operations,<br />
policies are necessary to allow for flexibility <strong>in</strong><br />
these roster<strong>in</strong>g approaches if a change, once the flight<br />
has begun, will contribute to the overall safety of operations.<br />
Additionally, future applied research is needed to<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e the optimal tim<strong>in</strong>g for crewmembers to obta<strong>in</strong><br />
rest <strong>in</strong> order to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> maximum performance<br />
levels. Operational research evaluat<strong>in</strong>g the effects of<br />
vary<strong>in</strong>g crew augmentation options on the efficacy of<br />
onboard sleep can help address some of these issues. In<br />
light of the fact that <strong>in</strong>-flight work/rest plann<strong>in</strong>g can be<br />
a complex matter, it is our position that: 1) aircrews be<br />
educated with regard to the circadian and environmental<br />
factors that <strong>in</strong>fluence <strong>in</strong>-flight bunk rest quality; and<br />
2) when possible, aircrews take advantage of validated<br />
work/rest schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools to develop the most effective<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight rest pattern given the available crewmembers.<br />
Lastly, simply <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g the flight-deck light level,<br />
particularly at night, has the potential to temporarily<br />
boost alertness and performance. While several light parameters<br />
and the mechanism of action are still be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>vestigated,<br />
the beneficial effects have been established<br />
<strong>in</strong> several laboratory studies. Any use of light must <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
an awareness of its potential effect on circadian<br />
phase.<br />
IV. PRE-/POSTFLIGHT COUNTERMEASURES<br />
AND STRATEGIES<br />
a. Hypnotics<br />
Sleep is often difficult to obta<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> operational contexts,<br />
even <strong>in</strong> situations where efforts have been made to<br />
ensure the existence of adequate sleep opportunities.<br />
There are a number of reasons for this, but generally<br />
<strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009 37
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
§ Note that at one time, the U.S. Air Force and Army both approved<br />
the use of triazolam (Halcion w ), but that at present, only the U.S.<br />
Army cont<strong>in</strong>ues to authorize the limited use of this medication for<br />
pre-deployment rest or susta<strong>in</strong>ed operations (although <strong>in</strong> actuality, it<br />
is rarely prescribed). Triazolam’s purported association with adverse<br />
effects and its impact on memory have curtailed its use <strong>in</strong> many cl<strong>in</strong>ical<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>gs. Therefore, a detailed discussion of triazolam will be omitted<br />
from the present paper <strong>in</strong> favor of concentrat<strong>in</strong>g on the more frequently<br />
used hypnotics (temazepam, zolpidem, and zaleplon).<br />
speak<strong>in</strong>g, the difficulties are due to one or more of the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g: 1) the sleep environment is less than optimal<br />
(too noisy, hot, and/or uncomfortable); 2) the state of<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dividual is <strong>in</strong>compatible with the ability to sleep<br />
(too much excitement, apprehension, or anxiety); or 3)<br />
the sleep opportunity occurs at a time that is not biologically<br />
conducive to rapid sleep onset and/or sufficient<br />
sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance. This misalignment of the sleep/<br />
wake cycle and endogenous circadian rhythms could be<br />
the result of shift lag, jet lag, or attempt<strong>in</strong>g sleep at other<br />
than the habitual bedtime or at the second circadian dip<br />
<strong>in</strong> the afternoon. For such circumstances, the U.S. Air<br />
Force and Army have approved the limited use of temazepam,<br />
zolpidem, and zaleplon. § These hypnotics<br />
can optimize the quality of crew rest <strong>in</strong> circumstances<br />
where sleep is possible, but difficult to obta<strong>in</strong>. The choice<br />
of which compound is best for each circumstance must<br />
take several factors <strong>in</strong>to account, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g time of day,<br />
half-life of the compound, length of the sleep period,<br />
and the probability of an earlier-than-expected awaken<strong>in</strong>g,<br />
which may <strong>in</strong>crease the risk of sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia effects.<br />
Temazepam: Temazepam (Restoril w , Euhypnos w ,<br />
Normison w , Remestox w , Norkotral w ) (15 – 30 mg) has<br />
been recommended <strong>in</strong> military aviation populations <strong>in</strong><br />
Great Brita<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce the 1980s ( 150 – 152 ). Given the<br />
pharmacodynamics of this substance, it may be the<br />
best choice for optimiz<strong>in</strong>g 8-h sleep periods that<br />
are out-of-phase with the body’s circadian cycle because,<br />
under these circumstances, sleep is often easy to<br />
<strong>in</strong>itiate, but difficult to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> due to the circadian<br />
rise <strong>in</strong> alertness. Personnel who work at night generally<br />
f<strong>in</strong>d that they can easily fall asleep after the work<br />
shift s<strong>in</strong>ce sleep pressure is high from their previous<br />
night (and often day) of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness. Also,<br />
<strong>in</strong> the early morn<strong>in</strong>g, the circadian drive for wakefulness<br />
is typically low, so the body’s natural rhythms do<br />
not <strong>in</strong>terfere with sleep onset. However, once daytime<br />
sleep has begun, night workers are frequently plagued<br />
by late morn<strong>in</strong>g or noontime awaken<strong>in</strong>gs that result<br />
from the <strong>in</strong>creased prom<strong>in</strong>ence of circadian-based<br />
alert<strong>in</strong>g cues. The net result is that the day sleep of<br />
night workers often is 2 or more hours shorter per day<br />
than their typical night sleep ( 5 , 205 ).<br />
For these <strong>in</strong>dividuals, the longer half-life of temazepam<br />
is desirable because the problem usually is one of<br />
sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance and not sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation . In addition to<br />
temazepam’s known facilitation of nighttime sleep<br />
( 133 , 138 ), this compound, particularly <strong>in</strong> the 30-mg dose,<br />
has been shown to objectively and subjectively improve<br />
daytime sleep as well ( 52 , 153 , 162 ). Temazepam’s <strong>in</strong>termediate<br />
half-life of approximately 9 h provides a sufficiently<br />
lengthy hypnotic effect to mitigate the disruptive<br />
arousals that often lead to sleep deprivation <strong>in</strong> personnel<br />
suffer<strong>in</strong>g from shift lag or jet lag. The pharmacok<strong>in</strong>etic<br />
disposition of temazepam is affected by the time of<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istration; the absorption of the drug is faster and<br />
the half-life and distribution are shorter for daytime adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
compared to nighttime adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
( 138 ). Furthermore, <strong>in</strong> studies <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g simulated night<br />
operations, temazepam has been shown to improve<br />
nighttime performance by optimiz<strong>in</strong>g daytime sleep<br />
( 162 ). A study us<strong>in</strong>g U.S. Army pilots who worked and<br />
flew at night <strong>in</strong> a simulated shift-work environment<br />
demonstrated that temazepam-<strong>in</strong>duced improvements<br />
<strong>in</strong> daytime sleep led to better nighttime pilot performance<br />
(relative to placebo) as well as improvements <strong>in</strong><br />
psychomotor vigilance and self-reported alertness ( 52 ).<br />
Thus, temazepam appears to be a good choice for<br />
maximiz<strong>in</strong>g the restorative value of daytime sleep opportunities.<br />
However, caution should be exercised prior<br />
to us<strong>in</strong>g temazepam <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> operational sett<strong>in</strong>gs s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
the compound does have a relatively long half-life. Although<br />
residual effects were not reported <strong>in</strong> a military<br />
study <strong>in</strong> which personnel were able to ga<strong>in</strong> suitable<br />
sleep before report<strong>in</strong>g for duty ( 29 ), nor <strong>in</strong> some other<br />
situations <strong>in</strong> which 30 – 40 mg of temazepam were given<br />
prior to a full sleep opportunity ( 180 , 227 ), residual postdose<br />
drows<strong>in</strong>ess has been reported elsewhere. Paul,<br />
Gray, MacLellan, and Pigeau ( 158 ) observed that drows<strong>in</strong>ess<br />
was noticeable with<strong>in</strong> 1.25 and 4.25 h of a midmorn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
15-mg dose. They also noted that psychomotor<br />
performance was impaired between 2.25 and 4.25 h<br />
postdose (plasma levels were still elevated at 7 h postdose).<br />
These data suggest the possibility that temazepam’s<br />
long half-life could exacerbate sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia upon<br />
awaken<strong>in</strong>g; however, the potential for this drawback<br />
must be weighed aga<strong>in</strong>st the potential for impairment<br />
from sleep truncation <strong>in</strong> the event that temazepam therapy<br />
is withheld. Along these l<strong>in</strong>es, it should be noted<br />
that Roehrs, Burduvali, Bonahoom, Drake, and Roth<br />
( 170 ) found that just 2 h of sleep loss produces the same<br />
level of sedative effect as the consumption of 0.54 g/kg<br />
of ethanol (the equivalent of 2 to 3 12-oz bottles of beer),<br />
whereas the effects of 4 h of sleep loss are similar to those<br />
of 1.0 g/kg of ethanol (5 to 6 12-oz beers). Other <strong>in</strong>vestigations<br />
have similarly shown that sleep restriction and<br />
sleep deprivation degrade performance as much as, or<br />
more than, alcohol <strong>in</strong>toxication.<br />
The same qualities that make temazepam desirable<br />
for ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the daytime sleep of shift workers make<br />
it a good choice for temporarily augment<strong>in</strong>g the nighttime<br />
sleep of personnel who are deployed westward<br />
across as many as n<strong>in</strong>e time zones ( 149 , 201 ). Upon arrival<br />
at their dest<strong>in</strong>ation, these travelers are essentially<br />
fac<strong>in</strong>g the same sleep/wake problems as the night<br />
worker. Namely, they are able to fall asleep quickly s<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
their local bedtime <strong>in</strong> the new time zone is much later<br />
than the one established by their circadian clock (from<br />
the orig<strong>in</strong>ation time zone); however, they generally are<br />
unable to sleep throughout the night. The reason for this<br />
38 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
is demonstrated by the follow<strong>in</strong>g example: a 6-h westward<br />
time zone change places bed time at 2300 local<br />
time which is 0500 orig<strong>in</strong>ation time; this is followed by a<br />
wakeup time of 0600 local which corresponds to a<br />
“ body-clock time, ” still adjusted to the orig<strong>in</strong>ation time,<br />
of 1200. Based on a readjustment rate of 1.5 d per time<br />
zone crossed ( 105 ), it could take up to a week for adjustment<br />
to the new time zone to occur. Until this adjustment<br />
is accomplished, temazepam can support adequate<br />
sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance despite conflict<strong>in</strong>g circadian signals<br />
and the obvious benefit will be less performancedegrad<strong>in</strong>g<br />
sleep restriction. While the problem with<br />
daytime alertness due to circadian disruptions will not<br />
be alleviated, the daytime drows<strong>in</strong>ess associated with<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased homeostatic sleep pressure (from sleep restriction)<br />
will be attenuated.<br />
Thus, temazepam is a good choice when a prolonged<br />
hypnotic effect is desired as long as there is relative certa<strong>in</strong>ty<br />
that the hypnotic-<strong>in</strong>duced sleep period will not be<br />
unexpectedly truncated. This compound is especially<br />
useful for promot<strong>in</strong>g optimal sleep <strong>in</strong> personnel suffer<strong>in</strong>g<br />
from premature awaken<strong>in</strong>gs due to shift lag or jet<br />
lag s<strong>in</strong>ce the hypnotic effect helps to overcome circadian<br />
factors that can disrupt sleep immediately follow<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
time zone or schedule change. However, temazepam<br />
should not be used longer than is necessary to facilitate<br />
adjustment to the new schedule. Depend<strong>in</strong>g on the circumstances,<br />
temazepam therapy probably should be<br />
discont<strong>in</strong>ued after 3 to 7 d either to prevent problems<br />
associated with tolerance or dependence (<strong>in</strong> the case of<br />
night workers) or because adjustment to the new time<br />
zone should be nearly complete (<strong>in</strong> the case of travelers<br />
or deployed personnel) ( 149 ). When discont<strong>in</strong>u<strong>in</strong>g temazepam<br />
after several cont<strong>in</strong>uous days of therapy, it is<br />
recommended that the dosage be gradually reduced for<br />
2 to 3 d prior to complete discont<strong>in</strong>uation <strong>in</strong> order to<br />
m<strong>in</strong>imize the possibility of rebound <strong>in</strong>somnia ( 181 , 209 ).<br />
Zolpidem: Zolpidem (Ambien w , Stilnox w , Myslee w )<br />
(5 – 10 mg) may be the optimal choice for sleep periods<br />
less than 8 h, and zolpidem would be a better choice<br />
than temazepam if there were a possibility that the<br />
hypnotic-<strong>in</strong>duced sleep period is likely to be unexpectedly<br />
shortened. This compound is especially useful for<br />
promot<strong>in</strong>g short- to moderate-length sleep durations (of<br />
4 to 7 h) when these shorter sleep opportunities occur at<br />
times that are not naturally conducive to sleep. As noted<br />
above, daytime naps would fall <strong>in</strong>to this category because,<br />
just like daytime sleep <strong>in</strong> general, daytime naps<br />
are typically difficult to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> ( 61 , 111 , 205 ), especially<br />
<strong>in</strong> non-sleep-deprived <strong>in</strong>dividuals. Furthermore, unless<br />
the naps are placed early <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g or shortly after<br />
noon, they can be extremely difficult to <strong>in</strong>itiate without<br />
some type of pharmacological assistance ( 89 ). Zolpidem<br />
is a good choice for facilitat<strong>in</strong>g such naps because its relatively<br />
short half-life of 2.5 h provides short-term sleep<br />
promotion while m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g the possibility of postnap<br />
hangovers. Thus, it is feasible to take advantage of a nap<br />
without significantly lengthen<strong>in</strong>g the postnap time<br />
needed to ensure that any drug effects have dissipated.<br />
However, as with temazepam, there should be a reasonable<br />
degree of certa<strong>in</strong>ty that there will not be an early <strong>in</strong>terruption<br />
of the sleep period followed by an immediate<br />
demand for performance.<br />
The efficacy of zolpidem as a nighttime sleep promoter<br />
has been clearly demonstrated <strong>in</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical trials<br />
(with up to 1 yr of adm<strong>in</strong>istration) <strong>in</strong> normal, elderly,<br />
and psychiatric patient populations with <strong>in</strong>somnia ( 21 ).<br />
Rebound <strong>in</strong>somnia, tolerance (treatment over 6 to 12<br />
mo), withdrawal symptoms, and drug <strong>in</strong>teractions are<br />
absent, and the dependence/abuse potential is low ( 16 ).<br />
Overall, zolpidem is a cl<strong>in</strong>ically safe and useful hypnotic<br />
drug ( 156 , 188 ).<br />
Zolpidem has been proven to possess utility <strong>in</strong> militarily<br />
relevant circumstances. An Army study ( 43 ) demonstrated<br />
that zolpidem-<strong>in</strong>duced prophylactic naps enhanced<br />
the alertness and performance of sleep-deprived<br />
pilots (relative to placebo) dur<strong>in</strong>g the f<strong>in</strong>al 20 h of a 38-h<br />
period of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness without produc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
significant hangover effects. S<strong>in</strong>ce these naps were<br />
placed at a time dur<strong>in</strong>g which sleep is often difficult to<br />
obta<strong>in</strong> ( 111 ), the benefits <strong>in</strong> terms of sleep promotion<br />
and sleep quality were clear. Thus, zolpidem is an effective<br />
way to promote short naps, and, relative to placebo,<br />
is associated with improved subsequent alertness.<br />
Zolpidem may also be helpful for promot<strong>in</strong>g the sleep<br />
of personnel who have traveled eastward across 3 to 9<br />
time zones ( 202 ). Unlike westward travelers who experience<br />
sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance difficulties, eastward-bound personnel<br />
suffer from sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation problems. For example,<br />
a 6-h time zone change <strong>in</strong> the eastward direction<br />
creates difficulty with <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g sleep because a local<br />
bedtime of 2300 translates to a body clock time of only<br />
1700, and it has been well established that such early<br />
sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation is problematic ( 150 , 201 , 219 ). Thus, eastward<br />
travelers need someth<strong>in</strong>g that will facilitate early<br />
sleep onset and suitable sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance until the<br />
normal circadian-driven sleep phase takes over; however,<br />
they do not need a compound with a long half life.<br />
This is because, <strong>in</strong> this example, any residual drug effect<br />
would only exacerbate the difficulty associated with<br />
awaken<strong>in</strong>g at a local time of 0700 that corresponds to an<br />
orig<strong>in</strong>ation time (or body-clock time) of only 0100 <strong>in</strong> the<br />
morn<strong>in</strong>g. As stated above, sleep difficulties are only part<br />
of the jet-lag syndrome, but alleviat<strong>in</strong>g sleep restriction<br />
or sleep disruption will help to attenuate the alertness<br />
and performance problems associated with jet lag.<br />
Thus, zolpidem is a good compound for facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
naps of moderate durations (4 to 7 h), even when these<br />
naps occur under less-than-optimal circumstance and/<br />
or at the “ wrong ” circadian time. Zolpidem is also appropriate<br />
for treat<strong>in</strong>g sleep-onset difficulties <strong>in</strong> eastward<br />
travelers. However, as is the case with any hypnotic, this<br />
medication normally should be used only when necessary,<br />
i.e., prior to circadian adjustment to a new work or<br />
sleep schedule. More chronic zolpidem adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
may be essential for promot<strong>in</strong>g naps that occur under<br />
uncomfortable conditions or naps that are “ out of phase ”<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce, by def<strong>in</strong>ition, these generally are difficult to <strong>in</strong>itiate<br />
and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, but zolpidem probably should not be<br />
used for more than 7 d to counter <strong>in</strong>somnia from jet lag.<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
After this time, most of the adjustment to the new time<br />
zone should be accomplished ( 201 , 219 ).<br />
Zaleplon: Zaleplon (Sonata w , Starnoc w ) (5 – 10 mg)<br />
may be the best choice for <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g very short naps (1 to<br />
2 h) dur<strong>in</strong>g a period of otherwise susta<strong>in</strong>ed wakefulness<br />
or for <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g early sleep onsets <strong>in</strong> personnel who are<br />
try<strong>in</strong>g to ensure sufficient sleep prior to a very early<br />
start time the next morn<strong>in</strong>g. With regard to facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
early report times, zaleplon is an option to zolpidem,<br />
but both compounds are important for the same reason.<br />
As noted earlier, it is extremely difficult for most people<br />
to <strong>in</strong>itiate sleep 1 to 4 h prior to their typical bedtimes<br />
unless they are severely fatigued ( 6 , 90 , 111 ). S<strong>in</strong>ce these<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividuals are unable to fall asleep early, the total length<br />
of their sleep period is truncated by the early rise time<br />
even if, once they f<strong>in</strong>ally go to sleep, they sleep relatively<br />
well. Personnel who are required to report to duty <strong>in</strong> the<br />
predawn hours can easily suffer 2 to 3 h of sleep deprivation<br />
because of physiologically based sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation<br />
difficulties. This is why short-haul pilots attribute a substantial<br />
percentage of their fatigue-related problems to<br />
early report for duty times ( 28 ). Sleep truncation of this<br />
amount has been shown to significantly impair both<br />
alertness and performance ( 17 , 162 , 214 ). Similar to zolpidem<br />
(which has a 2.5-h half-life), zaleplon can overcome<br />
this sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation problem, and its ultra-short 1-h half<br />
life is less likely to pose hazards <strong>in</strong> terms of residual<br />
drug effects that can exacerbate the drows<strong>in</strong>ess associated<br />
with the predawn awaken<strong>in</strong>g dictated by the early<br />
start time.<br />
Cl<strong>in</strong>ical trials of the hypnotic efficacy of zaleplon have<br />
shown improvement <strong>in</strong> sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation, particularly<br />
with the 20-mg dose ( 54 , 80 , 85 ). In people diagnosed with<br />
primary <strong>in</strong>somnia, the latency to sleep onset decreased<br />
significantly compared to placebo ( 54 ). After zaleplon<br />
exerts its <strong>in</strong>itial effects, the drug is subsequently (and<br />
quickly) elim<strong>in</strong>ated <strong>in</strong> time for more natural physiological<br />
mechanisms to take over and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> the rema<strong>in</strong>der<br />
of the sleep period. There is evidence that there are<br />
no hangover problems as early as 6 to 7 h later ( 54 ). The<br />
rapid <strong>in</strong>itiation of sleep at an earlier-than-normal time<br />
permits a full sleep period despite the requirement for<br />
an early awaken<strong>in</strong>g, and thus bolsters subsequent performance.<br />
Paul et al. ( 157 ) found that 10 mg zaleplon<br />
impaired psychomotor performance for up to 2.25 h after<br />
<strong>in</strong>gestion. The same dose <strong>in</strong>creased drows<strong>in</strong>ess from<br />
2 to 5 h after dos<strong>in</strong>g ( 158 ), with plasma drug levels equal<br />
to placebo by 5 h postdose. These authors recommend<br />
zaleplon for times when an <strong>in</strong>dividual may have to<br />
awaken no earlier than 3 h after drug <strong>in</strong>gestion.<br />
Thus, zaleplon (10 mg) is a good hypnotic for promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
short naps (2 to 4 h) which would otherwise be difficult<br />
to <strong>in</strong>itiate and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>, as well as for hasten<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
early-to-bed sleep onset of personnel who are faced with<br />
an acute demand to report for duty <strong>in</strong> the early morn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(i.e., at 0400 to 0500). In addition, as was the case with zolpidem,<br />
zaleplon can be considered useful for the treatment<br />
of sleep-onset <strong>in</strong>somnia <strong>in</strong> eastward travelers who<br />
are experienc<strong>in</strong>g mild cases of jet lag. For <strong>in</strong>stance, those<br />
who have transitioned eastward only 3 to 4 time zones can<br />
use this short-act<strong>in</strong>g drug to <strong>in</strong>itiate and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> what<br />
the body believes to be an early sleep period. As with any<br />
hypnotic, the course of treatment should be kept as short<br />
as reasonably possible to m<strong>in</strong>imize drug tolerance and<br />
drug dependence (149 ). Table II summarizes some of the<br />
characteristics of each of the hypnotics discussed.<br />
Newer hypnotics: Some of the newer hypnotics available<br />
help with sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance without the extended<br />
long half-life of temazepam. For example, the extendedrelease<br />
zolpidem (Ambien CR w ) improves sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance<br />
beyond that of zolpidem ( 93 ). In addition, eszopiclone<br />
( Lunesta w ) has a half-life of 5 to 6 h with m<strong>in</strong>imal<br />
residual drug effects after as little as 10 h post dose ( 114 ).<br />
Ramelteon (Rozerem w ) is a novel hypnotic <strong>in</strong> that it targets<br />
the melaton<strong>in</strong> receptors <strong>in</strong> the bra<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> order to regulate<br />
the body’s sleep-wake cycle ( 119 ). Research <strong>in</strong>dicates<br />
that this drug is efficacious for sleep onset, but not<br />
for sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance ( 119 ).<br />
New sleep-promot<strong>in</strong>g compounds are be<strong>in</strong>g produced<br />
by the pharmaceutical <strong>in</strong>dustry each year. One hypnotic<br />
slated to come on the market <strong>in</strong> the near future is <strong>in</strong>diplon.<br />
This drug is similar <strong>in</strong> structure to zaleplon and<br />
has a half-life of approximately 1.5 h; it is also be<strong>in</strong>g formulated<br />
with a modified release as well which will extend<br />
its half-life to aid <strong>in</strong> sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance ( 79 ). There<br />
are new compounds which are rapidly absorbed and<br />
Generic name Brand Name Dosage<br />
Temazepam<br />
Zolpidem<br />
Zaleplon<br />
Restoril w<br />
Euhypnos w<br />
Normison w<br />
Remestox w<br />
Norkotral w<br />
Ambien w<br />
Stilnox w<br />
Myslee w<br />
Sonata w<br />
Starnoc w<br />
TABLE II. LIST OF HYPNOTICS AND THEIR USES.<br />
Average<br />
Half-life Recommended Use Cautions<br />
15 – 30 mg 9 h Sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance; daytime sleep;<br />
prolong<strong>in</strong>g sleep to avoid early<br />
morn<strong>in</strong>g awaken<strong>in</strong>gs from jet lag/shift lag<br />
5 – 10 mg 2.5 h Sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation; <strong>in</strong>termediate-length naps;<br />
assist<strong>in</strong>g early sleep onset due to early<br />
bedtimes from shift or time zone change<br />
5 – 10 mg 1 h Sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation; short naps; assist<strong>in</strong>g early<br />
sleep onset due to early bedtimes from<br />
shift or time zone change<br />
Need an 8-h sleep<br />
period; not recommended<br />
if on-call<br />
Need to have at least 4-6 h of<br />
sleep; not recommended<br />
if on-call<br />
Not recommended if<br />
on-call<br />
40 <strong>Aviation</strong>, Space, and Environmental Medic<strong>in</strong>e x Vol. 80, No. 1 x January 2009
FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
have a short half-life, and some have the ability to <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
both slow-wave sleep and slow-wave activity,<br />
which improves sleep efficiency. These compounds may<br />
improve sleep efficiency to the po<strong>in</strong>t that effective wakefulness<br />
can be susta<strong>in</strong>ed on fewer than the 8 h of daily<br />
sleep that is now required. Perhaps short power naps of<br />
3 to 4 h could become equally effective, but research rema<strong>in</strong>s<br />
to substantiate this possibility.<br />
Current civilian aviation policy allows limited use of<br />
zolpidem only. The FAA allows its use no more than<br />
twice a week, and states that it cannot be used for circadian<br />
adjustment. In addition, there is a 24-h ground<strong>in</strong>g<br />
policy for any pilot who uses zolpidem. While melaton<strong>in</strong><br />
is not a prescription hypnotic medication <strong>in</strong> the United<br />
States, it is a controlled substance <strong>in</strong> many other countries.<br />
The use of melaton<strong>in</strong> to promote sleep is discussed<br />
<strong>in</strong> a later section on nonpharmacological substances.<br />
Sleep promot<strong>in</strong>g compounds can be useful <strong>in</strong> operational<br />
contexts where there are problems with sleep <strong>in</strong>itiation<br />
or sleep ma<strong>in</strong>tenance. However, it should be<br />
noted that, like all medications, there are both benefits<br />
and risks associated with the use of these compounds.<br />
These should be considered by the prescrib<strong>in</strong>g physician<br />
and the <strong>in</strong>dividual pilot before the decision to utilize<br />
hypnotic therapy is f<strong>in</strong>alized. A hypnotic of any<br />
type probably should not be used if the crewmember is<br />
likely to be called back to duty earlier than anticipated<br />
because this would put them at risk of perform<strong>in</strong>g flight<br />
duties before the medication has been fully metabolized.<br />
Although temazepam, zolpidem, and zaleplon<br />
are widely recognized as be<strong>in</strong>g both safe and effective,<br />
personnel should be cautioned about potential side effects<br />
and <strong>in</strong>structed to br<strong>in</strong>g these to the attention of<br />
their physician should they occur. Potential problems<br />
may <strong>in</strong>clude morn<strong>in</strong>g hangover, which may cause detrimental<br />
effects on performance, dizz<strong>in</strong>ess, and amnesia<br />
that may be associated with awaken<strong>in</strong>gs that are forced<br />
before the drug has been elim<strong>in</strong>ated, and various idiosyncratic<br />
effects ( 14 , 131 , 149 , 181 ). If any difficulties occur,<br />
it may be necessary to discont<strong>in</strong>ue the specific compound<br />
or to abandon hypnotic therapy altogether.<br />
However, it is likely that significant side effects can be<br />
reduced or elim<strong>in</strong>ated by us<strong>in</strong>g the correct compound<br />
or by modify<strong>in</strong>g dosages or dose <strong>in</strong>tervals ( 150 ). For<br />
these reasons, military personnel are required to receive<br />
a test dose of the hypnotic of <strong>in</strong>terest under medical supervision<br />
before us<strong>in</strong>g the medication dur<strong>in</strong>g operational<br />
situations. Even after the test dose yields favorable<br />
results and it is clear that operationally important<br />
side effects are absent, hypnotics should be used with<br />
particular caution when the aim is to aid <strong>in</strong> advanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
or delay<strong>in</strong>g circadian rhythms <strong>in</strong> response to time zone<br />
shifts ( 149 , 201 , 219 ). Reviews by Waterhouse and associates<br />
( 219 ), Nicholson ( 149 ), and Stone and Turner ( 201 )<br />
offer detailed <strong>in</strong>formation on this rather complex<br />
issue.<br />
While the use of sleep aids is authorized <strong>in</strong> both civilian<br />
and military aviation, the restrictions <strong>in</strong> the civilian<br />
community are such that pilots do not receive the <strong>in</strong>tended<br />
benefits of their use. The policy that hypnotics<br />
not be used for circadian disruption is overly restrictive<br />
s<strong>in</strong>ce it is precisely for this reason that hypnotics would<br />
be useful for pilots cross<strong>in</strong>g multiple time zones or fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
early morn<strong>in</strong>g flights. The policy adopted by the<br />
military community allows the use of hypnotics with<br />
specified ground<strong>in</strong>g times, allow<strong>in</strong>g pilots to obta<strong>in</strong> restful<br />
sleep prior to a difficult schedule, but such that hypnotic<br />
use does not <strong>in</strong>terfere with flight times. It would be<br />
useful for the civilian community to evaluate the hypnotic<br />
policy implemented by the military to allow safe<br />
use of hypnotics by civilian pilots. Education concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the appropriate use of hypnotics, along with relevant<br />
ground<strong>in</strong>g periods, would allow pilots to obta<strong>in</strong> sleep<br />
which may not otherwise occur. Also, by allow<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
choice of hypnotics rather than allow<strong>in</strong>g only one, a variety<br />
of hypnotics with vary<strong>in</strong>g length of action will allow<br />
the appropriate drug for the specific time of use.<br />
Position Statement on the Use of Hypnotics<br />
For the present time, it is our position that zolpidem<br />
be authorized for civilian commercial pilots a maximum<br />
of 4 times per week <strong>in</strong> situations where natural sleep is<br />
difficult or impossible due to circadian or other reasons<br />
provided that: 1) the pilot has checked for any unusual<br />
reactions to the medication dur<strong>in</strong>g an off-duty period; 2)<br />
the dose does not exceed 10 mg <strong>in</strong> any given 24-h period;<br />
and 3) there is a m<strong>in</strong>imal <strong>in</strong>terval of 12 h between<br />
the <strong>in</strong>gestion of the medication and the return to duty.<br />
This recommendation is based on research which shows<br />
that: 1) zolpidem’s half-life of 2.5 h (extended release<br />
half-life is 2.8 h) allows it to be fully metabolized <strong>in</strong> 10 h<br />
(11.2 h for extended release); and 2) research has shown<br />
that repeated use of zolpidem <strong>in</strong> cl<strong>in</strong>ical sett<strong>in</strong>gs cont<strong>in</strong>uously<br />
improves sleep quality without caus<strong>in</strong>g rebound<br />
<strong>in</strong>somnia or exert<strong>in</strong>g a negative impact on next day<br />
alertness ( 107 ). Zolpidem should not be taken to promote<br />
any type of <strong>in</strong>-flight sleep. It should be noted that<br />
facilitat<strong>in</strong>g quality sleep with the use of a well-tested,<br />
safe pharmacological compound is far better than hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
pilots return to duty when sleep deprived or hav<strong>in</strong>g<br />
them return to duty follow<strong>in</strong>g a sleep episode that has<br />
been <strong>in</strong>duced with alcohol. Studies have shown that despite<br />
the “ 8-h bottle-to-throttle ” rule, impairments due<br />
to even moderate alcohol consumption may persist<br />
throughout the night to the morn<strong>in</strong>g after ( 234 ).<br />
b. Improv<strong>in</strong>g Sleep and Alertness<br />
This section describes improv<strong>in</strong>g pre- and postflight<br />
sleep and alertness without the use of medications or<br />
pharmacological countermeasures. Such countermeasures<br />
are discussed <strong>in</strong> the context of military aviation<br />
(see Section VI.) where they are currently permitted under<br />
specified circumstances and with specified controls.<br />
i. Healthy Sleep Practices: Whenever possible, gett<strong>in</strong>g a<br />
sufficient quantity of high quality sleep on a daily basis<br />
must be the number one focus <strong>in</strong> fight<strong>in</strong>g fatigue. How<br />
much is sufficient Generally speak<strong>in</strong>g, people require<br />
about 8 h of sleep per day <strong>in</strong> order to susta<strong>in</strong> optimum<br />
alertness ( 222 ). Although some people can function well<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
on less, they are small <strong>in</strong> number. Two strategies can<br />
help determ<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>dividual sleep need.<br />
The first strategy is to extend the nightly sleep period<br />
an extra hour over the course of the next 7 d, and after<br />
the 7th d, self-reflect on whether the additional sleep has<br />
been beneficial <strong>in</strong> terms of cognitive performance, mood,<br />
and alertness. The second, and more reliable, strategy is<br />
to keep a sleep diary dur<strong>in</strong>g the next vacation when it is<br />
possible to sleep ad lib for several days. After record<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the time of natural sleep onset and natural awaken<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(without the aid of an alarm clock) for 5 to 7 d (exclud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the first 2 vacation days), obta<strong>in</strong> the average sleep<br />
time and make this amount of sleep each night the goal<br />
upon return<strong>in</strong>g to work.<br />
Obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the required quantity of sleep on a day-today<br />
basis obviously is important, but obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g high<br />
quality sleep is beneficial as well. Sleep fragmentation<br />
is known to degrade memory, reaction time, vigilance,<br />
and mood ( 25 ). Specific strategies can help optimize<br />
each sleep opportunity, and these are presented<br />
below.<br />
Strategies for Optimiz<strong>in</strong>g Sleep Opportunities:<br />
• When possible, wake up and go to bed at the same time every<br />
day to avoid circadian disruptions.<br />
• Use the sleep<strong>in</strong>g quarters only for sleep and not for work.<br />
• If possible, establish a consistent and comfort<strong>in</strong>g bedtime rout<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(e.g., read<strong>in</strong>g, tak<strong>in</strong>g a hot shower, and then go<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
bed).<br />
• Perform aerobic exercise every day, but not with<strong>in</strong> 2 h of go<strong>in</strong>g<br />
to bed.<br />
• Make sure the sleep<strong>in</strong>g quarters are quiet, totally dark, and<br />
comfortable. For this to work, day workers should be housed<br />
separately from night workers.<br />
• Keep the sleep environment cool (~26 ° C if you are covered).<br />
• Move the alarm clock out of sight so you can’t be a clock<br />
watcher.<br />
• Avoid caffe<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> dr<strong>in</strong>ks and other forms dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
afternoons/even<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
• Don’t use alcohol as a sleep aid (it may make you sleepy, but<br />
you won’t sleep well).<br />
• Avoid cigarettes or other sources of nicot<strong>in</strong>e right before<br />
bedtime.<br />
• Don’t lie <strong>in</strong> bed awake if you don’t fall asleep with<strong>in</strong> 30 m<strong>in</strong> –<br />
<strong>in</strong>stead, leave the bedroom and do someth<strong>in</strong>g relax<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
quiet until you are sleepy.<br />
ii. Napp<strong>in</strong>g: In employ<strong>in</strong>g a napp<strong>in</strong>g strategy pre/<br />
postflight, an important factor is nap tim<strong>in</strong>g or placement.<br />
A nap taken dur<strong>in</strong>g the day before an all-night<br />
work shift (a prophylactic nap), with no sleep loss<br />
prior to the shift, will result <strong>in</strong> improved performance<br />
over the night compared to performance without the<br />
nap ( 23 , 191 ). Although naps taken later <strong>in</strong> the sleepdeprivation<br />
period also are beneficial, these naps probably<br />
should be longer than prophylactic naps <strong>in</strong> order<br />
to derive the same performance benefit. Schweitzer et<br />
al. ( 191 ) demonstrated that when subjects received a 2-<br />
to 3-h nap before a night work shift (with concurrent<br />
sleep loss) they performed better than when receiv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
no nap. Bonnet ( 23 ) showed that a nap before a 52-h<br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uous performance period was beneficial <strong>in</strong> keep<strong>in</strong>g<br />
performance and alertness from decreas<strong>in</strong>g for up<br />
to 24 h compared to the no-nap condition, but by the<br />
second night of sleep loss, the benefit of the naps could<br />
not be reliably measured.<br />
Another important factor is nap length . A relationship<br />
between nap length and performance was reported by<br />
Bonnet ( 23 ) based on a study <strong>in</strong> which subjects were allowed<br />
either a 2-, 4-, or 8-h nap before 52 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
operations. The results <strong>in</strong>dicated a dose-response relationship<br />
between the length of the nap and performance<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 24 h of sleep deprivation. Bonnet concluded<br />
that the nap before an all-night shift should be as<br />
long as possible to produce maximum performance benefits<br />
and that prophylactic naps were better than naps<br />
designed to replace sleep that was already lost due to<br />
the requirement for cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness. This conclusion<br />
was supported <strong>in</strong> a study by Brooks and Lack<br />
( 30 ), who tested afternoon naps of 5, 10, 20, and 30 m<strong>in</strong><br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g nighttime sleep of 5 h. The longer 20- and 30-<br />
m<strong>in</strong> naps showed improvement <strong>in</strong> overall cognitive performance<br />
for as long as 155 m<strong>in</strong> compared to the 10-m<strong>in</strong><br />
nap which showed cognitive performance effects for<br />
only 95 m<strong>in</strong>. This f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>g is consistent with a recent<br />
meta-analysis on the efficacy of naps as a fatigue countermeasure<br />
( 75 ). This meta-analysis of 12 studies consist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
of a total of 178 tests not only concluded that<br />
naps led to performance benefits equal to, and sometimes<br />
greater than, basel<strong>in</strong>e performance levels, but also<br />
that the length of performance benefit was directly proportional<br />
to the length of the nap (e.g., a 15-m<strong>in</strong> nap led<br />
to 2 h of benefit while a 4-h nap led to 10 h of benefit).<br />
However, it was also noted that, regardless of nap length,<br />
the performance benefit decreased as postnap <strong>in</strong>terval<br />
<strong>in</strong>creased (i.e., the benefits of a 4-h nap were greater<br />
shortly after awaken<strong>in</strong>g than after 10 h, though performance<br />
at the later time still met or exceeded basel<strong>in</strong>e<br />
performance).<br />
A f<strong>in</strong>al consideration is the placement of the nap with<br />
regard to the phase of the body clock (circadian phase). Nap<br />
tim<strong>in</strong>g should take <strong>in</strong>to account the impact of circadian<br />
phase on sleep propensity, structure, and quality across<br />
the day as well as the effects on performance both immediately<br />
after awaken<strong>in</strong>g and later <strong>in</strong> the work period.<br />
Sleep tendency is highest dur<strong>in</strong>g the daily trough <strong>in</strong><br />
core body temperature (<strong>in</strong> the predawn and early morn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
hours) and lowest when core body temperature<br />
peaks (<strong>in</strong> the early even<strong>in</strong>g hours) ( 65 ). Thus, there may<br />
be significant problems <strong>in</strong>itiat<strong>in</strong>g and/or ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g a<br />
nap dur<strong>in</strong>g an adverse circadian phase when core temperature<br />
is near its peak, as dur<strong>in</strong>g the “ forbidden zone<br />
for sleep ” a couple of hours prior to habitual bedtime<br />
( 111 ). Naps placed dur<strong>in</strong>g the circadian troughs are the<br />
easiest to ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> and they show beneficial effects on<br />
later performance. Gillberg ( 89 ) showed that a 1-h nap<br />
placed at 0430 (<strong>in</strong> the circadian trough) was more beneficial<br />
to next-day performance than one placed at 2100.<br />
However, while naps dur<strong>in</strong>g the circadian trough may<br />
be more effective for performance susta<strong>in</strong>ment, they<br />
also are the more difficult naps from which to awaken.<br />
Generally, studies have shown that postnap sleep<strong>in</strong>ess,<br />
termed “ sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia, ” is higher and performance is<br />
lower immediately upon awaken<strong>in</strong>g from a nap taken<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the circadian trough as compared to naps taken<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the circadian peak ( 71 ). For this reason, some<br />
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authors suggest that naps <strong>in</strong> the circadian trough should<br />
be avoided, and naps should be taken before a person’s<br />
sleep loss extends beyond 36 h. However, it should be<br />
possible to take advantage of the improved quality of<br />
naps <strong>in</strong> the circadian trough while avoid<strong>in</strong>g the negative<br />
sleep-<strong>in</strong>ertia effects if napp<strong>in</strong>g personnel can be<br />
awakened about 1 h prior to their work shifts. This will<br />
allow time to overcome most of the effects of sleep<br />
<strong>in</strong>ertia.<br />
iii. Circadian Adjustment: The circadian clock cannot<br />
adapt immediately to a change <strong>in</strong> the duty/rest cycle or<br />
changes <strong>in</strong> environmental cues, such as those experienced<br />
with transmeridien travel ( 106 ). When cross<strong>in</strong>g time<br />
zones, the circadian clock is out of sync with the local environment.<br />
Adjustment is usually faster after travel<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong><br />
the westward than the eastward direction ( 27 , 185 ).<br />
Adjustment depends on direction of travel, the number of<br />
time zones crossed, the rhythm be<strong>in</strong>g measured and an<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual’s exposure to time cues (e.g., light/dark cycle).<br />
Adjustment does not appear to be l<strong>in</strong>ear and those who<br />
are even<strong>in</strong>g types ( “ owls ” ) tend to adjust to the new time<br />
zone more quickly relative to morn<strong>in</strong>g types ( “ larks ” ).<br />
Aircrew fatigue result<strong>in</strong>g from circadian disruption is<br />
subject to partial alleviation with hypnotics; however, <strong>in</strong><br />
cases where the crewmember will rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> the new<br />
time zone on a consistent duty schedule for several consecutive<br />
days, it may be better to restore the body’s natural<br />
sleep/wake rhythm through other circadian reentra<strong>in</strong>ment<br />
techniques. Adjust<strong>in</strong>g to new time zones or<br />
work schedules is largely a matter of controll<strong>in</strong>g exposure<br />
to sunlight, plac<strong>in</strong>g meals and activities at appropriate<br />
times, and mak<strong>in</strong>g every effort to optimize sleep<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g available sleep periods ( 11 , 33 , 196 , 220 ). Although<br />
operational requirements often make it difficult, aircrew<br />
should pay close attention to their behaviors follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
schedule changes. Several of the recommendations that<br />
are typically made to help <strong>in</strong>dustrial shiftworkers are<br />
also useful <strong>in</strong> aviation sett<strong>in</strong>gs.<br />
Recommendations for Rotat<strong>in</strong>g to Different Shift Schedules:<br />
• When rema<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g with<strong>in</strong> the same time zone but rotat<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
night duty, avoid morn<strong>in</strong>g sunlight by wear<strong>in</strong>g dark glasses and<br />
by stay<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>doors as much as possible prior to sleep<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• For daytime sleep, make sure the sleep environment is dark and<br />
cool.<br />
• For daytime sleep, use eye masks and earplugs (or a mask<strong>in</strong>g<br />
noise like a box fan) to m<strong>in</strong>imize light and noise <strong>in</strong>terference.<br />
• For daytime sleep, make sure to implement the good sleep habits<br />
discussed previously.<br />
• When on duty at night, try to take a short nap before report<strong>in</strong>g<br />
for duty.<br />
• After wak<strong>in</strong>g from daytime sleep, get at least 2 h of sunlight (or<br />
artificial bright light) <strong>in</strong> the late afternoon or early even<strong>in</strong>g if<br />
possible.<br />
When travel<strong>in</strong>g to a new time, crews will face circadian<br />
disruptions similar to those encountered by people<br />
rotat<strong>in</strong>g from day shift to night shift with<strong>in</strong> the same<br />
time zone. Upon arrival <strong>in</strong> the new time zone (assum<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that this will be the new duty location for several days,<br />
weeks, or months and that crewmembers will be fly<strong>in</strong>g/<br />
work<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the daytime rather than at night), the follow<strong>in</strong>g<br />
recommendations are available to aid <strong>in</strong> adjust<strong>in</strong>g to<br />
new time zones.<br />
Recommendations for Time Zone Adjustments:<br />
• Quickly adjust meal, activity, and sleep times to the new time<br />
zone schedule .<br />
• Maximize sunlight exposure dur<strong>in</strong>g the first part of the day.<br />
• M<strong>in</strong>imize sunlight exposure dur<strong>in</strong>g the afternoons.<br />
• Avoid heavy meals at night because stomach discomfort will<br />
disrupt sleep.<br />
• Follow good sleep habit recommendations to optimize nighttime<br />
sleep.<br />
• Try self-adm<strong>in</strong>istered relaxation techniques to promote nighttime<br />
sleep.<br />
• If possible, prior to bed time, take a hot bath. Cool<strong>in</strong>g off afterwards<br />
may mimic the circadian-related temperature reduction<br />
that normally occurs dur<strong>in</strong>g sleep.<br />
• Dur<strong>in</strong>g the first few days of circadian adjustment, use sleep<br />
medications (if authorized) to promote sleep at night, and use<br />
caffe<strong>in</strong>e to augment alertness dur<strong>in</strong>g the day.<br />
Properly timed bright light is an alternative strategy<br />
for resynchroniz<strong>in</strong>g circadian rhythms after schedule<br />
changes ( 62 , 88 , 185 ). Several researchers have published<br />
recommendations about the use of light to promote circadian<br />
adjustment, but they have po<strong>in</strong>ted out difficulties<br />
associated with the correct tim<strong>in</strong>g of adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
of light therapy as well ( 77 , 117 , 168 ). Consensus reports<br />
summariz<strong>in</strong>g issues related to the use of bright light as a<br />
treatment for jet lag and shift lag also have been published<br />
( 27 , 78 ).<br />
Unfortunately, the difficulties associated with appropriate<br />
tim<strong>in</strong>g of artificial bright light therapy often leave<br />
experts to recommend a reliance on other approaches. In<br />
addition, it is often difficult to establish any type of<br />
bright light facility on the ground much less on board<br />
aircraft. F<strong>in</strong>ally, an approximate understand<strong>in</strong>g of one’s<br />
circadian status is a prerequisite for phase changes with<br />
supplementary melaton<strong>in</strong>. Self-adm<strong>in</strong>istration techniques<br />
such as natural sunlight exposure, appropriately<br />
timed naps, and proper exposure to zeitgebers (time<br />
cues) may facilitate circadian adjustment to new duty or<br />
time zone schedules ( 154 , 167 , 201 , 219 ).<br />
iv. Exercise: Exercise has been shown to be an effective<br />
fatigue countermeasure <strong>in</strong> both the laboratory and aviation<br />
environments. Those who exercise regularly actually<br />
show improved sleep quantity and quality ( 199 ).<br />
However, if engaged <strong>in</strong> too close to bedtime, exercise can<br />
have negative effects on sleep, mak<strong>in</strong>g it more disrupted<br />
( 137 ). Exercise <strong>in</strong>creases physiological arousal and can<br />
help promote alertness <strong>in</strong> the short-term. However, it is<br />
important to consider the level of exercise and the tim<strong>in</strong>g<br />
when determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g its effectiveness as a countermeasure.<br />
Research has suggested that only heavy exercise<br />
(70%VO 2max ) results <strong>in</strong> changes <strong>in</strong> objective vigilance<br />
performance, and the effects last no longer than 30 m<strong>in</strong><br />
( 98 ). These heavy exercise periods were brief (10 m<strong>in</strong>)<br />
because if too long (~1 h), they would actually <strong>in</strong>crease<br />
fatigue and sleep<strong>in</strong>ess levels. When exercise levels were<br />
<strong>in</strong> the light to moderate range, subjects seemed to be<br />
more alert and less sleepy for up to a 15-m<strong>in</strong> postexercise<br />
period. However, more recent research has shown that<br />
If persons who have been work<strong>in</strong>g nights <strong>in</strong> the U.S. will be work<strong>in</strong>g<br />
days <strong>in</strong> Europe, it might not be necessary to readjust the body<br />
clock s<strong>in</strong>ce it already will be on the proper schedule.<br />
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the subjective effects of moderate exercise bouts can last<br />
up to 30 m<strong>in</strong> ( 113 ). Subjects who engaged <strong>in</strong> 10 m<strong>in</strong> of<br />
moderate exercise every 2 h throughout a 40-h sleep deprivation<br />
protocol showed less subjective sleep<strong>in</strong>ess up<br />
to 30 m<strong>in</strong> after exercis<strong>in</strong>g. Similar to other research, no<br />
differences were seen <strong>in</strong> objective performance.<br />
While exercise can be used as a fatigue countermeasure<br />
to improve alertness levels <strong>in</strong> the short term, it can<br />
also <strong>in</strong>duce phase shifts <strong>in</strong> the melaton<strong>in</strong> circadian<br />
rhythm and the circadian clock ( 35 , 78 ). Data collected<br />
by Shiota and colleagues on airl<strong>in</strong>e crewmembers fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a 4-d flight pattern between Tokyo and Los Angeles<br />
(8-h time difference) showed that moderate to heavy<br />
exercise (both <strong>in</strong> orig<strong>in</strong> and dest<strong>in</strong>ation cities) helped<br />
the pilots adapt to the local time zone ( 193 ). This conclusion<br />
was based on subjective sleep/wake diaries,<br />
subjective sleep<strong>in</strong>ess levels, and ur<strong>in</strong>e excretion of<br />
17-hydroxycorticosteroids; however, due to data be<strong>in</strong>g<br />
collected dur<strong>in</strong>g operations, there was no way to conclude<br />
that it was the exercise alone that helped resynchronize<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dividuals to the new environment. S<strong>in</strong>ce<br />
then, controlled studies have evaluated the ability of<br />
exercise to shift circadian rhythms ( 99 ). Barger and colleagues<br />
have evaluated exercise and its effect on circadian<br />
rhythms <strong>in</strong> a controlled environment <strong>in</strong> which light<br />
was held at a constant dim level ( 15 ). The data showed<br />
that over a 15-d trial, exercise of appropriately timed duration<br />
and amount (three 45-m<strong>in</strong> nightly periods), altered<br />
the volunteers ’ melaton<strong>in</strong> profiles. Thus, the outcomes<br />
suggest that exercise can be helpful <strong>in</strong> facilitat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
a delay of the sleep/wake cycle which is experienced<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g westbound travel.<br />
v. Nutrition: While eat<strong>in</strong>g a meal immediately before<br />
the sleep period is not recommended, it is important to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> good nutrition. If personnel eat immediately<br />
before sleep, they should favor gra<strong>in</strong>s, breads, pastas,<br />
vegetables, and/or fruits. At the same time, personnel<br />
should avoid large meals, high-fat meals, high-acid<br />
meals, sweets, and significant hunger.<br />
Normal variations <strong>in</strong> nutrition have few, if any, major<br />
effects on sleep structure ( 123 , 146 ). However, dietary<br />
supplementation and unusual variations <strong>in</strong> diet may<br />
have mild effects. For example, high carbohydrate<br />
(CHO) supplementation prior to bedtime has been associated<br />
with reduced amounts of wakefulness and stage<br />
1 sleep, decreased stage 4 sleep, and <strong>in</strong>creased rapid eye<br />
movement (REM) sleep ( 164 ). The somnolent effects of<br />
high CHO meals may depend <strong>in</strong> part on gender, age,<br />
and time of day of consumption ( 197 ). A CHO lunch has<br />
been shown to <strong>in</strong>crease the length of a siesta ( 236 ). Recently,<br />
it was observed that a 90% CHO meal with a high<br />
glycemic <strong>in</strong>dex (GI) shortened sleep latency by about<br />
50% compared to a low glycemic <strong>in</strong>dex meal, and about<br />
40% when fed 4 h prior to sleep onset compared to 1 h<br />
before ( 4 ). Conversely, drows<strong>in</strong>ess may be offset immediately<br />
after high- and low-GI CHO <strong>in</strong>take, but low-GI<br />
CHO <strong>in</strong>take may delay the onset of drows<strong>in</strong>ess ( 110 ). A<br />
comparison of low-fat, high-CHO meals to high-fat,<br />
low-CHO meals <strong>in</strong>dicated that higher cholecystok<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong><br />
(CCK) concentrations after high-fat, low-CHO meals<br />
were associated with greater feel<strong>in</strong>gs of sleep<strong>in</strong>ess and<br />
fatigue ( 224 ).<br />
The essential am<strong>in</strong>o acid, tryptophan, is a precursor of<br />
the monoam<strong>in</strong>e neurotransmitter seroton<strong>in</strong>. Seroton<strong>in</strong> is<br />
<strong>in</strong>volved <strong>in</strong> the regulation of sleep<strong>in</strong>g and wak<strong>in</strong>g ( 163 ).<br />
The presleep <strong>in</strong>gestion of an am<strong>in</strong>o-acid mixture lack<strong>in</strong>g<br />
tryptophan, compared to the <strong>in</strong>gestion of a mixture conta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
all essential am<strong>in</strong>o acids, caused a decrease <strong>in</strong><br />
stage 4 sleep latency and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong> stage 4 sleep<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g the first 3 h of sleep ( 135 ). Depletion has also<br />
been observed to decrease stage 2 sleep, to <strong>in</strong>crease wake<br />
time after sleep onset and rapid eye movement density,<br />
and to shorten the first and second REM period <strong>in</strong>tervals<br />
( 218 ). Midmorn<strong>in</strong>g tryptophan depletion delays<br />
REM sleep latency dur<strong>in</strong>g the follow<strong>in</strong>g night’s sleep<br />
( 10 ).<br />
Thus, it appears that the purposeful manipulation of<br />
dietary CHO by aircrew to help <strong>in</strong>duce and susta<strong>in</strong> their<br />
sleep periods may be ill-advised due to the unpredictability<br />
of effects. However, tryptophan depletion should<br />
probably be avoided. Obviously, those prone to gastric<br />
reflux disorders should avoid large or high-fat meals before<br />
bedtime.<br />
The failure to eat may trigger sleep disruption and fatigue.<br />
Low blood glucose may elevate plasma glucagon,<br />
with concomitant elevations of heart rate, and blood pressure.<br />
This is not conducive to restful sleep. Of course, hypoglycemia<br />
can lead to poor cognitive performance. Studies<br />
of the effects of <strong>in</strong>termittent fast<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g Ramadan<br />
have revealed <strong>in</strong>creased nocturnal sleep latency, decreased<br />
daytime sleep latencies, and decreased total sleep time.<br />
These effects may be dependent upon the late d<strong>in</strong>ners <strong>in</strong>gested<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g Ramadan ( 172 , 173 ).<br />
Position Statement on Improv<strong>in</strong>g Sleep and Alertness<br />
A number of alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g strategies are available<br />
that do not rely on medications of any type.<br />
Whenever possible, these should be applied dur<strong>in</strong>g offduty<br />
periods to maximize the safety of flight operations.<br />
Promot<strong>in</strong>g quality preduty sleep is essential for ensur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
optimal flight performance. S<strong>in</strong>ce healthy sleep<br />
practices ensure that crews will be able to make the most<br />
of available sleep opportunities, all aircrew members<br />
should be provided with educational materials that outl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
natural sleep-promot<strong>in</strong>g behaviors. In addition,<br />
they should be educated regard<strong>in</strong>g the importance of<br />
naps for bridg<strong>in</strong>g the gap between consolidated sleep<br />
episodes. Naps should be as long as possible and whenever<br />
feasible they should occur at the circadian times<br />
most conducive to natural sleep (i.e., early afternoon or<br />
early predawn hours accord<strong>in</strong>g to the body clock). The<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples outl<strong>in</strong>ed for good sleep hygiene should be<br />
followed to promote optimal nap quality and duration.<br />
Upon awaken<strong>in</strong>g from a nap last<strong>in</strong>g more than 40 m<strong>in</strong><br />
(i.e., where sleep <strong>in</strong>ertia upon awaken<strong>in</strong>g is likely), there<br />
should be a wake-up period of at least 30 m<strong>in</strong> prior to<br />
the performance of any safety-sensitive tasks.<br />
With regard to circadian adjustment techniques, it is our<br />
position that crewmembers who have moved to a new<br />
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time zone or work schedule and who expect to rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong><br />
the new location or on the new schedule for several days<br />
should employ natural adjustment techniques such as controll<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the tim<strong>in</strong>g of light exposure, meals, and other activities.<br />
The detailed recommendations presented earlier<br />
<strong>in</strong> this paper should be followed to the extent possible.<br />
S<strong>in</strong>ce aerobic exercise has been shown to improve the<br />
quality of a subsequent sleep period, it is our position<br />
that crewmembers engage <strong>in</strong> at least 30 m<strong>in</strong> of aerobic<br />
exercise every 24 h. However, s<strong>in</strong>ce exercise <strong>in</strong>creases<br />
body temperature, most sleep experts say the best time<br />
to exercise is usually late afternoon. The exercise period<br />
should not be placed with<strong>in</strong> 2 h immediately preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
bed time <strong>in</strong> order to allow the body to cool ( 76 , 199 , 235 ).<br />
Although evidence is weak that nutrition exerts a<br />
practically significant effect on sleep and alertness, we<br />
recommend that aircrews emphasize balanced meals at<br />
regular <strong>in</strong>tervals to promote and ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> general<br />
health, and that they avoid consum<strong>in</strong>g meals (particularly<br />
large meals) immediately prior to bedtime. It is<br />
possible that the <strong>in</strong>gestion of high-carbohydrate foods<br />
approximately 4 h prior to bedtime may promote sleep,<br />
but <strong>in</strong> general attempt<strong>in</strong>g to control sleep and alertness<br />
by manipulat<strong>in</strong>g dietary constituents is not advised.<br />
c. Non-FDA-Regulated Substances<br />
Alternative, non-FDA-regulated medic<strong>in</strong>es and substances<br />
are sometimes used to counter fatigue through assist<strong>in</strong>g<br />
with sleep or promot<strong>in</strong>g alertness. Melaton<strong>in</strong> is<br />
probably the most used substance of the nonregulated<br />
ones available. Its efficacy as a hypnotic cont<strong>in</strong>ues to be<br />
debated ( 211 , 237 ). Generally, as a sleep aid, it has not consistently<br />
been shown to be cl<strong>in</strong>ically efficacious for <strong>in</strong>somnia<br />
when taken dur<strong>in</strong>g the biological night ( 32 ). However,<br />
there is evidence that melaton<strong>in</strong> has a soporific effect<br />
when taken outside the normal sleep period, particularly<br />
when taken to phase-advance the sleep period ( 8 ).<br />
Melaton<strong>in</strong> adm<strong>in</strong>istration may help to overcome shift<br />
lag <strong>in</strong> operations <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g rapid schedule changes and<br />
jet lag <strong>in</strong> circumstances requir<strong>in</strong>g rapid time zone transitions.<br />
There is a substantial amount of research which<br />
<strong>in</strong>dicates that appropriate adm<strong>in</strong>istration of this hormone<br />
can improve circadian adjustment to new time<br />
schedules ( 9 , 32 , 206 ). There also is evidence that melaton<strong>in</strong><br />
possesses weak hypnotic or “ soporific ” properties<br />
that may facilitate out-of-phase sleep ( 118 , 231 ). Typically,<br />
exogenous melaton<strong>in</strong> should be adm<strong>in</strong>istered at<br />
approximately the desired bed time s<strong>in</strong>ce melaton<strong>in</strong> naturally<br />
peaks after sleep onset. Melaton<strong>in</strong> is especially useful<br />
for facilitation of daytime sleep (early circadian sleep)<br />
but less efficacious for facilitation of normally timed<br />
nocturnal sleep unless one produces little or no melaton<strong>in</strong>.<br />
In normal <strong>in</strong>dividuals who are not stressed with circadian<br />
desynchrony [i.e., <strong>in</strong>dividuals who can safely be<br />
assumed to have a dim light melaton<strong>in</strong> onset (DLMO) <strong>in</strong><br />
the range of ~2000 to 2200], melaton<strong>in</strong> should be <strong>in</strong>gested<br />
<strong>in</strong> the late afternoon (approximately 1700) to<br />
achieve a circadian phase advance, or <strong>in</strong> the morn<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(approximately 0800) to achieve a circadian phase delay<br />
( 34 ). For <strong>in</strong>dividuals who are suffer<strong>in</strong>g from circadian<br />
desynchrony, <strong>in</strong>gestion of melaton<strong>in</strong> or phototherapy<br />
should be used with proper guidance <strong>in</strong> order to avoid a<br />
circadian shift <strong>in</strong> the undesired direction. S<strong>in</strong>ce melaton<strong>in</strong><br />
is not considered a drug, it is widely available for<br />
use with few restrictions, at least <strong>in</strong> the U.S. Unfortunately,<br />
most potential users of melaton<strong>in</strong> possess little<br />
knowledge about circadian rhythms and/or endogenous<br />
melaton<strong>in</strong> secretion, and this could lead to compromised<br />
alertness and decreased performance associated<br />
with improper use.<br />
Other substances to promote sleep are also available,<br />
but most of them have not been studied thoroughly and<br />
their effectiveness has not been established. However, of<br />
these substances, valerian and kava have the most research<br />
on efficacy. A systematic review of valerian concluded<br />
that, while some studies have found some evidence<br />
that valerian has significant effects on sleep, it is<br />
does not have the cl<strong>in</strong>ical efficacy needed to treat <strong>in</strong>somnia<br />
( 203 ). However, evidence suggests that valerian is a<br />
safe herb which can be helpful with mild <strong>in</strong>somnia when<br />
taken cont<strong>in</strong>uously. Good cl<strong>in</strong>ical studies are needed to<br />
establish both its efficacy for severe <strong>in</strong>somnia and its<br />
safety profile ( 95 , 136 , 230 ). Kava has been shown to help<br />
with sleep latency and sleep quality <strong>in</strong> people with <strong>in</strong>somnia,<br />
but more studies are needed to establish its efficacy<br />
and safety as well ( 136 ).<br />
For promot<strong>in</strong>g alertness, caffe<strong>in</strong>e can be considered a<br />
valuable non-FDA-regulated pharmacological fatigue<br />
countermeasure. Numerous studies have shown that<br />
caffe<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong>creases vigilance and improves performance<br />
<strong>in</strong> sleep-deprived <strong>in</strong>dividuals, especially those who normally<br />
do not consume high doses ( 142 ). Caffe<strong>in</strong>e (generally<br />
<strong>in</strong> the form of coffee, tea, or soft dr<strong>in</strong>ks) is already<br />
used as an alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g substance <strong>in</strong> a variety of<br />
civilian and military flight operations, and it has proven<br />
safe and effective. For a very complete review of the applicability<br />
of caffe<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> operations, see the Institute of<br />
Medic<strong>in</strong>e report, especially pp. 79 – 82 ( 56 ). Caffe<strong>in</strong>e is<br />
used best for the short-term elevation of cortical arousal;<br />
regular use may lead to tolerance and various undesirable<br />
side effects, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g elevated blood pressure,<br />
stomach problems, and <strong>in</strong>somnia. Caffe<strong>in</strong>e is widely<br />
available and affects the nervous system with<strong>in</strong> 15 to 20<br />
m<strong>in</strong>. The effects of caffe<strong>in</strong>e last for about 4 to 5 h and<br />
may <strong>in</strong>clude a more rapid heartbeat and sharply <strong>in</strong>creased<br />
alertness/decreased sleep<strong>in</strong>ess; the effects may<br />
last up to 10 h <strong>in</strong> especially sensitive <strong>in</strong>dividuals. There<br />
are <strong>in</strong>dividual differences <strong>in</strong> the effects of caffe<strong>in</strong>e on<br />
sleep. For some personnel, even small amounts can<br />
cause problems sleep<strong>in</strong>g. For others, caffe<strong>in</strong>e has no apparent<br />
detrimental effect on sleep. Chronic overuse may<br />
also cause dehydration, nervousness, and irritability.<br />
Tolerance to cortical arousal occurs with the repeated<br />
consumption of caffe<strong>in</strong>e at more than about 200 to 300<br />
mg per day. Personnel should consume caffe<strong>in</strong>e spar<strong>in</strong>gly,<br />
and save the arousal effect until they really need<br />
it. This is called “ tactical caffe<strong>in</strong>e use. ” The U.S. Armydeveloped<br />
caffe<strong>in</strong>e gum, Stay Alert , is now <strong>in</strong> Army supply<br />
channels (NSN #8925-01-530-1219). It provides an<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
excellent delivery mechanism for caffe<strong>in</strong>e when the latter<br />
is needed dur<strong>in</strong>g prolonged operations. The caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
content of commonly used substances is listed <strong>in</strong> Table<br />
III . More specific guidance regard<strong>in</strong>g caffe<strong>in</strong>e use is provided<br />
<strong>in</strong> Section VI.c.i.<br />
The am<strong>in</strong>o acid tyros<strong>in</strong>e, a precursor of the neurotransmitter<br />
norep<strong>in</strong>ephr<strong>in</strong>e, might be effective <strong>in</strong><br />
counter<strong>in</strong>g the stress-related performance decrement<br />
and mood deterioration associated with sleep deprivation<br />
( 155 ). In a direct test of its effectiveness on cognitive<br />
performance dur<strong>in</strong>g one night of total sleep loss,<br />
150 mg z kg 2 1 of tyros<strong>in</strong>e, adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> a split dose,<br />
resulted <strong>in</strong> an amelioration of the performance decl<strong>in</strong>e<br />
seen on a psychomotor task and a reduction <strong>in</strong> lapse<br />
probability on a vigilance task compared to placebo<br />
( 145 ). The results lasted approximately 3 h. While there<br />
are relatively few data, it appears that tyros<strong>in</strong>e is a relatively<br />
benign substance that may prove useful under<br />
high stress conditions, <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g those associated with<br />
sleep loss.<br />
Position Statement on Non-FDA-Regulated<br />
Substances<br />
While nonregulated substances are easy to purchase<br />
<strong>in</strong> many places <strong>in</strong> the U.S., they should still be consumed<br />
with the same caution as any prescription substance. In<br />
some <strong>in</strong>dividuals, many of the herbal remedies can lead<br />
to sleep<strong>in</strong>ess levels which will impair performance. In<br />
addition, s<strong>in</strong>ce these substances are not under federal<br />
control, the manufactur<strong>in</strong>g quality is left to the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
companies. For example, one study found the stated<br />
amount of melaton<strong>in</strong> and the actual amount of melaton<strong>in</strong><br />
varied considerably between lots as well as with<strong>in</strong><br />
bottles for several brands of melaton<strong>in</strong> sold over the<br />
counter ( 165 ). Research cont<strong>in</strong>ues <strong>in</strong> determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the<br />
safety, dosage, formulation, and time of adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
of melaton<strong>in</strong> s<strong>in</strong>ce this substance shows the most promise<br />
<strong>in</strong> help<strong>in</strong>g sleep and circadian disorders. However,<br />
there is still debate about its use and long-term safety,<br />
and for this reason we do not recommend the use of<br />
melaton<strong>in</strong> to readjust circadian rhythms or to promote<br />
sleep. Other substances such as valerian and kava also<br />
should not be relied upon to manipulate either sleep or<br />
performance. Caffe<strong>in</strong>e, on the other hand, is an effective<br />
alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g compound, and it is our position<br />
TABLE III. CAFFEINE CONTENT OF COMMON DRINKS AND<br />
OVER-THE-COUNTER MEDICINES.<br />
Substance<br />
Average Caffe<strong>in</strong>e Content<br />
1 cup Maxwell House w 100 mg<br />
1 Starbucks w Short 250 mg<br />
1 Starbucks w Tall 375 mg<br />
1 Starbucks w Grande 550 mg<br />
1 Coke w 50 mg<br />
1 Mounta<strong>in</strong> Dew w 55 mg<br />
1 cup tea 50 mg<br />
2 Anac<strong>in</strong> w 65 mg<br />
2 Excedr<strong>in</strong> Xtra. Strength 130 mg<br />
1 Max. Strength NoDoz w 200 mg<br />
that it should cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be used as an aviation fatigue<br />
countermeasure. Crewmembers should adhere to the<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g : 1) avoid <strong>in</strong>gest<strong>in</strong>g more than 1000 mg of caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> any 24-h period; 2) make an effort to use caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
judiciously (i.e., only when it is truly needed to reduce<br />
the impact of fatigue); and 3) avoid <strong>in</strong>gest<strong>in</strong>g caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
with<strong>in</strong> 4 h of bedtime. However, the effects of caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
on sleep are dependent on factors such as usual caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
consumption and age ( 199 ). Here are some situations<br />
where us<strong>in</strong>g caffe<strong>in</strong>e makes sense: 1) lead<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> to the<br />
predawn hours; 2) midafternoon when the alertness dip<br />
is greater because of <strong>in</strong>adequate nocturnal sleep; and 3)<br />
prior to driv<strong>in</strong>g after night duty, but not with<strong>in</strong> 4 h of<br />
go<strong>in</strong>g to sleep.<br />
V. NEW TECHNOLOGIES<br />
The need for real-time fatigue detection technologies<br />
and predictive model<strong>in</strong>g algorithms that focus on m<strong>in</strong>imiz<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fatigue-related errors, <strong>in</strong>cidents, and accidents<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g flight has been realized for several years. This is<br />
largely due to fatigue’s cont<strong>in</strong>ued persistence as an occupational<br />
hazard and the related cognitive deficits that<br />
<strong>in</strong>hibit the ability of an operator to identify decreases <strong>in</strong><br />
alertness ( 31 ). Therefore, many efforts have focused on<br />
develop<strong>in</strong>g unobtrusive technologies that aim to detect<br />
fatigue <strong>in</strong> pilots prior to its onset so that an operationally<br />
valid and effective countermeasure can be implemented.<br />
Advances <strong>in</strong> fatigue technologies and algorithm<br />
development have made this goal achievable. However,<br />
before be<strong>in</strong>g transitioned to operational environments,<br />
these technologies and algorithms must be shown to<br />
meet a number of eng<strong>in</strong>eer<strong>in</strong>g, scientific, practical, and<br />
legal/ethical standards and criteria ( 69 ). Efforts to demonstrate<br />
validity have been conducted through a variety<br />
of venues <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g controlled laboratory sett<strong>in</strong>gs, simulation<br />
research protocols, operational evaluations, and<br />
workshops <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g subject matter experts from the<br />
field ( 68 , 70 , 72 , 100 , 125 , 212 ).<br />
a. On-L<strong>in</strong>e, Real-Time Assessment<br />
On-l<strong>in</strong>e operator status technologies are the most<br />
common of the fatigue monitor<strong>in</strong>g devices because of<br />
their ability to provide mean<strong>in</strong>gful measures of alertness<br />
levels and performance ability <strong>in</strong> real time ( 69 ).<br />
They aim to monitor some aspect of the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s<br />
physiology or behavior that is sensitive to <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g<br />
fatigue and sleep<strong>in</strong>ess levels. Available and develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
on-l<strong>in</strong>e, operator status detection technologies monitor<br />
either the physiological behavior of the <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
(EEG, eye gaze, facial feature recognition) or their<br />
physical characteristics (muscle tone, head position,<br />
percent eye closure, wrist <strong>in</strong>activity). They offer great<br />
potential for pilots who are challenged with ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g<br />
alertness and performance dur<strong>in</strong>g long, uneventful<br />
flights ( 36 ).<br />
Research over the past 40 yr has established the EEG<br />
as a highly predictive and reliable neural <strong>in</strong>dex of cognition<br />
along with event-related bra<strong>in</strong> potentials (ERPs)<br />
( 82 ). It has been accepted as the ‘” gold standard ” for the<br />
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detection of impaired alertness. These EEG signals and<br />
analyses are now be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to a real-time<br />
technological countermeasure device for fatigue detection<br />
( 109 ). For example, the B-alert w ( 20 ) has been validated<br />
as an alertness <strong>in</strong>dicator for driver fatigue ( 115 )<br />
and has also demonstrated sensitivity to <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
fatigue vulnerability ( 116 ). The B-alert w system can also<br />
be implemented <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation with ERPs to capture a<br />
more detailed image of <strong>in</strong>formation process<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the<br />
bra<strong>in</strong> ( 20 ). Other researchers (e.g., 120 ) are also develop<strong>in</strong>g<br />
EEG-based drows<strong>in</strong>ess estimation systems based on<br />
computed correlations between changes <strong>in</strong> EEG power<br />
spectrum and fluctuations <strong>in</strong> driv<strong>in</strong>g performance. From<br />
this <strong>in</strong>formation, <strong>in</strong>dividualized l<strong>in</strong>ear regression models<br />
for each subject applied to pr<strong>in</strong>cipal components of<br />
EEG spectra can be constructed for further real-time<br />
monitor<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
Although the detection of fatigue based on the EEG<br />
changes that occur simultaneously <strong>in</strong> the delta, theta,<br />
alpha, and beta bands has been accepted as a valid<br />
measure of fatigue, obta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g bra<strong>in</strong> wave activity <strong>in</strong><br />
the operational environment is often times not feasible.<br />
Research has shown that the eye and visual system,<br />
under central nervous system control, can also provide<br />
<strong>in</strong>formation about an <strong>in</strong>dividual’s alertness level and<br />
cognitive state ( 39 , 121 , 112 , 207 ). Deteriorations <strong>in</strong> many<br />
ocular measures occur with fatigue and extended wak<strong>in</strong>g<br />
periods, with the most sensitive be<strong>in</strong>g those that<br />
change just prior to the sleep onset period, such as eye<br />
bl<strong>in</strong>ks, long duration eye closures, eye movements,<br />
and pupillary response. Various devices have been designed<br />
to monitor these ocular changes, but each device<br />
differs somewhat <strong>in</strong> terms of exactly what is measured,<br />
how it is measured, and how the data are<br />
processed. In addition, there are differences <strong>in</strong> the precise<br />
nature of the fatigue-monitor<strong>in</strong>g algorithms and <strong>in</strong><br />
the hardware technology used to obta<strong>in</strong> the ocular<br />
measures. Some are unobtrusive and require simple<br />
video while others can require the user to place a sensor<br />
near the eye or require the person to wear specially<br />
equipped eyeglasses. A number of promis<strong>in</strong>g ocular<br />
devices are <strong>in</strong> the validation phase for real-time, non<strong>in</strong>vasive<br />
detection of operator fatigue. These <strong>in</strong>clude<br />
devices that assess the percentage of eye closure, such<br />
as the Co-Pilot (Attention Technologies, PA), Optalert<br />
(Sleep Diagnostics, Australia), and Eye-Com (Eye-Com<br />
Corp., Reno, NV). Selection of the PERCLOS metric (a<br />
measure of the proportion of time subjects had slow<br />
eye closures; 228 , 229 ) for these devices is based on research<br />
demonstrat<strong>in</strong>g its high correlation with psychomotor<br />
vigilance behavior ( 70 ).<br />
Facial feature recognition technology is also currently<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g validated as a fatigue detection device ( 73 , 94 ;<br />
D<strong>in</strong>ges DF. Personal communication; 2008). The simultaneous<br />
extraction of changes <strong>in</strong> multiple locations on<br />
the face such as around the eyes, nose, and mouth provide<br />
a great deal of <strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual<br />
alertness levels. Moreover, Ji, Zhu, and Lan ( 102 ) have<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated other critical factors such as PERCLOS and<br />
circadian variations <strong>in</strong>to facial feature recognition technology<br />
for the development of a real-time, non<strong>in</strong>trusive<br />
monitor device for fatigue.<br />
Additional fatigue detection devices that compared<br />
successfully to the EEG technique and/or the PERCLOS<br />
technique <strong>in</strong>clude a wrist-worn alertness device that<br />
triggers an alarm sound when wrist <strong>in</strong>activity occurs for<br />
a preset amount of time (e.g., 5 m<strong>in</strong>; 233 ) and a device<br />
that assesses head position “ XYZ ” data analyzed over<br />
various time periods to signify micronods or microsleeps<br />
( 104 ).<br />
All fatigue detection devices, <strong>in</strong>dependent of the variable<br />
be<strong>in</strong>g measured, have both positive and negative<br />
aspects. Their usefulness as real-time technologies is dependent<br />
on the requirements and conditions of the operational<br />
environment and some may not even be practical<br />
for use <strong>in</strong> highly restrictive environments such as the<br />
flight deck. For example, based on a study that showed<br />
an automated PERCLOS device was effective <strong>in</strong> improv<strong>in</strong>g<br />
alertness and performance <strong>in</strong> truck drivers ( 125 ), a<br />
similar study was conducted <strong>in</strong> a B747-400 flight simulator<br />
( 127 ). The goal of the study was to establish the feasibility,<br />
potential usefulness, and applicability of the automated<br />
PERCLOS monitor for drows<strong>in</strong>ess detection and<br />
mitigation of fatigue on the flight deck. The automated<br />
PERCLOS system with feedback did not significantly<br />
counteract decrements <strong>in</strong> performance, physiological<br />
sleep<strong>in</strong>ess, or mood on the flight deck, which was very<br />
different from the results found <strong>in</strong> the truck-driv<strong>in</strong>g environment.<br />
This was largely due to the PERCLOS system<br />
hav<strong>in</strong>g a limited field of view that could not capture<br />
pilots ’ eyes at all times dur<strong>in</strong>g the flight due to operational<br />
requirements of constant visual scann<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
head movements. These results clearly demonstrate<br />
that, although an automated, real-time technology may<br />
be valid <strong>in</strong> one operational environment, it does not always<br />
transition to another operational environment<br />
without the emergence of implementation obstacles.<br />
b. Off-L<strong>in</strong>e <strong>Fatigue</strong> Prediction Algorithms<br />
Off-l<strong>in</strong>e fatigue prediction algorithms are be<strong>in</strong>g developed<br />
to provide an estimate of an <strong>in</strong>dividuals ’ alertness<br />
level or performance effectiveness dur<strong>in</strong>g a work<br />
period to be performed <strong>in</strong> the future. These measures<br />
(e.g., alertness levels, performance estimates) of physiological<br />
state are measured relative to a standard such as<br />
the <strong>in</strong>dividual’s basel<strong>in</strong>e and/or a group norm ( 91 ). For<br />
example, ocular-based, read<strong>in</strong>ess-to-perform, or fitnessfor-duty<br />
devices often measure various aspects of the<br />
visual system of the <strong>in</strong>dividual prior to a duty period to<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>e if they can ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> optimal performance<br />
throughout the work period ( 60 ). Such a device as the<br />
FIT device ( 161 ) has already been shown to detect<br />
changes attributable to sleep loss ( 182 – 184 ).<br />
Over the years, there have also been recent developments<br />
of biomathematical models of alertness for the<br />
prediction of alertness and performance levels ( 125 ).<br />
They can be very useful <strong>in</strong> the prediction of performance<br />
or effectiveness levels when compar<strong>in</strong>g different operational<br />
schedules. Although models can differ <strong>in</strong> their<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
specific algorithm, they all aim to model the <strong>in</strong>teraction<br />
of sleep and circadian processes and effects on the sleep/<br />
wake cycle and wak<strong>in</strong>g neurobehavioral performance.<br />
The operational usefulness of these models lies directly<br />
<strong>in</strong> them be<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>corporated <strong>in</strong>to schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools. Such<br />
tools can be used to develop work schedules that maximize<br />
safety by: 1) predict<strong>in</strong>g times when performance is<br />
optimal; 2) identify<strong>in</strong>g timeframes <strong>in</strong> which recovery<br />
sleep will be most restorative; and 3) determ<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g what<br />
impact proposed work/rest schedules will have on<br />
overall neurobehavioral function<strong>in</strong>g ( 126 ).<br />
Models of alertness and performance vary <strong>in</strong> their specific<br />
algorithms and differ <strong>in</strong> the number and type of <strong>in</strong>put<br />
variables, output variables, and goals and capabilities.<br />
It is also important to consider the operational<br />
environment for their <strong>in</strong>tended use. Of the seven models<br />
evaluated at a model<strong>in</strong>g workshop sponsored by the U.S.<br />
Department of Defense, U.S. Department of Transportation,<br />
and NASA, only two of them specifically relied on<br />
aviation data for development or stated their relevance<br />
to aviation operations ( 126 ). At the time of the workshop<br />
<strong>in</strong> 2002, the System for Aircrew <strong>Fatigue</strong> Evaluation<br />
(SAFE) model was specifically developed for aviation<br />
operations. It had been adjusted us<strong>in</strong>g data collected on<br />
long-haul flights and required aviation-specific variables<br />
for its <strong>in</strong>put ( 19 ). Another model, the Sleep, Activity and<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> Task Effectiveness (SAFTE) model was developed<br />
for military and <strong>in</strong>dustrial sett<strong>in</strong>gs and <strong>in</strong>cluded a<br />
translation function for pilots. The SAFTE model is the<br />
foundation of the <strong>Fatigue</strong> Avoidance Schedul<strong>in</strong>g Tool<br />
(FAST), which was designed to help optimize the operational<br />
management of aviation ground- and flightcrews<br />
( 101 ). While all of the biomathematical model<strong>in</strong>g software<br />
showed promise <strong>in</strong> the prediction of performance,<br />
there is room to improve their validity and reliability<br />
based on ref<strong>in</strong>ements with real world data, and they<br />
should not be transitioned to operational environments<br />
until their scientific validity can be demonstrated ( 66 ).<br />
Position Statement on New Technologies<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> detection technologies (fitness for duty and<br />
real-time assessment devices) and schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools that<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporate biomathematical models of alertness should<br />
not be solely relied upon for the determ<strong>in</strong>ation of safe or<br />
‘ fatigue-free ’ flights. They are tools that can be effectively<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated as part of an overall safety management<br />
approach and should not be used <strong>in</strong> place of regulatory<br />
limitations. Selection of the ‘ best tool ’ should be<br />
dependent on its demonstrated validity for mitigat<strong>in</strong>g fatigue<br />
risk dur<strong>in</strong>g aviation operations .<br />
At present, none of the real-time fatigue detection<br />
technologies have been sufficiently proven <strong>in</strong> an aviation<br />
environment (with the possible exception of the<br />
wrist-worn alertness device that triggers an alarm sound<br />
when wrist <strong>in</strong>activity occurs for a preset amount of time)<br />
to warrant widespread implementation. However, some<br />
crew schedul<strong>in</strong>g approaches based on validated fatigueprediction<br />
models have already been proven, to a limited<br />
extent, feasible and worthwhile. The SAFTE model<br />
for <strong>in</strong>stance, is currently be<strong>in</strong>g used <strong>in</strong> a number of aviation<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>gs to evaluate the fatigu<strong>in</strong>g impact of different<br />
schedules and to help design better alternatives.<br />
Ref<strong>in</strong>ement of both the new fatigue monitor<strong>in</strong>g technologies<br />
and scientifically based schedul<strong>in</strong>g software<br />
must cont<strong>in</strong>ue, and once they are validated for specific<br />
types of operations, they should be <strong>in</strong>corporated as part<br />
of an overall safety management approach supplement<strong>in</strong>g<br />
regulatory duty limitations. <strong>Fatigue</strong> detection technologies<br />
and biomathematical models can also be used<br />
<strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation. The onl<strong>in</strong>e, realtime measurements (e.<br />
g., actigraphy, performance measures) could be used as<br />
<strong>in</strong>put data to the schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools, thus <strong>in</strong>creas<strong>in</strong>g their<br />
predictive value, be<strong>in</strong>g reflective of what is occurr<strong>in</strong>g<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g actual operations. Research is also needed to<br />
identify embedded (fly<strong>in</strong>g) performance metrics that<br />
are sensitive to fatigue over time, allow<strong>in</strong>g for model ref<strong>in</strong>ement<br />
and cont<strong>in</strong>uous assessment of the safety of<br />
operations.<br />
A f<strong>in</strong>al consideration <strong>in</strong> the development of new technologies<br />
is to comb<strong>in</strong>e biomathematical models of alertness<br />
with schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools that do not have a foundation<br />
<strong>in</strong> sleep and circadian research (e.g., tools that<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporate labor contract rules, government regulations,<br />
available staff, vacation time, currency tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g,<br />
etc.). Comb<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the two would result <strong>in</strong> schedul<strong>in</strong>g regimes<br />
that consider both the physiological limitations of<br />
humans and operational constra<strong>in</strong>ts, result<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> both<br />
compliant and safe operations.<br />
VI. MILITARY AVIATION<br />
a. Relevant Regulations and Policies<br />
A review of the fatigue management (crew rest) policies<br />
implemented by the U.S. Army, the U.S. Air Force,<br />
and the U.S. Navy shows far less complexity than is<br />
found <strong>in</strong> the civil aviation regulations. Complete guidance<br />
may be found <strong>in</strong> Army Regulation 385-95 (10 Jan<br />
2000), Air Force Instruction 11-202 v3 (05 Apr 2006), and<br />
OPNAV Instruction 3710.7T (01 Mar 04).<br />
b. Crew Rest and Duty Limitations<br />
The primary requirement for crew rest and duty limitations<br />
is somewhat similar to that specified <strong>in</strong> the civil<br />
aviation regulations; specifically, that 8 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
rest be obta<strong>in</strong>ed prior to the duty period. The U.S. Air<br />
Force <strong>in</strong>struction requires a 12-h nonduty crew rest period<br />
<strong>in</strong> which 8 h of un<strong>in</strong>terrupted sleep must be obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> the 12 h prior to duty. If this 8-h sleep period is<br />
<strong>in</strong>terrupted, another 8 h must be added. The U.S. Navy<br />
<strong>in</strong>struction requires that 8 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous rest be<br />
obta<strong>in</strong>ed with<strong>in</strong> the 24-h period, and that any cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
wakefulness period should not exceed 18 h. If the<br />
18-h requirement is not met, a m<strong>in</strong>imum of 15 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
off-duty time must follow. The U.S. Army at one<br />
time had one of the most detailed crew rest and duty<br />
limitation guides of the three U.S. services. However,<br />
the Army guidance now more generally states that commanders<br />
are responsible for endurance management by<br />
ensur<strong>in</strong>g that fatigue is controlled or elim<strong>in</strong>ated as a risk<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
factor <strong>in</strong> all operations by provid<strong>in</strong>g for sufficient sleep<br />
time <strong>in</strong> each 24-h period as well as for circadian adjustment<br />
of the <strong>in</strong>dividual body clocks of personnel chang<strong>in</strong>g<br />
time zones or work cycles. Army commanders are<br />
directed to consult the Leaders Guide to Crew Endurance<br />
Management ( 57 ) for complete details.<br />
Air Force Instruction 11-202, Vol. 3, offers some of the<br />
most detailed current guidance. It advises commanders<br />
and mission planners to consider fatigue-related factors<br />
for upcom<strong>in</strong>g flight missions <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the fatigu<strong>in</strong>g impact<br />
of adverse weather, temperature extremes, night<br />
operations, and mission delays, as well as the fatigue<br />
from sleep loss and cont<strong>in</strong>uous work. Additional guidance,<br />
paraphrased from Air Force Instruction 11-202<br />
(waivers may be requested for specific circumstances)<br />
and the U.S. Navy guidance paraphrased from Chief of<br />
Naval Operations Instruction 3710.7T, are listed below:<br />
U.S. Air Force Guidance for Schedul<strong>in</strong>g Flight Missions to Avoid<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> <strong>in</strong> Aircrew:<br />
• Provisions should be made for augment<strong>in</strong>g flightcrews when<br />
possible to permit <strong>in</strong>-flight rest periods.<br />
• Cockpit naps (taken by one crewmember at a time) of up to 45<br />
m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> duration are authorized dur<strong>in</strong>g noncritical flight phases,<br />
and multiple naps are permitted when feasible.<br />
• Crew bunks or other suitable rest facilities should be provided<br />
on board aircraft when possible.<br />
• Adequate crew rest is required prior to flight duty periods.<br />
Normally, this means 12 h off duty every 24 h. There should be<br />
a m<strong>in</strong>imum of 10 h of restful time that <strong>in</strong>cludes an opportunity<br />
for at least 8 h of un<strong>in</strong>terrupted sleep dur<strong>in</strong>g the 12 h preced<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the flight duty period.<br />
• Shorter off-duty periods of 10 h may be used as an exception <strong>in</strong><br />
cont<strong>in</strong>uous operations, but this exception should be m<strong>in</strong>imized,<br />
and after several days of shorter off-duty periods, commanders<br />
should provide sufficient rest to counter cumulative fatigue.<br />
• Maximum fly<strong>in</strong>g time should be limited to 56 h per 7 d, 125 h<br />
per 30 d, and 330 h per 90 consecutive days.<br />
• If nonflight duties significantly extend the overall duty period<br />
(by 2 h or more), consideration should be given to reduc<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
number of allowed flight hours.<br />
• Generally speak<strong>in</strong>g, the maximum flight duty period for any<br />
given day should fall with<strong>in</strong> the range of 12 to16 h <strong>in</strong> situations<br />
where crew augmentation is not possible.<br />
• When augmented crews are an option, duty days normally can<br />
extend to 16 to 24 h (<strong>in</strong> the case of the B-2 Bomber, some missions<br />
extend to 44 h).<br />
• Factors affect<strong>in</strong>g maximum flight duty period <strong>in</strong>clude: s<strong>in</strong>gle vs.<br />
multiseat aircraft, level of automation, availability of onboard<br />
rest facilities, and type of flight mission.<br />
• Alertness management strategies such as techniques to promote<br />
preduty sleep, extended crew rest periods, controlled<br />
cockpit rest, bright light exposure, activity breaks, pharmacological<br />
sleep and alertness aids, and fatigue management education<br />
should be implemented as appropriate.<br />
U.S. Navy Guidance for Schedul<strong>in</strong>g Flight Missions to Avoid<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> <strong>in</strong> Aircrew:<br />
• Schedule ground time between flight operations to allow flightcrew<br />
to eat and obta<strong>in</strong> at least 8 h of un<strong>in</strong>terrupted sleep.<br />
• Flightcrew should not be scheduled for cont<strong>in</strong>uous alert or<br />
flight duty <strong>in</strong> excess of 18 h. If mission requirements exceed 18<br />
h, then 15 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous off-duty time should be provided.<br />
• Follow<strong>in</strong>g a time zone change of at least 3 h, flightcrew requires<br />
close observation by the flight surgeon s<strong>in</strong>ce performance<br />
will be compromised dur<strong>in</strong>g the adjustment period.<br />
• For s<strong>in</strong>gle-piloted aircraft: Daily flight time should not exceed 3<br />
flights or 6.5 h total flight time for flight personnel. The weekly<br />
maximum flight time should not normally exceed 30 h, 65 h<br />
per 30 d, 165 h per 90 d, and 595 h per 365 d.<br />
• For multipiloted aircraft: Individual daily flight time should not<br />
exceed 12 h for flight personnel. The weekly maximum flight<br />
time for ejection seat aircraft should not normally exceed 50 h,<br />
80 h per 30 d (100 and 120 for nonpressurized and pressurized<br />
aircraft, respectively), 200 h per 90 d (265 and 320 for nonpressurized<br />
and pressurized aircraft, respectively), and 720 h per<br />
365 d (960 and 1120 for nonpressurized and pressurized aircraft,<br />
respectively). These limitations assume an average requirement<br />
of 4 h of ground time for brief<strong>in</strong>g and debrief<strong>in</strong>g.<br />
• If operational tempo requires the flight time limitations to be<br />
exceeded, the command<strong>in</strong>g officer, with the flight surgeon’s<br />
advice, will closely monitor and specifically clear flight personnel,<br />
comment<strong>in</strong>g particularly <strong>in</strong> regard to stress level and adequacy<br />
of rest and nutrition.<br />
• Particular notice should be made of flights <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g contour,<br />
nap of the Earth, chemical defense gear, night and night vision<br />
devices, and adverse environmental factors (i.e., dust, cloud<br />
cover, precipitation) s<strong>in</strong>ce these flights are more stressful and<br />
demand<strong>in</strong>g than daytime VFR conditions.<br />
c. Stimulants/Wake Promoters<br />
As noted above, alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g medications are<br />
one option for susta<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the wakefulness of flightcrews<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g extended missions <strong>in</strong> which adequate crew rest<br />
is not possible. Needless to say, these compounds should<br />
not be considered a replacement for adequate crew rest<br />
plann<strong>in</strong>g and they should never be considered a substitute<br />
for restorative sleep. However, <strong>in</strong> susta<strong>in</strong>ed aviation<br />
operations, the occasional use of the alertnessenhanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
medications such as dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(authorized by all three U.S. services) and modaf<strong>in</strong>il<br />
(authorized for use <strong>in</strong> the U.S. Air Force) can often significantly<br />
enhance the safety and effectiveness of sleepdeprived<br />
personnel.<br />
Modaf<strong>in</strong>il (Provigil w , Vigilw , Alertecw and others): The<br />
prescription drug modaf<strong>in</strong>il (100 to 200 mg) exerts a wide<br />
array of positive effects on alertness and performance.<br />
Lagarde and Batejat ( 108 ) found that 200-mg<br />
doses every 8 h reduced episodes of microsleeps and<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed more normal (i.e., rested) mental states and<br />
performance levels than placebo for 44 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
wakefulness (but not the full 60 h of sleep deprivation).<br />
Wesensten et al. ( 226 ) found 200 to 400 mg doses of<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il effectively countered performance and alertness<br />
decrements <strong>in</strong> volunteers kept awake for over 48 h.<br />
Caldwell and colleagues ( 47 ) found that 200 mg of<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il every 4 h ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed the simulator flight performance<br />
of pilots at near-well-rested levels despite 40 h<br />
of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness, but that there were compla<strong>in</strong>ts<br />
of nausea and vertigo (likely due to the high dosage<br />
used). A more recent study with U.S. Air Force F-117<br />
pilots <strong>in</strong>dicated that three 100-mg doses of modaf<strong>in</strong>il (adm<strong>in</strong>istered<br />
every 5 h) susta<strong>in</strong>ed flight performance with<strong>in</strong><br />
27% of basel<strong>in</strong>e levels dur<strong>in</strong>g the latter part of a 37-h period<br />
of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness. Performance under the<br />
no-treatment condition was degraded by over 82% ( 46 ).<br />
Similar beneficial effects were seen on measures of alertness<br />
and cognitive performance. Furthermore, the lower<br />
dose produced these positive effects without caus<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
side effects noted <strong>in</strong> the earlier study ( 47 ). Due to these<br />
and other positive results, modaf<strong>in</strong>il is ga<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g popularity<br />
as a way to enhance the alertness of sleepy personnel,<br />
largely because it is considered safer and less addictive<br />
than compounds such as the amphetam<strong>in</strong>es. Modaf<strong>in</strong>il<br />
also produces less cardiovascular stimulation than<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
amphetam<strong>in</strong>e, and despite its half-life of approximately<br />
12 to 15 h ( 159 , 169 ), the drug’s impact on sleep architecture<br />
is m<strong>in</strong>imal. However, it should be kept <strong>in</strong> m<strong>in</strong>d that<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il has not been as thoroughly tested as dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> real-world operational environments<br />
and some data suggests that modaf<strong>in</strong>il is less effective<br />
than amphetam<strong>in</strong>e ( 132 ). Nevertheless, approval has<br />
been received for the use of modaf<strong>in</strong>il <strong>in</strong> certa<strong>in</strong> longrange<br />
U.S. Air Force combat aviation missions, and it is<br />
likely that modaf<strong>in</strong>il soon will be approved for use <strong>in</strong> the<br />
U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy.<br />
Amphetam<strong>in</strong>e (Dexedr<strong>in</strong>e w , Dextrostatw ): Dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(5 to 10 mg) has been authorized for use by all<br />
three U.S. services for certa<strong>in</strong> types of lengthy (i.e., 12 or<br />
more hours) flight missions. In comparison to caffe<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e appears to offer a more consistent<br />
and prolonged alert<strong>in</strong>g effect ( 223 ). In comparison to<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il, studies suggest that amphetam<strong>in</strong>e is either<br />
more efficacious ( 132 ) or, at least <strong>in</strong> the case of 40-h sleepdeprivation<br />
periods, equivalent ( 41 ,160 ,225 ). In terms of<br />
the efficacy of amphetam<strong>in</strong>e as a fatigue countermeasure,<br />
Newhouse et al. ( 148 ) studied d-amphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(5, 10, or 20 mg) <strong>in</strong> people deprived of sleep for over 48<br />
h and found that 20 mg d-amphetam<strong>in</strong>e (adm<strong>in</strong>istered<br />
after 41 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness) produced marked<br />
improvements <strong>in</strong> addition/subtraction (last<strong>in</strong>g for over<br />
10 h), a gradual improvement <strong>in</strong> logical reason<strong>in</strong>g<br />
(significant between 5.5 and 7.5 h postdose), a longlast<strong>in</strong>g<br />
improvement <strong>in</strong> the speed of respond<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the choice reaction-time task (10 h), and an <strong>in</strong>crease <strong>in</strong><br />
alertness for 7 h. It was noted that the drug did not impair<br />
judgment. The 10-mg dose exerted fewer and<br />
shorter-last<strong>in</strong>g effects, whereas the 5-mg dose was <strong>in</strong>effective.<br />
Two flight simulation studies <strong>in</strong>volv<strong>in</strong>g U.S.<br />
Army pilots <strong>in</strong>dicated that repeated 10-mg doses of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
(given at midnight, 0400, and 0800)<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong>ed flight performance and alertness nearly at<br />
well-rested levels throughout 40 h of cont<strong>in</strong>uous wakefulness<br />
( 44 , 45 ). Benefits were especially noticeable between<br />
0300 and 1100, when fatigue-related problems<br />
were most severe. In a later study, 10 pilots completed a<br />
series of 1-h sorties <strong>in</strong> a specially <strong>in</strong>strumented UH-60<br />
helicopter dur<strong>in</strong>g 40 h of sleep deprivation. The results<br />
revealed that 10-mg doses of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e susta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
performance nearly as well under actual <strong>in</strong>-flight<br />
conditions as <strong>in</strong> the laboratory ( 42 ). A follow-on simulator<br />
<strong>in</strong>vestigation extended these f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs by show<strong>in</strong>g<br />
that with additional amphetam<strong>in</strong>e dos<strong>in</strong>g, pilot performance<br />
and alertness could be susta<strong>in</strong>ed for over 58 cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
hours of wakefulness (2 nights of sleep loss)<br />
( 50 ). Reports from the field <strong>in</strong>dicate dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
has been used successfully <strong>in</strong> a number of combat situations<br />
such as Vietnam ( 58 ), the 1986 Air Force strike on<br />
Libya ( 192 ), and Operation Desert Shield/Storm ( 59 ).<br />
Emonson and Vanderbeek ( 81 ) found that U.S. Air Force<br />
pilots who were adm<strong>in</strong>istered dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e dur<strong>in</strong>g<br />
Operation Desert Shield/Storm were better able to<br />
ma<strong>in</strong>ta<strong>in</strong> acceptable performance dur<strong>in</strong>g cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
and susta<strong>in</strong>ed missions, and that the medication contributed<br />
to both safety and effectiveness. To date, no major<br />
side effects or other problems have been reported<br />
from the medical use of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> military<br />
sett<strong>in</strong>gs. In light of these and other f<strong>in</strong>d<strong>in</strong>gs, dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
doses of 10 to 20 mg (not to exceed 60 mg per<br />
day) are recommended for situations <strong>in</strong> which heavily<br />
fatigued military pilots simply must complete the mission<br />
despite dangerous levels of sleep deprivation.<br />
Guidance from the U.S. Air Force is shown below.<br />
U.S. Air Force Combat <strong>Aviation</strong> Operations Guidance for Use of<br />
Stimulants:<br />
• Prior to the operational use of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e or<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il, an <strong>in</strong>formed consent agreement must be obta<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
to ensure that crews are fully aware of both the positive and<br />
the potential negative effects of these compounds.<br />
• The decision to authorize the use of alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
compounds should be made by the W<strong>in</strong>g Commander <strong>in</strong> conjunction<br />
with the Senior Flight Surgeon.<br />
• All distribution of alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g medications must be<br />
closely monitored and documented.<br />
• Ground test<strong>in</strong>g (dur<strong>in</strong>g nonflight periods) is required prior to<br />
operational use.<br />
• The currently authorized dose of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e is 5 to<br />
10 mg, and although the dos<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>terval is not explicitly<br />
stated, a 4-h <strong>in</strong>terval is often recommended. No more than 60<br />
mg should be adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> any 24-h period, and often, no<br />
more than 30 mg are adm<strong>in</strong>istered.<br />
• The currently authorized dose of modaf<strong>in</strong>il is 200 mg every 8<br />
h, not to exceed 400 mg <strong>in</strong> any 24-h period; however, recent<br />
F-117 research has <strong>in</strong>dicated that 100-mg doses also are efficacious<br />
(and this lower dose is authorized as well).<br />
• The use of alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g compounds normally can be<br />
authorized <strong>in</strong> fighter missions longer than 8 h or bomber missions<br />
longer than 12 h (although exceptions can be made).<br />
• Caffe<strong>in</strong>e generally is not considered to be a suitable alternative<br />
for modaf<strong>in</strong>il or dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e; however, caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
<strong>in</strong> the form of foods or beverages may be consumed without<br />
restriction. Caffe<strong>in</strong>e <strong>in</strong> the form of tablets or capsules can only<br />
be used after flight surgeon approval.<br />
The U.S. Army and U.S. Navy guidance is mostly consistent<br />
with U.S. Air Force guidance with the most notable<br />
exception be<strong>in</strong>g that modaf<strong>in</strong>il is not currently authorized<br />
<strong>in</strong> the Army or Navy. The U.S. Army guidance for<br />
use of dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e endorses the adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
of 5- to 10-mg doses and specifies that no more than 30<br />
mg may be used <strong>in</strong> any 24-h period. It is also stated that<br />
the medication not be used to susta<strong>in</strong> wakefulness longer<br />
than 64 cont<strong>in</strong>uous hours. The U.S. Navy guidance suggests<br />
that dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e be adm<strong>in</strong>istered <strong>in</strong> 5-mg<br />
doses which may be repeated every 2 to 3 h; however, total<br />
dosage should not exceed 30 mg <strong>in</strong> any 24-h period.<br />
An upper level for the duration of any period of cont<strong>in</strong>uous<br />
wakefulness is not specified, but it is clear that extended<br />
periods without sleep should be avoided.<br />
Position Statement on the Use of Stimulants to<br />
Susta<strong>in</strong> Flight Performance<br />
Alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g compounds of some description<br />
are already authorized for use <strong>in</strong> all U.S. military<br />
services dur<strong>in</strong>g periods of unavoidable sleep deprivation.<br />
Thus far, the U.S. Air Force is the only service that<br />
has authorized the use of both modaf<strong>in</strong>il and dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e,<br />
whereas only dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e is<br />
currently authorized by the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy.<br />
Based on Air Force experience, it is recommended that<br />
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FATIGUE COUNTERMEASURES — CALDWELL ET AL.<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il use be sanctioned by all three U.S. services<br />
under guidance consistent with that currently followed<br />
by the Air Force. Relatively uncontrolled caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
use is also an option <strong>in</strong> all three U.S. services,<br />
and the use of caffe<strong>in</strong>e, while not recommended as a<br />
primary pharmacological fatigue countermeasure,<br />
should cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be sanctioned by the U.S. services.<br />
Aircrew should avoid habituation to caffe<strong>in</strong>e and take<br />
advantage of the cortical stimulant properties of caffe<strong>in</strong>e<br />
when it is needed to help ensure safe operations.<br />
More specifically, when aircrews are not suffer<strong>in</strong>g from<br />
the effects of fatigue, they should limit their total daily<br />
caffe<strong>in</strong>e consumption from all sources to 200 to 250 mg<br />
per day . Additional doses of caffe<strong>in</strong>e should be used<br />
dur<strong>in</strong>g situations <strong>in</strong> which fatigue elevates the risk of<br />
a mishap. These situations may <strong>in</strong>clude low-workload,<br />
long-duration transits over land or water dur<strong>in</strong>g the<br />
predawn hours; approach and land<strong>in</strong>g dur<strong>in</strong>g the predawn<br />
hours; and approach and land<strong>in</strong>g at the end of<br />
an extraord<strong>in</strong>arily long crew duty day. In any given<br />
24-h period, the total amount of caffe<strong>in</strong>e consumed<br />
should not exceed 1000 mg. Aircrew should be aware<br />
of the 4-6-h half-life of circulat<strong>in</strong>g caffe<strong>in</strong>e and preplan<br />
its use such that postduty day sleep is disturbed m<strong>in</strong>imally<br />
by caffe<strong>in</strong>e use.<br />
With the exception of caffe<strong>in</strong>e and various nutritional<br />
supplements, no alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g medications are<br />
currently authorized for use <strong>in</strong> any type of civil aviation<br />
operation. Due to the fact that civil operations generally<br />
are more predictable than military operations, and due<br />
to the fact that prolonged periods of sleep deprivation<br />
are not the norm <strong>in</strong> civil operations (whereas such periods<br />
are often unavoidable <strong>in</strong> the military sector), it<br />
would seem prudent to withhold widespread authorization<br />
of prescription alertness enhancers <strong>in</strong> the civilian<br />
aviation sector. Also, there is the matter that <strong>in</strong>tense military<br />
operations are generally time limited, expos<strong>in</strong>g<br />
military pilots to only relatively brief periods <strong>in</strong> which<br />
<strong>in</strong>tense sleep deprivation necessitates the adm<strong>in</strong>istration<br />
of appropriate counter-fatigue medications, whereas<br />
civil operations cont<strong>in</strong>ue day <strong>in</strong> and day out for the duration<br />
of a pilot’s career, potentially expos<strong>in</strong>g moderately<br />
fatigued pilots to years of chronic medication use if<br />
such medications were authorized. This difference between<br />
military and civil aviation scenarios likewise<br />
seems to argue aga<strong>in</strong>st the widespread authorization of<br />
alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g drugs <strong>in</strong> civil operations. However,<br />
it would be worthwhile to consider the temporary authorization<br />
of counter-fatigue medications <strong>in</strong> civil emergency<br />
flight operations such as when airlift<strong>in</strong>g disaster<br />
relief supplies, rapidly evacuat<strong>in</strong>g medical casualties<br />
follow<strong>in</strong>g some catastrophic event, etc.<br />
d. Sleep-Induc<strong>in</strong>g Agents<br />
When <strong>in</strong>dividuals are given the opportunity to sleep,<br />
but are unable to do so due to various circumstances<br />
(i.e., wrong circadian time, poor sleep conditions), sleep<br />
aids represent a viable countermeasure. The characteristics<br />
of various hypnotics were discussed earlier. However,<br />
each branch of the military has its own policy concern<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the use of hypnotics. Table IV <strong>in</strong>dicates the U.S. military’s<br />
policies on hypnotic use. As with the stimulant<br />
policy, a ground test is necessary prior to use dur<strong>in</strong>g operations.<br />
The U.S. Navy guidance explicitly forbids the<br />
adm<strong>in</strong>istration of more than one dose of a hypnotic per<br />
24-h period, with no more than 2 d of consecutive use of<br />
temazepam. There is also guidance for plann<strong>in</strong>g and<br />
brief<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> the ground<strong>in</strong>g restriction ( 210 ). As with other<br />
medications, the use of hypnotics is voluntary.<br />
Position Statement on the Military Use of<br />
Sleep-Induc<strong>in</strong>g Agents<br />
Sleep-promot<strong>in</strong>g compounds are useful for mitigat<strong>in</strong>g<br />
the sleep loss associated with circadian disruptions,<br />
poor sleep<strong>in</strong>g conditions, and poor sleep tim<strong>in</strong>g often<br />
associated with combat or other high-tempo military<br />
operations. They should cont<strong>in</strong>ue to be authorized <strong>in</strong> circumstances<br />
where: 1) their use is justified by the presence<br />
of one or more of the previously noted factors; 2) there is<br />
appropriate medical supervision; 3) there is evidence<br />
that the crewmember has completed a pre- mission<br />
TABLE IV. U.S. MILITARY POLICIES FOR HYPNOTIC USE.<br />
Medication Dose Half-life Ground<strong>in</strong>g<br />
U.S. Army Rest Agent Policy<br />
Temazepam (Restoril w ) 15 or 30 mg 8.0 – 12.0 h 24 h<br />
Triazolam (Halcion w ) 0.125 or 0.25 mg 2.0 – 4.0 h 9 h<br />
Zolpidem (Ambien w ) 5 or 10 mg 2.0 – 2.5 h 8 h<br />
Zaleplon (Sonata w ) 5 or 10 mg 1.0 h 8 h<br />
U.S. Air Force No-Go Pill Policy<br />
Temazepam (Restoril w ) 15 or 30 mg 8.0 – 12.0 h 12 h<br />
Triazolam (Halcion w ) Not authorized na na<br />
Zolpidem (Ambien w ) 10 mg 2.0 – 2.5 h 6 h<br />
Zaleplon (Sonata w ) 10 mg 1.0 h 4 h<br />
U.S. Navy Sleep Initiator Policy<br />
Temazepam (Restoril w ) 15 mg 8.0 – 12.0 h 7 h<br />
Triazolam (Halcion w ) Not authorized na na<br />
Zolpidem (Ambien w ) 5 or 10 mg 2.0 – 2.5 h 6 h<br />
Zaleplon (Sonata w ) Not authorized Na na<br />
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ground-test to check for idiosyncratic reactions; and 4)<br />
the mission is such that there is little or no chance that<br />
the aircrew member will be subject to an unexpected<br />
truncation of the sleep period. Obviously, personnel<br />
who are “ on-call ” and may need to fly a mission at a<br />
moment’s notice should not utilize sleep medications of<br />
any type due to the possibility that the medication<br />
would not have time to be adequately metabolized prior<br />
to return<strong>in</strong>g to duty. Education concern<strong>in</strong>g use and effects,<br />
ground test<strong>in</strong>g, and ground<strong>in</strong>g times are important<br />
for successful and safe use of sleep substances.<br />
e. Nonpharmacological <strong>Countermeasures</strong> and Strategies<br />
Of the U.S. military services, the Air Force guidance<br />
on nonpharmacological counter-fatigue strategies is the<br />
most specific. For <strong>in</strong>stance, controlled cockpit rest is expla<strong>in</strong>ed<br />
<strong>in</strong> detail below:<br />
Cockpit Rest Guidel<strong>in</strong>es:<br />
• Controlled cockpit rest may be implemented when the basic<br />
aircrew <strong>in</strong>cludes a second qualified pilot.<br />
• Cockpit rest must be restricted to noncritical phases of flight<br />
between cruise and 1 h prior to planned descent.<br />
• Rest<strong>in</strong>g crewmember must be immediately awakened if a situation<br />
develops that may affect flight safety.<br />
• Cockpit rest shall only be taken by one crewmember at a time.<br />
• All cockpit crewmembers <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g the rest<strong>in</strong>g member must<br />
rema<strong>in</strong> at their stations.<br />
• A rest period shall be limited to a maximum of 45 m<strong>in</strong>.<br />
• More than one rest period per crewmember is permitted if the<br />
opportunity exists.<br />
• Controlled cockpit rest is not authorized with any aircraft system<br />
malfunctions that <strong>in</strong>crease cockpit workload.<br />
• Cockpit rest should not be used as a substitute for any required<br />
crew rest.<br />
Of course, the U.S. Air Force as well as the U.S. Army<br />
and the U.S. Navy brief personnel on the correct use of a<br />
variety of alertness-management strategies such as the<br />
promotion of preduty sleep, implementation of extended<br />
crew rest periods when possible, bright light exposure<br />
when feasible, <strong>in</strong>-flight activity/rest breaks, and<br />
general fatigue management. All can be used <strong>in</strong> comb<strong>in</strong>ation<br />
when appropriate.<br />
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS<br />
Given the state of the art <strong>in</strong> fatigue countermeasures,<br />
our summary recommendations, most of which apply<br />
to both civil and military aviation except where noted,<br />
are as follows:<br />
Education — about the dangers of fatigue, the causes<br />
of sleep<strong>in</strong>ess, and the importance of sleep and proper<br />
sleep habits — is one of the keys to address<strong>in</strong>g fatigue<br />
<strong>in</strong> operational contexts. All aviation personnel <strong>in</strong>clud<strong>in</strong>g<br />
supervisors, schedulers, and crewmembers should<br />
be educated regard<strong>in</strong>g the effects of fatigue, the factors<br />
responsible for fatigue, and the available scientifically<br />
proven fatigue countermeasures. Ultimately, the<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual pilot, schedulers, and management must<br />
be conv<strong>in</strong>ced that sleep and circadian rhythms are important<br />
and that quality day-to-day sleep is the best<br />
possible protection aga<strong>in</strong>st on-the-job fatigue. Recent<br />
studies have made it clear that as little as 1 to 2 h of<br />
sleep restriction almost immediately degrades vigilance<br />
and performance <strong>in</strong> subsequent duty periods<br />
( 17 , 214 ). Thus, educational programs should communicate<br />
the central po<strong>in</strong>ts conveyed <strong>in</strong> this position<br />
paper:<br />
1) fatigue is a physiological problem that cannot be overcome by<br />
motivation, tra<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g, or willpower;<br />
2) people cannot reliably self-judge their own level of fatigue-related<br />
impairment;<br />
3) there are wide <strong>in</strong>dividual differences <strong>in</strong> fatigue susceptibility that<br />
must be taken <strong>in</strong>to account but which presently cannot be reliably<br />
predicted;<br />
4) there is no one-size-fits-all “ magic bullet ” (other than adequate<br />
sleep) that can counter fatigue for every person <strong>in</strong> every situation;<br />
but<br />
5) there are valid counter-fatigue strategies that will enhance safety<br />
and productivity, but only when they are correctly applied.<br />
Concurrent with the educational effort, a large-scale<br />
program should be undertaken to implement a nonprescriptive<br />
fatigue risk management system (FRMS) that<br />
determ<strong>in</strong>es optimum flight schedules from both a physiological<br />
and operational standpo<strong>in</strong>t on a case-by-case<br />
basis s<strong>in</strong>ce prescriptive hours-of-service limitations cannot<br />
account for human circadian rhythms or sleep propensity.<br />
With regard to <strong>in</strong>-flight counter-fatigue strategies,<br />
we concur with the present primary reliance on<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight bunk rest <strong>in</strong> long-haul operations, but suggest<br />
that computerized schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools be used to optimize<br />
crew roster<strong>in</strong>g and bunk rest tim<strong>in</strong>g. We likewise believe<br />
that short <strong>in</strong>-flight breaks are beneficial, and we recommend<br />
that any regulations govern<strong>in</strong>g the use of these<br />
breaks be liberalized (i.e., that alertness-promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
breaks be permitted as a clearly acceptable reason for<br />
pilots to deviate from the requirement to rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> their<br />
seats with seatbelts fastened at all times). Given the scientific<br />
evidence that cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g is safe and highly<br />
effective, as well as clear <strong>in</strong>dications that the general<br />
public appreciates the value of cockpit napp<strong>in</strong>g, we take<br />
exception to the current prohibition on <strong>in</strong>-seat cockpit<br />
napp<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong> civil aviation, and <strong>in</strong>stead recommend that<br />
<strong>in</strong>-seat cockpit naps up to 45 m<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> duration be permitted<br />
<strong>in</strong> U.S. commercial flight operations as long as the<br />
naps are not used as a replacement for other sleep opportunities<br />
(i.e., bunk sleep or pre/post duty sleep). This<br />
procedure is <strong>in</strong> agreement with current U.S. Air Force<br />
policy.<br />
To promote on-duty alertness <strong>in</strong> the absence of sufficient<br />
contiguous hours of preduty sleep, the importance<br />
of napp<strong>in</strong>g should be emphasized as a primary strategy.<br />
Off-duty naps should be as long as possible and whenever<br />
feasible they should occur at the circadian times<br />
most conducive to natural sleep (i.e., early afternoon or<br />
early predawn hours accord<strong>in</strong>g to the body clock). The<br />
pr<strong>in</strong>ciples outl<strong>in</strong>ed for good sleep hygiene should be<br />
followed to promote optimal nap quality and duration.<br />
Upon awaken<strong>in</strong>g from a nap, there should be a wakeup<br />
period of at least 30 m<strong>in</strong> prior to the performance of<br />
any safety sensitive tasks. When naps are <strong>in</strong>sufficient,<br />
personnel should consider the <strong>in</strong>gestion of caffe<strong>in</strong>e (up<br />
to 1000 mg per day) as an alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g strategy,<br />
and they should make an effort to use caffe<strong>in</strong>e judi-<br />
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ciously (i.e., only when it is truly needed to reduce the<br />
impact of fatigue).<br />
With regard to the use of pharmacological compounds<br />
<strong>in</strong> civil flight operations, it is our position that on the one<br />
hand, prescription alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g compounds not<br />
be authorized on a rout<strong>in</strong>e basis s<strong>in</strong>ce they are not justified<br />
by a cost/benefit analysis for flight operations that<br />
are relatively predictable, and there is <strong>in</strong>sufficient medical<br />
oversight to ensure appropriate use. Also, it should<br />
be noted that when civil as opposed to military flights<br />
are cancelled or modified due to crew fatigue, there is<br />
virtually no “ downside ” from a safety perspective. A<br />
possible exception to the prohibition aga<strong>in</strong>st alertnessenhanc<strong>in</strong>g<br />
compounds <strong>in</strong> civil operations could be to<br />
temporarily authorize these medications for pilots fly<strong>in</strong>g<br />
disaster relief or <strong>in</strong>tense, but time-limited emergency<br />
medical flights when untreated fatigue would necessitate<br />
the cancellation or delay of these flights and thus<br />
jeopardize the safety of others. On the other hand, the<br />
prescription sleep-promot<strong>in</strong>g compound zolpidem<br />
should be authorized for use by civilian commercial pilots<br />
<strong>in</strong> situations where quality natural sleep is difficult<br />
or impossible to obta<strong>in</strong> due to circadian or other reasons<br />
provided that: 1) the pilot has previously checked for<br />
any unusual reactions to the medication; 2) the dose<br />
does not exceed 10 mg <strong>in</strong> any given 24-h period; 3) the<br />
medication is used no more than 4 times <strong>in</strong> any 7-d period;<br />
and 4) there is an <strong>in</strong>terval of 12 h between the <strong>in</strong>gestion<br />
of the medication and the return to duty. The<br />
benefits of restful sleep <strong>in</strong>duced by a medication with<br />
short duration of action and excellent safety profile (as<br />
established by military aviation experience) are far preferable<br />
to the adverse effects of sleep deprivation when<br />
medication is withheld or the adverse effects of alcohol<strong>in</strong>duced<br />
sleep. Zolpidem should not be taken to promote<br />
<strong>in</strong>-flight bunk sleep or cockpit naps. To m<strong>in</strong>imize complete<br />
reliance on medication for the improvement of<br />
quality preduty or postduty sleep, it is our contention<br />
that crewmembers should be educated about proper<br />
sleep hygiene, the benefits of aerobic exercise for promot<strong>in</strong>g<br />
quality sleep, and natural strategies designed to<br />
promote circadian readjustment (assum<strong>in</strong>g crewmembers<br />
will rema<strong>in</strong> <strong>in</strong> a new time zone for 5 or more days).<br />
In the United States, the use of non-FDA regulated substances<br />
such as valerian, kava, and melaton<strong>in</strong> is not recommended<br />
because the quality of the compounds cannot<br />
be assured and there is <strong>in</strong>sufficient scientific evidence<br />
of safety and/or effectiveness. In other jurisdictions,<br />
melaton<strong>in</strong> is available <strong>in</strong> pharmaceutical grade. In laboratory<br />
environments, pharmaceutical-grade melaton<strong>in</strong><br />
has been effective <strong>in</strong> circadian entra<strong>in</strong>ment or facilitation<br />
of daytime sleep (8,9,118,119,196,231).<br />
<strong>Fatigue</strong> detection technologies (fitness for duty and<br />
real-time assessment devices) and schedul<strong>in</strong>g tools that<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporate biomathematical models of alertness can be<br />
<strong>in</strong>corporated as part of an overall safety management<br />
approach but should not be used <strong>in</strong> place of regulatory<br />
limitations. Prior to us<strong>in</strong>g any of these technologies, the<br />
scientific literature should be consulted to establish the<br />
validity of the specific technique.<br />
With regard to the use of prescription pharmacological<br />
alertness-enhanc<strong>in</strong>g compounds <strong>in</strong> military aviation<br />
operations, it is our contention that the compound dextroamphetam<strong>in</strong>e<br />
rema<strong>in</strong>s an authorized option and that<br />
modaf<strong>in</strong>il, which is already authorized by the U.S. Air<br />
Force, be authorized by the other services as well. Military<br />
flight operations are <strong>in</strong>tense and unpredictable, and<br />
fatigued pilots often have little choice (<strong>in</strong> consideration<br />
of all the relevant mission factors) except to complete a<br />
scheduled mission. Failure to do so could jeopardize the<br />
safety or survivability of other military personnel or civilians.<br />
The benefits of appropriate stimulant use have<br />
been shown by scientific study to far outweigh the negative<br />
effects of sleep deprivation. Furthermore, proper<br />
medical oversight is typically available <strong>in</strong> the military<br />
aviation context.<br />
Concern<strong>in</strong>g the use of prescription pharmacological<br />
sleep-<strong>in</strong>duc<strong>in</strong>g compounds <strong>in</strong> military flight operations,<br />
we believe the exist<strong>in</strong>g authorized use of temazepam,<br />
zolpidem, and zaleplon should be cont<strong>in</strong>ued. S<strong>in</strong>ce adequate<br />
rout<strong>in</strong>e medical oversight is available <strong>in</strong> the military<br />
aviation context, a physician can choose the correct<br />
medication based on the specific situation and monitor<br />
for proper usage and the occurrence of unexpected side<br />
effects. Furthermore, it is certa<strong>in</strong>ly the case that the effects<br />
of restful sleep <strong>in</strong>duced by one of the above medications<br />
are far superior to the effects of alcohol-<strong>in</strong>duced<br />
sleep or to the adverse effects of sleep deprivation.<br />
In develop<strong>in</strong>g fatigue countermeasures of every sort,<br />
<strong>in</strong>dividual differences must be better addressed. There<br />
are differences <strong>in</strong> how people respond to sleep loss,<br />
sleep disruption, and time zone transitions. Research is<br />
focus<strong>in</strong>g on identify<strong>in</strong>g <strong>in</strong>dividual differences <strong>in</strong> sleep<br />
regulatory mechanisms, circadian rhythmicity, recovery<br />
sleep, and responses to fatigue countermeasures ( 215 ,<br />
216 ). Exam<strong>in</strong><strong>in</strong>g the impact of various <strong>in</strong>dividual factors<br />
(circadian phase, sleep need, etc.) on susceptibility to<br />
decrements and the efficacy of countermeasures will<br />
facilitate optimal fatigue management <strong>in</strong> the aviation<br />
environment. Such data are be<strong>in</strong>g used for the development<br />
of biomathematical models of fatigue to predict<br />
performance and alertness levels at an <strong>in</strong>dividual level<br />
( 215 ). Due to a range of differences <strong>in</strong> how <strong>in</strong>dividuals<br />
respond to the operational challenges associated with<br />
long-haul and ULR flight operations, model<strong>in</strong>g work<br />
is also aim<strong>in</strong>g to predict relative group performance for<br />
an overall trip pattern. Many issues associated with<br />
flight operations rema<strong>in</strong> unanswered and can only be<br />
answered by collect<strong>in</strong>g data dur<strong>in</strong>g carefully scientifically<br />
designed research.<br />
In sum, while fatigue represents a significant risk <strong>in</strong><br />
aviation when left unaddressed, there are currently numerous<br />
countermeasures and strategies that can be employed<br />
to <strong>in</strong>crease safety. Furthermore, new technologies<br />
and countermeasures are be<strong>in</strong>g developed that hold<br />
great promise for the future. It is our hope that the countermeasures<br />
and strategies described <strong>in</strong> this paper, when<br />
employed appropriately, will serve to reduce the risk of<br />
aviation accidents and <strong>in</strong>cidents attributable to the <strong>in</strong>sidious<br />
effects of fatigue.<br />
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS<br />
The authors wish to thank Dr. Thomas Nesthus, Chair of the<br />
<strong>Aerospace</strong> Human Factors Committee (AHFC) for his guidance and<br />
support throughout a lengthy process. We are also grateful to CAPT<br />
Nicholas Davenport for comments and <strong>in</strong>formation regard<strong>in</strong>g U.S.<br />
Navy flight duty/rest regulations and Capt. Barry Reeder for <strong>in</strong>formation<br />
about correspond<strong>in</strong>g U.S. Air Force regulations though any<br />
errors rema<strong>in</strong> ours. We thank the members of the AHFC for their comments<br />
on an earlier version of the manuscript, especially Dr. Ronald<br />
Hoffman and Dr. David Schroeder as well as the <strong>Aerospace</strong> <strong>Medical</strong><br />
<strong>Association</strong> Executive Council for its comments and review, particularly<br />
Dr. Russell Rayman, Dr. Guillermo Salazar, Dr. Estrella Forster,<br />
and CAPT Christopher Armstrong.<br />
Authors and affiliations: John A. Caldwell, Ph.D., Arch<strong>in</strong>oetics, LLC,<br />
Honolulu, HI; Melissa M. Mallis, Ph.D., Institutes for Behavior Resources,<br />
Inc.; Baltimore, MD; J. Lynn Caldwell, Ph.D., Air Force Research<br />
Laboratory, Wright-Patterson AFB, OH; Michel A. Paul, M.Sc.,<br />
Defence R&D Canada (Toronto), Toronto, ON, Canada; James C.<br />
Miller, Ph.D., Miller Ergonomics, San Antonio, TX; and David F. Neri,<br />
Ph.D., Office of Naval Research, Arl<strong>in</strong>gton, VA.<br />
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