Botkin Environmental Science Earth as Living Planet 8th txtbk

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162 CHAPTER 8 Biological Diversity and Biological Invasions 90° Tundra Arctic 0° Forest Rainforest Monsoon forest Increasing latitude Northern coniferous forest Grassland Savanna Increasing aridity Mediterranean scrub Subarctic Desert Temperate Desert FIGURE 8.16 Simplified diagram of the relationship between precipitation and latitude and Earth’s major land biomes. Here, latitude serves as an index of average temperature, so latitude can be replaced by average temperature in this diagram. (Source: Harm de Blij, Peter O. Muller, and Richard S. Williams, Physical Geography of the Global Environment, Figure 27-4, p. 293, edited by Harm de Blij, copyright 2004 by Oxford University Press. Used by permission of Oxford University Press.) more closely related to each other than to species in other provinces. In two different biotic provinces, the same ecological niche will be filled with species that perform a specific function and may look very similar to each other but have quite different genetic ancestries. In this way, a biotic province is an evolutionary unit. Convergent and Divergent Evolution Plants that grow in deserts of North America and East Africa illustrate the idea of a biome (see Figure 8.17). The Joshua tree and saguaro cactus of North America and the giant Euphorbia of East and Southern Africa are tall, have succulent green stems that replace the leaves as the major sites of photosynthesis, and have spiny projections, but these plants are not closely related. The Joshua tree is a member of the agave family, the saguaro is a member of the cactus family, and the Euphorbia is a member of the spurge family. The ancestral differences between these look-alike plants can be found in their flowers, fruits, and seeds, which change the least over time and thus provide the best clues to the genetic history of a species. Geographically isolated for 180 million years, these plants have been subjected to similar climates, which imposed similar stresses and opened up similar ecological opportunities. On both continents, desert plants evolved to adapt to these stresses and potentials, and have come to look alike and prevail in like habitats. Their similar shapes result from evolution in similar desert climates, a process known as convergent evolution. Another important process that influences life’s geography is divergent evolution. In this process, a population is divided, usually by geographic barriers. Once separated into two populations, each evolves separately, but the two groups retain some characteristics in common. It is now believed that the ostrich (native to Africa), the rhea (native to South America), and the emu (native to Australia) have a common ancestor but evolved separately (Figure 8.18). In open savannas and grasslands, a large bird that can run quickly but feed efficiently on small seeds and insects has certain advantages over other organisms seeking the same food. Thus, these species maintained the same characteristics in widely separated areas. Both convergent and divergent evolution increase biological diversity. People make use of convergent evolution when they move decorative and useful plants around the world. Cities that lie in similar climates in different parts of the world now share many of the same decorative plants. Bougainvillea, a spectacularly bright flowering shrub originally native to Southeast Asia, decorates cities as distant from each other as Los Angeles and the capital of Zimbabwe. In New York City and its outlying suburbs, Norway maple from Europe and the tree of heaven and gingko tree from China grow with native species such as sweet gum, sugar maple, and pin oak. People intentionally introduced the Asian and European trees.
8.7 How Geography and Geology Affect Biological Diversity 163 (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 8.17 Joshua Tree of North America and giant Euphorbia of Africa illustrate convergent evolution. Given sufficient time and similar climates in different areas, species similar in shape will tend to occur. The Joshua tree (a) and saguaro cactus (b) of North America look similar to the giant Euphorbia (c) of East Africa. But these plants are not closely related. Their similar shapes result from evolution under similar climates, a process known as convergent evolution. (a) (b) (c) FIGURE 8.18 Divergent evolution. Three large, flightless birds evolved from a common ancestor but are now found in widely separated regions: (a) the ostrich in Africa, (b) the rhea in South America, and (c) the emu in Australia.
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Earth as a Li
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VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLIS
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About the Authors Daniel B. Botkin
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Preface vii Themes Our book is base
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Preface ix Updated Critical Thinkin
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Acknowledgments Reviewers of This E
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Acknowledgments xiii Karen Swanson,
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Contents Chapter 1 Key Themes in En
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xviii Contents Summary 125 Reexamin
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xx Contents Chapter 13 Wildlife, Fi
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xxii Contents CRITICAL THINKING ISS
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xxiv Contents Availability and Use
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2 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environme
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10 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environm
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over 4 million in 1950. In 1999 Tok
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CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Knowi
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24 CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Kn
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42 CHAPTER 3 The Big Picture: Syste
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60 CHAPTER 4 The Human Population a
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CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts and
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82 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts a
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100 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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102 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cycles
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106 CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cy
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212 CHAPTER 11 Agriculture, Aquacul
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236 CHAPTER 12 Landscapes: Forests,
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258 CHAPTER 13 Wildlife, Fisheries,
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CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics LEAR
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288 CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics
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304 CHAPTER 15 Fossil Fuels and the
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CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy and t
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328 CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy a
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346 CHAPTER 17 Nuclear Energy and t
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CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, and M
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370 CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, a
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CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and Trea
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400 CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and
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CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Climate,
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430 CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Clim
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462 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution CASE S
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464 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution
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466 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Table
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470 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Air po
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472 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Mercur
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474 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution (a) FI
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478 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution The ga
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490 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution chimn
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494 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution SUMMAR
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496 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution STUDY
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498 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments C
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500 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments I
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502 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments o
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504 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments K
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506 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments 2
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508 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments A
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510 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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512 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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518 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments S
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520 CHAPTER 23 Materials Management
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552 CHAPTER 24 Our Environmental Fu
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Appendix A Special Feature: Electro
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Appendix A-3 VOLUME in 3 ft 3 yd 3
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Appendix A-5 Basic Chemistry
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Photo Credits CHAPTER 1 Ch Op 1: Im
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Glossary Abortion rate The estimate
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Glossary G-3 deposition of crustal
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Glossary G-5 high and the growth ra
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Glossary G-7 environmental impacts
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Glossary G-9 per unit time and some
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Glossary G-11 cooler than it is tod
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Glossary G-13 Nonpoint sources Poll
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Glossary G-15 Positive feedback A t
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Glossary G-17 Shelterwood cutting A
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Glossary G-19 Time series The set o
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Index Entries followed by an f may
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INDEX I-3 Sweetwater Marsh National
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INDEX I-5 dune succession, 96, 96f
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INDEX I-7 Colorado River, 114, 115f
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INDEX I-9 Lovelock, James, 10, 108
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INDEX I-11 Pelagic ecosystem, 85, 8
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INDEX I-13 Static systems, 44, 44f
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INDEX I-15 Watts, 291, 292t Weather
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N-2 NOTES 7. Schmidt, W.E. 1991 (Se
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N-4 NOTES 4. Christian, D. 2004. Ma
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N-6 NOTES 9. Collins, S.L., A.K. Kn
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N-8 NOTES 8. U.S. Department of Agr
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N-10 NOTES 19. O’Donnell, James J
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N-12 NOTES 19. Piore, 2002 (April 1
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N-14 NOTES application of secondary
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N-16 NOTES 22. Foukal, P., C. Frohl
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N-18 NOTES 54. Zummo, S.M., and M.H
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N-20 NOTES 38. Bullard, R.D. 1990.
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