Botkin Environmental Science Earth as Living Planet 8th txtbk

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180 CHAPTER 9 Ecological Restoration 9.4 Applying Ecological Knowledge to Restore Heavily Damaged Lands and Ecosystems An example of how ecological succession can aid in the restoration (termed reclamation for land degraded by mining) of heavily damaged lands is the ongoing effort to undo mining damage in Great Britain, where some mines have been used since medieval times and approximately 55,000 hectares (136,000 acres) have been damaged. Recently, programs have been initiated to remove toxic pollutants from the mines and mine tailings, to restore these damaged lands to useful biological production, and to restore the attractiveness of the landscape. 13 One area damaged by a long history of mining lies within the British Peak District National Park, where lead has been mined since the Middle Ages and waste tailings are as much as 5 m (16.4 ft) deep. The first attempts to restore this area used a modern agricultural approach: heavy application of fertilizers and planting of fast-growing agricultural grasses to revegetate the site rapidly. These grasses quickly green on the good soil of a level farm field, and it was hoped that, with fertilizer, they would do the same in this situation. But after a short period of growth, the grasses died. The soil, leached of its nutrients and lacking organic matter, continued to erode, and the fertilizers that had been added were soon leached away by water runoff. As a result, the areas were shortly barren again. When the agricultural approach failed, an ecological approach was tried, using knowledge about ecological succession. Instead of planting fast-growing but vulnerable agricultural grasses, ecologists planted slow-growing FIGURE 9.13 Restoration of a limestone quarry on Vancouver Island, Canada, in 1921 resulted in a tourist attraction known as Butchart Gardens that draws about 1 million visitors each year. native grasses, known to be adapted to mineral-deficient soils and the harsh conditions that exist in cleared areas. In choosing these plants, the ecologists relied on their observations of what vegetation first appeared in areas of Great Britain that had undergone succession naturally. 14 The result of the ecological approach has been the successful restoration of damaged lands (Figure 9.12). Heavily damaged landscapes can be found in many places. Restoration similar to that in Great Britain is done in the United States, Canada, and many other places to reclaim lands damaged by strip mining. Butchart Gardens, an open-pit limestone quarry on Vancouver Island, Canada, is an early-20th-century example of mine restoration. The quarry, a large, deep excavation where Portland cement was produced, was transformed into a garden that attracts a large number of visitors each year (Figure 9.13). The project was the vision of one person, the wife of the mine owner. One person can make all the difference! 9.5 Criteria Used to Judge the Success of Restoration FIGURE 9.12 Long-abandoned lead-mining area in Great Britain undergoing restoration (upper half of photograph). Restoration includes planting early-successional native grasses adapted to lownutrient soil with little physical structure. The bottom hall of the photo shows the unrestored area. Criteria used to evaluate whether a specific restoration has been successful, and, if so, how successful, will vary, depending on details of the project and the target (reference) ecosystem to which the restoration is compared. Criteria used to judge the success of the Everglades restoration (with issues of endangered species) will be much different from criteria used to evaluate the success of naturalization of an urban stream to produce a greenbelt. However, some general criteria apply to both. 2 The restored ecosystem has the general structure and process of the target (reference) ecosystem.
Critical Thinking Isuue 181 CRITICAL THINKING ISSUE How Can We Evaluate Constructed Ecosystems?
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE Earth as a Li
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VICE PRESIDENT AND EXECUTIVE PUBLIS
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About the Authors Daniel B. Botkin
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Preface vii Themes Our book is base
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Preface ix Updated Critical Thinkin
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Acknowledgments Reviewers of This E
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Acknowledgments xiii Karen Swanson,
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Contents Chapter 1 Key Themes in En
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xviii Contents Summary 125 Reexamin
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xx Contents Chapter 13 Wildlife, Fi
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xxii Contents CRITICAL THINKING ISS
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xxiv Contents Availability and Use
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2 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environme
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10 CHAPTER 1 Key Themes in Environm
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over 4 million in 1950. In 1999 Tok
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CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Knowi
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24 CHAPTER 2 Science as a Way of Kn
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42 CHAPTER 3 The Big Picture: Syste
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60 CHAPTER 4 The Human Population a
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CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts and
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82 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts a
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100 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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102 CHAPTER 5 Ecosystems: Concepts
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CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cycles
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106 CHAPTER 6 The Biogeochemical Cy
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128 CHAPTER 7 Dollars and Environme
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230 CHAPTER 11 Agriculture, Aquacul
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236 CHAPTER 12 Landscapes: Forests,
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258 CHAPTER 13 Wildlife, Fisheries,
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CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics LEAR
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288 CHAPTER 14 Energy: Some Basics
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304 CHAPTER 15 Fossil Fuels and the
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CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy and t
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328 CHAPTER 16 Alternative Energy a
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346 CHAPTER 17 Nuclear Energy and t
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CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, and M
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370 CHAPTER 18 Water Supply, Use, a
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CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and Trea
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400 CHAPTER 19 Water Pollution and
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CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Climate,
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430 CHAPTER 20 The Atmosphere, Clim
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462 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution CASE S
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464 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution
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466 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Table
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470 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Air po
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472 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution Mercur
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474 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution (a) FI
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478 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution The ga
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490 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution chimn
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494 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution SUMMAR
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496 CHAPTER 21 Air Pollution STUDY
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498 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments C
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500 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments I
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502 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments o
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504 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments K
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506 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments 2
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508 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments A
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510 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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512 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments F
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518 CHAPTER 22 Urban Environments S
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520 CHAPTER 23 Materials Management
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552 CHAPTER 24 Our Environmental Fu
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Appendix A Special Feature: Electro
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Appendix A-3 VOLUME in 3 ft 3 yd 3
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Appendix A-5 Basic Chemistry
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Photo Credits CHAPTER 1 Ch Op 1: Im
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Glossary Abortion rate The estimate
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Glossary G-3 deposition of crustal
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Glossary G-5 high and the growth ra
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Glossary G-7 environmental impacts
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Glossary G-9 per unit time and some
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Glossary G-11 cooler than it is tod
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Glossary G-13 Nonpoint sources Poll
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Glossary G-15 Positive feedback A t
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Glossary G-17 Shelterwood cutting A
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Glossary G-19 Time series The set o
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Index Entries followed by an f may
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INDEX I-3 Sweetwater Marsh National
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INDEX I-5 dune succession, 96, 96f
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INDEX I-7 Colorado River, 114, 115f
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INDEX I-9 Lovelock, James, 10, 108
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INDEX I-11 Pelagic ecosystem, 85, 8
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INDEX I-13 Static systems, 44, 44f
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INDEX I-15 Watts, 291, 292t Weather
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N-2 NOTES 7. Schmidt, W.E. 1991 (Se
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N-4 NOTES 4. Christian, D. 2004. Ma
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N-6 NOTES 9. Collins, S.L., A.K. Kn
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N-8 NOTES 8. U.S. Department of Agr
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N-10 NOTES 19. O’Donnell, James J
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N-12 NOTES 19. Piore, 2002 (April 1
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N-14 NOTES application of secondary
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N-16 NOTES 22. Foukal, P., C. Frohl
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N-18 NOTES 54. Zummo, S.M., and M.H
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N-20 NOTES 38. Bullard, R.D. 1990.
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