Abu Dhabi Water Resources Master Plan - Published...
Abu Dhabi Water Resources Master Plan - Published...
Abu Dhabi Water Resources Master Plan - Published...
Transform your PDFs into Flipbooks and boost your revenue!
Leverage SEO-optimized Flipbooks, powerful backlinks, and multimedia content to professionally showcase your products and significantly increase your reach.
P.O Box : 45553<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, United Arab Emirates<br />
Tel : +971 2 445 4777, Fax : +971 2 446 3339<br />
www.ead.ae<br />
customerservice@ead.ae
H.H. Sheikh<br />
Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahyan<br />
President of the United Arab Emirates
H.H. Sheikh<br />
Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan<br />
Crown Prince of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>,<br />
Deputy Supreme Commander of the<br />
UAE Armed Forces
H.H. Sheikh<br />
Hamdan bin Zayed Al Nahyan<br />
Chairman of Environment Agency - <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>
List of Contributors<br />
Environment Agency – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
H.E. Majid Al-Mansouri<br />
Dr. Jaber Al Jaberi<br />
Dr. Mohamed Dawoud<br />
Dr. Mahmood Abdulrahim<br />
Dr. Ahmed Khidr Bashir<br />
Mr. Abdulnasser Al-Shamsi<br />
Mr. Ahmed Al Muaini<br />
Mr. Mustafa Lotfi Dash<br />
Secretary General<br />
Director, Environment Policy Sector<br />
Manager, Natural <strong>Resources</strong> Department<br />
Consultant, SG Office<br />
Consultant, SG Office<br />
Director Biodiversity Sector – Terrestrial<br />
Environmental Permitting Department<br />
Environmental Monitoring Department<br />
International Center for Biosaline Agriculture<br />
Dr. Shawki Barghouti<br />
Director General<br />
Dr. Faisal Taha<br />
Director Technical Programs<br />
Dr. Nurul Akhand<br />
Irrigation Management Scientist<br />
Dr. Rachael McDonnell<br />
Visiting Scientist<br />
Dr. Shoaib Ismail<br />
Halophyte Agronomist<br />
International Consultants<br />
Dr. George K. Pitman<br />
Dr. Geoffrey Hamer<br />
Dr. Mohamed Al-Shatanawi<br />
Dr. Jehangir Punthakey<br />
Dr. Mohamed Zarooni<br />
Dr. Abdul Nabi Fardous<br />
Dr. Safwat Abdel-Dayem<br />
Dr. Maher <strong>Abu</strong>-Madi<br />
Dr. K. Palanisami<br />
International Consultant, UK<br />
Private Consultant, UK<br />
Professor, University of Jordan, Jordan<br />
Consultant, Ecoseal-Groundwater and Environment, Australia<br />
Senior Researcher, Doosan Desalination R&D Center, UAE<br />
Adviser, Minister of Environment, Jordan<br />
Advisor to Minister of <strong>Water</strong> and Irrigation, Egypt<br />
Research Coordinator, Birzeit University, Palestine<br />
Director, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India<br />
Stakeholders<br />
Dr. Mariam Alyousuf<br />
Dr. Mouza Almuhairi<br />
Mr. Colin Hannan<br />
Mr. Matthew Griffiths<br />
Mr. Jamal Shadid<br />
Mr. Malcolm Haddock<br />
Mr. Simon Taylor<br />
Eng. Mohamed Ramahi<br />
Dr. Abdullah H. Ghareeb<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority (ADFCA)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority (ADFCA)<br />
Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB)<br />
Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB)<br />
Regulation and Supervision Bureau (RSB)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage System Services (ADSSC)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage System Services (ADSSC)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Distribution Company (ADDC)<br />
Department of Municipal Affairs<br />
This report was edited by:<br />
Dr. George K. Pitman, Dr. Rachael McDonnell and Dr. Mohamad Dawoud
Table of Contents<br />
Table of Contents<br />
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 12<br />
Preface ..................................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 13<br />
Acronyms ............................................................................................................................................................................................................................ 14<br />
Executive Summary ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 18<br />
Background ........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 18<br />
The planning process ........................................................................................................................................................................... 19<br />
Reform of groundwater use is key to a sustainable future ...................................................... 20<br />
Excessive household consumption of water is a growing problem ............................. 21<br />
Institutional reform will be necessary ....................................................................................................................... 23<br />
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................................................... 25<br />
The occurrence of water determined settlement patterns ...................................................... 26<br />
Increased use of water improved the local environment ............................................................ 27<br />
New visions will require more water and energy ...................................................................................... 28<br />
And the vision’s emphasis is on sound<br />
environmental management ..................................................................................................................................................... 29<br />
<strong>Water</strong> production and use has climatic implications ........................................................................ 29<br />
What needs to be done .................................................................................................................................................................. 30<br />
2. <strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use ................................................................................................ 33<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Availability ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 34<br />
Summary of <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> ............................................................................................................................................... 34<br />
Fresh <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34<br />
Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> .................................................................................................................................................................................... 36<br />
Treated Sewage Effluent ................................................................................................................................................................ 38<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use ............................................................................................................................................................................................................... 39<br />
Desalinated water use ........................................................................................................................................................................ 39<br />
Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use ............................................................................................................................................................................. 43<br />
Forestry and Agricultural <strong>Water</strong> Use .......................................................................................................................... 43<br />
Amenity ...................................................................................................................................................................................................................... 44<br />
Agriculture ............................................................................................................................................................................................................ 46<br />
Livestock ................................................................................................................................................................................................................. 51<br />
3. Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use .............................................................................. 53<br />
Effects of <strong>Water</strong> Production ...................................................................................................................................................... 54<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Production, Energy Use and the Atmosphere ........................................................................ 54<br />
Energy and <strong>Water</strong> Use ........................................................................................................................................................................ 56<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use and the Marine Environment .............................................................................................................. 58<br />
The Effects of <strong>Water</strong> on Land Use and Agriculture ............................................................................. 61<br />
Groundwater ..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 62<br />
4. Future <strong>Water</strong> Demand ................................................................................................................................................ 67<br />
Future demand and supply ........................................................................................................................................................ 70<br />
Future desalinated supply ........................................................................................................................................................... 70<br />
Future agricultural demand ...................................................................................................................................................... 70<br />
5. <strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options ...................................................................................... 73<br />
Development Objectives ................................................................................................................................................................. 76<br />
Economic Considerations ............................................................................................................................................................. 79<br />
The benefits of demand management ...................................................................................................................... 80<br />
Supply-side management is also essential ......................................................................................................... 81<br />
Supply Management Options ................................................................................................................................................ 81<br />
Integrated Environmental Management and <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning ........................................... 84<br />
Developing an Accounting Framework ................................................................................................................... 84<br />
Integrated Environmental Management ...............................................................................................................84<br />
Valuing Ecosystem Services ...................................................................................................................................................... 86<br />
Alternative <strong>Water</strong> Supply <strong>Plan</strong>s .......................................................................................................................................... 88<br />
Current governance institutions and responsibilities ...................................................................... 90<br />
Environmental Management ................................................................................................................................................... 90<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Management ............................................................................................................................................ 91<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Service Delivery ....................................................................................................................................................................... 92<br />
Institutional and governance developments .................................................................................................. 94<br />
Establishment of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council ...................................................................................... 94<br />
Formal establishment of an environmental regulator ..................................................................... 94<br />
Roles and responsibilities at Federal and<br />
Emirate levels need clarification ........................................................................................................................................ 96<br />
The Legal and Regulatory frameworks ................................................................................................................... 96<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> ......................................................................................................................................................................................... 97<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Services Management .................................................................................................................................................. 99<br />
Regulatory Enforcement ............................................................................................................................................................... 100<br />
There are gaps in legal and regulatory frameworks ........................................................................... 100<br />
Responsibilities need clearer demarcation ...................................................................................................... 101<br />
There should be a legal requirement to share information ....................................................101<br />
Adequate human resources are needed for enforcement ......................................................... 101<br />
Environmental Standards need to be<br />
established for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> .......................................................................................................................................................... 102<br />
Land Use in Sensitive areas needs to be regulated ............................................................................ 102<br />
Strategic Environmental Assessments are required ........................................................................ 102<br />
6. Main Findings and Recommendations ............................................................................103<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Availability ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 104<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use .............................................................................................................................................................................................................. 105<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Production, Energy Use and the Atmosphere ...................................................................... 107<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning future demand and supply .......................................................................................................................... 108<br />
Alternative <strong>Water</strong> Supply <strong>Plan</strong>s ........................................................................................................................................ 109<br />
Institutional and Governance reforms ................................................................................................................... 110<br />
Legal and regulatory framework development .......................................................................................... 110<br />
Support requirements for these recommendations ........................................................................... 111<br />
Good decision-making needs good information ...................................................................................... 111<br />
Capacity building ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 111<br />
Awareness raising ..................................................................................................................................................................................... 112<br />
Concluding remark ................................................................................................................................................................................. 112<br />
Annex 1: Groundwater ..................................................................................................................................................................... 115<br />
Annex 2: Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> ...................................................................................................................................................... 127<br />
Annex 3: Wastewater ........................................................................................................................................................................... 141<br />
Annex 4: Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand .................................................................................................................................... 159<br />
Annex 5: Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use ............................................................................................................................................. 171<br />
Annex 6: Irrigation .................................................................................................................................................................................. 185<br />
Annex 7: Governance and Regulatory Frameworks ........................................................................... 205<br />
10 11
Acknowledgements<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Preface<br />
The Environment Agency – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (EAD) was established in 1996 with the mission to protect<br />
and conserve the environment and promote the sustainable development of the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. In partnership with the UAE Ministry of Environment and <strong>Water</strong> and the Federal<br />
Environmental Agency, EAD assists environmental policy formulation, develops environmental<br />
regulations and implements them.<br />
EAD has eight environmental priorities:<br />
With an ever-increasing population of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate estimated to be 3-5 million in<br />
2030 and ambitious economic developmental<br />
projects, our important challenge in the next<br />
decade is to balance available water resource<br />
supplies with demand within sustainable<br />
environmental, economic and social<br />
frameworks. Earlier studies pioneered by the<br />
Environment Agency - <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (EAD) and<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company<br />
(ADWEC) have clearly demonstrated critical<br />
shortage of water supply in the coming years,<br />
if proper planning is brought into force soon.<br />
Faced with this important challenge and in<br />
accord with EAD mandate, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Executive Council commissioned EAD to<br />
prepare a proposal on the development of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>. Emphasis was<br />
placed on water supply, demand and<br />
sustainable future water use. EAD selected<br />
ICBA to implement this project<br />
In executing the <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, EAD<br />
took the necessary steps to involve all<br />
relevant agencies in a partner mode. Contacts<br />
were made with the Regulation and<br />
Supervision Bureau, <strong>Abu</strong>-<strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Electricity Authority, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Electricity Company, ADSSC (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Sewage Services Company), <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Distribution Company, Al Ain Distribution<br />
Company, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Transmission and<br />
Dispatch Company, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control<br />
Authority, Department of Municipal Affairs<br />
and Agriculture, United States Geological<br />
Survey and others. A team of experts drawn<br />
from international organizations and<br />
academic and research institutions joined this<br />
group.<br />
Special appreciation goes to ICBA, ADWEA,<br />
ADSSC, RSB and other local <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
government organizations for the technical<br />
assistance provided during the preparation of<br />
this report and their valuable input during the<br />
workshops held for the <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
Priority 1 Improve the quality and quantity of water resources in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Priority 2 Improve Air Quality<br />
Priority 3 Develop Climate Change Framework<br />
Priority 4 Set Waste Management Policy and Regulations<br />
Priority 5 Protect the society and Environment from hazardous materials<br />
Priority 6 Conserve <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s Biological Diversity<br />
Priority 7 Increase Society’s Environmental Awareness<br />
Priority8 Champion the implementation of the Environment, Health and Safety Management<br />
System<br />
In November 2007, EAD engaged the International Centre for Biosaline Research (ICBA) to<br />
facilitate access to international experts to assist EAD to develop a Strategic <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> for<br />
the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The likely opportunities and challenges for water development are<br />
guided by the Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council’s <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 – Urban Structure Framework <strong>Plan</strong>,<br />
September 2007. The overall goal was to develop a plan for implementing EAD’s Priority 1 in order<br />
to achieve sustainable utilization of water resources in an economically and environmentally<br />
friendly way that would enhance the sustainable development of the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and the<br />
UAE. A key objective is to define more clearly EAD’s institutional role in the management and<br />
regulation of the many water supplies, their uses and their impact on the Emirate’s environment.<br />
This Main Report presents the findings drawn from a review of existing information about the<br />
sources, utilization and future demand for water in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, institutions for its management and<br />
regulation, and the means to mitigate adverse environmental impacts. The planning process and<br />
options to guide development of the master plan are described. It puts forward recommendations<br />
to strengthen EAD’s institutional contribution to maximizing the economic value-added and<br />
minimizing the economic and environmental costs of future water use in the Emirate drawing on<br />
international best practice.<br />
The Main Report is supported by seven technical annexes that describe the current status and the<br />
environmental and technical issues related to projections of demand and supply, groundwater<br />
abstraction, desalination, water supply and sanitation, irrigation, wastewater treatment and<br />
Emirati governance and institutions.<br />
Mohammed Al Bowardi<br />
Managing Director<br />
Environment Agency – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (EAD)<br />
12 13
Acronyms<br />
Acronyms<br />
AADC<br />
ADDC<br />
ADNOC<br />
ADSSC<br />
ADWEA<br />
ADWEC<br />
AWRIS<br />
CITES<br />
CSS<br />
EIA<br />
FEA<br />
FAO<br />
GD<br />
ICBA<br />
IEA<br />
IWPP<br />
EAD<br />
EPA<br />
GIS<br />
GTZ<br />
GmbH<br />
GWh<br />
JICA<br />
KWh<br />
lcd<br />
Mcm<br />
MEB<br />
MSF<br />
MWh<br />
NGO<br />
PA<br />
PV<br />
RO<br />
RSB<br />
TAQA<br />
TDS<br />
TRANSCO<br />
TSE<br />
UAE<br />
UN<br />
USGS<br />
WHO<br />
Units<br />
Dh 1.00 = US$ 0.270<br />
US$1.00 = Dh 3.675<br />
I Imperial gallon = 4.55 litres<br />
1000 Imperial gallons = 4.55 cubic metres<br />
Al Ain Distribution Company<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Distribution Company<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> National Oil Company<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage Services Company<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Authority<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Database System<br />
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species<br />
of Wild Fauna and Flora<br />
Carbon Storage and Capture<br />
Environmental Impact Assessment<br />
Federal Environmental Agency <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations<br />
Generation and Desalination<br />
International Center for Biosaline Agriculture<br />
International Energy Agency<br />
Independent <strong>Water</strong> and Power Producer<br />
Environment Agency – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Environmental Protection Agency<br />
Geographic Information System<br />
Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ)<br />
[German Agency for Technical Cooperation]<br />
Giga Watt hours<br />
Japan International Cooperation Agency<br />
Kilowatt Hours<br />
litres per capita per day<br />
Million cubic meters<br />
Multiple Effect Distillation<br />
Multiple Stage Flash Distillation<br />
Megawatt Hours<br />
Non-government organizations<br />
Protected Areas<br />
Photovoltaic<br />
Reverse Osmosis<br />
Regulation and Supervision Bureau (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> National Energy Company<br />
Total dissolved solids<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Transmission and Dispatch Company<br />
Treated Sewage Effluent<br />
United Arab Emirates<br />
United Nations<br />
United States (of America) Geological Survey<br />
World Health Organization<br />
٥ <br />
٦ <br />
١ <br />
أهم نتاءج الاستراتيجية المتكاملة لقطاع المياه<br />
دعم أداء الموءسسات في قطاع المياه: ويتم بوضع صورة<br />
مفصلة للموءسسات العامة المتخصصة في قطاع المياه<br />
وتحديد مسوءولياتها وتحليل الكفاءات الفنية المتوفرة<br />
لديها وتشخيص مصادر القوة والضعف فيها وتقنين<br />
نشاطاتها لمنع الإزدواجية وتوضيه أهدافها ومسوءولياتها<br />
وطرق تقييم أداءها والرقابة عليها.<br />
تطوير النظم والقوانين والمعايير: وتتم بتهديد النظم<br />
والقوانين والمعايير التي تقوم بتنفيذها هذه الموءسسات<br />
العامة ومدى ملاءمتها للمعايير العالمية ومدى الهاجة إلى<br />
تحديشها لتطابق المعايير المنصوص عليها دولياً خاصة<br />
فيما يتعلق بمجال المعايير الصهية والبيئية وآثارها على<br />
ضمان كمية المياه المتوفرة للقطاع السياحي بما فيها<br />
الشواطئ والقطاع الزراعي ومطابقتها للقوانين والأنظمة<br />
الدولية. وهذا يتطلب تحديد الاحتياجات اللازمة من<br />
اخملتبرات والأجهزة العلمية والقانونية لتهديش هذه<br />
الخبرات.<br />
تطوير القدرات البشرية: وذلك من خلال وضع خطة<br />
لرفع كفاءة العاملين في الموءسسات العامة ودراسة<br />
الاحتياجات الفنية للتدريب ووضع برنامج سنوي للندوات<br />
والدورات في مجالات الإدارة المتكاملة للمياه تشمل الأمور<br />
الفنية والتكنولوجيا الهديشة لإدارة مصادر المياه والأمور<br />
القانونية والأنظمة والمعايير وكيفية تنفيذها ومتابعة<br />
نتاءجها، والأمور الإدارية المتكاملة وتحسين أداء<br />
الموءسسات ومتابعة برامجها الشهرية والسنوية.<br />
نشر التوعية الماءية: حيش أن إستراتيجية الإدارة<br />
المتكاملة لقطاع المياه تحتاج إلى برنامج توعية كاف فإنه<br />
من المهم وضع خطة إعلامية لترويج هذه الإستراتيجية<br />
وتوضيهها للعاملين في القطاع والمستهلكين على السواء،<br />
وتشمل هذه اجملموعة الشركات والقطاع الخاص<br />
والمزارعين والأفراد والأسر. وتحتاج خطة التوعية<br />
والإعلام هذه إلى دعم الموءسسات الإعلانية لتنظيم<br />
حملات دعاءية هادفة تستند على برنامج عملي لتنفيذها<br />
على مدى السنوات القادمة. ويجب وضع هذه البرنامج في<br />
أسرع وقت ممكن بعد الموافقة على الإستراتيجية العامة<br />
ووضع إطار واضه لجمع المعلومات الماءية وتحديشها<br />
لتوضيه التغيرات في مجالات العرض والطلب على<br />
مصادر المياه التقليدية وغير التقليدية وهذا يتطلب<br />
تأسيس مركز معلومات لمصادر المياه مجهز بأحدش<br />
المعدات الهيدرولوجية والإلكترونية.<br />
رفع مستوى تطوير الخدمات المعلوماتية في قطاع المياه<br />
وأداءه والتغيرات السنوية للعرض والطلب: ويتم بتنسيق<br />
هذه المعلومات لتوضيه أسس ميزان المياه العام والعوامل<br />
الموءثرة على العرض والطلب من المياه العذبة. ويهتاج<br />
الهصول على هذه المعلومات إلى دراسة وتحليل عوامل<br />
العرض لمصادر المياه التقليدية والجوفية والمصادر غير<br />
التقليدية بما فيها مياه البهر المحلاة أو من الآبار شبه<br />
المالهة وكذلك من المياه المعالجة والمستعملة. أما من حيش<br />
الطلب فيتأثر ميزان المياه بالتغيرات السنوية في استهلاك<br />
المياه في قطاع الزراعة وقطاع الصناعة والتجارة وكذلك<br />
التغيرات السنوية الاستهلاكية للأفراد والأسر بسبب<br />
زيادة عدد السكان أو بسبب التغيرات الاقتصادية التي<br />
تنعكس على العادات التقليدية للاستهلاك. ولدراسة هذه<br />
العوامل يجب الاستعانة بخبرات في مجال الري والخدمات<br />
الماءية العامة واقتصاديات المياه والهوافز الموءثرة على<br />
كفاءة الاستهلاك وترشيده. ويتم وضع المعلومات الفنية في<br />
مجال العرض والطلب في إطار لترشيد الخطوات اللازمة<br />
للإدارة المستدامة لهذا القطاع من قبل الموءسسات العامة<br />
المتخصصة بالتعاون مع القطاع الخاص ونشاطاته<br />
اخملتلفة.<br />
وضع برنامج زمني لتنفيذ الخطة: تساهم مخرجات<br />
الخطة في تحديد أولويات البرامج والمشاريع المقتره<br />
تنفيذها مع وضع برنامج زمني لها وميزانية تقديرية<br />
للسنوات الخمسة الأولى منها.<br />
٢ <br />
٣ <br />
٤ <br />
14 15
الملخص التنفيذي<br />
الملخص التنفيذي<br />
٢ <br />
٣ <br />
٤ <br />
٥ <br />
٢ <br />
٣ <br />
١ <br />
٣ <br />
٤ <br />
زيادة الطلب على المياه للاستعمالات اخملتلفة في مجال<br />
الشرب وتحسين الخدمات الاجتماعية والصهية المتعلقة<br />
بهذا القطاع.<br />
٢ ترشيد استعمالات المياه في اجملالات الاقتصادية خاصة<br />
القطاع الزراعي الذي يستهلك أكثر من ٧٠٪ من المياه<br />
المتوفرة سنوياً، علماً بأن مشاركة هذا القطاع في النشاط<br />
الاقتصادي في تناقص مستمر. إلا أن لهذا القطاع أهمية<br />
كبيرة خاصة فيما يتعلق بالتنمية والمحافظة على التراش<br />
والتقاليد الزراعية التي تلعب دوراً هاماً في التراش<br />
الاجتماعي في الإمارة.<br />
زيادة الطلب على مصادر المياه نتيجة زيادة عدد السكان<br />
والتوسع العمراني والصناعي والتجاري.<br />
الهاجة إلى دمج خدمات إدارة هذا القطاع ضمن إطار<br />
التنمية المستدامة لتأمين الهاجات المتزايدة في مختلف<br />
النشاطات.<br />
ترشيد الاستشمار في قطاع المياه وتحديد العلاقة بين<br />
القطاع العام والقطاع الخاص.<br />
وضع القواعد اللازمة لتشجيع استشمار القطاع الخاص<br />
في تطوير التكنولوجيا المتعلقة بجودة المياه وتطوير<br />
مصادرها التقليدية وغير التقليدية ضمن أطر قانونية<br />
وأنظمة ومعايير تحمي المصلهة العامة وتحافظ على<br />
البيئة وتساهم في خلق الجو المناسب للاستشمار والإدارة<br />
المستدامة لهذا القطاع.<br />
٥ <br />
٦ <br />
١ <br />
تتصف إمارة أبوظبي ببيئتها الجافة ومناخها القاسي الذي<br />
يتميز بندرة هطول الأمطار وارتفاع درجات الهرارة صيفاً<br />
ونسبة التبخر العالية. وتشير الاحصاءات السنوية أن معدل<br />
هطول الأمطار يبلغ حوالي ١٠٠-١٥٠ ملم سنوياً، ويرتفع معدل<br />
التبخر لهوالي ٤,٠٠٠ ملم سنوياً. كما ترتفع درجات الهرارة<br />
في أشهر الصيف الطويلة لتصل إلى حوالي ٤٨ درجة مئوية أو<br />
أكثر.<br />
وقد أدى التطور العمراني والنهضة الهديشة للدولة بشكل عام<br />
وإمارة أبوظبي بشكل خاص في السنوات العشرة الأخيرة إلى<br />
تطور معدلات النمو الاقتصادي وزيادة عدد السكان الذي ارتفع<br />
من حوالي نصف مليون نسمة للدولة ككل في العام ١٩٧٥ ليبلغ<br />
أكثر من ٥ مليون نسمة خلال الشلاثين سنة الأخيرة أي بمعدل<br />
زيادة يبلغ حوالي ٥٠٪ كل عشر سنوات.<br />
وتمشل مصادر المياه الجوفية المالهة المصدر الأساسي للمياه في<br />
إمارة أبوظبي بنسبة تصل إلى حوالي ٨٠٪ بينما لا تتجاوز<br />
مصادر المياه العذبة فيها ١٪، وتمشل النسبة المتبقية مصادر<br />
المياه المحلاة ومياه الصرف المعالجة. كما تستهلك الإمارة<br />
أبوظبي حوالي ٣,٢ بليون متر مكعب من المياه سنوياً.<br />
لذلك أدت هذه العوامل السابقة إلى زيادة الضغط على مصادر<br />
المياه للإمارة ويتوقع للمصادر الطبيعية العذبة أن تنضب في<br />
فترة قصيرة نسبياً مالم تتخذ الإجراءات المناسبة والسريعة<br />
والفعالة لترشيد استخدامها والاعتماد على مصادر المياه<br />
البديلة من المياه المحلاة والمعالجة والمالهة في إطار خطة<br />
إستراتيجية متكاملة لخدمة القطاعات اخملتلفة المستفيدة<br />
كالقطاع الزراعي والصناعي والمنزلي.<br />
التهديات المتزايدة لقطاع المياه في إمارة أبوظبي<br />
يمكن تلخيص التهديات المتزايدة التي يواجهها قطاع المياه في<br />
إمارة أبوظبي في عدد من اجملالات أهمها:<br />
يهتاج وضع إستراتيجية شاملة لمصادر المياه المتكاملة في<br />
إمارة أبوظبي إلى وضع برنامج علمي وتطبيقي مفصل<br />
لتهقيق الأهداف المنشودة للتغلب على التهديات التالية:<br />
وضع سياسة استشمار في القطاع مبنية على أطر متكاملة<br />
ومعتمدة في مجال المعلومات المتطورة لاحتياجات العرض<br />
والطلب للمياه في القطاعات الاقتصادية (الزراعة<br />
والصناعة والسياحة) والاجتماعية (استهلاك الأفراد<br />
والأسر) مع الأخذ بعين الاعتبار حماية البيئة والهياة<br />
البرية والغابات وتطويرها.<br />
ربط برامج تطوير قطاع المياه ببرامج متفاعلة في ميادين<br />
الزراعة والتربة والبيئة والقطاع التجاري والصناعي<br />
الموءثر على احتياجات المياه ونوعها.<br />
مراجعة وتطوير القوانين والأنظمة والإجراءات الخاصة<br />
بتنسيق وترشيد الاستشمار في قطاع المياه والاستشمارات<br />
الأخرى ذات العلاقة في هذا القطاع والتي لها علاقة<br />
مباشرة في استعمالات المياه خاصة الصناعة والخدمات<br />
البلدية كالصرف الصهي ومعالجة المياه العادمة وآثارها<br />
على الصهة والبيئة واستغلالها لاستعمالات اقتصادية<br />
وبيئية مبرمجة ضمن أطر علمية واضهة.<br />
تطوير الكفاءات الوطنية وتعزيز قدراتها الأكاديمية<br />
والإدارية في إدارة مصادر المياه.<br />
تطوير كفاءة الموءسسات العامة وترشيد علاقاتها مع<br />
موءسسات القطاع الخاص المستفيد من مشاريع المياه<br />
وخدماتها.<br />
كما يجب الأخذ بعين الاعتبار العوامل التالية عند مواجهة<br />
التهديات السابقة:<br />
١ وضع برنامج متجدد لتطوير خدمات جمع المعلومات<br />
الماءية وتطوير دليل المعلومات الفنية في مجالات العرض<br />
والطلب على المياه من مختلف القطاعات (الزراعة<br />
والصناعة والاستهلاك الفردي والاحتياجات البيئية).<br />
استغلال هذه المعلومات لتهليل تغيرات العرض والطلب<br />
على المياه بشكل منظم بهيش يتم تجديد المعلومات سنوياً<br />
للتعرف على تغيرات مستويات المياه على المستوى الوطني.<br />
تطوير القوانين والأنظمة والمعايير اللازمة لإدارة قطاع<br />
المياه بما يضمن حماية هذه المصادر وإدارتها بشكل<br />
مستدام لتهقيق المصلهة العامة وحماية البيئة والمصادر<br />
الطبيعية للأجيال القادمة.<br />
16 17
Executive Summary<br />
Executive Summary<br />
Background<br />
Since the 1960s water use in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has<br />
increased rapidly. This is the result of desert<br />
greening policies of the government, and the<br />
expansion of agriculture into the lands<br />
surrounding traditional oases. Discovery of<br />
substantial groundwater reserves at Liwa and<br />
between it and Al Ain enabled the expansion of<br />
agriculture into formerly desert areas. Large<br />
tracts of desert and communication routes have<br />
been afforested. Over the same time period the<br />
population grew exponentially to its current 1.5<br />
million people. While groundwater provided<br />
potable water supplies in the 1960s, the<br />
subsequent increase in demand for both power<br />
and water required the building of large thermal<br />
powered co-generation plants.<br />
The rapid growth of the rural and urban<br />
economy over the last 48 years has had a<br />
profound effect on <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s natural<br />
resources. Traditional oases dried up and the<br />
small pockets of fresh groundwater that<br />
sustained rural and coastal communities were<br />
exhausted primarily from the huge demand of<br />
the agricultural sector. Agricultural water<br />
demand around Al Ain and Liwa far exceeds<br />
natural recharge of the groundwater reservoir<br />
and levels have dropped significantly, far more in<br />
Al Ain than in Liwa. At the same time the<br />
declining water table has caused the influx of<br />
more saline water from lower levels in the aquifer<br />
and laterally from surrounding areas. Overall<br />
groundwater quality has deteriorated, and this is<br />
exacerbated by the liberal application of<br />
agricultural fertilizers, large numbers of<br />
livestock, and localized dumping of brine and<br />
sewage effluent into the desert. In the nearshore<br />
regions of the Gulf very high withdrawals<br />
of water for desalination locally threaten the<br />
biodiversity of the marine environment and are<br />
contributing to raising sea temperatures –<br />
currently amongst the highest in the world.<br />
Environmental impacts are not only confined<br />
to the aquatic ecosystem. The energy used to<br />
desalinate water in power plants, to transmit<br />
and distribute water around the Emirate, and<br />
to lift and pump groundwater around piped<br />
irrigation distribution system is derived from<br />
fossil fuels. Overall fossil fuel use in the cogeneration<br />
plants is around 21 million tonnes<br />
equivalent of CO2 per year and the share<br />
attributed to water production and use lies<br />
between 20 and 45%. Thus water use probably<br />
contributes between 4 and 9 million tonnes of<br />
CO2 equivalent per year.<br />
The future outlook suggests many difficulties<br />
unless actions are taken to reduce the rate of<br />
water consumption. And reducing water<br />
consumption will reduce demand for power<br />
and its adverse environmental impacts. It is a<br />
resource that is scarcer than oil and prudent<br />
management taking into account financial,<br />
economic, environmental and social concerns<br />
is of paramount importance.<br />
These concerns are captured in the <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 that provides a vision of a global<br />
capital city that puts a high premium on<br />
environmental sustainability. It states that<br />
environment, social and economic<br />
considerations should be included in all<br />
decision making. Leading the way with the<br />
establishment of MASDAR, the government is<br />
building scientific knowledge and technology<br />
to promote clean industries and carbonneutral<br />
development. And the government<br />
ratified the Kyoto Protocol in January 2005.<br />
Supporting these forward-looking initiatives,<br />
the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Executive Council approved<br />
the preparation of a Strategic <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong><br />
<strong>Plan</strong> in January 2008.<br />
The <strong>Plan</strong>ning Process<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (the <strong>Plan</strong>) aims<br />
to achieve three objectives:<br />
• Strategic environmental assessment of the<br />
role of water in the Emirate<br />
• Identifying what needs to be done in the<br />
water sector to improve the environment, and<br />
• Strengthening the structure of water and<br />
environmental management.<br />
It is about clarifying development objectives<br />
and looking at the development options to<br />
achieve these objectives. These are subject to<br />
the constraints imposed by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s<br />
environment, technology, and the lessons<br />
learned from global experience. There are many<br />
ways of achieving the objectives - the <strong>Plan</strong><br />
suggests various pathways to follow, and<br />
identifies what needs to be done. Prerequisites<br />
will be the development of sound institutions,<br />
reformed organizations, capacity building and<br />
increased awareness-raising amongst the<br />
population. Specifically the government of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> has to position itself on water to better<br />
manage policy and strategy, cross-sectoral<br />
coordination and regulation, and delegation of<br />
hands-on management to others.<br />
In the report water-related activities and<br />
processes are linked to the overall hydrological<br />
cycle, ecosystems and the atmosphere. <strong>Water</strong><br />
production and management are related to<br />
energy use and environmental impacts in an<br />
integrated approach that goes beyond<br />
engineering. While it was expected that<br />
sufficient information would be available to<br />
determine the economics of water production<br />
and management, and social issues arising, the<br />
dearth of data precluded this. But these are<br />
18<br />
19
Executive Summary<br />
important tasks. Without sound economic and<br />
social analysis it will be difficult to make rational<br />
decisions on future choices of technology, their<br />
phasing and management.<br />
Reform of Groundwater Use is Key<br />
to a Sustainable Future<br />
Agriculture and forestry use two-thirds of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>’s water resources that are not renewable.<br />
These two sub-sectors compete for the same<br />
groundwater source. Neither uses the resource<br />
efficiently because of inducements offered by<br />
extensive support subsidies, including those<br />
supporting farm construction, land preparation<br />
and irrigation infrastructure. Electricity and<br />
input subsidies reduced running costs while<br />
output subsidies ensured good incomes. All<br />
contributed to the rapid development of<br />
irrigation that peaked in 2007. While the highlevel<br />
of subsidies have guaranteed farmers good<br />
incomes and supported rural settlements, they<br />
have rapidly increased the demand for energy<br />
and water.<br />
Most notably just a single crop - Rhodes Grass<br />
that accounts for a 60 percent of agricultural<br />
water use – is responsible for much of the<br />
environmental damage and groundwater<br />
mining. And fodder from its production, in turn,<br />
has supported the dramatic increase in the<br />
number of livestock which now exceeds two<br />
million. Annual crop and energy subsidies for<br />
Rhodes grass alone were about Dh 800 million in<br />
2006. The combined environmental impact of<br />
Rhodes grass and livestock is probably<br />
responsible for two million tonnes CO2<br />
equivalent per year or 10% of the national total.<br />
This also endangers natural rangeland and<br />
ecosystems of amenity value and tourist<br />
potential.<br />
Forests are exotic in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s arid desert<br />
climate yet they cover over 300,000 ha of land<br />
area and are a source of national pride. While<br />
they potentially offer important ecosystem<br />
habitats, many are in poor condition and are<br />
maintained only through irrigation by brackish<br />
groundwater provided at high cost. Forests and<br />
Rhodes grass together account for two-thirds of<br />
groundwater abstraction. They use 1.24 GWh of<br />
electrical energy a year to provide drip irrigation<br />
through 433,000 km of pipes plus the energy used<br />
by wells. Annual pumping costs are more than<br />
Dh 256 million per year and CO2 production<br />
from energy used is about half million tonnes per<br />
year. While this is offset by carbon sequestered<br />
in forest vegetation, there is little or no research<br />
to determine the amount.<br />
These high rates of agriculture water use<br />
jeopardize <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s only strategic water<br />
reserve: groundwater. At current rates of<br />
agricultural use all of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s fresh and<br />
moderately brackish water will be exhausted in<br />
20-40 years. Groundwater is available all year<br />
round over quite large inland areas and can be<br />
recovered and treated for water supply at fairly<br />
low costs. Currently desalinated water supply<br />
systems that are the sole potable water source<br />
have only two days storage capacity.<br />
Groundwater is the only alternative source of<br />
supply.<br />
Agriculture is thus living on borrowed time. If<br />
present agricultural and energy policy continue<br />
then water quality will continue to deteriorate<br />
and electricity demand will increase<br />
disproportionately as more water is required to<br />
leach irrigated soils and lift water from greater<br />
depths.<br />
There are solutions: water demand can be<br />
regulated or its supply can be increased. While<br />
demand regulation is feasible, the rate and cost<br />
of relatively small volumes of groundwater<br />
recharge are non-viable.<br />
Supply augmentation has been hotly debated<br />
for a number of years and the choices favoured in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are using treated sewage effluent<br />
(TSE) and excess desalinated water to recharge<br />
the groundwater reservoir. Neither is a viable<br />
solution. Demand for treated sewage effluent<br />
will shortly exceed supply and in the future the<br />
supply shortage will be so large that the<br />
Muncipality and EAD are proposing to adopt<br />
desert landscaping in urban areas. Excess<br />
capacity to generate desalinated water is<br />
available in the winter when power demand is<br />
small. However, the marginal cost of winter<br />
season desalination becomes very high because<br />
energy to desalinate water has to be specially<br />
provided independently of power generation.<br />
This would raise the average cost of water<br />
significantly – now $1.75 per cubic metre –<br />
perhaps by more than half. The exact cost is not<br />
known until more detailed financial information<br />
is available from the water generation<br />
companies. Apart from the cost issue the<br />
volume available would be relatively small –<br />
about 10% of groundwater demand.<br />
There are three strategic options:<br />
a) do nothing and allow the agricultural system<br />
to gradually fail over the next 20-40 years;<br />
b) take positive actions to reduce water demand;<br />
or<br />
c) provide agriculture with expensive desalinated<br />
water.<br />
Doing nothing is not an option as it would have<br />
important social consequences. Option (c) is<br />
allowed and officially 11% of the very expensive<br />
desalinated water supply is being used. In<br />
practice this is likely to be far higher. There are<br />
no economic or financial analyses to verify the<br />
economic sense of this approach. We are certain<br />
that rigorous analysis following the precedent<br />
set by the reform of the date industry under the<br />
leadership of HE Sheikh Hamed bin Zayed Al<br />
Nahyan could be replicated in other parts of the<br />
agricultural sector.<br />
As an alternative the government can adopt<br />
progressive policies for agriculture and power<br />
and implement option (b). The program to<br />
reduce agricultural subsidies should be<br />
accelerated and the biggest benefit would<br />
accrue from removing that from Rhodes grass<br />
and other crops, and supporting droughttolerant<br />
species. This could quickly reduce water<br />
usage by half. The biggest impact will be from<br />
policies that affect farmers’ costs. Power is very<br />
under-priced – farmers pay only 14% of actual<br />
electricity costs – and there are sound financial<br />
reasons to increase the tariffs. They are an<br />
effective policy instrument. Global experience<br />
shows that a 10% increase in tariffs reduces<br />
demand by 4-7%. Thus increasing power tariffs<br />
would force farmers to increase water use<br />
efficiency and adopt new cropping patterns that<br />
use less water – vegetables in preference to field<br />
crops. While many farmers may cease to farm,<br />
the social consequences are better addressed by<br />
direct income support programs that are<br />
transparent and do not have such unforeseen<br />
environmental consequences.<br />
There is a lobby that argues that continued<br />
support for agriculture contributes to food selfsufficiency<br />
and is essential for national security.<br />
However, it must be stated here that future<br />
agricultural management and expansion must<br />
be viewed within the context of available<br />
irrigation water and energy sources to ensure<br />
sustainability of production. Any changes must<br />
be considered within the context of<br />
international indicators for food production and<br />
recent UAE government initiatives to secure<br />
future supply.<br />
Excessive household consumption<br />
of water is a growing problem<br />
ADWEC’s latest projections for peak power<br />
demand indicate existing co-generation capacity<br />
will be unable to meet demand for water after<br />
2012. New capacity will be needed unless<br />
demand can be reduced. As most desalinated<br />
water is produced by co-generation of power and<br />
20<br />
21
Executive Summary<br />
water this will affect the future supply of<br />
potable water to meet demand from<br />
households, government, commerce and<br />
industry. Consideration of gas supplies and<br />
alternative energy sources indicate that standalone<br />
electricity stations may offer the most<br />
flexible solutions to meet future demand. And a<br />
decision to explore nuclear power generation<br />
has been taken. In this sector there are three<br />
options to ensure future water supplies:<br />
1. demand reduction<br />
2. supply augmentation<br />
3. or a combination of the two<br />
Currently only 17% of water is lost in<br />
transmission and distribution. With state-of-theart<br />
management this could possibly be reduced<br />
to 10% but the marginal cost becomes<br />
increasingly high for lower-losses. The<br />
technologies to achieve this are well-known and<br />
are being introduced in the water supply sector<br />
which is among the best-managed and regulated<br />
in the Middle East. In terms of meeting demand,<br />
leakage reduction programs only delay the<br />
demand-supply gap from 2012 until about 2014.<br />
Beyond that the supply-demand gap rapidly<br />
increases. As with electricity, water tariffs have<br />
proved to be an effective instrument to lower<br />
demand and they behave in a similar way too.<br />
Thus a progressive increase in the water tariff<br />
could reduce demand by more than half.<br />
Rigorously pursued it could completely close the<br />
supply demand gap and reduce the need for very<br />
expensive and lumpy new investment.<br />
The reason is that three-quarters of desalinated<br />
water supplies are used primarily for vegetation –<br />
amenity plantations, home gardening, parks and<br />
private households. Surveys show that per capita<br />
consumption in flats in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> range<br />
between 170 and 200 litres per capita per day. In<br />
contrast, people living in villas use between 270<br />
and 1,760 litres per capita per day. Extensive<br />
survey data from Europe, Australia and Canada<br />
clearly show that developed societies typically<br />
consume 150 – 250 litres per capita per day.<br />
Notably, households in which water is for free<br />
consume far more water than those that pay a<br />
tariff. A two-part tariff is indicated and this could<br />
be applied specifically to non-household use of<br />
desalinated water.<br />
An important finding is that the sewage<br />
collection system is very efficient, probably<br />
better than 90% at collecting indoor household<br />
wastewater. <strong>Water</strong> tariffs would primarily affect<br />
household’s outdoor use of water, little of which<br />
is captured by the sewerage system. Therefore<br />
increasing tariffs will not necessarily lead to a<br />
reduction in TSE which is an important water<br />
source for landscapes and amenity use. Indeed<br />
the conservation of potable water will ensure<br />
that household demands in new developments<br />
are fully met providing that these new sources of<br />
wastewater are connected and efficiently<br />
collected.<br />
The instruments to develop a workable tariff<br />
policy will require a lot of additional household<br />
research and surveys. This is a complex and<br />
sophisticated subject but, given its high payoff in<br />
terms of deferring large capital investment in<br />
desalination, it should be given the highest<br />
priority.<br />
Turning to supply, recent new water production<br />
plants have been large and very costly, typically<br />
more than US$2 billion. These lumpy<br />
investments take up to six years to come on-line<br />
considering design, contracting and<br />
construction. In the absence of demand<br />
management there is no choice but to build new<br />
capacity. Global best practice indicates that<br />
reverse osmosis plants (RO) have significant<br />
cost and environmental advantages over the<br />
current multi-stage flash (MSF) distillation<br />
processes when not used in co-generation. With<br />
the national move towards nuclear energy it is<br />
suggested that the immediate future strategy<br />
should be to fill the demand-supply gap in<br />
relatively small increments. Brackish<br />
groundwater RO could be run at half the costs of<br />
seawater. They have the additional advantage of<br />
producing between half and three-quarters less<br />
concentrated brine and significantly lower<br />
greenhouse gas emissions when power supply is<br />
factored in. This proposal will run into fierce<br />
opposition because of the vested interests that<br />
have monopolized water generation in the Gulf<br />
region since the 1960s, and this will require<br />
much greater in-depth analysis than has been<br />
possible in this <strong>Plan</strong>. Singapore and Australia<br />
provide excellent examples of the economic and<br />
environmental advantages of RO.<br />
Both demand reduction and supply<br />
augmentation are viable. Modest size RO plants<br />
could be introduced in inland areas around Al<br />
Ain and Liwa. These RO plants and their<br />
associated well-fields could supplement potable<br />
and/or agricultural water supplies and if<br />
connected to existing transmission systems,<br />
augment supplies from the Fujairah<br />
desalination plants for Al Ain. This would allow<br />
the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> coastal plants to supply the<br />
growing conurbation of the capital city. If<br />
sufficient capacity and emergency generators<br />
could be installed, these RO plants would<br />
provide a strategic water supply in the event of<br />
coastal desalination plants failing.<br />
The feasibility of these various proposals<br />
requires far more data than is currently<br />
available, specifically full engineering and<br />
energy as well as land management and<br />
environmental costs in a comprehensive,<br />
integrated study. The detailed study approach<br />
would involve developing the costs and benefits<br />
of each option; making trade-offs to minimize<br />
environmental impacts and financial costs,<br />
whilst maximizing economic benefits. This<br />
would also provide the opportunity to include<br />
social dimensions that have not been included<br />
in this strategic plan.<br />
Institutional reform will be<br />
necessary<br />
To bring about the proposed changes of this<br />
strategic assessment, there is a need to develop<br />
the institutional structures of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> emirate<br />
in both water and environmental management.<br />
22<br />
23
Executive Summary<br />
The most important recommendation is the<br />
creation of an <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council which<br />
would be responsible for strategic planning and<br />
development across all the water sources and<br />
users. The present system operates as a series of<br />
silos with limited strategic communication<br />
between the various major water resources<br />
system management groups and user groups.<br />
The new <strong>Water</strong> Council would ensure integrated<br />
and coherent water policies in the future. It<br />
would provide the independent guidance and<br />
oversight to come up with the economically best<br />
solutions to meet water needs across the many<br />
economic sectors. And ensure that these are<br />
balanced within possible water and energy<br />
supply futures that meet national environmental<br />
policy objectives.<br />
In tandem with this, is the very real need for an<br />
environmental regulator. The setting of<br />
acceptable standards and practices for using<br />
natural resources or discharging to the<br />
environment is needed to control the impacts of<br />
burgeoning developments, including water and<br />
energy supplies. Without this water and other<br />
natural resources will be further compromised in<br />
the future. Additional planning and support for<br />
capacity-building and developing the Emirate’s<br />
human and financial resources for monitoring<br />
and enforcement are essential.<br />
24
1. Introduction<br />
25
Introduction<br />
1. Introduction<br />
The occurrence of water<br />
determined settlement patterns<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> occupies an arid region sloping west<br />
from the Omani Mountains and north from the<br />
Rub Al Khali desert of Saudi Arabia to border<br />
the Gulf (Figure 1). Most of the country is sand<br />
and stony desert while the coastal strip is ringed<br />
with sabkhas. Offshore more than 200 islands,<br />
almost all without sweet water and some fringed<br />
with coral reefs, form an array of creeks - many of<br />
which are cloaked in mangrove – that provide a<br />
rich near-shore environment that nurtures<br />
many species of flora and fauna. At Umm Al-<br />
Nar on the coast, communities were active in<br />
coastal trade, fishing and pearl diving from<br />
the Bronze Age.<br />
Inland the earliest inhabitants were sustained<br />
by periodic flash floods that provided sweet<br />
shallow groundwater around the oases of Al Ain<br />
just east of the Omani Mountains and ancient<br />
yet sweet fossil groundwater in the location of<br />
Figure 1 : <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate Location Map<br />
Liwa in the south west. Subsequently, about<br />
twenty aflaj were constructed in the vicinity of<br />
Al Ain over 3,000 years ago to transport water<br />
underground from the foothills and support<br />
small-scale agriculture, as the climate became<br />
increasingly arid and groundwater levels slowly<br />
declined. The steady expansion of irrigated<br />
agriculture supported a growing population.<br />
And the discovery of a fresh ground water<br />
spring on a small coastal island in 1751 led to<br />
the establishment of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and the eventual<br />
relocation of the tribal headquarters of the<br />
Bani Yas from the oases of Liwa to the presentday<br />
seat of government.<br />
All this changed in the 1960s with the exploitation<br />
of oil and gas resources that provided the<br />
revenue to improve people’s living conditions<br />
and build modern infrastructure. From the outset<br />
the highest priority was given to provision of<br />
secure potable water supplies - initially from a<br />
mix of groundwater and desalination but now<br />
primarily from desalination - and sanitation. As<br />
a result water services are reliable and quality is<br />
high. Everyone who consumes water supplied<br />
by distribution companies is happy with free or<br />
heavily subsidized water.<br />
In addition, the extensive oil-field exploration<br />
activities provided increasingly detailed knowledge<br />
about the geology and the distribution of<br />
groundwater resources. Driven by the forwardthinking<br />
of His Highness Sheikh Zayed Bin<br />
Sultan Al-Nahyan, extensive investigations to<br />
find sweet groundwater were successful in the<br />
1970s and indicated that there was great potential<br />
to green the desert and increase the cultivated<br />
area around existing oases. These efforts<br />
accelerated in the late 1980s under the guidance<br />
of the then Crown Prince of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, His<br />
Highness Sheikh Kalifa Bin Zayed Al-Nahyan<br />
who issued a directive for the establishment of<br />
an inter-government program led by the<br />
National Drilling Company of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> in<br />
cooperation with the US Geological Survey and<br />
later with Germany’s Gesellschaft fur<br />
Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). These<br />
efforts found that fresh groundwater was available<br />
under almost 380,000 hectares of the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate or 6.5 percent of the land area.<br />
About 160,000 ha of this occurred in the northeast<br />
of the Emirate and 220,000 ha in the Liwa<br />
Crescent and other parts of the Western<br />
Region. Elsewhere groundwater was generally<br />
too saline except for use in secondary oil extraction.<br />
Increased use of water improved<br />
the local environment<br />
The rapid increase in oil prices in 1973 sparked<br />
the growth of sea-water desalinization in the<br />
Middle East and accelerated infrastructure<br />
development. Using energy readily available<br />
from huge oil and gas reserves, desalination<br />
plants were constructed in association with<br />
electrical power generation facilities. And the<br />
multiple-stage flash distillation process introduced<br />
at that time has proved to be the reliable<br />
mainstay of water supplies for domestic and<br />
industrial consumption in the Emirate. Reverse<br />
osmosis to desalinate seawater and brackish<br />
groundwater was then only being developed,<br />
was not well understood and required high<br />
energy inputs. Subsequently costs of water from<br />
desalinization have dropped significantly. This<br />
is the result of technical improvements that<br />
have mostly overcome the problems associated<br />
with the reverse osmosis process.<br />
Concern to share the nation’s oil wealth with<br />
citizens, foster employment and move towards<br />
food self-sufficiency from the early 1970s accelerated<br />
agricultural development using fresh<br />
groundwater. Emiratis who wished to farm were<br />
granted 2 to 3 ha farms that were developed<br />
through generous subsidies for wells, irrigation<br />
systems, seeds, fertilizer and pesticides. From<br />
less than 2,000 ha in 1970 citizen farms grew rapidly<br />
to cover an estimated 80,000 ha by 2007 – a<br />
growth of nearly 5,000 ha a year since the middle<br />
1990s, Figure 2.<br />
His Highness Sheikh Zayed succeeded in his<br />
greater vision to green the desert and the cities<br />
to provide habitat for wildlife and stabilize the<br />
sand dunes. By 2003 over 300,000 ha of the<br />
desert had been planted with trees, irrigated<br />
mostly from groundwater, and more recently<br />
supplemented by desalinated water. While Al<br />
Ain was traditionally known as the garden city,<br />
this now applies also to the capital, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Amenity planting along roadsides and creation<br />
of gardens and parks has made these extreme-<br />
26<br />
27
Introduction<br />
ly pleasant places to live. Unlike desert forestation,<br />
urban landscaping program relies also on<br />
the use of treated waste water effluent generated<br />
from desalinated water used within the urban<br />
Figure 2 : The growth in the cultivated and afforested<br />
area has been remarkable<br />
Cultivated or <strong>Plan</strong>ted Area, ha (000)<br />
Source: EAD 2006 and Moreland op cit, 2007.<br />
area. In contrast to the use of groundwater and<br />
desalinated water for greening <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and<br />
for agriculture, industrial water use is relatively<br />
quite small.<br />
The landscape of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate has<br />
been significantly altered through use of natural<br />
and artificial water supplies. It has clearly<br />
demonstrated that, with vision, even the arid<br />
deserts can be made to bloom and be productive.<br />
The vision for the future is equally bold and<br />
even more challenging.<br />
New visions will require more water<br />
and energy<br />
A new vision for the future of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> as a<br />
global capital city is now being promoted by His<br />
Highness Sheikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Al Nahyan<br />
and implemented under the direction of His<br />
Highness Sheikh Mohammed Bin Zayed Al<br />
Nahyan, Crown Prince of Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
In the 2005 census <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city was home to<br />
three-quarters of a million people or 59 percent<br />
of the national population. Under the vision –<br />
<strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030: The Urban Structure<br />
Framework <strong>Plan</strong> – in which sustainable utilization<br />
of land and water are key, the population of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city is expected to grow from 930,000<br />
in 2007 to over three million, and possibly as<br />
many as five million, by 2030. Over the same time<br />
period, tourism, currently 1.8 million visits per<br />
year, is expected to grow to almost 8 million.<br />
It is anticipated that the quality of life and the<br />
built environment will attract expatriate immigration<br />
and tourists who will, in turn, leverage<br />
business investment and synergize development<br />
of a world-class cultural and commercial center.<br />
Not only does this massive growth provide<br />
opportunities for innovative town planning and<br />
state-of-the-art architecture, it will also demand<br />
close attention to providing adequate water supplies,<br />
electricity, and facilities to dispose of<br />
waste. Security of water supplies will be an overriding<br />
consideration for economic and social<br />
well-being.<br />
Conservation of energy and reduction of greenhouse<br />
gas emissions and concerns for the climatic<br />
impacts of development will probably be<br />
among the attractions of living in a modern community<br />
for the new residence, the majority of<br />
whom will be expatriates. Similarly, access to<br />
pristine desert environments and the traditional<br />
oases culture of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> would be features<br />
that will link expatriates to a deeper understanding<br />
and appreciation for Emirati culture.<br />
Recreational use of near-shore waters will also<br />
grow significantly in importance, not only for<br />
boating, but also for underwater activities that<br />
will depend on sound management of the offshore<br />
marine environment.<br />
And the vision’s emphasis is on<br />
sound environmental management<br />
The <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 puts a high premium<br />
on sound environmental development and<br />
management. In terms of environment, health<br />
and safety it espouses four guiding principles:<br />
• integrating environmental, social and economic<br />
considerations in all decision-making;<br />
• adopting the precautionary principle based<br />
on scientific knowledge and clean technologies;<br />
• ensuring environmental health, diversity and<br />
productivity is maintained through sustainable<br />
development; and<br />
• promoting environmental awareness and<br />
sense of responsibility.<br />
The emphasis is also on integrated coastal zone<br />
management to:<br />
• establish a comprehensive network of<br />
marine and terrestrial protected areas;<br />
• integrate a comprehensive network of<br />
marine and terrestrial protected areas;<br />
• endorse creation of environmental education<br />
facilities;<br />
• suggest removal of existing development<br />
that compromises the attainment of these<br />
goals; and<br />
• recommend specific actions directed to<br />
urbanization and urban sprawl, including:<br />
- establishing urban development boundaries;<br />
- setting aside critical areas and nondevelopment<br />
zones;<br />
- protecting coastal landscapes and other<br />
sites of value by redirecting development<br />
elsewhere; and<br />
- preventing habitat fragmentation.<br />
And among the sustainable green building<br />
design criteria the <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 advocates<br />
water conservation, harvesting and reclamation,<br />
and energy and thermal efficiency.<br />
The proposals of <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 were augmented<br />
by two new policy initiatives in the period<br />
2005-07. The laws of land ownership were liberalized<br />
in 2005 to allow for the creation of 33<br />
‘mega-projects’ along the coast behind <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Island. And surplus oil revenues were<br />
released for major infrastructure developments<br />
and mega-projects. In all, these new investments<br />
are expected to cost in excess of US$172 billion.<br />
How far these plans will be affected by the global<br />
recession that started in mid-2008 is uncertain.<br />
The most probable impact will be delays in the<br />
anticipated mega-investment and a scalingback<br />
of the more ambitious and risky proposals.<br />
The impact of <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 and the<br />
mega-projects on future demand for electricity<br />
and water services is huge. The 2007 forecast of<br />
peak electricity demand by ADWEC for 2015 for<br />
example, leapt by 56 percent over the earlier<br />
2005 planning estimate used to project future<br />
infrastructure requirements. And equally<br />
important, the forecast peak demand for water<br />
supplies from desalination increased by 19 percent.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> production and use has<br />
climatic implications<br />
Utilization of the Emirate’s oil wealth has<br />
changed the landscape of the UAE. It has also<br />
greatly contributed to global carbon emissions.<br />
In 2005 the UAE as a whole accounted for<br />
almost 9% of total global carbon released from<br />
fossil fuels (Figure 3). The same source shows<br />
that per capita CO2 emissions declined by<br />
about 9% after 1990 to reach 23.7 tonnes/capita<br />
in 2003 - this was the result of better technology<br />
and a transition to the use of natural gas.<br />
Specific data for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are not reported by<br />
the International Energy Agency (IEA).<br />
However, EAD’s Environmental Data Initiative<br />
reports in 2008 that 64% of carbon emissions<br />
emanate from oil production facilities, oil<br />
28<br />
29
Introduction<br />
refineries, and petrochemical and fertilizer<br />
plants. Adoption of a zero-flaring policy by the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> National Oil Company (ADNOC)<br />
significantly reduced its gas flaring from 7.5 million<br />
to 2.5 million cubic meters a day over the<br />
period 1995-2004.<br />
The International Panel on Climate Change<br />
allows countries to use either the reference<br />
approach or the sectoral approach when reporting<br />
their CO2 emissions. The emissions shown<br />
here use the reference approach, which uses<br />
data on a country's total energy supply and captures<br />
refining, flaring, and other "fugitive emissions"<br />
that do not result directly from end-use<br />
fossil fuel combustion. In contrast, the sectoral<br />
approach estimates emissions based on the<br />
combustion in country rather than the supply<br />
of fossil fuels for local and export use. Sectoral<br />
data reported by EAD (2006) for the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
Figure 3: Global Share of Total Carbon Emissions Top<br />
Ten Countries 2005<br />
Global Share (%)<br />
Source: International Energy Agency (IEA) Statistics<br />
Division. 2006. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion<br />
(2006 edition).Paris. Available at http://data.iea.org/ieastore/default.asp.<br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>’s cogenerative power and water plants<br />
indicates that 13.5 million tons of gases and particulates<br />
36% of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s total emissions–<br />
are produced each year of which CO2 accounts<br />
for 99.65%. Thus water production, transmission<br />
and use in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is intricately linked<br />
to greenhouse gas emissions because of its<br />
reliance on fossil fuel energy for desalination,<br />
pumped distribution, and water treatment.<br />
Recognizing the importance of global warming<br />
the UAE ratified the Kyoto Protocol of the UN<br />
Framework Convention for Climatic Change in<br />
January 2005. As a non-Annex 1 country it is not<br />
obliged to reduce its emissions. Even so in<br />
January 2008 His Highness General Sheikh<br />
Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Crown Prince<br />
of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> announced at the opening ceremony<br />
of the World Future Energy Summit that<br />
US$15 billion would be made available to foster<br />
development of renewable energy and conservation<br />
under the Masdar Initiative (Box 1).<br />
What needs to be done<br />
These new initiatives and guiding principles<br />
have huge implications for water and water<br />
resources management. <strong>Water</strong> is the major environmental<br />
component – frequently taken for<br />
granted – that underpins and links population<br />
growth, maintenance and creation of green habitats,<br />
preservation of the cultural heritage, and<br />
urban expansion. Almost all water used in the<br />
Emirate requires energy to pump it and/or purify<br />
it, and power plants are emitters of pollutants<br />
and greenhouse gases. <strong>Water</strong> use also creates<br />
byproducts – brine plus process chemicals from<br />
desalinated sea water, and chemical-laden<br />
wastewater from urban and industrial, agricultural<br />
and landscape areas. In many cases the<br />
near-shore marine environment or pristine<br />
desert areas become the disposal zones for polluted<br />
waters.<br />
The new vision for the future of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate requires a careful assessment of the way<br />
in which water is currently used and its direct<br />
and indirect impacts on the environment. This<br />
will enable identification of options for improvement<br />
in existing water use and alternative water<br />
BOX 1: THE MASDAR INITIATIVE<br />
This initiative is designed to explore, develop and commercialize future energy sources that will<br />
leverage investment globally. The kingpin of the initiative is the construction of a sustainable<br />
carbon-neutral, zero-waste, car-free city near <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> powered entirely by renewable energy.<br />
MASDAR is planning a solar power generation plant using locally manufactured polysilicon to<br />
convert sunlight to energy and an integrated hydrogen power generation project that will enable<br />
clean electricity and CO 2 sequestration. Trials are underway to test suitability of PVs for UAE.<br />
Additionally MASDAR has initiated planning for a national network of Carbon Storage and<br />
Capture (CSS) from existing power and water cogeneration facilities. Captured CO2 will be recycled<br />
and stored underground to augment reservoir gas caps that drive oil recovery.<br />
resources and uses. The best combinations of<br />
viable options and their schedule for implementation<br />
will define the strategy for the<br />
future use and management of water according<br />
to the guiding principles of <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
2030. This is the objective of this <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong><br />
<strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
The next chapter provides an overview of the<br />
pattern of present and projected water use and<br />
the way in which water is supplied. Chapter 3<br />
presents the environmental and economic<br />
impacts of the technologies and present water<br />
use. Chapter 4 addresses the need for an integrated<br />
approach to environmental regulation<br />
and management and presents to tools to<br />
achieve this based on international best practice.<br />
Chapter 5 highlights the key role of institutions,<br />
current challenges and recommendations<br />
for policy and organizational reforms<br />
necessary to ensure sustainable environmental<br />
management. The design of institutions and<br />
capacity-building to strengthen EAD’s ability<br />
to manage and regulate the environment and<br />
water resources is presented in Chapter 6 and<br />
recommendations are presented in Chapter 7.<br />
Seven technical annexes are provided to give a<br />
more detailed background to the report.<br />
30 31
2. <strong>Water</strong> Availability<br />
and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
33
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
2. <strong>Water</strong> Availability<br />
and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
The lack of renewable freshwater resources in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate is a major challenge for sustainable<br />
development and management of<br />
water supplies. Since the 1960s the growth in<br />
population, higher standards of living, and<br />
expansion of the agricultural, forestry and<br />
industrial sectors has created a huge demand<br />
for more fresh water. Initially demand was met<br />
from fresh groundwater resources but that is<br />
being depleted rapidly. Increased reliance on<br />
non-conventional water supplies is required to<br />
maintain economic growth in the Emirate. One<br />
of the most important challenges for the<br />
Emirate is to balance water supply and demand<br />
as efficiently as possible given that the per capita<br />
consumption of fresh water is among the<br />
highest in the world and new water supplies are<br />
expensive.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Availability<br />
Summary of <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong><br />
Table 1 summarizes water resources and constraints<br />
on their use according to current knowledge<br />
and practice. Ancient fossil groundwater<br />
and seawater are the principal natural water<br />
resources of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (see Annex 1 for more<br />
detail). Rainfall in comparison is a negligible<br />
resource except in the eastern plains below the<br />
Omani Mountains. Desalinated installed capacity<br />
exceeded average annual domestic demand<br />
in 2003 because it is designed to meet shortterm<br />
peak demand and future growth in the<br />
medium-term.<br />
Seawater is effectively an infinite supply constrained<br />
only by the costs of desalination and<br />
environmental impacts. Groundwater<br />
resources can be thought of as a large underground<br />
reservoir whose use is constrained by its<br />
quality and the willingness of users to finance<br />
the cost of raising it to the land surface. In many<br />
areas nearby brackish or saline groundwater<br />
may be drawn into the freshwater reservoir if<br />
the rate of freshwater withdrawal is too high.<br />
Fresh <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong><br />
Rainfall: Rainfall is sparse and erratic in both<br />
time and place. Its unreliability precludes it as a<br />
reliable water resource. Mean annual rainfall<br />
within <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate declines from east to<br />
west, varying from 119 mm at Al Wigan, to 96<br />
mm in Al Ain and only 46 mm at Jebel Dhana in<br />
the Western Region. Mean annual rainfall of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Island is only 87 mm. Annual evaporation<br />
is more than 2,000 mm or 20 times mean<br />
Table 1: <strong>Water</strong> Stocks, Generation and Naturally Renewable <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
<strong>Water</strong> Resource<br />
Stocks:<br />
Groundwater - fresh<br />
Groundwater — moderately<br />
brackish<br />
Groundwater — brackish<br />
Generated<br />
Desalination<br />
Treated Sewage<br />
Effluent<br />
Naturally Renewable<br />
Rainfall and inflows<br />
Source: adapted from EAD 2006<br />
Volume Mcm<br />
1960 2007<br />
30,000 26,000<br />
94,000 89,000<br />
138,000 132,000<br />
negligible<br />
negligible<br />
24/year<br />
1,044/year<br />
400/year<br />
24/year<br />
Status and comment<br />
Mined from storage as natural annual recharge is negligible.<br />
Constraints are cost and quality. Annual mining is subject to<br />
demand. Moderately brackish water with TDS more than 1,500<br />
ppm can be used on many commercial plants and trees<br />
TDS range is 6,000 to 15,000 ppm allowing use on a very<br />
restricted range of plants and trees<br />
Renewable and expandable. Constraints are cost and environmental<br />
impacts.<br />
Renewable and expandable. Resource is dependant on desalinated<br />
water supplied for domestic use. Aesthetic issues constrain use.<br />
Highly variable from year to year<br />
annual rainfall. Even so, high intensity isolated<br />
rainfall often cause sporadic wadi floods that<br />
quickly infiltrate and recharge groundwater.<br />
Volumetrically, net rainfall contributes about 24<br />
million cubic meters (Mcm) a year. About 16<br />
Mcm is from rainfall over the Emirate and 8<br />
Mcm is from cross-border flows from Oman.<br />
Groundwater: Groundwater in the absence of<br />
significant recharge is essentially a large reservoir<br />
of water – a stock – whose use requires<br />
wells, pumping equipment and distribution systems<br />
(see Annex 1 for more details).<br />
Traditionally fresh ground water was found in<br />
the gravel plains around Al Ain and in the Liwa<br />
Crescent area in the Western Emirate. A In the<br />
past when the water table was high the small<br />
amount of rainfall recharge provided spring<br />
flows in the Al Ain area and serviced quanats.<br />
As these resources became fully used the water<br />
table was lowered and the quanats became dry.<br />
The investigations of the last three decades<br />
successfully quantified the thickness of the<br />
underground fresh water reservoir and its spatial<br />
extent, and how much water was available<br />
for use. Exploration revealed that the predevelopment<br />
fresh groundwater area in the northeast<br />
extended over about a 1,600 square kilometer<br />
area and covered only 2.7 percent of the<br />
Emirate (Figure 4). Most of this fresh water<br />
occurred within about 15 to 25 km of the Oman<br />
Mountain front from Mezyad to Al Shwaib. The<br />
source of the fresh ground water in the Eastern<br />
Region was primarily underflow through the<br />
alluvial sediments in wadis that drained the<br />
Oman Mountains and episodic storm runoff<br />
concentrated in the wadis. A narrow band of<br />
fresh water extended about 30 km west of the<br />
Oman border through Al Ain to Al Saad.<br />
The total predevelopment fresh groundwater<br />
area beneath the Liwa Crescent in the western<br />
Emirate was about 3, 800 square kilometers or<br />
6.5% of the total area of the Emirate which had<br />
reduced to 2,199 kilometers by 2005.* The<br />
source of this fresh water was paleo-recharge<br />
thousands of years ago during wetter climatic<br />
periods than the present arid climate. Several<br />
studies have indicated that virtually no recharge<br />
occurs in the Western region under present climatic<br />
conditions. Therefore any use of groundwater<br />
effectively mines the resource.<br />
The volume of fresh groundwater reserves in the<br />
Emirate before development was estimated at<br />
29,700 Mcm. Slightly more than eight percent of<br />
the fresh groundwater occurred in the Eastern<br />
Region between Al Ain and Al Saad. The bulk of<br />
it (84 %) occurs in the Western Region around<br />
the Liwa Crescent. By 2007 withdrawal, primarily<br />
for agriculture, reduced the total volume by<br />
an estimated 12% or 26,300 Mcm.<br />
According to the United States Geological<br />
Survey (USGS) predevelopment brackish water<br />
volumes were estimated at 94,300 Mcm and by<br />
2007 this had been reduced to 83,000 Mcm. As<br />
with fresh water, most of this resource, 82 percent,<br />
is in the Western Region. Moderately brackish<br />
groundwater resources are used to irrigate a<br />
restricted range of crops and vegetation, depend-<br />
* Using the USGS classification fresh water has total dissolved solids (TDS) of less than 1,500 parts per million (ppm).<br />
Moderately brackish water 1,500 to less than 6,000 ppm; brackish water from 6,000 to less than 15,000 ppm; saline water 15,000<br />
to 35,000 ppm; and brine greater then 35,000 ppm. The Gulf sea water has 40 to 44,000 ppm.<br />
34 35
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
ing on salinity tolerance, and are desalinated<br />
locally also via small-scale RO plants, particularly<br />
in the Western Region. Brackish water –<br />
138,000 Mcm.<br />
Figure 4 : Pre-development Fresh Groundwater<br />
<strong>Resources</strong> in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
power generation plants coupled with multiple<br />
flash distillation (MSF) plants operating on<br />
seawater as feed. RO currently provides 6% of<br />
dependable capacity. Cogeneration power<br />
plants are designed to meet peak electricity<br />
demand and produce water. The relative importance<br />
of electricity to water generation varies<br />
significantly from summer to winter; when<br />
power demand falls off in the winter; water production<br />
can be maximized using the excess<br />
energy generation capacity. Current production<br />
is primarily from eight desalination plants along<br />
the Gulf Coast and imports from one in the<br />
Emirate of Fujairah on the Gulf of Oman (seen<br />
Annex 2 for more detail).<br />
Figure 6 : <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> Distribution Network is Extensive – March 2007<br />
Source: Mooreland et. Al. 2007. op. cit.<br />
Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
Desalinated seawater currently represents the<br />
primary source of potable water available in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. Capacity to desalinate water to supplement<br />
groundwater supplies was initiated in the<br />
1960s and has expanded steadily ever since in<br />
response to growing demand for potable water<br />
supplies (Figures 5 and 6) (see annex 2 for more<br />
detail). Desalination capacity increased by over<br />
360% between 1998 and 2007. Initially all desalination<br />
plants were owned and operated by the<br />
government. But since 2000 a change of policy<br />
has privatized operations and maintenance<br />
under long-term management contracts. By 2007<br />
only 4 percent of capacity remained to be divested<br />
to the private sector. Security of supplies,<br />
water quality and sound financial management<br />
is guaranteed by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s strong and independent<br />
regulatory authority: the Regulation<br />
and Supervision Bureau (RSB).<br />
Production is almost exclusively from thermal<br />
Total installed capacity of the major cogeneration<br />
plants at the end of 2007 was 1,044 Mcm and<br />
production was 847 Mcm. The few small desalination<br />
plants using thermal and reverse osmosis<br />
serve some remote communities and oil production<br />
facilities and produce about 8 Mcm. There<br />
is almost no storage capacity in the desalination<br />
water transmission system. If the desalination<br />
plants all failed–because of extensive oil spill (as<br />
happened in Alaska) or war–<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> would<br />
have only one to two days water supply.<br />
Figure 5 : Desalination Capacity Grew Rapidly<br />
Volume Mcm / year<br />
Source: ADWEA 2007<br />
Source: ADWEA 2008<br />
Power and water production peaks in the summer<br />
but falls off in the winter, Figure 5.<br />
Potentially excess desalination capacity of 58<br />
Mcm (the area between the dotted and solid<br />
blue line A to B) could be used to generate water<br />
that could be stored for summer use in groundwater<br />
or surface reservoirs if cost-effective.<br />
There is a cost-effectiveness problem however.<br />
To raise water production to the line AB in<br />
winter would require additional thermal<br />
power generation above the grid demand just<br />
to evaporate sea water Energy for multi-stage<br />
flash evaporation is made of waste thermal<br />
heat from electricity generation (We) plus<br />
some heat generated just for desalination<br />
(Ws). In summer the ratio of Ws to We is very<br />
small. In winter the ratio increases as demand<br />
for electricity falls. Power generation for Ws is<br />
very expensive compared with We, and in winter<br />
the overall cost could make full use of<br />
excess water capacity much less economic.<br />
How expensive cannot be determined until<br />
Figure 7 : Cogeneration of power and water, 2007<br />
Volume Mcm / year<br />
Source: ICBA 2009 based on ADWEC<br />
production data<br />
data are made available to support such<br />
analysis by the water master plan team.<br />
36<br />
37
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Treated Sewage Effluent<br />
Recycled desalinated water - wastewater collected<br />
by the sewer system - is a valuable<br />
resource in a water-scarce country and modern<br />
treatment methods are capable of producing<br />
potable water meeting WHO water quality standards<br />
(see Annex 3 for more detail). The water<br />
can be used either directly or to recharge<br />
groundwater storage. It has been argued that<br />
treated wastewater – treated sewage effluent<br />
(TSE) could be an important contribution to<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s strategic water reserve.<br />
The treatment of domestic and municipal<br />
wastewater in centralized treatment works<br />
has been practised in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> since 1973. At present 32 treatment<br />
works are operational. Waste water is collected<br />
through a network of 5,100 km of sewers<br />
and 500 km of rising mains, and 241 pumping<br />
stations are needed to keep the system flowing.<br />
The two largest wastewater treatment<br />
plants serve <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city and surrounding<br />
metropolitan area at Mafraq, and Al Ain’s<br />
Zakhar plant. They treat some 95% of the polluted<br />
wastewater collected by the sewer networks,<br />
including trade and some industrial<br />
aqueous effluents. Both plants work at or<br />
slightly over their design capacity. The<br />
remaining 26 works serve smaller communities<br />
distributed throughout the emirate.<br />
Quality of the TSE discharged meets national<br />
standards at Mafraq and Zakhar.<br />
The annual volume of TSE from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
and Al Ain was 182 Mcm/year in 2007. About<br />
three-quarters of this (146 Mcm) is produced<br />
by the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> conurbation on the west<br />
coast. Al Ain collects about 36 Mcm/year of<br />
the total. The average rate of TSE produced<br />
by each person served by ADSSC is about 130<br />
litres per capita per day (lcd) based on a serviced<br />
population of 1.4 million. Producers of<br />
waste water and sewerage do not pay any of<br />
the collection or clean-up costs. Currently 35%<br />
of TSE (51 Mcm) produced in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is<br />
disposed of into the Gulf because the TSEdedicated<br />
irrigation distribution system has<br />
capacity limitations. As discussed in the sections<br />
below, year 2007 household indoor water<br />
use is estimated at 183 Mcm and the sewers<br />
collect 181 Mcm. TSE thus represents about<br />
98% - an exceedingly efficient management<br />
system by international standards. However,<br />
this may be slightly overestimated as ADSSC<br />
state that the sewers also receive influent<br />
saline groundwater flows in some parts of the<br />
system.<br />
The recent <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (2007) prepared for <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage Services Company (ADSSC)<br />
clearly shows that the future urban demand for<br />
TSE in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and Al Ain greatly exceeds<br />
estimates of future supply. Ongoing expansion<br />
of the TSE distribution network will quickly be<br />
able to utilize the volume disposed of in the<br />
Gulf. Even so, demand will not be met. Thus a<br />
new policy for water conserving amenity planting<br />
is proposed. This policy promotes adoption<br />
of an ‘arid landscape” that includes dry landscaping<br />
and greater use of desert and<br />
xerophitic plants better suited to the arid climate.<br />
This is the approach used in the cities of<br />
the arid southwestern USA to save water with<br />
singular success. It helps to bring the shapes<br />
and beauty of the desert to the city.<br />
The adoption of an ‘arid landscape’ policy<br />
would reduce the maintenance costs and<br />
energy requirements for amenity planting. It<br />
would require less physical maintenance. Unit<br />
area demand for TSE and the energy used for<br />
amenity plantation could be reduced by more<br />
than half. Importantly there will be no spare<br />
TSE to recharge groundwater resources.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Total water use in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> was estimated<br />
to be about 2,800 Mcm per year in 2007 (Table<br />
2) (see Annex 4 for more detail). Agriculture<br />
and forestry were the largest users and<br />
together they account for 76% of total water<br />
use. As municipal and amenity water use is<br />
primarily for landscaping and roadside plantations<br />
this means that 85% of all water use in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is for vegetation. Groundwater<br />
accounted for a very small percent of domestic<br />
water supplies in 2007 because of declining<br />
water quality and increased pumping costs as<br />
groundwater levels declined. In the Liwa<br />
Crescent area domestic water supplies from<br />
groundwater grew rapidly between the late<br />
1970s until 1996 when production was about<br />
14 Mcm/year. By 1997 it was zero. Pumping<br />
was reduced because of the high levels of<br />
boron and nitrate in the groundwater both of<br />
which exceeded health guidelines.<br />
Table 2: <strong>Water</strong> sources and water use in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2007<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Source<br />
Groundwater<br />
Desalination<br />
TSE<br />
Faljs<br />
Total<br />
Source: ICBA based on EAD, ADWEA and USGS data and information<br />
In Al Ain groundwater was also the main<br />
source of supply and grew from about 15<br />
Mcm/year in the late 1970s to peak at 70<br />
Mcm/year in 1998. However, abstraction for<br />
irrigation and domestic supplies had caused<br />
groundwater levels to fall by 20-60 meters, and<br />
there were concerns that supplies would dry<br />
up. Municipal wells have been closed down<br />
and production is now far less than 10<br />
Mcm/year. To supplement the groundwater in<br />
Al Ain, 25 small-scale reverse osmosis plants<br />
provide about 0.6 Mcm/year.<br />
Desalinated water use<br />
Desalinated water accounted for almost a 36%<br />
of total water supply: 30% is directly from the<br />
desalination plants and 6% is from reuse of<br />
urban wastewater as TSE.<br />
Production of domestic and industrial water<br />
supply is set by the capacity of the desalinization<br />
plants supplemented in rural areas by<br />
small-scale reverse osmosis plants drawing on<br />
groundwater. Under Law Number 2 of 1998 the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company<br />
(ADWEC) is the single buyer and seller of electricity<br />
and water and has the obligation under<br />
Article 30 to “ensure that, at all times, all reasonable<br />
demands for water and electricity in<br />
the Emirate is satisfied”. ADWEC and its sup-<br />
<strong>Water</strong> using sector and water use (Mcm/year)<br />
Agriculture Forests Amenity People Livestock Industry Lost Total<br />
1413 579 51 20 1,816<br />
76 91 366 183 46 94 856<br />
130 51 182<br />
25 25<br />
1489 709 167 366 203 46 145 3125<br />
38 39
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
pliers are a natural monopoly and its activities<br />
are regulated by the RSB. ADWEC supplies the<br />
fuel and purchases bulk supplies of water from<br />
the eight water and power producers under<br />
individual agreements. A single company, the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Transmission and Dispatch<br />
Company (TRANSCO) is responsible for the<br />
transfer of bulk supplies to the distribution<br />
companies that pay for the service. On receipt,<br />
these companies retail supplies to their customers<br />
governed by tariffs and performance criteria<br />
regulated by RSB.<br />
Given all the supply constraints from groundwater<br />
and the costs of RO from small and oldfashioned<br />
plants, the pipeline capacity connecting<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city with the Al Ain area<br />
was increased and desalinated water now<br />
serves the domestic, industrial and agricultural<br />
sector. And since 2004 additional desalinated<br />
supplies were provided from the<br />
Fujairah pipeline.<br />
Overall desalinated water supply was 856<br />
Mcm in 2007 of which 30% (253 Mcm/year)<br />
was transmitted to Al Ain. Figure 8a shows<br />
how the total supply was distributed among<br />
users according to the RSB; Figure 8b shows<br />
the classification used by ADWEC for its 2008<br />
demand forecast. Both organizations use the<br />
same source data. The primary difference is<br />
that ADWEC breaks down RSB’s more general<br />
categories based upon surveys of how water<br />
is actually used; RSB reports the administrative<br />
allocation reported by the water companies.<br />
The different ways of reporting water<br />
use illustrate the demand forecasting problem<br />
facing policy-makers. How much of the<br />
expensive desalinated water is being used to<br />
meet essential (indoor) human needs for<br />
which it is the only source According to<br />
ADWEC’s classification 70% of desalinated<br />
water is being used for plant and tree irrigation<br />
for which other sources of water may be<br />
available.<br />
Figure 8a: Users of Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> 2007 according<br />
to RSB<br />
Source: RSB. 2008. <strong>Water</strong> and electricity consumption<br />
by residential customers.<br />
ADWEC’s water use data are similar to findings<br />
from the USA. There extensive surveys<br />
found that the average household used 58% of<br />
its water supply for outdoor activities. And<br />
the USA’s southwestern cities outdoor use<br />
was 65% of supply.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> transmission and distribution<br />
systems are physically efficient<br />
No matter how well designed and managed,<br />
water distribution systems leak. Some water<br />
is lost in the bulk water transmission system<br />
managed by TRANSCO and between the<br />
water supply companies and the consumers.<br />
Until recently system metering was limited<br />
but since commercialization principles were<br />
adopted and the water and electricity<br />
providers were privatized metering at the system,<br />
company and household level has<br />
improved because of RSB’s license conditions<br />
and reporting requirements. In well-managed<br />
and maintained systems overall leakage from<br />
source to consumer may be as small as 10%; in<br />
poorly maintained systems it may approach<br />
Figure 8b: Users of Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> 2008 according<br />
to ADWEC<br />
Source: ADWEC. 2008. Base water peak demand forecast.<br />
The “other” category is the water used by<br />
palace gardens and estates<br />
50%. Knowing how much is lost is important<br />
for system management because it represents<br />
expensive energy and water that is wasted<br />
and lost revenue to the bulk supplier and<br />
retailer.<br />
The sector currently assumes total network<br />
losses to be approximately 10% - around 2%<br />
from transmission and 8% from distribution.<br />
Recent information from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Distribution Company (ADDC) suggests<br />
higher distribution system losses – about 16%.<br />
Adopting the ADDC figure for the Emirate as<br />
a whole and adding TRANSCO’s losses, total<br />
water losses were about 144 Mcm in 2007. By<br />
international performance standards this is<br />
an excellent performance given the age, construction<br />
and materials used in the distribution<br />
system, and the environment.<br />
Losses from the bulk water transmission<br />
network.<br />
According to ADWEA water production by the<br />
desalination plants is almost equal to bulk<br />
40<br />
41
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
water transmitted by TRANSCO to the water<br />
distribution companies. The system contains<br />
over 2,000 km of pipeline (ranging in diameter<br />
from 500 to 1600 mm) and water is pumped at<br />
high pressure. <strong>Water</strong> losses in the system are<br />
small because of TRANSCO’s focus on operation<br />
and maintenance given the almost total<br />
reliance on desalinated water for potable supplies,<br />
the high water pressure required and its<br />
strategic importance. In 1999 water losses were<br />
4% of desalinated production and they were<br />
reduced to 1% or less after 2000.<br />
Losses from the water company’s<br />
distribution network<br />
The ADDC for example, manages an extensive<br />
distribution system that connects more than<br />
171,000 customers through a pipe network of<br />
more than 6,100 km covering 86 zones. The latest<br />
(2005) ADDC Annual reports that network<br />
coverage is increasing at 10% a year. Breakage<br />
of pipes accounted for over half (54%) of customer<br />
complaints. Even so, on the basis of<br />
international comparators supply outages from<br />
breaks in the supply network were only twothirds<br />
of international norms (0.03 breaks/km).<br />
Despite this ADDC management acknowledges<br />
that leakage remains a problem and a leakage<br />
management strategy was initiated in 2006.<br />
According to ADDC total unaccounted-forwater<br />
in 2007 was 35% of the supply. Physical<br />
leakage accounted for 16% and technical and<br />
administrative losses accounted for the balance.<br />
These latter losses include unregistered<br />
connections and illegal connections and are primarily<br />
a billing and financial accounting issue.<br />
In 2007, ADDC retailed 69% of the Emirate’s<br />
water supply.<br />
Residential consumption is very high<br />
by international standards<br />
Per capita residential water use has grown<br />
steadily over the last four decades in line with<br />
national policy that there be no restriction of<br />
water supplies to households. Rates of gross<br />
water consumption were estimated to be 631<br />
lcd in 2001 primarily because Emiratis<br />
received free water whilst expatriates paid<br />
only a modest monthly flat rate of US$13.61 a<br />
month. After introduction of fixed rate volumetric<br />
tariffs in 2002 (for expatriates, government,<br />
industry, commerce and farms) demand<br />
decreased to about 490 lcd. More recently,<br />
however, average gross consumption is reported<br />
to have increased to 550 lcd. The latest<br />
data released by the RSB give a range of 525-<br />
600 lcd.<br />
There are large variations in gross residential<br />
water use among household types, Table 3.<br />
The higher consumption in villas and sabiyats<br />
is attributed to garden, car washing and other<br />
uses, and the significant difference between<br />
UAE nationals and expatriates is probably the<br />
result of the tariff structure buy may also result<br />
from differences in social and cultural practices.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s overall average residential daily<br />
water consumption is very high in comparison<br />
to the experience of other countries.<br />
Table 3: Residential Daily <strong>Water</strong> Consumption by<br />
Household Type<br />
Nationality<br />
Expatriates<br />
UAE Nationals<br />
Overall average<br />
Property<br />
Gross Consumption<br />
(litre per capita)<br />
Type Min Max<br />
Flats<br />
Villas<br />
Flats<br />
Villas<br />
Shabiyats<br />
170<br />
270<br />
165<br />
400<br />
610<br />
525<br />
220<br />
730<br />
-<br />
1,760<br />
1,010<br />
600<br />
Source: (RSB 2005 and 2007) <strong>Water</strong> and electricity<br />
consumption by residential customers. This is based<br />
on volumes and accounts from the <strong>Water</strong> Supply<br />
Companies and occupancy levels from the 2005<br />
Census and the PB Power surveys (2005 and 2007)<br />
International data on minimum and maximum<br />
residential water use are shown in Figure 9. The<br />
south-western states of the USA provide the<br />
closest comparators with desert climates similar<br />
to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The large range of residential<br />
water use in the USA data is because the minimum<br />
value is that for indoor water use whilst<br />
the maximum includes external and garden use.<br />
There is close agreement between RSB’s data<br />
on expatriates and UAE nationals and the USA<br />
data in terms of household consumption where<br />
there is no garden or external use. In the USA<br />
indoor water use was 226 lcd; in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> it<br />
was 165 to 220 lcd. These data also make sense<br />
in terms of TSE generated as discussed earlier.<br />
Summary on desalinated water use<br />
• <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s desalinated water transmission<br />
and distribution systems, and collection use<br />
of TSE, is efficiently operated in terms of<br />
minimizing water losses. It would be rated<br />
towards the high end of international best<br />
practice. This is not the case, however, for full<br />
cost recovery and household per capita water<br />
use that is two or three times the international<br />
comparators. Current tariffs require large<br />
annual subsidies to operate and maintain the<br />
systems.<br />
• The high level of hidden subsidies in the current<br />
water tariff and the provision of free<br />
water to Emiratis households provide few<br />
incentives to conserve water.<br />
• High water use is primarily the result of the<br />
use of expensive desalinated water for gardens,<br />
landscapes, agriculture and forests.<br />
• Indoor water use levels, while high compared<br />
with the England and Wales, are very<br />
similar to those observed in the USA,<br />
Canada and Australia. This suggests that<br />
water conservation practices applied there<br />
Figure 9 : The range of daily household water use<br />
per person<br />
Source: Ofwat.gov.uk. 2009; and Heaney and others.<br />
1999. Nature Of Residential <strong>Water</strong> Use And<br />
Effectiveness Of Conservation Programs. University<br />
of Colorado<br />
may provide relevant experience for <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
The amounts and quality of water used in the<br />
industrial sector is difficult to analyse as there<br />
is very little data available (see Annex 5 for<br />
more details) but from ADWEC 2008 figures is<br />
around 6% of base peak demand. Many of the<br />
major industries have developed their own<br />
water supply systems. With moves to develop<br />
major industrial zones in the coming years, the<br />
needs in terms of both quantity and quality<br />
will have an increasing influence on water<br />
demand figures.<br />
Forestry and Agricultural <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
<strong>Water</strong> used for forestry and agriculture and<br />
grew rapidly since ‘desert greening’ and agricultural<br />
food self-sufficiency policies were<br />
introduced in the 1960s. The total cultivated<br />
42<br />
43
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
area in the Emirate grew from 69,000 ha to<br />
419,000 ha at present, a remarkable achievement<br />
(see Annex 6 for more detail). The longterm<br />
average annual growth rate over the<br />
period 1990-2007 was 19,100 ha for areas planted<br />
to forests and 4,400 ha for farm agriculture.<br />
Forestry<br />
Forested areas cover 305,000 ha. (Figure 10)<br />
The forestry sector is heavily dependent on<br />
groundwater, competing with agriculture and<br />
other uses. The trickle irrigation network is<br />
about 430,000 km in length. Current criteria<br />
used in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> by EAD and USGS for<br />
forestry water use is 1,900-2,500 m 3 /ha per day<br />
when trees are spaced at 6 to 7 metre intervals.<br />
EAD used an average value of 2,000<br />
m 3 /ha per day from investigations in the<br />
Western Region where 80 percent of the<br />
Emirate’s forests are located (Brook 2004).<br />
This rate of water demand is similar to<br />
research results conducted by EAD in the<br />
Western Region, and from the literature.<br />
Within private estates forest water use is four<br />
times higher but these cover only a relatively<br />
small proportion of all forests. And because<br />
almost all afforestation in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is supplied<br />
by high efficiency drip irrigation, gross<br />
water demand is equivalent to net water consumption<br />
and there are no return flows to the<br />
groundwater reservoir. In 2007 the water<br />
demand for forestry was about 670Mcm/yr<br />
which is about 24 percent of the total water<br />
demand.<br />
Total water demand for afforested areas may<br />
be overestimated. Not all seedlings planted<br />
reach maturity. And unless the trees receive<br />
adequate irrigation and water quality they<br />
may stunt and die– most trees are fed with<br />
brackish water. Trickle irrigation with poor<br />
quality water also creates problems because<br />
removal of chemical deposition that clogs the<br />
drip orifice requires regular maintenance.<br />
Recent research by EAD (Dawoud 2008) indicates<br />
that “the majority of trees receive<br />
under-irrigation…[that] will lead to the<br />
development of reduced canopies: no forests<br />
have been observed which have a full canopy,<br />
which indicates that they are young stands or<br />
that they have been under-irrigated and their<br />
growth restricted.” Given that afforestation<br />
started four decades ago this is surprising.<br />
Determination of the actual area of forest and<br />
its water use need considerably more<br />
research. Use of the remote sensing Landsat<br />
Thematic Mapper found 162,100 ha of total<br />
vegetated area, including forest, in 2000 and<br />
152,000 ha in 2004. In comparison EAD (2006)<br />
estimated it to be 376,000 ha. While remote<br />
sensing is clearly the way forward for EAD,<br />
the biggest problem identified in the image<br />
analysis was the mapping of scattered Acacia<br />
trees against background noise – accuracy<br />
was in the range 50-64 percent. This was partly<br />
a problem of the modest resolution (60 m<br />
pixels) and could be improved upon using<br />
more up-to-date US, French or Russian satellite<br />
imagery whose resolution is over ten<br />
times better.<br />
Improving knowledge on the coverage, health<br />
and density of the Emirate’s forests is essential.<br />
It would reveal their ecological advantages<br />
and allow assessment of their development<br />
effectiveness against their design objectives:<br />
providing protected areas for wildlife<br />
sanctuaries; protecting roads from sand<br />
incursions, anchoring dune areas; and demarcating<br />
UAE’s international border with Saudi<br />
Arabia. Only thus can the cost-effectiveness<br />
of desert greening be evaluated.<br />
Amenity<br />
Amenity b irrigation has been increasing in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> with the growth of urban development<br />
b Amenity includes parks, gardens and recreational areas.<br />
Figure 10 : Forests in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate.<br />
Source: Dawoud, 2008<br />
and highways/roads. While it has a large<br />
environmental value, it needs to be considered<br />
from both the water quality and quantity<br />
perspective as well. This sector uses<br />
mainly marginal quality water (wastewater,<br />
brackish water, and sea water in the coastal<br />
belts). TSE contributes about 54 percent of<br />
the total water used for amenity proposes.<br />
The other water sources include desalination<br />
and groundwater. Total amenity water<br />
use is estimated at 547 Mcm/yr (including<br />
private households) in 2007 (Table 2)<br />
assuming that potable indoor water use is<br />
250 lcd. In 2008, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Municipality<br />
used 197 Mcm - 46% desalinated, 34% TSE<br />
and 20% groundwater – for amenity and<br />
landscaping projects. In the Al Ain area<br />
total water use was 47 Mcm. Three-quarters<br />
came from TSE, the balance from groundwater<br />
through about 400 municipal wells<br />
provide amenity irrigation covering about<br />
1,000 ha, and private wells that serve 6,600<br />
ha of sports facilities and golf clubs.<br />
The <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> for urban, park, amenity<br />
and roadside irrigation states that considerable<br />
water savings are possible with hard<br />
landscaping and plants better adapted to<br />
the arid climate. This has been successful in<br />
some new, prestigious housing developments<br />
in Dubai including the Arabian<br />
Ranches which has a mixture of hard landscaping<br />
features and drought-resistant<br />
planting.<br />
44<br />
45
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Agriculture<br />
In 2006-2007 the total cultivated agricultural<br />
land under the citizen’s farms in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> was<br />
70,375 ha and there were 40,494 wells. C The<br />
growth of farms is shown in Figure 11 and their<br />
distribution is shown in Figure 12.<br />
Farms are being developed in dense clusters<br />
with typically two wells with limited distance<br />
between them. Such farm development has<br />
forced groundwater resources to become more<br />
stressed in terms of decreasing aquifer water<br />
levels and groundwater quality. The Al Ain area<br />
has grown faster than Western Region but over-<br />
Figure 12. Agricultural farm locations in the Emirate<br />
Figure 11. Agricultural farm area in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate<br />
Source: Annual Statistical Book 2006/2007,<br />
Agriculture Sector, Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
all farmed area has decreased by about 5% since<br />
2004-2005. Similarly, the maximum number of<br />
farms under cultivation in 2004-2006 was 23,704.<br />
Changes in cropped areas and number of farms<br />
may be the result of changing government policy<br />
towards subsidized agriculture, declining<br />
groundwater level and quality, increasing<br />
pumping costs.<br />
Agriculture is dominated by two perennial<br />
crops: Dates and Rhodes Grass. There is cultivation<br />
of short-season annual vegetable crops<br />
in fields and a limited area of cereals and<br />
fruits. There is a limited area of high productivity<br />
horticulture in greenhouses and other<br />
protected environments, and a number of traditional<br />
date palm gardens. Most agriculture<br />
is on small private farms that have been<br />
recently established induced by generous<br />
UAE and Emirate-derived subsidies. There are<br />
a number of larger forage production farms<br />
sponsored by government. Figure 13 shows<br />
the share of the area occupied by the major<br />
crops.<br />
Rhodes grass, the main forage crop capable of<br />
remaining productive and high-yielding for 5<br />
to 10 years, has been widely adopted because<br />
of its high salinity tolerance and high government<br />
subsidies. Currently the government<br />
purchase price is Dh 1,650 a ton and 3 tons are<br />
required to produce one ton of dry forage. Thus<br />
government pays Dh 4,950 for a ton of dried forage<br />
that is then sold back to livestock farmers<br />
at Dh 300 a ton. It has replaced alfalfa as the<br />
main forage crop because most new farms were<br />
developed over brackish groundwater areas.<br />
Typically it is irrigated by drip irrigation.<br />
Declining <strong>Water</strong> Quality is a<br />
Problem.<br />
A survey of 23,900 wells by the Al Ain<br />
Agricultural Department in 2000-2001 found<br />
that 88% of wells had a salinity of more them<br />
2,000 parts per million (ppm of total dissolved<br />
solids) and 65% had salinity in excess of 4,000<br />
ppm. A fifth had salinities greater then 8,000.<br />
A number of crops can be grown at high salinities,<br />
but with declining yields. Thus irrigating<br />
crops with brackish water produces a lower<br />
financial return at higher operating costs<br />
Figure 13: Major crops types in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s main agricultural Regions by area 2004-2007<br />
Source: Dawoud, 2008<br />
C. Emiratis wishing to become involved in agriculture production were granted 2 to 3 ha lands for farming. Each farm usually<br />
has two drilled wells at opposite locations of the plot 100 to 200 m apart. Converting desert to farming communities effectively<br />
creates a closely spaced well field. Closely spaced wells create interference that significantly increases local drawdown of<br />
groundwater levels, increasing costs and causing upconing of deeper poorer quality groundwater. Substantial subsidies for land<br />
leveling and irrigation development, wells and agricultural inputs encourage farming.<br />
Source: ICBA using Municipality data<br />
46 47
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
because of the leaching requirement. The<br />
alternative is to secure high yields using<br />
desalinated water maybe blended with brackish<br />
groundwater to an acceptable quality.<br />
Both options are expensive if the full unsubsidized<br />
financial and environmental costs are<br />
taken into account. However, there is little<br />
information on the economics of irrigated<br />
crops for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to guide farmers’ crop<br />
choice. Cropping choice is a response to the<br />
incentives offered by subsidies.<br />
Increasing groundwater salinity has induced<br />
installation of small-scale reverse osmosis<br />
treatment plants to improve the quality or<br />
well water prior to irrigation of vegetables,<br />
grasses, and date palm or to provide drinking<br />
water to animals. In Al Ain Municipality, 74<br />
RO plants are in operation. The capacity<br />
varies from 15 to 450 m3 per day depending on<br />
the area under crop production or livestock.<br />
Apart from the increased energy demand over<br />
and above that used to lift groundwater, safe<br />
disposal of brine is a growing issue as it pollutes<br />
the soils and groundwater.<br />
Agricultural <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
While EAD estimated total cultivated area as<br />
43,000 ha and agricultural consumption in 2003<br />
at 1,949 Mcm/year, the USGS independently<br />
calculated the value to be only 426 Mcm/year.<br />
In contrast both have similar estimates for<br />
forestry consumption: EAD’s estimate was 697<br />
Mcm/year and USGS’s estimate was 647<br />
Mcm/year. A further study by Mott Mac<br />
Donald in 2004 estimated gross demand to be<br />
1,253 Mcm/year. The difference in total agricultural<br />
consumption estimates is excessively<br />
large. Given that agriculture is the largest consumer<br />
of water, determining the correct quantity<br />
of water consumption is critically important.<br />
It significantly affects the medium- to<br />
long-term viability of the agricultural sector<br />
and those employed by it that depend on mining<br />
a finite supply of groundwater. More<br />
importantly, government has allowed farmers<br />
to use desalinated water once fresh groundwater<br />
resources are exhausted and this has<br />
huge implications for additional desalination<br />
infrastructure and energy consumption.<br />
If the larger value is accepted but the lower<br />
value is correct two issues arise. First it<br />
means that the residual volume of water in<br />
the groundwater reservoir will be significantly<br />
less than that estimated by USGS. EAD’s<br />
estimated unit area agricultural water consumption<br />
is 2,580 mm a year. Thus over the<br />
period 1970-2005 the total volume of groundwater<br />
extracted for agriculture would have<br />
been 28,400 Mcm, compared with USGS’s<br />
estimate of 7,500 Mcm. In consequence there<br />
would have been 380 percent more water<br />
pumped from groundwater storage than<br />
USGS estimates and consequently less water<br />
in the reservoir.<br />
Second it would lead to the conclusion that<br />
fresh water resources are near total depletion<br />
as most agricultural areas are developed over<br />
the fresh water zones. This is clearly not the<br />
case. It suggests EAD’s water consumption<br />
estimate is probably on the high side. An<br />
alternative explanation is that a significant<br />
portion of groundwater extracted finds its<br />
way back to the shallow groundwater reservoir<br />
via seepage and percolation – in this case<br />
about 77 percent. This high level of groundwater<br />
recycling implies very low efficiencies of<br />
irrigation water use: 23 percent. Given the<br />
high level of investment in modern irrigation<br />
technology since 1990, irrigation efficiencies<br />
should be much higher – in the 70 to 90 percent<br />
range. The true value for agricultural<br />
consumption – net water consumption, the<br />
water transpired by plants – plus a small<br />
allowance for direct water losses to evaporation-<br />
probably falls between the EAD and<br />
USGS values.<br />
A number of studies have estimated crop water<br />
requirements in the UAE and there is an abundance<br />
of data from the UAE/FAO experimental<br />
stations established in the 1970s. The research<br />
data emanating from these are derived from<br />
highly-managed irrigation systems designed<br />
and operated by specialists. Field inspection<br />
indicates a different reality. Many on-farm irrigation<br />
systems are operated by unskilled expatriate<br />
labour who bring with them highly inefficient<br />
traditional practices. Although most<br />
farms have irrigation hardware that is very efficient<br />
at delivering water to the plants, the management<br />
skills are low-tech and frequently bypass<br />
the modern equipment to flood water<br />
around the plants or trees. Education of farm<br />
workers is thus a high priority as is the introduction<br />
of incentives for farm owners to practice<br />
water conservation.<br />
Apart from the managerial issues affecting onfarm<br />
water use, some of the basic assumptions<br />
used in the past to derive gross irrigation<br />
demand are not standard, most important<br />
being the area actually irrigated. It is normally<br />
assumed that the whole field is irrigated, but<br />
both the USGS and the Japanese Technical<br />
Assistance (JICA under UAE’s Ministry of<br />
Agriculture and Fisheries in the 1990s) applied<br />
correction factors for non-irrigated areas within<br />
irrigated fields, orchards and forests. As a result<br />
of these differing assumptions, estimates of unit<br />
area gross water demand differ among previous<br />
studies by as much as 50 percent. Typically they<br />
ranged between 6,300 m 3 /ha and 20,290 m 3 /ha.<br />
Additional groundwater will also be required to<br />
leach salts for the soil and this varies between<br />
10 and 50%.<br />
To resolve this problem we have examined field<br />
experimental data on net crop water demand<br />
produced in UAE by JICA for 23 crops. These<br />
have been split into three categories: tree crops;<br />
field crops and vegetables, Table 4. After correcting<br />
for water use efficiency assuming hightech<br />
irrigation and two levels of management,<br />
gross unit area water demand by crop group is<br />
found to range from 3,900 m 3 /ha under the best<br />
conditions and crops to 19, 890 m 3 /ha under the<br />
worst. Additional water would have to be added<br />
to the estimated gross water demand to provide<br />
48 49
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Table 4: Estimates of crop water demand considering location and management efficiency,<br />
but excluding leaching requirements<br />
Crop<br />
Trees<br />
Date Palm<br />
Fruit Trees<br />
Field Crops<br />
Rhodes Grass<br />
Wheat<br />
Vegetables<br />
Average of 16<br />
Source: ICBA based on MAF/JICA, 1996.<br />
Table 5: Estimated groundwater use by major crops in 2007 (excluding leaching requirements)<br />
Crop<br />
Rhodes Grass<br />
Dates<br />
Vegetables<br />
Fruit<br />
Total<br />
<strong>Water</strong> using sector and water use (Mcm/year)<br />
Net <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
m 3 /ha High Efficiency (90%)<br />
Modest Efficiency (70%)<br />
Al Ain Liwa Al Ain Liwa Al Ain Liwa<br />
13,200 13,500 14,670 15,000 18,860 19,290<br />
8,430 8,780 9,370 9,760 12,040 12,540<br />
13,800 14,200 15,330 15,780 19,710 20,290<br />
3,500 3,600 3,890 4,000 5,000 5,140<br />
4,330 4,690 4,810 5,210 6,190 6,700<br />
Area (ha)<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
(m 3 /ha/year<br />
Total Demand<br />
(Mcm/year<br />
Share of Total<br />
Demand<br />
30,000 20,000 600 59%<br />
16,000 20,000 320 32%<br />
10,100 6,700 68 7%<br />
2,000 2,000 25 2%<br />
58,100 - 1,013 100%<br />
Source: ICBA based on MoAF and Municipalities’ Agricultural Department Data differing estimates, it is over<br />
twice USGS’s value but only over half that by EAD.<br />
Table 6: Livestock numbers and water<br />
demand 2007<br />
Goats &<br />
Sheep<br />
Camels<br />
Cattle<br />
Total<br />
Number<br />
of<br />
animals<br />
<strong>Water</strong><br />
Demand<br />
l/head/day<br />
Daily<br />
Demand<br />
m 3 /day<br />
Annual<br />
Demand<br />
Mcm/year<br />
2,300,000 16 36,800 13,44<br />
277,000 52 14,404 5.28<br />
28,000 130 3,640 1.33<br />
2,650,000 - 54,844 20.05<br />
Source: Livestock numbers from UAE MOEF; per<br />
head water demand FAO. 2006. Livestock’s long<br />
shadow – environmental issues and options.<br />
adequate flow through the soil profile to leach<br />
out any salts accumulated via evapotransipration.<br />
Depending on water quality and soil type<br />
this may range between zero and 50% of the net<br />
water demand. Thus the gross demand for<br />
Rhodes grass under modest efficiency will be<br />
about 26,000 m 3 /ha, or 30% more. While it may<br />
mitigate the salt build-up in the soil, it significantly<br />
increases the energy demand for irrigated<br />
agriculture in brackish water areas. The national<br />
share of groundwater going to Rhodes grass<br />
alone is about 60% of total agricultural water use,<br />
Table 5.<br />
Actual gross water consumption will be determined<br />
by the mix of crops, cropping calendar<br />
and the locality. In the traditional oases with<br />
date palms under traditional management water<br />
demand will be highest; in more modern areas<br />
with mixed cropping and plastic tunnel horticulture<br />
water demand will be the lowest. Much also<br />
depends on the cropping calendar and cropping<br />
intensity: two or three annual crops in rotation<br />
may use as much water as perennial tree crops.<br />
Using present cropping patterns (Figure 11), and<br />
assuming overall modest water use efficiency,<br />
the weighted average gross crop demand is estimated<br />
to be 1,000 Mcm. Leaching requirements<br />
could increase this by 25% to about 1,250<br />
Mcm/year. While it closes the gap in the differing<br />
estimates, it is over twice USGS’s value but only<br />
over half that by EAD.<br />
Livestock<br />
The incresed production of forage has led to a<br />
substantial increase in livestock, particularly<br />
sheep and goats whose numbers now exceed 1.5<br />
million in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (Table 6 and Figure 14 show<br />
UAE changes) (see Annex 5 for more detail). This<br />
has put a huge stress on rangelands and has a<br />
major impact on natural vegetation. There is also<br />
an increasing tendency to keep livestock in feedlots.<br />
Their high concentration results in large outputs<br />
of animal excreta that pollute the underlying<br />
aquifer and shallow groundwater.<br />
Summary findings on forestry,<br />
agriculture and amenity use:<br />
• Agriculture is the largest consumer of water in<br />
the Emirate and policies affecting its development<br />
have major implications for water<br />
resources planning. Policy to date has focussed<br />
primarily on food self-sufficiency and employment.<br />
While there is considerable investment to<br />
increase irrigation efficiency, concern about<br />
Figure 14: Livestock numbers have grown<br />
Source: UAE MOAF<br />
50 51
<strong>Water</strong> Availability and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
the sustainability of the water resource on<br />
which it depends has been limited to EAD.<br />
• Knowledge on the agricultural water and<br />
energy balance is lacking. Concerns for agriculture’s<br />
environmental impacts have only<br />
recently emerged under EAD’s leadership.<br />
Understanding the agricultural water balance<br />
is a prerequisite for sound policy and planning.<br />
Only then can there be confidence in<br />
estimates of future water demand, the impact<br />
on groundwater resources and the environment,<br />
energy requirements for pumping and<br />
irrigation, and planning for alternative water<br />
supplies.<br />
• These findings indicate that research and<br />
modelling of groundwater is needed to define<br />
more clearly the national water balance (and<br />
its components spatially and temporally).<br />
Environmental costs should be taken into<br />
account. The lack of good baseline data<br />
makes projection of potential future water<br />
demand and environmental impacts a difficult<br />
and risky exercise.<br />
• The lack of knowledge could be very costly<br />
from a decision-making perspective. Under<br />
current policies and regulation, groundwater<br />
is free in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. If fresh or moderately<br />
brackish groundwater became exhausted<br />
then the cost of supplying agricultural<br />
demand would be that of the next best alternative,<br />
desalination. This would place a huge<br />
and costly burden on the Emirate’s water<br />
infrastructure, particularly power and water<br />
generation.<br />
• It is not known what type of agriculture and<br />
crop are economic. Input and output prices<br />
are distorted by subsidies. While some crops<br />
may be economic, the lack of full cost information<br />
precludes their rational selection.<br />
• Is the forested area fulfilling its design objectives<br />
Forested areas consume as much water<br />
as the amount distributed from domestic use;<br />
and in some areas expensive and scarce desalinated<br />
water is used. As forests are all irrigated<br />
(using thousands of km of small-pipe trickle<br />
irrigation systems pumped from wells or<br />
pipelines) its energy consumption is substantial.<br />
How much energy is used, however, is<br />
unknown. It could be as large as that used by<br />
the residential water distribution system.<br />
• TSE is a vital and growing resource for<br />
amenity landscaping. Even though demand<br />
will shortly exceed supply, more than a third<br />
is disposed of into the sea because dedicated<br />
irrigation networks do not have the<br />
capacity to distribute this resource.<br />
• Amenity plantations in urban areas tend to<br />
have water-rich European-style planting.<br />
Considerable water and energy savings<br />
could be effected by converting to hard landscaping<br />
and adopting plants indigenous to<br />
arid climates.<br />
52
3. Environmental<br />
Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
53
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
3. Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Environmental impacts of present water use<br />
practices are large and increasing. They are<br />
both positive and negative. Historically, the<br />
response to environmental impacts has been<br />
reactive because most of them were negative.<br />
Environmental impact assessments and statements<br />
before development started were not<br />
practised in the Emirate until fairly recently.<br />
As a result, most of the environmental impacts<br />
were unforeseen, and in the case of water supply<br />
in Liwa, for example, they called for precipitous<br />
action. Another problem is that environmental<br />
impacts were seen as isolated and geographically<br />
separate. There is generally inadequate<br />
information on environmental consequences<br />
of infrastructure development, including<br />
the growth of the power and water sectors.<br />
In agriculture there is a growing awareness of<br />
farming practices and the use of fertilizer, pesticides<br />
and herbicides on the local environment.<br />
But nationally-consistent standards and<br />
databases are missing because monitoring and<br />
evaluation has been partial and is spread<br />
among a large number of independent agencies<br />
with little information sharing. And there<br />
is no nationally-agreed environmental management<br />
model to integrate and manage environmental<br />
flows. This chapter outlines known<br />
impacts of present water-use practices.<br />
Effects of <strong>Water</strong> Production<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Production, Energy Use and<br />
the Atmosphere<br />
The interdependency of water and energy exacerbates<br />
environmental problems. Population<br />
growth will require increasing amounts of water<br />
which, in turn, require more energy to access<br />
water resources and distribute water. Since this<br />
increased electrical demand is largely met by<br />
fossil fuel-fired electrical cogeneration plants,<br />
more greenhouse gases are emitted that contribute<br />
further to global warming. These interdependencies,<br />
which until recently were usually<br />
ignored in water and energy planning, create a<br />
downward spiral among electrical generation,<br />
climate change and water supplies that is<br />
cumulative and non-linear.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> use in itself will not affect the atmosphere<br />
of the Emirate although there may be<br />
micro-climate modification in the vicinity of<br />
newly-introduced vegetation and agriculture.<br />
However, the secondary impacts of desalinization<br />
and the use of electricity to pump water<br />
around the extensive water distribution system<br />
(and from groundwater) within the Emirate,<br />
and collecting and treating wastewater require<br />
power generation. And power for water will, in<br />
turn, generate greenhouse gases. An alternative<br />
perspective is that desalinated water is greenhouse<br />
gas neutral and the only issue is improving<br />
pumping efficiency and reducing energy use.<br />
This perspective sees desalination as a useful<br />
by-product from the steam produced by fossil<br />
fuel electrical power generation and the incremental<br />
contribution of water production to<br />
greenhouse gas emissions is negligible.<br />
However, the steam has an alternative use for<br />
secondary cogeneration of electricity, thus<br />
allowing a reduction in primary power production<br />
and capacity. This in turn would allow a<br />
reduction in greenhouse gas emissions below<br />
the cogeneration power-water option. If potable<br />
water can be produced by a more energy-efficient<br />
technology it would lower greenhouse<br />
gases.<br />
Desalination<br />
The dominance of cogeneration in the Gulf<br />
States to produce potable water using Multiple<br />
Stage Flash Distillation Technology (MSF) at<br />
power stations is the result of early market capture<br />
by this technology, in the 1970s and its high<br />
degree of reliability (Box 2).<br />
Total emissions in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> from power and<br />
desalinization plants produce 13.5 million tonnes<br />
of gases and particulates per year, and carbon<br />
dioxide forms 99.65% of these emissions. The<br />
next largest emission is nitrous oxide and nitrogen<br />
dioxide which total 34,000 tonnes per year.<br />
While the volume of nitrous oxide is relatively<br />
small it is 200 times more effective as a greenhouse<br />
gas than CO 2 and is thus equivalent to 6.8<br />
million tons of CO 2 . The emission hazard in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is exacerbated by increasing shortages of<br />
offshore gas and several power plants burn high<br />
sulphide oil in times of shortfall. Whilst a number<br />
of the plants have undertaken initiatives to<br />
increase fuel efficiency in recent years, it is not<br />
Box 2: Growth of Desalination in the Gulf<br />
States<br />
High oil prices in 1973 sparked the growth in<br />
seawater desalination in the Middle East.<br />
The inflow of funds allowed the Gulf States<br />
to invest in the development of their infrastructure<br />
on a grand scale. This included<br />
investments in power and water. For desalination<br />
the only viable technology available<br />
was Multi-Stage Flash distillation (MSF)<br />
invented in 1958. The new process was a<br />
vast improvement on the previous technology<br />
of Multiple Effect Boiling (MEB), offering<br />
improved energy efficiency coupled to ease<br />
of operation. By 1975 large plants of<br />
20,000m3/day were being built. All of the<br />
Gulf States invested heavily in this technology<br />
and have continued to invest in it to the<br />
present. The process today is much as it was<br />
then but the units are larger – up to<br />
60,000m3/day and reliability has been<br />
improved through the use of better material<br />
and an improved understanding of the<br />
process. To be cost effective, the MSF<br />
process has to be coupled to a power plant<br />
which can supply low grade steam. This is<br />
often referred to as waste heat. This is a misnomer.<br />
The steam used by an MSF plant<br />
could be used to generate more electrical<br />
power. By tapping this steam at a higher<br />
temperature than necessary, the power output<br />
of the power station is reduced. Even so,<br />
capital costs have fallen; the process is well<br />
understood and reliable. Most importantly<br />
it has security of supply.<br />
Commercialization of Reverse Osmosis<br />
(RO) for seawater desalination plants started<br />
in the 1980s and subsequent growth has<br />
been rapid – it is now the preferred technology<br />
outside the Gulf States. Initially the RO<br />
membranes were expensive, pre-treatment<br />
54<br />
55
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
not well understood and energy consumption<br />
was high. Since then membrane prices<br />
have fallen, their performance improved,<br />
pre-treatment is better understood and<br />
energy consumption has dropped dramatically.<br />
Although the Gulf States remain the<br />
most important market for desalination<br />
plants, designing RO plants for operation in<br />
the Gulf has to overcome the problems<br />
caused by high salinity and seawater temperatures.<br />
This affects RO plants but makes<br />
little difference to distillation plants.<br />
Globally, membrane desalination processes<br />
(mostly RO) accounted for 56% of worldwide<br />
online capacity in 2006.<br />
Combining MSF and RO enables more efficient<br />
use of energy and the UAE commissioned<br />
the largest desalination hybrid plant<br />
in the world at Fujairah in 2003. It can<br />
potentially produce 624,000 m 3 /day. The<br />
plant was situated on the Gulf of Oman to<br />
mitigate the high salinity and temperature<br />
problems in the Arabian Gulf. Almost twothirds<br />
of the water is produced by five MSF<br />
units coupled with the power plant and over<br />
a third is from seawater RO. This is a more<br />
flexible system as RO helps to reduce the<br />
electricity demand when there is a mismatch<br />
between the water and electricity<br />
demand in the summer. Singapore has similarly<br />
recently completed the world’s largest<br />
diameter seawater RO plant (10,000 m 3 /day)<br />
as part of its “Renewables Strategy’ and has<br />
reduced energy use by 30% compared with<br />
MSF.<br />
Sources: The World Bank. 2004. Seawater and<br />
Brackish <strong>Water</strong> Desalination in the Middle East,<br />
North Africa and Central Asia; and, <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Wastewater Asia. January/February 2008.<br />
Figure 15: The stages of energy use in water supply, distribution and use<br />
Source: Natural <strong>Resources</strong> Defense Fund. 2004. ibid.<br />
possible to determine the impact of these efforts<br />
as this data is commercially confidential to the<br />
operators.<br />
In terms of direct CO 2 emissions <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s<br />
power plants fit well within the expected range of<br />
international efficiency standards for gas-fired<br />
facilities– about 380 grams equivalent per kWh. In<br />
the UK for example, the range is 362 to 575 grams.<br />
Determination of the share of total energy used<br />
that goes to water production in MSF plants is<br />
complex. Theoretical and empirical studies indicate<br />
that Saudi Arabia’s MSF plants at Al Jubail<br />
utilizes between 24 and 46 percent of energy for<br />
water production depending on the accounting<br />
method used and the power to water ratio.<br />
Earlier studies in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> yielded similar<br />
results. Clearly, reducing the demand for desalinated<br />
water produced by MSF would significantly<br />
lower the carbon footprint of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Energy and <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Energy is required to move water from source to<br />
tap and treat the inflows and outputs to acceptable<br />
environmental standards. Each component<br />
part of the water supply and disposal cycle (Figure<br />
15) uses energy, and each step provides an opportunity<br />
to reduce energy consumption by economizing<br />
on use and increasing mechanical efficiency.<br />
In aggregate the system-wide calculation is<br />
called energy intensity (Box 3).<br />
Where detailed inventories have been undertaken,<br />
in for example California, water use accounted for<br />
19 percent of the State’s total energy consumption,<br />
Figure 16. A good portion of this is the result<br />
of pumping water 600 m over the Tehachapi<br />
Figure 16: The <strong>Water</strong> Sector Uses Considerable Energy<br />
Source: Martha Krebs, 2007. Presentation to the State Congressional<br />
Committee on <strong>Water</strong>, Parks and Wildlife. February 20, 2007.<br />
Box 3: How an increase in energy intensity can lead to overall energy savings<br />
Energy intensity measures the amount of energy used per unit of water. Some water sources are<br />
more energy intensive than others; for instance, desalination requires more energy than wastewater<br />
recycling. <strong>Water</strong> conservation technology may either increase or decrease energy intensity.<br />
Yet when water planners make decisions they should look not only at energy intensity but also<br />
at the total energy used from source to tap. In the case of water conservation some programmes<br />
may consume a lot of energy at one stage in the energy-water cycle but still decrease the overall<br />
energy use. The following three examples illustrate the interplay between energy intensity<br />
and total energy use.<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> conservation may increase energy and increase total energy costs. A particular<br />
irrigation technology could reduce water use by 5% but require so much energy that<br />
overall energy increases by 10%. Thus total energy use would increase by 4.5%.<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> conservation may increase energy intensity and decrease energy use. The average<br />
high-efficiency dishwasher increases the energy intensity of dishwashing by 30% but<br />
reduces water use by 34%. As a result of using less water (and therefore less energy to<br />
supplying the water from source) the net total energy needed would decline by 14%.<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> conservation may increase energy intensity and decrease total energy use. The<br />
average US high-efficiency clothes washer reduces water use by 29% compared with<br />
low-efficiency machines and also lowers energy intensity by 27%. Energy intensity<br />
declines because of mechanical improvements (agitators etc.). By reducing total water<br />
use and energy intensity, total energy use is reduced by 48%.<br />
Source: NDRC. 2004. Energy down the Drain.<br />
Mountains to supply Los Angles.<br />
Nationally, because of ample<br />
water and a significant proportion<br />
of gravity water supply systems,<br />
it is about 4%. In Arizona a<br />
public awareness-raising scheme<br />
(“Saving <strong>Water</strong> is Saving<br />
Money”) states that for a city of<br />
50,000 people, approximately 2<br />
million kWh/yr are required for all<br />
water- related operations, with<br />
more than 1.6 million kWh/yr<br />
needed for pumping alone.<br />
Groundwater is the next<br />
largest user of energy<br />
after desalination.<br />
About two-thirds of the irrigated<br />
area serving agriculture,<br />
forestry and amenity planta-<br />
56 57
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
The range of chemicals added to the intake<br />
waters is large. In thermal combination<br />
desalinization plants biocides, sulphur dioxide,<br />
coagulants such as ferric chloride, carbon<br />
dioxide, poly-electrolytes, anti-scalants such<br />
as polyacrylic acid, sodium bisulphite, antitions<br />
requires energy to lift water 35 m, and<br />
the remaining area requires lifts of over 60 m.<br />
At a pumping efficiency of 70% the overall<br />
energy consumption is about 2 million kWh<br />
per day. Reducing irrigated area, increasing<br />
the efficiency of irrigation water use, and<br />
reducing leachate requirements would lead to<br />
considerable energy savings. Leachate<br />
requirements could be reduced by taking into<br />
account soil properties when selecting areas<br />
for crop types and irrigation.<br />
Energy could also be reduced by better wellfield<br />
location and design. Current practice<br />
subsidizes networks of wells that are not finetuned<br />
to the local hydrogeology. They are<br />
also too closely spaced to be hydraulically<br />
efficient. Given that almost all irrigation systems<br />
are mechanized, pumping at night<br />
would reduce evaporative water losses, thus<br />
volumes pumped, and use cheaper off-peak<br />
power. It has also been found that it is cheaper<br />
to pump groundwater into a surface receiving<br />
tank rather than using the well’s pump to<br />
pressurize the irrigation system. <strong>Water</strong> is<br />
then pumped from the receiving tank using a<br />
far smaller pump for rotational irrigation.<br />
Energy consumption for wastewater<br />
treatment<br />
Wastewater collection, treatment and distribution<br />
involve various activities that require<br />
energy and therefore have a carbon footprint.<br />
This has become the subject of various<br />
investigations in the world with results varying<br />
with treatment processing and distribution<br />
systems. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, the annual consumption<br />
of electricity in the wastewater<br />
processing in 2007 amounted to approximately<br />
95,000 MWh, with Mafraq consuming<br />
59,500 MWh and 27,300 MWh. Taking the<br />
estimated carbon emission of 380g equivalent<br />
per KWh this gives a carbon footprint of<br />
36,100 tonnes a year.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use and the Marine<br />
Environment<br />
The impacts of feed water abstraction and<br />
wastewater disposal on the marine ecosystem<br />
are potentially large in the near-shore environment.<br />
The main hazards are entrapment of<br />
marine life on the intake side and the effects of<br />
direct discharge of brine from desalination<br />
plants, high temperature cooling water and<br />
treated or untreated waste water effluent from<br />
industrial and urban areas.<br />
Brine Disposal<br />
Brine disposal from desalination plants is recognized<br />
as an environmental hazard by EAD.<br />
Each stage of the desalinization process either<br />
adds or concentrates chemicals, most of which<br />
are discharged in the brine at the end of the<br />
process. Chemicals are frequently used to control<br />
marine growth, particularly mollusks<br />
around the intake structures supplying the<br />
desalinization plant. Within the plant, seawater<br />
or brackish/saline groundwater is again<br />
subject to chemical and mechanical treatment<br />
to remove suspended solids and control biological<br />
growth. During the application of energy<br />
to the treated seawater, brine is concentrated<br />
and returned to source including all of the<br />
chemicals added during the treatment<br />
process. The desalinated water is further treated<br />
with chemicals to prevent corrosion of the<br />
downstream infrastructure and water distribution<br />
network. Typically calcium hydroxide is<br />
added to increase the hardness and alkalinity<br />
and sodium hydroxide is added to adjust the<br />
acidity of the water.<br />
foam agents, and polymers may be used.<br />
Reverse osmosis plants in addition use hydrocholoric<br />
acid, citiric acid, copper sulphate,<br />
acrolein, propylene glycol, glycerine, or sodium<br />
bisulphate. In addition to these additives, the<br />
water is of a much higher density because of<br />
the large increase in total dissolved solids. The<br />
salinity of the brine discharge from desalinization<br />
plants will of course be increased to that<br />
of the Gulf waters but it is the significantly<br />
higher temperatures that are likely to be most<br />
damaging to the environment. Salinity of effluents<br />
from desalination plants around the world<br />
typically ranges between 46,000 and 70,000<br />
parts per million. In addition the combined<br />
effects of higher temperatures, salinity and<br />
chemical additives reduce the oxygen in the<br />
water and make it less soluble. Without proper<br />
dilution and aeration, a plume of elevated<br />
salinity low oxygen discharge may extend over<br />
a significant area and can harm the near-shore<br />
ecosystem.<br />
Overall, copper and chlorine are the most serious<br />
environmental threats from seawater concentrate<br />
discharge. Chlorine is one of the major polluters<br />
added to the feed water to prevent biofouling<br />
on heat exchange surfaces in MSF plants.<br />
Chlorine is a strong oxidant and a highly effective<br />
biocide; it also leads to oxidation by-products<br />
such as halogenated organics. Residual levels of<br />
Chlorine in the effluent discharge may therefore<br />
be toxic to marine life at the discharge site. In the<br />
USA the Environmental Protection Agency<br />
(EPA) places the limits for exposure at 13 and 7.5<br />
micro-grams per litre for short and long-term<br />
exposure respectively. In Kuwait it was found<br />
that concentrations up to 100 micro-grams – 10<br />
times the toxic levels for humans – were found<br />
one km from cogeneration plants outfalls. It is<br />
believed these levels pose high risks to some<br />
marine phytoplankton, invertebrates and vertebrates.<br />
Halogenated compounds are generally<br />
persistent in the marine environment and some<br />
are carcinogenic to animals.<br />
Heavy metals enter the brine stream as the<br />
plant’s internal surfaces corrode. Copper contamination<br />
is the major problem in MSF distillation<br />
plants but in RO is almost absent<br />
because of the use of nonmetallic materials and<br />
stainless steel. Thus, in contrast, RO brine generally<br />
contains trace levels of iron, nickel,<br />
chromium and molybdenum. Heavy metals<br />
tend to enrich in suspended materials and sediments<br />
and affect soft bottom habitats such as<br />
those found in the Gulf. Many benthic invertebrates<br />
feed on this suspended or deposited<br />
material with the risk that the metals are<br />
enriched in their bodies and passed up the food<br />
chain.<br />
In the Emirate measures to mitigate the<br />
adverse consequences of brine disposal appear<br />
to be few although there is strict regulation of<br />
the quality of the discharge. Different coastal<br />
and marine ecosystems are likely to vary in their<br />
sensitivities to concentrate discharge.<br />
Generally salt marshes and mangroves in placid<br />
water marine environments, have the highest<br />
sensitivity to brine disposal.<br />
Environmental Impacts of Brine<br />
Disposal<br />
The coastal waters of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are a rich<br />
habitat for marine organisms and Gulf fisheries,<br />
until recently were an important part of<br />
the traditional economy. Over 280 species<br />
have been recorded and the coastline accommodates<br />
the largest known population of the<br />
dugong (dugong dugon) outside Australia.<br />
Sea-grass colonies are a vital habitat for<br />
much of the marine fauna. The largest area<br />
of coral reefs in the southern Gulf lies within<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and they support fisheries, habitats<br />
critical for the maintenance of biodiversity<br />
and recreation. And coastal mangrove<br />
forests provide breeding and shelter for a<br />
least 43 species of phytoplankton and 29<br />
species of fish, and also provide habitat for<br />
58 59
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
birds. Much of the attraction of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to<br />
the almost two million tourists envisaged in<br />
the <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030 Vision will be related<br />
to marine-based activities. Thus conservation<br />
and biodiversity maintenance in the<br />
near-shore environment has a high priority in<br />
coastal zone management.<br />
Catastrophic coral bleaching events occurred<br />
in 1996 and 1998 and research has associated<br />
these with prolonged elevation of seawater<br />
temperature. Coral mortality up to 98%<br />
occurred and in the Jebel Ali Wildlife<br />
Sanctuary species diversity was reduced from<br />
43 to 27 species. The causes of these warming<br />
events are predominantly natural and<br />
linked to El Nino-induced changes in oceanic<br />
processes however we do not know how far<br />
these conditions are further exacerbated by<br />
the relatively hot cooling water discharges.<br />
The effect of brine discharge on the Gulf’s<br />
fauna is unknown. Research results elsewhere<br />
have produced a range of findings. A<br />
comprehensive study of a thermal desalination<br />
plant in Key West, Florida, found that<br />
the heated brine effluent, which was highly<br />
contaminated with dissolved copper,<br />
markedly reduced biotic diversity over an 18-<br />
month period. In contrast, in Spain there<br />
were major impacts on seafloor communities<br />
from brine discharges that raised near-shore<br />
salinity to over 39,000 ppm. Specifically<br />
nematodes (worm) prevalence increased<br />
from 68 to 96 percent over two years and<br />
other species declined. Studies in Spain on<br />
sea grass habitats showed that even brief<br />
exposure – 15 days – to salinities in excess of<br />
40,000 ppm caused a 27% mortality of plants.<br />
Generally, research indicates that the 38-<br />
40,000 ppm zone represents a tolerance<br />
threshold for marine organisms. Clearly,<br />
brine discharge from desalinization plants<br />
has the potential to significantly impact<br />
near-shore environments and ecology.<br />
The impact of brine and cooling water disposal<br />
on fisheries is also unknown. There are over 350<br />
commercial fish species and 14 shellfish species<br />
inhabiting the continental shelves of the<br />
Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Oman and the Arabian<br />
Gulf. A comparison of surveys of the UAE portion<br />
of the Arabian Gulf and the East Coast<br />
Region conducted by FAO in 1978 and one commissioned<br />
by EAD in 2003 found that stocks of<br />
bottom-feeding (demersal) fish had declined by<br />
81%. In contrast the survey found the stocks of<br />
surface feeding (pelagic) fish remained about<br />
the same as 1978. A key finding was:<br />
“Most importantly this reduction in the abundance<br />
in both the Arabian Gulf and the East<br />
Coast Region was apparent for both commercial<br />
and non-commercial species indicating<br />
that commercial exploitation may not be the<br />
only factor involved.”<br />
Recommendations that were implemented by<br />
the Emirate include careful planning to develop<br />
pelagic fisheries considering that many of the<br />
ecological interdependencies are unknown and<br />
strict regulation of the demersal fisheries. A key<br />
recommendation relevant to this study was for<br />
“a closer examination of the reasons for the<br />
decline in demersal stocks including the issue<br />
of coastal habitat and its influence on demersal<br />
stock abundance.”<br />
Wastewater and Sludge Disposal<br />
Rapidly growing urbanization and the problems<br />
associated with septic tanks in the coastal<br />
region caused the Municipality of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to<br />
develop a master plan for sewage management<br />
in 1975. Sewage and waste water generated offshore<br />
and on the islands is only temporarily<br />
stored and then transported to some of the<br />
small sewage treatment plants. All areas of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate are now served by combined<br />
sewerage and irrigation networks where sewage<br />
is collected and treated and some of the waste<br />
water used for irrigation. Major low-lying urban<br />
areas are served by a network of storm drains<br />
and sub-surface drains. Without the sub-surface<br />
drains there is a danger of corrosion of<br />
building foundations by the generally saline<br />
groundwater.<br />
While the sewerage system has successfully mitigated<br />
health and environmental hazards<br />
caused by uncontrolled human waste disposal,<br />
the system is not without risks. The saline<br />
groundwater environment in the coastal belt<br />
and the long retention time of waste within sewers,<br />
allied with the hot climate and the low alkalinity<br />
of the sewage caused by the use of desalinated<br />
water, accelerates corrosion of the sewers.<br />
Investigations for the Al Ain Drainage<br />
<strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> identified corrosion as being<br />
responsible for leakage of sewage from the system.<br />
This led to soil and groundwater contamination<br />
and in isolated cases contamination of<br />
drinking supplies reliant on groundwater.<br />
These hazards have been mitigated through the<br />
use of glass-reinforced plastic pipes and lining<br />
to existing sewage infrastructure. Even so,<br />
odour control is an important consideration in<br />
the effective operation and maintenance of<br />
sewage treatment plants.<br />
Most TSE are used in landscaping. However, in<br />
several cases excess effluents are discharged to<br />
the desert or the coastal areas. Effluents from<br />
dairy farms have been collected in large evaporation<br />
ponds in the Al Ain region; others are collected<br />
in septic tanks. All are discharged to the<br />
desert where there is an extremely high risk of<br />
contaminating groundwater.<br />
The Effects of <strong>Water</strong> on Land Use<br />
and Agriculture<br />
Afforestation and Agriculture<br />
The overwhelming impact has been environmentally<br />
positive although much depends on<br />
the viewpoint of the observer. The increase<br />
in vegetated area as a result of water application<br />
has provided habitat for flora and<br />
fauna that has local and global benefits<br />
derived from carbon sequestration in the<br />
new vegetation and the creation of habitats<br />
for various fauna, some of them transitory.<br />
There are 47 species of mammals. Over 450<br />
bird species have been recorded, and 15 of<br />
these are on the World Conservation Union’s<br />
Red List of endangered species. Soil properties,<br />
particularly in the reclaimed areas, have<br />
probably improved but there is no evidence<br />
to determine how they have changed.<br />
Monitoring and evaluation of the impact of<br />
the vegetation and ground cover to establish<br />
its ecological impact is only recent. There is<br />
no national systematic evaluation or baseline<br />
data against which to assess positive<br />
impacts of land use change or their impact<br />
on the local ecology. This needs to be<br />
addressed. As far as can be determined,<br />
there are no quantitative environmental values<br />
associated with the vegetation apart<br />
from the commercial ones related to marketing<br />
of crops.<br />
There are a number of negative impacts<br />
associated with the vegetation. First, pristine<br />
desert environments were bulldozed and<br />
levelled to create exotic forestry plantations<br />
and cultivable fields. Forestry and crops<br />
have required the import of indigenous and<br />
alien species of plants that profoundly<br />
changed the natural ecology. Sustaining<br />
these vegetation systems requires the import<br />
of chemicals: specifically fertilizers, pesticides<br />
and herbicides. Irrigation, allied with<br />
the high rates of evaporation and unsophisticated<br />
water management has increased the<br />
salinization of soils in some areas.<br />
Systematic soil surveys are yet to be undertaken<br />
to determine the extent and nature of<br />
the salinity or alkalinity changes and the<br />
problems this may represent.<br />
60 61
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Sabkhas<br />
Withdrawal of groundwater, particularly the<br />
semi-brackish and brackish water, has probably<br />
reduced the natural through-flow that<br />
sustains sabkhas. Lower groundwater levels<br />
below sabkhas reduce the capillary feed to<br />
the surface allowing it to desiccate and to be<br />
eroded by the wind. The biological soil crusts<br />
of inland sabkhas helps stabilise the soil, prevent<br />
erosion, and fix carbon and nitrogen in<br />
the soil. Well-developed biological sabkha<br />
crusts have been shown to contain up to 10<br />
soil lichens, three mosses, and ten cyanobacteria<br />
species.<br />
Wetland and Artificial Lakes<br />
Artificial wetlands have been created to produce<br />
recreational and environmental purposes.<br />
The largest artificial surface water body is<br />
the 132 ha Al Wathba protected wetland<br />
reserve, 40 Km south-east of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city.<br />
This is a wetland of international importance<br />
on the Central Asia – Africa flyway and over<br />
205 species of birds have been recorded to<br />
date. In addition there are also other significant<br />
lakes and ponds at Shahama, Khazna,<br />
Mubazzarah, Ain Al Fayda and Ajban that<br />
have high value recreational uses from mineral<br />
hot springs to boating.<br />
Degraded Lands<br />
Some cultivated land has been abandoned<br />
and this can be considered a form of land<br />
degradation. Reasons for abandonment are<br />
many. They include financial non-viability<br />
because of unsound cropping preferences<br />
encouraged by generous subsidies, as was the<br />
case of tomatoes in the late 1990s. Declining<br />
groundwater levels that greatly increased<br />
pumping costs, and deterioration in groundwater<br />
quality, has caused many farmers to<br />
abandon land. Most abandoned farmland is<br />
lost to agriculture and the soil and vegetation<br />
deteriorate quite quickly in the harsh environment.<br />
Some observers state that abandoned<br />
farmlands are in a worse condition than the<br />
pre-irrigated dry land.<br />
Groundwater<br />
Declining groundwater levels, increasing<br />
pumping costs and deteriorating groundwater<br />
quality are the main adverse impacts.<br />
Aflaj<br />
These are an environmental and cultural asset<br />
that has been harmed by groundwater use for<br />
agriculture. Historically, the traditional afalaj<br />
systems supported date palm oases and, with<br />
fishing, were the cradle of Emirati life.<br />
Physically and culturally the agricultural and<br />
related architectural environment has very<br />
high cultural values appreciated by Emirates<br />
and expatriates alike. Aflaj areas have substantial<br />
potential as tourist destinations provided<br />
they do not lose their unique identity.<br />
Rapid development of wells for agriculture has<br />
resulted in dewatering of the groundwater<br />
reservoir: almost all afalaj are dry. The Aflaj<br />
Committee of Al Ain Municipality maintains<br />
and supervises seven falaj, only one of which<br />
flows naturally. The adverse consequences of<br />
past mismanagement have been reversed by<br />
pumping groundwater into the aflaj systems,<br />
thus restoring their historic role. And the loss<br />
of local groundwater has been supplemented<br />
by desalinated water imports from the<br />
Fujairah.<br />
Groundwater Storage Depletion<br />
Even the smallest groundwater withdrawal<br />
caused permanent depletion of the groundwater<br />
reservoir because the natural recharge is so low.<br />
The worst affected areas are to the west of Al Ain<br />
where groundwater levels have fallen by as much<br />
as 65 meters between 1991 and 2001. While<br />
groundwater levels have also declined in the<br />
Liwa crescent area, substantially better<br />
hydraulic conditions have reduced adverse<br />
impacts; water levels have declined by a maximum<br />
of 10 meters in some areas.<br />
This has four adverse environmental consequences.<br />
First, the reservoir is permanently dewatered.<br />
Second, the saturated thickness greatly<br />
reduces the ability to pump water at reasonable<br />
cost. Third, the requirement to lift water<br />
over a much greater elevation requires more<br />
energy, and this has the indirect impact of<br />
increasing the greenhouse gas emissions of the<br />
power plants needed to produce the extra energy.<br />
Depending on local conditions, electrical<br />
costs increase about 3.2 times for each 10m of<br />
pumping depth and this may cause abandonment<br />
of farming. It is estimated that 150,000 ha<br />
of agricultural land in the United States has<br />
already been abandoned because of high pumping<br />
costs And fourth, in many cases the void cre-<br />
ated by withdrawal of fresh groundwater is filled<br />
by surrounding brackish or saline water, which is<br />
normally an irreversible process. For example,<br />
the freshwater area Al Ain to Al Saad has lost<br />
142,000 hectares since the 1980s. In the Liwa crescent<br />
area, the reduction is about 5,100 hectares.<br />
Groundwater Quality<br />
There are few naturally–occurring chemical hazards<br />
in groundwater that are injurious to the<br />
health of both plants and mammals. Boron,<br />
Fluoride, and Chromium become an environmental<br />
hazard when groundwater is used.<br />
According to the World Health Organization<br />
guidelines: The permissible concentration of<br />
chromium in drinking water is 50 micograms<br />
per liter. At levels higher than this, there is a<br />
risk of liver disease and gastro-intestinal irritation.<br />
The USEPA adopts a higher level of 100<br />
micrograms per liter and indicates that a lifetime<br />
exposure could cause damage to liver,<br />
kidney, circulatory, nerve tissue and skin.<br />
62 63
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Chromium concentrations exceed the WHO<br />
limits in much of the western region of the<br />
Emirate but are less prevalent in the Al Ain<br />
area. Even so, it is a risk to human health and<br />
it is primarily for this reason that drinking supplies<br />
from groundwater in the Liwa crescent<br />
area were stopped.<br />
Excess boron concentrations in drinking water<br />
cause depression and gastro-intestinal disturbances.<br />
In plants, low boron concentrations are<br />
essential for growth but levels higher than 1,000<br />
micrograms per litre are harmful particularly to<br />
fruit trees. Boron concentrations in groundwater<br />
water exceed WHO guidelines in most<br />
areas of the Emirate; and concentrations<br />
increase with increasing salinity.<br />
Fluoride is essential for bone formation and<br />
the health of teeth, but below concentrations<br />
of 1.5 milligrams per liter. At higher concentrations<br />
it may cause crippling fluorosis. Like<br />
boron and chromium, this is a health hazard in<br />
much of the western region but there is an<br />
almost negligible risk in the Al Ain area.<br />
Groundwater pollution has also occurred.<br />
Apart from the deterioration induced by mining<br />
the groundwater reservoir and waste disposal<br />
discussed above, there has been significant<br />
groundwater pollution as a result of agrochemical<br />
use.<br />
Residues from fertilizers are mobilized in seepage<br />
from irrigated areas to contaminate<br />
groundwater. While the use of fertilizers is regulated<br />
at the federal level by the Ministry of<br />
Agriculture and Fisheries, there are few data<br />
on the quantities of fertilizer applied in the<br />
Emirate. Periodic groundwater samples by<br />
Figure 17: The Distribution of Nitrate in the Groundwater of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Source: Mooreland et. al 2007.<br />
EAD from a network of 228 wells are made to<br />
check the concentration of pesticides, nitrate<br />
and nitrite. The permissible WHO guideline<br />
level for nitrates for drinking water is 50 milligrams<br />
per liter. Higher concentrations are<br />
associated with “blue baby “syndrome which<br />
may be fatal to infants. Effects on livestock can<br />
include reduced conception rates, spontaneous<br />
abortions, reduced rate of gain, and generally<br />
poor performance in dairy cows including<br />
reduced milk production. Pregnant<br />
women, those with health infirmities and pregnant<br />
or breeding animals should be protected<br />
from high nitrate sources.<br />
EAD’s monitoring program found 80 percent of<br />
their sample exceeded the WHO guideline. In<br />
contrast, the USGS national sampling network<br />
found concentrations below the WHO permitted<br />
level except in the Liwa crescent area,<br />
Figure 17.<br />
They found that very high levels of nitrate<br />
occur where farms are developed over the<br />
unconfined groundwater. Nitrate levels<br />
increased along the access road to Liwa over<br />
the period 1997-2006. Concentrations rose in<br />
one case from about 20 milligrams per liter to<br />
220 milligrams per liter over this period; in<br />
another case, nitrates increased from about 70<br />
milligrams per liter to almost 200 milligrams<br />
per liter. Similar trends were noted in the<br />
Ghayathi area in the western region. There is<br />
thus a clear link between agricultural water<br />
use and groundwater pollution levels. The differing<br />
findings of the EAD and USGS monitoring<br />
may be due to sampling different wells and<br />
aquifer intervals. There is clearly a need for a<br />
more harmonized approach.<br />
Finally, inland reverse osmosis desalination<br />
plants using brackish or saline groundwater<br />
discharge their brine effluent to desert depressions.<br />
The amount discharged is not known<br />
nor is the impact on underlying groundwater<br />
quality.<br />
Summary of the major environmental<br />
impacts of water generation and use:<br />
• Provision of a safe and secure supply of<br />
desalinated water and treatment of waste-<br />
64 65
Environmental Impacts of <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
water has reduced the risk of water-related<br />
and water-bourn disease to negligible proportions.<br />
This has made <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> a safe<br />
place to live and work and enhanced its<br />
economic prospects.<br />
• The overwhelming impact has been environmentally<br />
positive although much<br />
depends on the viewpoint of the observer.<br />
The increase in vegetated and amenity<br />
areas as a result of water application has<br />
provided habitat for flora and fauna that<br />
has local and global benefits derived from<br />
carbon sequestration in the new vegetation<br />
and the creation of habitats for various<br />
fauna, some of them transitory. It also has<br />
high aesthetic value.<br />
• There is no national systematic evaluation<br />
or baseline data against which to assess<br />
positive impacts of land use change<br />
brought about by irrigation or their impact<br />
on the local ecology. This needs to be<br />
addressed. As far as can be determined,<br />
there are no quantitative environmental<br />
values associated with the vegetation apart<br />
from the commercial ones related to marketing<br />
of crops.<br />
• The adverse direct and indirect impacts on<br />
the environment of water use within the<br />
Emirate are large. While the nature of the hazards<br />
is known from direct observation, such as<br />
groundwater pollution and storage depletion,<br />
others including the explicit link between<br />
freshwater generation activities from desalinization<br />
and environmental impacts of brine<br />
disposal are poorly defined. This is a major<br />
omission to the integrated planning and<br />
management of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s environment.<br />
• Generation of desalinated water uses a significant<br />
portion of the Emirate’s energy<br />
and is responsible for the generation of<br />
greenhouse gases including CO2. <strong>Water</strong><br />
conservation programs in all sectors of the<br />
economy would reduce the demand for<br />
water and thus CO2 emissions.<br />
• Brine disposal as a side product of desalination<br />
poses modest to severe environmental<br />
risks to the water of the Gulf and to<br />
shallow aquifers inland.<br />
• Most TSE are used in landscaping.<br />
However, in several cases excess effluents<br />
are discharged to the desert or the coastal<br />
area creating a high potential for pollution<br />
of groundwater.<br />
• Effluents from dairy farms have been collected<br />
in large evaporation ponds in the Al<br />
Ain region; others are collected in septic<br />
tanks. All are discharged to the desert<br />
where there is an extremely high risk of<br />
contaminating groundwater.<br />
• Unfettered expansion of agriculture has<br />
caused degradation of groundwater<br />
resources through unregulated overpumping.<br />
In many areas irreversible salinization<br />
of groundwater has occurred.<br />
Upper layers of shallow aquifers have been<br />
polluted by irrigation return flows containing<br />
chemicals, particularly nitrates.<br />
Intense animal husbandry has locally exacerbated<br />
groundwater pollution and placed<br />
a high stress on the fragile ecosystem and<br />
natural vegetation.<br />
66
4. Future <strong>Water</strong><br />
Demand<br />
67
Future <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
4. Future <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
The role of demand planning is to provide a<br />
framework within which all the various components,<br />
factors and information can be effectively<br />
brought together to allow appropriate<br />
decisions to be taken on future water management,<br />
supply capacity needs, and investment.<br />
Given the predominantly urban settlement in<br />
the Emirate, the primary water planning issue<br />
is securing a reliable and safe potable water<br />
supply. Demand planning in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is confined<br />
primarily to the water and electricity sectors<br />
that have traditionally been inter-dependent.<br />
This is because investments tend to be<br />
lumpy and long-term – 20 or more years. A<br />
cogeneration power station and its supporting<br />
infrastructure and connections typically costs<br />
around two billion dollars, takes 1-2 years to<br />
plan, design, finance and contract, and 3 or<br />
more years to construct. At the same time<br />
existing cogeneration infrastructure is aging<br />
and may be delivering sub-optimal performance.<br />
And allowance has to be made for this.<br />
Once an acceptable projection of water<br />
demand has been agreed and the supply gap<br />
identified, plans for needed capacity enhancements<br />
to desalination capacity, storage,<br />
wastewater treatment and transmission and<br />
distribution networks follow. Because the<br />
purpose of demand planning is to correctly<br />
predict the capacity of desalination plants<br />
(including pumps and associated pipe work<br />
and power supplies) designed to fill the<br />
capacity gap, the focus is determining future<br />
peak demands at the time the new equipment<br />
reaches the end of its economic life. This is<br />
not a simple task. For water supply networks<br />
the objective is typically to determine the<br />
gross daily peak demand and in power stations<br />
it may be hourly peak.<br />
Demand planning for irrigation in the absence<br />
of significant surface water resources tends to<br />
be more concerned with water resources allocation<br />
and management than infrastructure.<br />
Environmental issues have tended to be of secondary<br />
concern unless they pose risks to the<br />
groundwater resource. This is because most<br />
groundwater-based irrigation serves demandled<br />
fragmented agriculture whose future water<br />
requirements cannot be well defined. It is also<br />
small-scale, incremental and relatively inexpensive<br />
and does not require either public-sector<br />
appraisal or management.<br />
In addition to the water demand within the<br />
Emirate, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> exports water to the<br />
Northern Emirates. These have risen from<br />
7.03 million gallons a day (MGD) for peak<br />
water supply in 2006 to 11.95 MGD in 2007.<br />
The indicative peak supply of water is expected<br />
to increase to 20 MGD in 2008/2009 to 30<br />
MGD from 2010 onwards. Given the geography<br />
and distances involved, these supplies<br />
can only currently be met from the Fujairah 1<br />
plant and the future Fujairah 2 power and<br />
water plants.<br />
Forecasting<br />
Forecasting can be particularly difficult in rapidly<br />
urbanizing environments where past patterns<br />
of water usage are less likely to be reflected in<br />
future rates. Future potable water demand is<br />
derived from information on a number of different<br />
social, economic, political and natural environmental<br />
variables including the following:<br />
• resident and seasonal population numbers,<br />
density and distribution<br />
• number, market value and types of housing<br />
units<br />
• per capita income<br />
• water and waste water prices and rate structures<br />
and the way these affect consumption<br />
• commercial and industrial activity and mix<br />
• conveyance efficiencies and water losses<br />
• hours of supply ( intermittent or continuous)<br />
• urban water use efficiency from implementation<br />
of Best Management Practices<br />
• irrigated acreage in residential, commercial<br />
and public use<br />
• other water uses<br />
• climate and climate change conditions.<br />
ADWEC are responsible for demand planning.<br />
Their current planning horizon is to 2030 in<br />
response to the development blueprint for city<br />
and surrounding environs proposed in <strong>Plan</strong><br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030. Recent exogenous factors are<br />
affecting decision-making and risks – the financial<br />
and economic crisis of late 2008 and the<br />
end of the oil boom – and these major factors<br />
may soon make present forecasts redundant.<br />
The risks attached to the demand forecast are<br />
dependent on the accuracy and precision of the<br />
sources of information used. And ADWEC has<br />
drawn on many official and independent<br />
sources to build a picture of the future economic,<br />
social and physical structure of the Emirate<br />
(Miller, 2008). All ADWEC’s demand forecasts<br />
were made on the basis of announced or anticipated<br />
government policies. Future policy<br />
changes could change the demand forecast and<br />
ADWEC note that a decision to supply farmers<br />
in the Western Region with desalinated water<br />
would require recalculation.<br />
In deriving values for future demands, many<br />
different methodologies have been developing<br />
using various statistical approaches for<br />
accounting for uncertainty and risk. These<br />
include both deterministic and probabilistic<br />
methods, and recently multi-criteria analysis<br />
and artificial neural networks have been used.<br />
Since 2006, ADWEC have adopted a probabilistic<br />
approach in which uncertainties around<br />
various variables are represented by probability<br />
distribution curves. A major uncertainty is<br />
government’s policy of the use of desalinated<br />
water for agriculture. In addition an allowance<br />
has been made for continuous improvements in<br />
per capita consumption and landscape water<br />
saving improvements resulting from demandside<br />
management.<br />
Figure 18: Future desalination demand and available<br />
capacity – most likely<br />
projection 2007-2030<br />
Source: ADWEC. 2008. Statement of Future Capacity<br />
Requirements<br />
68<br />
69
Future <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
Future demand and supply<br />
Future agricultural demand<br />
ADWEC made several projections of future<br />
demand for desalinated water for the period<br />
2007-2030. The ‘most-likely” scenario is<br />
shown in Figure 18. Overall the growth in<br />
demand in that period will be 123%. There<br />
will be no shortfall in production until 2014,<br />
but thereafter it will steadily increase in the<br />
absence of new capacity. By 2020 the annual<br />
shortfall will be 206 MGD, equivalent to 342<br />
Mcm. This will increase to 673 Mcm by 2030.<br />
Future desalinated supply<br />
ADWEC states that a shortage of gas, the<br />
traditional fuel for cogeneration desalination<br />
plants creates a huge problem for the<br />
future provision of desalinated water. It is<br />
expected that gas supplies from Dolphin<br />
field will fall below local demand by<br />
2014-2015. In anticipation the government<br />
reviewed policy options in 2008 (Box 3).<br />
Apart from nuclear energy, fuel oil or liquefied<br />
natural could also be considered.<br />
However, on reflection ADWEC agues that it<br />
may be better to sell the oil overseas as its<br />
use locally is sub-economic in terms of foregone<br />
revenue on existing electricity and<br />
water tariffs. Subsequently government<br />
endorsed the nuclear power option<br />
The growing power shortage will lead to<br />
increasing electricity generation and reducing<br />
desalination production. A change in<br />
electricity generation technology – particularly<br />
nuclear - will cause a strategic reassessment<br />
of the continued construction of cogeneration<br />
power and water plants. It may<br />
become more economic to separate energy<br />
generation and water production. If that<br />
occurs then several other options become<br />
available to manage future water supplies.<br />
That is the subject of the next chapter.<br />
This is unknown as water use is driven by policies<br />
that anchor Emiratis to the rural domain<br />
through an extensive program of subsidies for<br />
housing, land improvement, energy, water and<br />
agriculture. It is primarily a cultural issue. And<br />
a major cultural concern is food self-sufficiency.<br />
There is a lobby that argues that continued<br />
support for agriculture contributes to food selfsufficiency<br />
and is essential for national security.<br />
However, it must be stated here that future<br />
agricultural management and expansion must<br />
be viewed within the context of available irrigation<br />
water and energy sources to ensure sustainability<br />
of production. Any changes must<br />
also consider international indicators for food<br />
production and recent UAE government initiatives<br />
to secure future supply.<br />
Agricultural water demand is dependent on<br />
future policy changes. In a normal case there<br />
would be adequate socio-economic, agronomic,<br />
agricultural and financial data available to<br />
make informed decisions about costs and benefits<br />
and how these provide incentives to farming<br />
specific crops or livestock. No such data<br />
are available for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. We can make,<br />
however, logical guesses about how policy may<br />
work.<br />
Rhodes Grass is a prime example. It accounts<br />
for more than half of agricultural water and<br />
energy demand. How much Rhodes Grass is<br />
irrigated using fresh or desalinated water is<br />
unknown, but the indications are that the<br />
majority of the area is irrigated from brackish<br />
water. And policy on Rhodes Grass also has a<br />
secondary impact on water demand for the<br />
livestock sector. Thus reducing or eliminating<br />
the large subsidy for Rhodes Grass would lead<br />
to substantial energy savings (particularly<br />
when RO is used to improve water quality) but<br />
Box 3: Fuel for the future: Nuclear Power – the UAE Government’s 2008 Policy Paper<br />
“Annual peak demand for water is likely to rise to more than 40,000 MW, but the known volumes of natural<br />
gas that could be made available to the nation’s electricity sector would be insufficient to meet 20,000 –<br />
25,000 MW of power generation capacity by 2020.<br />
While the burning of liquids (e.g. crude oil and/or diesel) was found to be logically viable, evaluation of this<br />
option revealed that a heavy future reliance on liquids would entail extremely high economic costs, as well<br />
as significant degradation in the environmental performance of UAE’s electricity sector. While evaluation of<br />
coal-fired power generation established its lower relative price compared to liquid-fired power generation,<br />
its widespread use within the UAE would have an even more detrimental effect on environmental performance,<br />
while also raising thorny issues related to security of supply. Evaluation of alternative energies, including<br />
solar and wind suggested that, while these options could be deployed in the UAE, even aggressive development<br />
could only supply 6-7% of peak electricity demand by 2020.<br />
Stacked against the above options, nuclear-powered generation emerged at a proven, environmentally<br />
promising and commercially competitive option which could make a significant base-load contribution to<br />
UAE’s economy and energy security.”<br />
may only make a modest contribution to conserving<br />
fresh groundwater for other uses. On the<br />
other hand, restricting the use of desalinated<br />
water in agriculture could immediately reduce<br />
the demand by 11% on the basis of RSB’s data,<br />
and provide an even larger share according to<br />
ADWEC’s analysis – perhaps as much as a 50%<br />
saving. Energy savings would be proportionate.<br />
70<br />
71
5. <strong>Plan</strong>ning and<br />
Development Options<br />
73
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
5. <strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Future water demand can be met through a<br />
combination of demand management and<br />
development of alternative sources of supply. It<br />
is not only concerned with meeting the demand<br />
for desalinated water. Overall water demand for<br />
the Emirate is the sum of project water use in<br />
each water-using sector or cross-cutting constraint.<br />
Thus water demand for potable, industrial and<br />
agricultural sectors can be determined irrespective<br />
of the water source. Sound environmental<br />
management may also require changes to water<br />
uses in several sectors; similarly so may economic<br />
and financial considerations, all of them<br />
cutting across the specialist water using sectors,<br />
Figure 19. And institutional knowledge<br />
and capacity constraints may affect all sectors<br />
and even the ability to plan across the Emirate.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, for example, there is very high<br />
human capacity in the desalination and water<br />
distribution business and in terms of integrated<br />
national planning. In contrast, the agricultural<br />
sector is composed of a number of widely scattered<br />
individuals and there is a need for a coherent<br />
and integrated approach which includes<br />
water and environmental perspectives. EAD is<br />
assuming that responsibility but capacity and<br />
relevant institutional structures for sound<br />
strategic planning and sector management is<br />
now only being developed. This plan is an initial<br />
step in this process.<br />
Theoretically the best combination of individual<br />
sector proposals would maximize economic<br />
and social benefits and minimize or even<br />
reverse adverse consequences to the environment.<br />
This chapter reviews the options applicable<br />
to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and five different scenarios for<br />
the future are put forward.<br />
Theoretically the best combination of individual<br />
sector proposals would maximize economic<br />
and social benefits and minimize or even<br />
reverse adverse consequences to the environment.<br />
This chapter reviews the options applicable<br />
to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and five different scenarios for<br />
the future are put forward.<br />
Cost considerations have not generally been a<br />
prime consideration as capital has been readily<br />
available for new infrastructure supplemented<br />
by grants and extensive subsidies. Currently<br />
the institutional environment governing water<br />
development, use and planning is patchy with<br />
some areas covered in great depth – for example<br />
the highly regulated power generation and<br />
Figure 19: The relationship of the main water-using<br />
sub-sectors to cross-cutting constraints<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
desalinated water supply sectors – whilst others<br />
such as agriculture and environment have<br />
notable omissions. Social concerns regarding<br />
access to affordable water supplies and sanitation<br />
for all were alleviated by substantial investment<br />
since the 1970s and heavy subsidies since<br />
then have significantly reduced the cost of<br />
water for all users. However, free or very cheap<br />
water is frequently misused and adds little economic<br />
value despite its high cost.<br />
While development options can be identified<br />
there are insufficient financial, engineering and<br />
economic data to cost development alternatives<br />
and carry out trade-offs to determine the<br />
optimal investment mix. Most of the required<br />
data are either proprietary, not existent or were<br />
not made available to this study.<br />
Accordingly, this master plan proposes<br />
a strategy to plan water<br />
development that would be subsequently<br />
detailed in a plan that covers<br />
all the water sub-sectors. The<br />
overall water planning process from<br />
a national perspective is illustrated<br />
in Figure 20. This master plan covers<br />
the four steps circled in red.<br />
Once the overall approach is agreed<br />
and the strategies are selected,<br />
detailed planning can take place.<br />
The planning process shown is a<br />
series of linear steps as discussed<br />
below. In reality the Australian and<br />
other experience shows that the<br />
process is considerably more iterative<br />
as policy-makers, other stakeholders,<br />
citizens and technical specialists<br />
exchange ideas and provide<br />
better data analysis or information<br />
to build policy, information and<br />
data gaps. This has certainly been<br />
the experience of this work and the<br />
process is ongoing.<br />
1. <strong>Plan</strong>ning Initiation. EAD has<br />
completed this step. It involved<br />
taking the decision that water needed to be<br />
planned in an integrated way to maximize<br />
environmental benefits and minimize adverse<br />
impacts. ICBA was engaged to work in partnership<br />
with EAD to produce this report.<br />
2. Situational Analysis. This looks at the current<br />
state of the resources as presented in<br />
Chapter 2 of this report. It also includes public<br />
and environmental benefits and impacts<br />
and risks as discussed in Chapter 3. It normally<br />
includes a thorough financial and economic<br />
analysis but data to enable this to be<br />
done was not available to the planning team.<br />
Opportunities are covered in this chapter.<br />
Figure 20: The water planning process and plan content<br />
Source: Hamstead, M., C. Baldwin and V. O’Keefe. 2008. <strong>Water</strong><br />
Allocation <strong>Plan</strong>ning in Australia – Current Practices and Lessons<br />
Learned. <strong>Water</strong>lines Occasional Paper No 6, April 2008.<br />
Australian National <strong>Water</strong> Commission.<br />
3. Setting Directions. This follows from the situational<br />
analysis and provides the basis for<br />
broad decisions on which way to go, including<br />
objectives and outcome being sought. It<br />
encompasses such things as vision statements<br />
(as discussed in Chapter 1) and specific<br />
objectives and outcomes desired.<br />
4. Identifying and Assessing Strategies. This is<br />
usually achieved through a process of identifying<br />
and assessing options based on benefits,<br />
impacts and mitigation measures.<br />
5. Strategy Selection. This involves comparing<br />
trade-offs including socio-economic and equi-<br />
74<br />
75
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
ty factors to determine and decide the preferred<br />
options and strategies. The outcomes<br />
from this step are strategies, activities and<br />
specification of measurable targets and<br />
actions. These may include policy, institutional<br />
strengthening, physical and economic<br />
and environmental changes.<br />
6. Building Adaptability. Few plans turn out as<br />
predicted. Problems typically arising include<br />
wrong assumptions, improved knowledge,<br />
missing information, and unilateral decisions<br />
by other actors (for example a new and<br />
unforeseen MSF cogeneration plant or<br />
change in agricultural policies).<br />
Consequently this step identifies key yardsticks<br />
and indicators to measure monitor<br />
progress against planning objectives and<br />
what actions need to be taken when and by<br />
whom if plans do not proceed as expected. In<br />
engineering projects critical path analysis is a<br />
key tool used to identify implementation<br />
risks and formulating measures to mitigate<br />
them. It is also important to agree feedback<br />
procedures to inform policy-makers and management<br />
on progress and who does what<br />
when corrections or changes of direction are<br />
needed.<br />
7. <strong>Plan</strong> Approval. This is the final step when the<br />
minister or Executive Council endorses the<br />
plan. It enables the outcomes of the planning<br />
process to become law and frames enabling<br />
legislation.<br />
Development Objectives<br />
Typically national water development is constrained<br />
by the availability of water, the costs of<br />
supply and distribution, and the need to align<br />
institutions with long-term development objectives,<br />
social and environmental concerns and<br />
security issues. There could be three primary<br />
development objectives:<br />
1. Increase fresh water availability and its<br />
security in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
2. Sequencing new water supply infrastructure<br />
to meet rapidly growing<br />
demand, and<br />
3. Minimization of the adverse environmental<br />
impacts of water production and use.<br />
These objectives are subject to eleven policy<br />
options that act as constraints:<br />
a) Financial and administrative<br />
b) Targets reduction of water use in agriculture<br />
- the biggest water user<br />
c) Target reduced desalinated water use<br />
in agriculture<br />
d) Targets for household per capita<br />
water consumption<br />
e) Targets for energy demand in agriculture<br />
f) Targets for energy demand related to<br />
household water use<br />
g) Targets for energy use and increased<br />
efficiency of wastewater treatment<br />
and its distribution<br />
h) Required security of potable water<br />
supplies<br />
i) Environmental impact targets for production<br />
of desalinated water (covering<br />
CO2 and other gas and particulate<br />
emissions and brine disposal)<br />
j) Targets for carbon offsets and or<br />
sequestration in forests, amenity plantations<br />
and agriculture, and<br />
k) Reduced environmental pollution from<br />
water-related activities in land management<br />
and agriculture.<br />
These policy constraints are not independent or<br />
mutually exclusive as the examples in Table 7, 8<br />
and 9 illustrate.<br />
Table 7: The impact of policy choice on planning constraints<br />
Policy Option A — Target reduction in the use of desalinated water in agriculture<br />
Positive outcomes<br />
¥ Reduced agricultural use of desalinated water would significantly<br />
reduce the demand for energy and water production.<br />
¥ There would be a one-off reduction in desalinated water<br />
demand of at least 11% of present demand. This is equivalent<br />
to about 11 Mcm a year or 3% of the 2030 supply<br />
gap.<br />
¥ Pollution of groundwater from return irrigation flows may<br />
decrease.<br />
¥ The released potable water could be used to meet the<br />
needs of the expanding population and industry leading to<br />
the potential of increasing TSE supplies<br />
Adverse outcomes<br />
¥ Impact on the economic and social circumstances of the<br />
farmers<br />
¥ Alternatively water supply systems will need to be developed<br />
which are likely to be based on groundwater sources<br />
so adding to their depletion and possible soil salinization<br />
Discussion:<br />
Given the small contribution to meeting the long-term desalinated supply shortfall and the likely socio-economic reaction from well<br />
placed farmers the political costs may be too high. Thus this policy option could be dropped as a constraint. Similar argument may<br />
apply to the forestry sector unless they are strategically down-sized to the most economically and environmentally efficient areas.<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
76 77
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Table 9: The impact of policy choice on planning constraints<br />
Policy Option C — Reduce the agricultural subsidy for Rhodes Grass<br />
Positive outcomes<br />
¥ Reduced mining of the brackish groundwater resource that<br />
could become a viable water supply source if nuclear energy<br />
became available.<br />
¥ Reduction in water and energy use — perhaps by 50% of<br />
present agricultural use. The primary benefit would be to<br />
the energy sector and reduced gaseous emissions. <strong>Water</strong><br />
saved by phasing out Rhodes Grass is not a substitute for<br />
desalinated water.<br />
¥ Reduction in livestock herds. Significant gains to rangeland<br />
ecosystems and groundwater protection.<br />
¥ Significant gain to the treasury as subsidies are phased out<br />
— maybe more money for environmental management<br />
Adverse outcomes<br />
¥ Reduced income for farmers.<br />
¥ There may be an influx of farmers to urban areas as they<br />
become under- or unemployed. Income subsidies may be<br />
required to stem this flow.<br />
¥ The livestock sector would decline affecting the livelihoods<br />
of those depending on it for a living.<br />
¥ Farmers may invest in small-scale RO for other types of agriculture,<br />
thereby lowering the environmental benefits of the<br />
policy.<br />
¥ Biodiversity would decrease as would sequestration<br />
Table 8: The impact of policy choice on planning constraints<br />
Policy Option B — Target a reduction in per capita household water consumption<br />
Positive outcomes<br />
¥ Reduced water use may be sufficient to delay the need for additional<br />
desalination capacity. Providing the consumption target is<br />
not less then about 250 lcd then generation of sewerage effluent<br />
would not be compromised<br />
¥ Reduce per capita and household energy use<br />
¥ Reduced per capita brine discharge and CO2 emissions<br />
¥ Reduced water sales may induce greater attention to leakage<br />
reduction from the company s distribution system to increase<br />
the share of billable water<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
Adverse outcomes<br />
¥ Reduced revenue for operation and maintenance of the<br />
distribution system and for replacement investment<br />
¥ Reduce sewerage and so TSE supplies<br />
¥ Household gardens would become difficult to maintain<br />
Biodiversity would decline as would carbon sequestration<br />
Discussion:<br />
From an environmental perspective the loss of biodiversity and sequestration would be traded-off against the reduction in brine discharge<br />
and CO2 emissions. Probably the increase to the global common good fromCO2 emissions would significantly outweigh the local environmental<br />
losses. Therefore it would make sense to drop biodiversity and brine output as constraints and make them dependent variables. To<br />
measure environmental impact would require development of explicit relationships between energy, brine disposal and water production,<br />
as well as better knowledge of the environmental services provided by household gardens.<br />
While per capita energy and water use would decrease this would only offset and slow the growth in water and energy demand resulting<br />
from population increases. Even so the water conservation would be significant. Taking the most likely population projection for 2030 of 4<br />
million, the water saving of 300 lcd is equivalent to 440 Mcm a year or about 65% of the supply gap. The assumptions ADWEC used in its<br />
demand forecast have not been made available and it could be that half of this projected saving is already included. We do not know. Even<br />
so, 220Mcm is a large saving that arises from the willingness to apply demand-side management instruments — the most effective being higher<br />
domestic water tariffs for all.<br />
Physical distribution losses could be reduced with leak detection programs and pipe-work upgrades. However, at current loss levels and<br />
water tariffs it may not be economic as the best marginal improvement would only be about 6%. Current water tariffs are US$0.06/m3.<br />
This is only 0.3% of the actual cost of desalinated water that is, according to RSB, US$1.75/m3 (excluding capital, fuel and water subsidies).<br />
In terms of income lost at present tariffs this would represent US$0.9 million if all the water were billed; however, as at least two-thirds of<br />
distributed water is effectively free and the savings from loss prevention would be negligible. If tariffs were increased they could provide the<br />
incentive to undertake system improvements - but only after justification through economic analysis. In terms of present water costs it could<br />
be justified as the reduction of losses to 10% would lead to annual cost saving of US$151 million.<br />
Discussion:<br />
This is an easy choice from the energy perspective but a difficult one for the water sector. <strong>Water</strong> security may require that the moderately<br />
brackish groundwater areas be put into a strategic reserve. The costs and benefits from an agricultural and social perspective<br />
are unclear because of the paucity of socio-economic data. Almost nothing is known about the environmental flows associated with<br />
Rhodes Grass and this would need to be clarified as the eventual solution would be a trade-off against global benefits.<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
Economic Considerations<br />
Crop subsidy = Dh 140 million<br />
Energy cost = Dh 0.214 per kWh<br />
Energy tariff = Dh 0.03 per kWh<br />
Subsidy rate = Dh 0.211 per kWh<br />
Energy use = 3,125 million kWh<br />
Energy Subsidy = Dh 659 million<br />
Total crop and electricity subsidy Dh 799 million<br />
¥ A kWh of electricity generated from gas produces 380 grams<br />
equivalent of CO2.<br />
¥ CO2 produced by Rhodes Grass by irrigation using 3,125 million<br />
kWh is 1.2 million tons per year<br />
¥ In addition the subsidy of Rhodes grass led to a huge rise in<br />
livestock numbers. They use 20 Mm3 of water and produce<br />
0.8 million tons of CO2 equivalent a year<br />
The simplest way of deciding the viability of<br />
alternative ways of providing water supplies is<br />
to compare costs and benefits and this has<br />
tended to be the sole criteria in the Emirate for<br />
most water investment to date. Financial<br />
accounting and feasibility are directly concerned<br />
with the availability and cost of funds.<br />
However, as has been demonstrated, the investment<br />
and financial cash flows and benefits of<br />
operating a utility or a well are only part of the<br />
true costs of doing business. To fully account<br />
for these additional costs requires an economic<br />
analysis to internalize, as far as practicable, all<br />
measurable costs, including environmental<br />
ones. And an economic analysis does not always<br />
lead to the same decision.<br />
78 79
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
It is important also to distinguish between public<br />
and private costs and benefits. In an unregulated<br />
environment, a water supply utility will<br />
attempt to maximize benefits and minimize<br />
costs. And this will probably be assisted by<br />
being able to ignore the adverse consequences<br />
of the utilities operation – which could include,<br />
for example, noise, odor, and polluting discharges<br />
that the utility cannot sell. In a regulated<br />
environment, the utility may be forced to<br />
reduce noise and odor and pay to clear up pollution.<br />
Therefore the utilities costs contribute<br />
towards benefits which accrue to the public at<br />
large. On the benefits side the utility will sell<br />
the water at cost plus a profit. However, utility<br />
will not be able to charge the customers for the<br />
health benefits of a regular supply of pure water<br />
that is a public benefit.<br />
Where the public costs or benefits are large, the<br />
state may decide that because they are public<br />
goods they should be paid for by the public, and<br />
to encourage the production of clean water a<br />
subsidy may be offered to defray the public<br />
cost. From the health perspective, for example,<br />
the government may see the subsidy for better<br />
quality water as an off-set to public health<br />
costs. To make the best decisions, all cost benefits<br />
and subsidies should be as transparent as<br />
possible. Hidden subsidies may create perverse<br />
incentives to misuse resources. A clear example<br />
of this is the groundwater over-exploitation<br />
that has been caused by the large subsidies on<br />
well construction and cheap electricity consumption.<br />
If the government wants to keep the<br />
farmers on the land and not have them migrate<br />
to the cities, then a subsidy may be justified if it<br />
is the same as the social cost borne by government<br />
providing urban services. But providing<br />
subsidies without a rational basis leads to<br />
resource misuse and misallocation.<br />
What do we do<br />
In practice all the variables in the planning<br />
model would be integrated within a mathemat-<br />
ical optimization model that simulates the<br />
interaction of the various policy options and<br />
constraints. The result would be outcomes that<br />
can be judged against the objectives and<br />
ranked accordingly. Generally the prime indicator<br />
is incremental value-added to the economy.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> a proxy may be maximizing water<br />
production from all sources with minimum<br />
environmental impacts. However, lack of data<br />
and information preclude such a modeling exercise<br />
at this step in the planning process. This is<br />
unfortunate as the adoption of a number of<br />
demand management measures, while in themselves<br />
producing modest incremental benefits,<br />
in aggregate they may produce synergies that<br />
are not obvious at present. Integrated modeling<br />
is the only way to find out efficiently.<br />
The benefits of demand<br />
management<br />
Figure 21 summarizes the effects of the various<br />
demand-side reduction policies discussed. Leak<br />
detection, no matter how rigorously applied, has<br />
only a marginal impact on the desalination supply<br />
gap. There is still a deficit after 2014.<br />
Restricting agricultural use of desalinated water<br />
has an almost identical impact. But together they<br />
could have an opportunity cost of about $300<br />
million a year. Conversely the most vigorously<br />
applied tariff increase may solve the problem.<br />
Diagram (C) shows that if household demand<br />
were reduced to 250 lcd in 2008, then there would<br />
be surplus throughout the planning horizon.<br />
This indicates that a progressive increase of the<br />
water tariff over a number of years may be the<br />
policy to follow. There is sufficient time to<br />
research into willingness to pay and testing of<br />
appropriate tariff structures. The tariff structure<br />
should be operational by the end of 2010 and<br />
plan to reach to maximum in real terms by about<br />
2020. This would allow the demand curve to<br />
more closely match the supply. Of course, there<br />
may be other policy objectives that would dictate<br />
a different implementation schedule.<br />
Figure 21: Tariff reform is the most effective way of<br />
closing the desalination supply gap<br />
(A) Current capacity requirement with modest<br />
demand management<br />
(B) Application of leakage prevention programs<br />
(C) Substantial increase in water tariffs to reduce<br />
household demand<br />
However, policy-makers may decide that tariff<br />
reform is not viable. In that case the plan has to<br />
address supply-side alternatives to supplement<br />
desalination capacity.<br />
Supply-side management is also<br />
essential<br />
Supply-side management is a very useful tool to<br />
increase capacity and be sensitive to the environmental<br />
implications of technology choice.<br />
Supply Management Options<br />
There are alternatives to seawater distillation<br />
that are more energy efficient, use less source<br />
water and discharge less waste water per unit<br />
volume of potable water produced, Table 10. A<br />
start has been made in Fujairah with the cogeneration-RO<br />
plant. The values for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
plants were not available so details from general<br />
studies are used.<br />
While RO has many environmental advantages<br />
over seawater distillation processes, removal of<br />
Boron requires additional processing. Boron levels<br />
below 0.5 mg/l are acceptable for potable use<br />
but current membrane technology has difficulty<br />
in achieving such low levels. And when high levels<br />
of boron-rich desalinated water are use in<br />
agriculture the results are toxic to many plants<br />
(this is discussed under Groundwater below).<br />
There are several solutions being developed, the<br />
simplest being the passing of a fraction of the<br />
water through a series of further stages to reduce<br />
Boron further and then the blending of this with<br />
the main product water to achieve permissible<br />
levels.<br />
RO is the preferred alternative for desalination<br />
outside the Gulf Region primarily for environmental<br />
and cost considerations, Table 11. These<br />
costs are based on typical medium-sized installations.<br />
There are economies of scale with larger<br />
MSF plants and water productions are given as<br />
80 81
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Table 10: Environmental and energy requirements for alternative desalination technologies<br />
Environmental Requirement or impact<br />
US$0.84/m3 for the Taweelah A2 MSF distiller. It<br />
is not known if subsidized or global market prices<br />
are used for the cost estimate so actual economic<br />
costs could be higher. The main reason for the<br />
lower costs for the RO process is that it does not<br />
require energy to heat the water and the energy<br />
cost for pumping and power is about US$0.13/m3.<br />
In comparison, MSF distillation total energy<br />
costs are US$0.35 of which US$0.24 are used for<br />
heating<br />
If RO is used to desalinate brackish water<br />
energy costs will be significantly reduced as<br />
will the environmental impacts. Using <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>’s substantial brackish groundwater<br />
resources has also several advantages particularly<br />
in terms of dispersing and securing<br />
potable water supplies.<br />
While disposal of inland brine effluent is cur-<br />
Multiple Stage<br />
Flash (MSF)<br />
Distillation<br />
Multiple ٍّ Effect<br />
(MED)<br />
Reverse Osmosis (RO)<br />
Brackish ٍّ<br />
Volume of saline feed water per m3 of fresh water 4 3 2 to 2.5 1.3 to 1.4<br />
Volume of brine effluent per m3 of fresh water 3 2 1 to 1.5 0.3 to 0.4<br />
Energy Consumption Mj/m3 186 162 24 29<br />
Source: World Bank. 2004. Seawater and Brackish <strong>Water</strong> Desalination in the Middle East, North Africa and<br />
Central Asia. Note: Mj = mega joules. Comparisons are based on a plant capacity of 32,000 m3/day.<br />
Table 11: Costs of Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
MSF MED RO<br />
Investment<br />
Cost US$/m3/day 1,200-1,500 900 — 1,000 700-900<br />
Total <strong>Water</strong><br />
Cost US$/m3 1.10 — 1.25 0.75 — 0.85 0.68 -0.82<br />
Source: World Bank, 2004 ibid. Assumptions: <strong>Plan</strong>t<br />
capacity 30,000 m3/day; plant life 20 years, interest<br />
rates 7% and labor at US$45,000/year.<br />
Salt ٍّ<br />
rently an uncontrolled problem, the establishment<br />
of a government/private sector organization<br />
that was responsible for the collection,<br />
treatment and disposal, just as ADSSC is for<br />
sewerage, would bring an integrated and comprehensive<br />
approach to its management.<br />
Various options would be available for the actual<br />
inland disposal of the brine and Table 12 lists<br />
some of the management and environmental<br />
challenges that should be considered in the<br />
development of any new strategy.<br />
Inland brine disposal using evaporation ponds<br />
has potential commercial value as well as specific<br />
environmental concerns. Many of the factors<br />
considered in brine evaporation are also<br />
applicable to collection and evaporation of agricultural<br />
drainage although the waters have far<br />
lower concentrations of total dissolved solids.<br />
Brine waste can be viewed as an asset that<br />
may be used to offset the cost of desalination<br />
and may be used in various products such as<br />
animal feeds. In Australia, for example, brine<br />
water value-added enterprises are active in<br />
reducing costs and meeting environmental<br />
performance criteria (Box 4). However, there<br />
are sometimes adverse environmental consequences<br />
that need careful assessment as<br />
examples from the San Jaoquin Valley in<br />
California illustrate (Box 5).<br />
Table 12: The Challenges of Inland Brine Disposal<br />
Method of Disposal Capital Cost * O&M Costs * Land Required Env Impact Energy Public Concerns Geology **<br />
Deep Wells L M L L M M H<br />
Evaporation Ponds M-H H H M L H H<br />
Land Spreading M L H M-H L H H<br />
Thermal Evaporation H H L L H L L<br />
Sewers L L - M L L L<br />
Source: Modified after National Academy of Sciences (USA). 2008. Desalination - A National Perspective. Table<br />
4-5. Notes: Magnitude of challenge: L = low; M = medium; H = High.<br />
* Costs are site-specific and vary greatly<br />
** Geologic requirements are concerned with risks of contaminating freshwater aquifers<br />
Box 4: Cutting the Costs of Environmental<br />
Management – Brine Harvesting<br />
The Pyramid Salt Company of Northern<br />
Victoria in Australia harvest salt evaporated<br />
from saline groundwater. The product is<br />
sold for stock feed, medical and chemical<br />
uses. Using a proprietary process specific<br />
dissolved minerals and compounds are<br />
extracted individually using multiple evaporation<br />
and/or cooling, supplemented by<br />
chemical processing. Industries using these<br />
compounds include, for example, wallboard<br />
manufacturers, soil remediation and reclamation<br />
and waste water treatment.<br />
Enterprises are typically medium- to largescale.<br />
Set-up costs are about US$10,000 per<br />
ha and good quality salts can be sold for<br />
US$12 to US$150 a ton.<br />
Source: Australian Department of Agriculture,<br />
Fisheries and Forests. 2002. Introduction to<br />
Desalination Technologies in Australia.<br />
Box 5: Evaporation Ponds – The California<br />
Experience<br />
Saline agricultural drainage (producing<br />
400,000 tons of salt annually) was not<br />
allowed to be discharged to the San Joaquin<br />
River and over the period 1972-1985. Instead<br />
the water was directed to 28 evaporation<br />
ponds covering 2,900 ha. In addition to concentrating<br />
salts, the ponds also provided<br />
seasonal resting, foraging and nesting habitat<br />
for waterfowl and shore birds. An<br />
Environmental Impact Report (EIR) in 1979<br />
identified seepage, spillage from flooding,<br />
accumulation of toxic or noxious wastes<br />
(pesticide, nutrients and sewage), adverse<br />
effects of wildlife and mosquitoes as adverse<br />
environmental impacts. Many of these<br />
impacts were mitigated through better<br />
management and engineering measures.<br />
Specific attention was paid, however, to<br />
impacts on wildlife. It was found that selenium<br />
occurred at elevated levels in the concentrated<br />
water (more than 0.2 ppm) and<br />
its bioaccumulation in the aquatic food<br />
chain reduced reproduction rates, caused<br />
birth defects and killed water birds. The<br />
worst-affected ponds had their operating<br />
permits withdrawn by the Central Valley<br />
Regional <strong>Water</strong> Control Board until mitigation<br />
was successful and the CVRWCB<br />
entered into memoranda of understanding<br />
with three operators to select consultants<br />
for further EIRs ever three years. As a result<br />
design and management practices of evaporation<br />
ponds were significantly improved.<br />
82 83
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Integrated Environmental<br />
Management and <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning<br />
Developing an Accounting Framework<br />
Define and link the environmental parameters<br />
of interest to water flows. This will be partly a<br />
quantitative process and partly qualitative.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> use and chemistry have to be explicitly<br />
linked. The quantitative aspects would include,<br />
for example, modeling groundwater and soil<br />
chemical balances and the way in which they<br />
change when water moves through the system.<br />
It would also include model carbon sequestration<br />
by vegetation on the one hand, and greenhouse<br />
gas emissions related to energy use on<br />
the other. In turn, brine production related to<br />
energy use for water could be explicitly linked<br />
to the water balance and the health status on<br />
near-shore waters. Similarly wastewater generation,<br />
usage and disposal could be linked<br />
explicitly to water use. There is clearly a trade<br />
off. And it is up to policy makers to make difficult<br />
trade-offs between competing economic,<br />
social and environmental priorities. The fundamental<br />
challenge of valuing ecosystems and the<br />
services they provide lies in providing an explicit<br />
description and adequate assessment of the<br />
links between the structures and functions of<br />
natural systems, the benefits derived by<br />
humanity, and their subsequent values. An<br />
example from for Protected Areas (PAs) is<br />
shown in Figure 22. The way to model the<br />
hydrological variables has already been presented;<br />
the next section discusses valuation of<br />
ecosystem services.<br />
Integrated Environmental<br />
Management<br />
The First Step is Modeling and Measuring<br />
Environmental Flows. The concept of environmental<br />
flows can be used as a framework to<br />
integrate environmental management objectives<br />
with water resources management.<br />
Environmental flows are the flows needed to<br />
maintain important aquatic ecosystem services.<br />
They are defined as “the quality, quantity and<br />
timing of water flows required to maintain the<br />
component, functions, processes, and the<br />
resilience of aquatic ecosystems that produce<br />
goods and services to people.” While designed<br />
initially to address the problems of integrated<br />
river basin management, the concept of environmental<br />
flows is equally applicable to the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate. The additional element, possibly<br />
unique to the Emirate, is the need to include<br />
the effect of greenhouse gas emissions caused<br />
by the high energy requirements of the water<br />
sector and desalination.<br />
The first requirement to define a water strategy<br />
is to define more clearly the current status. The<br />
uncertainties over determining the exact water<br />
supply and use, efficiency of water use, the<br />
goods and services it produces and the environmental<br />
impact of these processes must be<br />
resolved.<br />
Develop and calibrate a water balance model.<br />
The first step in the process is to develop a<br />
three-dimensional mathematical model of the<br />
physical environment that links the components<br />
of water use from all sources to all uses<br />
and develop a water balance. This will require a<br />
clear definition of each water-using activity and<br />
extensive empirical data to define input,<br />
process and output quantities. While the geometry<br />
of the groundwater reservoir and its properties<br />
are well-defined, this is not the case for<br />
the buffer zone that links the atmosphere with<br />
groundwater – the soil profile. Effectively the<br />
soil profile is the upper reservoir that drains<br />
into the lower groundwater reservoir. Soil properties<br />
will define how much water and nutrients<br />
can be stored for plant use and the likely quantities<br />
of water that will drain from it to recharge<br />
the water table under irrigated areas. This seepage<br />
water will also transport excess nutrients to<br />
groundwater.<br />
Accurately determine gross and net water use<br />
by vegetation. To more clearly understand<br />
water consumption by agriculture and forestry<br />
the biggest unknown - it will be necessary to<br />
map the extent and type of vegetation, soil<br />
types, water application technology, and water<br />
scheduling and water management practices.<br />
Each would form a layer in a geographic information<br />
system (GIS) set up to link the variables<br />
to location. Spatial mapping of seasonal<br />
vegetation can be undertaken relatively quickly<br />
using satellite imagery linked to the GIS.<br />
Vegetation patterns should then be classified<br />
into a series of ecosystems that represents fairly<br />
uniform patterns of water use.<br />
Figure 22: Total Economic Valuation of Environmental Services<br />
A deeper understanding of the water balance<br />
can be determined from an array of detailed<br />
three-dimensional water balance areas located<br />
within sites representative of each ecosystem.<br />
In practice the detailed water balance areas<br />
should cover about one square kilometer and be<br />
set within a large area, say 25 sq kms, which<br />
would be a buffer zone. Within the water balance<br />
area an array of piezometers would be set<br />
at three different depths on a 0.5 km array. The<br />
cropping patterns and water and fertilizer<br />
inputs and soil and groundwater levels would<br />
be monitored daily. The experiment should<br />
continue for at least one and preferably two<br />
years. During this period the groundwater<br />
Source: Mekong Commission. 2005. http://www.mekong-protected-areas.org/mekong/docs/tlp-05.pdf<br />
84 85
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
model can be calibrated using the empirical<br />
data so obtained and a fairly exact knowledge of<br />
gross and net water use will be determined. To<br />
model the national water balance, the results<br />
from these detailed water balance areas can be<br />
interpolated using a finite difference grid covering<br />
the whole country. In Bangladesh, for example,<br />
where the alluvial plains covered about<br />
140,000 sq kms, ten detailed water balance<br />
areas were sufficient to model and understand<br />
the national water balance. Most importantly,<br />
the model developed from the empirical observations<br />
was able to predict the impact of various<br />
future development options on groundwater<br />
storage and recharge and the most appropriate<br />
well technology. It indicated the areas of<br />
highest development potential based upon economic<br />
returns and costs.<br />
Valuing Ecosystem Services<br />
Where an ecosystem’s services and goods can<br />
be identified and measured, it will often be possible<br />
to assign values to them by employing<br />
existing economic valuation methods.<br />
Measurement of the environmental costs of<br />
human activities or assessment of the benefits<br />
of environmental protection and restoration is<br />
challenging. Some ecosystem goods and services<br />
cannot be valued because they are not quantifiable<br />
or because available methods are not<br />
appropriate or reliable. The role of economic<br />
valuation in environmental decision-making<br />
depends on the specific criteria used to choose<br />
among policy alternatives. If policy choices are<br />
based primarily on intrinsic values -for example<br />
a ranking system defining preferences - there is<br />
little need for the quantification of values<br />
through economic valuation. However, if policymakers<br />
consider trade-offs and benefits and<br />
costs when making policy decisions, then quantification<br />
of the value of ecosystem services is<br />
essential. Failure to include some measure of<br />
the value of ecosystem services in benefit-cost<br />
calculations will implicitly assign them a value<br />
of zero. And the experience is that services so<br />
valued will be misused or over-exploited.<br />
An in-depth review of use of different approaches<br />
to valuing environmental services was undertaken<br />
by the US National Academy of Sciences<br />
in 2005. The Academy summarized current<br />
approaches and best-practice in 10 statements:<br />
1. Ecosystem structure along with regulatory and<br />
habitat/production functions produce ecosystem<br />
goods and services that are valued by<br />
humans. Examples include production of consumable<br />
resources (e.g., water, food, medicine,<br />
timber), provision of habitat for plants and animals,<br />
regulation of the environment (e.g., hydrologic<br />
and nutrient cycles, climate stabilization,<br />
waste accumulation), and support for nonconsumptive<br />
uses (e.g., recreation, aesthetics).<br />
2. In addition, many people value the existence<br />
of aquatic ecosystems for their own sake, or<br />
for the role they play in ensuring the preservation<br />
of plant and animal species whose<br />
existence is important to them. This value<br />
can stem from a belief that these species or<br />
ecosystems have intrinsic value or from the<br />
benefits that humans get from their existence,<br />
even when that existence is not directly<br />
providing goods or services used by human<br />
populations. In some cases, this “nonuse”<br />
value may be the primary source of an ecosystem’s<br />
value to humans.<br />
3. The total economic value of ecosystem services<br />
is the sum of the use values derived directly<br />
from use of the ecosystem and the nonuse<br />
value derived from its existence. Use value<br />
can be broken down further into consumptive<br />
uses (e.g., fish harvests) and non-consumptive<br />
uses (e.g., recreation).<br />
4. Human actions affect the structure, functions,<br />
and goods and services of ecosystems.<br />
These impacts can occur not only from the<br />
direct, intentional use of the ecosystem<br />
(e.g., for harvesting resources), but also<br />
from the unintentional, indirect impacts of<br />
other activities (e.g., upstream agriculture).<br />
Human actions are, in turn, directly affected<br />
by public policy and resource management<br />
decisions.<br />
5. Understanding the links between human<br />
systems and ecosystems requires the integration<br />
of economics and ecology.<br />
Economics can be used to better understand<br />
the human behavior that impacts<br />
ecosystems, while ecology aids in understanding<br />
the physical system that is both<br />
impacted and valued by humans.<br />
6. Nearly all policy and management decisions<br />
imply changes relative to some baseline and<br />
most changes imply trade-offs (i.e., more of<br />
one good or service but less of another).<br />
Protection of an ecosystem through a ban<br />
on or reduction of a certain type of activity<br />
implies an increase in ecosystem services<br />
but a reduction in other services provided<br />
by the restricted activity. Likewise, allowing<br />
an activity that is deemed detrimental<br />
implies a reduction in some ecosystem services<br />
but an increase in the services generated<br />
by the allowed activity.<br />
7. Information about these trade-offs—that is,<br />
about the value of what has been increased<br />
(what is being gained) as well as the value of<br />
what has been decreased (what is being forgone<br />
or given up)—can lead to better decisions<br />
about ecosystem protection. Since<br />
decisions involve choices, whenever these<br />
choices reflect how “valuable” the alternatives<br />
are, information about those values<br />
will be an important input into the choice<br />
among alternatives.<br />
8. Because aquatic ecosystems are complex,<br />
dynamic, variable, interconnected, and<br />
often nonlinear, our understanding of the<br />
services they provide, as well as how they<br />
are affected by human actions, is imperfect<br />
and linkages are difficult to quantify.<br />
Likewise, information about how people<br />
value ecosystem services is imperfect.<br />
Difficulties in generating precise estimates<br />
of the value of ecosystem services may arise<br />
from insufficient ecological knowledge or<br />
data, lack of precision in economic methods<br />
or insufficient economic data, or lack of<br />
integration of ecological and economic<br />
analysis.<br />
9. Nonetheless, the current state of both ecological<br />
and economic analysis and modeling<br />
in many cases allows for estimation of the<br />
values people place on changes in ecosystem<br />
services, particularly when focused on a single<br />
service or a small subset of total services.<br />
Use of the (imperfect) information about<br />
these values is preferable to not incorporating<br />
any information about ecosystem values<br />
into decision-making (i.e., ignoring them),<br />
since the latter effectively assigns a value of<br />
zero to all ecosystem services.<br />
10.There is a much greater danger of underestimating<br />
the value of ecosystem goods and<br />
services than over-estimating their value.<br />
Underestimation stems primarily from the<br />
failure to include in the value estimates all<br />
of the affected goods and services and/or all<br />
of the sources of value, or from use of a valuation<br />
method that provides only a lower<br />
bound estimate of value. In many cases, this<br />
reflects the limitations of the available economic<br />
valuation methods. Over-estimation,<br />
on the other hand, can stem from doublecounting<br />
or from possible biases in valuation<br />
methods. However, it is likely that in<br />
most applications the errors from omission<br />
of relevant components of value will exceed<br />
the errors from over-estimation of the components<br />
that are included.<br />
86 87
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Alternative <strong>Water</strong> Supply <strong>Plan</strong>s<br />
In the absence of technical, economic and environmental<br />
feasibility and appraisal, the best<br />
choice for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s future water supplies is<br />
difficult to determine. At this stage of the<br />
<strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> only some indications of what may<br />
be feasible are presented. There are various<br />
choices:<br />
• Build new cogeneration desalination plant to<br />
fill the supply gap. Essentially this is a “business-as-usual”<br />
(BAU) approach. The question<br />
of energy sources makes this a difficult<br />
choice at present, as discussed earlier.<br />
• Develop well fields in the fresh groundwater<br />
areas<br />
• Develop well fields in brackish groundwater<br />
areas.<br />
• Develop brackish water RO facilities<br />
Wells have the distinct advantage that they can<br />
de developed in small incremental units and<br />
that they can be switched on and off very readily.<br />
The aquifer acts as a reservoir and, provided<br />
it is sufficiently large, is offers guaranteed supplies<br />
for long periods of time. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has<br />
large resources of groundwater and they are<br />
almost exclusively utilized by agriculture.<br />
Groundwater quality has deteriorated but only<br />
because agricultural extraction out-pumped<br />
municipal water wells in Al Ain and caused the<br />
influx and upconing of deeper and poorer quality<br />
water. This could have been avoided with good<br />
well design and effective regulation of access.<br />
With proper regulation groundwater is extremely<br />
secure and is an ideal candidate for the<br />
Emirate’s strategic water reserve. Locations for<br />
properly-designed well fields are shown in Figure<br />
23. The water supply gap will increase from 342<br />
Mcm in 2020 to 673Mcm in 2030. This represents<br />
30% of the current annual groundwater use for<br />
agriculture or an equivalent of about 15,000 ha of<br />
irrigation in 2020, increasing to 45% and 29,000 ha<br />
in 2030.<br />
• Fresh water reserves. In terms of overall<br />
groundwater resources, if only half the fresh<br />
groundwater was utilized the aquifer has<br />
could sustain water supplies for 40 to 80 years<br />
– providing it is not in competition with agriculture.<br />
• Moderately brackish reserves. If only half the<br />
groundwater was utilized it could sustain<br />
supplies for more than 100 years – again providing<br />
it is not in competition with agriculture.<br />
The main well field would be located near Liwa<br />
in location A (Figure 23). It would pump water<br />
eastwards to meet the desalination demand in<br />
Al Ain presently being supplied from Fujairah<br />
through the pipeline indicated in yellow. The<br />
Fujairah supply could then be dedicated to supplying<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The balance of well field A’s<br />
discharge would be sent through existing<br />
pipeline northwards to the coast then east to<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. A similar arrangement would apply<br />
at B near Al Waggan. In this case it would substitute<br />
for the Fujairah desalination and allow the<br />
entire Liwa well field to be dedicated to supply of<br />
the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> area. The optimal configuration<br />
would be determined by an in-depth engineering<br />
and feasibility study.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> treatment would probably be required and<br />
RO is probably indicated subject to feasibility<br />
studies. Pretreatment to remove Nitrates and<br />
Boron may be required; alternatively special filers<br />
could be fitted to the RO plants and double pass<br />
filtration practiced. Feasibility of the well fields<br />
would be subject to in-depth economic and environmental<br />
assessment in addition to technical<br />
appraisal. This RO derived water would not necessarily<br />
be used for human consumption and<br />
Figure 23: Meeting the desalination supply gap from groundwater resources – some options<br />
there would need to be a matching<br />
of water quality with use.<br />
These various alternatives need indepth<br />
analysis to understand their<br />
economic, energy and environmental<br />
implications. Whichever alternative<br />
is selected there will be<br />
adverse impacts and the choices<br />
made will therefore need to be<br />
through an integrated strategic<br />
lens for the whole economic, social<br />
and environmental landscape of<br />
the Emirate.<br />
The Governance and<br />
Regulatory Framework<br />
for <strong>Water</strong> and the<br />
Environment Require<br />
Attention<br />
<strong>Water</strong> planning and management<br />
will only work well if sound governance<br />
and institutions are put in<br />
place. Figure 24 shows an overall<br />
Figure 24: Governance and regulatory structure for water planning<br />
88 89
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
structure needed to plan the sector effectively<br />
and efficiently. This chapter reviews the area<br />
shown in the red circle marked A.<br />
The importance of sound governance for efficient,<br />
economic and sustainable environmental and<br />
water management has been emphasized<br />
throughout the world. This can be broken down<br />
in to various parts such as coherent and practicable<br />
institutional structures, clear roles and<br />
responsibilities, accountability, sound financial<br />
management, informed and transparent decision-making,<br />
and checks-and-balance structures.<br />
With good water governance in place, water policy<br />
objectives may be defined and realized in an<br />
informed and transparent way.<br />
Current governance institutions<br />
and responsibilities<br />
Environmental Management<br />
In the UAE, water governance is shared<br />
between federal and emirate level organization<br />
(see Annex 7 for more details). This is similar to<br />
many federations such as Australia, the USA,<br />
and Brazil where organizations at different levels<br />
of responsibility act as the competent<br />
authority for various aspects of public administration.<br />
Whilst for most aspects of environmental<br />
and water governance, emirate level organizations<br />
hold this role, the federal level has<br />
authority for strategic oversight and planning.<br />
The second main authority, the independent<br />
Federal Environment Agency/Authority (FEA),<br />
was established in 1993. Its current remit as<br />
defined by Federal Law No (2) of 2004 is that it<br />
is charged with implementing various strategies<br />
and activities to achieve these objectives.<br />
Many programs are currently in place such as<br />
developing national environmental strategies,<br />
monitoring, and awareness-raising. Other<br />
responsibilities lie in the evaluation of submitted<br />
environmental impact assessments for<br />
major projects.<br />
Of course other governmental organizations are<br />
also involved in aspects of environmental management<br />
such as the National Centre for<br />
Meteorology and Seismology under the aegis of<br />
the Ministry of Presidential Affairs. To help<br />
coordinate efforts, the FEA has established a<br />
number of cross-ministry and cross-emirates<br />
technical committees. Various national initiatives<br />
have resulted such as the National<br />
Environmental Awareness and Information<br />
Strategy, and the National Action <strong>Plan</strong> to<br />
Combat Desertification. One such cross-organizational<br />
structure is the National Committee<br />
for the Environmental Strategy and<br />
Sustainable Development, which was established<br />
by the Council of Ministers Decree No.<br />
(17) 2002, to implement the National<br />
Environmental Strategy and National<br />
Environmental Action <strong>Plan</strong> in the UAE.<br />
In reviewing these various initiatives it becomes<br />
obvious that many of the activities to date have<br />
focused on protecting biodiversity and the<br />
marine environment. Whilst this is understandable,<br />
especially given that water has only<br />
recently become part of the Ministry’s remit,<br />
there is a clear need for an emirate-wide coherent<br />
strategic policy for protecting groundwater<br />
from over-exploitation and pollution. There is<br />
also a need for a more developed plan for managing<br />
the marine environment, particularly the<br />
Arabian Gulf, given the rapidly expanding<br />
desalination capacity of many of the countries<br />
along its shores, proposals for the development<br />
of nuclear power production, and return of<br />
waste and process water to the sea.<br />
At the emirate level, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government<br />
has initiated many recent important moves in<br />
environmental management. The competent<br />
authority is EAD and its position within the<br />
overall emirate governance system is shown in<br />
Figure 25. It is directly answerable to the<br />
Executive Council and its authority and responsibilities<br />
are laid out in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Law No. (4)<br />
1996, subsequent amendments and<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Law No. (16) 2005. Its<br />
remit, as defined in these laws, covers<br />
many aspects of land and<br />
marine management with a major<br />
focus on research and monitoring.<br />
It is also responsible for regulating<br />
and reviewing activities that might<br />
impact the environment and it is<br />
the competent authority for implementing<br />
environmental impact<br />
assessment procedures and for permitting<br />
various activities laid out by<br />
the Federal Government.<br />
EAD’s activities today are increasingly<br />
directed at control of the environment,<br />
with an increasing focus<br />
on licensing, compliance, and<br />
enforcement of established standards.<br />
This is reflected in its recent<br />
strategic policy document (EAD,<br />
2008) which highlights not only its<br />
priority areas leading up to 2012, but<br />
also its view that it is expected to<br />
assume a more regulatory role during<br />
that period. There has also been<br />
increased involvement of EAD in<br />
environmental policy development<br />
under its responsibilities to plan and<br />
inform the Executive Council. However, these<br />
types of activities are not clearly defined in Law<br />
No. (4) 1996, so there is a somewhat ‘grey’ area<br />
in responsibilities between EAD and other regulatory<br />
organizations.<br />
Whilst the formal governance institutions at<br />
both the federal and emirate level are the main<br />
organizations directly involved in environmental<br />
management, informal civil society groups<br />
contribute to the debates and discussions<br />
through their individual depth of knowledge<br />
and expertise, and representation of different<br />
interests. These parties reflect both<br />
Figure 25: Simplified Governance Structure of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate<br />
Source: <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Government 2008<br />
cultural/community affiliations and environmental<br />
issues (for example, the Emirates<br />
Environment Group), as well as particular areas<br />
of expertise (various private sector organizations).<br />
There are no formal structures for the<br />
timely inclusion of these groups in the decisionmaking<br />
process, but traditional venues and<br />
means of discussion facilitate consideration of<br />
their ideas and knowledge.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Management<br />
There are overlapping areas between the roles<br />
and responsibilities of organizations involved<br />
90 91
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
with general environmental management and<br />
specifically water resources. The Federal<br />
Ministry for Environment and <strong>Water</strong> and the<br />
FEA have responsibilities for introducing trans-<br />
Emirate policy, laws and regulations for the management<br />
and control of natural water resource<br />
such as the new draft law concerning water<br />
resources which is currently before the UAE<br />
Cabinet. Their remit involves a combination of<br />
holistic strategic initiatives as well as practical<br />
projects such as the building of recharge dams. It<br />
is only recently that water has been added to the<br />
responsibilities of this Ministry, so it is no surprise<br />
that to date there has been little in terms of<br />
strategies for water resources protection and<br />
pollution control.<br />
The principal level of responsibility for water<br />
resources management in the UAE is at the emirate<br />
level. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> EAD is the competent<br />
authority for managing the principal natural<br />
resource groundwater. These responsibilities are<br />
supported by Executive Decisions no 14 (session<br />
8/2005) and No. 4 (Session 17/2005) which commissioned<br />
EAD to undertake an assessment of<br />
groundwater resources. However, one of the<br />
most important developments in water<br />
resources management was the passing in 2006<br />
of Law No 6, which authorizes EAD to regulate<br />
the licensing and drilling of water wells and to<br />
monitor usage.<br />
In a broader context, EAD is responsible for the<br />
expansion of water security initiatives which in<br />
arid area such as <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is most important.<br />
Recent exploratory work on aquifer storage and<br />
recovery has highlighted potential opportunities<br />
to support this remit.<br />
The main informal groups involved with water<br />
resources management are based on different<br />
user groups both individual and community,<br />
who have an active interest in the use and allocation<br />
of groundwater. The contribution of environmental<br />
non-government-organizations<br />
(NGOs) on the water issue has been somewhat<br />
limited to date.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Service Delivery<br />
<strong>Water</strong> services in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are developed and<br />
managed at the emirate level the main governance<br />
institutions are within this jurisdiction.<br />
However, at the Federal Level, the Electricity<br />
and <strong>Water</strong> Sector of the Ministry of Energy is<br />
currently developing UAE wide standards, laws<br />
and regulations for the provision of this sector<br />
that are likely to come into force in the next two<br />
years.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> a major re-structuring of the water<br />
sector came in the late 1980s with further developments<br />
in 2005. These changes signaled a move<br />
away from government as major service<br />
providers and managers, into a more regulatory<br />
role. The private sector took on a greatly<br />
increased role in generating and supplying water.<br />
This obviously brought a new group of people<br />
and organizations involved into the water services<br />
governance of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
The main government authorities are ADWEA<br />
and the RSB who each report directly to the<br />
Executive Council (Figure 26). The current<br />
structure and authorities of the organizations<br />
involved in the production and distribution of<br />
drinking water were established under Law No<br />
(2) of 1998, and amended by Law No (19) of 2007.<br />
The main overarching authority is ADWEA.<br />
Various organizations under its jurisdiction are<br />
responsible for different aspects of water provisions:<br />
• Production (Independent <strong>Water</strong> and Power<br />
Producer - IWPPs and Generation and<br />
Desalination- GDs);<br />
• Procurement and planning (ADWEC);<br />
• Transmission (TRANSCO);<br />
• Distribution of water (ADDC and AADC); and<br />
Figure 26: <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> governmental organizations in water services governance<br />
Source: adapted from ADWEC 2007<br />
• Sewerage Services (ADSSC).<br />
These organizations have various ownership<br />
structures involving different combinations of<br />
the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government and the private sector.<br />
All the activities and authority of these different<br />
organizations under ADWEA are defined<br />
and controlled by licences issued by the RSB.<br />
The eight IWPPs and two (GD) companies<br />
involve international and local companies and a<br />
mixture of private/public partnerships arrangements,<br />
with <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government always owning<br />
the majority stake largely through their<br />
TAQA investment arm. This is a predominantly<br />
privatized approach to water production and is<br />
secured through competitive tendering with<br />
licenses and economic and water quality regulations,<br />
issued by the RSB, controlling their activities.<br />
The recent addition to this organizational structure<br />
has been the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage Service<br />
Company (ADSSC) established under Law No<br />
(17) of 2005, which is responsible for managing<br />
the collection, treatment, disposal and recycling<br />
of sewerage water and its associated infrastructure.<br />
Following this, Law no (18) of 2007 allowed<br />
other sewerage services companies licensed by<br />
the RSB to connect to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage<br />
Services Company assets to support an expansion<br />
of activities in this area. An example of this<br />
is the recent granting of licenses for wastewater<br />
treatment to Al Etihad Biwater Waste <strong>Water</strong><br />
Company, Archirodon Construction (Overseas)<br />
Co. S.A., and Aldar Laing O’Rourke<br />
Construction L.L.C.<br />
An important part of the water supply system to<br />
both consumers and commercial enterprises is<br />
mineral/bottled water. There are over 25 companies<br />
involved in this business in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate and their activities are controlled at the<br />
Federal level by the Emirates Standards and<br />
Metrology Authority (established under Federal<br />
Law (28) 2001) and again there is a mixture of<br />
governmental and private sector organizations<br />
involved.<br />
The main informal groups involved with water<br />
services management are the different user<br />
groups and their opinions are included in deliberations<br />
at the various levels through traditional<br />
channels.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> touches many different areas of decision<br />
making so it is no surprise that cross-organizational<br />
committees have been established within<br />
92 93
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Given the development plans across many sectors<br />
proposed over the next 20 years, and their<br />
associated needs for water and other natural<br />
resources, there is an imperative for an indethe<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government to support integrated<br />
thinking. These help to ensure that the<br />
potential impacts of new policies and management<br />
decisions on the water resources may be<br />
examined in depth and include areas such as<br />
waste water re-use and water in agriculture.<br />
Various committees, involving members from<br />
various departments and authorities have<br />
already been established in this regard and<br />
include the following:<br />
gaps between the activities of the various federal<br />
and emirate level environmental organizations<br />
such as in establishing regulations, controlling<br />
natural resource use, collecting and<br />
managing data etc. Whilst there is in theory an<br />
established hierarchy of jurisdiction and power,<br />
in practice EAD are perceived by many to be<br />
the lead organization in developing new initiatives<br />
in responsible environmental management<br />
standard-setting and regulation.<br />
Figure 27: The Proposed position of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council<br />
• Strategic <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Committee;<br />
• Increasing Re-use and Biosalinity<br />
Committee;<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> in Agriculture Committee; and<br />
• Use of Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> Committee.<br />
Whilst these moves are important for the effectiveness<br />
of these cross-organizational committees,<br />
that effectiveness is difficult to assess to<br />
date.<br />
Institutional and governance<br />
developments<br />
Within the Emirate, the current system of water<br />
governance has reasonably clear lines of demarcation<br />
largely resulting from the use of seawater<br />
for potable water supply (controlled by<br />
ADWEA/RSB), and groundwater (controlled by<br />
EAD) for the large-user sectors of agriculture,<br />
forestry and landscaping. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has a welldeveloped<br />
structure for water services delivery<br />
management and, with the establishment of<br />
ADSSC, a more holistic view of all sources and<br />
uses is now possible. The water services sector<br />
has many of the necessary checks and balances in<br />
place to support the government’s strategic economic,<br />
societal and environmental objectives,<br />
although there are different degrees of transparency<br />
in their operations.<br />
The situation is less clear in the more general<br />
areas of environmental and natural water<br />
resources management. There are overlaps and<br />
The <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> institutions have collectively<br />
established a reputation for environmental and<br />
water leadership in the Arab world. However,<br />
from the analysis undertaken of the governance<br />
system and its comparison to international best<br />
practices in Europe, Singapore and Australia<br />
and the USA, the following suggestions are<br />
made for consideration.<br />
Establishment of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
<strong>Water</strong> Council<br />
<strong>Water</strong> affects and impacts many areas of<br />
authority and it is important that future strategic<br />
planning involves input and knowledge from<br />
these various groups. It is recommended that<br />
an <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council is established that<br />
is chaired by a member of the Executive Council<br />
and membership should be the heads of the<br />
various departments, authorities and organizations.<br />
This would replace the various cross-cutting<br />
committees and would support strategic<br />
thinking across the whole of the water sector<br />
rather than the compartmentalized system that<br />
currently exists. The position of the new <strong>Water</strong><br />
Council is shown in Figure 27.<br />
Formal establishment of an<br />
environmental regulator<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
pendent environmental regulator within <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate to establish standards and<br />
practices based on local environment conditions.<br />
An organizational structure is shown in<br />
Figure 28. Whilst EAD currently undertakes<br />
some of these duties, there is a need to establish<br />
these roles and responsibilities more formally<br />
and transparently. It is also important to<br />
Figure 28: A framework for strategic environmental assessment and regulation<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
clearly define areas of responsibility vis-à-vis<br />
the RSB and other authorities and ministries<br />
to ensure consistent standards and avoid overlapping<br />
regulation.<br />
The establishment of clear, transparent regulations<br />
by one organization to control abstractions<br />
from and discharges to the environment<br />
94 95
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
(whether air, water, soils, wildlife, or seas) would<br />
allow the various ministries and commercial<br />
organizations undertaking activities in the<br />
Emirate to have a clear idea of the standards<br />
and to meet these using their own formulations<br />
of technology or management practices. Many<br />
of the companies already operating in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> have experiences of working within such<br />
environmental standards in other countries, and<br />
their best practices could be brought into operation<br />
here too.<br />
Roles and responsibilities at<br />
Federal and Emirate levels need<br />
clarification<br />
The UAE is made of seven quite distinct emirates<br />
which have their own drivers and policy<br />
priorities. There is a certain degree of overlap<br />
and some notable gaps in responsibilities and<br />
roles that it would be useful to clarify. This does<br />
not have to be a problem if there are suitable<br />
agreements to ensure the areas of overlap and<br />
gaps are addressed. There are a number of models<br />
of governance that may be explored for environmental<br />
and water management across a federation.<br />
An example is in Australia where environmental<br />
protection authorities in individual<br />
States and Territories set air quality emissions<br />
standards rather than the Federal government.<br />
The Legal and Regulatory<br />
frameworks<br />
Laws, standards, regulations and their enforcement<br />
are an important part of any governance<br />
system ensuring the protection of human and<br />
environmental health as well as economic efficiency.<br />
They give direction, transparency and<br />
clarity, in many areas such as in responsibilities,<br />
roles, and standards for a particular environment<br />
or sector.<br />
Organizations involved in the water and environmental<br />
governance in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are bound<br />
by a number of laws, regulations and standards<br />
emanating from international agreements,<br />
and various Federal and Emirate<br />
authorities and are summarized in Table 13.<br />
Arguably the most influential law is Federal<br />
Law No (24) of 1999, Protection and<br />
Development of the Environment, which covers<br />
various areas including:<br />
• the requirements forEnvironmental<br />
Assessments of developments;<br />
• various aspects of environmental protection;<br />
• environmental monitoring;<br />
• emergency and disaster planning;<br />
• protection of the marine environment from<br />
oil industries, transport;<br />
• polluted water discharges;<br />
• protection of drinking water quality from<br />
storage tanks;<br />
• control of air emissions such as from vehicles,<br />
the burning of soil and liquid wastes,<br />
as well as from the oil extractive industries;<br />
• handling dangerous substances; and<br />
• natural reserves.<br />
Following the passing of this law, numerous<br />
regulations have been established through<br />
decrees that cover specific areas of the environment<br />
or give more details of the various<br />
articles. For example, various water quality<br />
levels are suggested for discharges into the<br />
sea which include inorganic and organic<br />
chemicals as well as trace metals and physical<br />
properties. The implementation and enforcement<br />
of these various articles falls to three<br />
organizations, the Federal Environment<br />
Agency, EAD and the RSB. EAD has the main<br />
responsibilities in terms of setting environmental<br />
standards, licensing and enforcing<br />
compliance in the natural environment in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. A series of different controls have been<br />
introduced by the agency for protecting and<br />
managing various aspects of the environment<br />
which are shown in Table 14.<br />
Table 13: Agreements and laws affecting the environment and water in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Table Legal 12: Jurisdiction The Challenges of Date Inland of ratification Brine Disposal and legal instruments in place<br />
International agreements<br />
Regional Agreements<br />
Federal Level<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate<br />
Source: EAD 2008a<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong><br />
The legal framework for the water sector in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is comprised of a number of different levels<br />
of conventions, protocols, laws and regulations<br />
which directly and indirectly affect policy<br />
development and management. These play a<br />
vital role in managing the scarce water<br />
resources and protecting the environment.<br />
The most important Federal legislation is Law<br />
No. (24) 1999, the Protection and Development<br />
1989 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) and Montreal Protocol on<br />
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)<br />
1990 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)<br />
(1973)<br />
1990 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their<br />
disposal, (1989).<br />
1995 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).<br />
1998 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)<br />
1999 Convention on Biological Diversity (<br />
2002 Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS) ( 2001)<br />
2002 Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in<br />
International Trade (PIC Convention) (1998)<br />
2005 Montreal Amendments (London 1990, Copenhagen 1992, Montreal 1997, Beijing 1999).<br />
2005 Kyoto Protocol (1997)<br />
2007 Ramsar Convention<br />
1979 Kuwait Regional Convention for cooperation on the protection of the marine environment from<br />
pollution (1978)<br />
1990 Protocol concerning Marine Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the<br />
Continental Shelf (1989)<br />
2003 Convention on Conservation of Wildlife and its Natural Habitats in the GCC countries<br />
2005 Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous<br />
Wastes and Other Wastes, 1998<br />
1999 Law No. (24) the Protection and Development of the Environment<br />
1999 Ministerial Declaration No (24) System for Assessment of Environmental Impacts<br />
2001 Executive Order No. (37) concerning regulation of environmental impact assessment of projects<br />
an various other items<br />
2001 Executive Order No .(302) details the regulatory procedures for implementing 1999 Law No<br />
(24)<br />
2005 Law No (16) 2005 concerning the Re-organization of the Environment Agency-<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
(replaced Law No. (4) of 1996<br />
2005 Law No (21) Administration of Waste Materials<br />
Article (30) of Law No (2) of 1998<br />
Article (20) of Law No (19) of 2007.<br />
Administrative Order No (4) of 2005 issued by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority<br />
of the Environment. Sections 2 and 3 are most<br />
important for water as they concern the discharges<br />
into seas from the land including<br />
desalination, and the protection of surface<br />
and underground water. Various Executive<br />
Orders have subsequently been added to the<br />
legislative body. EAD is the competent<br />
authority for the implementation of this law.<br />
The laws that most directly affect the management<br />
and policy development of natural<br />
water have been passed at the emirate level<br />
96 97
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
Table 14: EAD Environmental Protection and Management Controls<br />
Table Sector 12: The Challenges Urban of Rural Inland Brine Rural <strong>Water</strong><br />
Disposal<br />
services services services production &<br />
distribution<br />
Environmental<br />
Impacts<br />
Air<br />
<strong>Water</strong><br />
Land<br />
Biodiversity<br />
Marine<br />
Regulatory<br />
instruments<br />
Regulator<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
EIA<br />
EIA<br />
EIA<br />
Technical,<br />
economic,<br />
environmental<br />
and<br />
health standards<br />
EAD EAD RSB<br />
International<br />
Banks FEA<br />
and cover many aspects of resource development.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, the passing in March<br />
2006 of Law No 6, which regulates the licensing<br />
and drilling of water wells, was an important<br />
step forward towards the sustainable<br />
management of the groundwater resources.<br />
All owners who wish to dig a new well, or<br />
expand, or add a larger pump, will now<br />
require a licence which will give permission<br />
and set a maximum abstraction rate and permitting<br />
activity in recent years is given in<br />
Table 15.<br />
This, in tandem with the recent work in inventorying,<br />
assessment and monitoring wells in<br />
the Emirate (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Executive Decisions<br />
No (14) session 8/2005 and No (4) session<br />
17/2005), will begin help to control the use of<br />
groundwater. Even organizations such as<br />
other government departments require these<br />
licenses. However, a more coherent legislative<br />
framework is needed to protect and manage<br />
EIA<br />
Technical,<br />
economic,<br />
environmental<br />
and<br />
health standards<br />
RSB<br />
EAD/<br />
Fujairah<br />
Municipality<br />
International<br />
Banks FEA<br />
Transport<br />
EIA<br />
FEA<br />
Minerals<br />
and mining<br />
EIA<br />
Permits<br />
FEA<br />
EAD<br />
Agriculture<br />
and fishing<br />
Licensing of<br />
wells Fishing<br />
permits<br />
EIA of processing<br />
plants<br />
EAD<br />
FEA<br />
Industry<br />
EIA<br />
Permits for<br />
certain<br />
activities,<br />
facilities and<br />
substances<br />
FEA<br />
EAD<br />
groundwater which would include pollution<br />
protection as well as abstraction controls.<br />
There is also a need for enforcement of the<br />
licenses granted and an expansion of metering<br />
to ensure an accurate picture of the abstraction<br />
of groundwater possible.<br />
Table 15: Permissible activities by EAD <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
2006-2007<br />
Type of Permit 2006 2007 Total<br />
Deepening an existing well 10 268 278<br />
Replacing an old well 0 15 15<br />
Maintaining an existing well 11 5 16<br />
Drilling new well 1890 3600 5490<br />
Total 1911 3888 5799<br />
Source: EAD 2008a<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Services Management<br />
The most important laws and regulations for<br />
water services are at the Emirate level in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. The legal framework, organizational<br />
structure and roles and responsibilities were<br />
established in Law No. (2) 1998 concerning the<br />
Regulation of the <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Sector<br />
and has subsequently been amended by Law<br />
No.(19) of 2007. The legal starting point for<br />
water provision is Article (30) of the 1998 Law<br />
(and the 2007 law) which states that ‘It shall be<br />
the duty of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity<br />
Company to ensure that there is provided sufficient<br />
production capacity to ensure that, at all<br />
times, all reasonable demand for water and electricity<br />
in the Emirate is satisfied’. Under Article<br />
(32) of the same Act, ADWEC are charged with<br />
the duty of ensuring the long term security of the<br />
supply of water in the Emirate through contracting<br />
new or additional production capacity<br />
through desalination and additional storage to<br />
meet Article 30. This article is of course open to<br />
interpretation. Deciding on what is a reasonable<br />
demand for water, especially desalinated water,<br />
is difficult and this should be more formally<br />
defined in the future given the economic and<br />
environmental costs involved in the production<br />
of this precious resource.<br />
Given the natural scarcity of water in this region,<br />
there is also an important need to manage<br />
demand relative to supply rather than the other<br />
way around. In the Draft Consultation on the<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Supply Regulations 2008 under item 3<br />
(RSB, 2008), it is suggested that the Distribution<br />
Companies have a duty under law to promote<br />
the conservation and efficient use of water, and<br />
to prevent its waste and over-consumption. It<br />
also includes a section which states that it will be<br />
the duty of the responsible person to ensure<br />
immediate steps are taken to repair leaks in<br />
water fittings. These are important regulatory<br />
steps to support government initiatives to<br />
reduce water demand.<br />
Wastewater was formally added to the legal<br />
framework by Law No (17) of 2005 which established<br />
and gave responsibility for the control and<br />
development of all the Emirate’s sewerage services<br />
to ADSSC. Wastewater management was further<br />
developed under Law No. (18) of 2007 which<br />
allows other sewerage services companies<br />
licensed by the Bureau to connect to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Sewerage Services Company assets. And Law No<br />
(19) 2007 adds waste water to the more general<br />
laws on the regulation of the water sector and<br />
includes responsibilities associated with the collection,<br />
treatment, processing and subsequent<br />
disposal of sewerage and wastewater from the<br />
premises. The recent passing of Law No (12) of<br />
2008 now allows ADSSC to sell treated wastewater<br />
effluent to any body or company. These<br />
developments are in line with best practices in<br />
other countries such as the UK, USA and<br />
Singapore where there is an integration of water<br />
and wastewater management within one organization.<br />
Subsequent to these various laws, the RSB has<br />
developed an increasingly comprehensive set of<br />
economic, technical and water quality regulations<br />
and license agreements with various organizations<br />
involved in the water and waste water<br />
sectors. These can be viewed easily on the RSB<br />
website (www.rsb.gov.ae) and the transparency<br />
of this organization is to be commended.<br />
The regulation of mineral waters, which are an<br />
important part of the domestic and commercial<br />
water supply system, is under both Federal and<br />
Emirate level authority and must meet standards<br />
established under <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Administrative Order No (4) of 2005. This was<br />
issued by the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority<br />
in response to the debate of inconsistency of<br />
water quality of bottled waters. It regulates the<br />
quality, treatment, transportation and storage of<br />
three types of mineral water - bottled drinking<br />
waters, non-bottled drinking water and natural<br />
mineral bottled water.<br />
98 99
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
The legal and regulatory framework within this<br />
sector is further developed through other levels<br />
of organizations. The FEA has set various regulatory<br />
controls following Law No. (24) 1999 of the<br />
Protection and Development of the<br />
Environment and subsequent directives, which<br />
have set guideline limits on gaseous emissions<br />
and discharges into the marine environment as<br />
shown in Table 2.1. They are also responsible for<br />
the environmental impact assessments of<br />
planned projects such as new desalination<br />
plants.<br />
An important group of organizations that influence<br />
water services delivery and environmental<br />
management standards are the international<br />
banks who fund these projects through loans.<br />
Many of these international banks have signed<br />
various international conventions and protocols,<br />
such as the Kyoto Protocol, and so ensure that<br />
developments funded by them meet various environmental<br />
standards. These include the desalination<br />
and power plants in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Regulatory Enforcement<br />
The establishment of standards and the licensing<br />
and permitting of activities is only one part of the<br />
regulatory system. Ensuring compliance and<br />
enforcement is key to protecting the environment.<br />
The most monitored and inspected area in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in water services through work of<br />
both the RSB and the large degree of self-regulation<br />
by the licensed power and water generating<br />
and sewerage companies. There are laboratories<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> that meet international criteria for<br />
accuracy and excellence that are used for the<br />
analysis of samples. This is important and should<br />
continue to be actively supported. In the water<br />
service sector there is a focus on developing best<br />
practices for the future as much as direct punishment<br />
for incursions.<br />
In the bottled water industry the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Agriculture and Food Safety Authority enforces<br />
standards at the Emirate level through directives<br />
and inspections of manufacturing plants and of<br />
food establishments.<br />
In terms of the enforcement of environmental<br />
regulations, there are few human resources to<br />
support these activities. Thus whilst important<br />
steps have been made to develop standards and<br />
controls of potentially harmful activities, there is<br />
way of judging their effectiveness.<br />
Future legal and regulatory<br />
developments<br />
The progressive development of legal and regulatory<br />
frameworks (and their associated governance<br />
structures) for the environment and water<br />
sectors of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has led to a system that has<br />
many protective checks and balances in place.<br />
The main focus of many of the activities has been<br />
the regulation of the water service sector to<br />
ensure the reliable supply of adequate and wholesome<br />
water, and protection of the marine environment<br />
from discharges.<br />
Law-makers and regulators in any country are<br />
being confronted with many new water and environmental<br />
challenges today and <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is no<br />
exception. Various gaps have been identified in<br />
this analysis that should be considered addressing<br />
to give a firm platform for future developments.<br />
There are gaps in legal and<br />
regulatory frameworks<br />
The legal and regulatory measures in place for<br />
protecting the natural water resources and environmental<br />
management may be described as<br />
being strong in terms of managing biodiversity,<br />
but more limited in other areas. Whilst the<br />
Federal Law of 1999 covers many important<br />
aspects, its terms are necessarily general and<br />
there are a number of gaps in the subsequent<br />
enable legislation/regulation. There is a need for<br />
substantive measures for protecting groundwater<br />
depletion, and pollution control of air and<br />
water.<br />
In many countries a coherent body of legislation<br />
has been developed for environmental management.<br />
For example in Singapore in 1999 all legislation<br />
on pollution control (air, water, noise and<br />
hazardous substances), was brought together in<br />
the comprehensive Environmental Pollution<br />
Control Act (recently renamed Environmental<br />
Protection and Management Act). This established<br />
a comprehensive and transparent system<br />
for managing pollution in the country which<br />
could be replicated in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
There is also a need to establish a water law that<br />
considers all sources of water within the same<br />
framework and that establishes some legal or regulatory<br />
obligation by the various authorities and<br />
supply companies to encourage environmental<br />
protection, water demand management and efficient<br />
practices. At the moment the split between<br />
natural and produced water management does<br />
not support the development of coherent water<br />
policies and laws. In the UK, for example, under<br />
the <strong>Water</strong> Act 2003, relevant authorities ranging<br />
from ministries to water companies, have a duty<br />
to encourage water conservation.<br />
Responsibilities need clearer<br />
demarcation<br />
Whether or not the recommendation of this<br />
report for the establishment of an independent<br />
environmental regulator at the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate Level is taken on board, in the future<br />
there are likely to be an increase in potential overlaps<br />
in responsibilities between the RSB and<br />
EAD. Such overlaps occur in the management of<br />
waste water re-use and subsequent effluent disposal,<br />
definition of standards for effluent discharges,<br />
groundwater use in desalination, water<br />
demand management, and the challenges of climate<br />
change and managing carbon emissions of<br />
water and waste water treatment. It is important<br />
to develop a broader environmental regulatory<br />
framework with associated institutional responsibilities<br />
between the two organizations.<br />
Cooperation will be critical in defining standards<br />
and enforcement mechanisms for the coming<br />
years.<br />
There should be a legal<br />
requirement to share information<br />
This study has found a very guarded, bureaucratic<br />
approach to data and information. Whilst in<br />
areas of commercial confidentiality this is to be<br />
expected, however, in other areas the difficulties<br />
involved in obtaining data often means knowledge<br />
within the water and environmental communities<br />
of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is not used. This leads to<br />
planning and management that will be sub-optimal.<br />
Adequate human resources are<br />
needed for enforcement<br />
The regulatory system in the UAE and <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is developing and the work undertaken so<br />
far is to be commended. However, it is important<br />
that EAD and the RSB have sufficient human<br />
capacity to ensure environmental laws and regulations<br />
are complied with. In the area of water<br />
resources management, for example, the new<br />
well licensing system in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has brought<br />
groundwater use under greater control. However,<br />
these measures need to be backed up by effective<br />
monitoring and enforcement of the terms of the<br />
licenses, to ensure the policy goals are met. This<br />
obviously requires trained human resources and<br />
the use of suitable measuring technology and<br />
analysis facilities. Major improvements have been<br />
made in these areas in many areas of the world in<br />
the last decade and these experiences could be<br />
learnt from. Many countries ensure designated<br />
officers have the right to access water bodies to<br />
measure and check compliance and obstruction<br />
or the refusal to provide information or falsifica-<br />
100 101
<strong>Plan</strong>ning and Development Options<br />
tion of devices brings penalties that act as deterrents.<br />
Whilst <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has many such punitive<br />
measures in place, it needs the resources to<br />
check for compliance.<br />
Environmental Standards need to<br />
be established for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Most of the various environmental standards<br />
being used in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> today are based on<br />
those already defined by organizations such as<br />
the World Health Organization or Australian government<br />
and whilst these might be fit for purpose<br />
in those countries, there is inadequate knowledge<br />
as to whether they are appropriate for the environmental<br />
conditions of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. For example,<br />
the high air pressure systems over the region for<br />
much of the year and the warm temperatures<br />
often mean that chemical air pollution is more<br />
severe than in other areas. Similarly little<br />
research has been undertaken on the specific<br />
conditions of the Arabian Gulf and the impacts of<br />
changing inputs from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and various<br />
industrial complexes along its shores. There is<br />
obviously a need of concerted research efforts to<br />
support setting of standards to ensure the environment<br />
is indeed protected<br />
Land Use in Sensitive areas needs<br />
to be regulated<br />
An area that has been little explored to date in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in the zoning of environmental regulations<br />
and laws, particularly in areas of sensitivity.<br />
Whilst integration and coherence is important<br />
in these areas, best practices from other<br />
countries would suggest that there is also a need<br />
to manage the environment and water resources<br />
of the Emirate in a less universal manner and to<br />
apply different degrees of regulation and control<br />
within. This would involve the identification of<br />
key areas which might be determined by ecological,<br />
cultural or other measures, and introduce<br />
more stringent management policies in these,<br />
whilst accepting that economic development in<br />
others will impact the environment. There would<br />
be greater control of activities in the protected<br />
areas and in particular greater enforcement of<br />
laws. For example, there is a need for greater protection<br />
of important groundwater recharge areas,<br />
especially where irrigation waters makes up the<br />
bulk of the waters returning to the aquifers (see<br />
Annex 1 for further detail).<br />
Strategic Environmental<br />
Assessments are required<br />
An area not currently addressed in existing laws<br />
and regulations is strategic environmental<br />
assessment. There are in place a number of measures<br />
for the environmental impact assessment of<br />
individual projects, but with the growing rate of<br />
development there is a need for greater in-depth<br />
analysis of strategies / policies / plans and their<br />
interaction.<br />
The cumulative impact of a series of projects<br />
which make up a plan can have many detrimental<br />
effects on the environment that would<br />
not be detected in individual appraisals.<br />
These strategic environmental assessments<br />
should be undertaken under the aegis of the<br />
relevant government body to ensure any of the<br />
problems already identified around the world<br />
i.e. by project developers doing their own<br />
analysis and reporting are avoided.<br />
It is important that the new economic developments<br />
such as those proposed under <strong>Plan</strong><br />
2030 are more comprehensively assessed for<br />
the positive and negative environmental<br />
impacts. Any new legislation and subsequent<br />
definitions of standards will allow large plans<br />
to be thoroughly assessed, managed and<br />
where possible mitigated during the developments<br />
rather than as remedial procedures.<br />
There are many examples to be found of environmental<br />
problems resulting in rapidly<br />
expanding areas where due diligence of<br />
impacts was undertaken.<br />
102
6. Main Findings and<br />
Recommendations<br />
103
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
6. Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
The lack of renewable freshwater resources in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate is a major challenge for sustainable<br />
development and management of<br />
water supplies. Since the 1960s the growth in<br />
population, higher standards of living, and<br />
expansion of the agricultural, forestry and<br />
industrial sectors has created a huge demand<br />
for more fresh water. Initially demand was met<br />
from fresh groundwater resources but that is<br />
being depleted rapidly. Increased reliance on<br />
non-conventional water supplies is required to<br />
maintain economic growth in the Emirate. One<br />
of the most important challenges for the<br />
Emirate is to balance water supply and demand<br />
as efficiently as possible given that the per capita<br />
consumption of fresh water is among the<br />
highest in the world and new water supplies are<br />
expensive.<br />
To this end a series of recommendations are<br />
made in each technical annex. These are a combination<br />
of institutional, policy, management<br />
and technology suggestions. Many of these<br />
need further analysis but the principles<br />
involved are important directions in balancing<br />
the many complexities of future water supply<br />
and demand in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The key findings<br />
and recommendations will now be summarized.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Availability<br />
Natural <strong>Resources</strong> Ancient fossil groundwater<br />
and seawater are the principal natural water<br />
resources of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Rainfall in comparison<br />
is a negligible resource except in the eastern<br />
plains below the Omani Mountains.<br />
Desalinated installed capacity exceeded average<br />
annual domestic demand in 2003 because<br />
it is designed to meet short-term peak demand<br />
and future growth in the medium-term.<br />
Seawater is effectively an infinite supply constrained<br />
only by the costs of desalination and<br />
environmental impacts. Groundwater<br />
resources can be thought of as a large underground<br />
reservoir whose use is constrained by its<br />
quality and the willingness of users to finance<br />
the cost of raising it to the land surface. In many<br />
areas nearby brackish or saline groundwater<br />
may be drawn into the freshwater reservoir if<br />
the rate of freshwater withdrawal is too high.<br />
Generated <strong>Resources</strong> Desalinated seawater<br />
currently represents the primary source of<br />
potable water available in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Capacity<br />
to desalinate water to supplement groundwater<br />
supplies was initiated in the 1960s and has<br />
expanded steadily ever since in response to<br />
growing demand for potable water supplies).<br />
Desalination capacity increased by over 360%<br />
between 1998 and 2007. Initially all desalination<br />
plants were owned and operated by the government.<br />
But since 2000 a change of policy has privatized<br />
operation and maintenance under longterm<br />
management contracts. By 2007 only 4<br />
percent of capacity remained to be divested to<br />
the private sector. Security of supplies, water<br />
quality and sound financial management is<br />
guaranteed by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s strong and independent<br />
regulatory authority: the Regulation<br />
and Supervision Bureau (RSB).<br />
Total installed capacity of the major cogeneration<br />
plants at the end of 2007 was 1,044 Mcm<br />
and production was 847 Mcm. The few small<br />
desalination plants using thermal and reverse<br />
osmosis serve some remote communities and<br />
oil production facilities and produce about 8<br />
Mcm. There is almost no storage capacity in the<br />
desalination water transmission system. If the<br />
desalination plants <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> would have only<br />
two days water supply. Power and water production<br />
peaks in the summer but falls off in the<br />
winter. Potentially excess desalination capacity<br />
of 58 Mcm could be used to generate water<br />
that could be stored for summer use in groundwater<br />
or surface reservoirs but it is probably<br />
not cost-effective.<br />
Recycled Wastewater Recycled desalinated<br />
water - wastewater collected by the sewer system<br />
- is a valuable resource in a water-scarce<br />
country and modern treatment methods are<br />
capable of producing potable water meeting<br />
WHO water quality standards. The recent<br />
<strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> (2008) prepared for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Sewerage Services Company (ADSSC) clearly<br />
shows that the future urban demand for TSE in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and Al Ain greatly exceeds estimates<br />
of future supply. Ongoing expansion of the TSE<br />
distribution network will quickly be able to utilize<br />
the volume dumped to the Gulf. Even so,<br />
demand will not be met. Thus a new policy for<br />
water conserving amenity planting is proposed<br />
in ADSSC’s <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>. This policy promotes<br />
adoption of an ‘arid landscape” that includes<br />
dry landscaping and greater use of desert and<br />
xerophitic plants better suited to the arid climate.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Total water use in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> was estimated to<br />
be about 2,800 Mcm per year in 2007.<br />
Agriculture and forestry were the largest users<br />
and together they account for 76% of total<br />
water use. As municipal and amenity water use<br />
is primarily for landscaping and roadside plantations<br />
this means that 85% of all water use in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is for vegetation. Groundwater<br />
accounted for a very small percent of domestic<br />
water supplies in 2007 because of declining<br />
water quality and increased pumping costs as<br />
groundwater levels declined. In the Liwa<br />
Crescent area domestic water supplies from<br />
groundwater grew rapidly between the late<br />
1970s until 1996 when production was about 14<br />
Mcm/year. By 1997 it was zero. Pumping was<br />
reduced because of the high levels of boron and<br />
nitrate in the groundwater both of which<br />
exceeded health guidelines.<br />
Household and Urban water use Desalinated<br />
water accounted for almost a 36% of total water<br />
supply: 30% is directly from the desalination<br />
plants and 6% is from reuse of urban wastewater<br />
as TSE. Overall desalinated water supply<br />
was 856 Mcm in 2007 of which 30% (253<br />
Mcm/year) was transmitted to Al Ain.<br />
According to ADWEC’s classification 70% of<br />
desalinated water is being used for plant and<br />
tree irrigation for which other sources of water<br />
may be available.<br />
The sector currently assumes total network losses<br />
to be approximately 10% - around 2% from<br />
transmission and 8% from distribution. Recent<br />
information from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Distribution<br />
Company (ADDC) suggests higher distribution<br />
system losses – about 16%. Adopting the ADDC<br />
figure for the Emirate as a whole and adding<br />
TRANSCO’s losses, total water losses were<br />
about 145 Mcm in 2007. By international performance<br />
standards this is an excellent performance<br />
given the age, construction and materials<br />
used in the distribution system.<br />
Per capita residential water use has grown<br />
steadily over the last four decades in line with<br />
national policy that there be no restriction of<br />
water supplies to households. Rates of gross<br />
water consumption were estimated to be 631<br />
lcd in 2001. After the introduction of fixed rate<br />
volumetric tariffs in 2002 (for expatriates, government,<br />
industry, commerce and farms)<br />
demand decreased to about 490 lcd. More<br />
recently, however, average gross consumption<br />
is reported to have increased to 550 lcd. The latest<br />
data released by the RSB give a range of<br />
525-600 lcd.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s desalinated water transmission<br />
and distribution systems, and collection use of<br />
TSE, is efficiently operated in terms of minimizing<br />
water losses. It would be rated towards the<br />
high end of international best practice. This is<br />
not the case, however, for full cost recovery and<br />
household per capita water use that is two or<br />
three times the international comparators.<br />
Current tariffs require large annual subsidies to<br />
operate and maintain the systems.<br />
104<br />
105
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
The high level of hidden subsidies in the current<br />
water tariff and the provision of free water<br />
to Emiratis households provide few incentives<br />
to conserve water. High water use is primarily<br />
the result of the use of expensive desalinated<br />
water for gardens, landscapes, agriculture and<br />
forests.<br />
Indoor water use levels, while high compared<br />
with the England and Wales, are very similar to<br />
those observed in the USA, Canada and<br />
Australia. This suggests that water conservation<br />
practices applied there may provide relevant<br />
experience for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Forest and Agricultural <strong>Water</strong> Use <strong>Water</strong> used<br />
for forestry and agriculture and grew rapidly<br />
since ‘desert greening’ and agricultural food<br />
self-sufficiency policies were introduced in the<br />
1960s. The total cultivated area in the Emirate<br />
grew from 69,000 ha to 419,000 ha at present, a<br />
remarkable achievement. The long-term average<br />
annual growth rate over the period 1990-<br />
2007 was 19,100 ha for areas planted to forests<br />
and 4,400 ha for farm agriculture. Agriculture is<br />
the largest consumer of water in the Emirate<br />
and policies affecting its development have<br />
major implications for water resources planning.<br />
Policy to date has focussed primarily on<br />
food self-sufficiency and employment.<br />
In 2006-2007 the total cultivated agricultural<br />
land under the citizen’s farms in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
was 70,375 ha and there were 40,494 wells.<br />
Agriculture is dominated by two perennial<br />
crops: Dates and Rhodes Grass. There is cultivation<br />
of short-season annual vegetable crops<br />
in fields and a limited area of cereals and fruits.<br />
There is a limited area of high productivity<br />
horticulture in greenhouses and other protected<br />
environments, and a number of traditional<br />
date palm gardens. Most agriculture is on<br />
small private farms that have been recently<br />
established induced by generous UAE and<br />
Emirati subsidies. A survey of 23,900 wells by<br />
the Al Ain Agricultural Department in 2000-<br />
2001 found that 88% of wells had a salinity of<br />
more them 2,000 parts per million (ppm of<br />
total dissolved solids) and 65% had salinity in<br />
excess of 4,000 ppm. A fifth had salinities<br />
greater then 8,000. A number of crops can be<br />
grown at high salinities, but with declining<br />
yields. Under present cropping patterns the<br />
weighted annual average gross crop demand is<br />
estimated to be 1,000 Mcm. Leaching requirements<br />
could increase this by 25% to about<br />
1,250 Mcm/year. <strong>Water</strong> demand from livestock<br />
was estimated to be about 20 Mcm/year in<br />
2007.<br />
Rhodes Grass accounts for more than half of<br />
agricultural water and energy demand. How<br />
much Rhodes Grass is irrigated using fresh or<br />
desalinated water is unknown, but the indications<br />
are that the majority of the area is irrigated<br />
from brackish water. And policy on Rhodes<br />
Grass also has a secondary impact on water<br />
demand for the livestock sector.<br />
Knowledge on the agricultural water and energy<br />
balance is lacking. Concerns for agriculture’s<br />
environmental impacts have only<br />
recently emerged under EAD’s leadership.<br />
Understanding the agricultural water balance<br />
is a prerequisite for sound policy and planning.<br />
Only then can there be confidence in estimates<br />
of future water demand, the impact on groundwater<br />
resources and the environment, energy<br />
requirements for pumping and irrigation, and<br />
planning for alternative water supplies.<br />
These findings indicate that research and<br />
modelling of groundwater is needed to define<br />
more clearly the national water balance (and<br />
its components spatially and temporally).<br />
Environmental costs should be taken into<br />
account. The lack of good baseline data makes<br />
projection of potential future water demand<br />
and environmental impacts a difficult and<br />
risky exercise.<br />
The lack of knowledge could be very costly from<br />
a decision-making perspective. Under current<br />
policies and regulation, groundwater is free in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. If fresh or moderately brackish<br />
groundwater became exhausted then the cost<br />
of supplying agricultural demand would be that<br />
of the next best alternative, desalination. This<br />
would place a huge and costly burden on the<br />
Emirate’s water infrastructure, particularly<br />
power and water generation.<br />
Forested areas cover 305,000 ha. The forestry<br />
sector is heavily dependent on groundwater,<br />
competing with agriculture and other uses.<br />
Almost all afforestation in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is supplied<br />
by high efficiency drip irrigation, gross<br />
water demand is equivalent to net water consumption<br />
and there are no return flows to the<br />
groundwater reservoir. In 2007 the water<br />
demand for forestry was about 670Mm3/yr<br />
which is about 24 percent of the total water<br />
demand.<br />
Amenity irrigation has been increasing in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> with the growth of urban development<br />
and highways/roads. While it has a large environmental<br />
value, it needs to be looked at from<br />
the water quality and quantity perspective as<br />
well. This sector uses mainly marginal quality<br />
water (wastewater, brackish water, and sea<br />
water in the coastal belts). TSE contributes<br />
about 54 percent of the total water used for<br />
amenity proposes. The other water sources<br />
include desalination and groundwater. Total<br />
amenity water use is estimated at 547 Mcm/yr<br />
(including private households) in 2007 assuming<br />
that potable indoor water use is 250 lcd.<br />
Amenity plantations in urban areas tend to<br />
have water-rich European-style planting.<br />
Considerable water and energy savings could be<br />
effected by converting to hard landscaping and<br />
adopting plants indigenous to arid climates.<br />
There are many different crop and irrigation<br />
practices that could be introduced into <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> to support a more optimal, efficient use<br />
of water (see Annex 6 for more details). These<br />
should be supported in any new agricultural<br />
policies.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Production, Energy Use and<br />
the Atmosphere<br />
The interdependency of water and energy exacerbates<br />
environmental problems. Population<br />
growth will require increasing amounts of water<br />
which, in turn, require more energy to access<br />
water resources and distribute water. Since this<br />
increased electrical demand is largely met by<br />
fossil fuel-fired electrical cogeneration plants,<br />
more greenhouse gases are emitted that contribute<br />
further to global warming. These interdependencies,<br />
which are usually ignored in<br />
water and energy planning, create a downward<br />
spiral among electrical generation, climate<br />
change and water supplies that is cumulative<br />
and non-linear.<br />
• Provision of a safe and secure supply of<br />
desalinated water and treatment of wastewater<br />
has reduced the risk of water-related<br />
and water-borne disease to negligible proportions.<br />
This has made <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> a safe place<br />
to live and work and enhanced its economic<br />
prospects.<br />
• The overwhelming impact has been environmentally<br />
positive although much depends on<br />
the viewpoint of the observer. The increase<br />
in vegetated and amenity areas as a result of<br />
water application has provided habitat for<br />
flora and fauna that has local and global benefits<br />
derived from carbon sequestration in the<br />
new vegetation and the creation of habitats<br />
for various fauna, some of them transitory. It<br />
also has high aesthetic value.<br />
• There is no national systematic evaluation or<br />
baseline data against which to assess positive<br />
impacts of land use change brought about by<br />
106<br />
107
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
irrigation or their impact on the local ecology.<br />
This needs to be addressed. As far as can be<br />
determined, there are no quantitative environmental<br />
values associated with the vegetation<br />
apart from the commercial ones related<br />
to marketing of crops.<br />
• The adverse direct and indirect impacts on<br />
the environment of water use within the<br />
Emirate are large. While the nature of the<br />
hazards is known from direct observation,<br />
such as groundwater pollution and storage<br />
depletion, others including the explicit link<br />
between freshwater generation activities<br />
from desalinization and environmental<br />
impacts of brine disposal are poorly defined.<br />
This is a major omission to the integrated<br />
planning and management of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s<br />
environment.<br />
• Generation of desalinated water uses a significant<br />
portion of the Emirate’s energy and is<br />
responsible for the generation of greenhouse<br />
gases including CO2. <strong>Water</strong> conservation programs<br />
in all sectors of the economy would<br />
reduce the demand for water and thus CO2<br />
emissions.<br />
• Brine disposal as a side product of desalination<br />
poses modest to severe environmental<br />
risks to the water of the Gulf and to shallow<br />
aquifers inland..<br />
• Unfettered expansion of agriculture has<br />
caused degradation of groundwater<br />
resources through unregulated overpumping.<br />
In many areas irreversible salinization<br />
of groundwater has occurred.<br />
Upper layers of shallow aquifers have been<br />
polluted by irrigation return flows containing<br />
chemicals, particularly nitrates.<br />
Intense animal husbandry has locally exacerbated<br />
groundwater pollution and placed<br />
a high stress on the fragile ecosystem and<br />
natural vegetation.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning future demand and<br />
supply<br />
ADWEC made several projections of future<br />
demand for desalinated water for the period<br />
2007-2030. Overall the growth in demand in that<br />
period will be 123%. There will be no shortfall in<br />
production until 2014, but thereafter it will<br />
steadily increase in the absence of new capacity.<br />
By 2020 the annual shortfall will be 206<br />
MGD, equivalent to 342 Mcm. This will increase<br />
to 673 Mcm by 2030.<br />
The growing power shortage will lead to<br />
increasing electricity generation and reducing<br />
desalination production. A change in electricity<br />
generation technology – particularly nuclear -<br />
will cause a strategic reassessment of the continued<br />
construction of cogeneration power and<br />
water plants. It may become more economic to<br />
separate energy generation and water production.<br />
If that occurs then several other options<br />
become available to manage future water supplies.<br />
Future agricultural demand is unknown as<br />
water use is driven by policies that anchor<br />
Emiratis to the rural domain through an extensive<br />
program of subsidies for housing, land<br />
improvement, energy, water and agriculture. It<br />
is primarily a cultural issue. And a major cultural<br />
concern is food self-sufficiency.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has a very high human capacity in<br />
the desalination and water distribution business<br />
and in terms of integrated national planning.<br />
In contrast, the agricultural sector is composed<br />
of a number of widely scattered individuals<br />
and this is a need for a coherent, integrated<br />
approach which includes water and environmental<br />
perspectives.<br />
Cost considerations have not generally been a<br />
prime consideration as capital has been readily<br />
available for new infrastructure supplemented<br />
by grants and extensive subsidies. Currently<br />
the institutional environment governing water<br />
development, use and planning is patchy with<br />
some areas covered in great depth – for example<br />
the highly regulated power generation and<br />
desalinated water supply sectors – whilst others<br />
such as agriculture and environment have<br />
notable omissions. Social concerns regarding<br />
access to affordable water supplies and sanitation<br />
for all were alleviated by substantial investment<br />
since the 1970s and heavy subsidies since<br />
then have significantly reduced the cost of<br />
water for all users. However, free or very cheap<br />
water is frequently misused and adds little economic<br />
value despite its high cost.<br />
While development options can be identified<br />
there are insufficient financial, engineering and<br />
economic data to cost development alternatives<br />
and carry out trade-offs to determine the<br />
optimal investment mix. Most of the required<br />
data are either proprietary, not existent or were<br />
not made available to this study. Accordingly,<br />
this master plan proposes a strategy to plan<br />
water development that would be subsequently<br />
detailed in a water master plan that covers all<br />
the water sub-sectors.<br />
Demand management is going to be a key component<br />
of future planning. Leak detection, no<br />
matter how rigorously applied, has only a marginal<br />
impact on the desalination supply gap.<br />
There is still a deficit after 2014. Restricting<br />
agricultural use of desalinated water has an<br />
almost identical impact. But together they<br />
could have an opportunity cost of about $300<br />
million a year. Conversely the most vigorously<br />
applied tariff increase may solve the problem.<br />
A progressive increase of the water tariff over a<br />
number of years may be the policy to follow.<br />
There is sufficient time to research into willingness<br />
to pay and testing of appropriate tariff<br />
structures. The tariff structure should be operational<br />
by the end of 2010 and plan to reach to<br />
maximum in real terms by about 2020. This<br />
would allow the demand curve to more closely<br />
match the supply.<br />
Supply-side management is a very useful tool<br />
to increase capacity and be sensitive to the<br />
environmental implications of technology<br />
choice. If RO is used to desalinate brackish<br />
water energy costs will be significantly reduced<br />
as will the environmental impacts. Using <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>’s substantial brackish groundwater<br />
resources has also several advantages particularly<br />
in terms of dispersing and securing<br />
potable water supplies. The problems of brine<br />
disposal should be addressed with an overall<br />
strategy which includes the establishment of<br />
an organization responsible for this.<br />
With this planning the concept of environmental<br />
flows should be applied to the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate. The additional element, possibly<br />
unique to the Emirate, is the need to include<br />
the effect of greenhouse gas emissions caused<br />
by the high energy requirements of the water<br />
sector and desalination. AR present there are<br />
few data and no capability to measure environmental<br />
flows. A first step will be to construct a<br />
dynamic water balance model of the whole<br />
supply and demand system. A second step will<br />
be to quantify the key environmental impacts<br />
associated with each major water sub-sector.<br />
Alternative <strong>Water</strong> Supply <strong>Plan</strong>s<br />
In the absence of technical, economic and<br />
environmental feasibility and appraisal, the<br />
best choice for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s future water supplies<br />
is difficult to determine. At this stage of<br />
the <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong> only some indications of what<br />
may be feasible are presented. There are various<br />
choices:<br />
• Build new cogeneration desalination plant<br />
to fill the supply gap. Essentially this is a<br />
“business-as-usual” (BAU) approach. The<br />
question of energy sources makes this a<br />
108<br />
109
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
risky choice at present as discussed earlier,<br />
and this is now an unlikely option.<br />
• Develop well fields in the fresh groundwater<br />
areas<br />
• Develop well fields in brackish groundwater<br />
areas<br />
• Develop brackish RO capabilities<br />
These various alternatives need in-depth<br />
analysis to understand their economic, energy<br />
and environmental implications. Whichever<br />
alternative is selected there will be adverse<br />
impacts and the choices made will therefore<br />
need to be through an integrated strategic lens<br />
for the whole economic, social and environmental<br />
landscape of the Emirate.<br />
Institutional and Governance<br />
reforms<br />
<strong>Water</strong> planning and management will only<br />
work well if sound governance and institutions<br />
are put in place. Emirate level cross-cutting<br />
committees for aspects of water management<br />
are in place but there is little coordination<br />
among them. It is recommended that an <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council is established that is<br />
chaired by a member of the Executive Council<br />
and membership should be the heads of the<br />
various departments, authorities and organizations.<br />
The Council would support strategic<br />
thinking across the whole of the water sector<br />
rather than the compartmentalized system<br />
that currently exists.<br />
There is also the need to establish formally an<br />
environmental regulator. Given the development<br />
plans across many sectors proposed over<br />
the next 20 years, and their associated needs<br />
for water and other natural resources, there is<br />
an imperative for an independent environmental<br />
regulator within <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate to<br />
establish standards and practices based on<br />
local environment conditions. Whilst EAD currently<br />
undertakes some of these duties, there<br />
is a need to establish these roles and responsibilities<br />
more formally and transparently. It is<br />
also important to clearly define areas of<br />
responsibility vis-à-vis the RSB and other<br />
authorities and ministries to ensure consistent<br />
standards and avoid overlapping regulation.<br />
Legal and regulatory framework<br />
development<br />
The legal and regulatory measures in place for<br />
protecting the natural water resources and<br />
environmental management may be described<br />
as being strong in terms of managing biodiversity,<br />
but more limited in other areas. Whilst the<br />
Federal Law of 1999 covers many important<br />
aspects, its terms are necessarily general and<br />
there are a number of gaps in the subsequent<br />
enable legislation/regulation. There is a need<br />
for substantive measures for protecting<br />
groundwater depletion, and pollution control<br />
of air and water.<br />
There is a need to establish a water law that<br />
considers all sources of water within the same<br />
framework and that establishes some legal or<br />
regulatory obligation by the various authorities<br />
and supply companies to encourage environmental<br />
protection, water demand management<br />
and efficient practices. At the moment<br />
the split between natural and produced water<br />
management does not support the development<br />
of coherent water policies and laws.<br />
In the future there are likely to be an increase in<br />
potential overlaps in responsibilities between<br />
the RSB and EAD. Such overlaps occur in the<br />
management of waste water re-use and subsequent<br />
effluent disposal, definition of standards<br />
for effluent discharges, groundwater use in<br />
desalination, water demand management, and<br />
the challenges of climate change and managing<br />
carbon emissions of water and waste water<br />
treatment. It is important to develop a broader<br />
environmental regulatory framework with associated<br />
institutional responsibilities between the<br />
two organizations. Cooperation will be critical<br />
in defining standards and enforcement mechanisms<br />
for the coming years.<br />
Following from that there is a clear need to<br />
develop environmental standards based on the<br />
natural conditions of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> rather than<br />
international best-practice. Research needs to<br />
be undertaken on the specific conditions of the<br />
Arabian Gulf and the impacts of changing<br />
inputs from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and various industrial<br />
complexes along its shores.<br />
An area that has been little explored to date in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in the zoning of environmental<br />
regulations and laws, particularly in areas of<br />
sensitivity. Whilst integration and coherence is<br />
important in these areas, best practices from<br />
other countries would suggest that there is also<br />
a need to manage the environment and water<br />
resources of the Emirate in a less universal<br />
manner and to apply different degrees of regulation<br />
and control within. This requires greater<br />
control of activities in the protected areas and<br />
in particular greater enforcement of laws<br />
A final area that is currently addressed in existing<br />
laws and regulations is strategic environmental<br />
assessment. There are in place a number<br />
of measures for the environmental impact<br />
assessment of individual projects, but with the<br />
growing rate of development there is a need for<br />
greater in-depth analysis of<br />
strategies/policies/plans and their interaction.<br />
The cumulative impact of a series of projects<br />
which make up a plan can have many detrimental<br />
effects on the environment that would not<br />
be detected in individual appraisals.<br />
Support requirements for these<br />
recommendations<br />
Whilst this reports has submitted many new<br />
policy and practice recommendations there a<br />
number of key areas that need to be developed<br />
to support any future implementation. These<br />
are knowledge provision, capacity building and<br />
awareness-raising and these will now be considered.<br />
Good decision-making needs good<br />
information<br />
The role of knowledge and information in governing<br />
and governance is increasingly being<br />
emphasized. This study has found a very guarded,<br />
bureaucratic approach to data and information.<br />
Whilst in areas of commercial confidentiality<br />
this is to be expected, however, in other<br />
areas the difficulties involved in obtaining data<br />
often means knowledge within the water and<br />
environmental communities of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is<br />
not used. This leads to planning and management<br />
that will be sub-optimal. It also became<br />
apparent that environmental and water databases<br />
are maintained in different organizations<br />
and there is little easy access to this information,<br />
even by those working in these fields. This<br />
is inefficient as there is an urgent need to<br />
ensure decision-making is supported and<br />
informed by current and accurate information.<br />
Capacity building<br />
The proposed recommendations will require<br />
the enhancement and development of various<br />
skills within the human resources of EAD and<br />
other departments and organizations. It is therefore<br />
important that a structured and wellresourced<br />
capacity building development plan is<br />
drawn-up in a number of key areas including<br />
environmental regulation, and irrigation and<br />
landscaping management. .Various approaches<br />
should be used including training in a traditional<br />
teaching environment, but also placements of<br />
key staff in organizations outside of the UAE to<br />
learn-best practices. This twinning could also<br />
involve member from outside organizations<br />
spending time in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> helping to develop<br />
capacity in key areas. E-learning initiatives<br />
should be very much encouraged as the support<br />
110<br />
111
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
Endnotes<br />
the transfer of information and knowledge to all<br />
who might be involved in the various new developments<br />
rather than just key staff.<br />
Awareness raising<br />
Any change in any environment will bring resistance<br />
and inertia. It is important to give as much<br />
information as possible to allow those affected to<br />
understand the reasons for any decision-making.<br />
Awareness-raising will be an important component<br />
of future water developments in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
While there is an increasing coverage of water<br />
issues in the media and in educational programs,<br />
there is an important need to highlight the complexities<br />
and the actions needed in managing<br />
tomorrow’s water environment. There is a great<br />
love of the Emirate amongst the population and<br />
organizations. It became very obvious in the various<br />
discussions involved in developing this<br />
report that citizens, businesses and government<br />
departments alike realize there is a need for<br />
change and were willing to take this onboard.<br />
This should be mobilized to support any new<br />
water initiatives.<br />
Concluding remark<br />
There are many possibilities for managing <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>’s future water demands. From the findings<br />
of this report it is obvious that there is not<br />
one solution but an inter-mixed need for changes<br />
in both demand and supply management to<br />
adapt to the needs of the next 20 years.<br />
Environmental variables along with economic<br />
and social considerations need to be part of any<br />
future deliberations. Through an integrated<br />
water policy program important changes may be<br />
made that will help secure the economic and<br />
environmental prosperity for <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to 2030.<br />
1. Jogensen and Al Tikriti. 2002.<br />
2. Morelands, J.A., D.W. Clark, and J.L. Imes, 2007.<br />
“Ground <strong>Water</strong> – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s Hidden Treasure”<br />
3. World Bank, 2004. “Seawater and Brackish <strong>Water</strong><br />
4. Desalinization in the Middle East, North Africa and<br />
Central Asia”, Report No. 33515.<br />
5. Brook, M. 2006. <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> on <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate, U.A.E.. Environment Agency <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
6. ADWEC. 2007. The Challenge of Supplying<br />
Electricity and <strong>Water</strong>. Presentation by Mr. Keith<br />
Miller. MEED Adu <strong>Dhabi</strong> Conference 2007. 18-19th<br />
November.<br />
7. This volume is derived from the discussion in<br />
Moreland and others (2007) op cit. on pages 121 to<br />
124, and from Brook (2004) op cit.<br />
8. Symonds et al. 2005.<br />
9. Imes and Clark, 2006.<br />
10. Wood and Imes, 1995.<br />
11. Total installed desalination capacity in 2007 was<br />
1,044 Mcm a year. 85% of the installed capacity<br />
uses multi-stage flash technology in association<br />
with electrical power stations.<br />
12. Dawoud, Md. A. 2008. Strategic <strong>Water</strong> Reserve:<br />
New Approach For Old Concept In GCC<br />
Countries. AED, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
13. Hutchinson, C.B., K.D. Al Aidrous and O.A.<br />
Budebes. 1996. History of water resources development<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate. USGS/NDC.<br />
14. Heaney, James P., William DeOreo, Peter Mayer,<br />
Paul Lander, Jeff Harpring, Laurel Stadjuhar,<br />
Beorn Courtney, and Lynn Buhlig. 1999. NATURE<br />
OF RESIDENTIAL WATER USE AND EFFEC-<br />
TIVENESS OF CONSERVATION PROGRAMS.<br />
University of Colorado. For each of 12 cities across<br />
North America, a sample of 1,000 houses was<br />
selected based on evaluation of local demographics<br />
and historical water use. A questionnaire was<br />
sent to each of these 1,000 houses. The average<br />
response rate was 46%. Based on the returned<br />
questionnaires, a sample of 100 houses was selected.<br />
Then, detailed monitoring was done on each of<br />
these houses during two 14-day periods, one<br />
warmer and one cooler. Data was successfully<br />
obtained from all but 12 of the 1,200 homes.<br />
15. RSB. 2008. Annual Work <strong>Plan</strong> for 2009.<br />
16. ADDC. 2008. Letter from Ahmad Saeid Al<br />
Mareikhi, General Manager.<br />
17. ABU QDAIS H. A. and L NASSAY H. I. 2001.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Policy. Vol. 3 (3), 207-214.<br />
18. Todorova, V. 2008. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s water conservation<br />
plans. The National. Sunday, June 15, 2008<br />
13. At 7 m spacing a one ha block would require 14.2<br />
rows of irrigation pipe. As 305,000 ha are under irrigation<br />
the total length is 14.2 x 305,000 = 433,100<br />
km.<br />
14. <strong>Water</strong> use by trees in the Nagev desert.<br />
www2.alterra.wur.nl/Internet/webdocs/ilri-publicaties/publicaties/Pub55/pub55-h6.pdf.<br />
15. Bainbridge, D.A., M. Fidelibus and R. MacAller.<br />
1995. Techniques for plant establishment in arid<br />
ecosystems. Restoration and Management Notes<br />
13(2):198-202.<br />
16. Brook, M. 2004. “HRH Private Department in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> indicated that 2.5 gall/day were required per<br />
1.5 sq.m of canopy; for a forest with 20% cover this<br />
would equate to 2.25 mm/day.) This is equivalent<br />
to 822 mm/year.<br />
17. Starbuck, M., and Tamayo, J.M., 2005,<br />
Monitoring vegetation change in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate from 1996 to 2000 using Landsat satellite<br />
imagery: NDC-USGS Technical Series<br />
Administrative Report 2001-001, 32 p.<br />
18. Mohamed, A.M.O., M. Marraqa and J. Al<br />
Handhaly. 2005. Impact of land disposal of reject<br />
brine from desalination plants on soil and groundwater.<br />
Desalination. 182. 411-413.<br />
19. See Moreland et alia. 2007, page 132. USGS sate<br />
that the net water consumption (presumably after<br />
percolation return flow has been subtracted) is<br />
600 mm per unit area per year.<br />
20. The EAD value for forestry use of water is taken<br />
from <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate, UAE<br />
(2006), page 55. 607 Mcm/year of water was used<br />
to irrigate 305,243 ha of forest. This is equivalent to<br />
200 mm per unit area per year. While this may<br />
appear small compared with evapotanspiration<br />
rates there are 210 trees planted her ha at approximately<br />
7 m spacing. The USGS estimated is taken<br />
from Moreland et alia, 2007. The total groundwater<br />
use over the period 1970-2005 was 6,800 Mcm.<br />
Over this period the cumulative area irrigated was<br />
about 3.2 million ha. By calculation water use was<br />
200 mm per unit area per year.<br />
21. MottMacDonald. 2004. Preliminary Assessment Of<br />
The <strong>Water</strong> Situation In The Eastern And Central<br />
Regions Of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate. UAE Offsets<br />
Group. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
22. The Irrigation supporting annex shows that X percent<br />
of Adu <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s irrigation is equipped with<br />
112<br />
113
Main Findings and Recommendations<br />
modern and high efficiency water application technology.<br />
[ELABORATE].<br />
23. EAD 2006. Waste and Pollution Sources in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate. Environmental Data Initiative.<br />
Environment Agency <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Pages 62-67.<br />
24. Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution.<br />
2000. Energy – The Changing Climate. The<br />
Stationary Office. London.<br />
25. Hamed, O.A, et al. 2000. Thermodynamic Analysis<br />
of the Al Jubail Power/water Co-generation Cycles.<br />
Saline water Conversion Corporation. Technical<br />
report No. TR 3808 APP98002. November 2000.<br />
26. El-Nashar, A.M. et al. 1995. Overview of the Design<br />
Features, Performance and Economics of the MSF<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ts Operated by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Electricity Authority. Proceeedings of the IDA<br />
World Congress on Desalination and <strong>Water</strong><br />
Sciences. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. UAE. 3. 101-125.<br />
27. National <strong>Resources</strong> Defense Council. 2004. Energy<br />
Down The Drain – The Hidden Costs of California’s<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Supply. Pacific Institute, Oakland,<br />
California. August 2004.<br />
28. Center for Sustainable Environments, 2005. The<br />
<strong>Water</strong> and Energy Fact Sheet. Northern Arizona<br />
University. September, 2005<br />
29. Latterman, S., and T Hopner. 2007. Impacts of seawater<br />
desalination plants on marine environment<br />
in the Gulf. In: Protecting the Gulf’s Marine<br />
Ecosystems from Pollution, A. <strong>Abu</strong>xinada, H.-J<br />
Barth, F. Krupp, B. Boer and T. Abdelsalaam<br />
Editors. Switzerland: Birkhauser Verlag.<br />
30. Letterman, S. 2005. Chemicals in brine stream.<br />
Clean Ocean Foundation.<br />
31. Hopner, T., and J. Windelberg. 1966. Elements of<br />
environmental impact studies on coastal desalinization<br />
plants. Desalinization 108, 11-18.<br />
32. Al Jahani, A.A. 2008. Dugong’s Waning Populace in<br />
Arabian Gulf: A Chronicle. MoEW. UAE.<br />
33. Grandcourt, E. 2003. The status and management<br />
of coral reefs in the United Arab Emirates.<br />
ERDWA.<br />
34. Chesher, R.H. 1975. Biological impact of a largescale<br />
desalination plant at Key West, Florida. Pp<br />
99-181 in: Tropical Marine Pollution. Furgson, E.J.<br />
and R.E. Johannes, editors. Elsevier Scientific.<br />
New York.<br />
35. Pilar Ruso, Y.D., J.A. Ossa Carretero, F.Giminez<br />
Casaduero, and J. L. Sanchez Lizaso. 2007. Spatial<br />
and temporal changes in infaunal communities<br />
inhabiting soft-bottoms affected by brine discharges.<br />
Marine Environmental Research. 64,492-<br />
503.<br />
36. Latorre, M. 2005. Environmental Impact of Brine<br />
Disposal on Posidonia Sea-grasses. Desalination<br />
182, 517-524.<br />
37. Jenkins, S.A., and J.B. Graham. 2006.<br />
Oceanographic considerations for desalinization<br />
plants in southern Californian coastal waters, parts<br />
1 &2. Presentation given at meeting of National<br />
Research Council Committee on Advancing<br />
Desalinization technology, Irvine, C.A.<br />
38. Sideek, M. S. M, M.M. Fouda and G.V. Hermosa.<br />
1999. Demersal fisheries of the Arabian Sea, the<br />
Gulf of Oman and the Arabian Gulf. International<br />
Conference on the Biology of Coastal<br />
Environments, Bahrain. Vol 49, SUPA. Pp 87-97.<br />
39. Bruce Shallard & Associates. 2003. Fisheries<br />
Resource Assessment Survey of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and<br />
UAE <strong>Water</strong>s. ERDWA. March 2003.<br />
40. Maunsell. 2004. The <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>, Traffic and<br />
Transportation Study for Al Ain and its Region to<br />
the year 2005. Stage2: Environment and<br />
Conservation Sector Study, August, 2004.<br />
41. Belnap, J., 2002. Biological Soil Crusts of Arabian<br />
Sabkhat. In Sabkha Ecosystems, Barth and Boer<br />
Editors. Kluwer Academic Publishers. The<br />
Netherlands.<br />
42. Khan, A. 1997.<br />
43. Personal Communication. Mr. Sultan Ahmed Al<br />
Kuwaiti, Consultant for the Aflaj Committee, Al<br />
Ain Municipality.<br />
44. David Pimental, et al., 2004. <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong>:<br />
Agricultural and Environmental Issues.,<br />
BioScience, Vol. 54, No. 10, October 2004.<br />
45. Moreland, J.A., et al, 2007, pages 147-155.<br />
46. RSB. Annual Report 2007. Actual water costs are<br />
given as AED 29.2 per thousand imperial gallons,<br />
equivalent to US$1.75/m3.<br />
47. Glueckstern, P and M. Priel. 2003. Optimization of<br />
Boron removal in old and new SWRO systems.<br />
European Desalination Services. Malta<br />
48. The Nature Conservancy. 2006. Environmental<br />
Flows. <strong>Water</strong> for People – <strong>Water</strong> for Nature. TNC<br />
MRCSO1730. The Nature Conservancy, Boulder,<br />
Colorado, USA.<br />
49. National Research Council of the National<br />
Academies. 2005. Valuing Ecosystem Services<br />
Toward Better Environmental Decision–Making.<br />
The National Academies Press, Washington, D.C.<br />
50. RSB. 2008. Annual Work <strong>Plan</strong> for 2009..<br />
114
Annex 1.<br />
Groundwater<br />
115
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
Introduction<br />
The main source of water in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is derived from pumping groundwater.<br />
This resource occurs in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> in consolidated and unconsolidated surficial<br />
aquifers and in bedrock aquifers. In 2003,<br />
groundwater constituted 79 percent (%) of the<br />
total water resources used in the Emirate,<br />
although by 2006 this had reduced to 71.2 %.<br />
At the current rates of extraction, both fresh<br />
and brackish groundwater resources will be<br />
exhausted in the next 50 years (USGS 2006).<br />
This makes the sustainable management, use<br />
and conservation of groundwater resources of<br />
vital importance for the people of the Emirate.<br />
Some measures have been put into place to<br />
address this recently and the passing in March<br />
2006 in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> of Law No. 6 has brought regulatory<br />
instruments into effect to control the<br />
drilling and abstraction of water wells (discussed<br />
in detail in Annex 1).<br />
Physical Status of Groundwater<br />
<strong>Resources</strong><br />
The groundwater in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> may be categorized<br />
into two main groups: the first are the surficial<br />
aquifers that are found in the unconsolidated<br />
material and that have been the main<br />
sources of water to date; and the second are the<br />
bedrock aquifers that are found in predominantly<br />
carbon-rich rock formations.<br />
Distributions of both kinds of aquifers are<br />
shown in Figure 1.1.<br />
underlain by the Upper Fars Formation which<br />
continues eastward into the Sultanate of<br />
Oman, the Lower Fars Formation in the southeastern<br />
Umm Al Zamoul area, the Dammam<br />
and Simsima limestone bedrock aquifers, and<br />
discontinuous carbonate units north of Al Ain.<br />
In the Western Region, the Quaternary sand<br />
aquifer is directly underlain by the Lower Fars<br />
Formation as a basal unit which acts as a<br />
regional aquiclude (Wood et al. 2003).<br />
There are also thin coastal sabkha aquifers and<br />
the Baynunah Formation comprising of Upper<br />
Miocene sandstones and conglomerates with<br />
gypsiferous cap rock that form numerous lowlying<br />
shallow and uneconomic aquifers. Both<br />
formations are underlain by the regional Lower<br />
Fars aquiclude (Hutchinson 1996).<br />
Bedrock Aquifers<br />
Bedrock aquifers occur throughout the<br />
Emirate and are mostly carbonate deposits<br />
laid down in shallow marine seas. They occur<br />
generally at significant depth and have not<br />
been explored or exploited like the shallow<br />
unconsolidated aquifers. The main water bearing<br />
formations are as follows:<br />
• The Asmari Formation (Whittle and<br />
Alsharhan 1994);<br />
• The Karstic Limestone Formations (Khalifa<br />
1997; Bright and Silva 1998);<br />
Total groundwater reserves for the Emirate<br />
have been assessed by two independent studies.<br />
One study was jointly conducted by the<br />
National Drilling Company (NDC) and the<br />
United States Geological Survey (USGS)<br />
under the auspices of the Groundwater<br />
Research Program (GWRP). The second study<br />
was undertaken jointly by the German<br />
Technical Cooperation and <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
National Oil Company (GTZ/ADNOC) under<br />
the joint Groundwater Assessment Project<br />
(GWAP) (GTZ 2004). Both projects assessed<br />
current groundwater reserves, however, the<br />
methods used differ somewhat, but both have<br />
used average saturated thickness and specific<br />
yields to estimate stored volumes.<br />
The volume for the calculated fresh groundwater<br />
reserves differs by 8%. The USGS GWRP is<br />
shown in Table 1.1. The GWAP by GTZ (2005)<br />
indicated total freshwater reserves were 16,500<br />
Mm3 of which 4000 Mm3 are in the Eastern<br />
Region and that 12,500 Mm3 or more than<br />
three-quarters of the fresh water in storage<br />
occurs in the Liwa lens (Wood and Imes 2003).<br />
It is also impossible to compare the estimates of<br />
brackish groundwater reserves as each study<br />
has used different salinity ranges for brackish<br />
water. Whereas the USGS study defined brackish<br />
groundwater between 1500 mg/l and 15,000<br />
mg/l, the GTZ study used 1500 mg/l to 10,000<br />
mg/l as brackish and 10,000 mg/l to 100,000 mg/l<br />
as saline. In this report we have used the<br />
groundwater reserves as estimated by USGS<br />
summarized in Table 1.1, i.e. brackish water up<br />
to 15,000 mg/l is being used for forest irrigation.<br />
EAD has undertaken extensive inventorying,<br />
assessment and monitoring of wells in the<br />
Emirate (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Executive Decisions No (14)<br />
session 8/2005 and No (4) session 17/2005). These<br />
findings have been integrated with the previous<br />
work of USGS and GTZ to create an integrated<br />
database.<br />
Aquifer Recharge<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate is located in an arid region<br />
with an average precipitation of less than 120 mm<br />
so there is little active recharge of the aquifers<br />
(Boer 1997). Rainfall is scare in amount but erratic<br />
both in time and distribution. The mean annu-<br />
Unconsolidated Aquifers<br />
The sand dunes and alluvial deposits comprise<br />
the most common and productive aquifers in<br />
the Emirate (Rizk et al. 1997). The shallow<br />
unconfined aquifer is present throughout the<br />
Emirate and about 80% of the Emirate has<br />
Quaternary sand and gravel aquifers (Figure<br />
3.1). In the Eastern Region the main aquifers<br />
are Quaternary sand and gravel aquifers<br />
• The Dammam and Rus formations (EAD<br />
2006);<br />
• The Rus Formation (Al Amari 1997);<br />
• The Umm er Radhuma Formation (Hassan<br />
and Al Aidarous 1985); and<br />
• The Simsima Formation (Hamdan and Anan<br />
1989).<br />
116<br />
117
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
Table 1.1 Groundwater Reserves Estimate for the Emirate<br />
Salinity ٍّ Zone<br />
Fresh (1500 and
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
are fresh (
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
increased in the Emirate. The principal method<br />
of disposal of the reject brine is in surface<br />
impoundments of unlined ponds. In recent<br />
research (Dawoud, 2008) it was found that disposal<br />
in this way lead to increased levels of salinity<br />
and heavy metals in the underlying aquifers.<br />
Groundwater Use<br />
Historically, the entire Emirate’s water requirements<br />
were met solely from groundwater<br />
obtained from shallow hand dug wells and the<br />
traditional Falaj systems. Today goundwater<br />
continues to be used predominantly for irrigation,<br />
but now includes both agricultural and<br />
forestry areas and accounts for approximately<br />
67% of total use (EAD 2008). Other sectors<br />
include the municipalities, and industry.<br />
The scale of usage has changed markedly and<br />
with the availability of motorized pumps and<br />
other enabling technologies, faster rates of<br />
abstraction and distribution have been possible.<br />
This fact, coupled with cheap energy, and a rapid<br />
expansion of agricultural and forestry activities<br />
(see Annex 6 for details), has ensured that over<br />
the last 20-25 years this system has been placed<br />
under increasing stress from declining groundwater<br />
levels. Current estimates indicate water<br />
use is 26 times total annual renewable water<br />
resources (EAD 2006).<br />
Table 1.3 shows the decrease of fresh groundwater<br />
reserves in the Emirate from an estimated<br />
29,694 Mm3 during the pre-development stage of<br />
the surficial aquifer to 26,269 Mm3 in 2005. The<br />
greatest decrease of 47.7% occurred in the northeastern<br />
region which declined from 4,730 to 2,475<br />
Mm3 caused by over-abstraction resulting in a<br />
decline in the average saturated thickness of the<br />
surficial aquifer from 22 m to 12 m. In the region<br />
between Al Ain and Al Saad, high pumping density<br />
and over-abstraction has virtually depleted<br />
the entire pre-development saturated thickness<br />
of fresh groundwater (Mooreland et al. 2007).<br />
Moderately-brackish groundwater in the<br />
Emirate declined by 5.6%, however, most of this<br />
decline occurred in the northeastern region<br />
where the decline was 26.5% from 17,284 to 12,706<br />
Mm3. Most of the declines occurred between Al<br />
Ain and Al Khaznah, and near Al Wagan where<br />
dense concentrations of farms use large quantities<br />
of groundwater (Mooreland et al. 2007).<br />
The need for increased control of the groundwater<br />
has already been recognized and EAD has<br />
Table 1.3 Pre-development and Present Day Groundwater Reserves Estimate for the Emirate<br />
Salinity ٍّ Zone<br />
Fresh (
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
References<br />
2) Increased Enforcement of Current and<br />
Future Regulation<br />
The major moves to increase the regulation of<br />
groundwater use are important. Regulation<br />
needs to be further developed and just as<br />
importantly enforced. If a license abstraction<br />
rate is agreed, then monitoring should be possible<br />
to ensure compliance. It would be good<br />
to include pumping rates as well as total<br />
abstraction as part of the agreements to minimize<br />
environmental impacts.<br />
3) Establishing Groundwater Management<br />
Areas (GWMA)<br />
Establishing Groundwater Management Areas<br />
(GWMA) has been undertaken successfully in<br />
many countries to give protection to important<br />
aquifers and to reduce the costs of cleaning<br />
water that has been polluted by human<br />
activities. These areas are defined where a particular<br />
aquifer is significant for water supply or<br />
environmental value. Those undertaking activities<br />
in these areas are set management conditions<br />
that reduce the impact such as the use of<br />
organic farming. Compensation is paid to<br />
make up for any economic losses.<br />
4) Raising Awareness<br />
All the recommendations involve working with<br />
various stakeholders. It is important that<br />
there is an understanding of why and how various<br />
changes might be brought into effect. This<br />
would involve various levels of engagement<br />
and the use of various media to highlight the<br />
benefits of stakeholders working together.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
Future decisions on the use of groundwater<br />
need to be based on sound knowledge of the<br />
nature of both the supply and demand sides.<br />
Recent moves to establish the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
<strong>Water</strong> Information System are commendable.<br />
There are, however, some gaps that need<br />
to be filled:<br />
5) Evaluation of Current Monitoring Networks<br />
The recent rationalization of various datasets<br />
will ensure that as much information as possible<br />
may be gained from previous work. Based on this<br />
and future management plans, the current monitoring<br />
network should be assessed to ensure<br />
that it will provide the data required to support<br />
the initiatives and so is cost-effective. Numerous<br />
developments in data collections techniques can<br />
be utilized.<br />
6) Increased Knowledge of Physical and<br />
Chemical Status of Aquifers<br />
Increased knowledge of the deep aquifers, such<br />
as the Dammam, Umm er Radhuma, and<br />
Simsima formations is required, as these may be<br />
possible sources of brackish groundwater for<br />
future RO.<br />
7) Increased Information on <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
It is important that there is increased knowledge<br />
of the water users and their demand patterns.<br />
This could be used in future modeling of water<br />
budgets, but could also help target areas where<br />
groundwater use could be optimized.<br />
8) Modelling of <strong>Water</strong> Budget<br />
There is a need to bring together the supply and<br />
demand for groundwater and develop future scenarios<br />
for management. This will allow decisions<br />
to be made on allocation within the sectors and<br />
to support any initiatives towards sustainable<br />
management.<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
9) Groundwater Representation on <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
<strong>Water</strong> Council<br />
It is important that groundwater is viewed as a<br />
component of the total water resources available<br />
in the Emirate and not as a separate resource.<br />
Day to day management should remain within<br />
EAD, but strategic initiatives which might<br />
include groundwater development or conservation<br />
should be considered within the suggested<br />
higher authority (see main report).<br />
- Al Adrous, M.H., 1990, Falajes of the Al Ain. First<br />
Edition: Al Motanabi Publ., <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, 109 p. (in<br />
Arabic).<br />
- Al Amari, K.A., 1997, Assessment of Environmental<br />
Impact of Re-Injecting Oil-Field <strong>Water</strong> in the<br />
Miocene Clastic Sediments on the Shallow Aquifer at<br />
Bu Hasa Oil Field, United Arab Emirates:<br />
Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, UAE University, Al Ain,<br />
United Arab Emirates.<br />
- Al Asam, M.S., 1994, Dams in the United Arab<br />
Emirates and their role in groundwater recharge:<br />
Proceedings of the Second Gulf <strong>Water</strong> Conference,<br />
Manama, Bahrain, pp. 203-218.<br />
- Al Hammadi, M. K., 2003, Assessment of<br />
Groundwater resources using remote sensing and<br />
GIS: UAE University - Faculty of Graduate Studies,<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> program: Unpublished <strong>Master</strong><br />
Thesis, 108 p.<br />
- Al Hogaraty, E.A., Rizk, Z.S., and Garamoon, H.K.,<br />
2008, Groundwater pollution of the Quaternary<br />
aquifer in northern United Arab Emirates: <strong>Water</strong> Air<br />
Soil Pollut., 190: 323-341.<br />
- Al Nuaimi, H.S., 2003, Hydrogeological and geophysical<br />
studies on Al Jaww Plain, Al Ain area, UAE: UAE<br />
University - Faculty of Graduate Studies, <strong>Water</strong><br />
<strong>Resources</strong> program: Unpublished <strong>Master</strong> Thesis, 150<br />
p.<br />
- Alsharhan, A.S., Rizk, Z.S., Nairn, A.E.M., Bakhit,<br />
D.W., and Alhajari, S.A., 2001, Hydrogeology of an<br />
Arid Region: The Arabian Gulf and Adjoining Areas:<br />
Elseveir Publishing Company, 331 p.<br />
- Al Tikriti, W.Y., 2002, Proc. Seminar for Arabian<br />
Studies, 32, 117-138.<br />
- Anter, G.A., 1996, Falajes of Al Ain area--Geological<br />
setting and hydrogeological characteristics:<br />
Unpublished M. Sc. Thesis, Fac. Sci., Tanta<br />
University, Tanta, Egypt, 152 p.<br />
- Bright, D.J. and Silva, E., 1998, USGS Admin. Rept. 2<br />
p.<br />
- Brook, M., 2006, <strong>Water</strong> Resource of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate, UAE.<br />
- Brook, M. and Houqani, H., 2006, current status of<br />
Aflaj in the Al Ain area, UAE.<br />
- Boer, B., 1997, An introduction to the Climate of the<br />
UAE: Journal of Arid Environment, 35, pp.3-16.<br />
- Dawoud, M.A., 2008 <strong>Water</strong> Resource in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate, <strong>Water</strong> Sector Paper.<br />
- EAD, 2006,<br />
- EAD 2008 http://www.ead.ae/en/ (accessed July<br />
2008)<br />
- ESCWA, 2005, Development of frameworks to implement<br />
national strategies of integrated water<br />
resources management in the ESCWA countries:<br />
United Nations, New York, 94 p. (in Arabic).<br />
- GTZ, 2005, Dornier Consult, Rept. To ADNOC,<br />
- GTZ, 2004, Status Report phases VIIIB, VIIIC &<br />
VIIID for groundwater assessment project <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
- Hamdan, A.A., and Anan, H.S., 1989, The Paleocene<br />
tectono-sedimentary events, of Jabal Malaqet, east<br />
of Al-Ain, west northern Oman mountains: MERC,<br />
Ain Shams Univ., Earth Sci. Ser., pp. 209-214.<br />
- Hassan, A.A., and Al-Aidarous, A., 1985, Regional<br />
aquifer geology - onshore <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>: Geology<br />
Department, ADCO project report 1584-50, <strong>Abu</strong><br />
Fhabi, U. A. E., 28 p.<br />
- Hutchinson, C., 1996, Groundwater resources of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate: U.S. Geological Survey<br />
Administrative Report, 136 p.<br />
- Imes, J.L, and Clark, D.W., 2006, National Drilling<br />
Company-U.S. Geological Survey Technical Services<br />
Administration Report, 2006-001, 42 p.<br />
- Imes, J.L., Signor, D.G., and Woodward, D.G., 1993,<br />
in Maddy, D.V. (Ed.): Ground-water resources of Al<br />
Ain area, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate: U.S. General Survey<br />
Admin. Report A3-001, 168-283.<br />
- Khalifa, M.A., 1997, Hydrogeology of the geothermal<br />
fractured-rock well field at Jabal Hafit, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate: Proceedings of the Third Gulf <strong>Water</strong><br />
Conference, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, pp. 125-140.<br />
- Mohamed, A.M.O., Maraqa, M. and Al Handhaly, J.<br />
(2005). Impact of land disposal of reject brine from<br />
desalination plants on soil and groundwater.<br />
Desalination, Vol 182, 411-433<br />
- Moreland, J.A., Clark, D.W., and Imes, J.L., 2007,<br />
Ground <strong>Water</strong>-<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s Hidden Treasure.<br />
USDI/USGS/NDC.<br />
- Patterson, R.J., and Kinsman, D.J.J., 1981,<br />
Hydrologic of framework of a sabkha along Arabian<br />
Gulf: AAPG Bulletin, pp. 1457-1475.<br />
- Dawoud, M.A, 2008, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> water sector paper<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., Alsharhan, A.S., and Shindo, S.S., 1997,<br />
Evaluation of groundwater resources of United Arab<br />
Emirates: Proceedings of the Third Gulf <strong>Water</strong><br />
Conference, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman, pp. 95-122.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., and El-Etr, H.A., 1997, Hydrogeology and<br />
124<br />
125
Annex 1. Groundwater<br />
Hydrogeochemistry of some springs in the United<br />
Arab Emirates: The Arabian Journal for Science and<br />
Engineering, King Fahd University for Petroleum<br />
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, v. 22, no. 1C,<br />
pp. 95-111.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., 1998, Falajes of United Arab Emirates:<br />
Geological Settings and hydrogeological characteristics:<br />
The Arabian Journal for Science and<br />
Engineering, King Fahd University for Petroleum<br />
and Minerals, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia, v. 23, no. 1C,<br />
pp. 3-25.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., Garamoon, H.K., and El-Etr, H.A., 1998a,<br />
Morphometry, surface runoff and flood potential of<br />
major drainage basins of Al Ain area, United Arab<br />
Emirates: The Egyptian Journal of Remote Sensing<br />
and Space Sciences, v. 1, no. 1, pp. 391-412.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., Garamoon, H.K., and El-Etr, A.A., 1998b.<br />
Contribution to the hydrogeochemistry of the<br />
Quaternary aquifer at Al-Ain area, United Arab<br />
Emirates: Proceedings of the International<br />
Conference on Quaternary Deserts and Climatic<br />
Change. Alsharhan, Glennie, Whittle and Kendall<br />
(eds), Balkema, Rotterdam, Netherlands, pp. 439-<br />
454<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., and Alsharhan, A.S., 1999, Application of<br />
natural isotopes for hydrogeologic investigations in<br />
United Arab Emirates: Proceedings of the Fourth<br />
Gulf <strong>Water</strong> conference, Manama, Bahrain, pp. 197-<br />
228.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., and Alsharhan, A.S., 2003, <strong>Water</strong><br />
resources in the United Arab Emirates, In: (A.S.<br />
Alsharhan and W. W. Wood (Eds.), <strong>Water</strong><br />
Management Perspectives: Evaluation,<br />
Management and Policy (pp. 245-264). Amsterdam,<br />
The Netherlands: Elsevier Science.<br />
- Rizk, Z.S., and Alsharhan, A.S., 2008, <strong>Water</strong><br />
resources in the United Arab Emirates: Ithraa<br />
Publishing and Distribution, Sharjah, United Arab<br />
Emirates, 624 p. (in Arabic).<br />
- Seckler, D., Amarasinghe, U., Molden, D., de Silva,<br />
R., and Barber, R., year (missing), World <strong>Water</strong><br />
Demand and Supply, 1990-2025: Scenarios and<br />
Issues. Rept. 19, International <strong>Water</strong> Management<br />
Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.<br />
- Symonds, R., Robledo, A., and Al Shateri, H.,<br />
2005, National Drilling Company-U.S. General<br />
Survey Technical Services Administrative<br />
Report. 2005-001, 24 p.<br />
- USGS, see U.S. Geological Survey<br />
- U.S. Geological Survey, 1994,<br />
- U.S. Geological Survey / NDC Administrative<br />
Report 1994. Groundwater <strong>Resources</strong> of the Liwa<br />
Crescent Area, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate.<br />
- U.S. Geological Survey, 1996. Groundwater<br />
resources of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate.<br />
- U.S. Geological Survey, 2006,<br />
- U.S. Geological Survey, 2007,<br />
- Whittle, G.L., and Alsharhan, A.S., 1994,<br />
Dolomitization and chertification of the Early<br />
Eocene Rus Formation in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, United Arab<br />
Emirates: Sedimentary Geology 92, pp. 272-285.<br />
- WHO Guidelines for Drinking-water quality.<br />
- Wilkinson, J.C., 1981, Falajes as means of irrigation<br />
in Oman: Ministry of National Heritage and<br />
Culture, Sultanate of Oman, 129 p.<br />
- Wood, W.W., and Imes, J.L., 1995, How wet is wet<br />
Constraints on late Quaternary climate in southern<br />
Arabian Peninsula: Journal of Hydrology 164:<br />
263-268.<br />
- Wood, W.W., and Imes, J., 2003, Dating of Holocene<br />
groundwater recharge in western part of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> UAE: Constrains on global climate-change<br />
models, In: <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Perspective:<br />
Evaluation, Management and Policy, A.S.<br />
Alsharhan and W.W.Wood (Eds), pp. 379-385,<br />
Development in <strong>Water</strong> Science 50, Elsevier,<br />
Amsterdem, The Netherlands.<br />
- Wood, W.W., Rizk, Z.S., and Alsharhan, A.S., 2003,<br />
Timing of Recharge, and the Origin, Evolution and<br />
Distribution of Solutes in a Hyperarid Aquifer<br />
System, Developments in <strong>Water</strong> Science (50).<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Perspectives: Evaluation,<br />
Management and Policy (ed., A.S. Alsharhan and<br />
W.W. Wood): Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 245-264.<br />
- Woodward, D.G., and Menges, C.M., 1991,<br />
Application of uphole data from petroleum seismic<br />
surveys to ground water investigations, <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>, United Arab Emirates: Geoexploration, v.<br />
27, pp. 193-212.<br />
- World Bank, 2005, Report on evaluation of water<br />
sector in the GCC countries, Challenges facing<br />
water resources and water management and the<br />
way ahead: Arab Gulf Program for United Nations<br />
Development Organizations, 113 p. (in Arabic).<br />
126
Annex 2.<br />
Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
127
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
Introduction<br />
The water desalination sector in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is<br />
well established and currently makes a major<br />
contribution to the development of the Emirate.<br />
Desalinated seawater currently represents the<br />
primary source of potable water available in the<br />
emirate and production is in two main areas.<br />
The largest production fields are on the coast<br />
and are almost exclusively combined power generation/thermal<br />
desalination plants operating<br />
on seawater as feed, although reverse osmosis is<br />
increasingly being used in new hybrid plants and<br />
these are managed under the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong><br />
and Electricity Authority (ADWEA). The second<br />
plants, found inland and based on reverse<br />
osmosis technology, are associated with the production<br />
of freshwater for irrigation of agricultural<br />
activities.<br />
The key limits to future desalinated water production<br />
centre on future energy availability and<br />
transfer prices. In addition to energy constraints,<br />
seawater salinity and temperature may<br />
limit desalinated water production in thermal<br />
plants on the Arabian Gulf coast, and locations<br />
on the Gulf of Oman involving inter-emirate<br />
water trading, are likely to be important strategic<br />
options.<br />
Currently, the water desalination sector is able<br />
to satisfy demand, but forecasts based on population<br />
growth and industrial expansion indicates<br />
that future demand will exceed current<br />
maximum production capacity (Annex 4).<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ned increased production will most probably<br />
satisfy this increased demand, but there is<br />
a need to consider the full economic, environmental,<br />
and social consequences of such a<br />
strategy for the various sectors of predicted<br />
growth. Brackish water desalination and water<br />
mixing might solve future water demand in<br />
locations away from the coast for certain sector<br />
users. Desalinated water is not an unlimited<br />
resource and water produced in this way<br />
should be reserved for essential and high<br />
added-value uses.<br />
Current and Developing Status of<br />
Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> Production<br />
under ADWEA’s Authority<br />
The authority responsible for the large water<br />
production plants is the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Energy Authority (ADWEA) (see Annex 7 for<br />
more detail). In the large power and water production<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, co-generation systems<br />
are principally used because of their robustness<br />
and energy efficiency. Such operations<br />
provide both electricity supply from turbines<br />
and water by condensing the steam, thereby<br />
optimizing overall process economics. In<br />
recent years, hybrid systems have been built<br />
which not only support co-generation but have<br />
additional water generation from Reverse<br />
Osmosis (RO) technology in the plant.<br />
These plants, known as Independent <strong>Water</strong><br />
and Power Producers (IWPP), have been<br />
developed almost exclusively by the private<br />
sector in collaboration with the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
(See Annex 7 for further details).<br />
<strong>Water</strong> production by the major<br />
IWPPs<br />
<strong>Water</strong> is produced using thermal and, more<br />
recently, membrane technologies. Currently<br />
used thermal technologies include multistage<br />
flash (MSF) technology and multi effect<br />
(MED) technology, while membrane technology<br />
is restricted to reverse osmosis (RO) technology<br />
and their relative contributions to the<br />
potable water production in 2008 in Million<br />
Gallons Day (MGD) is shown in Table 2.1 and<br />
Figure 2.1<br />
Multistage Flash Distillation<br />
MSF represents the major fraction of installed<br />
capacity in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, due mainly to large unit<br />
capacity, reliability of operation and its good<br />
match with power generation which yield much<br />
Table 2.1 Current Desalination Capacity by Technology and Station (in MGD)<br />
Company ٍّ<br />
TAPCO Taweelah B1 70 70<br />
TAPCO Taweelah B2 23 23<br />
TAPCO Taweelah B new 35 35<br />
ECPC Taweelah A2 51 51<br />
GTTPC Taweelah a1 32 53 85<br />
AMPC Al Mirfa 39 39<br />
APC Umm Al Nar 138 7 145<br />
SCIPCO Shuweihat 1 101 101<br />
Emirates Sembcorp Fujairah 1 64 38 102<br />
Totals 553 60 38 651<br />
Source: ADWEC 2008 a and b<br />
greater efficiencies than when used in standalone<br />
operation. Recent developments in the<br />
technology include adding cooling towers to<br />
reduce the energy used in desalination and integration<br />
of the technology with other thermal and<br />
RO technologies (e.g. Fujairah 1 and Taweelah<br />
A1, providing hybrid production, with performance<br />
ratios between 13 and 15). Such integration<br />
is aimed to reduce the energy used and thus<br />
increase the performance ration to 13-15. The<br />
technology has been given a lifetime of 20 years<br />
since it initial adaptation in the early 70’s in the<br />
Figure 2.1 Current desalination capacity by<br />
technology (%)<br />
Source: ADWEC 2008a and b<br />
Station MSF MED RO Total<br />
region. With proactive maintenance programs,<br />
many plants has been in service for more than 25<br />
years and technology companies are forecasting<br />
40 years for these plants in the future.<br />
Multi Effect Distillation<br />
In recent years Multi Effect distillation (MED)<br />
capacity has been built both in the regions and<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city, as their attractiveness has<br />
increased due to their more efficient use of<br />
energy. MED is typically characterized by<br />
about 10% less thermal energy consumption<br />
than MSF, whilst they can use lower quality<br />
steam, but achieve similar production capacities.<br />
When MED incorporates thermal vapour<br />
compression, it can exhibit performance ratios<br />
as high as 15. ADWEA has recently awarded a<br />
contract to build a large (120 MIGD) capacity<br />
plant at the Fujairah II installation using MED<br />
and RO technology, and is also considering<br />
further MED units to increase the capacity of<br />
the Al Taweelah plant. Advances in MED technology<br />
and an increased availability of low<br />
quality steam and waste heat from various<br />
new industries is expected to make MED the<br />
dominant future technology in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
128 129
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
Reverse Osmosis<br />
RO involves the diffusion of water molecules<br />
from a dilute aqueous solution through a semi<br />
permeable membrane into a concentrated aqueous<br />
solution, until equilibrium is established, by<br />
the application of pressure to the concentrate.<br />
Although the technology has been on the market<br />
for seawater desalination since the 1960s,<br />
water production costs remained high until<br />
improvements in membrane efficiency, reduction<br />
in membrane fabrication costs and more<br />
effective means of feed water pre-treatment<br />
became available. Such developments have<br />
brought RO into direct competition with thermal<br />
process in existing and future installations.<br />
Existing thermal plants can be extended by<br />
addition of RO and such hybrid systems are now<br />
considered to be successful alternatives to single<br />
technology systems as exemplified by the<br />
Fujairah I plant and the repeat use of hybrid<br />
technology in the new Fujairah II plant. There is<br />
a long history of RO deployment in other<br />
Emirates (Ajman for 17 years) and Gulf States,<br />
but the plants to date have been of small capacity<br />
relative to the thermal technology based systems.<br />
Productivity efficiency in the RO processes relies<br />
heavily on pre-treatment RO. These plants are<br />
based on the ability of the membranes to pass<br />
water molecules and not salt. Membranes recovery<br />
(defined as amount of fresh water produced<br />
per feed water) ranges between 40 to 50% and<br />
relies on the water quality being treated and fed<br />
to the membrane. Removal of suspended solids<br />
and biofouling molecules is achieved by efficient<br />
pre-treatment before the RO. In conventional<br />
systems, this is achieved by a combination of<br />
sand filters, pH adjustment and bag house vessels<br />
that provides low levels of silt and solids to<br />
the RO membranes.<br />
It is therefore important when developing RO<br />
plants, that the physical and chemical characteristics<br />
of marine water over time are carefully<br />
analysed and the intake is positioned to minimize<br />
the need for pre-treatment. The recent<br />
problems of algal blooms of Ras Al Khaimah<br />
and Fujairah have highlighted this. Whilst production<br />
at the hybrid plant in Fujairah ceased<br />
in December 2008, leading to estimated losses<br />
of over $100 000 a day, the RO plant, in close<br />
proximity, continued working uninterrupted.<br />
Membrane life and recovery deteriorates over<br />
time and biofouling plays a major factor in this<br />
phenomena. In the hot temperature conditions<br />
of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> this is a particular concern. There<br />
are, however, recent innovations based on<br />
nanofiltration processes, which would replace<br />
conventional pre-treatment methods which<br />
would significantly improve the recovery and<br />
membrane life. The cost of the water under the<br />
new pre-treatment scheme need to be re-evaluated<br />
and adjusted over long period pf operation<br />
to validate such improvements.<br />
More large capacity plants have been commissioned<br />
in the region and both Saudi Arabia and<br />
Kuwait have invested in this challenge.<br />
Near-Future Capacity Developments<br />
Further increases in capacity are planned for<br />
the coming 5 years and include the following<br />
projects:<br />
• Taweelah B IWPP (TAPCO) will come online<br />
in late 2008 adding 69MGD in total over a<br />
period of time (ADWEC 2008b).<br />
• A second plant is also being constructed at<br />
Qidfa in Fujairah, which will have a net<br />
capacity of 132 MGD. Some of the capacity of<br />
Fujairah 2 will meet <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> emirate’s<br />
needs but some will be exported to the North<br />
Emirates. For the water desalination, the<br />
plant will use a combination of MED (455,000<br />
cubic meter of water per day) and RO<br />
(136,500 cubic meter of water per day) technology.<br />
• In July 2008, the Build Own Operate (BOO)<br />
contract for Shuweihat S2 IWPP was awarded<br />
to GDF Suez; GDF Suez and ADWEA also<br />
signed a 20-year power and water purchase<br />
agreement. In the same month the USD810<br />
million EPC contract for the power generation<br />
facility was awarded to Samsung<br />
Corporation and the USD800 million EPC<br />
contract for the desalination facility was<br />
awarded to Doosan Heavy Industries (Zawya<br />
Projects, 2008).<br />
• A third system a Shuweihat (S3) has been<br />
offered to the Japanese contractor Marubeni<br />
(MEED, 2008).<br />
The Storage and Transmission of<br />
Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
The total storage capacity available at desalination<br />
plants is one day’s production capacity as<br />
per the requirements of Transco’s <strong>Water</strong><br />
Transmission Code (version 3). The exception<br />
to this will be at Fujairah 2 where site constraints<br />
will limit storage to 50MGD. Other<br />
than this, there is some small storage capacity<br />
at distribution sites. In total very little strategic<br />
storage exists, i.e. some 650 MIG in addition to<br />
the one day’s production at the plants.<br />
The transmission of water involves two main<br />
organizations. Trancsco is responsible for transporting<br />
the water from the IWPP’s to the two distribution<br />
companies of Al Ain and <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>,<br />
and contractual agreements exist at each set of<br />
connections. The major developments in water<br />
trunk mains in the last few years have markedly<br />
increased the water supply to the regions. In<br />
particular, water supply to Al Ain has increased<br />
by 20 MIGD which was mainly achieved by the<br />
new 185 km transmission line from Fujairah.<br />
Most of the customers in the Emirate are now<br />
connected to the distribution network and a<br />
very high percentage of them receive a continuous<br />
supply of water.<br />
Transco estimate the losses in the trunk mains<br />
to be less than 2% (Dandachi, 2008). The high<br />
pressure of the water carried through these<br />
pipelines ensures that leaks are soon visible<br />
through marked water losses. In the distribution<br />
company networks, losses are likely to be<br />
more given the age of some of the pipelines and<br />
connections. Al Mariekhi (2008) estimates that<br />
water losses are around 35% of the received<br />
amount for the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Distribution<br />
Company (ADDC). Other sources, (ADWEC<br />
and RSB personal communication) estimate<br />
physical leakage from the system to be around<br />
18-22%. Other unaccounted for water losses<br />
resulted from unregistered or unmeasured connections.<br />
Currently, it is hard to define accurately the<br />
physical losses as not all areas and connections<br />
are metered. In order to address this<br />
problem, the distribution companies are in the<br />
process of completing a major program of<br />
installing automatic smart meters to all outlets,<br />
to ensure a more accurate accounting of<br />
losses. This will allows the companies to detect<br />
both how much and where leaks are occurring<br />
and so focus repair works. This program of<br />
meter installation is to be welcomed and<br />
reflects similar initiatives in many countries to<br />
reduce losses in the system. In Singapore, for<br />
example, all meters are replaced on a 5 year<br />
cycle to ensure accuracy in readings. This has<br />
been found to be both cost and environmentally<br />
effective.<br />
Current Status of Desalinated<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Production by Small Private<br />
Enterprises<br />
The production of desalinated water for agriculture<br />
and small communities involves small<br />
130<br />
131
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
decentralized brackish water reverse osmosis<br />
(BWRO) plants and the size of these units<br />
varies from around 25 000 -75 000 gallons a day.<br />
They are powered by electricity from the<br />
National Grid, but there is no available data on<br />
their energy consumption as they are private<br />
enterprises with no need to publish data on<br />
their operations.<br />
These plants are not subject to an environmental<br />
assessment or the regulatory control of the<br />
RSB or EAD. From field analysis undertaken by<br />
this report’s team it was found that the disposal<br />
of the brine is not controlled and often<br />
involves dumping it in the desert with environmental<br />
pollution. (There is an urgent need to<br />
review these operations to ensure many aspects<br />
of protection, including environmental, are in<br />
place.<br />
Energy Requirements for <strong>Water</strong><br />
Production<br />
The energy demand for desalination plants is<br />
high. Thermal processes are obviously thermal<br />
energy (steam) intensive, while RO<br />
plants depend on electrical energy for pumping.<br />
MSF and MED require heat at 70-130°C<br />
and use 25-200 kWh/water m_. Reverse<br />
Osmosis needs about 4-6 kWh kWh/water m_<br />
for inland sea water (depending on its salt<br />
content), whilst for brackish water and reclamation<br />
of municipal wastewater RO requires<br />
about 1 kWh/m3 (World Nuclear Association,<br />
2008). The relative energy costs presently<br />
quoted for RO: MED: MSF: are 1: 1.4: 2 per<br />
unit mass of desalinated water produced. It<br />
would be useful to have actual figures for <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> in this comparison.<br />
Current Energy supply<br />
Currently most of the energy for co-generation<br />
plants in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is derived from natural<br />
gas; either from the Emirate’s own gas<br />
supply network or the Dolphin Gas Pipeline<br />
from Qatar (see Figure 2.2). The Fujairah I<br />
plant is supplied with natural gas from Oman,<br />
and the completion of the Dolphin Pipeline<br />
extension to Oman will ensure an increased<br />
supply will be available. Since 2006, actual gas<br />
supply shortages at current desalination<br />
plants has lead to the use of fuel, gas and<br />
crude oil being used to supplement supplies<br />
at certain times.<br />
The total energy requirements for the sector<br />
will grow as more desalination plants are<br />
required in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to meet future water<br />
demand. Meeting these energy needs will<br />
require careful consideration as gas supply constraints<br />
from Qatar are likely to limit available<br />
capacity unless energy can be provided from<br />
other sources.<br />
Future Possible Energy Sources and<br />
their Environmental Implications<br />
The various possibilities for future energy<br />
sources to augment supplies from the current<br />
sources have been discussed by many<br />
researchers (ADWEC, 2008b). The choices<br />
available do not make decision making an<br />
easy task when variables such as fuel and<br />
energy security, and environmental conditions<br />
are taken into account. In terms of the environment,<br />
the alternative of coal-fired power<br />
stations would bring environmental pollution<br />
problems; <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in an area of high air<br />
atmospheric pressure so diffusion of pollutants<br />
is limited. Oil fired-power stations have<br />
again an environmental air pollution problem<br />
but also an opportunity cost in burning oil<br />
that might be otherwise be sold on the export<br />
market (ADWEC, 2008b).<br />
Of course renewable energy offers a less damaging<br />
environmental option and various studies in<br />
other countries have been undertaken to this<br />
end (Mathioulakis et al, 2007). The<br />
Government of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> launched Masdar, a<br />
company whose core business is to investigate<br />
and invest in alternative renewable energy<br />
resources, primarily for power generation and<br />
water desalination. Two possible renewable<br />
energy resources exist in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>; solar systems<br />
of either the thermal or photovoltaic (PV)<br />
types and wind power.<br />
Solar intensity in the Gulf region can exceed 1<br />
kw/m2 and availability throughout the year is<br />
relatively high although of course limited<br />
through diurnal cycles. Many researchers outside<br />
of Masdar have been investigating the use<br />
of solar power in desalination (Delgado-Torres<br />
and García-Rodríguez, 2007; Trieb and Müller-<br />
Steinhagen, 2008; Bermudez-Contreras et al,<br />
2008; Bardi, 2008; Qiblawey and Banat, 2008).<br />
However, the current technology does not offer<br />
at the moment the capacity or security required<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, but the results of recent moves<br />
towards large-scale solar fields in the Emirate<br />
as well as developments internationally (see<br />
Box 2.1) should be followed closely.<br />
A clear decision to evaluate and develop<br />
nuclear energy was signaled with the publication<br />
of a policy white paper in April 2008 (UAE<br />
Government, 2008). This strategy will bring<br />
increased energy reliability from ~2017<br />
onwards although stringent environmental regulation<br />
will be needed to protect the local environment.<br />
There will however, be a gap in supplies,<br />
as calculated by ADWEC (2008b) before<br />
then and various options including increase<br />
local gas provision and demand management<br />
will need to be seriously considered.<br />
The most important implication of the policy<br />
decision to supply energy through nuclear energy<br />
is that water production by thermal technologies<br />
will be prohibitively energy inefficient.<br />
This will mean that water and power produc-<br />
Box 2.1<br />
Siemens Energy has been awarded an order<br />
to supply the largest ever fully solar-powered<br />
steam turbine-generator set for the<br />
first commercial solar tower power plant<br />
project to break ground in the U.S. The purchaser<br />
is BrightSource Energy, Inc., a developer<br />
of utility-scale solar power plants. The<br />
123-megawatt (MW) steam turbine-generator<br />
set will be operated at BrightSource’s<br />
Ivanpah Solar Complex in Southern<br />
California’s Mojave Desert.<br />
Siemens will supply a reheat SST-900 industrial<br />
steam turbine, which was specially<br />
adapted to meet solar technology requirements,<br />
for BrightSource’s first 100-MW plant<br />
at its Ivanpah Solar Power Complex. This<br />
type of turbine offers very high efficiency<br />
under varying operating conditions. With<br />
maximum steam data similar to conventional<br />
fossil-fired plants, the SST-900 design also<br />
allows for flexible operation with load swings<br />
and frequent starting and stopping. The<br />
units are shipped fully assembled to shorten<br />
the installation time. The turbine will be<br />
manufactured in Sweden, and the generator<br />
in Germany, and both are scheduled to be<br />
delivered to the site in early 2011. The plant<br />
is expected to be operational and supplying<br />
clean solar energy to more than 35,000<br />
households in the fourth quarter of 2011.<br />
Source: Masdar World Future Energy News<br />
January 2009<br />
tion in new facilities are likely to be de-coupled.<br />
This will in turn raise arguments concerning the<br />
relative energy efficiencies and environmental<br />
impacts of the various desalination technologies.<br />
Innovations in Desalination<br />
Technologies<br />
With the increasing use of desalination technology<br />
for water provision throughout the world it<br />
132<br />
133
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
is unsurprising that there are major research<br />
efforts to in developing technology to reduce<br />
both the energy and capital costs of current systems.<br />
The current moves already in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
to integrated MSF-MED or MED-RO systems<br />
will increase the energy efficiency of operations.<br />
Other refinements are in the improving processing<br />
where improved feed water pre-treatment,<br />
particularly in the case of RO systems, is increasing<br />
efficiency.<br />
In addition to technology modification, entirely<br />
new process concepts are under consideration<br />
for possible water desalination in future decades.<br />
Amongst these are: humidification – dehumidification<br />
processes, forward osmosis, membrane<br />
distillation, gas hydrate affinity and capacitance<br />
deionization processes, but all are at early stages<br />
of process research and can only be expected to<br />
provide possible long term solutions.<br />
Forward Osmosis<br />
The forward osmosis (FO) process uses an<br />
ammonium bicarbonate draw solution to extract<br />
water from saline feed water across a semi-permeable<br />
polymeric membrane. Very large osmotic<br />
pressures generated by the highly soluble ammonium<br />
bicarbonate draw solution yield high water<br />
fluxes and can result in very high feed water<br />
recoveries. Upon moderate heating, ammonium<br />
bicarbonate decomposes into ammonia and carbon<br />
dioxide gases that can be separated and<br />
recycled as draw solutes, leaving the fresh product<br />
water. Experiments with a laboratory-scale<br />
FO unit utilizing a flat sheet cellulose tri-acetate<br />
membrane demonstrated high product water<br />
flux and relatively high salt rejection.<br />
The FO process uses the natural tendency of<br />
water to flow in the direction of higher osmotic<br />
pressure, to draw water from the saline feed<br />
stream into a highly concentrated draw solution,<br />
thus effectively separating the fresh water permeate<br />
from the saline feed water stream. In<br />
order to achieve effective FO desalination, the<br />
draw solution used must have high osmotic pressure<br />
and contain solutes that are simple and economic<br />
to remove and reuse. In the ammonia–carbon<br />
dioxide FO process, the draw solution is<br />
composed of ammonium salts formed from the<br />
mixture of ammonia and carbon dioxide gases in<br />
an aqueous solution. The salt species formed<br />
include ammonium bicarbonate, and ammonium<br />
carbonate.<br />
Capacitance Carbon Deionization<br />
Process<br />
Capacitance Deionization (CDI) is an electrosorption<br />
process that removes inorganic ions<br />
by charge separation. An aqueous solution of , ,<br />
or other salts is passed between numerous pairs<br />
of carbon aerogel electrodes. After polarization,<br />
ions such as , are removed from the electrolyte<br />
by the imposed electric field and held as electric<br />
double layers at the surfaces of the electrodes.<br />
The effluent from the cell is purified water. This<br />
process is also capable of simultaneously<br />
removing a variety of other impurities. After the<br />
carbon aerogel electrodes became saturated<br />
with salt, breakthrough is observed. Electrodes<br />
are regenerated by electrical discharge prior to<br />
breakthrough in process applications, which<br />
allow the captured salt ions to be released into<br />
a relatively small, concentrated purge stream.<br />
The process has been developed for continuously<br />
removing ionic impurities from aqueous<br />
streams.<br />
The high surface area and good electrical conductivity<br />
of carbon aerogel makes them ideal<br />
for such applications. Carbon aerogel CDI<br />
appears to be an energy-efficient alternative to<br />
evaporation, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.<br />
The process has shown potential at the laboratory<br />
scale, but needs further examination on<br />
a larger scale before it can be considered as a<br />
realistic possibility for industrial scale seawater<br />
desalination.<br />
Environmental Impact of<br />
Desalination<br />
Any type of industrial production will have an<br />
impact on the environment which can be both<br />
positive and negative. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, this is<br />
taken on-board in the planning process and it is<br />
necessary for developers to undertake an<br />
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The<br />
problems of the developer being responsible for<br />
such an evaluation in usually a short time are<br />
well known (Buckley 1991; Fairweather 1989).<br />
There is a need for strategic cumulative analysis<br />
to be undertaken in any further developments<br />
to ensure the load capacity of this fragile environment<br />
is not being exceeded by desalination<br />
and other development activities.<br />
Co-generation processes, involving a combination<br />
of power generation and fresh water production<br />
are used, almost exclusively, to satisfy<br />
the electricity and fresh water requirements of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Their operations impact both the<br />
atmospheric and coastal marine compartments<br />
of the environment and it is these particular<br />
impacts that will be discussed in the present<br />
Section.<br />
Air Pollution<br />
Historically air pollution control was primarily<br />
concerned with smoke (ultra-fine particulate<br />
matter), aerosols and odour elimination. Less<br />
immediately obvious air pollutants, such as<br />
invisible odourless gases were frequently disregarded<br />
until more recent times when sensitive<br />
analytical techniques for a wide spectrum of<br />
gaseous phase pollutants become available and<br />
concerns were raised on changing acidity of<br />
air/land/water and the radiative impact of<br />
increased gases in the atmosphere.<br />
The impact of greenhouse gases on the climate<br />
has been studied and modelled in great detail<br />
(IPCC, 2007). These gases are not restricted to<br />
carbon dioxide alone, and comprise range of<br />
gaseous chemicals that are involved in either<br />
direct or indirect radiative forcing. They<br />
include, in the direct category, carbon dioxide,<br />
methane, nitrous oxide, per-fluorocarbons and<br />
sulphur hexafluoride, which are specified in the<br />
1997 Kyoto Protocol (the UAE ratified the<br />
Kyoto Protocol in 2005). The indirect category<br />
includes those gases that do not contribute<br />
directly to radiative forcing, but as a result of<br />
chemical reactions, increase radiative forcing in<br />
the atmosphere. They include carbon monoxide,<br />
volatile organic compounds, nitrogen<br />
oxides (NOx) and tropospheric compound (pollutant)<br />
release on the ozone layer.<br />
The thermal co-generation of electricity and<br />
desalinated water in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> involves the<br />
combustion of huge tonnages of fossil fuels, predominantly<br />
natural gas, but also in times of natural<br />
gas shortage, diesel/fuel oil. The major<br />
combustion products of both natural gas and<br />
fuel oil are carbon dioxide and water vapour<br />
thus contributing to greenhouse gas emissions.<br />
Comparisons between emissions from natural<br />
gas and diesel/fuel oil with respect to carbon<br />
dioxide production can be carried out on an<br />
equivalent theoretical heat production basis. If<br />
diesel oil is represented as n-pentadecane (n-<br />
C15H32), unit mass, completely burnt, produces<br />
1.132 times the mass of carbon dioxide<br />
than does unit mass of methane on the same<br />
basis. Also, the heat of combustion of methane<br />
is 1.137 times that of n-C15H32, on a unit mass<br />
basis. Hence, on an equivalent theoretical heat<br />
production basis, n-C15H32 produces 1.29 times<br />
more carbon dioxide than does methane.<br />
However, if this figure is corrected for inerts in<br />
unassociated natural gas, it reduces to ca. 1.2<br />
times, a figure that will reduce marginally if the<br />
carbon dioxide in the original gas is also taken<br />
into account. Thus 20 percent greater carbon<br />
dioxide production from diesel fuel is clearly<br />
significant as far as total greenhouse gas emissions<br />
are concerned.<br />
134 135
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
Depending on both the origins and the quality<br />
of the fossil fuel used, secondary combustion<br />
products including sulphur and nitrogen oxides<br />
are produced from impurities in the fuel. Two<br />
major categories of natural gas exist; associated<br />
gas produced simultaneously with crude oil<br />
from crude oil deposits and unassociated gas<br />
produced independently of crude oil from natural<br />
gas deposits. Associated gas is predominantly<br />
methane but is frequently sour, terminology<br />
that indicates significant sulphur content,<br />
and prior to its combustion requires purification<br />
(desulphurization), but such processes<br />
do not produce a fuel from which sulphur has<br />
been completely eliminated.<br />
Associated gas frequently contains a significant<br />
percentage of ethane, propane and n-butane,<br />
which are also removed for either cracking in<br />
the case of ethane or liquefied petroleum gas<br />
(LPG) production, in the case of both propane<br />
and n-butane. Unassociated natural gas can<br />
often be essentially sulphur free, but often comprises,<br />
in addition to methane, small percentages<br />
of ethane, nitrogen and carbon dioxide.<br />
When used as a fuel, the lowering of its heat of<br />
combustion by the nitrogen and the carbon<br />
dioxide (inerts) must be taken into account, as<br />
must additional carbon dioxide passing to the<br />
stack. Generally, unassociated gas will be more<br />
than 92 volume percent methane. When considering<br />
carbon dioxide production from unassociated<br />
natural gas combustion, the lowering of<br />
the heat of combustion per unit mass of gas<br />
must also be taken into consideration.<br />
In addition to greenhouse gases, fossil fuel combustion<br />
brings about the oxidation of carbon,<br />
sulphur and nitrogen. The resulting impact is<br />
greatest on the atmosphere and the products of<br />
subsequent chemical and physical reactions<br />
eventually leads to acidic compounds being<br />
returned to the Earth’s surface either as wet<br />
deposition (washout or rainout) which includes<br />
the flux of all those components that are carried<br />
to the Earth’s surface by rain, i.e., those dissolved<br />
and particulate substances contained in<br />
rain, or as dry deposition, as the flux of particles<br />
and gases, to the surface in the absence of rain.<br />
Deposition also occurs through fog aerosols and<br />
droplets, which are deposited on vegetation<br />
and on the surfaces of structures, particularly<br />
reinforced concrete surfaces, which require an<br />
alkaline environment for the maintenance of<br />
their longer term integrity.<br />
Measures in place in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to limit the<br />
impact involve regulating emissions through<br />
the licence of each PWPA. The Federal<br />
Environment Agency (FEA), in order to comply<br />
with Law No. (24) 1999 the Protection and<br />
Development of the Environment and subsequent<br />
directives, have set guideline limits on<br />
gaseous and these various standards. These<br />
actual standards vary with each IWPP and<br />
have become more stringent, reflecting or<br />
exceeding the 2006 FEA guidelines, over time.<br />
Whilst these are useful guidelines, they do not<br />
include standards for the main greenhouse<br />
gases, and are based on WHO limits rather<br />
than those suited to local <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> conditions.<br />
However, the RSB require in addition<br />
the submission of monthly reports of air quality<br />
from the various sites and this includes<br />
values for CO2.<br />
Coastal Marine Zone Pollution<br />
The coastal marine zone acts as the source of<br />
the seawater feed for desalination plants and<br />
also as the sink for residual concentrated brine,<br />
the by-product of seawater desalination. The<br />
natural conditions of the Gulf waters are<br />
remarkably variable especially in terms of temperature<br />
and salinity. The minimum and maximum<br />
temperature for EAD collected data<br />
(2002-2005) at various monitoring stations<br />
along the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> coastline at the depths of<br />
surf, 5m and 10m, showed surprisingly little<br />
variation between the sites, or with depth.<br />
Maximum values were around 35oC<br />
whilst minimum was around 20oC.<br />
Salinity showed more variation and<br />
the values are given in Figure 2.2.<br />
The high maximum salinity levels<br />
have implications for future desalination<br />
processing.<br />
The environmental impacts on<br />
marine water result from both physical<br />
and chemical changes to the<br />
water. The main problem is the temperature<br />
of the discharge effluent<br />
which is often substantially higher<br />
than natural ambient condition in<br />
the seas. Cooling this water is difficult<br />
given the nature of the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> climate. The second major<br />
problem is the salinity of the discharge<br />
brines which by definition is<br />
higher than that of the marine environment.<br />
There are also problems<br />
associated with brines floating or<br />
sinking and not dispersing on discharge.<br />
Diffusers add to the discharge<br />
pipes can help relieve this<br />
problem In addition, the discharged brine also<br />
contains residual bioactive additives which are<br />
added to the seawater feed to desalination<br />
plants in order to reduce biofouling and organism<br />
mediated corrosion. Biofouling results<br />
from the build-up of biofilms, which seriously<br />
affect pipe flow and pumping power requirements<br />
(Characklis, 1973). Unfortunately, the<br />
fate of the eco-toxic compounds employed is as<br />
constituents of the waste brine stream returned<br />
to sink.<br />
The volumetric flows of waste brine per unit<br />
mass of desalinated water produced depend on<br />
desalination plant operating practice and technologies<br />
use, where volumetric brine flows can<br />
vary between 15 percent and 40 percent of the<br />
feed seawater flow. With higher relative brine<br />
flows, both warming effects and biocide mass<br />
Figure 2.2 Maximum and Minimum Salinity Values for Coastal<br />
Monitoring Sites 2002-2005<br />
Source: EAD data<br />
discharge will be higher than in the case of<br />
lower relative brine flows.<br />
To mange this in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, water quality limits<br />
to intake and discharge are set by the RSB<br />
as part of the license agreement with each<br />
IWPP. As with the air emissions, these standards<br />
have increased in stringency and are in<br />
line with those limits introduced by the FEA in<br />
2006 for the protection of the marine environment<br />
from emissions from industrial sources.<br />
In terms of measured impact of current desalination<br />
operations on the environment there has<br />
been only limited research undertaken. Any<br />
type of studies today are limited by access;<br />
researchers are not allowed within 500m of the<br />
operating systems and whilst this is understandable<br />
in terms of health and safety, any<br />
136 137
Annex 2. Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
impacts on water quality and so habitat and<br />
species is not being measured in these localities.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The upcoming energy limitations are going to<br />
bring a strain to developing future desalination<br />
capacity in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. It is important to consider<br />
in a more integrated way all the possible<br />
sources of water, and the potential technologies<br />
involved, to generate drinking water for future<br />
growing populations.<br />
Management<br />
1) Valuing Desalinated <strong>Water</strong><br />
There is a clear need to increase the amount of<br />
potable desalinated water that is required for<br />
human consumption and use (see Annex 4). It<br />
is therefore important that the complete cost of<br />
potable desalinated water is calculated and<br />
then allocation decisions made to maximise the<br />
benefits from this. The water produced by the<br />
IWPPs is of a high-grade and should be used for<br />
purposes that reflect this.<br />
2) Developing Alternative Sources<br />
There is also a clear need to consider future<br />
desalinated water sources and these possibilities<br />
should be linked with the various sectors<br />
they will be used in. For example desalinating<br />
groundwater will yield water that has higher<br />
concentrations of some chemicals such as bromate<br />
that cannot be used directly by humans,<br />
but this may be used in other water use sectors<br />
such as irrigation or industry.<br />
3) Energy and Desalination<br />
In the short-term there is a need to maximise the<br />
use of the energy available to desalinate water<br />
for economic and environmental efficiencies. Offpeak<br />
electricity times should be used to desalinate<br />
water using RO at hybrid plants where possible.<br />
Over a longer period of time it is important<br />
to consider in the planning of extra capacity, the<br />
impact of moves towards nuclear power.<br />
Investments in the near-future should be as flexible<br />
as possible so that any changes in energy<br />
source can be accommodated. The use of offpeak<br />
electricity in future desalination options,<br />
even from outside the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> system, should<br />
be maximised where possible to reduce the burden<br />
on current power production systems. <strong>Water</strong><br />
is able to be stored, electricity cannot.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
4) Integrating Data<br />
There is little real knowledge of the current<br />
impacts of desalination on the marine and<br />
coastal environments in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Given the<br />
various stresses on the seas from many aspects<br />
of development it is important that greater<br />
understanding is gained. There is a need to<br />
bring together the monthly data on effluent<br />
emissions that are produced by the IWPPS<br />
and integrate this with the current and future<br />
monitoring so that a more thorough understanding<br />
of the<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
5) Brine Disposal<br />
A government/private sector organization<br />
should be established that is responsible for<br />
collecting, treating as necessary and disposing<br />
of the brine resulting from all small scale<br />
desalination operations. It is should be suitably<br />
regulated.<br />
References<br />
- <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company, 2008.<br />
Statistical Report 1998-2007. ADWEC, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
- ADWEC, 2008b. Statement of Future Capacity<br />
Requirements 2008-2030. Report, ADWEC, <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
- Al Mareikhi, A.S. (2008) General Manager, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Distribution Company, Personal communication.<br />
- Bardi, U., 2008, Fresh water production by means of<br />
solar concentration: the AQUASOLIS project,<br />
Desalination, 220, 588-591.<br />
- Bermudez-Contreras, A., Thomson, Murray., Infield,<br />
D.G. (2008) Renewable energy powered desalination<br />
in Baja California Sur, Mexico Desalination, 220, 431-<br />
440.<br />
- Buckley, R.C. 1991: How accurate are environmental<br />
impact predictions. Ambio 20, 161-162.<br />
- Fairweather, P.G. 1989: Environmental impact<br />
assessment: where is the science in EIA Search 20,<br />
141 - 144.<br />
- Characklis, W.G. <strong>Water</strong> Res., 7, MS 291 (1973).<br />
- Dandachi, N. (2008) Dr Najib Dandachi Network<br />
Services Director TRANSCO, personal communication.<br />
- Delgado-Torres, L. García-Rodríguez A.M. (2007).<br />
Status of solar thermal-driven reverse osmosis desalination,<br />
Desalination, 216, 242-251.<br />
- Desalination Markets 2007, A Global Forecast, A<br />
Global <strong>Water</strong> Intelligence publication, 2007<br />
- El-Nashar, A.M. Desalination, 134, 7 (2001)<br />
- Lee, J. et al., Desalination of a thermal power plant<br />
wastewater by membrane capacitive deionization,<br />
Desalination, 196 (2006) 125.<br />
- Mathioulakis, E. , Belessiotis, V., and Delyannis,<br />
E.(2007) Desalination by using alternative energy:<br />
Review and state-of-the-art. Desalination, 203, 346-<br />
365.<br />
- McCutcheon, J. et al., A novel ammonia--carbon dioxide<br />
forward (direct) osmosis desalination process,<br />
Desalination, 174 (2005) 1.<br />
- Mathioulakis, E. et al., Desalination by using alternative<br />
energy: Review and state-of-the-art,<br />
Desalination, 203 (2007) 346.<br />
- Qiblawey, H.M. Banat, F. (2008). Solar thermal<br />
desalination technologies Desalination, Volume 220,<br />
633-644.<br />
- Stumm, W. et al., Naturwissenschaften, 70, 216<br />
(1983).<br />
- Stumm, W. et al., Environ. Sci. Technol., 21, 8 (1987).<br />
- Trieb, F., Müller-Steinhagen, H. (2008) ,Concentrating<br />
solar power for seawater desalination in the Middle<br />
East and North Africa, Desalination, Volume 220, 165-<br />
183.<br />
- Waldman, J.M. et al., Science, 218, 677 (1982).<br />
- UAE Government, 2008. Policy of the United Arab<br />
Emirates on the Evaluation and Potential<br />
Development of Peaceful Nuclear Energy.<br />
- World Nuclear Assocation (2008) Nuclear<br />
Desalination<br />
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf71.html<br />
(accessed 2nd November 2008).<br />
- Zawya Projects, (2008). ADWEA - Shuweihat 2 IWPP.<br />
http://www.zawya.com/projects/project.cfm/pid10070<br />
7105430/ADWEA%20-<br />
%20Shuweihat%202%20IWPPcc (accessed 2nd<br />
November, 2008).<br />
138 139
Annex 3.<br />
Wastewater<br />
141
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
Introduction<br />
The reuse of safe, treated wastewater is an ever<br />
increasing priority in severely water-limited<br />
regions of the world. The wastewater treatment<br />
strategy employed in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is one of<br />
global collection and treatment at central<br />
treatment facilities with Treated Sewage<br />
Effluent (TSE) being returned to the populated<br />
areas for irrigation purposes. This strategy<br />
results in the comprehensive reuse of a valuable<br />
commodity that plays the major role in<br />
‘greening’ the Emirate’s urban areas.<br />
Treated wastewater production is dependent<br />
on the volume of polluted water discharged to<br />
sewers by domestic, municipal, and industrial<br />
users. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, polluted water is a<br />
restricted resource as a large proportion of<br />
potable water is devoted to non-human use,<br />
and it is therefore not available for treatment<br />
and re-use and so is lost to the system (see<br />
Annex 4).<br />
Current Wastewater Treatment<br />
Practices<br />
The principal organization responsible and<br />
licensed for wastewater collection and conveyance,<br />
treatment and disposal activities for<br />
the entire Emirate is the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage<br />
Services Company (ADSSC). Their activities<br />
will be augmented by the developments of the<br />
Al Etihad Biwater Wastewater Company<br />
(PJSC) which received its licence to operate in<br />
June 2008.<br />
Collection<br />
The ADSSC currently owns and maintains<br />
approximately 5,250km of gravity sewers, and<br />
500km of rising mains and their asset data is<br />
shown in the Table 3.1 below. On <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Island and the mainland the collection network<br />
is split into catchments and flows gravitate to a<br />
series of pumping stations that convey them to<br />
the treatment works.<br />
ADSSC own, operate and maintain approximately<br />
250 pumping stations. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Island<br />
and the mainland are served by one large wastewater<br />
treatment works, Mafraq WTW<br />
(Wastewater Treatment Works), which receives<br />
an average daily flow of 391Ml/d, an average<br />
daily peak flow of 603Ml/d, and has a design<br />
capacity of 260Ml/d.<br />
Al Ain is served by Zakher WTW and treats an<br />
average daily flow of 105 Ml/d, a daily peak flow<br />
of 124 Ml/d, and has a design capacity of 84Ml/d<br />
(ADSSC, 2008, personal communication).<br />
In the current sewage collection network, 87%<br />
of the total pipe length are gravity sewers with<br />
the remaining 10% and 3% sewage and treated<br />
effluent rising mains respectively. This network<br />
has been gradually expanded over the last 30<br />
years so is variable in age - the average age of<br />
gravity sewers on <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Island is 17 years.<br />
Half the total length of gravity sewers on <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Island (530 km) was built before 1990,<br />
with 40% older than 20 years and 25% more than<br />
25 years.<br />
The majority of the pipes, approximately 80%,<br />
are made from glass reinforced plastic (GRP).<br />
There is a large variance in pipe condition due<br />
to changes in technology, material quality,<br />
workmanship and technical standards over the<br />
last 20 or 30 years.<br />
ADSSC estimate that there is little leakage, but<br />
infiltration is a significant issue. Infiltrating<br />
groundwater has high salinity and changes the<br />
chemistry of the sewage, thus affecting the biochemical<br />
processing at the treatment works<br />
with potential effects on the final effluent quality<br />
(ADSSC/Hyder, 2008).<br />
A major development to expand the network<br />
will be the construction of a deep sewage tunnel,<br />
through the Strategic Tunnel<br />
Enhancement Programme (STEP) program,<br />
which will be more than 20m below the surface<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and should be completed by<br />
2012/13. This project will enable the collection of<br />
sewage from the entire catchment including the<br />
surrounding island developments and its delivery<br />
to a new pumping station that will pump<br />
flows to the Mafraq and Al Wathba WTWs. This<br />
project will allow the decommissioning of 30<br />
pumping stations from the current network.<br />
One major risk to this infrastructure project is<br />
that its hydraulic design is based on a traditional<br />
sewage system receiving all wastewaters.<br />
Should grey water collection and treatment systems<br />
be introduced into the Emirate on a large<br />
scale, the hydraulic design will be compromised,<br />
Table 3.1 Asset Base and Loading of ADSSC<br />
Asset Data<br />
Source: ADSSC, personal communication<br />
resulting in significant operational issues for the<br />
sewerage network and treatment works.<br />
The recent licensing of Al Etihad Biwater Waste<br />
<strong>Water</strong> company (PJSC) will lead to the development<br />
of two new large WTWs: one for the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> city and metropolitan area (Al Wathba)<br />
and the other for Al Ain (Al Saad). The capacity<br />
of these two new plants is 345 000 m 3 /day and<br />
92 000 m 3 /day respectively<br />
Treatment and Effluent Quality<br />
The treatment of domestic and municipal<br />
wastewater in centralized treatment works<br />
has been practised in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
Area of sewerage<br />
district km 255 12,547 11,106 24,577 19,121 67,605<br />
Total length of sewer km 530 1,699 2,079 106 140 4,554<br />
Total length of sewer<br />
> 400mm km 63 315 166 24 14 582<br />
Total length of<br />
pumping main<br />
km 39 242 136 48 33 497<br />
Total no. of pumping<br />
stations nr 36 92 67 22 24 241<br />
Total capacity of<br />
pumping stations l/s 2,052 6,256 8,040 1,683 1,416 19,447<br />
Process Loading Data<br />
Region 1<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Island MSF<br />
Region 2<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Mainland<br />
Region 3<br />
Al Ain &<br />
Remote Areas<br />
Region 4<br />
Western<br />
Region 1<br />
Region 5<br />
Western<br />
Region 2<br />
Average daily flow<br />
handled by region Ml/d 192 200 114 15 5 524<br />
Annual daily peak<br />
flow handled by region Ml/d 229 375 134 16 6 760<br />
Total<br />
Residential<br />
Population by Region nr 539,142 489,100 353,097 63,794 42,255 1,487,388<br />
142 143
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> since 1973. At present ADSSC own,<br />
operate and maintain 32 sewage treatment<br />
works (ADSSC, 2007). Twenty-three of these<br />
are traditional treatment plants, four package<br />
plants, 3 Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) in Al Ain<br />
and 2 bio-filter plants. Of the 23 traditional<br />
plants, two very large works serve <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
(Mafraq) city and surrounding metropolitan<br />
area and Al Ain (Zakher) with equivalent populations<br />
of 1,320,333 and 377,750 respectively.<br />
The remaining 24 works serve relatively smaller<br />
dispersed communities with equivalent populations<br />
ranging from 27 to 11,750.<br />
The two large works, Mafraq and Zakher, treat<br />
some 95% of the polluted wastewater produced,<br />
including trade and some industrial aqueous<br />
effluent streams that are released into the sewer<br />
network. Both large plants are significantly overloaded<br />
compared with their design hydraulic<br />
flows. The raw sewage in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city is characterised<br />
as low strength in terms of organic content<br />
while that at Al Zakher is medium strength<br />
(Table 3.2).<br />
Table 3.2 Catchment Flow within UAE <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate (Mm3/yr)<br />
Parameter Mafraq Al Zakher<br />
pH - 7.4<br />
BOD * 196 331<br />
COD * 300 621<br />
TSS * 163 343<br />
TDS * 2,338 737<br />
Conductivity 2 4,600 1,419<br />
Alkalinity 223 285<br />
T-Hardness 460 217<br />
Ammonia-N 28 -<br />
Total P 13 10.8 as PO4<br />
Chloride 1,376 248<br />
*mg/l; 1= Number; 2= Micro Siemens; 3 = Unit.<br />
Source: ADSSC, 2007<br />
At present there are few heavy metals and other<br />
toxic substances discharged into the system.<br />
However, with increasing industrialization, as<br />
cited in recent development plans for the<br />
Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council,<br />
2007), this will undoubtedly result in potential<br />
increases in possible heavy metals contamination<br />
of wastewater. Whilst technologies may be<br />
used to remove these during treatment, the only<br />
genuinely successful means for their elimination<br />
remains at source, i.e., cleaner production and<br />
prevention of their entry into wastewater.<br />
ADSSC and the RSB are currently working on<br />
trade effluent standards to begin to control this.<br />
The Mafraq works is conducted on a contract<br />
basis by WESCO. On our visit to the treatment<br />
works the overall impression gained was of a<br />
highly professional, effective, and efficient operation.<br />
The basic technology employed in both<br />
phases of the present Mafraq works is conventional<br />
activated sludge treatment involving preliminary<br />
treatment in the form of coarse and fine<br />
screening, conventional primary gravity sedimentation,<br />
short (two hour) secondary aeration<br />
for both carbonaceous pollutant elimination<br />
and nitrification (conversion of ammonia to<br />
nitrate), conventional secondary gravity sedimentation,<br />
followed by filtration through gravity<br />
sand filters and chlorination before the TSE is<br />
discharged from the works. Incidental denitrification<br />
(nitrate conversion to either N 2 or N 2 O)<br />
occurs to a degree, estimated at 30%. Extensive<br />
odour control measures in the form of evacuated<br />
covers for the primary treatment stage are<br />
employed at the works.<br />
Hydrogen sulphide emission is a particular<br />
problem due to the action of sulphate reducing<br />
bacteria on sulphate present in the untreated<br />
wastewater under partially anoxic conditions.<br />
This is despite probable overall oxic condition of<br />
the wastewater upon receipt at the works.<br />
Although analytical results were not made available,<br />
it seems probable that the contribution of<br />
volatile carboxylic acids to the Mafraq odour<br />
problem is minor and of negligible consequence.<br />
Hydrogen sulphide is a major health and safety<br />
hazard, being both anaesthetic and toxic and,<br />
hence, must be avoided in enclosed spaces<br />
which may be potential work areas. The root<br />
cause of hydrogen sulphide generation at<br />
Mafraq is most probably sea or ground water<br />
infiltration into the sewer network. At Zakher,<br />
similar problems might be attributed to the sulphate<br />
concentration in the potable water supply.<br />
The resulting range values for effluent quality<br />
parameters (Table 3.3) and their variation over<br />
Table 3.3: Characteristics of Influent and Effluent<br />
from Mafraq WWT<br />
Parameter Influent Effluent<br />
BOD* 196 0.8<br />
COD* 300 5<br />
TSS* 163 2<br />
TDS* 2,338 2,245<br />
Conductivity 2 4,600 4,200<br />
Turbidity 3 - 1.6<br />
TOC - -<br />
Alkalinity 223 48<br />
T-Hardness 460 450<br />
Ammonia-N 28 0.4<br />
Nitrite - 0.1<br />
Nitrate - 8.5<br />
Na - 630<br />
Ca - 23.7<br />
Total P 13 7<br />
Chloride 1,376 1,282<br />
Sulphate - 7.2<br />
Residual Cl 2 20 2.3<br />
Coliforms 1 - 4<br />
E-Coli 1 - 1<br />
*mg/l; 1= Number; 2= Micro Siemens; 3 = Unit.<br />
Source: ADSSC, 2007<br />
Table 3.4 Effluent Quality from Mafraq Wastewater<br />
Treatment Works 2007<br />
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC<br />
TSS<br />
mg/l 2.5 2.8 2.5 2.5 3.1 2.6 1.9 2.1 2.4 3.5 2.7 2.3<br />
BOD<br />
mg/l 0.7 0.6 0.8 0.7 1 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 1.3 0.7 0.8<br />
NH 3<br />
mg/l 0.7 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.9 1.9 0.3 0.3 0.1<br />
Source: ADSSC, 2007<br />
the year 2007 (Table 3.4) meet WHO standards<br />
for re-use in irrigation.<br />
Both primary and secondary sludge produced at<br />
Mafraq works are subject to mesophilic (ca.<br />
37°C) anaerobic digestion (stabilization) in vertical<br />
cylindrical digesters of conventional design.<br />
Digested sludge dewatering is achieved with<br />
decanter type centrifuges, followed by air drying<br />
on open beds. Currently the by-product sludge<br />
goes to landfill but ADSSC are developing a<br />
biosolids strategy which will lead to the resource<br />
being either used as pellets in soil enrichment, or<br />
as a fuel. Between 46-85 tons of dry sludge were<br />
produced per day during 2007 (ADSSC, 2008).<br />
The biogas produced from the anaerobic sludge<br />
digestion process that uses methane: carbon<br />
dioxide mixture (ca. 2:1) is flared. This is considered<br />
to be the best option as digester heating is<br />
not required under ambient conditions in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> and methane release to atmosphere<br />
would have much greater climate-forcing effects<br />
than would carbon dioxide that is its combustion<br />
product.<br />
Distribution of Treated Sewage<br />
Effuent<br />
The monthly flows of TSE for 2007 are shown in<br />
Table 3.5.The developments of new plants at Al<br />
Wathba will bring increased availability rising<br />
to 5121 436 m 3 in 2012 with Phase 1, and eventually<br />
rising to 884 800 m 3 /day in 884 800 with<br />
144<br />
145
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
Phase 2 in 2025 (ADSSC/Hyder, 2008). Similarly<br />
in Al Ain the developments of Al Saad production<br />
will increase TSE availability to 135 137<br />
m 3 /day in 2012, to 206 204 m 3 /day in 2025<br />
(ADSSC/Hyder consulting, 2008).<br />
Most of the produced effluent is currently used<br />
in urban landscaping, so is transferred through<br />
the distribution network to the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and<br />
Al Ain municipalities. At the moment though<br />
approximately 140 000 m 3 /day from Mafraq<br />
WTW is discharged to the sea because of the<br />
restricted capacity of the irrigation distribution<br />
pipelines in the city (ADSSC/Hyder, 2008).<br />
The distribution of TSE involves infrastructure<br />
that are assets of two different organizations. In<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, TSE is transferred under gravity<br />
from Mafraq through the ADSSC mains network<br />
to storage reservoirs at the Effluent<br />
Distribution Centre. This is then pumped to the<br />
primary irrigation network of the Municipalities<br />
Department, at a maximum capacity of 115 000<br />
m 3 /day (when all construction and refurbishment<br />
is completed). This pumping capacity will<br />
Table 3.5 Mafraq WTW and Zakher WTW Monthly<br />
Flows of Effluent (m 3 /day) for 2007<br />
Parameter<br />
Mafraq m 3 /day<br />
(Phase 1 and 2)<br />
Zakher<br />
m 3 /day<br />
January 339571 90 005<br />
February 348119 91 771<br />
March 335451 91 419<br />
April 346096 98 634<br />
May 365007 102 944<br />
June 380589 99 677<br />
July 372251 99 582<br />
August 370327 100 986<br />
September 371559 103 898<br />
October 358303 104 153<br />
November 384602 105 903<br />
December 371671 109 449<br />
Source: ADSSC, personal communication 2008<br />
be supplemented by a new pumping station on<br />
the mainland delivering 35 000 m 3 /day.<br />
Similarly in Al Ain, the TSE is transferred from<br />
storage reservoirs through ADSSC twin transmission<br />
mains (900 and 600 mm diameter) to an<br />
intermediate storage reservoir (capacity of 12<br />
m3). The mains and the storage reservoirs have<br />
reached full capacity. The TSE is then pumped<br />
to Al Ain Municipality’s primary irrigation<br />
mains feeding up to 300 storage reservoirs<br />
(ADSSC/Hyder, 2008).<br />
The subsequent secondary delivery network in<br />
both areas is made up a range of different size<br />
pipes and the predominance of small to medium<br />
size pipes has been a major restriction to<br />
the use of TSE to date in both municipalities. It<br />
is important that these systems are upgraded<br />
to ensure the full potential of TSE can be<br />
achieved. The resulting shortfalls in TSE delivery<br />
in some areas for public landscapes are currently<br />
being met through the use of desalinated<br />
water and are estimated to be 44 000 m 3 /day on<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> island and adjacent islands<br />
(ADSSC/Hyder, 2008).<br />
Supply/demand Balance for<br />
Treated Sewage Effluent<br />
TSE in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate is solely used in<br />
landscape irrigation and is provided free of<br />
charge to the users. The current and future<br />
demand figures for this sector are shown in<br />
Table 3.6. This demand, however, is likely to<br />
increase not only from the landscaping of new<br />
developments (values included in Table 3.6),<br />
but also from the proposed district cooling of<br />
these areas. Any policy moves to use TSE in the<br />
irrigation of agriculture land or forestry will also<br />
add to this demand. The projected demand figures<br />
indicate a substantial shortfall in supply<br />
relative to demand in the future. In addition<br />
there is the complication of the annual cycle of<br />
production being out of phase with demand.<br />
Table 3.6 Current and Future Projected Demand for TSE of Llandscape Irrigation<br />
Parameter Current demand (m 3 /day) Demand by 2015 (m 3 /day) Demand by 2025 (m 3 /day)<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> island 187 000 250 000<br />
194 000<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> adjacent islands 83 000<br />
Potable water to hospitals,<br />
palaces and mosques 54 000 84 000<br />
Al Ain - city 113 860 118 870 125 920<br />
Al Ain — region 35 020 36 780 39 430<br />
Source: ADSSC/Hyder, 2008<br />
The summer is a time when many residents<br />
leave <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and so wastewater production<br />
falls, yet this is when the demand from vegetation<br />
is at its highest. The resulting differences in<br />
supply and demand will need to be addressed in<br />
the future in terms of priority use and should be<br />
considered in a holistic manner with all water<br />
use and supply sources.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ned Improvements to the<br />
Wastewater Infrastructure<br />
Triggered by the phenomenal growth rate experienced<br />
by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate in the recent<br />
years, the infrastructure improvement (growth,<br />
enhancement and maintenance) is an ongoing<br />
endeavour of ADSSC. ADSCC inherited an old<br />
and overstretched asset base from its predecessor<br />
in June 2005, but has developed, and is in the<br />
processing of implementing, a Capital<br />
Investment Program (CIP) to successfully<br />
'sweat' the existing system, whilst initiating and<br />
delivering optimized investment schemes. Based<br />
on a detailed master plan and derived from<br />
hydraulic assessment vis-à-vis demand forecast,<br />
some of the key drivers of CIP are as follows:<br />
• Continuity of Service & Maintenance of<br />
Security Standards;<br />
• Long-term ‘Minimum Redundancy’ Solutions;<br />
• Lowest Whole-life Cost;<br />
• Timely Service for Anticipated Loads; and<br />
• Minimum Disruption.<br />
In order to utilize the available limited internal<br />
and external resources (manpower and expertise<br />
specific), ADSSC has also moved forward<br />
from a 'project' concept to a broader 'program'<br />
approach. This is to be commended and will<br />
ensure a coherent approach to future developments.<br />
Environmental impacts of<br />
Wastewater Treatment<br />
The collection and treatment of wastewater<br />
is an important component of environmental<br />
and human health management, as it reduces<br />
the possibilities of pathogenic bacterial, viral<br />
and protozoans of the diseases endemic in<br />
the community. It also ensures fresh and<br />
marine water bodies are not polluted.<br />
There are, however, some impacts on the environment<br />
that are less beneficial and result from<br />
the consumption of energy, from the processing<br />
of the wastewater, and in the disposal of the<br />
sludge. Indirectly, wastewater irrigation can<br />
pose several threats to the environment via<br />
contamination by nutrients, heavy metals, and<br />
146 147
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
The introduction of municipal wastewater treatment<br />
has frequently been credited with the control<br />
of epidemics of waterborne diseases. In fact,<br />
the primary event responsible for such control<br />
was the transportation of faecally contaminated<br />
waterborne waste to remote treatment or disposal<br />
sites via the sewer network. Traditional<br />
municipal wastewater treatment has erroneously<br />
been assumed to effectively deactivate pathogenic<br />
agents present in sewage but, generally<br />
speaking, few effects of appropriate intensity to<br />
cause deactivation have been identified, apart<br />
from the biovoric activity of certain protozoans.<br />
However, what does occur during conventional<br />
municipal wastewater treatment is the partitionsalts.<br />
However, the risks can be noticeably<br />
reduced by appropriately matching effluent<br />
characteristics with land and plant production<br />
systems (Snow et al. 1999).<br />
Odour and Toxic Gas Control<br />
Municipal wastewater treatment has traditionally<br />
been associated with the production<br />
of unacceptable smells, from various sources,<br />
during the treatment process. The production<br />
of odours and toxic gases from municipal<br />
wastewater results from a number of causes,<br />
including the sulphate concentration in the<br />
wastewater and sewer residence time.<br />
Generally odour and toxic gas release occurs<br />
at the head-works, during primary sedimentation<br />
and during surface aeration. Higher<br />
ambient temperatures result in greater odour<br />
and toxic gas production and release. The<br />
Mafraq works has a major hydrogen sulphide<br />
problem, which is currently controlled by sedimentation<br />
tank covers and exhaust gas<br />
chemical scrubbing. Whilst these effects tend<br />
to be localized, they can be unpleasant for<br />
those in the immediate vicinity.<br />
By-product Sludge Disposal<br />
The solid products of wastewater treatment,<br />
the sludge, need to be handled with great care<br />
to avoid any impacts on human or environmental<br />
health. The prevalence of pathogens<br />
is considerable, especially food-borne<br />
pathogens that predominate. Most of the<br />
sludge in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is used for composting,<br />
although a small percentage does goes to<br />
landfill. There will inevitably be impacts on<br />
the soil and groundwater systems associated<br />
with any leaching of the material. The proposed<br />
move to develop facilities to process<br />
the sludge into pellets for fertilizer is important.<br />
Output from all the various plants<br />
should be included to reduce any pollution of<br />
groundwater resources.<br />
Energy Consumption<br />
Wastewater collection, treatment and distribution<br />
involve various activities that require energy<br />
and therefore have a carbon footprint. This<br />
has become the subject of various investigations<br />
in the world with results varying with<br />
treatment processing and distribution systems.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, the consumption of electricity in<br />
the wastewater processing in 2007 amounted to<br />
approximately 95 000 MWh/yr, with Mafraq consuming<br />
59 500 MWh/yr and 27 300 MWh/yr<br />
(ADFSSC, personal communication 2009).<br />
Taking the estimated carbon emission of 380 g<br />
equivalent per KWh this gives a carbon footprint<br />
of 36 100 tonnes/year.<br />
Background and Implications for<br />
Human Health of Wastewater<br />
Reuse<br />
There is understandably a concern with the use<br />
of TSE in any areas that involves contact with<br />
human beings. This section will review the<br />
background and implications for human health<br />
of wastewater reuse.<br />
By-product Sludge Treatment<br />
Municipal wastewater mirrors both the activities<br />
undertaken in, and the general health of the<br />
municipal drainage area responsible for, its production.<br />
Noxious components include pathogenic<br />
agents ranging from viruses, to a variety<br />
of micro- and macro-organisms derived from<br />
both human and animal faecal matter. These<br />
include pathogenic bacteria, protozoa and<br />
flukes, and eggs of intestinal worms. Should animal<br />
slaughterhouses (abattoirs), meat processing<br />
and/or animal waste rendering plants be discharging<br />
wastewater to a sewer in any particular<br />
drainage area, the additional, but miniscule, risk<br />
of prior release from specified waste materials<br />
must also be assessed. Although it is frequently<br />
claimed that municipal wastewater treatment<br />
focuses on the maintenance of public health and<br />
environmental safety, the removal or elimination<br />
during treatment of pathogenic, toxic or<br />
other noxious components from wastewater, is<br />
an incidental, rather than a planned event.<br />
Waste sewage sludge is frequently thought to<br />
have two parts: a flocculated microbial biomass,<br />
and the associated non-microbial solids<br />
that comprise the sludge wasted from secondary<br />
biotreatment. Most treatment works however<br />
also include waste primary sludge and, in a<br />
few cases, waste solids from preliminary treatment.<br />
Some toxic chemicals, depending on<br />
their physico-chemical properties, become<br />
sorbed to particulate matter removed during<br />
primary physical treatment, and hence, even if<br />
biodegradable, will not be biodegraded prior to<br />
incorporation into typical waste sewage sludge.<br />
The majority of pathogenic agents present in<br />
raw municipal wastewater are partitioned into<br />
waste secondary sewage sludge and will<br />
become a potentially problematical component.<br />
Hence, their ultimate fate depends on the efficacy<br />
of waste sewage sludge treatment and prescribed<br />
means of treated sludge utilization<br />
(most commonly as a soil conditioning agent<br />
and fertilizer). In spite of the risks frequently<br />
attributed to treated waste sludge utilization<br />
for soil conditioning and land fertilization, the<br />
widespread use of such practices has resulted in<br />
negligible evidence that epidemics of infectious<br />
human diseases can been traced to the carryover<br />
of active pathogenic agents in treated<br />
waste sewage sludge. However, the use of<br />
untreated settled raw sewage for irrigating<br />
salad vegetable and soft fruit crops is a regular<br />
and widespread source of human enteric infection.<br />
Without doubt, public perception of the<br />
risk of infection from appropriately treated<br />
waste sewage sludge that is recycled to land<br />
still requires concerted educational effort based<br />
on facts. Appropriate treatment involves both<br />
sludge stabilization and sludge hygienization.<br />
Disinfection involves one of two distinct mechanisms:<br />
either biocidal or biostatic. The former<br />
should result in complete pathogen inactivation,<br />
although isolated cases of recovery have<br />
been reported. In the case of the latter mechanism,<br />
removal of the active agent or physical<br />
condition preventing proliferation results in significant<br />
recovery of any pathogens present.<br />
Disinfection can be achieved as a result of the<br />
actions of noxious chemicals, or of physical<br />
effects resulting, for example, from elevated<br />
temperatures. In general, particulate matter<br />
such as waste sewage sludge solids exhibit<br />
adverse effects as far as chemical disinfectant<br />
efficacy is concerned. Thus, treatment at elevated<br />
temperature is the preferred means for<br />
pathogen elimination. Process economics dictate<br />
that maximum benefit must be derived<br />
from the potential heat of combustion of the<br />
biodegradable components of the waste sewage<br />
sludge and that process heat recovery must<br />
also be employed. The efficacy of waste sewage<br />
sludge disinfection (hygienization) depends<br />
both on the physiological state of pathogens<br />
present in the sludge undergoing treatment and<br />
the spectrum of activity of the process mediating<br />
bacteria involved.<br />
Chemical and Hygienic Quality<br />
148<br />
149
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
Table 3.7: Pathogens from Sewage Sludge [Partial list of pathogens that have been isolated<br />
from sewage sludge]<br />
Viruses<br />
Bacteria<br />
Opportunistic pathogens<br />
Yeasts<br />
Fungi<br />
Protozoa<br />
Cestodes (tape worms)<br />
Nematodes<br />
Source: Dumontet et al. 2001<br />
ing of pathogenic agents into sewage sludge,<br />
rather than into the clarified effluent discharged<br />
to tertiary treatment.<br />
In a relatively recent review, Dumontet et al.<br />
(2001) have discussed the pathogenic organisms<br />
present in both sewage and sewage<br />
sludge, with particular emphasis on stabilizing<br />
and hygienizing sludge for use in agriculture<br />
as a soil conditioning product. What is<br />
most important in this context is that, in all<br />
countries, including those that claim superior<br />
hygienic standards, the prevalence of<br />
pathogens in sewage is considerable and that<br />
it is usually food-borne pathogens that predominate.<br />
In Table 3.7 pathogens that have<br />
been isolated from sewage sludge are listed.<br />
No such table can be fully comprehensive,<br />
and additions will always be necessary, particularly<br />
as far as newly emerging pathogens<br />
are identified. Two such examples worthy of<br />
mention are Legionella pneumophila, an<br />
Enteroviruses, including polio virus, coxackievirus A and B, echovirus, adenovirus, parovirus,<br />
reovirus, hepatitis A, B and C viruses, rotavirus, astrovirus, calcicivirus, coronavirus,<br />
Northwalk agent and other small round viruses, and adeno-associated viruses, Polyomaviruses,<br />
including JC and BK<br />
Aeromonas spp., Arcobacter spp., Bacillus anthracis, Brucella spp., Campylobacter coli,<br />
Campylobacter fetus, Campylobacter jejuni, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium perfringens,<br />
Escherichia coli 0111: NM, 0157:H7 and 0184:H21, Leptospira spp., Lysteria monocytogenes,<br />
Mycobacterium spp., Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., Staphylococcus<br />
(coagulase positive) strains, Streptococcus (beta-hemolyticus) strains, Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio<br />
parahaemolyticus, Vibrio vulnificans, and Yersinia enterocolitica<br />
Citrobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., E. coli, Klebsiella spp., Proteus spp., Providencia spp., and<br />
Serratia spp.<br />
Candida albicans, Candida guillermondi, Candida krusi, Candida tropicalis, Cryptococcus neoformans<br />
and Trichosporon spp.<br />
Aspergillus spp., Geotricum candidum, Epidermophyton spp., Phialophora richardsii,<br />
Trycophitum spp.<br />
Cyclospora cayetanensis, Cryptosporidium parvum, Encephalitozoon intestinalis, Entamoeba<br />
histolytica, Giardia lamblia, Sarcocystis spp., Toxoplasma gondii and Vittaforma corneae<br />
Diphyllobothrium latum, Echinococcus granulosis, Hymenolepsis naa, Taenia saginata and<br />
Taenia solium<br />
Ancyclostoma duodenale, Ascaris lumbricoides, Necator americanus, Toxocara canis, Toxocara<br />
catii, Trichiurus trichiura<br />
opportunistic, thermo-tolerant, pathogenic<br />
bacterium that exhibits widespread environmental<br />
persistence and Cryptosporidium partum,<br />
a protozoan parasite of man and other<br />
animals, both of which have been found in<br />
sewage and in sewage sludge.<br />
The long-term survival of bacteria depends on<br />
their ability to establish protection against<br />
the various debilitating and lethal stresses to<br />
which they are either purposely or incidentally<br />
exposed. It is essentially impossible to<br />
demonstrate bacterial cell death unless complete<br />
cell lysis, a phenomenon that has been<br />
very largely ignored in the study of bacteria,<br />
occurs. Where bacterial cell death is a process<br />
objective, as in waste sewage sludge treatment,<br />
it is essential to ensure repeated cycles<br />
of the death/lysis/cryptic growth sequence.<br />
Conventional waste sewage sludge biotreatment<br />
processes involve mesophilic anaerobic<br />
digestion; a technology that is no longer considered<br />
satisfactory as far as complete pathogenic<br />
agent elimination is concerned,<br />
although effective overall sludge stabilization,<br />
in terms of mineralization and obnoxious<br />
odour elimination, is frequently achieved. The<br />
environmental conditions pertaining to<br />
mesospheric anaerobic digestion processes<br />
are hostile as far as pathogenic agent survival<br />
is concerned, but complete pathogen deactivation<br />
and/or elimination cannot be guaranteed,<br />
as no single deactivation mechanism<br />
either dominates or has even been optimized.<br />
As far as digestion processes are concerned,<br />
elevated temperatures promote deactivation<br />
of the pathogenic agents present. Hence,<br />
thermophilic anaerobic digestion would seem<br />
an appropriate alternative to mesospheric<br />
anaerobic digestion, provided that appropriate<br />
thermophilic process mediating cultures<br />
are available. This is the critical question.<br />
Thermophilic anaerobic digestion processes<br />
are generally incorrectly designated as they<br />
function only in the thermo-tolerant temperature<br />
range (at 55°C). In order to achieve genuine<br />
thermophilic process operating temperatures<br />
(in excess of 60°C), it is necessary to<br />
resort to aerobic thermophilic digestion. This<br />
would allow energy economics to be attained<br />
with a combination of auto-thermal heating<br />
and effective process heat recovery for hygienization,<br />
but not complete stabilization. The<br />
irreversible damage (deactivation) of pathogenic<br />
bacteria by heat results from site specific<br />
damage of the types summarized by<br />
Heitzer, (1990).<br />
The combination of both effective stabilization<br />
and effective hygienization in a single<br />
combined waste sewage sludge biotreatment<br />
process do not seem, on the basis of currently<br />
available knowledge, economically feasible.<br />
The solution of the problem will be a combination<br />
of process technologies, by the introduction<br />
of a thermophilic aerobic pre- or<br />
post-hygienization step functioning in conjunction<br />
with a conventional mesospheric<br />
anaerobic stabilization step. In consideration<br />
of either pre- or post-hygienization, two fundamentally<br />
different process approaches have<br />
been considered and evaluated. The first of<br />
these technologies was pasteurization, an<br />
entirely physical process technology. As a<br />
pre-stabilization step, pasteurization proved<br />
to be entirely satisfactory from the technical<br />
viewpoint, but as a post-stabilization step,<br />
failed to achieve complete sludge hygienization.<br />
Even as a pre-stabilization step, process<br />
economics proved to be questionable. The<br />
employment of thermophilic aerobic sludge<br />
hygienization as a pre-stabilization step to<br />
mesospheric anaerobic digestion produces<br />
entirely satisfactory treated sludge hygienization/stabilization,<br />
with no carry-over of potentially<br />
pathogenic organisms occurring. A<br />
report to this effect was published by Hamer<br />
and Zwiefelhofer (1986) more than 20 years<br />
ago, where specific process operating conditions<br />
were emphasized.<br />
Wastewater Reuse Standards<br />
TSE is being used increasingly in many different<br />
sectors, particularly agriculture in many<br />
countries today. It has been reported that the<br />
fertilizer value of the natural nutrients in<br />
wastewater is worth about US$ 3.0 /m 3 , which<br />
can save the farmer about US$ 130.0 ha/yr in<br />
fertilizer costs if he irrigates the land with<br />
treated wastewater. Thus, for farmers in the<br />
GCC States, the fertilizer value alone of<br />
wastewater can be an attractive incentive.<br />
In order to give insight to the implications of<br />
wastewater reuse in various sectors, the<br />
World Bank and the World Health<br />
Organization sponsored studies by several<br />
independent groups of public health experts<br />
and environmental engineers in many parts of<br />
150<br />
151
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
the world to re-evaluate the scientific basis for<br />
wastewater irrigation guidelines and standards.<br />
They carried out an extensive scientific evaluation<br />
of the epidemiological evidence of health<br />
effects associated with wastewater irrigation<br />
and developed a new and scientifically sound<br />
approach for establishing revised health criteria<br />
for wastewater irrigation.<br />
The Engelberg report summarized these findings<br />
and presented a radical departure from previous<br />
policy in the area of wastewater reuse<br />
guidelines and standards. On the one hand, it<br />
introduced a strict new approach and numerical<br />
standard for the removal of helminth eggs from<br />
wastewater effluent for agriculture reuse, based<br />
on firm epidemiological evidence that helminth<br />
diseases caused by worms such as ascaris,<br />
trichuris and hookworm, were the number one<br />
health problem associated with wastewater irrigation<br />
in the developing countries.<br />
Based on the new epidemiological evidence, and<br />
their analysis, they called for a major liberalization<br />
of the earlier severe zero risk “California”<br />
bacterial guidelines which had evolved unwittingly<br />
into the world’s most widely accepted<br />
standard, even though its was illogical, irrational<br />
and unfeasible from its inception. The WHO<br />
carefully coordinated its efforts in developing<br />
international wastewater reuse guidelines with<br />
all the other United Nations agencies including<br />
the FAO, UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank.<br />
They also sent out the draft proposals for the<br />
new guidelines for review and comments to over<br />
100 health scientists and engineers and to<br />
Ministries of Health throughout the World.<br />
In November 1987, the WHO convened a<br />
Scientific Group on “Health Guidelines for the<br />
Use of Wastewater in Agriculture and<br />
Aquaculture”. The group carefully reviewed all<br />
the previous studies, new epidemiological evidence,<br />
and comments received from many<br />
experts, and decided to adopt the Engelberg<br />
approach is microbial guidelines for wastewater<br />
irrigation. The new microbial, health guidelines<br />
for unrestricted irrigation of all crops now recommended<br />
by the WHO are 1) no helminth eggs<br />
per litre of effluent and, 2) a mean of 1,000 faecal<br />
coliforms per 100 ml of effluent. These guidelines<br />
have been formally approved and adopted by<br />
many developed and developing countries all<br />
over the world (WHO, 2006).<br />
In 1992 the United States Environmental<br />
Protection Agency together with the United<br />
States Agency for International Development<br />
proposed the following as guidelines for the<br />
effluent for irrigation of crops eaten raw: 1)<br />
BOD, 10 mg/l, 2) Turbidity, 2 NTU, 3) Microbes,<br />
no detectable faecal coli/100 ml, and 4)Chlorine<br />
residual, 1 mg/1 CI 2 (after 30 minutes). From the<br />
increasing amount of data becoming available<br />
from Mafraq WTW, one could conclude that the<br />
quality of treated wastewater is very high in<br />
terms of all parameters, especially Coliforms<br />
and E. coli.<br />
Innovations in Wastewater<br />
Treatment Technology<br />
In many respects wastewater treatment has<br />
become stuck in a technological time-warp. The<br />
activated sludge process, originally developed<br />
by Ardern and Lockett (Stypka, 1998), has successfully<br />
served the multiple elimination<br />
requirements of wastewater treatment for<br />
decades, but after some 90 years of large-scale<br />
operation throughout the world, activated<br />
sludge wastewater biotreatment process technology<br />
is in need of a radical re-evaluation. In<br />
spite of the fact that wastewater treatment represents<br />
the processes with the largest volumetric<br />
throughput of any process, the overall technology<br />
employed has never been subjected to<br />
either process engineering optimization or strict<br />
economic process evaluation as might have<br />
been expected by the first decade of the 21 st<br />
century.<br />
For most of the time since their original introduction,<br />
municipal activated sludge wastewater<br />
biotreatment processes have been specified,<br />
designed, constructed and operated by<br />
the civil engineering industry, functioning within<br />
the confines of locally controlled public sector<br />
agencies. The materials of construction, primarily<br />
concrete, the minimization of mechanical<br />
devices and process instrumentation and<br />
control, the extended processing times preferred<br />
and the inordinately long process plant<br />
life-times sought, were all symptomatic of traditional<br />
public sector policy, but incompatible<br />
with mainline process engineering strategy, as<br />
exemplified by oil refining and petrochemicals<br />
manufacturing.<br />
In most respects, activated sludge wastewater<br />
biotreatment processes have been seen by the<br />
general public, municipal authorities, and<br />
many industries as a convenient means for handling<br />
any waste that could either be suspended<br />
or dissolved in water. In fact, the invention of<br />
the water closet in the first half of the 19th century<br />
could be seen as a retrograde step in this<br />
context. This is particularlytrue with respect to<br />
the large volume of frequently potable quality<br />
water that is used as the means for the conveyance<br />
of small volumes of sanitary waste<br />
from individual premises as an apparently, but<br />
not necessarily, least cost option. Such an<br />
approach also discouraged any policy for waste<br />
segregation. Any review of actual and possible<br />
innovations for enhanced wastewater biotreatment<br />
must be based on process efficacy and<br />
cost, and must incorporate both advances in<br />
our knowledge of microbiology and in our<br />
knowledge of unit processes and their integration<br />
into economically viable treatment systems.<br />
As far as wastewater treatment is concerned,<br />
biodegradable pollutants are most effectively,<br />
rapidly and economically removed by the concerted<br />
actions of mixed populations’ microbes<br />
functioning under aerobic conditions.<br />
Alternative technologies employing microbes<br />
functioning under anoxic or anaerobic conditions<br />
are, in general, less effective for rapid and<br />
near complete removal of biodegradable pollutants.<br />
Chemical oxidation processes for<br />
biodegradable pollutant elimination are generally<br />
much more expensive per unit mass of pollutant<br />
removed.<br />
In spite of both process size and process importance,<br />
remarkably few biological studies have<br />
been conducted with a view to optimizing activated<br />
sludge biotreatment processes. It is<br />
increasingly evident that the full potential of<br />
the natural microbial resource is neither understood<br />
nor adequately exploited. Particular relevant<br />
examples of this lack of exploitation are:<br />
• A failure to characterize mixed microbial cultures<br />
and consortia and their interactions<br />
when degrading mixtures of organic and<br />
inorganic pollutants;<br />
• An absence of knowledge about the effects of<br />
low pollutant concentrations and when several<br />
compounds satisfying the same physiological<br />
requirement are present;<br />
• A lack of understanding of the principals<br />
concerning biomass yield coefficient variability.<br />
However, ADSSC is currently in the<br />
process of developing a sludge strategy that<br />
will provide direction on the treatment and<br />
use of sewage sludge, employing the most<br />
appropriate technologies for the conditions<br />
within the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate;<br />
• Inadequate attention to the enhancement<br />
and exploitation of co-metabolism, and linking,<br />
were appropriate, nitrification and denitrification;<br />
and.<br />
• Understanding the biodegradation of particulate<br />
and colloidal matter.<br />
152<br />
153
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
While process operation at elevated temperature<br />
has been proposed, the local thermal climate<br />
tends to dominate. At Mafraq for example,<br />
the short and effective residence times<br />
employed are most probably a result of elevated<br />
temperature operation.<br />
From a process engineering point of view, the<br />
sequence of steps involved in future biotreatment<br />
process designs is unlikely to change.<br />
However, the mechanisms employed and individual<br />
design criteria used can be expected to<br />
change. After preliminary treatment physical<br />
suspended solids concentration are removed<br />
(primary treatment), followed by a linked biooxidation<br />
and physical biomass concentration<br />
(secondary treatment), before finally<br />
subjecting the clarified effluent to physicochemical<br />
tertiary treatment. Traditional technology<br />
still advocates gravity sedimentation<br />
for primary treatment, and shallow tank/surface<br />
aeration and gravity sedimentation for<br />
secondary treatment.<br />
Gravity sedimentation is a low rate and relatively<br />
incomplete process, particularly when<br />
used to separate suspended solids under conditions<br />
where corresponding fluid-solid density<br />
differences are small. Accordingly, such<br />
processes require extended residence times,<br />
frequently some 10 hours. Biological activity<br />
during such extended sedimentation processes<br />
results in oxygen depletion and the establishment<br />
of anoxic conditions, which under<br />
the ambient temperature pertaining in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> encourage sulphate-reducing bacterial<br />
action and resultant hydrogen sulphide production<br />
with associated major odour and toxicity<br />
problems. Alternative unit processes<br />
exist. These include dissolved and dispersed<br />
air flotation, centrifugation and membrane<br />
processes such as cross flow micro-filtration.<br />
All of these processes operate with short residence<br />
times and can be easily enclosed.<br />
Secondary treatment accounts for a major<br />
fraction of the process operating costs and<br />
can be regarded to be the most important<br />
operation in activated sludge type wastewater<br />
biotreatment. The aeration systems<br />
employed must not only provide dissolved<br />
oxygen at the rate required, but must also<br />
provide sufficient turbulence to keep the<br />
sewage sludge biomass distributed throughout<br />
the aeration tank. Conventional activated<br />
sludge systems generally employ surface aerators,<br />
which dictate relatively shallow aeration<br />
tanks. The objective of any aerator<br />
design is high efficiency, in terms of oxygen<br />
transferred per unit power input, and high<br />
conversion in terms of the fraction of the oxygen<br />
microbes for growth and oxidation. In<br />
both respects, the performance of surface aerators<br />
is relatively poor. However, such objectives<br />
can be much better achieved by the<br />
employment of volume aerators (two-phase<br />
nozzle injectors) operating in high tank, tall<br />
column or deep shaft bioreactors of the types<br />
developed in Germany and the UK in the<br />
1980s (Zlokamik, 1983). Furthermore, the very<br />
large volumes of dinitrogen dissolved in the<br />
treated effluent encourage the use of dissolved<br />
gas flotation to avoid secondary sedimentation<br />
(Zlokamik, 1982). It must also be<br />
pointed out that long residence time secondary<br />
sedimentation is very largely responsible<br />
for residual carbonaceous, frequently humic,<br />
compounds in treated effluent. The reason for<br />
this being that lumped parameter pollutant<br />
measurements such as BOD, COD, DOC, etc.<br />
are not compound specific.<br />
Bioreactor design for municipal wastewater<br />
treatment may also use modern biofilm reactors.<br />
Two distinct types offer real potential:<br />
particle-based biofilm reactors, and membrane-aerated<br />
biofilm reactors. Of the former,<br />
two types, biofilm airlift suspension reactors<br />
and biofilm fluidized bed reactors, have been<br />
developed and offer compact high rate systems.<br />
However, control of biofilm thickness<br />
and structure still remains a problem.<br />
(Nicolella et al., 2000). The latter offer highly<br />
controlled performance characteristics<br />
because of the possibilities for biofilm<br />
exchange from either side and because of controlled<br />
liquid flow velocity that allows biofilm<br />
thickness and structure control. Membraneaerated<br />
biofilm reactors have, very recently,<br />
been appraised for municipal wastewater<br />
biotreatment (Syron and Casey, 2008). A few<br />
years ago a conceptual wastewater treatment<br />
system employing membrane-based separation<br />
and bio-oxidation technology throughout<br />
was discussed (Hamer and Casey, 2002).<br />
In the case of conventional activated sludge<br />
modelling, the sensible limit is close to being<br />
reached (Gujer, 2006), as moves from macroscopic<br />
to microscopic biomass processes<br />
occur. Structured biomass models seem<br />
unlikely to offer clues with respect to the<br />
enhanced elimination and/or the fate of<br />
emerging pollutants. This is particularly true<br />
of endocrine disrupting compounds of industrial<br />
and consumer product origin and both<br />
natural and synthetic estrogens and<br />
progestogens (ovulation-inhibiting hormones);<br />
many of which are potentially subject<br />
to biotransformation to more active compounds<br />
during conventional biotreatment<br />
(Aemi et al., 2004). It is to remove emerging<br />
pollutants and their incidental by-products<br />
that biofilm treatment systems should be<br />
evaluated. However, a word of caution is necessary<br />
when considering pollutants<br />
untouched by the process; particularly the<br />
proposed ultimate fate or reuse of the treated<br />
wastewater, which may or may not create<br />
risk.<br />
Recommendations<br />
From the analysis undertaken for this report,<br />
the following recommendations are made in<br />
the area of wastewater treatment and use.<br />
Management<br />
1) Increasing the Supply of Treatment<br />
Sewage Effluent<br />
There is a great potential to use TSE for various<br />
water use sectors in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> that<br />
would reduce the pressure on desalinated or<br />
groundwater. However to maximise the supply<br />
of available TSE to users, it is important<br />
that the distribution network transferring<br />
the water to the irrigation points is updated<br />
and expanded. There is also a need to ensure<br />
that this water is used efficiently, thus irrigation<br />
systems and their management should<br />
be reviewed to limit any wastage of this<br />
resource.<br />
2) Optimizing Wastewater Residuals Use<br />
There are an increasing number of possibilities<br />
for using TSE that need to be considered<br />
in larger picture of the water budget/demand<br />
model for the Emirate. Given the predicted<br />
supply/demand deficit, there is a need to<br />
optimize the allocation of this resource,<br />
especially where it can be used in the place<br />
of desalinated water. The recent passing Law<br />
No (12) of 2008 which allows ADSSC to sell<br />
treated wastewater effluent to any body or<br />
company will ensure economic considerations<br />
will now be possible. There is also an<br />
ever increasing research and environmental<br />
standards information base that may be<br />
used to support such deliberations, for<br />
example, WHO 2006. The recent consultation<br />
paper by the RSB on wastewater residuals<br />
reuse is an important start to rationalize and<br />
optimize use (RSB, 2008a). There are also<br />
increasing possibilities of using the sewage<br />
sludge, not only as a source of fertilization,<br />
but also as a fuel that should be further investigated.<br />
3) Impacts of Increasing Industrialization<br />
The proposed industrial developments in the<br />
emirate are likely to increase the heavy metal<br />
154<br />
155
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
contamination of wastewater. This will bring<br />
increasing challenges to the wastewater<br />
industry. The recent consultation of the RSB<br />
on trade effluent control is welcomed (RSB,<br />
2008b) and any resulting regulatory standards<br />
which ensure the main treatment is at the<br />
industrial source rather than in the wastewater<br />
processing plants should be supported.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
4) Inclusion of Wastewater Data in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Resource Database System<br />
In the development of this report information<br />
and data were very forthcoming from ADSSC<br />
and this openness is to be commended. It will<br />
be useful for the various inflow and outflow<br />
figures for the wastewater system to be<br />
included in the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Resource<br />
Database System in the future where possible.<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
5) Representation on <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong><br />
Council<br />
There is much discussion on the potential<br />
contribution of TSE in future <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
water budgets. At the moment this is limited<br />
as a result of the small amount going into the<br />
emirates sewage system relative to the<br />
desalination output. This volume will be further<br />
reduced if potable water conservation<br />
policies are effective and/or grey water usage<br />
is developed. It is therefore important that<br />
the possibilities and limitations of TSE are<br />
accurately represented in any strategic discussion<br />
on future water policy and management.<br />
It is therefore recommended that the<br />
Director of ADSSC is a member of the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council.<br />
References<br />
- ADSSC, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewage Services Co. (2007).<br />
<strong>Master</strong> plan for sewerage network in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and<br />
Al Ain. Final, November 2007, UAE.<br />
- ADSSC, 5-Year <strong>Plan</strong>ning Statement (2008), June<br />
2008. UAE<br />
- ADSSC, 2008.<br />
- ADSSC/Hyder (2008) Assessment and ownership of<br />
green water infrastructure in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate.<br />
Volume 1 of 2. September 2008.<br />
- Aemi, H.-R., et al., Combined Biological and<br />
Chemical Assessment of Estrogenic Activities in<br />
Wastewater Treatment <strong>Plan</strong>t Effluents. Anal.<br />
Bioanal. Chem., 378, 688-696 (2004)<br />
- Dumontet, S. Scopa, A., Kerje, S. and Krovacek, K.<br />
(2001). The importance of pathogenic organisms in<br />
sewage and sewage sludge. Jour. Air & Waste<br />
Manag. Assoc. 61:848-860.<br />
- EPA, United States Environmental Protection<br />
Agency. (2005).Technologies and Costs, Document<br />
for the Final Long Term 2 Enhanced Surface <strong>Water</strong><br />
Treatment Rule and Final Stage 2 Disinfectants and<br />
Disinfection Byproducts Rule. Office of <strong>Water</strong> (4606-<br />
M), EPA 815-R-05-013 December 2005,<br />
www.epa.gov/safewater.<br />
of Full-Scale Wet Scrubbers to Biotrickling Filters<br />
for H2S Control at Publically Owned Treatment<br />
Works J. Environ. Engng. (ACSE), 130, 1110-1117<br />
(2004)<br />
- Ginger, W. Activated Sludge Modelling: Past,<br />
Present and Future. Wat. Sci. Technol., 53 (3), 111-<br />
1119 (2006)<br />
- Hamer, G. and Zwiefelhofer, H.P. (1986). Aerobic<br />
thermophilic hygienisation supplement to anaerobic<br />
mesophilic waste sludge digestion. Chem. Eng. Res.<br />
Des. 64, 417-424.<br />
- Hamer, G., Casey, E. Recent Advances for the<br />
Effective Treatment of Municipal Sewage for Reuse<br />
in Hot Arid Regions. In- New Technologies for Soil<br />
Reclamation and Desert Greenery; N.M Al-Awadhi<br />
& F.K. Taha (Eds.). 181-203 (2002) Amhurst<br />
Scientific Publ. Amhurst, Mass.<br />
- Hamilton A. J., Boland A., Stevens D., and Kelly J.<br />
(2005). Position of the Australian horticultural<br />
industry with respect to the use of reclaimed water<br />
Agric <strong>Water</strong> Manage 71, 181–209.<br />
- Heitzer, A. Kinetic and Physiological Aspects of<br />
Bacterial Growth at Superoptimum Temperatures.<br />
Doctoral Diss. ETH Zuerich, No. 9217, (1990)<br />
- Faruqui, N. I., Scott, C., and Raschid, L. (2004).<br />
Wastewater use in irrigated agriculture:<br />
- Confronting the livelihood and environmental realities.<br />
CABI/IWMI/IDRC 2004. ISBN 0-85199-823-2.<br />
CAB International in association with the<br />
International <strong>Water</strong> Management Institute and<br />
International Development Research Centre<br />
- MWSRW, Melbourne <strong>Water</strong> and Southern Rural<br />
<strong>Water</strong>. (2004). Use of recycled water in the Werribee<br />
Irrigation District: regional environment improvement<br />
plan 104 pp.<br />
- Nicolella, C., van Lossdrecht, M.C.M., Heijnen, S.J.<br />
Particle-based Biofilm Reactor Technology.<br />
TIBTECH, 18, 312-320 (2000)<br />
- Gabriel, D., Deshusses, M.A. Retrofitting Existing<br />
Chemical Scrubbers to Biotrickling Filters for H2S<br />
Emission Control. Proc. Halt. Acad. Sci., 100, 6308-<br />
6312 (2003)<br />
- Regulation and Supervision Bureau, (2008a)<br />
Wastewater residuals reuse: a consultation.<br />
http://www.rsb.gov.ae/uploads/ResidualReuseConsu<br />
ltationFinalJUN%2008.pdf (accessed July 8th, 2008)<br />
- Gabriel, D., Deshusses, M.A. Technical and<br />
- Regulation and Supervision Bureau, (2008b).<br />
Economic Analysis of the Conversion of a Full-Scale<br />
Scrubber to a Biotrickling Filter for Odor Control.<br />
Wat. Sci. Sci. Technol., 50 (4), 309-318 (2004)<br />
Developing a framework for trade effluent control:<br />
consultation.<br />
http://www.rsb.gov.ae/uploads/TradeEffluentConsul<br />
- Gabriel, D., Cox, H.H.J., Deshusses, M.A. Conversion<br />
tationFINALJun08.pdf (accessed July 8th 2008)<br />
156<br />
157
Annex 3. Wastewater<br />
- Snow V. O. , Dillon P. J., Bond W. J., Smith C. J., and<br />
Myers B. J. (1999). Effect of plant production system<br />
and climate on risk of groundwater contamination<br />
from effluent irrigation <strong>Water</strong> 26, 26-29<br />
- Stagnitti F., Sherwood J., Allinson G., and Evans L.<br />
(1998). Investigation of localised soil heterogeneities<br />
on solute transport using a multisegement percolation<br />
system. NZ J Agric Res 41, 603-612<br />
- Stypka, A. (1998). Advanced wastewater treatment.<br />
Factors influencing sludge settling parameters and<br />
solids flux in the activated sludge process: a literature<br />
review. Report No 4. Joint Polish - Swedish<br />
Reports. E. Paza, E. Levlin, B. Hultman (Editors).<br />
Division of <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Engineering,<br />
Department of Civil and Environmental<br />
Engineering. Royal Institute of Technology.<br />
Stockholm 1998<br />
- Syron, E., Casey, E. Membrane Aerated Biofilm for<br />
High Rate Biotreatment: Performance Appraisal,<br />
Engineering principles, Scale-up and Development<br />
Requirements. Environ. Sci. Technol., 42 1833-1844<br />
(2008)<br />
- UAE Ministry of Health. (2003). Annual Statistics<br />
Bulletin, published by Department of Economy and<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning, <strong>Abu</strong>-<strong>Dhabi</strong>, UAE.\<br />
- Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council, 2007. <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2030:<br />
Urban Structure Frameworks <strong>Plan</strong> , September<br />
2007. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, Urban <strong>Plan</strong>nig Council..<br />
- WHO, World Health Organization. (1992).<br />
Environmental Health Criteria 135: Cadmium-<br />
Environmental Aspects. World Health Organization,<br />
Geneva, Switzerland, 156 pp.<br />
- WHO, World Health Organization. (2006). WHO<br />
Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta<br />
and greywater. Volume 3: Wastewater and excreta<br />
use in aquaculture, Geneva.<br />
- Zlokanik, M. New Approaches in Flotation<br />
Processing and Waste <strong>Water</strong> Treatment in the<br />
Chemical Industry. Ger. Chem. Engng., 5, 109-115<br />
(1982).<br />
- Zlokanik, M. Bioengineering Aspects of Aerobi<br />
Waste <strong>Water</strong> Purification; Developments and<br />
Trends. Ger. Chem. Engng., 6, 183-197 (1983).<br />
158
Annex 4.<br />
Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
159
Annex 4. Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
Introduction<br />
One of the most important challenges for the<br />
Emirate is the need to provide increasing<br />
amounts of potable water supplies and at the<br />
same time to reduce the per capita consumption<br />
of freshwater which has reached very high levels -<br />
596.1 litres per person per day in 2002 (quoted in<br />
ESCWA 2005 and World Bank 2005). Potable<br />
water, taken to be water of a quality suitable for<br />
drinking, is required in various domestic and economic<br />
sectors in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong><br />
and Electricity Authority (ADWEA) are required<br />
under Article 30 of Law Number 2 of 1998 to<br />
‘ensure that at all times, all reasonable demand<br />
for water and electricity in the Emirate are satisfied’.<br />
The ‘reasonable demand’ for water is likely<br />
to increase markedly in both the domestic and<br />
commercial sectors as outlined in <strong>Plan</strong> 2030<br />
(Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council, 2007), as well as from<br />
industry (as indicated in the <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>s for<br />
Khalifa Port Industrial and Zonescorp) in the<br />
next two decades. However, water demand forecasts<br />
need to not only include the predicted net<br />
consumption of users, but also physical and<br />
administrative losses from the system (generally<br />
referred to as unaccounted-for water) as well as<br />
an added reserve margin to ensure enough<br />
potable water supply capacity is in place to satisfy<br />
needs.<br />
The role of demand planning is to provide a<br />
framework within which all the various components,<br />
factors and information, can be effectively<br />
brought together to allow appropriate decisions<br />
to be taken on future water management, supply<br />
capacity needs, and investment. Given these different<br />
needs, often average and peak demand<br />
predictions are made for the same period.<br />
Forecasting can be particularly difficult in rapidly<br />
urbanizing environments where past patterns<br />
of water usage are less likely to be reflected in<br />
future rates (Bradley, 2004). Future potable<br />
water demand is derived from information from a<br />
number of different social, economic, political<br />
and natural environmental variables (Davis, 2003;<br />
Butler and Memon, 2005; Gato et al, 2007; Billing<br />
and Jones, 2008) including the following:<br />
• resident and seasonal population numbers,<br />
density and distribution;<br />
• number, market value and types of housing<br />
units;<br />
• per capita income;<br />
• water and waste water prices and rate structures;<br />
• commercial and industrial activity and mix;<br />
• urban water use efficiency from implementation<br />
of Best Management Practices (BMPs);<br />
• irrigated acreage in residential, commercial<br />
and public use; and<br />
• climate and climate change conditions.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company<br />
(ADWEC) is responsible for this task in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate and their current planning horizon<br />
is to 2030, as indicated in the <strong>Plan</strong> 2030<br />
(Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council, 2007) development<br />
blueprint for city and surrounding environs. With<br />
the proposed and ongoing rapid changes, this is<br />
obviously a challenge (Al Katheeri, 2008). The<br />
certainty of the demand forecasting is dependent<br />
on the accuracy and precision of the sources of<br />
information used. ADWEC use details from many<br />
official and independent sources to build a picture<br />
of the future economic, social and physical<br />
structure of the Emirate (Miller, 2008).<br />
In deriving values for future demands, many different<br />
methodologies have been developed using<br />
various statistical approaches for accounting for<br />
uncertainty and risk. These include both deterministic<br />
and probabilistic methods, and recently<br />
both multi-criteria analysis and artificial neural<br />
networks have been used (Billings and Agthe,<br />
1998; Bradley, 2004; Ghiassis et al., 2008). Since<br />
2006, ADWEC have adopted a probabilistic<br />
approach in which uncertainties around various<br />
variables are represented by probability distribution<br />
curves (ADWEC, 2008). This annex will<br />
review the current demand forecasts for <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Current Potable <strong>Water</strong><br />
Consumption<br />
The starting basis for considering current potable<br />
quality water demand is the population, and figures<br />
from the 2005 census give a total of 1 292 119<br />
(~20% are Emirati nationals) with the largest<br />
proportion living in <strong>Abu</strong> Dubai (757 423 people),<br />
and fewer in Al Ain (422 340 people) and the<br />
Western Region (112 365) (United Arab Emirates<br />
Ministry of Economy 2006; Miller 2008). The 2006<br />
peak per capita per day consumption is taken by<br />
ADWEC to be 86 gallons (Miller 2008) giving an<br />
annual total of 31 390 gallons consumed per capita<br />
per year.<br />
Whilst these values are based on a per capita<br />
measurement, it is also useful to consider consumption<br />
by housing units as these numbers are<br />
more readily accessible and the patterns show<br />
usage around as well as within the unit. The<br />
results of two surveys are shown in Table 4.1 and<br />
give a breakdown in consumption patterns<br />
across different housing units and residency status.<br />
There are some marked differences within the<br />
general population, particularly between different<br />
types of house units. The low figures of flats<br />
relative to villas and shabiyats are likely to arise<br />
from the watering of gardens rather than the<br />
actual consumption or patterns of use by the<br />
occupants. The differences between Al Ain and<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are almost certainly explained by differences<br />
in plot size, and therefore watering of<br />
gardens of the villas. The differences between<br />
expatriates and nationals may be both social and<br />
economic. More people living within a unit and<br />
zero-rated water tariffs for the nationals group<br />
are like to be contributing factors to the larger<br />
consumption rates found. If the total usage both<br />
inside and around the house is summed, the predicted<br />
consumption of the domestic sector is<br />
about a third of the total water produced (see<br />
Figure 4.1).<br />
Table 4.1 <strong>Water</strong> Consumption in 2005/2007 by Housing<br />
Unit Type<br />
Al Ain<br />
Flats No data No data n/a<br />
Villas 1,440 91 n/a<br />
Shabiyat<br />
(administrative regions) 436 n/a n/a<br />
Commercial n/a n/a no data<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
UAE<br />
nationals<br />
(2005)<br />
Flats 75 59 n/a<br />
Villas 372 253 n/a<br />
Shabiyat<br />
(administrative regions) 717 n/a n/a<br />
Commercial n/a 50 50<br />
Source: RSB 2005 and 2008<br />
Expatriates<br />
(2007)<br />
Commercial<br />
(2007)<br />
All figures are water units (thousand gallons) as annual average<br />
consumption per housing unit n/a = not applicable<br />
Whilst understanding trends and patterns in<br />
domestic usage is important, it is also important<br />
to consider the many other sectoral users of<br />
potable water. Figure 4.1 below shows the breakdown<br />
in predicted peak consumption for 2007 for<br />
the user groups - these values should be reduced<br />
by 15% to give average values (Miller 2007).<br />
Industry currently accounts for a relatively small<br />
percentage of consumption, and it is activities<br />
associated with irrigation that consume the<br />
majority share. There are efforts to meet some of<br />
this demand with treated sewage effluent, but<br />
currently potable water is used in many areas of<br />
irrigation.<br />
In addition to the water demand within the<br />
Emirate, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> exports water to the<br />
Northern Emirates. This demand has risen from<br />
7.03 MGD for peak water supply in 2006 to 11.95<br />
MGD in 2007 (ADWEC, 2008). The indicative<br />
peak supply of water is expected to increase to<br />
20MGD in 2008/2009 to 30MGD form 2010<br />
onwards. Given the geography and distances<br />
160 161
Annex 4. Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
Figure 4.1 Predicted Base Potable <strong>Water</strong> Peak<br />
Demand by Sector for 2008<br />
Source: Miller 2007<br />
involved, these supplies can only currently be met<br />
from the Fujairah 1 plant and the future Fujairah<br />
2 power and water plants. (See Annex 2).<br />
Physical and Administrative losses<br />
In any demand calculation, it is important to<br />
include both physical and administrative losses<br />
in the predictions of future demand figures.<br />
Physical losses are found in various parts of the<br />
water transmission network. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, there<br />
are essentially two main areas to consider:<br />
• the transmission mains that takes the water<br />
from the power and water production plants<br />
(owned and managed by Transco); and<br />
• the distribution network (owned and managed<br />
by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Distribution Company or AL Ain<br />
Distribution Company)<br />
to each network interchange with the<br />
Distribution Companies. With this level of measurement,<br />
it is possible to estimate, with reasonable<br />
accuracy, the physical losses in the network.<br />
Within the distribution networks the estimates<br />
given are those for physical leakage between estimate<br />
physical leakage from the system to be<br />
around 18-22% (ADWEC and RSB personal communication).<br />
With the installation of smart automatic<br />
metering for both domestic and bulk water<br />
users, then it will be possible in the near future to<br />
gain a more localized and accurate measure of<br />
physical losses. It will also be possible to detect<br />
areas of high losses and undertake maintenance<br />
work to limit this in the system. Furthermore it<br />
will also be practicable to gain a greater accuracy<br />
of values for consumption of various sectors.<br />
Administrative losses are often more difficult to<br />
define. They are unmetered consumption and<br />
result from a wide range of reasons including<br />
water for fire fighting, water taken by tankers<br />
during construction of sewers/subdivisions, water<br />
used by street cleaners etc., or illegal connections<br />
and under-registration of water meters. This is<br />
difficult to estimate in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> because of the<br />
variable use of metering. It is not clear as to the<br />
value used for this aspect in ADWEC’s demand<br />
forecasting.<br />
The Impacts of Changing Urban<br />
Dynamics on Predicted <strong>Water</strong><br />
Demand<br />
000 residents, 1.8 million tourists and around 180<br />
000 residential units, rising to 3.1 million, 7.9 million<br />
and 686 000 respectively<br />
The resulting changes in population, landscape<br />
and economic activities of the Emirate will have<br />
many consequences for water provision in the<br />
future. ADWEC have the task of bringing together<br />
the various forecasts and plans for housing<br />
units, commercial and industrial activities, and<br />
associated estimates of changing population size<br />
and structure to derive forecasts for future water<br />
demand. The mega-project and industrial zone<br />
developers have provided estimates of water<br />
(and electricity) usage for the period to 2030.<br />
In the resulting ADWEC peak water demand statistics<br />
(Miller 2008), three average annual percentage<br />
rate increases of 3.8, 3.4 and 3.0% are<br />
used which are described as high forecast, base (a<br />
most likely) forecast, and a low forecast. Within<br />
these average values, regional differences with<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are expected to experience lower<br />
rates of annual growth than Al Ain or the Western<br />
Regions. Using the ‘most likely’ ADWEC forecast,<br />
shown on Figure 4.2, it is suggested that there will<br />
be an increase in demand from the supply rate of<br />
560 MGD in 2007 to 1215 MGD in 2030 with an<br />
additional 12 MGD and 30MGD respectively,<br />
when exports to the Northern Emirates are<br />
included. For the high annual growth rate of 4%,<br />
predicted demand would rise to 1329 MGD plus<br />
30 more for the exports. The variables that might<br />
account for the differences in growth rate are not<br />
specified explicitly, so it is difficult to examine the<br />
likelihood of the various scenarios (Miller 2008)<br />
In view of the need to manage demand in the<br />
coming years, it is useful to examine the forecasts<br />
for the different sectors to identify where the<br />
greatest potential for savings is. The water peak<br />
based demand forecasts have been broken down<br />
in Miller (2008) for each sector to 2030. The<br />
largest growths are in the domestic and mega<br />
projects where increases in new housing stock<br />
will support a rapid expansion of the population.<br />
Agriculture and industry values are relatively<br />
greater than current values, whilst forestry,<br />
shabyiats and urban landscaping remain relatively<br />
unchanged after increases in 2009/2010. There<br />
is no explanation for the assumptions behind<br />
these values, but an educated guess would suggest<br />
that the increased availability of Treated<br />
Sewage Effluent might account for some of this<br />
trends.<br />
The Uncertainties in Demand<br />
Forecasting<br />
Given both the long term horizons adopted in the<br />
forecasting, and the rapid changes planned for<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> in the short term, there are likely to be<br />
many uncertainties inherent in the forecast figures<br />
that are difficult to quantify. A number of<br />
these uncertainties may be identified:<br />
1) Given the relative importance of the industrial<br />
and mega-projects on future water demands<br />
The figures available for losses from the various<br />
parts of the network vary. The estimated losses<br />
in the trunk mains are calculated to be less than<br />
2% (Dandachi, 2008). The high pressure of the<br />
water carried through these pipelines ensures<br />
that leaks are soon identifiable through marked<br />
water losses. There are metering and data<br />
exchanged code agreements with every connection<br />
to different parts of the network – from the<br />
production plants to Transco, and from Transco<br />
The release of the Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council’s ‘<strong>Plan</strong><br />
2030’ in September 2007 and the developments at<br />
Khalifa Point Industrial Zone and Zonescorp<br />
highlight the ambitious and exciting plans for<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s future. If comparisons are made<br />
between the urban structure in 2007 and 2030<br />
(shown in Table 4.2) the scale of the changes are<br />
apparent. The impact on the population size and<br />
dynamics is huge with expected changes in population<br />
from the baseline figures for 2007 of 930<br />
Table 4.2 Estimates of Non-household Growth for the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Metropolitan Area<br />
Office ٍّ Space<br />
(million m 2 )<br />
Retail space<br />
(million m 2 )<br />
Source: Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council 2007<br />
Industry<br />
Space<br />
(million m 2 )<br />
Hotel<br />
RoomsMED<br />
Golf<br />
Courses<br />
Schools<br />
Tertiary<br />
Institutions<br />
2007 1.4 0.86 4.0 10 000 3 236 13 2 800<br />
Hospital<br />
beds<br />
2030 7.5 4.0 15.0 74 500 25 650 40 10 000<br />
162<br />
163
Annex 4. Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
Figure 4.2 Predicted Base Potable <strong>Water</strong> Peak Demand by Sector for 2008<br />
Source: Miller 2007<br />
(shown in Figure 4.3), the accuracy of the<br />
demand figures provided by the various organizations<br />
will have a large influence on the uncertainties<br />
inherent in future forecasts. Whilst these will<br />
reflect a relatively certain set of figures for actual<br />
housing units, the occupancy rates, structure of<br />
the community and other social variables will all<br />
influence how much water is needed and when.<br />
As the experience in Dubai has shown, changes in<br />
international financial markets can have a major<br />
influence on the rate of development as well as<br />
occupancy rates. This is especially where housing<br />
units are bought as investments rather than for<br />
occupancy. These are difficult variables to predict<br />
accurately in any water demand forecasting.<br />
2) Estimating population growth is difficult<br />
because of the interplays of many social, cultural<br />
and economic variables that are hard to predict<br />
and quantify. Malthusian ideas of natural population<br />
growth are no longer taken applied, but predicting<br />
the migration of new people into a growing<br />
city such as <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is difficult. There will<br />
obviously be movements of people both within<br />
the city to the new residences, as well as from<br />
other Emirates, within the region and internationally.<br />
There will be different economic groups<br />
of people involved, with those involved in construction<br />
being prominent in the early phases,<br />
whilst those employed in the new industrial activities<br />
dominating subsequent migrations in. There<br />
will be different water use values associated with<br />
each and whilst changing figures for this have<br />
been used in ADWEC’s forecasting, this is difficult<br />
to predict.<br />
3) The drive within <strong>Plan</strong> 2030 to encourage<br />
tourism will bring changes in seasonal migration<br />
patterns and the dynamics are also likely to be<br />
controlled by forces outside of the UAE. Within<br />
this group there will be tourists who stay for short<br />
time, as well as holiday property-owners who<br />
come for more prolonged visits. Obviously they<br />
will have different water demand patterns especially<br />
where the latter pay for their water directly.<br />
4) The changes in the fabric, spaces and density<br />
of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> city are marked. These are known<br />
to affect water demand patterns, but have been<br />
little studied in arid environments. These<br />
unknowns are likely to influence the accuracy of<br />
predictions, particularly in the latter parts of the<br />
time horizons.<br />
5) New technologies will also play a part in the<br />
new urban structure which will bring their own<br />
changes. For example district cooling will be used<br />
in some of the mega projects which will replace<br />
conventional air conditioning. This will result in a<br />
reduction of 50% electricity consumption, but an<br />
increase in 200% in water demand. Whilst much<br />
of this is likely to be met by grey water re-use, the<br />
changes on consumption patterns are yet to be<br />
fully defined.<br />
6) New government policies and priorities are<br />
likely to emerge from this changing economic<br />
base, that may impact (decrease or increase)<br />
demand for water, both within sectors and in<br />
total for the Emirate.<br />
Figure 4.3 Predicted Base Potable <strong>Water</strong> Peak Demand by Sector for 2008<br />
Source: Miller 2007<br />
7) The export of water to the northern Emirates<br />
has become part of the water demand equation<br />
today in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The nature of agreements<br />
may change over time in reaction to changing<br />
drivers and this will again bring uncertainties into<br />
the forecasting.<br />
8) Whilst the major urban changes described in<br />
<strong>Plan</strong> 2030 will markedly increase the need for<br />
water in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, it is likely that the natural<br />
environment will bring its own changes to bear.<br />
The predictions in the IPCC Report (2007) suggest<br />
a warming of the climate in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and a<br />
decrease in precipitation, with the most important<br />
effect on water demand is likely to be on<br />
evapotranspiration rates for the vegetation.<br />
However, alternative predictions that rainfall will<br />
increase because of greater monsoonal influences<br />
might have the opposite effect and reduce irrigation<br />
needs. The uncertainties surrounding climate<br />
variation are large and further research is<br />
needed before the impacts for this area may be<br />
accurately accounted for.<br />
164 165
Annex 4. Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
The result of these various uncertainties will<br />
ensure that predicting values to 2030 is difficult;<br />
however, forecasts for the next few years are likely<br />
to be more accurate as previous comparisons<br />
between actual and predicted values have shown.<br />
Encouraging <strong>Water</strong> Conservation<br />
<strong>Water</strong> consumption in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is by international<br />
standards high, however, it is important<br />
that policies to manage demand are developed<br />
over time. It is also useful to consider various<br />
approaches to water conservation that have been<br />
used in other areas and research will be needed<br />
to develop policies that best fit the social, economic<br />
and natural environments of the emirate.<br />
These approaches available may be categorized<br />
as price and non-price and will be now be<br />
explored in more detail.<br />
Price-based Approaches<br />
Price-based approaches to water conservation<br />
use tariffs to transmit information about water<br />
scarcity to encourage changes in behaviour that<br />
lead to reductions. From an economic perspective,<br />
water resources can be viewed as a form of<br />
natural asset that provides service flows used<br />
by people in the production of goods and services<br />
such as agricultural output, human health,<br />
recreation, environmental quality etc. Providing<br />
or protecting water resources involve active<br />
employment of capital, labour, energy and<br />
other scarce resources. Using these resources to<br />
provide water supplies means that they are not<br />
available to be used for other purposes. The<br />
economic concept of the ‘value’ of water is thus<br />
couched in terms of society’s willingness to<br />
make trade-offs between competing uses of limited<br />
resources.<br />
An economist’s task of estimating the benefits<br />
and loss of benefits resulting from resource use<br />
are perhaps easiest when markets are established<br />
and consumers’ willingness to pay certain<br />
prices can be examined. <strong>Water</strong> is considered to<br />
be a natural monopoly, and with traditionally<br />
held views that it is a common pool resource<br />
available to those in a certain area, introducing<br />
economics and pricing is difficult.<br />
With non-market environmental goods such as<br />
water, it is necessary to infer willingness to trade<br />
off money for the use of the resources and any<br />
additional benefits associated with its management.<br />
The sum of the derived economic benefits<br />
is essentially captured by people’s total willingness<br />
to pay including use value, the value of water<br />
in its many uses include drinking, irrigation,<br />
species habitat and non-use value. For example<br />
some people derive value from watching the<br />
water flow in the Falaj systems, as well as using it<br />
to produce flowers in their gardens or cooking<br />
their food.<br />
From the cost side of the equation, the task of<br />
estimating values would seem more straightforward.<br />
Obviously in an area such as <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>,<br />
the details of capital expenditure and operating<br />
costs of producing potable water are well known<br />
by the operators of the desalination plants. There<br />
are, however, other costs that should also be<br />
taken into account, such as the opportunity costs<br />
of using energy to produce water when it could be<br />
used in other economic activities.<br />
Introducing pricing which reflects these various<br />
benefits and costs is difficult and various<br />
approaches may be used. It is also reliant on the<br />
installation of metering. Flat-water fees are not<br />
linked to the quantity consumed and a fixed rate<br />
per time period, often a month is levied. This provides<br />
little incentive for conservation. In other<br />
approaches there is a direct link between volume<br />
consumed and prices charged. In most countries<br />
there is a welfare element built into the pricing in<br />
that the first defined volume is free and then any<br />
consumption above that pattern is charged. This<br />
might further be developed with block-price or<br />
seasonal-price structures, such as those recently<br />
introduced to Dubai in which where at various<br />
ranges of consumption differential pricing is<br />
applied. This results in a large number of users of<br />
water paying substantially higher rates than<br />
more conservative consumers. In figures published<br />
for the US for 2002 for Share of US residential<br />
water price structures (Raftelis Financial<br />
Consulting 2002) the following percentages were<br />
found:<br />
- Decreasing rice Block Structure 30%<br />
- Uniform Price 36%<br />
- Increasing Price Block Structure 30%<br />
An important consideration is how people and<br />
industries react to any increases in prices. Do<br />
they absorb the increased costs without changing<br />
their habits, or do they respond by reducing<br />
their water consumption and so the price they<br />
pay Various analyses on the reaction to changes<br />
in pricing have found a range of responses by<br />
water consumers (Olmstead et al 2006, Dalhuisen<br />
et al., 2003). Their reactions are measured using<br />
the notion of elasticity where a relatively elastic<br />
demand is where a small change in water price,<br />
brings a large change in water demand (values<br />
more negative than -1). Inelastic demand is<br />
where a small change in prices brings a small<br />
change in demand (values between 0 and -1). On<br />
average in the US a 10% increase in water prices<br />
leads to a 3-4% decrease in consumption. In any<br />
particular environment it is important to undertake<br />
willingness-to-pay research to understand<br />
the thinking of the consumer base before pricing<br />
is introduced.<br />
Table 4.3. Current Tariffs for Potable <strong>Water</strong> in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate (UAE Dirham)<br />
UAE Nationals-Domestic<br />
Non-UAE Nationals-Domestic<br />
Industrial/ Commercial<br />
Government and Schools<br />
Farms<br />
User ٍّ group<br />
Tanker Distribution (remote areas)<br />
Tanker Distribution (other areas)<br />
Residence without meters<br />
Source: RSB 2009<br />
<strong>Water</strong> demand for industry and agriculture<br />
require different modelling with changes in price<br />
being part of general production process. Often<br />
this type of data is deemed to be commercially<br />
sensitive and so not made available for analysis.<br />
In work by Griffin (2006) in the US and Reynaud<br />
in France, the demand elasticity for industry varied<br />
widely (between -0.15 and -0.98) and was<br />
much linked to sector. In similar work, recent<br />
analysis of 24 US agriculture water demand studies<br />
between 1963-2004 by Schierling et al. 2006<br />
suggest a mean price elasticity of around -0.48.<br />
These values highlight that water demand is a<br />
relative inelastic to pricing but is variable. There<br />
area also important social, economic and political<br />
considerations in any discussions on water pricing<br />
that need to be taken into account. There has<br />
been little published research on the elasticity of<br />
tariffs in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> and the current prices are<br />
given in Table 4.3.<br />
Non-price Based Approaches<br />
Tariff ٍّ in UAE Dirham<br />
per thousand imperial<br />
gallon<br />
0 AED<br />
10 AED<br />
10 AED<br />
10 AED<br />
10 AED<br />
5 AED<br />
10 AED<br />
50 AED<br />
The non-price based approaches encourage<br />
water conservation through the adoption of new<br />
technologies or practices, such as low-flow showerheads<br />
or restrictions on the time/length of irrigation<br />
of gardens. These might equally be applied<br />
to industry and agriculture as to domestic customers<br />
and again the aim is encourage the adoption<br />
of processes which use reduced amounts of<br />
water. The latter uses changes in technology or<br />
practices which are encouraged through a range<br />
of regulatory and economic policy instruments.<br />
There are, however, no guarantees of success.<br />
Introducing a low-flow showerhead policy might<br />
just mean that users stay longer under the water.<br />
The same can be found with irrigation.<br />
Introducing drip-irrigation does not necessarily<br />
166 167
Annex 4. Potable <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
References<br />
mean this will always be used and operators can<br />
unplug the hoses and return to flood irrigation<br />
when they want to.<br />
It is useful to look at empirical evidence from policies<br />
introduced in other areas and the evidence is<br />
mixed on the aggregate effects of these programs<br />
(Olmstead and Stavins, 2007). For example, in<br />
the summer of 1996, water consumption restrictions<br />
in Corpus Christi Texas, which included<br />
prohibiting landscape irrigation and car-washing,<br />
did not yield statistically significant water savings<br />
in the residential sector. However, a longerterm<br />
program in Pasadena California did result in<br />
aggregate water savings (Kiefer, 1993), while<br />
mandatory water use restrictions in Santa<br />
Barbara California induced a demand reduction<br />
of 29% (Renwick, and Green, 2000).<br />
<strong>Water</strong> utilities typically implement a variety of<br />
non-price conservation programs simultaneously,<br />
making it difficult to determine the effects of individual<br />
policies. One analysis of the effect of conservation<br />
programs on aggregate water district<br />
consumption in California found small but significant<br />
reductions in total use following landscape<br />
education programs and watering restrictions,<br />
but no effect from education programs away from<br />
landscaping, low-flow fixture distribution, or the<br />
presentation of drought and conservation information<br />
on customer bills (Corral, 1997).<br />
With non-price approaches which involve restrictions<br />
on use, there is a need for enforcement and<br />
this can often be difficult if human resources are<br />
not available for monitoring. There is a need for<br />
awareness raising in the various sectors targeted<br />
in tandem with the introduction of any measures<br />
to bring any chance of success.<br />
Recommendations<br />
From the work undertaken in this report various<br />
recommendations can be made in the area of<br />
potable water demand. In many ways reducing<br />
demand is the most important policy solution to<br />
balancing <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s future water needs, especially<br />
in the short term.<br />
Management<br />
1) Matching <strong>Water</strong> Quality and <strong>Water</strong> Demand<br />
There are a range of different qualities of water<br />
available to meet the various sectors’ demands. It<br />
is important to develop allocation policies that<br />
maximise benefits available from the total water<br />
supplies. This should be supported by modelling<br />
of the different water supplies and users. There is<br />
an economic and environmental cost to all water<br />
resources and it is important that this is considered<br />
in such analysis.<br />
2) Demand Management<br />
There is a potential to make important reductions<br />
in the demand for water through the introduction<br />
of conservation measures in various user<br />
sectors. These should be researched to determine<br />
the reactions within the group to any program.<br />
The introduction of conservation practices<br />
is particularly important for the bulk water user<br />
groups. The use of supportive policy measures to<br />
reduce their demand could ensure large savings<br />
in future capacity development.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
3) Developing Different Scenarios for <strong>Water</strong><br />
Futures<br />
Forecasting water demand scenarios is a major<br />
and complex exercise especially where the future<br />
urban and economic landscapes are going to<br />
bear little resemblance to past and existing conditions.<br />
It would be useful for different futures to<br />
be considered and the predictions based on<br />
these made available. The recent global crisis<br />
has highlighted the need to consider various different<br />
futures to the business-as-usual one and it<br />
would be useful to look at the consequences for<br />
water consumption. This would give broader<br />
insight in the policy making process.<br />
- <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company, 2008.<br />
Statistical Report 1998-2007. ADWEC, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
- Al Katheeri, E.S., (2008). Towards the establishment<br />
of water management in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate, <strong>Water</strong><br />
<strong>Resources</strong> Development, 22, 205-215.<br />
- Billings, R.B. and Agthe, D.E. (1998). State-space<br />
versus multi regression for forecasting urban water<br />
demand, Journal of <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning and<br />
Management, 124, 113-117.<br />
- Billings R. B., and Jones C.V. (2008) Forecasting<br />
Urban <strong>Water</strong> Demand, Second Edition, American<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Works Association, New York.<br />
- Bradley, R.M. (2004). Forecasting domestic water<br />
use in rapidly urbanizing areas in Asia. Journal of<br />
Environmental Engineering ASCE, 130, 465-471.<br />
- Butler, D. and Memon F. (eds) (2005). <strong>Water</strong><br />
Demand Management, IWA Publishing, London.<br />
- Davis, W.Y. (2003) <strong>Water</strong> Demand Forecast<br />
Methodology for California <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning Areas -<br />
Work <strong>Plan</strong> and Model Review. Report of California<br />
BayDeltaAuthority,<br />
http://www.waterplan.water.ca.gov/docs/technical/W<br />
ater_Demand_Forecast_Methodology.pdf (accessed<br />
17th October 2008).<br />
- Gato, S. Jayasuriva, N. and Roberts, P. Temperature<br />
and rainfall thresholds for base use urban water<br />
demand modeling. Journal of Hydrology, 337, 364-<br />
376.<br />
- Ghiassi, M., Zimbra, D.K. and Saidane, H. 2008.<br />
Urban water demand forecasting with a dynamic<br />
artificial neural network model. Journal of <strong>Water</strong><br />
<strong>Resources</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>ning and Management ASCE, 134,<br />
138-146.<br />
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007.<br />
IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) Working<br />
Group I Report "The Physical Science Basis.<br />
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge<br />
- Kiefer, J.C. and D. Ziegielewski, 1991, Analysis of residential<br />
landscape irrigation in Southern California.<br />
A report prepared for the Metropolitan <strong>Water</strong><br />
District of Southern California by <strong>Plan</strong>ning and<br />
Management Consultants Ltd, Carbondale Il.<br />
- Miller, K Electricity & <strong>Water</strong> Demand Forecasts<br />
2008 – 2030, MEED Conference. March, 2008.<br />
- Olmstead, S.M. and Stavins, R.N. 2007. Managing<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Demand: price vs non-price conservation programs.<br />
Paper No 37 Pioneer Institute Public Policy<br />
Research.<br />
- Raftelis Financial Consulting 2002. <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Wastewater Rate Survey, Charlotte North Caroline<br />
USA, Raftelis Financial Consulting.<br />
- Regulation and Supervision Bureau, 2009. Customer<br />
TariffsandCharges.<br />
www.rsb.gov.ae/english/PrimaryMenu/index.aspxT<br />
ype=O&SubCatMenu_ID=26&CatMenu_ID=169&<br />
PriMenu_ID=108 (accessed 15th January 2009)<br />
- Renwick, M.E. and green, R.D. 2000. Do residential<br />
water demand side management policies measure<br />
up An analysis of eight Californian water agencies.<br />
Journal of Environmental Economics and<br />
Management, 40, 37-55.<br />
- Reynaud, A. 2003. An econometric estimation of<br />
industrial water demand in France. Environmental<br />
and Resource Economics, 25, 213-232.<br />
- Scheierling, S.M. and Loomis, J.B., Young, R.A. 2006.<br />
Irrigation water demand: a meta-analysis of price<br />
elasticities, <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Research, 42.<br />
- Schultz, M.T. Cavanagh, S. M., Gu B. and Eaton<br />
D.J. 1997. The consequences of water consumption<br />
practice restrictions during the Corpus Cristi<br />
Drought of 1996. Draft Report, LBJ School of Public<br />
Affairs, University of Texas Austin<br />
- United Arab Emirates Ministry of Economy, (2006)<br />
Preliminary results of population, housing and<br />
establishments census, 2005 United Arab Emirates.<br />
http://www.tedad.ae/english/results.pdf (accessed<br />
18th October 2008)<br />
- Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council, (2007). <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
2030, Urban Structure Framework <strong>Plan</strong>. Urban<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>ning Council <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
168 169
Annex 5.<br />
Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
171
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Introduction<br />
In an overall sense, industry in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> uses<br />
three distinct categories of water:<br />
• process water, with quality criteria approaching<br />
or equal to potable water standards, which<br />
plays a direct role in processing as a feedstock<br />
or solvent and can become incorporated into<br />
products;<br />
• wash water, with quality criteria from potable<br />
quality to more inferior qualities depending<br />
on the specific industry under consideration,<br />
its product type and specification; and<br />
• cooling water, almost invariably seawater in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, that plays no product contact<br />
role in processing, and, in open cooling systems,<br />
is used on a single pass basis.<br />
All industrial water streams can, and frequently<br />
are, polluted with chemicals and heat upon<br />
exiting a process plant, prior to ultimate discharge<br />
to sink, effectively in the case of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>, into the Gulf. Waste process water is<br />
generally polluted with a range of chemicals and<br />
is frequently also above ambient temperature.<br />
As a result, treatment prior to discharge into<br />
the environment is required or, if discharged to<br />
sewer, pollutant composition, concentration<br />
and temperature restrictions frequently apply.<br />
Wash water is inevitably contaminated with<br />
inert fine particulate and/or soluble matter.<br />
The former is relatively easily removed by<br />
either mechanical or physical processes prior<br />
to either environmental or sewer discharge,<br />
but the latter generally requires either biological<br />
or chemical treatment prior to environmental<br />
discharge. Seawater is widely used in<br />
once-through cooling systems, as opposed to<br />
essentially closed cooling systems with cooling<br />
towers, and is inevitably dosed with both<br />
corrosion inhibitors and potent biocides for<br />
effective intra-process plant damage and biofouling<br />
control. It is then discharged, usually<br />
without treatment, directly into the marine<br />
environment, with resultant chemical and<br />
heat pollution of frequently delicate coastal<br />
marine eco-systems. Such local heating effects<br />
can result in receiving water temperature elevation<br />
by as much as 10 C degrees above ambient.<br />
The probable safe limit is 1 or, possibly, 2<br />
C degrees above ambient, because heat pollution<br />
exhibits complex selective pressures on<br />
aquatic and marine eco-systems. Even so, it is<br />
probably intentionally added biocides, selected<br />
to deactivate specific strains of marine<br />
organisms, which cause the most damage to<br />
such eco-systems and their function upon<br />
cooling water discharge. Although closed cooling<br />
tower systems overcome such problems,<br />
they not only employ fresh water, but also<br />
require significant quantities of fresh make-up<br />
water due to water evaporation during their<br />
operation. In addition, the effective functioning<br />
of such systems depends, to a significant<br />
extent, on ambient climatic conditions.<br />
In addition to primary process operation, it is<br />
also becoming increasingly necessary to optimize<br />
all categories of water utilization in<br />
industries that exhibit significant water<br />
demand. Cases exist where such optimization<br />
can reduce process and wash water consumption<br />
to only some 30 percent of the original<br />
water volumes used.<br />
Industries based on the processing of bulk raw<br />
materials are frequently located in close proximity<br />
to navigable waters, particularly harbors.<br />
The historical reason for this is generally ease of<br />
access to bulk feedstock or product transportation.<br />
In addition, such a location has provided a<br />
sink of sufficient magnitude to allow unrestricted<br />
discharge of untreated aqueous effluent such<br />
that the effects of such discharge were significantly<br />
reduced by dilution, and somewhat optimistically,<br />
the hope that treatment would result<br />
through the agency of natural self purification<br />
mechanisms.<br />
For many years, the bulk product process<br />
industries in both Europe and North America<br />
failed to take appropriate action with respect to<br />
both chemical and heat pollution of natural<br />
receiving waters. It has only been during the<br />
last forty years, that such industries have<br />
accepted their responsibility to the environment,<br />
usually because of the enactment and<br />
enforcement of increasingly stringent laws governing<br />
environmental pollution.<br />
Pollution control costs industry money and<br />
makes industry, in its own view, less competitive<br />
in world markets. Because of this, it has<br />
only been systems for charging industry, on the<br />
basis of the pollutant load discharged, together<br />
with licensing designed to eliminate particularly<br />
damaging discharges, that has forced<br />
changes in industrial attitude. The polluter<br />
pays principle is generally the most effective in<br />
achieving compliance with discharge standards<br />
on the part of bulk processing industries, particularly<br />
those industries with government<br />
share holdings.<br />
Current Status of Industrial<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
The industrial base of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is the oil and<br />
associated petrochemical industries, but in<br />
recent years with the expansion of agriculture<br />
and food-processing, the base has become more<br />
developed. The water use in these various<br />
industries will now be reviewed. The main limitation<br />
to this review is the scarce detailed data<br />
available to give insight into the various uses.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> National Oil Co. (ADNOC)<br />
and ADNOC Group of Companies<br />
ADNOC, established in 1971, is a major top-ten<br />
international oil company involved in a complete<br />
range of upstream and downstream activities,<br />
ranging from exploration and production,<br />
refining, marketing, storage, exportation and<br />
associated service activities. It is fully government<br />
owned, but the ADNOC Group, as a whole,<br />
comprises some seventeen associated subsidiary<br />
companies, that are either wholly or jointly<br />
owned ventures. ADNOC activities represent 80<br />
percent of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s GDP and a summary of<br />
the ADNOC Group company water consumption<br />
(Brook et al., 2004) suggests that the group is<br />
essentially self sufficient, within its sphere of<br />
influence, in providing its electricity and water<br />
requirements.<br />
The constituent companies of the ADNOC<br />
Group can be divided into those engaged in oil<br />
and gas exploration, those involved in the refining<br />
and processing of oil and gas, and those<br />
involved in the production of bulk chemical<br />
products from either oil or gas feedstocks. The<br />
first group comprises the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Company<br />
for Onshore Oil Operations (ADCO), which<br />
operates onshore concession areas and in shallow<br />
coastal waters, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Marine<br />
Operating Company (ADMA-OPCO), which<br />
operates ADMA’s offshore concessions, and the<br />
Zakum Development Company (ZADCO),<br />
based on Zirku Island, which operates major<br />
offshore fields.<br />
The second group comprises <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Gas<br />
Industries Limited (GASCO), which handles<br />
onshore LPG production and its export, the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Gas Liquefaction Limited<br />
(ADGAS), which liquefies and exports associated<br />
offshore gas and natural gas from the<br />
Uweinat gas cap, and the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Oil<br />
Refining Company (TAKREER), which operates<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s two major refineries at Ruwais<br />
and Umm Al Nar. TAKREER refines both<br />
crude oil and condensates and also produces<br />
granulated sulphur as a by-product of desulphurization.<br />
The final group of companies comprises<br />
Ruwais Fertilizer Industries (FERTIL), a<br />
joint venture between ADNOC and Total-CFP,<br />
which produces ammonia and urea from onshore<br />
lean gas (methane), and the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
172 173
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Polymers Company (Borouge), a joint venture<br />
between ADNOC and Borealis, which employs<br />
an ethane cracker and two polyethylene plants<br />
capable of swing production of either linear low<br />
density polyethylene or high density polyethylene.<br />
Data concerning water consumption by the<br />
ADNOC Group of Companies for 2002 have<br />
been reported (Brook et al., 2004). This data<br />
indicates that the major quantity used is seawater<br />
at 1.225 billion m 3 per annum and that the<br />
only other probable significant intake of water<br />
is brackish ground water at 3.2 million m3 per<br />
annum, although some desalinated water may<br />
be derived from the public supply network.<br />
From this, it can be suggested that up to 3.5<br />
million m3 of industrial grade desalinated water<br />
and up to 29.1 million m 3 of potable grade<br />
desalinated water are probably produced internally<br />
and that the utilization of such results in<br />
an availability of 1.2 million m3 TSE for irrigating<br />
camp and facility greenery.<br />
For industrial grade desalinated water, the<br />
main users are Borouge, with a consumption of<br />
0.9 million m 3 per annum, GASCO and ADMA-<br />
OPCO, each with consumptions of 0.8 million<br />
m 3 per annum, and the ADNOC Ruwais<br />
Housing Complex, with a consumption of 0.6<br />
million m 3 per annum.<br />
Potable quality desalinated water is extensively<br />
used by the ADNOC Group industries, with<br />
consumption figures of 22.4 million m 3 per<br />
annum by Total - <strong>Abu</strong> Al Bukhoosh (Total-<br />
ABK), of 4.4 million m3 per annum by ADCO,<br />
0.9 million m3 per annum by FERTIL, of 0.8 million<br />
m 3 per annum by GASCO and 0.5 million<br />
m 3 per annum by Borouge.<br />
In the offshore and onshore operations of<br />
ADNOC, all water produced (342,000 m_/d) are<br />
re-injected into deep reservoirs, including water<br />
re-injected for reservoir pressure maintenance<br />
(ADNOC 2008). In addition all harmful process<br />
effluents (19,640 m_/d) are re-injected into deep<br />
disposal wells.<br />
Some 7.04 million m_/d of clean process and<br />
cooling water are discharged daily to sea with<br />
major outlets at Das Island, Ruwais and Sas Al<br />
Nakl. All outlets are analyzed frequently for<br />
unlikely harmful components (ADNOC, 2008).<br />
ADNOC controls these discharges and is its<br />
own de facto regulator.<br />
Livestock Industry<br />
The livestock industry in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is much<br />
more extensive that in other parts of the UAE<br />
with livestock holdings occupying some 226,000<br />
hectares; a figure that represents 98 percent of<br />
the total area of livestock holdings in the UAE<br />
in 2007. Some 449 hectares are occupied by<br />
poultry, the rest by animals comprising sheep,<br />
goats, cattle and camels.<br />
Obviously, the poultry and cattle are kept<br />
under more intense conditions, including broiler<br />
and layer houses for poultry and feedlot and<br />
slatted dairy facilities for cattle. Sheep, goats<br />
and camels are predominantly free-range grazing<br />
animals, but both stocking densities and<br />
their slaughter, if centralized, will impact on the<br />
environment.<br />
All four animal species are kept for both meat<br />
and milk production; however, a large percentage<br />
of the total herd are either young or breeding<br />
animals. Detailed figures for the numbers of<br />
animals in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> in (Anon., 2007) are:<br />
Number ٍّ for<br />
slaughter<br />
Number ٍّ<br />
for milk<br />
num- Total ٍّ<br />
ber<br />
Sheep 117,133 140,150 815,655<br />
Goats 94,489 131,380 785,440<br />
Cattle 1,594 5,699 28,432<br />
Camels 8,730 31,616 276,602<br />
In the case of poultry, some 3,544 tonnes of<br />
meat per annum are produced and egg production<br />
is 7,073 tonnes per annum.<br />
The source of water for livestock production is<br />
unspecified in Statistical Abstracts, but it is<br />
probable that irrigation water from ground is<br />
widely used for grazing animals, because of the<br />
intimate relationship between grazing and crop<br />
production. For intensive production in feedlots<br />
and poultry houses, desalinated water from<br />
the distribution network is, most probably, also<br />
used, while in dairies, some well water is desalinated,<br />
by reverse osmosis, on site.<br />
When assessing livestock production it is necessary<br />
to consider both their environmental<br />
impact and their virtual water content, which<br />
will be considerably higher than for comparable<br />
production in temperate regions. Very<br />
clearly, grazing livestock can have serious<br />
adverse effects on range-land vegetation, particularly<br />
if over-grazing is allowed to occur.<br />
However, their excrement will be distributed<br />
and point sources of potential groundwater<br />
pollution will be largely avoided, unless stocking<br />
intensity is allowed to increase beyond<br />
environmentally acceptable levels. In the case<br />
of cattle, both feedlots and slatted dairy houses<br />
produce concentrated liquid animal slurries.<br />
If this is not appropriately treated, it will upon<br />
disposal to land potentially contaminate the<br />
already deteriorating groundwater resource.<br />
This is particularly true, as far as nitrate and<br />
potentially pathogenic microorganisms are<br />
concerned, under soil conditions pertaining in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Treatment of such animal slurries,<br />
with similar bioprocess technologies to those<br />
used for municipal wastewater treatment, is<br />
necessary. Such treatment will also allow both<br />
water and plant nutrient recovery when treated<br />
effluent is used for fodder crop irrigation.<br />
The virtual water content of different animals<br />
for most countries was calculated by Chapagain<br />
and Hoekstra (2003) and some representative<br />
virtual water contents were listed. These<br />
include :<br />
Sheep<br />
Goats<br />
Beef cattle<br />
Dairy cows<br />
Hen layers<br />
Broilers<br />
6,342 m 3 per tonne<br />
8,500 m 3 per tonne<br />
12,149 m 3 per tonne<br />
1,904 m 3 per tonne<br />
4,606 m 3 per tonne<br />
1,968 m 3 per tonne<br />
Using these values, for the period 1995-1999, virtual<br />
water incorporated into livestock and livestock<br />
products imported into the UAE represented<br />
11 Gm 3 per annum; a not inconsiderable<br />
water volume.<br />
Beverage Industry<br />
The bottled beverage industry in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
is extensive, with a wide range of products<br />
that are both locally manufactured and<br />
imported. Products include: milk and milk<br />
drinks, mineral waters, fruit juices and proprietary<br />
soft drinks. Packaging ranges from cardboard<br />
cartons, plastic bottles, aluminum cans<br />
to single-use glass bottles. Reusable glass<br />
bottles seem to be absent from the market, an<br />
important feature with respect to the large<br />
quantities of water needed for bottle washing.<br />
The beverage industry packages both locally<br />
produced natural products such as milk and<br />
fruit juices, but also reconstitutes imported<br />
concentrates including dried milk, fruit juice<br />
syrups and powders, and proprietary soft<br />
drink concentrates, particularly colas.<br />
Mineral waters tend to be produced at source,<br />
usually in the other Emirates and in Oman.<br />
The drinks packaging industry no longer<br />
involves container washing, because plastic<br />
bottles are delivered sealed from manufacture<br />
and both cardboard cartons and aluminum are<br />
delivered as clean product rolls, with the con-<br />
174 175
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
tainer being fabricated during the filling<br />
process. In order to maintain the product<br />
quality of reconstituted beverages, the<br />
process water used is usually purified inhouse<br />
by the bottling companies, from either<br />
potable water from the network or fresh well<br />
water to reverse osmosis, or alternative<br />
membrane purification standards. Separate<br />
figures for water utilization by the beverage<br />
industry in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are unavailable, but<br />
the bottling/packaging techniques employed<br />
suggest a high level of water economy.<br />
Other Manufacturing Industries<br />
Historically, manufacturing industry has<br />
used either potable quality mains water or<br />
fresh well water to satisfy its needs for<br />
process water. However, throughout the<br />
world, distributed water quality is declining<br />
and quality variability, because of frequent<br />
source changes, is increasing. As product<br />
quality control becomes paramount, many<br />
companies in a broad spectrum of industries<br />
are finding it increasingly necessary to produce<br />
their own high purity process water,<br />
usually with membrane type purification<br />
technologies. As increasingly sophisticated<br />
product manufacturing is introduced into<br />
the industry sector in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, this international<br />
trend will become increasingly evident.<br />
Service Industries<br />
The service industry sector within <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is small, but growing in relative GDP<br />
terms. With the recently announced economic<br />
diversification plans to 2030, which include<br />
development in the financial, media, tourism<br />
healthcare services and various education<br />
and research areas (Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council,<br />
2007; <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Government, 2009), then<br />
the water needs of this sector will grow.<br />
Service industry businesses are diverse but<br />
tend to require water at a potable standard.<br />
At the moment water is supplied large users<br />
under bulk tariff agreement. However, there<br />
is little available data to quantify the consumption<br />
patterns in this industry. The<br />
ongoing initiative to install water meters<br />
(including bulk water meters) in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
and Al Ain will ensure that in the future more<br />
accurate figures will be available to characterize<br />
this sector<br />
Environmental Impact of<br />
Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Prior to 1970, worldwide industry showed<br />
scant regard for the natural environment<br />
and the managements and share holders of<br />
all types of companies considered capital<br />
and operating expenditure on pollution control<br />
and environmental protection as essentially<br />
money down the drain. As a result,<br />
waste management policies were based on<br />
disposal, rather than on treatment. In many<br />
respects, such attitudes were fostered by<br />
failures on the part of virtually all governments<br />
to understand, enact and enforce<br />
effective and appropriate pollution control<br />
legislation. Nowadays when and where adequate<br />
pollution control legislation is effectively<br />
enforced, the majority of companies<br />
accept their responsibilities and seek to<br />
operate within the law. In some cases, this<br />
compliance might be attributed to the<br />
enshrining in legislation the principle of polluter-pays.<br />
The historical rationale for undertaking<br />
treatment of all forms of waste emissions has<br />
been the maintenance of public health, generally<br />
based on easily discernable, rather<br />
than more subtle effects. More recently,<br />
numerous subtle health effects resulting<br />
from pollution have become evident and, in<br />
addition, aesthetic and environmental quality<br />
arguments have become much more<br />
important. Undoubtedly, the most significant<br />
driving force in environmental awareness,<br />
particularly as far as noxious pollutants<br />
are concerned, is the development of<br />
vastly more sensitive analytical techniques<br />
that allow increasingly low concentrations of<br />
such pollutants to be determined in environmental<br />
samples. Whether or not the concentrations<br />
measured are above or below the noeffect<br />
concentration, or whether the noeffect<br />
concentration is even known, are<br />
issues that are frequently omitted from discussion.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Pollution Hazards and their<br />
Evaluation<br />
Both individuals and whole populations are<br />
exposed to hazards from natural events,<br />
transmittable infectious diseases, accidents<br />
and pollutants that are frequently legally<br />
introduced into the environment by human<br />
action. Of these, only pollutants can be legislated<br />
against. The others can sometimes be<br />
ameliorated by the introduction of operational<br />
codes of practice. Pollutants are frequently<br />
regarded as hazards because of their<br />
potential rather than their actual impact.<br />
Furthermore, the impact of pollutant release<br />
often involves damage to natural environments<br />
and amenities rather than any direct<br />
damage to human heath. Even so, the release<br />
of pollutants is increasingly seen by the general<br />
public as an activity that poses unacceptable<br />
risk. One problem is that quantitative<br />
risk assessment is neither precise nor<br />
accurate; the other that the public’s perception<br />
of risk involves frequently weighted<br />
evaluations of both the likelihood of the<br />
occurrence of an adverse event, and the<br />
nature of the consequences of that event.<br />
Objective methods of risk assessment frequently<br />
use human mortality as their basis,<br />
whereas perceived risk additionally involves<br />
the wider consequences of an adverse event,<br />
namely, morbidity, harm to wild life and loss<br />
of amenity.<br />
Pollution<br />
All instances of pollution by industry involve<br />
the responsible authorities, the general public<br />
and the offending company, although the<br />
perception of what actually constitutes pollution<br />
is different as far as each of the three<br />
parties is concerned. Pollution is used to<br />
describe both the act of polluting and the<br />
consequences of that act. Pollution can be<br />
defined as the introduction by man into the<br />
environment of substances or energy that<br />
are liable to cause hazards to human health,<br />
harm to living resources and ecological systems,<br />
damage to structures and amenities,<br />
or that interfere with the legitimate uses of<br />
the environment.<br />
In recent years clean manufacturing technology,<br />
with the ultimate objective of both zero<br />
discharges and emissions, has been widely<br />
discussed by industry. The zero<br />
emissions/zero discharge concept is based on<br />
a single questionable claim that one bulk<br />
chemical product can be manufactured to be<br />
a zero emissions/ zero discharge process<br />
route and, therefore, extrapolation suggests<br />
that all other products can be produced similarly;,<br />
a view that is naïve in the extreme.<br />
The types of production technologies used<br />
by industry for different products vary dramatically.<br />
For example, bulk chemicals are<br />
generally produced using purpose built,<br />
product specific, continuous flow process<br />
plants, while most fine chemical products<br />
are made in general purpose equipment<br />
operated in a batch mode. For many years,<br />
bulk chemicals production has been mostly<br />
fully optimized, but fine chemicals are still<br />
frequently produced under markedly suboptimal<br />
conditions resulting in the frequent<br />
176<br />
177
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
production of enhanced quantities of waste<br />
and off-specification product.<br />
Ecotoxicology<br />
The fundamental objective of human toxicology<br />
is to achieve acceptable results in test<br />
procedures that are prescribed by authorities<br />
responsible for human health and safety.<br />
Unfortunately, ecotoxicology is based on<br />
extension of the philosophy governing<br />
human toxicology, i.e., the employment of<br />
unimaginative, frequently inapplicable, test<br />
protocols that fail to provide the necessary<br />
knowledge for the formulation of concepts.<br />
Such concepts might be used to develop<br />
realistic predictive bases upon which the<br />
essential development of ecotoxicology<br />
depends. Human toxicology is a single<br />
species/restricted environment problem,<br />
whereas ecotoxicology is a multi-community/multi-population/multi-species/diverse<br />
environment problem which is much too<br />
extensive to rely upon an exclusively determined<br />
database.<br />
The intermediate and ultimate environmental<br />
fates of organic chemical pollutants<br />
released into the natural environment are<br />
frequently evaluated on the basis of the global<br />
carbon cycle, although in the case of pollutants<br />
containing nitrogen, sulphur or other<br />
elements, it is essential to ensure that evaluation<br />
involves examination of other elemental<br />
cycles, as appropriate, in conjunction<br />
with the carbon cycle. Elemental cycles can<br />
be separated into their biochemical, geochemical<br />
and anthropochemical sub-cycles.<br />
However, whereas the biochemical and the<br />
geochemical sub-cycles have often been evaluated<br />
in considerable detail, the anthropochemical<br />
sub-cycle has been subject to<br />
considerable neglect. The anthropochemical<br />
sub-cycle involves the use of fossil resources,<br />
that have passed through the biochemical<br />
and geochemical sub-cycles as either fuels<br />
for energy or production feedstocks for<br />
chemicals manufacture. It should be pointed<br />
out that those that advocate the much more<br />
extensive use of renewable raw materials as<br />
either fuels or feedstocks are eliminating the<br />
geochemical sub-cycle, rather than the<br />
anthropochemical sub-cycle, which is their<br />
declared objective in reducing pollution.<br />
Managing Pollution and<br />
Ecotoxicology of Industrial <strong>Water</strong><br />
Use<br />
Industrial activities will often produce biproducts<br />
that are harmful to humans or the<br />
environment. In the case of water, this<br />
impact may come from the abstraction from<br />
or discharges into the groundwater, sewage<br />
network or marine environments. It is important<br />
that clear, adequate standards and controls<br />
are developed to ensure that industries<br />
both in the design phase and during operations<br />
put in place adequate measures to minimize<br />
these impacts. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> the current<br />
frameworks and the defined roles and<br />
responsibilities of the two main regulatory<br />
organizations (EAD and RSB) are not clear.<br />
Industrial discharges currently require a permit<br />
from EAD that specifies amounts and<br />
concentrations, yet there is little monitoring<br />
and enforcement of this. The recent consultation<br />
paper issued by the RSB (2008) is an<br />
important start to bringing a coherent and<br />
effective standards and controls for this sector.<br />
Industrial Development Policy<br />
From an industrial point of view, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
is currently a very large producer and<br />
exporter of both refined and unrefined fluid<br />
fuels and of bulk petrochemical products.<br />
However, in view of its particularly strong<br />
position with respect to energy resources,<br />
future government policy concerning industrial<br />
development is directed towards added<br />
value, i.e., the conversion of bulk products<br />
and feedstocks; often with high energy input<br />
into significantly higher value products for<br />
local, regional, and international markets.<br />
Such industrial development can be expected<br />
to require a much larger expatriate labour<br />
force, with different skills than those which<br />
are currently available. However, given the<br />
general lack of indigenous scientific and<br />
technological innovation in both universities<br />
and research institutes in the UAE, most<br />
manufactured products for the short and<br />
medium term future must be expected to be<br />
based on either licensed technology or established<br />
generic products on which patent protection<br />
has expired. The current status of<br />
process and product research and development<br />
efforts in the UAE is unlikely to form a<br />
basis for the successful expansion of an innovative<br />
manufacturing sector for at least the<br />
short-term.<br />
Many countries have sought industrial development,<br />
but until high levels of both technical<br />
problem-solving and inventiveness are<br />
established within the indigenous population,<br />
for example, as found in Singapore, the<br />
establishment of sophisticated product manufacturing<br />
ventures will depend on the availability<br />
of imported technology. The recently<br />
announced <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Economic Vision 2030<br />
is a major initiative to address these problems<br />
(<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Government 2009).<br />
In the Economic Vision (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Government 2009), it is stated that the<br />
recent economic development policies countries<br />
of Ireland, Norway and New Zealand<br />
were examined. These are useful case studies<br />
with relevant parallels with <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s<br />
vision. For example, the Republic of Ireland<br />
(Eire) has very effectively sought to develop<br />
into high technology product manufacturing<br />
country over the past few decades. It has<br />
concentrated on attracting global leaders in<br />
the pharmaceutical, biological, micro-electronics<br />
and other sophisticated industries by<br />
offering a large pool of well qualified and<br />
motivated indigenous staff, a range of fiscal<br />
benefits and cultural affinity. Success was<br />
considerable, but others, particularly in Asia,<br />
were able to mimic and supplement such<br />
attractions. Singapore is a particular example<br />
that was able to supplement its attractiveness<br />
to industry with the availability of<br />
internationally reputable university research<br />
facilities, staff and performance.<br />
In the face of competition, Ireland has, since<br />
2002, been forced to re-think its previous relative<br />
neglect of scientific and technological<br />
research at University level, and is currently<br />
developing programmes that can be expected<br />
to provide the innovation needed to maintain<br />
its already sophisticated manufacturing<br />
industry in future decades. Specialist hightech<br />
product manufacture tends to be under<br />
the control of a relatively small number of<br />
international, research oriented companies.<br />
These have expanded both by discovery and<br />
acquisition; the key to establishing and<br />
retaining the manufacturing facilities of such<br />
companies is provision of the appropriate<br />
intellectual and cultural environment in<br />
which they can prosper, in addition to the<br />
more obvious attractiveness criteria offered<br />
by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. The success of the Masdar<br />
post-graduate educational initiative, established<br />
with MIT, clearly represents a testcase<br />
with respect to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
<strong>Plan</strong>s for Industrial Expansion<br />
In recent decades, major new investment in<br />
process plants for chemicals and petrochemicals<br />
production and for base metals smelting<br />
have migrated eastwards from Europe to<br />
the Middle East. Most of the new sites for<br />
178<br />
179
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Just as is the case of agricultural and livestock<br />
products, the question of virtual water,<br />
in water limited regions, is an important consideration<br />
for all types and scales of industry.<br />
Where products require very large quantities<br />
of water for their production or manufacture,<br />
product importation is frequently a<br />
superior alternative to local manufacture in<br />
water deficient regions. From an industrial<br />
product point of view, one of the best known<br />
examples concerning virtual water quoted in<br />
the literature is the case of the 2 g 32-<br />
megabyte computer chip that has a virtual<br />
water content of 32 kg (Williams et al., 2002).<br />
Such an example clearly emphasises the<br />
value of examining the virtual water consuch<br />
bulk processing industries in the<br />
Middle East are ‘green fields’ sites where<br />
industry did not previously exist. Economic,<br />
social and environmental advantages and<br />
disadvantages accrue from such major shifts<br />
in location. Clearly, close proximity to raw<br />
materials and feedstocks and, currently,<br />
energy availability at below international<br />
prices are clear economic advantages.<br />
However, major disadvantages include a continuing<br />
need to import expatriate labour for<br />
plant operation and maintenance, resulting in<br />
a major increase in population, and the probable<br />
environmental impact on the region as a whole,<br />
as well as on delicate marine eco-systems, where<br />
conflict with proposed massive touristic and residential<br />
schemes might well become critical<br />
issues. Certainly, some of the proposed industrialization<br />
is in direct conflict with the proposed<br />
Masdar concept for future development.<br />
Petrochemicals Industry<br />
The main petrochemicals production site is at<br />
Ruwais in the Western Region, where both<br />
FERTIL (urea and ammonia fertilizer production)<br />
and Borouge (ethane cracking and polyolefin<br />
production) are located. FERTIL exports<br />
over 600,000 tonnes per annum of urea and<br />
ammonia fertilizer produced from natural gas<br />
and has an installed production capacity, based<br />
on a 330 day operating year of 840,000 tonnes<br />
per annum. No plans to expand production<br />
have been announced. Borouge operates a<br />
600,000 tonnes per annum ethane cracker and<br />
two 225,000 tonnes per annum polyethylene<br />
plants, offering swing production of either linear<br />
low density polyethylene or high density<br />
polyethylene, as dictated by the market.<br />
However, Borouge has announced a multi-stage<br />
product production expansion plan. It is<br />
intended that Borouge 2 will have an ethane<br />
cracker with a capacity of 1.5 million tonnes per<br />
annum, an olefins conversion unit with a capacity<br />
of 752,000 tonnes per annum, two polypropylene<br />
plants with a combined capacity of 800,000<br />
tonnes per annum and an enhanced polyethylene<br />
plant with a capacity of 540,000 tonnes per<br />
annum, representing a 340 percent increase in<br />
total production and, most probably, a similar<br />
percentage increase as far as both cooling and<br />
process water utilization are concerned.<br />
Base Metals Smelting<br />
The second bulk processing industry destined<br />
for massive expansion in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is metals<br />
smelting, with emphasis on aluminium and<br />
steel, in spite of the fact that metal ores will be<br />
imported. Two aluminium smelters, the first at<br />
Taweelah, adjacent to KPIZ, and the second at<br />
Ruwais, are proposed. The first is a 1.4 million<br />
tonnes per annum plant for the Emirates<br />
Aluminium Co. (EMAL), a joint venture<br />
between Mubadela and the Dubai Aluminium<br />
Co., while the second is a plant with a capacity<br />
of 550,000 tonnes per annum, a joint venture<br />
between ADBIC and COMALCO, a Rio Tinto<br />
group company. What remains unclear is<br />
whether utilities, particularly electricity and<br />
water will be drawn from the public supply network,<br />
or whether a self-generation policy will<br />
prevail. In view of an electrical inter-connector,<br />
the latter looks to be the most probable.<br />
Turning to steel production, a number of possible<br />
ventures have been mooted, but the status<br />
of most remains unclear. However, Emirates<br />
Steel Industries (ESI), which has been transferred<br />
from GHC to ADBIC, and which currently<br />
produces 700,000 tonnes per annum of rebar<br />
is increasing capacity to 1.4 million tonnes per<br />
annum, with a clear increased impact on utilities<br />
requirements.<br />
Such investment in heavy industry is very clearly<br />
based on the availability of lower cost energy<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. However, natural gas (methane,<br />
ethane, propane and n-butane) is not only the<br />
preferred primary energy source for industry,<br />
but it is also a major feedstock for the petrochemicals<br />
industry and the preferred fuel for<br />
the Independent <strong>Water</strong> and Power<br />
Production (IWPP) companies. Currently,<br />
supplies from the Emirate’s natural gas distribution<br />
network are less than peak<br />
demand, so that when load shedding occurs,<br />
a hierarchy, with respect to customers,<br />
exists, and will undoubtedly result in interindustry<br />
sector competition.<br />
Industrial Cities and Industrial<br />
Zones<br />
As far as can be ascertained from planning<br />
information, the majority of smaller industries<br />
and some very large industries will be<br />
located in either Industrial Cities (Mussafah/<br />
ICAD1, Mussafah South/ICAD2-5, Al Ain<br />
Industrial City and Ruwais Industrial City),<br />
Industrial Zones (Khalifa Port and Industrial<br />
Zone, including Taweelah, and Maffraq), or<br />
in Industrial Parks (ADBIC Polymer Park in<br />
the Mussafah Industrial Zone). The terms<br />
City, Zone and Park seem to be used interchangeably.<br />
A policy of establishing<br />
Industrial Clusters and the overall management<br />
and operation of these various industrial<br />
sites is vested in Zonescorp. The largest<br />
Industrial City factory so far announced is<br />
Arkan’s 3.1 million tonnes per annum cement<br />
plant in Al Ain. At least one of the Industrial<br />
Zones, Mussafah/ICAD1, will have its own<br />
dedicated industrial wastewater treatment<br />
plant with a design capacity of 80,000 m3 per<br />
day. However, neither the technology to be<br />
employed nor the final discharge standards<br />
have yet been specified. It must be assumed<br />
that other Industrial Zones will also undertake<br />
the responsibility of their own wastewater<br />
treatment.<br />
One of the most environmentally interesting<br />
new products that will be manufactured in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is artificial grass yarn, by a<br />
ADBIC/Low and Bonar PLC. joint venture.<br />
This will result in local production of artificial<br />
turf for sports fields and, possibly,<br />
amenity areas. If a policy involving the widespread<br />
use of such a product in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
was established, considerable savings in<br />
treated wastewater for irrigation might<br />
accrue to the municipalities, but the<br />
cost/benefit relationship will need careful<br />
scrutiny. A second important environmental<br />
product venture is the Masdar PV GmbH<br />
thin-film photo-voltaic sheet that is proposed<br />
for manufacture at KPIZ.<br />
Whereas some relatively clean green industries<br />
are going to be attracted to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>,<br />
other industries that are being established<br />
will require control by stringent environmental<br />
legislation and its effective enforcement.<br />
In general, industry respects environmental<br />
law, provided its requirements and its<br />
enforcement are seen to be equitable, but<br />
also effective in providing appropriate and<br />
necessary environmental quality improvements.<br />
Industry and Virtual <strong>Water</strong> Import<br />
and Export<br />
180<br />
181
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
tents of all industrial products prior to introducing<br />
their manufacture at any specific<br />
location. Hopefully such considerations have<br />
been included the industrialization policy for<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. It should also be mentioned that,<br />
in addition to the actual virtual water content<br />
of any specific product, virtual water<br />
content is also subject to minimization, as<br />
discussed below.<br />
Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
Minimization<br />
Many industries that have developed their<br />
manufacturing technology over several<br />
decades find their origins in a period of history<br />
when, water utilization by industry,<br />
regardless of the volume used, was considered<br />
trivial as far as both cost and environmental<br />
impact were concerned. However,<br />
since 1970, the true costs of water, particularly<br />
those concerned with its return to the environment<br />
in near pristine condition, have<br />
become increasingly evident, as environmental<br />
impact has become increasingly important.<br />
Prior to 1970, the view that the solution<br />
to pollution is dilution held considerable<br />
sway in industrial and political circles, but<br />
with deteriorating natural fresh and marine<br />
water quality standards, this so-called solution<br />
is no longer considered either sensible or<br />
realistic.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> is fast becoming a valuable commodity,<br />
particularly when the water concerned is<br />
desalinated water, but also even when it is<br />
saline cooling water used on a once-through<br />
basis if trace pollutant elimination is a requisite<br />
prior to discharge into the common sink<br />
and source. Resultantly total water use minimization<br />
in manufacturing process has<br />
become a research priority. Initially, research<br />
involved the optimization of water use in continuous<br />
flow processes of the type used in the<br />
petrochemicals industry (Wang and Smith,<br />
1994), but subsequently, the approach has<br />
been extended to batch processing (Alinato<br />
et al., 1999) and factory operation (Brauns et<br />
al., 2008). When considering licensed processes<br />
and alternative process routes for product<br />
manufacture in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, it would seem<br />
appropriate if pinch-techniques, of the types<br />
mentioned above, were employed as a key criterion<br />
in appropriate process selection.<br />
Examples exist where water requirements<br />
can be reduced to 30 percent of original<br />
design requirements, particularly in the bottled<br />
beverage industry.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The work undertaken for this report has<br />
highlighted a number of areas where<br />
improvements may be made in the planning<br />
and management of industrial water use. The<br />
lack of available data was found to be particularly<br />
problematic.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
1) An integrated Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Demand,<br />
Model<br />
There is a clear need to develop an integrated<br />
and comprehensive water demand model<br />
for the industrial sector showing the different<br />
sources/quality of water used and amounts.<br />
The various new industrial developments<br />
have supplied demand forecasts for potable<br />
water to ADWEC and this when integrated<br />
with existing users gives estimated overall<br />
figures for this source. In Miller (2008)<br />
ADWEC forecast a near doubling of industrial<br />
fresh water demand from some 7 percent of<br />
peak demand in 2007 to 13.5 percent of peak<br />
demand in 2030, clearly indicating the<br />
increasing importance of industrial water<br />
demand in the future of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. However,<br />
similar data for groundwater or seawater<br />
withdrawals, does not exist. Likewise there is<br />
a lack of integrated data for these possible<br />
sources, in order to gain an overall measure<br />
of the water usage patterns and future needs<br />
of industries. This makes strategic planning<br />
difficult. Clearly an industrial water demand<br />
model should be developed.<br />
2) Information System for Abstraction and<br />
Discharges Consents<br />
There is also a need to develop an information<br />
system that brings together all current<br />
approved abstraction and discharges licenses<br />
to ensure there is an accurate, comprehensive<br />
and clear view of activities. This will<br />
allow prediction of any possible cumulative<br />
impacts of industrialization on the marine<br />
aquatic and other environmental compartments.<br />
The Catchment Abstraction<br />
Management System of England and Wales<br />
brings together all licensed activities<br />
(abstractions and discharges) for each river<br />
and gives a comprehensive information<br />
source for future decision making. In <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> this may be developed for the different<br />
water abstraction and discharge sources.<br />
This would give the environmental regulator<br />
important information on which to base<br />
future standards and controls.<br />
Management<br />
3) Demand Management<br />
There are many possibilities for introducing<br />
technology or practices into industries that<br />
reduce water consumption. This is to be<br />
encouraged in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> to ensure adequate<br />
water is available for future economic developments.<br />
Clear incentives should be used to<br />
encourage innovation.<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
4) Establishment of Environmental<br />
Regulator<br />
There is a need for a more comprehensive<br />
and transparent regulatory framework to<br />
manage and plan abstractions and discharges<br />
of water from the industrial sector.<br />
This authority should work closely with<br />
industry in developing standards and practices<br />
that are suitable for the emirate.<br />
182<br />
183
Annex 5. Industrial <strong>Water</strong> Use<br />
References<br />
- <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Government, 2009. The <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
EconomicVision2030.<br />
http://www.abudhabi.ae/egovPoolPortal_WAR/appmanager/ADeGP/Citizen_nfpb=true&_portlet.asyn<br />
c=false&_pageLabel=P5800395121229515835296&la<br />
ng=en (Accessed 14th January 2009)<br />
- ADNOC, 2008. Health, Safety and Environment<br />
Report, 2007. ADNOC, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
- Anon., UAE Statistical Abstract for Agriculture<br />
(2007).<br />
- Brook, M. et al., Western Region Rept. Environ. Res.<br />
Wildlife Dev. Agency, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (2004).<br />
- Chapagain, A.K. and Hoekstra, A.Y., In: Virtual<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Trade, IHE Delft Rept. No. 12, pp 49-76 (2003).<br />
- Williams, E.D. et al., Environ. Sci. Technol., 36(24),<br />
5504-5510 (2002).<br />
- Wang, Y.P. and Smith, R., Chemical Engineering<br />
Science, 49(7), 981-1006 (1994).<br />
- Almato, M. et al., Comput. Chem. Engineering, 23,<br />
1427-1437 (1999).<br />
- Brauns, E. et al., Clean Technol. Environ. Policy,<br />
10, 189-201 (2008).<br />
- Miller, K., MEED <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Conference, <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>, Nov. 2007.<br />
- Miller, K., MEED Middle East Power & <strong>Water</strong><br />
Conf., <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, March 2008.<br />
- Regulation and Supervision Bureau, (2008b).<br />
Developing a framework for trade effluent control:<br />
consultation.<br />
http://www.rsb.gov.ae/uploads/TradeEffluentCons<br />
ultationFINALJun08.pdf (accessed July 8th 2008)<br />
- Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council, 2007. <strong>Plan</strong> <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
2030 Urban Structure Framework <strong>Plan</strong>, <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
184
Annex 6.<br />
Irrigation<br />
185
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
Introduction<br />
Irrigation is the largest water consumer in the<br />
Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> with three distinct irrigation<br />
sectors existing:<br />
1. Agriculture,<br />
2. Forestry<br />
3. Public amenity greenery.<br />
Currently, the irrigation water demands of agriculture<br />
and forestry are primarily fulfilled by<br />
local groundwater abstraction, while the<br />
demand for public amenity greenery is met by<br />
treated or reclaimed municipal wastewater.<br />
Smaller contributions to all three sectors are<br />
made by small-scale or large-scale desalinization,<br />
and fresh water sources. In the future, it is envisaged<br />
that both the sources of supply and relative<br />
priorities with respect to irrigation water allocation<br />
will change as a result of continuous increases<br />
in non-agricultural demand (i.e. increased<br />
provisions for municipal water driven by population<br />
growth, mega-project real-estate development,<br />
and industrialization).<br />
The both extensive and intensive developments<br />
in irrigation stem from policy initiatives to<br />
“green” the desert and to increase food self sufficiency.<br />
As will be discussed subsequently, food<br />
security is an emotive political issue, but one<br />
that is essentially unattainable under conditions<br />
of water scarcity. Adequate supplies of food,<br />
water and fuel are all basic human requirements,<br />
even basic human rights, but self sufficiency represents<br />
only one means of satisfying such<br />
requirements particularly in affluent societies.<br />
For example, while Japan is adequately supplied<br />
with water, it is deficient with respect to food<br />
production because of limited agricultural land<br />
availability; and deficient with respect to producing<br />
its own fuel requirements because of a<br />
lack of resources. Much of the original emphasis<br />
on food security stems from fears of blockades<br />
during conflict, but rational evaluation of such<br />
situations suggests that amelioration depends<br />
on storage. In the case of food, stable demand<br />
can be provided by judicious storage for months<br />
or even years. In the case of fuel, stored reserves<br />
can meet demand for months, while strategic<br />
fuel reserves are measured in terms of years. In<br />
the case of water, both good and bad examples<br />
of effective storage exist, but where surface<br />
storage is impracticable or impossible, such as<br />
in the Gulf region, strategic reserves are measured<br />
not in weeks or months, but in terms of<br />
mere days. As far as essential human requirements<br />
are concerned, it is a strategic water supply<br />
that is critical as far as the population of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is concerned. Neither food storage<br />
nor indigenous food production can override<br />
water supply failure.<br />
The use of water in the agriculture sector in the<br />
Emirate was not based on land and water suitability,<br />
and agro-climatic considerations rather,<br />
historically, it was essentially decree governed.<br />
The fundamental objectives of irrigated agriculture<br />
were:<br />
1. Food production, providing increased self<br />
sufficiency;<br />
2. Equality and poverty alleviation;<br />
3. Improve environmental sustainability and<br />
eco-system regeneration; and<br />
4. To foster environmental stewardship and<br />
protect natural resources.<br />
In the case of irrigated forestry, the fundamental<br />
objectives were to:<br />
1. Protect roads from sand incursions, particularly<br />
in areas with high dunes;<br />
2. Provide protected areas for wildlife; and<br />
3. Resolve/demarcate the international boundaries<br />
of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) with<br />
its neighbours.<br />
Similarly the fundamental objectives of public<br />
amenity greenery projects were the following:<br />
1. Provision of high quality amenity areas; and<br />
2. Greening of the desert environment.<br />
A key question raised in the context of sustainability<br />
is to what extent a green environment is<br />
appropriate for a hot arid region or whether<br />
the development of a partially planted desert<br />
environment might have been much more<br />
appropriate. Clearly, past irrigation development<br />
priorities do not necessarily reflect future<br />
water resource availability and its prioritized<br />
use among the sectors.<br />
The Agricultural Heritage of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
The culture and heritage of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> relies<br />
on the connection between land and water.<br />
The emirate has a long tradition of agriculture<br />
in its oases where crops have been grown for<br />
5000 years. Undergroundwater was channelled<br />
to palm groves and small fields and the technique<br />
is still used today. Local farming traditions<br />
can be preserved by incorporating modern<br />
technologies well-suited to the lifestyle of<br />
the people, climate and availability of water.<br />
The aflaj (irrigation channels - plural of falaj)<br />
are important as part of the Emirate’s historical<br />
heritage as well as being a major source of<br />
water. The main crops grown in this system are<br />
dates, citrus fruits, grasses, and a few annual<br />
vegetable crops. Since 1971, small scale traditional<br />
farming has been complemented by<br />
investment that has seen thousands of<br />
hectares brought into cultivation using<br />
groundwater. This agriculture expansion and<br />
consequent pumping of groundwater, has<br />
resulted in the drying up of many aflaj.<br />
Between 1994 and 2003 around 1,000 aflaj were<br />
renovated in various parts of the Emirate.<br />
Current Status of Irrigated<br />
Activities<br />
Agriculture<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is situated at the south-eastern part<br />
of the Arabian Peninsula. The climate is one of<br />
mild warm and sunny winters and very hot and<br />
dry summers with coastal areas being more<br />
humid than the interior. The average rainfall is<br />
less than 100 mm/yr. Due to the adverse climatic<br />
conditions (nutrient-poor soil, extreme aridity,<br />
and high summer temperatures), agriculture<br />
represents a relatively small portion (an estimated<br />
3 percent) of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s gross domestic<br />
product (GDP). Employment in the agricultural<br />
sector was approximately 7 percent of the<br />
employed population in 2005.<br />
Farms are being developed in dense clusters<br />
with typically two wells of limited distance<br />
apart. Such farm development has forced<br />
groundwater resources to become more<br />
stressed in terms of decreasing aquifer water<br />
levels and groundwater quality. In 2006-2007 the<br />
total cultivated agricultural land under the citizen’s<br />
1 farms in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> was 70,375 ha<br />
(Figure 1). The growth rate is more in the Al Ain<br />
area than in the western part of the Emirate.<br />
The concentrations of farms are shown in<br />
Figure 2. Records show that there was an<br />
increasing trend in the area brought under cultivation<br />
until 2004-2005; in the period from 1995-<br />
1996 to 2004-2005 this in fact increased by about<br />
100 percent (ASB, 2006-2007). In 2006-2007,<br />
there was a decrease of about 5 percent from<br />
2004-2005. Similarly, the maximum number of<br />
farms under cultivation in 2004-2006 was 23,704,<br />
which subsequently decreased by about 2 per-<br />
1 Emiratis wishing to become involved in agriculture production were granted 2 to 3 ha lands for farming. Each farm usually<br />
has two drilled wells at opposite locations of the plot. A substantial amount of subsidies were granted to farmers for irrigation<br />
development, wells and agricultural inputs.<br />
186 187
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
cent in 2006-2007. The total number of working<br />
irrigation wells are 40,494 in 2006-2007, about 8<br />
percent less than 2005-2006 (ASB, 2006-2007).<br />
Such changes in cropped areas or number of<br />
farms or wells can be attributed perhaps to<br />
changes in government policy towards subsidized<br />
agriculture, declining groundwater level<br />
and quality, increasing pumping costs, and/or<br />
other miscellaneous reasons.<br />
While groundwater remains the primary water<br />
source for irrigation purposes, its recharge rate<br />
is very low (less than 4 percent of total annual<br />
consumption). In the last three decades, rapid<br />
economic development coupled with population<br />
growth and large agricultural sector<br />
expansion have forced the government to rely<br />
on non-conventional water resources such as<br />
desalination and treated wastewater as secondary<br />
sources for irrigation water supply.<br />
From an economic perspective, desalinated<br />
water is not a suitable option as its cost is exorbitant<br />
in global economical terms. Treated<br />
wastewater has the most potential as marginal<br />
water suitable for growing forages, landscaping,<br />
fruit orchards and non-vegetative crops.<br />
Necessary wastewater use guidelines in agriculture<br />
are required for effective utilization of<br />
treated wastewater resource.<br />
Agriculture uses virtually all of the groundwater<br />
abstracted and significant quantities of<br />
desalinated water 2 . The sector, as a whole,<br />
consumes about 1949 Mcm/yr (i.e. 58 percent<br />
of all demand) of water that is provided to<br />
about 25,000 private farms covering about<br />
75,500 ha of area 3 . The three major groups of<br />
crop are vegetables, fodder (mainly Rhodes<br />
grass) and date palm. There is also limited cultivation<br />
of cereal and fruits. Most farms are<br />
sustained by subsidies offered by the government.<br />
Since 2005, selection of crops to be<br />
grown is based on the recommendations given<br />
Figure 1. Agricultural Farm Area in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate<br />
Source: Annual Statistical Book 2006/2007,<br />
Agriculture Sector, Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
to the producers by the agricultural extension<br />
services of the municipalities 4 . This helps in<br />
marketing and reducing surplus of produce.<br />
Due to recent increases in groundwater salinity<br />
(see Annex 1), many farm producers have<br />
installed small-scale reverse osmosis (RO) saltwater<br />
treatment plants for growing crops (i.e.<br />
vegetables, grasses, and date palm) or to provide<br />
drinking water to animals (Figure 3) (see<br />
Annex 2). In the Al Ain municipality area, seventy<br />
four RO plants are in operation<br />
(Department of Municipalities and Agriculture,<br />
Al Ain, personal communications). The capacity<br />
widely varies from 15 to 450 m 3 per day<br />
depending on the area under crop production<br />
or based on the number of farm animals. The<br />
main concern with these developments relates<br />
to the safe disposal of brine and current practices<br />
include:<br />
1. Surface disposal (to excavated and non-excavated<br />
pits where both evaporation and<br />
groundwater recharge occurs, and/or to the<br />
mountain terrain, or the steep edge of sand<br />
dunes where primarily groundwater recharge<br />
occurs);<br />
2. Blending or mixing with groundwater for<br />
date palm irrigation; and<br />
3. Use in the cooling pads of green houses.<br />
These findings are based on a recent preliminary<br />
field survey conducted by the<br />
International Center for Biosaline Agriculture<br />
(ICBA) in the Al Ain and western regions. ICBA<br />
has just started working with the Ministry of<br />
Environment and <strong>Water</strong> (MOEW) on developing<br />
guidelines for the safe and sustainable use of<br />
this technology in agriculture. The MOEW has<br />
already drafted a law for licensing the RO units<br />
for use in agriculture.<br />
Forestry<br />
Figure 2. Agricultural Farm Locations in the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
The forestry area has expanded rapidly in the<br />
Emirate increasing from 58,000 to 305,243 ha<br />
(i.e. about 5.26 times over 17 years or 26 percent<br />
growth per annum) between 1989 and 2006. A<br />
wide variety of plant species are being grown. In<br />
The protected areas for growing vegetables<br />
have been increasing steadily over the years<br />
from 140 ha to 398 ha between 2002-2003 and<br />
2006-2007. A significant increase was recorded<br />
(i.e. 1.53 times) in 2006-2007 against 2005-2006.<br />
The number of green houses increased from<br />
4,958 in 2005-2006 to 8,174 in 2006-2007. This<br />
cultivation technique helps in improving water<br />
use productivity and in cropping intensity.<br />
2 Estimated by Brook, 2006. Department of Municipalities and Agriculture, Emirates of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has reported about 450<br />
Mcm/year water use in agriculture in 2008. Out of which 419 Mm3 extracted from wells and remaining 31 Mm3 from the largescale<br />
desalination plants. Similarly Mooreland et al., 2007 reported that 456 Mcm/year of groundwater is being pumped for irrigation.<br />
They anticipated that this could be an underestimated value.<br />
3 In 2006-2007, the area has been reduced to 70,375 ha (ASB, 2006-2007).<br />
4 It is expected that <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority will take responsibility of agriculture in near future.<br />
Dawoud, 2008<br />
188<br />
189
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
Figure 3. A small-scale reverse osmosis (RO) plant in<br />
Liwa area is being used for growing vegetables in the<br />
green houses and fields using desalinated product<br />
water.<br />
Source: ICBA photographer, 11 November 2008<br />
the Eastern region, native species such as ghaf<br />
and arak are most commonly grown, while in<br />
the western forestry area, salam, damas, sidr<br />
and ghawiaf dominate the stands. In 2006 the<br />
water demand for forestry was about 607.3<br />
Mcm/yr which is about 18 percent of the total<br />
water demand. In the Western Region of the<br />
Emirate, the estimated water use was 484.45<br />
Mcm/yr whereas in the eastern region 122.85<br />
Mcm/yr of water was used (Dawoud, 2008).<br />
Recent research reports that average water use<br />
has decreased from 2300 m 3 /ha/yr to 2160<br />
m3/ha/yr between 1996 and 2006 in the eastern<br />
region with a more marked reduction in the<br />
western region from 3818 m 3 /ha/yr to 1,990<br />
m3/ha/yr (Moreland et al., 2007). This may be<br />
due to a reduction in well yields as well as a<br />
decrease in water application quantities.<br />
The forestry sector is heavily dependent on<br />
groundwater, and as such competes with agriculture<br />
for resources. Recently, desalinated<br />
water has been used in addition in some western<br />
projects, and this relative contribution is<br />
increasing over time. Trees are usually irrigated<br />
by drip and bubbler irrigation methods. Though<br />
modern irrigation systems have been used,<br />
optimal growth has never been achieved due to<br />
limited irrigation applications that meet a) full<br />
evapotranspiration (ET) demands, and b)<br />
leaching requirements.<br />
There are also problems resulting from the<br />
salinity of the groundwater. In the eastern<br />
region, the average irrigation water salinity for<br />
250 studied wells was found to be about 7,200<br />
ppm; the value ranged from 5,200 to 10,900 ppm<br />
(EAD, TERC 2005). For the entire eastern<br />
forestry area, water salinity varied from 4,200 to<br />
28,600 ppm. Whereas groundwater in the<br />
Western Region was found to be more saline;<br />
salinity values usually range from 10,000 ppm to<br />
40,000 ppm, and exceeds 50,000 ppm in the Al<br />
Wathbah area (Moreland et al., 2007). To<br />
reduce water salinity, either fresh or desalinated<br />
water is blended with high saline water to<br />
improve water quality. Furthermore, water<br />
demand for established forests is greater than<br />
water availability; consequently only 50 percent<br />
of demand can be satisfied. Thus, more stringent<br />
irrigation application via the subsurface<br />
drip irrigation method is underway in the<br />
forestry sector.<br />
Considering water quality and quantity, soils<br />
and climate, selection of appropriate plant be of<br />
prime concern for sustainability in this sector.<br />
Amenity<br />
Amenity irrigation has been increasing in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> with the growth of urban development<br />
and highways/roads. While these plantings<br />
have an ecosystem value, it is also important to<br />
consider their water quality and quantity implications.<br />
At present, the amenity areas consume<br />
about 7 percent of total water consumption in all<br />
sectors. Treated wastewater contributes about<br />
54 percent of the total water used, with the<br />
Foreign farm labourers are predominantly<br />
responsible for operation and maintenance of<br />
irrigation systems and they are mostly unskilled<br />
and not trained in modern irrigation methods.<br />
This has resulted in inefficiencies despite the<br />
use of these modern methods. <strong>Water</strong> demand<br />
and the need for irrigation vary greatly dependremaining<br />
demand being met from desalination<br />
and groundwater. In the Al Ain area alone, about<br />
400 wells are in use for amenity irrigation. Public<br />
parks and amenity areas cover about 1,000 ha,<br />
whereas other amenity areas including golf clubs<br />
and sports facilities cover more than 6,600 ha.<br />
The total water use is estimated at 245 Mcm/yr<br />
(including Palaces) in 2006 (Brook, 2006).<br />
In 2008, it is estimated that 537,535 m 3 /day was<br />
used in landscaping projects in the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Municipality area alone. Out of which 46 and 34<br />
percent comes from desalinated and treated<br />
wastewater respectively. The remaining i.e. 20<br />
percent comes from groundwater (Department<br />
of Municipalities and Agriculture, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>).<br />
On <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Island, the total water use in landscaping<br />
was about 162,600 m 3 /day with treated<br />
wastewater contributing 66 percent and desalination<br />
about 34 percent. Whereas in Al Ain the<br />
total water used was 130,000 m 3 /day, with 100,000<br />
and 30,000 m 3 /day from treated wastewater and<br />
wells respectively (Department of Municipalities<br />
and Agriculture, Al Ain, personal communications).<br />
The cost of landscaping projects in the Al<br />
Ain municipality alone is estimated to be AED<br />
100 million per year.<br />
Irrigated Area and Methods<br />
From the recent soil survey undertaken for the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> (see Table 6.1) it appears that all<br />
land has limitations to growing crops/forage,<br />
with only 8 percent moderately suitable for agriculture.<br />
The irrigated area by methods in farms of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is presented in Table 6.2. Irrigation methods<br />
include modern (drip, bubbler and sprinkler)<br />
and traditional (basin flooding). Of the<br />
modern methods employed, drip irrigation constitutes<br />
88 percent, followed by bubblers (6 percent)<br />
and sprinklers (1.5 percent). Drip irrigation<br />
systems are used for growing vegetables<br />
both in open fields and in greenhouses; whereas<br />
bubbler systems or open hose systems are predominantly<br />
used in fruit orchards. Fodder crops<br />
are grown using sprinkler irrigation systems or<br />
watered through small channels.<br />
Rhodes grass is widely cultivated in the Emirate<br />
and covering some 20,000 ha in 2008.<br />
(Department of Municipalities and Agriculture,<br />
Al Ain, personal communications). The water<br />
requirements for cultivating such fodder are<br />
extremely high; about 15,000 m3/ha/year. Other<br />
irrigated crops include corn, wheat, barley,<br />
tobacco, date palm, lime, grape fruit, mango,<br />
guava, fig, etc. The total area under date palm<br />
cultivation is about 172,080 ha, and 13.83 million<br />
date palm trees are in production in 2005<br />
(MOEW, 2005) . About 95 percent of date palm<br />
cultivated areas were utilizing modern irrigation<br />
methods. The total date production was<br />
about 595,000 tons.<br />
Table 6.1 Irrigation Suitability Area<br />
Classification<br />
Highly suitable with no significant<br />
limitations<br />
Moderately suitable land with<br />
moderate limitations<br />
Marginally suitable land with<br />
severe limitations<br />
Currently unsuitable land with severe<br />
limitations that cannot be corrected<br />
with existing knowledge and<br />
technology at acceptable costs<br />
Permanently unsuitable land that<br />
cannot be corrected<br />
Area in ha<br />
0 (0 percent*)<br />
432,165 (8 percent)<br />
1,054,937 (20 percent)<br />
1,877,314 (36 percent)<br />
1,904,280 (36 percent)<br />
Source: Soil survey for the Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
(ICBA, 2008). *Value represents the percent of the<br />
total area.<br />
190 191
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
ing on plant species and its physiological status,<br />
time of growing season, and agro-meteorology,<br />
so appropriate training on irrigation scheduling<br />
is essential for effective utilization of scare water<br />
resources.<br />
Table 6.2 Irrigated Area by Method in Farms<br />
Irrigation method<br />
Drip 62,136<br />
Sprinklers 1,060<br />
Bubblers 4,110<br />
Flooding 2,231<br />
Others 838<br />
Total 70,375<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Quality<br />
Irrigated area (ha)<br />
Source: Annual Statistical Book-2006-2007,<br />
Agriculture Sector, Emirate of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
The major limitations to the development of irrigated<br />
agriculture in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are a shortage of<br />
groundwater availability and increasing salinity<br />
levels. Recently, EAD reported that about 10<br />
percent of wells in the Emirate have become dry<br />
and 70 percent are saline (Dawoud, 2008).<br />
Although modern irrigation methods are introducing<br />
water use efficiencies, both groundwater<br />
quantity and quality have become stressed with<br />
many existing wells on farms now unable to provide<br />
the desired irrigation water quantity and<br />
quality. Thus, in many cases, farms have been<br />
abandoned or desalinated water is being supplied<br />
to sustain crop production.<br />
Irrigated farms have been developed in close<br />
proximity to one another causing well interference<br />
and rapid dropping of groundwater levels.<br />
The lowering of water levels has ranged from 60<br />
to 95 m during the last 10 years in the Al Ain area<br />
(Brook, 2006). In fact, groundwater levels have<br />
dropped more in the eastern agricultural region<br />
than in the western agricultural region. In the<br />
Liwa area, water levels have declined in the<br />
range of 3 to 10 m over the past 10 years. It has<br />
also been reported that the drop was found to<br />
be greater in unconfined aquifers than in confined<br />
aquifers.<br />
High rates of groundwater withdrawal in addition<br />
to very low water recharge and sea water<br />
intrusion have significantly increased groundwater<br />
salinity. About 65 percent of wells had<br />
water salinity greater than 4,000 ppm out of<br />
23,899 wells that were tested in the Al Ain area<br />
in 2000-2001. In the Al Samah area of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>, the well water salinity was 3,000 ppm<br />
(MacDonald, 2004). Whereas in 2006-2007, well<br />
water salinity exceeded 15,000 ppm in 80 percent<br />
of 5,808 wells tested in the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Municipality area. The water salinity values<br />
ranged from 3,500 to 23,100 ppm. (ASB, 2006-<br />
2007). Many of the wells in the Liwa area show a<br />
high concentration of nitrates (≥ 50 mg/L) especially<br />
in farming areas. This is perhaps due to<br />
excessive use of nitrogen fertilizer and irrigation<br />
water.<br />
Cropping Pattern Related to<br />
Irrigation System<br />
Agriculture and forestry in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is dominated<br />
by three cropping systems: (i) the traditional<br />
agricultural system for growing vegetables,<br />
fruits and fodders that is subsidized by the<br />
government; (ii) date palm production; and (iii)<br />
forestry. Local food production currently satisfies<br />
about one-fourth of the Emirate’s total food<br />
requirements and is even self-sufficient in some<br />
winter vegetables.<br />
Vegetables are grown in protected houses and<br />
in open fields. Various types of vegetables are<br />
grown, including, tomato, cucumber, bean,<br />
squash, eggplant, okra, etc. Fruits are grown in<br />
all agricultural regions and include citrus,<br />
mango, figs and other tropical and sub-tropical<br />
fruits. Dates are grown throughout the Emirate,<br />
but better quality dates are produced inland<br />
away from the coast.<br />
It is obvious that soil and water parameters,<br />
especially water availability and quality, should<br />
influence decision making on the selection of priority<br />
crops of vegetables and forages. Crop<br />
mixes, that are suitable for arid land farming,<br />
requiring less water demand, and appropriate for<br />
marginal water quality, should be assigned higher<br />
preference.<br />
Livestock Production<br />
The livestock industry (especially with regards<br />
to camel and sheep/goat rearing) has been<br />
increasing in the Emirates due to substantial<br />
increases in forage production. The approximate<br />
yearly production of Rhodes grass is 470,000 tons<br />
(dry weight), whereas the imported alfalfa from<br />
USA, Spain and Italy is about 448,000 tons (dry<br />
weight) (Department of Municipalities and<br />
Agriculture, official communications). The total<br />
numbers of camels, sheep/goat, and cow were<br />
353,337, 2,127,604 and 19,458 in 2006-2007 respectively<br />
in the Emirate. Such high concentrations<br />
of livestock not only require substantial forage<br />
and rangeland, but also contribute towards<br />
groundwater pollution. The number of animals is<br />
increasing over time (i.e. 15, 13 and 23 percent<br />
increase for camel, sheep/goat, and cows respectively<br />
in 2006-2207 in comparison with 2005-<br />
2007).<br />
Positive Impacts of Agriculture<br />
Development<br />
When considering irrigation it is important to<br />
consider holistically the impacts of developments.<br />
A number of positive impacts on the rural<br />
economy have resulted from the agricultural<br />
expansion including:<br />
1. Since the mid 1980s, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government<br />
has initiated a change in agriculture<br />
policy to replace traditional farming<br />
with modern farms. Over time the area<br />
under cultivation has been increased, but<br />
in addition crop yields per unit area have<br />
also been improved. This was possible due<br />
to the introduction of new varieties of<br />
crops such as dates and vegetables;<br />
together with complementary agricultural<br />
inputs i.e. agrochemicals, cultivation techniques<br />
and farm management. This has<br />
helped the government in achieving its<br />
goals for poverty reduction and raising the<br />
standard of living of rural Emiratis.<br />
2. Various international agencies such as the<br />
International Center for Agricultural Research<br />
in the Dry Areas (ICARDA), ICBA, Food and<br />
Agricultural Organization (FAO) amongst<br />
others, and private organizations have been<br />
active in testing new irrigation and production<br />
technologies suitable for the Emirate’s soil, climate<br />
and water conditions.<br />
3. From a farmer’s point of view, agricultural<br />
developments in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> have been successful<br />
and provided a stable income. In a larger<br />
economic evaluation it is important to<br />
include the heavy subsidies given by the government<br />
to the sector. These subsidies, however,<br />
have been reduced in recent years,<br />
although they still exist in practice. Such<br />
development has also stimulated private sector<br />
industry supplying products such as<br />
pumps, irrigation, seeds, and fertilizers.<br />
4. There is a direct positive linkage between<br />
crop/forage production and livestock farming<br />
over the years. This adds a new dimension to<br />
the internal crop-livestock integration in<br />
Emirate farming systems.<br />
Subsidies in Agriculture<br />
There has been a consistent and substantial<br />
increase in the area of land used for both agriculture<br />
and forestry over the past 30 years at<br />
least partially stimulated by the following government<br />
incentives:<br />
192 193
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
• Agricultural lands were granted free to <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> citizens;<br />
• Mechanical land leveling was free of charge;<br />
• Agricultural inputs such as seeds, fertilizers,<br />
and insecticides were provided at half cost;<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> wells were drilled for free;<br />
• Free technical services such as installation of<br />
water pumps;<br />
• Established a no-interest agricultural credit<br />
line in 1978 to grant farmers loans for water<br />
pumps, fence wires, fishing boat engines,<br />
green houses, and drip irrigation systems;<br />
and<br />
• Secured demand in produce market as the<br />
government buys the farmers’ products at<br />
favorable prices.<br />
In recent years, a decreasing trend has been<br />
observed in the allocation of subsidies. There<br />
had been an approximately 22 percent decrease<br />
in subsidies given to agricultural inputs in 2006-<br />
2007 compared against 2005-2006. This trend is<br />
part of government policies leading to the phasing<br />
out of subsidies for agriculture inputs,<br />
whereby farmers usually only paid 50 percent of<br />
the actual input cost. The total input subsidy in<br />
2006-2007 was about AED 16.13 million with a<br />
major reduction covering machines / pumps /<br />
sprayer costs. There was a major shift towards<br />
organic fertilizers, and a complete stop to chemical<br />
fertilizers and their applicators. Drip irrigation<br />
methods received 1.8 times more in subsidies<br />
when compared against the same timeframe.<br />
It is also reported that subsidies in the<br />
livestock sector have been decreasing recently.<br />
In Al Ain, the total subsidy on camels and<br />
sheep/goat livestock production in 2006-2007<br />
was AED 94.8011 million which is in fact about<br />
1.17 percent lower than 2002-2003 in spite of the<br />
increased total number of livestock. For dates,<br />
producers can get AED 1-2 per kilogram if they<br />
sell in the open market, thus Al Foah took the<br />
responsibility to ensure higher price for the producers.<br />
It is reported that Al Foah receives a<br />
substantial amount of subsidies from the government.<br />
In addition, municipalities are spending<br />
about AED 578 million per year for date palm<br />
plant protection measures.<br />
Future Developments in Irrigated<br />
Agriculture<br />
Protected Systems<br />
The arid climate and environmental conditions<br />
of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> necessitate and encourage the<br />
introduction of protected agriculture, particularly<br />
for vegetable crops. The main crops cultivated<br />
under protected agriculture are tomato,<br />
cucumber, pepper, sweet melon, and beans.<br />
Yields from greenhouse crops are generally 100<br />
to 200 percent more than comparable field-produced<br />
crops. In addition, water use efficiency<br />
can be improved by recycling unused water back<br />
to the plants via the fertigation system. Many<br />
small-scale reverse-osmosis (RO) plants are<br />
being used to desalinate the saline groundwater.<br />
The treated water is then used for irrigating<br />
crops grown in the greenhouses.<br />
For effective utilization of protected agriculture,<br />
the areas of possible interventions include<br />
incentives for expanding protected areas especially<br />
multi span, high quality plastic films, salttolerant<br />
and drought resistance crop cultivars.<br />
In addition, further studies should be conducted<br />
on climate control and optimization of plant<br />
environment, integrated pest management, soilless<br />
culture, and fertigation.<br />
Natural Ecosystem and Biodiversity<br />
The natural ecosystem and biodiversity in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> face the following challenges:<br />
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation;<br />
2. Non-native species introduction and invasion;<br />
3. Soil loss by erosion;<br />
4. Management of plant genetic resources; and<br />
5. Adverse climate change.<br />
The preservation of natural ecosystems is possible<br />
by conserving and rehabilitating natural<br />
plants i.e. flowers, halophytes, etc. suitable for<br />
the local conditions. In addition, an integrated<br />
development program for growing salt-tolerant<br />
plants in sabkha areas can preserve natural sustainability.<br />
For wildlife, a program for establishment<br />
of in-situ wildlife conservation is needed.<br />
Ecosystem remediation by applying water purposefully<br />
through natural oases and landscapes<br />
is possible. Estimating the water demand for<br />
this remediation process (or it can simply be<br />
considered as environmental water demand)<br />
could help in determining total water demand<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Such demand will vary considerably<br />
with the level of expansion of landscape<br />
and conservation of oases.<br />
Irrigation Methods and Irrigation<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Management<br />
Irrigation technology and management can<br />
assist in reducing water demand in agriculture<br />
and ultimately protect the environment. From<br />
field visits to the Liwa farm areas, it appears<br />
that significant improvements can be made<br />
towards improving water use efficiency by 1)<br />
using appropriate irrigation methods and sitespecific<br />
irrigation and drainage system designs;<br />
and 2) applying on-farm water management<br />
practices. Delivering water to crops/forages is a<br />
critical challenge. Much of the water used in the<br />
conventional surface irrigation methods simply<br />
evaporates from the soil without helping the<br />
crop water use at all, and excessively wetted soil<br />
may encourage weed growth. Thus, it is obvious<br />
that micro-irrigation or micro-spray irrigation<br />
methods are unique for water scarcity conditions.<br />
Micro-irrigation methods referred to as drip,<br />
trickle and bubbler, have similar design and<br />
management criteria. Soil is usually kept at<br />
high moisture levels and water does not come<br />
into contact with plant leaves and foliage. This<br />
enables the use of high saline water without<br />
burning the leaves especially when using the<br />
drip irrigation method. In addition, the drip<br />
method reduces leaching requirements. These<br />
methods apply water at a low flow rate and in<br />
the active root-zone. This also helps in using<br />
reclaimed wastewater. Other advantages<br />
include more efficient water use, easy to manage,<br />
not influenced by wind, easy to automate,<br />
labour non-intensive, and suitable for chemical<br />
application with irrigation water. The main disadvantages<br />
are higher installation costs and the<br />
requirement of a water filtration system to<br />
clean the water. While these methods do not<br />
reduce the net crop water consumption, they<br />
can improve the uniform distribution of water<br />
and reduce evaporation and non-beneficial ET,<br />
thus allowing more efficient use of water.<br />
Modern irrigation methods provide better<br />
water application efficiencies, but require high<br />
levels of design, operation and maintenance,<br />
and precise irrigation scheduling to make them<br />
successful. Current technology can be used to<br />
determine real-time irrigation water demand by<br />
monitoring water regimes in the soil and crop<br />
physiology. In fact, full automation of the irrigation<br />
water application is possible resulting in a<br />
reduction of labour requirements and an<br />
increase in water savings by avoiding daytime<br />
irrigation. In fact, no single technology can<br />
solve the existing scarce irrigation water situations,<br />
but advanced irrigation scheduling,<br />
increased irrigation efficiency, deficit or limited<br />
irrigation during less stress-sensitive crop<br />
stages, soil moisture management and treated<br />
wastewater are all realistic mitigating solutions.<br />
194 195
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
Crop selection is always important agricultural<br />
management decision, and in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> choosing<br />
suitable cropping patterns, such as vegetables,<br />
salt-tolerant and drought resistance<br />
crops/forages for the prevalent agro-climatic<br />
and economic conditions can help in reducing<br />
irrigation water demands. Information on crop<br />
water requirements provided in Table 6.3 could<br />
assist in crop planning, especially for selecting<br />
low water demanding crops. Tables 6.4-6.5 present<br />
some selected crops, orchards, trees and<br />
shrubs that can be grown in brackish or saline<br />
irrigation water. Most of the water contained in<br />
the unconfined aquifer is brackish, and saline.<br />
Thus, the selection of appropriate crops/trees<br />
could utilize brackish/saline water resources<br />
effectively, although the biomass production or<br />
yield would be reduced with higher<br />
Table 6.3 Crop <strong>Water</strong> Requirements of Some Selected Crops, Fruit Trees and Forages Growing in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate<br />
Table 12: The Challenges of Inland C<strong>Water</strong><br />
Crop<br />
Brine requirements Disposal<br />
(m 3 Crop<br />
/ha)op<br />
brackish/saline water. With treated wastewater,<br />
it is important that careful irrigation application<br />
methods are used to protect the environment,<br />
soil health and to minimize heath hazards.<br />
With saline water, adequate precaution is needed<br />
to protect irrigation infrastructures from corrosion<br />
and to reduce secondary salinization.<br />
Biotechnology<br />
Genetic engineering has the potential to help<br />
increase productivity especially on marginal<br />
lands by developing crop/plant cultivars that are<br />
suitable for salinity, desertification and drought.<br />
While it may not be possible to overcome the<br />
effects of salinity or drought completely through<br />
genetic manipulation, there are reasons to<br />
believe that modest increases in plant water use<br />
C<strong>Water</strong> requirements<br />
(m 3 /ha)op<br />
Alfalfa 15,700 Lettuce 2,300<br />
Rhodes* 15,000 Squash 2,300<br />
Date palm 14,800 Pepper 2,000<br />
Lemon/Citrus 10,200 Cucumber (field) 1,900<br />
Tomato (field) 6,500 Parsley 1,900<br />
Okra 6,380 Yellow Melon 1,860<br />
<strong>Water</strong> melon 5,500 J. mallow (field) 1,800<br />
Sunflower** 4,830 Turnip 1,700<br />
Tomato (green house) 4,050 Bean 1,600<br />
Sweet melon 3,100 Cabbage 1,600<br />
Onion 2,500 Spinach 1,600<br />
Potato 2,500 Cauliflower 1,400<br />
Egg plants 2,400 Cucumber (greenhouse) 1,140<br />
Cowpea 2,400 J. Mallow (greenhouse) 1,080<br />
Carrot 2,300 Beans (greenhouse) 960<br />
Source: Economic Perspectives. Working paper No. 6. The UAE National <strong>Water</strong> Strategy Study, the World Bank;<br />
*Department of Municipalities and Agriculture, <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate reported a higher value i.e. 25,000 to 30,000<br />
m 3 /ha. Such value could be overestimated. **<strong>Water</strong> Requirements for Sunflower (Report No. EB-25). North<br />
Dakota Agricultural Experimental Station, USA.<br />
Table 6.4 The Maximum <strong>Water</strong> Salinity-tolerance Limit for Some Selected Crops<br />
Table <strong>Plan</strong>t 12: tolerance The Challenges Lowof Inland Brine Moderate Disposal<br />
High Very High<br />
Conductivity (dS/m)
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
Table 6.5 The Maximum <strong>Water</strong> Salinity-tolerance Limit for Some Selected Orchards, Tress and Shrubs<br />
Table <strong>Plan</strong>t 12: tolerance The Challenges Low of Inland Moderate Brine Disposal High Very High<br />
Conductivity (dS/m)<br />
TDS (ppm)<br />
<strong>Water</strong> classification<br />
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
able to sustain livestock production at acceptable<br />
levels of productivity. Even at the current<br />
population level and demographic distribution,<br />
food self sufficiency in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is precluded<br />
because of inadequate water resources.<br />
It is water availability, rather than food self<br />
sufficiency per se, that will prove to be the first<br />
limiting factor. In simple terms, a major,<br />
essentially insoluble, gap exists with respect to<br />
the water supply and demand equation.<br />
Virtual <strong>Water</strong><br />
The concept of ‘virtual water’ was first introduced<br />
in the early 1990s (Allan, 1993), but it took<br />
a decade before this important concept for<br />
potentially achieving regional and even global<br />
water security gained appropriate recognition.<br />
Producing either products or services generally<br />
requires water and the water used in both agricultural<br />
and industrial product production is<br />
described as the virtual water contained in each<br />
particular product or commodity. Hence, if any<br />
particular country exports a water intensive<br />
product or commodity to another country, it is<br />
effectively exporting water in a virtual form,<br />
thereby supporting the importing country with<br />
respect to its water needs. Virtual water is the<br />
water embodied in a product, not in a real sense,<br />
but in a virtual sense. It is, in fact, the water<br />
needed for the production of the product under<br />
consideration rather than its actual water content.<br />
Although it has been proposed in the past<br />
(Hamer et al., 1989), the trade of real water,<br />
other than by international, trans-frontier rivers,<br />
between water-rich and water-poor countries, is<br />
generally impossible on grounds of both distance<br />
and cost. However, trade in water intensive<br />
products, i.e., the virtual water trade, is<br />
entirely feasible and realistic and, for water<br />
scarce countries or regions, it could be attractive<br />
as a means of achieving a greater level of<br />
water security by importing water intensive<br />
products and commodities rather than producing<br />
them domestically (Hoekstra, 2003).<br />
The economic argument behind virtual water<br />
trade is that, according to international trade<br />
theory, countries should export products in<br />
which they posses a relative or comparative<br />
advantage in production, while they should<br />
import products in which they posses a comparative<br />
disadvantage. The net import of virtual<br />
water in a water scarce country can relieve pressure<br />
on that country’s own water resources. In<br />
this context, virtual water represents an additional<br />
alternative source of water. Assessing the<br />
virtual water content of a product, particularly<br />
an agricultural product, is a difficult task,<br />
because of the many factors contributing to the<br />
volume of water used in production and very little<br />
consistency exists with respect to such<br />
assessments. Problems stem from the place,<br />
year and season of production, the point of<br />
measurement, the production method and the<br />
associated efficiency of water use, particularly<br />
wastage, and methods for attributing water<br />
inputs into intermediate products and services<br />
as they apply to the virtual water content of the<br />
final product.<br />
A further complication involves the use of different<br />
sources of water in agricultural commodity<br />
production. <strong>Water</strong> has been divided into two<br />
major categories: ‘green’ water and ‘blue’ water<br />
(Yang et al., 2006). Green water is the water<br />
source for rain-fed agriculture, and is generally<br />
considered to represent the water stored in<br />
unsaturated soils. Blue water is the primary<br />
water source for irrigated agriculture and refers<br />
to water from rivers, lakes, reservoirs and<br />
aquifers. While green water is renewable, blue<br />
water can be either renewable, in all four source<br />
categories, or, in the case of groundwater<br />
aquifers, also non-renewable, as is the predominant<br />
case as far as the groundwater resources of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are concerned. Both green and<br />
renewable blue water contribute to the international<br />
virtual water trade. Studies concerning<br />
virtual water export make major efforts to differentiate<br />
between green and blue water, but as far<br />
as virtual water import is concerned, such differentiation<br />
is of negligible importance. However,<br />
this does not diminish the fact that drinking<br />
water, at a typical per capita consumption of ca.<br />
1 m3 per year, is ‘small’ water compared with<br />
typical per capita water consumption for food<br />
production of ca. 1000 m3 per year, which is ’big’<br />
water (Allan, 1999). This clearly demonstrates<br />
the relative ease of satisfying strict drinking<br />
water demand, rather than domestic demand,<br />
compared with the relative difficulty of satisfying<br />
sufficient water for crop irrigation and food<br />
production.<br />
While the UAE embraces the concept of free<br />
trade, it would seem that it must also embrace<br />
the advantageous aspects of the international<br />
virtual water trade, as a most effective means of<br />
reducing the overall demand for excessive volumes<br />
of irrigation water from what is very rapidly,<br />
particularly in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, becoming a<br />
restricted resource, both with respect to quantity<br />
and quality. For example, about 300 Mm3 of<br />
water per year can be saved by importing forages<br />
instead of growing Rhodes grass in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The following recommendations are made following<br />
the research undertaken.<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
1) <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council<br />
It is important that the agriculture, irrigation<br />
and forestry sectors are represented on the proposed<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council. Any changes in<br />
use within these areas have significant impact<br />
on the overall water strategy for the Emirate.<br />
Management<br />
2) Future Irrigation Strategy<br />
The present land area brought under farming,<br />
forestry, and landscaping is about more than 85<br />
percent of the moderately-suitable land available<br />
in the Emirate (Table 1). This limits the<br />
expansion of crop/forestry areas without severe<br />
crop production suitability limitations. The 2007<br />
Sustainability Report of EAD outlined key performance<br />
indicators for reducing water consumption<br />
in the agriculture and forestry sectors.<br />
The agriculture water consumption needs to be<br />
reduced to 18,000 m 3 /ha in 2012 from the present<br />
value i.e. 23,500 m 3 /ha. In other words, a saving<br />
of about 400 Mcm/year has to be made from<br />
present levels of use. Similarly forest water consumption<br />
should be at 2,500 m 3 /ha in 2012 from<br />
3,500 m 3 /ha in 2007; this implies that a 300<br />
Mcm/year savings has been planned. In addition,<br />
the lower limit of water salinity should be<br />
reduced by 37.5 percent in 2012 from its 2007 values.<br />
To achieve these targets, irrigation strategies<br />
should be addressed by 1) adding more<br />
cropped area utilizing modern irrigation methods<br />
and technologies; 2) increasing the irrigation<br />
water supply; and 3) irrigation water<br />
demand management. Such irrigation strategies<br />
also need to be linked with crop selection, incentive<br />
policy and applied research. However, some<br />
of the relevant irrigation strategies are discussed<br />
below.<br />
3) Automation of Irrigation System (reducing<br />
labour-dependent irrigation)<br />
Automation with modern irrigation system will<br />
reduce labour dependent irrigation practices in<br />
the Emirates and will also assist in improving<br />
water use efficiency. New demographic policies<br />
of the UAE enforce use of modern building construction<br />
techniques rather than labourdependent<br />
ones; a similar policy may come with<br />
regards to irrigated agriculture.<br />
4) Irrigation <strong>Water</strong> Supply Management<br />
With regards to supply management, two possible<br />
technologies are relevant for the Emirate: 1)<br />
groundwater recharge by constructing recharge<br />
dams; and 2) the use of treated wastewater in<br />
200 201
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
irrigation. In this context, wastewater guidelines<br />
need to be formulated.<br />
5) Irrigation <strong>Water</strong> Demand Management<br />
Precise estimations of crop and forest water<br />
demand should receive the first priority in the<br />
Emirates. ET rates can be estimated using<br />
remote sensing techniques. These techniques<br />
overcome problems of spatial variability especially<br />
when used with a geographical information<br />
system.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> saving is possible by decreasing both nonbeneficial<br />
ET and irrigation water demands. To<br />
facilitate minimization of non-beneficial ET,<br />
possible measures include increasing irrigation<br />
application efficiency and the reduction of surface<br />
evaporation and water use by non-economic<br />
vegetation. In the case of irrigation water<br />
demand reduction, possible interventions<br />
include 1) using scientific irrigation scheduling<br />
and control based monitoring of soil water moisture,<br />
the plants, and/or the agro-meteorology; 2)<br />
introducing crops that require low water<br />
requirements; 3) selecting crop/plant species<br />
able to take full advantage of available water<br />
resources (e.g. use of saline water) and that are<br />
salt-tolerant and drought resistant; and 4)<br />
choosing appropriate irrigation method(s).<br />
Controlled deficit irrigation strategy (CDI) may<br />
be considered a part of demand management. It<br />
considers less irrigation water application during<br />
phonological periods in which controlled<br />
deficit irrigation does not significantly affect the<br />
production and quality of the crop involved.<br />
During the other growth periods, full irrigation<br />
is to be applied. This strategy has been found to<br />
be successful, resulting in a water savings of<br />
about 20-30 percent, for fruit trees (Domingo et<br />
al., 1996). Applying this strategy is very challenging<br />
as the farmers should consider not only the<br />
irrigation water quantity available, but also the<br />
level of stress that the crop is experiencing, and<br />
how that stress can affect yields. The main limi-<br />
tation of this strategy is the need to appropriately<br />
establish data on the phonological periods<br />
when the impact of water deficit does not significantly<br />
affect production or quality under local<br />
conditions. (There does exist literature that provides<br />
some basic data).<br />
6) Agricultural Subsidy for <strong>Water</strong><br />
Conservation and Environmental<br />
Protection<br />
Agricultural subsidies have been, and will continue<br />
to be, applied in agriculture throughout<br />
the world including in the Emirate. The main<br />
challenge, however, is to determine what<br />
kinds of incentives (subsidies) are needed to<br />
meet national water strategies. It is obvious<br />
that present subsidies need to be redirected<br />
toward water conservation and environmental<br />
protection. Recent data shows that the<br />
Emirate government has already moved<br />
towards that direction, for example, the financial<br />
assistance from chemical fertilizers has<br />
been shifted to organic fertilizers along with<br />
increased support for the drip irrigation<br />
method. A systematic analysis, instead of an<br />
isolated plan, of technical assistance, interestfree<br />
or low-interest loans, or direct cost sharing<br />
is needed to determine where such incentives<br />
are appropriate to meet national water<br />
strategies. <strong>Water</strong> pricing policies, particularly<br />
for reclaimed wastewater, could be an incentive<br />
for using water saving techniques.<br />
7) Avoiding Irrigation Induced Groundwater<br />
Pollution<br />
Effective water utilization is a must under<br />
conditions of water scarcity. This is possible<br />
by avoiding over-irrigation and integrating<br />
irrigation scheduling with other cultivation<br />
techniques such as soil tillage and fertigation.<br />
8) Energy Use Reduction<br />
One strategy of better irrigation scheduling is<br />
to minimize the use of energy. This can be<br />
achieved by imposing penalties during the<br />
periods of peak energy demand. This requires<br />
both proper irrigation scheduling and the<br />
selection of crops/forages with acceptably<br />
lower water demands.<br />
9) Public Awareness<br />
Public awareness via community educational<br />
and motivational programs can assist farm<br />
communities to properly utilize scarce irrigation<br />
water in economic and sustainable agricultural<br />
production systems. Such programs<br />
will provide educational, informational and<br />
training opportunities to the farmers. The<br />
relevant topics include cost-effective water<br />
saving technologies, farm economics, environmental<br />
impact of using chemicals and<br />
overuse of irrigation water, water use efficiencies,<br />
etc. This also encourages farmers in<br />
developing partnerships with extension services,<br />
farm advisors, irrigation specialists, and<br />
other government and private agencies.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
10) Irrigation Management Information<br />
System (IMIS)<br />
The development of IMIS in the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate can assist irrigators or irrigation<br />
planners/managers to efficiently manage irrigation<br />
systems. Efficient use of irrigation<br />
water benefits farmers and the environment<br />
by saving water, energy, and money. A welldeveloped<br />
database is the first step in documenting<br />
the necessary data/information that<br />
helps in making right decisions when planning<br />
and managing irrigation water<br />
resources. The input data/information to the<br />
database includes agro-meteorological, farm<br />
profiles, crop/plant physiology, irrigation<br />
methods and water application, water quality,<br />
etc. Model outputs include irrigation management<br />
related technical and management<br />
decisions. The IMIS should have a network<br />
for data dissemination targeted towards a<br />
broader audience.<br />
11) Computer-based Analytical Tools<br />
An optimization model can assist in decision<br />
support systems by providing accurate decisions<br />
for allocation of water amongst the possible<br />
agricultural production activities. The objective<br />
function could be based on the economics of<br />
the agricultural production system, whereas the<br />
constraints could be linked with resource availability<br />
and socio-cultural limitations. It is also<br />
possible to optimize cropping patterns using<br />
such an analytical tool. Post-optimal sensitivity<br />
analysis can help in evaluating uncertainty and<br />
risks associated with resource availability and<br />
possible changes in agricultural policy.<br />
International research centers such as ICBA can<br />
assist the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government in formulating<br />
such models.<br />
12) Human <strong>Resources</strong> Development<br />
The development of human resources in the irrigation<br />
sector in the Emirate is essential. Such<br />
skill improvements should include increasing<br />
the number and expertise of professionals, and<br />
improving institutional capacity for effective utilization<br />
of scarce water resources. These alone,<br />
however, will not produce the anticipated water<br />
conservation results without the transference of<br />
available knowledge to farmers.<br />
13) Research and Development<br />
Continuing research and development in various<br />
facets of water use and conservation cannot<br />
be ignored. In fact, research should focus on<br />
improved water use and management and environmental<br />
protection. The strengthening of<br />
national agricultural research institutes and<br />
joint collaboration with international research<br />
centers (i.e. ICBA, ICARDA, amongst others)<br />
are essential in this context. The success of<br />
research is not only dependent on finding technical<br />
solutions, but also the dissemination and<br />
adoption of these solutions i.e. best management<br />
practices, appropriate strategies, factsheets,<br />
by farmers. This is only possible where<br />
strong research and extension linkages exist.<br />
202 203
Annex 6. Irrigation<br />
References<br />
- Allan, J.A. 1999, Arid lands Newsletter, No. 45, 1-8.<br />
- Allan, J.A., 1993, In: Priorities for water resources<br />
allocation and management, ODA, London, pp. 13-<br />
26.<br />
- ASB, 2006-2007, Annual Statistics Book. Emirate of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. Dept. of Municipalities and Agriculture<br />
- Brook, M., 2006, <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate, UAE: Environmental Agency <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>,<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Department.<br />
- Dawoud, M., 2008. <strong>Water</strong> resources and its limitations<br />
in UAE. Paper presented in the symposium on<br />
irrigation demand management, organized by the<br />
Ministry of Environment and <strong>Water</strong> (MOEW), 27<br />
November 2008.<br />
- Domingo R, Ruiz-Sánchez MC, Sánchez-Blanco NJ,<br />
Torrecillas A., 1996, <strong>Water</strong> relations, growth and<br />
yield of Fino lemon trees under regulated deficit<br />
irrigation. Irrigation Science 16(3): 115–123.<br />
- EAD, TERC, 2005, Well inventory and water supply<br />
in forest development in the eastern region of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. Final report. Technical University of<br />
Munich. Project No. 03-33-0001.<br />
- Hamer, G. et al., 1989, Desalination, 72, 31-65.<br />
- Hoekstra, A.Y., 2003, In: Virtual <strong>Water</strong> Trade, IHE<br />
Delft Rept. No. 12, pp. 13-23.<br />
- MacDonald, M, 2004, Preliminary assessment of the<br />
water situation in the eastern and central regions of<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate. Final report.<br />
- MOEW, 2005, Agricultural Statistics, Ministry of<br />
Environment and <strong>Water</strong>, UAE.<br />
- Moreland, Joe A., David W. Clark, and Jeffrey L.<br />
Imes, 2007, Ground <strong>Water</strong> – <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>’s Hidden<br />
Treasures. National Drilling Company-US<br />
Geological Survey Groundwater Research<br />
Program, AlAin, UAE.<br />
- Yang, H. et al., 2006, Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 10,<br />
443-454.<br />
204
Annex 7.<br />
Governance and<br />
Regulatory Frameworks<br />
205
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
Introduction<br />
The importance of sound governance for efficient,<br />
economic and sustainable environmental<br />
and water management has been emphasized<br />
throughout the world. This can be broken down<br />
into various parts such as coherent and practicable<br />
institutional structures, clear roles and<br />
responsibilities, accountability, sound financial<br />
management, informed and transparent decision-making,<br />
and checks-and-balance structures.<br />
With good water governance in place,<br />
water policy objectives may be defined and realized<br />
in an informed and transparent way.<br />
Current Governance Institutions<br />
and Responsibilities<br />
In the United Arab Emirates (UAE), water governance<br />
is shared between federal and emirate<br />
level organizations. This is similar to many federations<br />
such as Australia, the USA, and Brazil<br />
where organizations at different levels of responsibility<br />
act as the competent authority for various<br />
aspects of public administration. Whilst for<br />
most aspects of environmental and water governance,<br />
emirate level organizations hold this role,<br />
the federal level has authority for strategic oversight<br />
and planning.<br />
Environmental Management<br />
Various institutions have evolved and<br />
changed since the establishment of the<br />
Federation in 1971. Today the Ministry of<br />
Environment and <strong>Water</strong> is the main authority<br />
whose strategic objectives include developing<br />
and implementing policies, plans and projects<br />
to protect the environment. The Ministry’s<br />
remit is wide. It includes achieving food security<br />
whilst minimizing the exhaustion of<br />
groundwater, developing alternative water<br />
sources related to use-group, reducing soil<br />
and water pollution, enhancing terrestrial and<br />
marine biodiversity, monitoring the environment,<br />
and setting standards for environmental<br />
assessments.<br />
The second main authority, the independent<br />
Federal Environment Agency/Authority<br />
(FEA), was established in 1993. Its current<br />
remit as defined by Federal Law No (2) of 2004<br />
is that it is charged with implementing various<br />
strategies and activities to achieve these<br />
objectives. Many programs are currently in<br />
place such as developing national environmental<br />
strategies, monitoring, and awareness-raising.<br />
Other responsibilities lie in the evaluation<br />
of submitted environmental impact assessments<br />
for major projects.<br />
Of course other governmental organizations<br />
are also involved in aspects of environmental<br />
management such as the National Centre for<br />
Meteorology and Seismology under the aegis<br />
of the Ministry of Presidential Affairs. To help<br />
coordinate efforts, the FEA has established a<br />
number of cross-ministry and cross-emirates<br />
technical committees. Various national initiatives<br />
have resulted such as the National<br />
Environmental Awareness and Information<br />
Strategy, and the National Action <strong>Plan</strong> to<br />
Combat Desertification. One such cross-organizational<br />
structure is the National Committee<br />
for the Environmental Strategy and<br />
Sustainable Development, which was established<br />
by the Council of Ministers Decree No.<br />
(17) 2002, to implement the National<br />
Environmental Strategy and National<br />
Environmental Action <strong>Plan</strong> in the UAE.<br />
In reviewing these various initiatives, it<br />
becomes obvious that many of the activities to<br />
date have focused on protecting biodiversity<br />
and the marine environment. Whilst this is<br />
understandable, especially given that water<br />
has only recently become part of the<br />
Ministry’s remit, there is a clear need for an<br />
emirate-wide coherent strategic policy for protecting<br />
groundwater from over-exploitation<br />
and pollution. There is also a need for a more<br />
developed plan for managing the marine environment,<br />
particularly the Arabian Gulf, given<br />
the rapidly expanding desalination capacity of<br />
many of the countries along its shores, proposals<br />
for the development of nuclear power production,<br />
and return of waste and process<br />
water to the sea.<br />
At the emirate level, the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government<br />
has initiated many recent important moves in<br />
environmental management. The competent<br />
authority is the Environment Agency – <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> (EAD) and its position within the overall<br />
emirate governance system is shown in Figure<br />
1. It is directly answerable to the Executive<br />
Council and its authority and responsibilities<br />
are laid out in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Law No. (4) 1996, subsequent<br />
amendments and <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Law No.<br />
(16) 2005. EAD’s remit, as defined in these<br />
laws, covers many aspects of land and marine<br />
management with a major focus on research<br />
and monitoring. EAD is also responsible for<br />
regulating and reviewing activities that might<br />
impact the environment and it is the competent<br />
authority for implementing environmental<br />
impact assessment procedures and for permitting<br />
various activities laid out by the Federal<br />
Government.<br />
EAD’s activities today are increasingly<br />
directed at control of the environment, with<br />
an increasing focus on licensing, compliance,<br />
and enforcement of established standards.<br />
This is reflected in its recent strategic policy<br />
document (EAD, 2008) which highlights not<br />
only its priority areas leading up to 2012, but<br />
also its view that it is expected to assume a<br />
more regulatory role during that period.<br />
There has also been increased involvement of<br />
EAD in environmental policy development<br />
under its responsibilities to plan and inform<br />
the Executive Council. However, these types<br />
of activities are not clearly defined in Law No.<br />
(4) 1996, so there is a somewhat ‘grey’ area in<br />
responsibilities between EAD and other regulatory<br />
organizations.<br />
Whilst the formal governance institutions at<br />
both the federal and emirate level are the main<br />
organizations directly involved in environmental<br />
management, informal civil society groups<br />
contribute to the debates and discussions<br />
through their individual depth of knowledge<br />
and expertise, and representation of different<br />
interest. These parties reflect both<br />
cultural/community affiliations and environmental<br />
issues (for example, the Emirates<br />
Environment Group), as well as particular<br />
areas of expertise (various private sector<br />
organizations). There are no formal structures<br />
for the timely inclusion of these groups in the<br />
decision-making process, but traditional venues<br />
and means of discussion facilitate consideration<br />
of their ideas and knowledge.<br />
Figure 7.1 Simplified Governance Structure of <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate<br />
Source: <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Government 2008<br />
206 207
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Management<br />
There are overlapping areas between the roles<br />
and responsibilities of organizations involved<br />
with general environmental management and<br />
specifically water resources. The Federal<br />
Ministry for Environment and <strong>Water</strong> and the<br />
Federal Environment Authority have responsibilities<br />
for introducing trans-Emirate policy,<br />
laws and regulations for the management and<br />
control of natural water resource such as the<br />
new draft law concerning water resources<br />
which is currently before the UAE Cabinet.<br />
Their remit involves a combination of holistic<br />
strategic initiatives as well as practical projects<br />
such as the building of recharge dams. It<br />
is only recently that water has been added to<br />
the responsibilities of this Ministry, so it is no<br />
surprise that to date there has been little in<br />
terms of strategies for water resources protection<br />
and pollution control.<br />
The principal level of responsibility for water<br />
resources management in the UAE is at the<br />
emirate level. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, EAD is the competent<br />
authority for managing the principal<br />
natural resource groundwater. These responsibilities<br />
are supported by Executive Decisions<br />
no 14 (session 8/2005) and No. 4 (Session<br />
17/2005) which commissioned EAD to undertake<br />
an assessment of groundwater resources.<br />
However, one of the most important developments<br />
in water resources management was the<br />
passing in 2006 of Law No 6, which authorizes<br />
EAD to regulate the licensing and drilling of<br />
water wells and to monitor usage.<br />
In a broader context, EAD is responsible for<br />
the expansion of water security initiatives<br />
which in arid area such as <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is most<br />
important. Recent exploratory work on aquifer<br />
storage and recovery has highlighted potential<br />
opportunities to support this remit.<br />
The main informal groups involved with water<br />
resources management are based on different<br />
user groups both individuals and community,<br />
who have an active interest in the use and allocation<br />
of groundwater. The contribution of<br />
environmental ‘non-government-organisations’<br />
(NGOs) on the water issue has been<br />
somewhat limited to date.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Service Delivery<br />
<strong>Water</strong> services in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are developed<br />
and managed at the emirate level the main<br />
governance institutions are within this jurisdiction.<br />
However, at the federal level, the<br />
Electricity and <strong>Water</strong> Sector of the Ministry of<br />
Energy is currently developing UAE wide standards,<br />
laws and regulations for the provision of<br />
this sector that are likely to come into force in<br />
the next two years.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> a major re-structuring of the<br />
water sector came in the late 1980’s with further<br />
developments in 2005. These changes signaled a<br />
move away from government as major service<br />
providers and managers, into a more regulatory<br />
role. The private sector took on a greatly<br />
increased role in generating and supplying<br />
water. This obviously brought a new group of<br />
people and organizations involved into the<br />
water services governance of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
The main overarching authority is the <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Authority<br />
(ADWEA). Various organizations under its<br />
jurisdiction are responsible for different<br />
aspects of water provision:<br />
• Production (Independent <strong>Water</strong> and Power<br />
Producer - IWPPs and Generation and<br />
Desalination- GDs);<br />
• Procurement and planning (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
<strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Company- ADWEC);<br />
• Transmission (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Transmission and<br />
Figure 7.2 <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> governmental organizations in water services governance<br />
Source: adapted from ADWEC 2007<br />
Despatch Company TRANSCO);<br />
• Distribution of water (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Distribution Company - ADDC and Al Ain<br />
Distribution Company - AADC); and<br />
• Sewerage Services (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage<br />
Services Company - ADSSC).<br />
These organizations have various ownership<br />
structures involving different combinations of<br />
the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government and the private<br />
sector. All the activities and authority of these<br />
different organizations under ADWEA are<br />
defined and controlled by licences issued by<br />
the RSB.<br />
The eight IWPPs and two GD companies<br />
involve international and local companies and<br />
a mixture of private/public partnerships<br />
arrangements, with <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government<br />
always owning the majority stake largely<br />
through their TAQA investment arm. This is a<br />
predominantly privatized approach to water<br />
production and is secured through competitive<br />
tendering with licenses and economic and<br />
water quality regulations, issued by the RSB,<br />
controlling their activities.<br />
The recent addition to this organizational<br />
structure has been the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage<br />
Service Company (ADSSC) established under<br />
Law No (17) of 2005, which is responsible for<br />
the managing the collection, treatment, disposal<br />
and recycling of sewerage water and its<br />
associated infrastructure. Following this, Law<br />
no (18) of 2007 allowed other sewerage services<br />
companies licensed by the RSB, to connect to<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage Services Company assets<br />
to support an expansion of activities in this<br />
area. An example of this is the recent granting<br />
of licenses for wastewater treatment to Al<br />
Etihad Biwater Waste <strong>Water</strong> Company,<br />
Archirodon Construction (Overseas) Co. S.A.,<br />
and Aldar Laing O’Rourke Construction L.L.C.<br />
An important part of the water supply system<br />
to both consumers and commercial enterprises<br />
is mineral/bottled water. There are over 25<br />
companies involved in this business in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate and their activities are controlled<br />
at the Federal level by the Emirates<br />
Standards and Metrology Authority (established<br />
under Federal Law (28) 2001). Again<br />
there is a mixture of governmental and private<br />
sector organizations involved.<br />
208<br />
209
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
The main informal groups involved with water<br />
services management are the different user<br />
groups and their opinions are included in<br />
deliberations at the various levels through traditional<br />
channels.<br />
Emirate Level Cross-cutting<br />
Committees for Aspects of <strong>Water</strong><br />
Management<br />
<strong>Water</strong> touches many different areas of decision-making,<br />
so it is no surprise that crossorganizational<br />
committees have been established<br />
within the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> government to<br />
support integrated thinking. These help to<br />
ensure that the potential impacts of new policies<br />
and management decisions on the water<br />
resources may be examined in depth. Various<br />
committees, involving members from various<br />
departments and authorities, have already<br />
been established in this regard and include<br />
the following:<br />
• Strategic <strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong> Committee;<br />
• Increasing re-use and biosalinity Committee;<br />
• <strong>Water</strong> in Agriculture Committee; and<br />
• Use of Desalinated <strong>Water</strong> Committee.<br />
Whilst these moves are important for the<br />
effectiveness of these cross-organizational<br />
committees, their effectiveness is difficult to<br />
assess to date.<br />
Recommendations<br />
Within the Emirate, the current system of<br />
water governance has reasonably clear lines of<br />
demarcation largely resulting from the use of<br />
seawater for potable water supply (controlled<br />
by ADWEA/RSB), and groundwater (controlled<br />
by EAD) for the large-user sectors of<br />
agriculture, forestry and landscaping. <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> has a well-developed structure for<br />
water services delivery management and, with<br />
the establishment of ADSSC, a more holistic<br />
view of all sources and uses is now possible.<br />
The water services sector has many of the necessary<br />
checks and balances in place to support<br />
the government’s strategic economic,<br />
societal and environmental objectives,<br />
although there are different degrees of transparency<br />
in their operations.<br />
The situation is less clear in the more general<br />
areas of environmental and natural water<br />
resources management. There are overlaps<br />
and gaps between the activities of the various<br />
federal and emirate level environmental<br />
organizations such as in establishing regulations,<br />
controlling natural resource use, collecting<br />
and managing data etc. Whilst there is<br />
in theory an established hierarchy of jurisdiction<br />
and power, in practice EAD are perceived<br />
by many to be the lead organization in developing<br />
new initiatives in responsible environmental<br />
management standard-setting and<br />
regulation.<br />
The <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> institutions have collectively<br />
established a reputation for environmental<br />
and water leadership in the Arab world.<br />
However, from the analysis undertaken of the<br />
governance system and its comparison to<br />
international best practices in Europe,<br />
Singapore and Australia and the USA, the following<br />
suggestions are made for consideration.<br />
Institutional Aspects<br />
1) The Establishment of an <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong><br />
Council<br />
<strong>Water</strong> affects and impacts many areas of<br />
authority and it is important that future<br />
strategic planning involves input and knowledge<br />
from these various groups. It is recommended<br />
that an <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> Council be<br />
established that is chaired by a member of the<br />
Executive Council. Membership should be the<br />
heads of the various departments, authorities<br />
and organizations. This will allow strategic<br />
thinking across the whole of the water sector<br />
rather than the compartmentalized system<br />
that currently exists.<br />
2) Formal Establishment of an<br />
Environmental Regulator<br />
Given the development plans across many<br />
sectors proposed over the next 20 years, and<br />
their associated needs for water and other<br />
natural resources, there is an imperative for<br />
an independent environmental regulator within<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate to establish standards<br />
and practices based on local environment conditions.<br />
Whilst EAD currently undertakes<br />
some of these duties, there is a need to establish<br />
these roles and responsibilities more formally<br />
and transparently. It is also important<br />
to clearly define areas of responsibility vis-àvis<br />
the RSB and other authorities and ministries<br />
to ensure consistent standards and<br />
avoid overlapping regulation.<br />
The establishment of clear, transparent regulations<br />
by one organization to control abstractions<br />
from and discharges to the environment<br />
(whether air, water, soils, wildlife, or seas)<br />
would allow the various ministries and commercial<br />
organizations undertaking activities<br />
in the Emirate to have a clear idea of the standards<br />
and to meet these using their own formulations<br />
of technology or management practices.<br />
Many of the companies already operating<br />
in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> have experience of working<br />
within such environmental standards in other<br />
countries, and their best practices could be<br />
brought into operation here too.<br />
3) Clarification of Roles and Responsibilities<br />
at Federal and Emirate levels<br />
The UAE is made of seven quite distinct emirates<br />
which have their own drivers and policy<br />
priorities. There is a certain degree of overlap<br />
and some notable gaps in responsibilities and<br />
roles that it would be useful to clarify. This<br />
does not have to be a problem if there are suitable<br />
agreements to ensure the areas of overlap<br />
and gaps are addressed. There are a number<br />
of models of governance that may be explored<br />
for environmental and water management<br />
across a federation. An example is in Australia<br />
where environmental protection authorities in<br />
individual States and Territories set air quality<br />
emissions standards rather than the<br />
Federal government.<br />
Information and knowledge<br />
4) Good Governance Needs Good<br />
Information<br />
The role of knowledge and information in governing<br />
and governance is increasingly being<br />
emphasized. In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> it became apparent<br />
that environmental and water data bases are<br />
maintained in different organizations and there<br />
is little easy access to this information, even by<br />
those working in these fields. This is inefficient<br />
as there is an urgent need to ensure decisionmaking<br />
is supported and informed by current<br />
and accurate information.<br />
There are a number of possibilities to resolve<br />
this problem and the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong><br />
<strong>Resources</strong> Database System (AWRIS) is a<br />
positive step forward, but it currently lacks<br />
data particularly on the water services. In<br />
some countries, given the proprietorial attitude<br />
of some organizations to data they have<br />
collected, independent bodies have been<br />
established for inputting, storing and giving<br />
access to information. In Dubai, for example,<br />
under Law No. (6) of 2001 a Geographical<br />
Information Systems Center was established<br />
for the Municipality, and various authorities are<br />
charged with providing the centre with digital<br />
and descriptive data. In return this may be<br />
accessed through an intranet by decision-makers,<br />
so that the most current information may<br />
be used in their work. Decision-makers need<br />
210<br />
211
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
Table 7.1 The main agreements and laws affecting the environment and water in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Table Legal 12: Jurisdiction The Challenges of Date Inland of ratification Brine Disposal and legal instruments in place<br />
International agreements<br />
Regional Agreements<br />
Federal Level<br />
1989 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (1985) and Montreal Protocol on<br />
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (1987)<br />
1990 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)<br />
(1973)<br />
1990 Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their<br />
disposal, (1989).<br />
1995 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992).<br />
1998 United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (1994)<br />
1999 Convention on Biological Diversity (<br />
2002 Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPS) ( 2001)<br />
2002 Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in<br />
International Trade (PIC Convention) (1998)<br />
2005 Montreal Amendments (London 1990, Copenhagen 1992, Montreal 1997, Beijing 1999).<br />
2005 Kyoto Protocol (1997)<br />
2007 Ramsar Convention<br />
1979 Kuwait Regional Convention for cooperation on the protection of the marine environment from<br />
pollution (1978)<br />
1990 Protocol concerning Marine Pollution resulting from Exploration and Exploitation of the<br />
Continental Shelf (1989)<br />
2003 Convention on Conservation of Wildlife and its Natural Habitats in the GCC countries<br />
2005 Protocol on the Control of Marine Transboundary Movements and Disposal of Hazardous<br />
Wastes and Other Wastes, 1998<br />
1999 Law No. (24) the Protection and Development of the Environment<br />
1999 Ministerial Declaration No (24) System for Assessment of Environmental Impacts<br />
2001 Executive Order No. (37) concerning regulation of environmental impact assessment of projects<br />
an various other items<br />
2001 Executive Order No .(302) details the regulatory procedures for implementing 1999 Law No<br />
(24)<br />
dards emanating from international agreements,<br />
and various Federal and Emirate<br />
authorities and are summarized in Table 7.1.<br />
Arguably the most influential law is Federal<br />
Law No (24) of 1999, Protection and<br />
Development of the Environment, which covers<br />
various areas including:<br />
• the requirements for Environmental<br />
Assessments of developments;<br />
• various aspects of environmental protection;<br />
• environmental monitoring;<br />
• emergency and disaster planning;<br />
• protection of the marine environment from<br />
oil industries, transport;<br />
• polluted water discharges;<br />
• protection of drinking water quality from<br />
storage tanks;<br />
• control of air emissions such as from vehicles,<br />
the burning of soil and liquid wastes, as well<br />
as from the oil extractive industries;<br />
• handling dangerous substances; and<br />
• natural reserves.<br />
Table 7.2: EAD Environmental Protection and Management Controls<br />
Following the passing of this law, numerous<br />
regulations have been established through<br />
decrees that cover specific areas of the environment<br />
or give more details of the various<br />
articles. For example, various water quality<br />
levels are suggested for discharges into the<br />
sea which include inorganic and organic<br />
chemicals as well as trace metals and physical<br />
properties.<br />
The implementation and enforcement of<br />
these various articles falls to three organizations,<br />
the Federal Environment Agency, EAD<br />
and the RSB. EAD has the main responsibilities<br />
in terms of setting environmental standards,<br />
licensing and enforcing compliance in<br />
the natural environment in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>. A<br />
series of different controls have been introduced<br />
by the agency for protecting and managing<br />
various aspects of the environment<br />
which are shown in Table 7.2.<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Emirate<br />
Source: EAD 2008a<br />
2005 Law No (16) 2005 concerning the Re-organization of the Environment Agency-<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
(replaced Law No. (4) of 1996<br />
2005 Law No (21) Administration of Waste Materials<br />
Article (30) of Law No (2) of 1998<br />
Article (20) of Law No (19) of 2007.<br />
Administrative Order No (4) of 2005 issued by <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control Authority<br />
Table Sector 12: The Challenges Urban of Rural Inland Brine Rural <strong>Water</strong><br />
Disposal<br />
services services services production &<br />
distribution<br />
Environmental<br />
Impacts<br />
Air<br />
<strong>Water</strong><br />
Land<br />
Biodiversity<br />
Marine<br />
Transport<br />
Minerals<br />
and mining<br />
Agriculture<br />
and fishing<br />
Industry<br />
access to good information and a central database<br />
to support this for water/environment is<br />
imperative.<br />
The Legal and Regulatory<br />
Frameworks for <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Environmental Management<br />
Laws, standards, regulations and their enforcement<br />
are an important part of any governance<br />
system ensuring the protection of human and<br />
environmental health as well as economic efficiency.<br />
They give direction, transparency and<br />
clarity, in many areas such as in responsibilities,<br />
roles, and standards for a particular environment<br />
or sector.<br />
Organizations involved in the water and environmental<br />
governance in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> are bound<br />
by a number of laws, regulations and stan-<br />
Regulatory<br />
instruments<br />
Regulator<br />
Source: ICBA<br />
EIA<br />
EIA<br />
EIA<br />
Technical,<br />
economic,<br />
environmental<br />
and<br />
health standards<br />
EAD EAD RSB<br />
International<br />
Banks FEA<br />
EIA<br />
Technical,<br />
economic,<br />
environmental<br />
and<br />
health standards<br />
RSB<br />
EAD/<br />
Fujairah<br />
Municipality<br />
International<br />
Banks FEA<br />
EIA<br />
FEA<br />
EIA<br />
Permits<br />
FEA<br />
EAD<br />
Licensing of<br />
wells Fishing<br />
permits<br />
EIA of processing<br />
plants<br />
EAD<br />
FEA<br />
EIA<br />
Permits for<br />
certain<br />
activities,<br />
facilities and<br />
substances<br />
FEA<br />
EAD<br />
212<br />
213
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Resources</strong><br />
The legal framework for the water sector in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is comprised of a number of different<br />
levels of conventions, protocols, laws and<br />
regulations which directly and indirectly affect<br />
policy development and management. These<br />
play a vital role in managing the scarce water<br />
resources and protecting the environment.<br />
The most important Federal legislation is Law<br />
No. (24) 1999, the Protection and Development<br />
of the Environment. Sections 2 and 3 are most<br />
important for water as they concern the discharges<br />
into seas from the land including<br />
desalination, and the protection of surface and<br />
underground water. Various Executive Orders<br />
have subsequently been added to the legislative<br />
body. EAD is the competent authority for<br />
the implementation of this law.<br />
The laws that most directly affect the management<br />
and policy development of natural water<br />
have been passed at the emirate level and<br />
cover many aspects of resource development.<br />
In <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>, the passing in March 2006 of<br />
Law No 6, which regulates the licensing and<br />
drilling of water wells, was an important step<br />
forward towards the sustainable management<br />
of the groundwater resources. All owners who<br />
wish to dig a new well, or expand, or add a larger<br />
pump, will now require a license which will<br />
give permission and set a maximum abstraction<br />
rate and permitting activity in recent<br />
years is given in Table 7.3.<br />
This, in tandem with the recent work in inventorying,<br />
assessment and monitoring wells in<br />
the Emirate (<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Executive Decisions<br />
No (14) session 8/2005 and No (4) session<br />
17/2005), will begin help to control the use of<br />
groundwater. Even organizations such as<br />
other government departments require these<br />
licenses. However, a more coherent legislative<br />
framework is needed to protect and manage<br />
Table 7.3 Permissible activities by Environment<br />
Agency <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> 2006/7<br />
Type of Permit 2006 2007 Total<br />
Deepening an existing well 10 268 278<br />
Replacing an old well 0 15 15<br />
Maintaining an existing well 11 5 16<br />
Drilling new well 1890 3600 5490<br />
Total 1911 3888 5799<br />
Source: EAD 2008a<br />
groundwater which would include pollution<br />
protection as well as abstraction controls.<br />
There is also a need for enforcement of the<br />
licenses granted and an expansion of metering<br />
to ensure an accurate picture of the abstraction<br />
of groundwater possible.<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Services Management<br />
The most important laws and regulations for<br />
water services are at the Emirate level in <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong>. The legal framework, organizational<br />
structure and roles and responsibilities were<br />
established in Law No. (2) 1998 concerning the<br />
Regulation of the <strong>Water</strong> and Electricity Sector<br />
and has subsequently been amended by Law<br />
No. (19) of 2007. The legal starting point for<br />
water provision is Article (30) of the 1998 Law<br />
(and the 2007 law) which states that ‘It shall<br />
be the duty of the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> <strong>Water</strong> and<br />
Electricity Company to ensure that there is<br />
provided sufficient production capacity to<br />
ensure that, at all times, all reasonable<br />
demand for water and electricity in the<br />
Emirate is satisfied’. Under Article (32) of the<br />
same Act, ADWEC are charged with the duty<br />
of ensuring the long term security of the supply<br />
of water in the Emirate through contracting<br />
new or additional production capacity<br />
through desalination and additional storage to<br />
meet Article 30. This article is of course open<br />
to interpretation. Deciding on what is a reasonable<br />
demand for water, especially desalinated<br />
water, is difficult and this should be<br />
more formally defined in the future, given the<br />
economic and environmental costs involved in<br />
the production of this precious resource.<br />
Given the natural scarcity of water in this<br />
region, there is also an important need to manage<br />
closely demand relative to supply rather<br />
than the other way around. In the Draft<br />
Consultation on the <strong>Water</strong> Supply Regulations<br />
2008 under item 3 (RSB, 2008), it is suggested<br />
that the Distribution Companies have a duty<br />
under law to promote the conservation and<br />
efficient use of water, and to prevent its waste<br />
and over-consumption. It also includes a section<br />
which states that it will be the duty of the<br />
responsible person to ensure immediate steps<br />
are taken to repair leaks in water fittings.<br />
These are important regulatory steps to support<br />
government initiatives to reduce water<br />
demand.<br />
Wastewater was formally added to the legal<br />
framework by Law No (17) of 2005 which established<br />
and gave responsibility for the control<br />
and development of all the Emirate’s sewerage<br />
services to ADSSC. Wastewater management<br />
was further developed under Law No. (18) of<br />
2007 which allows other sewerage services<br />
companies licensed by the Bureau to connect<br />
to <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Sewerage Services Company<br />
assets. Law No (19) 2007 adds waste water to<br />
the more general laws on the regulation of the<br />
water sector and includes responsibilities<br />
associated with the collection, treatment, processing<br />
and subsequent disposal of sewerage<br />
and wastewater from the premises. The recent<br />
passing of Law No (12) of 2008 now allows<br />
ADSSC to sell treated wastewater effluent to<br />
any body or company. These developments are<br />
in line with best practices in other countries<br />
such as the UK, USA and Singapore where<br />
there is an integration of water and wastewater<br />
management within one organization.<br />
Subsequent to these various laws, the RSB has<br />
developed an increasingly comprehensive set<br />
of economic, technical and water quality regulations<br />
and license agreements with various<br />
organizations involved in the water and waste<br />
water sectors. These can be viewed easily on<br />
the RSB website (www.rsb.gov.ae) and the<br />
transparency of this organization is to be commended.<br />
The regulation of mineral waters, which are an<br />
important part of the domestic and commercial<br />
water supply system, is under both Federal<br />
and Emirate level authority and must meet<br />
standards established under <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Administrative Order No (4) of 2005. This was<br />
issued by the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Food Control<br />
Authority in response to the debate of inconsistency<br />
of water quality of bottled waters. It<br />
regulates the quality, treatment, transportation<br />
and storage of three types of mineral<br />
water - bottled drinking waters, non-bottled<br />
drinking water and natural mineral bottled<br />
water.<br />
The legal and regulatory framework within this<br />
sector is further developed through other levels<br />
of organizations. The FEA has set various<br />
regulatory controls following Law No. (24) 1999<br />
of the Protection and Development of the<br />
Environment and subsequent directives, which<br />
have set guideline limits on gaseous emissions<br />
and discharges into the marine environment as<br />
shown in Table 2.1. They are also responsible<br />
for the environmental impact assessments of<br />
planned projects such as new desalination<br />
plants.<br />
An important group of organizations that<br />
influence water services delivery and environmental<br />
management standards are the international<br />
banks who fund these projects<br />
214 215
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
through loans. Many of these international<br />
banks have signed various international conventions<br />
and protocols, such as the Kyoto<br />
Protocol, and so ensure that developments<br />
funded by them meet various environmental<br />
standards. These include the desalination and<br />
power plants in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
Regulatory Enforcement<br />
The establishment of standards and the licensing<br />
and permitting of activities is only one part<br />
of the regulatory system. Ensuring compliance<br />
and enforcement is key to protecting the environment.<br />
The most monitored and inspected<br />
area in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in water services through<br />
work of both the RSB and the large degree of<br />
self-regulation by the licensed power and<br />
water generating and sewerage companies.<br />
There are laboratories in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> that meet<br />
international criteria for accuracy and excellence<br />
that are used for the analysis of samples.<br />
This is important and should continue to be<br />
actively supported. In the water service sector<br />
there is a focus on developing best practices<br />
for the future as much as direct punishment<br />
for incursions.<br />
In the bottled water industry the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Agriculture and Food Safety Authority<br />
enforces standards at the Emirate level<br />
through directives and inspections of manufacturing<br />
plants and of food establishments.<br />
In terms of the enforcement of environmental<br />
regulations, there are few human resources to<br />
support these activities. Thus whilst important<br />
steps have been made to develop standards<br />
and controls of potentially harmful<br />
activities, there is no way of judging their effectiveness.<br />
Recommendations<br />
The progressive development of legal and regulatory<br />
frameworks (and their associated governance<br />
structures) for the environment and<br />
water sectors of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has lead to a system<br />
that has many protective checks and balances<br />
in place. The main focus of many of the<br />
activities has been the regulation of the water<br />
service sector to ensure the reliable supply of<br />
adequate and wholesome water, and protection<br />
of the marine environment from discharges.<br />
Law-makers and regulators in any country are<br />
being confronted with many new water and<br />
environmental challenges today and <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is no exception. Various gaps have<br />
been identified in this analysis that should be<br />
considered addressing to give a firm platform<br />
for future developments.<br />
Institutional<br />
1) Gaps in Legal and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
The legal and regulatory measures in place for<br />
protecting the natural water resources and environmental<br />
management may be described as<br />
being strong in terms of managing biodiversity,<br />
but more limited in other areas. Whilst the<br />
Federal Law of 1999 covers many important<br />
aspects, its terms are necessarily general and<br />
there are a number of gaps in the subsequent<br />
enable legislation/regulation. There is a need for<br />
substantive measures for protecting groundwater<br />
depletion, and pollution control of air and<br />
water.<br />
In many countries a coherent body of legislation<br />
has been developed for environmental management.<br />
For example in Singapore in 1999 all legislation<br />
on pollution control (air, water, noise and<br />
hazardous substances), was brought together in<br />
the comprehensive Environmental Pollution<br />
Control Act (recently renamed Environmental<br />
Protection and Management Act). This established<br />
a comprehensive and transparent system<br />
for managing pollution in the country which<br />
could be replicated in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
There is also a need to establish a water law<br />
that considers all sources of water within the<br />
same framework and that establishes some<br />
legal or regulatory obligation by the various<br />
authorities and supply companies to encourage<br />
environmental protection, water demand<br />
management and efficient practices. A matrix<br />
of areas covered by various water laws from<br />
other countries is given in Table 7.4 below. At<br />
the moment the split between natural and produced<br />
water management does not support<br />
the development of coherent water policies<br />
and laws. In the UK, for example, under the<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Act 2003, relevant authorities ranging<br />
from ministries to water companies have a<br />
duty to encourage water conservation.<br />
2) Demarcation of Responsibilities<br />
Whether or not the recommendation of this<br />
report for the establishment of an independent<br />
environmental regulator at the <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
Emirate Level is taken on board, in the future<br />
there is likely to be an increase in potential<br />
overlaps in responsibilities between the RSB<br />
and EAD. Such overlaps occur in the management<br />
of waste water re-use and subsequent<br />
effluent disposal, definition of standards for<br />
effluent discharges, groundwater use in desalination,<br />
water demand management, and the<br />
challenges of climate change and managing<br />
carbon emissions of water and waste water<br />
treatment. It is important to develop a broader<br />
environmental regulatory framework with associated<br />
institutional responsibilities between the<br />
two organizations. Cooperation will be critical in<br />
defining standards and enforcement mechanisms<br />
for the coming years.<br />
Information and Knowledge<br />
3) Legal Requirement to Share Information<br />
This study has found a very guarded, bureaucratic<br />
approach to data and information.<br />
Whilst in areas of commercial confidentiality<br />
this is to be expected, however, in other areas<br />
the difficulties involved in obtaining data often<br />
means knowledge within the water and environmental<br />
communities of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is not<br />
used. This leads to planning and management<br />
that will be sub-optimal.<br />
Management<br />
4) Adequate Enforcement<br />
The regulatory system in the UAE and <strong>Abu</strong><br />
<strong>Dhabi</strong> is developing and the work undertaken<br />
so far is to be commended. However, it is<br />
important that EAD and the RSB have sufficient<br />
human capacity to ensure environmental<br />
laws and regulations are complied with. In the<br />
area of water resources management, for<br />
example, the new well licensing system in the<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has brought groundwater use<br />
under greater control. However, these measures<br />
need to be backed up by effective monitoring<br />
and enforcement of the terms of the<br />
licenses, to ensure the policy goals are met.<br />
This obviously requires trained human<br />
resources and the use of suitable measuring<br />
technology and analysis facilities. Major<br />
improvements have been made in these areas<br />
in many areas of the world in the last decade<br />
and these experiences could be learnt from.<br />
Many countries ensure designated officers<br />
have the right to access water bodies to measure<br />
and check compliance and obstruction or<br />
the refusal to provide information or falsification<br />
of devices brings penalties that act as<br />
deterrents. Whilst <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> has many such<br />
punitive measures in place, it needs the<br />
resources to check for compliance.<br />
5) Nature and Setting of Environmental<br />
Standards<br />
Most of the various environmental standards<br />
being used in <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> today are based on<br />
those already defined by organizations such as<br />
the World Health Organization or Australian<br />
government and whilst these might be fit for<br />
purpose in those countries, there is inadequate<br />
216<br />
217
Annex 7. Governance and Regulatory Frameworks<br />
knowledge as to whether they are appropriate<br />
for the environmental conditions of <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong>.<br />
For example, the high air pressure systems over<br />
the region for much of the year and the warm<br />
temperatures often mean that chemical air pollution<br />
is more severe than in other areas.<br />
Similarly little research has been undertaken on<br />
the specific conditions of the Arabian Gulf and<br />
the impacts of changing inputs from <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong><br />
and various industrial complexes along its<br />
shores. There is obviously a need of concerted<br />
research efforts to support setting of standards<br />
to ensure the environment is indeed protected<br />
6) Regulation of Land Use in Sensitive Areas<br />
An area that has been little explored to date in<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> is in the zoning of environmental<br />
regulations and laws, particularly in areas of<br />
sensitivity. Whilst integration and coherence is<br />
important in these areas, best practices from<br />
other countries would suggest that there is also<br />
a need to manage the environment and water<br />
resources of the Emirate in a less universal<br />
manner and to apply different degrees of regulation<br />
and control within. This would involve<br />
the identification of key areas which might be<br />
determined by ecological, cultural or other<br />
measures, and introduce more stringent management<br />
policies in these, whilst accepting that<br />
economic development in others will impact the<br />
environment. There would be greater control of<br />
activities in the protected areas and in particular<br />
greater enforcement of laws. For example,<br />
there is a need for greater protection of important<br />
groundwater recharge areas, especially<br />
where irrigation waters makes up the bulk of<br />
the waters returning to the aquifers (see Annex<br />
1 for further detail).<br />
7) The Need for Strategic Environmental<br />
Assessments<br />
An area not currently addressed in existing laws<br />
and regulations is strategic environmental<br />
assessment. There are in place a number of<br />
measures for the environmental impact assessment<br />
of individual projects, but with the growing<br />
rate of development there is a need for greater<br />
in-depth analysis of strategies/policies/plans.<br />
The cumulative impact of a series of projects<br />
which make up a plan can have many detrimental<br />
effects on the environment that would not be<br />
detected in individual appraisals. These strategic<br />
environmental assessments should be undertaken<br />
under the aegis of the relevant government<br />
body to ensure any of the problems already<br />
identified around the world i.e. by project developers<br />
doing their own analysis and reporting are<br />
avoided.<br />
It is important that the new economic developments<br />
such as those proposed under <strong>Plan</strong> 2030<br />
are more comprehensively assessed for the positive<br />
and negative environmental impacts. Any<br />
new legislation and subsequent definitions of<br />
standards will allow large plans to be thoroughly<br />
assessed, managed and where possible mitigated<br />
during the developments rather than as<br />
remedial procedures. There are many examples<br />
to be found of environmental problems resulting<br />
in rapidly expanding areas where due diligence<br />
of impacts was undertaken.<br />
Figure 7.4 <strong>Water</strong> Resource Management Law Matrix<br />
Table<br />
Sector<br />
12: The Challenges<br />
South<br />
of Inland<br />
Africa<br />
Brine Disposal<br />
New South Wales<br />
California<br />
(Australia)<br />
U.K<br />
Governing legislation<br />
Feature covered<br />
¥ Surface water<br />
¥ Ground water<br />
¥ <strong>Water</strong> supply<br />
<strong>Water</strong> agency<br />
¥ National<br />
¥ State<br />
<strong>Water</strong> rights<br />
¥ Ownership/status<br />
¥ Abstraction and use<br />
¥ Permits/licences<br />
¥ Registration<br />
¥ Transfers<br />
Demand management<br />
¥ Prioritisation/equitable<br />
user-allocation<br />
¥ Pricing<br />
Catchment /basin areas<br />
Waste disposal<br />
Pollution<br />
Conservation<br />
<strong>Water</strong> treatment and re-use<br />
Emergency measures<br />
Monitoring, assessment,<br />
information<br />
Offences, dispute resolution<br />
International/cross border<br />
National <strong>Water</strong><br />
Act (36 of 1998<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
California <strong>Water</strong><br />
Code<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
x 1 x 4<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<strong>Water</strong> Management<br />
Act 2000<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
3 2<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
The <strong>Water</strong> Act 2003<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
x<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
x<br />
x x x<br />
1 Governed by <strong>Water</strong> Services Act 1997<br />
2 <strong>Water</strong> supply authorities are regulated by other acts subject to the control and direction of the Minister for<br />
<strong>Water</strong><br />
3 Local governments have responsibility in water resources management through the catchment management<br />
agencies<br />
4 Note considerable intersect between state and national in field of environmental protection and state<br />
responsibility under EPA. Note also California State assertiveness with issue of new <strong>Water</strong> Quality Control<br />
Act under Division 7 of <strong>Water</strong> Code, effective January 1, 2009<br />
x<br />
x<br />
x<br />
x<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
<br />
218<br />
219
Our appreciation goes to the International Centre for<br />
Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) for assisting the<br />
Environment Agency - <strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> in developing this<br />
<strong>Water</strong> <strong>Master</strong> <strong>Plan</strong>.<br />
This plan is a result of the contribution and support of<br />
our stakeholders [ Ministry of <strong>Water</strong> and Environment,<br />
<strong>Abu</strong> <strong>Dhabi</strong> Municipality, ADSSC, ADWEA, ADFCA and<br />
Urban <strong>Plan</strong>ning Council] and hence a sincere thank you<br />
goes to these organizations.
Change language