Working Paper Series No. 14 - IEAS' Virtual Home - Universiti ...

Archival Research 

On Hunter-Gatherers´ Religions In Borneo 

Gotzone Garay 

Working Paper Series No. 14 (July 2006) 

INSTITUTE OF EAST ASIAN STUDIES (I.E.A.S.) 

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK (UNIMAS)

IEAS Working Paper No 14 

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak 

The IEAS Working Paper Series is published electronically by the Institute of 

East Asian Studies, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) 

© Copyright is held by the author or authors of each Working Paper. July 2006 

IEAS Working Papers cannot be republished, reprinted, or reproduced in any format 

without the permission of the paper’s author or authors. 

Note: The views expressed in each paper are those of the author or authors of the 

paper. They do not necessarily represent or reflect the views of the Institute of East 

Asian Studies or Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) 

INSTITUTE OF EAST ASIAN STUDIES 

(IEAS) 


94300 Kota Samarahan 

Sarawak 

MALAYSIA 

Tel: + 6082-672191 

Fax: + 6082-672095 

Email: Jchin@ieas.unimas.my 

Web: www.unimas.my 

Ms Gotzone Garay is a PhD candidate in Anthropology at the University of Nevada 

(Reno), where she recently completed her Masters. Ms Garay is interested in cultural 

changes among indigenous communities in tropical rain forests. She has spent the past 

two summers in Sarawak, Malaysia, studying the role of religion among people 

dependent on the forest. 

1



Archival Research 

On Hunter-Gatherers´ Religions In Borneo 

Gotzone Garay 

INTRODUCTION 

This research focuses on religious changes among hunter-gatherers in Borneo. I 

have carried out a two month archival research that will be used in the understanding 

of the relationship between traditional beliefs and new religious systems within 

hunter-gatherer economies. The project pursues two goals. The first goal is to gather 

information on hunter-gatherers´ traditional cosmology. This includes a compilation of 

sacred elements, such as myths, rituals, sacred materials and behaviours that may offer 

information on hunter-gatherers´ religious systems. The second goal is to explore the 

economic changes that have developed among hunter-gatherer communities 

throughout the last century. Thus, the economy and the sacred are the variables that 

will be considered in the understanding of religious changes among hunter-gatherers 

in tropical areas. 

First, the paper describes the object of study and the methods used in the 

compilation of the material culture. Religion, and especially sacred phenomenon, has 

been a widely discussed topic through history. In order to define the proposed object 

of study, I review some of the most important theories of religion. Second, I describe 

the involved population. Although hunter-gatherers in tropical areas are very diverse, 

some characteristics are found among them. In this article, I pay special attention to 

religious issues among hunter-gatherers in Borneo. Finally, I have included the 

references to documents, photos, and other archival materials found in the main 

archives of Sarawak, Malaysia. 

2



1. RELIGION: THEORIES, MATERIALS, AND SOURCES. 

Reviewing Some Theories 

Different theories have developed in order to describe the concept of religion 

and its components. Guthrie (1993) states that today, theories of religion comprise two 

broad camps, those of believers and those of nonbelievers. On the one hand, believers´ 

theories are those primarily concerned with one single religion. They focus on topics 

such as how people come to specific views and practices, as well as how the truth in 

question came to be known. These theories may state that people follow their beliefes 

and practices because God or gods revealed them, or because people have divined 

them by observing the work of gods in nature. 

On the other hand, nonbelievers´ theories focus on the idea of religion as a 

general concept. They look for the main ideas that all religions might share. In general, 

the resulting theories are diverse, claiming that gods do not exist and that religion is a 

human construction. These humanistic theories of religion can be divided in three main 

groups. The first one, which Guthrie (1993) calls the wishfulfillment group, states that 

people create religion in order to alleviate unpleasant emotions. In this way, fears, 

anxieties, and dissatisfaction might be the promoters of popular religious movements 

such as the nativistic, millennial or revitalization ones. Religions also arise during 

economic hardships, foreign invasions, genocides or plagues (Guthrie, 1993). Many 

writers, such as Hume, Freud or Malinowski have suggested that anxiety and 

insecurity causes, or at least intensifies, religiosity. In this way, religion gives the 

chance to escape into fantasy and live despite uncertainty. Other writers have criticized 

the wishfulfillment theories. Radcliffe-Brown (1979), for example, addresses that 

although magic and religion might give men confidence, it could equally be argued 

that they give men fears and anxieties. Authors close to the wishfulfillment theories are 

Benedict de Spinoza, Ludwig Feuerbach, and Karl Marx. 

The second group of humanistic theories are the so called social functionalists. 

These theorists hold that religion is a way to create and maintain social solidarity. They 

3



approach the study of religion from a symbolic point of view; the religious beliefs and 

practices that surround the social order are formulated and expressed in symbols 

(Guthrie, 1993). The functionalist interpretation of religion goes back in history to 

ancient China and Greek societies. Durkheim (1965) states that the religious thought 

does not describe the world in general, but human social relations. The distinction 

between the sacred and the profane realms is maintained because they are necessary to 

society. In this way, the totem is the emblem that represents its members, and through 

it, Durkheim suggests that the society worships itself. Durkheim also says that religion 

and science have the same aims (to interpret and influence the world), the same topics 

(nature, man, and society), and the same logic (connecting, relating, classifying, and 

systematizing). Doing this, he approaches the third group of theorists. 

The last group of humanistic theories, relies on aspects of both the 

wishfulfillment and the social functionalist theories. They are based on the idea that 

religion is an interpretation of the world, as well as an attempt to influence it. They 

emphasize the idea of humans (as animals) perceiving and acting in the world. Many 

of these theorists refer to this religion as primitive science (Guthrie, 1993). In the 

seventeenth-century Bernard Fontenelle (1987) wrote that religion started when 

lightning, wind, and other natural phenomena, made people imagine humanlike 

agents more powerful than themselves. Fontenelle (1987) recognized that people 

imagine these agents as like themselves because they think analogically. These ideas 

strongly developed in the late 19 th century, giving birth to the rationalist movement. In 

1897, Herbert Spencer proposed the humans´ dualistic worldview, a consequence of 

natural phenomena and human interpretations. Tylor has been included among these 

theorists. Tylor (1979) adds the notion of animism and explains it through the 

distinction between life and death. Also, through the appearance of human shapes in 

dreams and visions. He understands animism as a form of anthropomorphism. He 

offers an evolutionary scheme, in which the objects of religious beliefs develop from 

souls to spirit beings, to gods, to a single God. In general, he states that ideas, not 

feelings, most distinguish religion (Tylor, 1979). 

Clifford Geertz´s theory might be considered close to the intellectualists´ group. 

Geertz (1966) understands religion as 

4



a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive, and long-lasting moods 

and motivations in men by formulating conceptions of a general order of existence and 

clothing these conceptions with such an aura of factuality that the moods and 

motivations seem uniquely realistic. 

Thus, Geertz defines religion by its function, this is: religion is used to motivate people 

by making them believe in a meaningful and coherent universe. From Geertz´s point of 

view, humans understand the world through symbols. People need answers in their 

life; they need a framework in within which the gaps and contradictions have a 

meaning, even if this is not immediately apparent (Guthrie, 1993). In summary, Geertz 

finds the creation and maintenance of meaning central. Religious symbols are devised 

by men and “serve to produce […] motivations in men” (Geertz, 1966). Symbolic 

activities such as religion, art, or ideology, are attempts to provide orientation for an 

organism which cannot live in a world that it is unable to understand (Geertz 1973: 

140:141). 

A few scholars have found Horton the most thoroughgoing, explicit, important 

and controversial intellectualist. Horton (1960) defines religion as “the extension of the 

field of people´s social relationships beyond the confines of purely human society.” 

The nonhuman world has a social relationship with humans. This relationship is 

especially necessary when human society fails to meet their needs. Horton (1960) states 

that people in small, simple societies look to their deities for technical help (weather, 

pests and illness) while people in large, complex ones look to deities for personal 

relationships. Horton´s opinion is that religious models are merely opportune and can 

readily be supplanted by mechanistic models. Some critics state that this account seems 

to give too much weight to conscious explanation and too little to uncounscious 

perception and interpretation (Horton, 1982). 

At the end of the 1990´s, Guthrie reformulates the intellectualist approach. 

Guthrie (1993) addresses the idea of anthropomorphism not merely as an idiom for 

conscious explanation, but as the result of a general, spontaneous, and unconscious 

interpretative tendency. In summary, humans do not just “see” but “see as.” Every 

world must be won by interpretation, of which common sense, science, and religion all 

5



are variants. Guthrie (1993) argues that humans assimilate the universe while finding 

human features where they do not exist. The goal is to guess as much order and 

meaning as they can. 

The theory described by Steward Guthrie is called the cognitive science of 

religion. For Guthrie (1995), religion is an accidental product of the evolutionary 

process resulting from the inferential mechanism whereby human beings interpret 

simultaneously what they see and apply significance to their interpretations. In this 

way, it is perception that allows changes from an inanimate to an animate category. 

Religion rests on the evolutionarily evolved strategy of humans to attribute life to 

nonhuman domains. These anthropomorphic and animistic representations appear not 

only among children but also among adults all around the world (Pyysiäinen and 

Anttonen, 2002). Boyer (1994) also states that this is possible because they violate 

human´s intuitive expectations. The human mind is a combination of ontological 

categories and specific expectations which constitute our intuitive ontology (Boyer, 

1994). In this way, intuitive ontology organizes our experience in order to make sense 

of it. Although humans´ behavior relies on ontological categories, they also have 

violations that run against the expectations and forms of natural explanations 

concerning the properties and behavior of members in the specific category. 

In practice, the cognitive science of religion, instead of questioning the existence 

of gods, spirits or ghosts, or the cultural diversity of myths, beliefs and rituals, focuses 

on the role that the human mind plays in the construction of supernatural elements. 

This helps in the understanding of why religious concepts emerge, and what role 

memory plays in the cultural transmission of beliefs and practices. Currently, there are 

four interrelated areas that approach religion from a cognitive perspective. These are: 

the application of psychological theories of mind and of agent causality in explaining 

the social use of religious beliefs and the representation of ritual structure; 

epidemiological models of the cultural success of religious representations; the role of 

the different memory systems in the transmission of religious ideas; and the role of 

emotions in the adoption and transmission of religious beliefs. In general, the cognitive 

approach offers new possibilities for scientific work on the way religious ideas are 

adopted, represented and communicated (Pyysiäinen and Anttonen, 2002). 

6



Material Culture. 

Like the cognitive science of religion, this article understands religion as a 

cognitive construction. The main goal has been the compilation of ethnographic 

material for further discussion on religious changes among hunter-gatherers 

economies in tropical areas; and the object of study has been the concept of the sacred. 

From a cognitive point of view, “sacred” must be understood as a mental concept. 

Through history, certain events, objects, places and times, persons and animals have 

been designated as “sacred” all over the world. Within Western cultural history there 

are two metarepresentational options that stand out as most common: things with 

exceptional qualities, showing intuition-violating properties, and things with perfect 

and ideal qualities (Pyysiäinen and Anttonen, 2002). As Boyer (1998) points out, these 

religious representations “would probably not be acquired at all, if their counterintuitive 

aspects did not make them sufficiently salient and attention-grabbing” (Boyer 

1988:881). In general, the sacred can be adopted as a heading for the supramundane 

and for accounts of the kind of mental representations in which objects and 

phenomena are perceived and interpreted as mysterious and awesome (Pyysiäinen 

and Anttonen, 2002). These representations, classified and designated in world 

ethnography as sacred, are the material culture that I have been looking for during my 

archival research. Understanding why they have been designated as sacred might let 

us understand why they have been deleted, modified or discriminated throughout 

history. 

Main Sources 

I have used archaeological, linguistic and cultural sources in an attempt to 

compile ethnographic data referring to the sacred. Archaeological records have helped 

me in the consideration of the sacred which refers to elements and events of the past. 

They also have helped me in the organization of historical events. This is the case of 

documents referring to the Jarang, the Ulu Kakus, and the Niah caves. Other written 

documents are more specific, dealing with Neolithic burials, megaliths and coffin 

burials in the island of Borneo. 

7



The linguistic field has been used in the classification of Penan language 

materials, teknonyms, and terms. Linguistics has also helped me in the compilation of 

historical writing and oral history references. 

Finally, there are a group of cultural references that are important in the 

consideration of past and present cultural changes among hunter-gatherer 

communities. Material sources, such as baskets, mats, hats, wood carvings and tattoos 

express cultural identities and inform about the relationship between people and the 

environment. Other resources, such as instruments, songs and chants are also 

important references to consider. As are dances and literature (legends and poems), as 

expressions of daily life and highlighted events in any society. Cultural materials also 

provide information on migrations, trade, social and cultural relationships, as well as 

in the use of memory in the transmission of religious events. 

HUNTER-GATHERERS: DEFINING THE POPULATION 

Although hunter and gatherer societies are very diverse, there are certain 

common characteristics that can be identified. Hunter-gatherers are generally people 

who live in relatively small groups, without centralized authority, standing armies, or 

bureaucratic systems. The Cambridge encyclopedia on hunters and gatherers (1999) 

defines foraging as subsistence based on hunting of wild animals, gathering of wild 

plant foods, and fishing, with no domestication of plants, and no domesticated animals 

except the dog. Hunter-gatherers have used foraging in different ways. Some of them 

have lived in degrees of contact with non-hunting societies. In South and Southeast 

Asia, for example, hunter-gatherers have lived close to settled villagers, trading forest 

products such as furs, medicinal plants, and rattan, in order to acquire rice, metals and 

other manufactured products. This patron-client arrangement has also been popular 

among Central and East African hunter-gatherers, as well as among South American 

and Siberian populations (Lee and Daly, 1999). Archaeological evidence in the Amazon 

basin indicates that foraging is a secondary readaptation from a previous farming 

organization (Roosevelt, 1999). Anne Roosvelt (1999) suggests that European 

colonization might have put them back in the hunting and gathering mode of 

8



production. As a consequence, almost all tropical South American foragers combine 

hunting and gathering activities with plant gardens. This could also be the case of 

other current hunting and gathering societies. But foraging and subsistence is just the 

starting point in the definition of hunting and gathering societies. Social organization, 

cosmology and world-view are the other major areas covered by hunter-gatherers 

studies today. 

The basic (but not unique) unit of social organization among hunter-gatherers is 

the band. Bands are normally small-scale nomadic groups of fifteen to fifty people 

related by kinship. They are relatively egalitarian (Cormier, 2003). In this way, 

leadership tends to be based on popular opinion, and leaders can persuade but not 

command. Freedom seems more accessible than in hierarchical societies. This social 

system has put them in distinct disadvantage in their encounters with centrally 

organized colonial authorities (Lee and Daly, 1999). Mobility is another important 

element of their politics. People in mobile societies tend to move away rather than 

submit themselves to unpopular leaders. Also, it appears that all band-organized 

peoples exhibit a seasonal pattern of concentration and dispersion. Social and 

ecological factors might be responsible for the dispersion into small foraging units, and 

aggregation into much larger units depending on food availability. The last 

characteristic common to almost all band societies is a land tenure system based on a 

common property regime (CPR). These regimes are not based on private property 

rules, and while movable property is held by individuals, land is held by a kinshipbased 

collective. Reciprocal access makes it possible to draw on the resources of several 

territories (Lee and Daly, 1999). 

Hunter-gatherers´ world view is based on sharing and reciprocity activities. 

Reciprocity is the economic form in which actions and things are performed and given 

without an immediate expectation of return. Sahlins (1965) states that reciprocity is 

almost universal in hunting and gathering societies. 

In their current transition into globalization, many hunter-gatherer 

communities have become agriculturalist. However, status, prestige and respect for 

men and women might still be determined by such ability to use the forest 

knowledgeably and productively. Hunter and gatherer societies have been 

9



marginalized and considered deculturated. In recent times they have become a threat 

to the nation´s plans for development (Lee and Daly, 1999). 

In Borneo, the current hunter-gatherer communities live under state polices that 

consider cultural issues such as the national integration, the common identity, the 

promotion of an acceptable religion and the modern lifestyle (Winzeler, 1997). 

Government has taken part in moving and settling nomadic hunter-gatherers, and also 

has sought to move villagers to new, more accessible locations. Sometimes this has 

improved the status of indigenous peoples; however in some cases, it has worsened it. 

The values of hunter-gatherers´ have been affected by settlement. Bornean huntergatherers 

are not the only case. As an example, when the Huaorani adapted to live in 

sedentary communities along major rivers, their hunting and fishing activities changes, 

and they abandoned their “demonic” system of food taboos (Kimerling, 1995). Large 

fish and a wide variety of previously taboo animals became increasingly important in 

their diet. SIL introduced firearms for hunting. The settlements were overpopulated by 

Huaorani standards, and most wild fruit trees and other important forest resources 

near the settlements were exhausted. Hunters had to travel greater distances –two to 

three days away—to find food. Increasingly, the Huaorani traded their game for 

external goods, or sold it to oil workers and the Ecuadorian military, substituting 

carbohydrates for proteins in their diet. Many studies show that poor nutrition is a 

serious problem today in these communities. The Huaorani have also begun to sell live 

animals to oil workers and soldiers, including threatened and endangered species 

Kimerling, 1995). In summary, settlement, together with the introduction of firearms, 

has promoted the elimination of taboos among hunter-gatherers communities. They 

have found new reasons and beliefs adapted to their everyday decision making 

processes. 

HUNTER-GATHERERS AND RELIGION IN TROPICAL AREAS. 

Some cosmological characteristics appear to be comon in many but not all 

hunter-gatherers´ societies. There is a general conception that the land around them is 

their spiritual home and the source of all good things (Bird-David 1990; Turnbull 1965). 

10



Hunter-gatherers live immersed in nature. Nature is animated with moral and mystical 

forces, and both anthropocentrism and anthropomorphism appear to be common 

among them. Guenther(1993) states that the world of hunter-gatherers is a multilayered 

world, composed of two or more planes: the above/beyond zone, and the 

underworld. These planes surround the present world inhabited by humans. There is a 

central figure found in the myth worlds of many hunting and gathering societies. This 

is a divine but very human figure. Shamanism is also commonly found among these 

societies. In order to heal the sick and provide spiritual protection shamans meditate 

between the human world and the dangerous and unpredictable world of the 

supernatural. Shamanism is defined as a mix of theatre and instrumental acts in order 

to approach the plane of the sacred. These performances vary widely (Lee and Daly, 

1999). 

Missionarization has taken part in hunter-gatherers´ spiritual life all over the 

world. As an example, the Yuquí case shows how Christianity should not be 

understood as the transmission of new values, but as an example of “technological 

development.” MacLean (1989) argues that modern missionaries, aware of many of the 

criticisms of anthropologists and others, insist that they are not “forcing” the doctrine 

of Christianity but simply “making it available” to native people. She also says that 

what they fail to recognize is that Christianity is the ideology of a more technologically 

sophisticated culture and that it is this advantage that unfairly sets the stage for the 

dominant-subordinate roles that inevitably follow. Also, the Huaorani case in Ecuador 

shows how oil companies have been working together with missionaries to “pacify” 

the Huaorani as well as other communities. Kimberling (1995) states that there is a 

clear concurrence of interests not only between the oil companies and the missionaries, 

but also with the Ecuadorian government, which has permitted and sometimes 

assisted the pacification activities. These institutions are consistent with its general 

view that the Amazon is a frontier to be conquered and indigenous peoples should be 

assimilated into the dominant national culture. In general, missionarization has 

developed in different ways and following very different goals. 

All of the worldʹs major religions have substantial representation in Malasia. 

The variety of religions found in Malaysia is a direct reflection of its cultural diversity i . 

11



Although Islam is the state religion of Malaysia, freedom of religion is guaranteed by 

law. The Malays are almost all Muslims. The Chinese embrace an eclectic brew of 

Taoism, Buddhism and ancestor worship, although some are Christians. Christianity 

has had not as much impact in Peninsular Malaysia, as in East Malaysia, where many 

indigenous people have converted to Christianity; although others still follow their 

animist traditions i . It is possible to find statistical information about the main religious 

groupings from a complete census undertaken in 1960 in the three “British” territories 

–Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei (Harrison, 1965); Table 1. 

TABLE 1: RELIGIONS IN 1960 AS PERCENTAGES OF ALL FAITHS GIVEN 

Muslim 

State/Religion MUSLIM CHRISTIAN ANIMIST 

Increase/Decrease 

since last Census 

SARAWAK 23.4% 15.8% 60.8% -1.2 (since 1947) 

SABAH 37.9% 16.6% 45.5% +3.96 (since 1951) 

BRUNEI 60.2% 8.1% 31.7% -6.9 (since 1947) 

(Harrison, 1965) 

Western Borneo was the last and farthest place to receive the message of Islam 

(about 1440 AD). Since then, it has grown slowly but relatively undisturbed (Harrison, 

1965). The unaccessible geography of the interior was largely impenetrable and has 

made conversion difficult; the inland population remained animist pagan. It has only 

been after the Japanese War (1941-45) and under British Colonial Office rule that 

missionaries reached the interior, and the elaborate systems of interior animism were 

suddenly influenced by Christian missionaries (Harrison, 1965). 

It is worthy to mention the several Christian sects that were competitive over 

the same interiors. Harrison (1965) points out that in the early 1950s, intersectarian 

competition was so intense that it was possible for three independent services to be in a 

large long-house on the same Saturday and a fourth the following Sunday. These 

activities produced interesting reactions such as the mix of both Christian and animist 

12



religions into the Bungan Malan cult (from the Kenyahs’ benevolent goddess of that 

name). 

Today, non-Malay indigenous groups make up more than half of the Borneo 

population in Sarawak and about 66% of the Borneo population in Sabah ii . As 

described, until the 20th century, most people practiced traditional beliefs, but many 

have become Christian or Muslim. Indigenous communities have changed their beliefs, 

and today, animism reflects just 0.8 % of the total population ii . 

Joseph B. Tamney (1998) defines animism as the form of religion centered or 

related to spiritual powers or beings that permeate the world. These unseen powers 

may be conceived as friendly, tricksters, or dangerous. Humans and spirits are part of 

a single cosmos. Animists have no elaborate religious organization and no required 

creed. Individuals may communicate directly with spirits by shamans or spiritmediums. 

These religious specialists also may be recognized as healers or diviners. 

Fasting is common as a way of preparing the body for the sacred reception. Rituals 

tend to be magical and to control spiritual powers or beings for the benefit of oneself or 

the group with whom one is identified. 

The cosmology of the island emphasizes that at the beginning only male and 

female godly beings inhabited the skies and the original waters. For many Bornean, the 

myth of the creation shows the sky god and the sea water copulating, and generating a 

son and a daughter, half human and half divine. The brother and sister commit the 

original incest, giving birth to mankind (Sellato, 1989). 

Many groups also divide the cosmos into three parts: the upperworld, the 

underworld, and a middleworld where mankind lives. Others only consider an 

upperworld for the gods and a lowerworld for the humans. Sellato (1989) presents the 

origins of the world as described by many groups on the island: “After creation was 

completed, the skies and the seas parted and the upperworld god (the supreme deity) 

retreated to his now remote realm and no longer interferes much, at least directly, with 

current human affairs.” Gods and humans are separated, but Bornean people have 

found many ways to communicate with their deities. In general, animals and plants 

have played a central role in this task. Normally, hornbill or hawks represent the 

upperworld god while the underworld god is represented by the water-dragon. 

13



Believers rely on messengers (such as the divine birds), or in human mediums (the 

priests), and seek messages through omens and augury. 

The underworld goddess has remained close to humans. It is associated with 

the earth, agriculture and fertility in general. The dragon goddess is considered the 

most powerful protector of the humans; she is widely invoked in everyday life and 

represented in traditional arts (Sellato, 1989). 

The godly laws were reveled in mythical times and transmitted through the 

generations. They form a set a rules called adat that touch every aspect of individual 

and social life, including religious aspects. Gods are worshiped and assuaged with 

offerings to assure their attention. Gods make their announcements through animals– 

whose behavior is carefully observed-- and through signs in sacrificial animals that the 

augurs read. Dreams also reveal god´s omens. The transgression of taboos incurs 

supernatural punishment, and negligence can conclude in disaster for the community 

(Sellato, 1989). 

Many animals and plants, both wild and domesticated, are connected to the 

animistic beliefs of Bornean people. 

By far, the animal that has influenced mostly Borneans´ conduct are the omenbirds. 

Among them, the carrion-hawk is the most important one. Many groups on the 

island observe the movements of this bird and interpret them through a code of 

accurate rules. The hawk works as a sign by which they must be guided in many 

matters of moment, especially concerning warlike or dangerous expeditions (Hose and 

McDougall, 1966). The Kong or the hornbill could be considered the second most 

important bird. Some species of hornbill, such as Anorrhinus comatus, gives omes of 

minor importance by its strange deep cry. The handsome feathers of another species, 

such as the Buceros rhinoceros are worn on war-coats, and the substance of the beak of 

the helmeted hornbill Rhinoflax vigil is sometimes carved into the form of the canine 

tooth of the tiger-cat (Hose and McDougall, 1966). 

There are other birds that peoples of Borneo use to obtain omens of less 

importance. The three species of the spider-hunter (Arachnothera Chrysogenys, A. 

modesta and A. Longirostris), known as “sit” or “Isit”, give Kenyahs long life, help them 

in undertaking, help them to find what they are seeking, and make their enemies 

14



feeble. Still in the 1960s, they used to stop their canoes, make a small fire and ask these 

species for help or good luck (Hose and McDougall, 1966). 

Other omen birds include the three varieties of the trogan (Harpactes Diardi, H. 

Duvucelii, and H Kasumba), the kieng or woodpecker (Lepocestes porphyromelas), the Asi 

(Carcineutes melanops), the Ukang (Sasia abnormis), and the Telajan or crested rain-bird 

(Platylophus coronatus). They can forecast good luck or difficulties for people or their 

path (Hose and McDougall, 1966). 

Pigs have also been a reference in Bornean cosmology. Settled or semi-settled 

people keep numerous domestic pigs around their houses; pigs that pick up garbage, 

rice-dust and chaff given them by the women. They are treated as members of the 

community and take part in almost all religious ceremonies. Pigs are sacrificed to know 

about the future course of events, such as when war is proposed or when two parties 

are about to go through a peace-making ceremony. The more important the event, the 

larger and better the pigs captured (Hose and McDougall, 1966). One or more chief 

addresses special prayers and the pig is immediately open to be consulted. The 

underside of the liver will express fortune or misfortune. On many occasions, if the 

answer obtained in this way from one pig is unsatisfactory, chiefs will often sacrifice a 

second or even a third or fourth pig. The wild pig, in contrast to the domestic one, is 

eaten without ceremony and never used as messenger to the gods. Its liver is never 

consulted (Hose and McDougall, 1966). 

Finally, the crocodiles that infest Borneo´s rivers are considered friendly 

creatures. However, people fear them and do not like to mention them by name. This is 

considered more a superstition than fear. When somebody is seized by a crocodile it is 

believed either that the person taken has in some way offended one or all of the 

crocodiles, or that he has been taken by a stranger crocodile that has come from a 

distant part of the river, and therefore did not share in the friendly understanding 

usually existing between the people and the local crocodiles. Members of the 

community will take long poles and look for the guilty crocodile. If this does not 

appear, another crocodile will be captured just to revenge the loss (Hose and 

McDougall, 1966). 

15



Present and past hunter-gatherer communities from the island, such as the 

Penan and Punan, had made use of all the omen-birds that have been described above. 

However, they seem not to be so constant in their cult of the omen-birds, and Punan of 

different districts have differed a good deal from one another in this respect. As Hose 

and McDougall (1966) state, with the exception of these birds there is probably no wild 

animal of the jungle that the Punans do not kill and eat. People that have not been 

settled do not seem to practice the rite of sacrifice in any form. One of the reasons may 

be found in the lack of domestic pigs and fowls. The crocodile is recognized as the Bali 

Penyalong god. They sometimes make a wooden image of it before leaving a camp or 

refer to it when somebody is sick (Hose and McDougall, 1966). 

Concerning plants, it seems that the only plant regarded as be-souled (Punans 

and Malanaus excepted), is the rice. As examples of peoples relationship with spirits, 

the jungle palm decorates Kayans’ heads in rites and beliefs; the Long species of 

Caladium is used upon the door of the rooms to mark special circumstances; and the 

Orobong is gathered by the female friends of any woman passing a childbirth (Hose 

and McDougall, 1966). 

In Malaysia, in recent years, politicization of religion and ethnic identity have 

dealt with the preservation or abandonment of native traditions (Winzeler, 1997). As 

religion has been a major dimension of externalized self-identity, the ultimate act of 

cultural accommodation has been the conversion to Islam, the dominant non-Dayak 

religion in the region. The process of becoming Islam had been done most commonly 

in coastal regions during precolonial, colonial and postcolonial times. In the interior, 

people have either adhered to adat ritual and belief, have converted to some form of 

Christianity, have developed new native religious movements based on local 

prophecy, or have reorganized the traditional beliefs and practices so as to conform to 

state values or government requirements (Winzeler, 1997). 

The influence of external religions on the island is a consequence of 

international trade activities. Trade brought Persian traders and the Nestorian 

Christians to Borneo i . In the middle ages, Catholic diplomats, travellers and priests 

travelled around the Island enroute to China. Churches were established in the area 

with the coming of the Portuguese in 1511, the Dutch in 1641 and the British in 1786. 

16



However, in this early period, the Christian community was still largely an expatriate 

community. Chinese Christians sometimes migrated as communities as in the case of 

Basel Mission Hakkas to Sabah and Methodist Foochows to Sibu, Sarawak i . 

Islam came to Malaysia with the Indian traders from South India. It was not of 

the more orthodox Islamic tradition of Arabia. Islam was adopted peacefully by the 

people of the coastal trading ports of Malaysia and Indonesia, absorbing rather than 

conquering existing beliefs. As in many Muslim countries, Islam in Malaysia has seen a 

significant revival over the past 10 years or so. Malay ceremonies and beliefs still 

exhibit pre-Islamic traditions, but most Malays are ardent Muslims i . 

HUNTER-GATHERERS IN SARAWAK: ARCHIVAL RESEARCH. 

In order to explore the religious changes among hunter-gatherers in Borneo, I 

carried out two months archival research in Sarawak. The references have been taken 

from the Sarawak Museum Library, the Majlis Adat Istiadat, the Sarawak Museum, 

and UNIMAS. These references respond to the following criteria: 

A. Unpublished and published sources (articles, books, journals, newspapers, 

official documents), conferences, photos, and theses. 

B. Mostly published in Southeast Asia. 

C. In English. 

D. And compiled into these eleven categories: 

1. People: 

• Penan, Punan, Sihan, Bhuket 

• Orang Ulu, nomads, indigenous peoples 

• Kajang, Kajaman, Bukitan, Kayan 

17



2. Places: 

• Belaga, Kapit, Miri, Upper Baram 

• Usun Apau, Lio Mato 

• Mulu N.P., Mount Murud 

• West + East Kalimantan 

• Brunei 

3. Religious issues: 

• Adat Bungan, missionaries 

• Death names, mortuary beliefs, spirits 

• Shamanism, curing rituals, misfortune 

• Religious conflicts 

4. Health: 

• Malaria, cholera, HIV/AIDS 

• Medicine & meals 

• Medicine & plants 

• Hygiene 

5. Environmental issues: 

• El Niño effect, erosion, sedimentation 

• Deforestation, reafforestation 

• Natural resource management, land tenure 

6. Economy: 

• Hunting patterns, sago extraction 

• Birds´ nests, bearded pig 

• Migrations, settlement, resettlement 

• Rural life, rural development 

18



7. Archaeology: 

• Caves: Jarang, Ulu Kakus, Niah caves 

• Neolithic burials, megaliths, coffin burials 

• Archaeozoological and human evidences 

8. Linguistics: 

• Language clasiffication 

• Teknonyms, terms 

• Historical writing, oral history 

• Penan language 

9. Cultural topics: 

• Handicrafts: Baskets, mats, hats 

• Wood carving 

• Music: instruments, songs and chants 

• Literature: Oral literature, legends, poems 

• Dances 

• Tattoos and ornaments. 

• Legacy and heritage 

10. By law: 

• Native Customary Law, Land Rights 

• National Parks, wildlife, Bakun HP 

• Penan Development Program 

• Constitution, Women´s Rights 

11. Census. 

12. Bibliographies. 

19



Making use of these keywords, I have compiled around 500 references that 

comprise articles (54), books (10), conferences (8), journals (+/- 250), newspapers (+/- 

150), photos (+/- 15 files), and theses (15). It is my desire to add more references in the 

future. At the moment, I hope this bibliography will help in future research projects on 

hunter-gatherers and religions in tropical forests. 

ARCHIVAL RESEARCH 

ARTICLES____________________________________________________________ 

1950 The people of Sarawak and Brunei. In Sarawak and Brueni. A report on the 1947 

population census. J.L.Nokes. Kuching: Government printer. 

1959 Nomadic Punans and Pennans. I.A.N.Urquhart. In The Peoples of Sarawak. 

Harrison, Tom ed. Pp. 73-83. Sarawak: Sarawak Museum. 

1978 Linguistic relations among Bornean peoples with special reference to Sarawak: 

an Interim report. In Sarawak Linguistics and development problems. Pp. 1-33. 

Studies in Third World Societies, eds. Virginia: Boswell 

1978 Sarawak research kaleidoscope, 1923-75. In Sarawak Linguistics and 

development problems. Pp. 150-160. Studies in Third World Societies, eds. 

Virginia: Boswell 

1980 The indigenous people of Sarawak. In Cultural heritage of Sarawak. Lucas Chin 

Pp. 1-4. Kuching: Sarawak Museum. 

1980 Baskets, mats & hats and their uses. In Cultural heritage of Sarawak. Lucas Chin 

Pp. 69-76. Kuching: Sarawak Museum. 

1980 Wood-carvings. In Cultural heritage of Sarawak. Lucas Chin Pp. 77-87. 

Kuching: Sarawak Museum. 

1982 Subsistence of the Penan in the Mulu Area of Sarawak. In Anderson et al. Pp. 1- 

24 

1982 Uruts and Kelabits. In Sarawak. Hedda Morrison. Pp. 284-305. Singapore: Times 

Books International. 

20



1982 The Penans. In Sarawak. Hedda Morrison. Pp. 306-315. Singapore: Times Books 

International. 

1986 Hunting patterns. In Hunting and wildlife management in Sarawak. Julian 

Caldecott. Pp 22-47. Kuching: World Wildlife Fund Malaysia. 

1989 To the Punans and back home. In A Journey among the peoples of Central 

Borneo in World and Pictures. H.F.Tillema. Singapore: Oxford University Press 

1991 Betel-Nut sets. Gongs. Native Brass-Smiths. In SarawakCultural Legacy. A 

Living tradition. Lucas Chin & Valerie Mashman, eds. Pg. 160-164. Kuching: 

Society Atelier Sarawak 

1991 Basketwork. In Sarawak Cultural Legacy. A Living tradition. Lucas Chin & 

Valerie Mashman, eds.Pg. 191-215. Kuching: Society Atelier Sarawak 

1991 Musical Instruments of the Indigenous peoples. In Sarawak Cultural Legacy. A 

Living tradition. Lucas Chin & Valerie Mashman, eds.Pg. 215-230. Kuching: 

Society Atelier Sarawak 

1992 Rural life. In Old Sarawak. A Pictorical Study. Craig A. Lockard & Graham E. 

Saunders. Pp. 27-51. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka Kementerian 

Pendidikan Malaysia. 

1993 Penan “disco”. In Little footsteps. Abang Yusuf Poteh. Pp. 382-385. Kuching: 

Shobra Publications Sdn. Bhd. 

1993 Belaga: A world in the Clouds. In Little footsteps. Abang Yusuf Poteh. Pp. 385- 

393. Kuching: Shobra Publications Sdn. Bhd. 

1993 “Stick-on-Wall” shops. In Little footsteps. Abang Yusuf Poteh. Pp. 393-396. 

Kuching: Shobra Publications Sdn. Bhd. 

1994 Orang Ulu National Association. In Communal Associations of the Indigenous 

Communities of Sarawak. A study of Ethnicity and National Integration. Tan 

Chee-Beng. Pg. 65-78. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Advance Studies-University 

of Malaya. 

1994 Associations of the Berawan, Kayan and Penan. In Communal Associations of 

the Indigenous Communities of Sarawak. A study of Ethnicity and National 

Integration. Tan Chee-Beng. Pg. 141-154. Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Advance 

Studies-University of Malaya. 

1995 Limits to the Indigenisation of Buddhism in Malaysia, with a Focus on the 

Religious Community in Penang. Judith Nagata. In Dimensions of tradition and 

development in Malaysia. Pp. 307-345. Rokiah Talib &Tan Chee-Beng, eds. 

Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. 

21



1995 The poverty of religion: religious revivalism and ethnic polarization in 

contemporary Malaysia. Raymond L.M.Lee. In Dimensions of tradition and 

development in Malaysia. Pp. 347-356. Rokiah Talib &Tan Chee-Beng, eds. 

Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia: Pelanduk Publications. 

1996 Penan response to change and development. Jayl Langub. In Borneo in 

transition: people, forest, conservation and development. Pp. 103-120. Christine 

Padoch and Nancy Lee Peluso eds. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 

1996 The Dayaks and Orang Ulu of Sarawak. John Phoa. In Indigenous peoples of 

Asia. Many peoples, one struggle. Colin Nicholasa Raajen Singh, eds. Pp. 197- 

212. Bangkok, Thailand: Asia Indigenous Peoples Pact 

1997 On Malays, Dayaks, and Other Indigenous Peoples. In Of Free Trade and native 

Interests. The Brooks and the economic development of Sarawak 1841-1941. Ooi 

Keat Gin. Pg. 225-250. Kuala Lumpur: Oxford University Press. 

1998 Native Customary Rights Over Land In Sarawak. Francis Johen Adam. In Jurnal 

Undang-Undang. Journal of Malaysian and Comparative Law, Vol. 25. Special 

Issue. Pp. 218-231. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya. 

1999 Kapit –The Town of Natural Resources. In Legends and history of Sarawak. 

Chang Pat-Foh. Pp. 251-281. Sarawak: Lee Ming Press 

1999 Miri –The Oil Town of Sarawak. In Legends and history of Sarawak. Chang Pat- 

Foh. Pp. 317-358. Sarawak: Lee Ming Press 

2000 On Dayak, Orang Ulu, Bidayuh, and Other imperfect ethnic categories in 

Sarawak. Clare L. Boulanger. In Borneo 2000. Ethnicity, culture and society. 

Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 44-63. 

Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Ethnic and religious conflicts in Indonesia. Parsudi Suparlan. In Borneo 2000. 

Ethnicity, culture and society. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research 

Conference. Pp. 97-125. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia 

Sarawak. 

2000 Space, place and identity: changing meanings at the border in Highland Borneo. 

Poline Bala. In Borneo 2000. Ethnicity, culture and society. Proceeding of the 

Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 126-140. Michael Leigh, ed. 

Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Emblems for Identity: Ethnic costume, Catholicism and continuity: A 

Pinyawaá Bidayuh study at Kampong Gayu. Valerie Mashman. In Borneo 

2000. Ethnicity, culture and society. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo 

22



Research Conference. Pp. 223-249. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti 

Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 The Shaman as an undoer of life: Iban eschatology and the role of the Shaman 

in Saribas Iban death rituals. Clifford Sather. In Borneo 2000. Ethnicity, culture 

and society. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 

299-329. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Collective Representation and individual experience: the Bhuket of Sarawak 

and the individuation of their Religion. Shanthi Thambiah. In Borneo 2000. 

Ethnicity, culture and society. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research 


Sarawak. 

2000 40,0000 years of man & biodiversity in Borneo: an archaeozoological 

perspective. Earl of Cranbrook. In Environment, conservation and land. 

Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 1-27. Michael 

Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Changing perspectives of a former hunter. Oswald Braken Tisen. In 

Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo 

Research Conference. P. 28. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia 

Sarawak. 

2000 Beside the beaten track: effects of increased accessibility on wildlife and 

patterns of hunting in Sarawak. Cynthia L.M. Chin. In Environment, 

conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research 


Sarawak. 

2000 Humans and swiftlets –centuries of affiliation. Lim Chan Koom. In 




2000 Effects of the 1997/98 El Nino in Borneo. Chan Ngai Weng. In Environment, 



Sarawak. 

2000 The indigenous belief system and environmental management: a case study 

among the Rungus of Sabah. Paul Porodong. In Environment, conservation and 

land. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 199-214. 


23



2000 The importance of Dusun land use and natural resource management for the 

Crocker Range National Park, Sabah. Quentin Gausset. In Environment, 



Sarawak. 

2000 Land tenure, local communities and protected areas: a Borneo perspective. 

Peter Eaton. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth 

Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 226-236. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: 

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 A clash between culture and market forces: problems and prospects for native 

customary rights land development in Sarawak. Dimbab Ngidang. In 




2000 Identigying the problems in the implementation of the new concept of native 

customary rights land development project in Sarawak through action research. 

. Peter Songan. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth 



2000 Forest law and its enforcement: a case of Sarawak´s forest. Sharifah Mariam 

Alhabshi. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth 



2000 A survey of plants used in traditional medicine along the Sabah West coast. 

Berhaman Ahmad, et al. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of 

the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 441-445. Michael Leigh, ed. 

Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Seroepidemiological study of human T-Lymphotropic virus Type I and II 

(HTLV I/II) among blood donors and certain ethnic groups in Sarawak. Sabri, et 

al. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial 

Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 446-453. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: 


2000 Cholera in Sarawak: historical to microbial pathologenesis perspective (1841- 

1941). Dominic Dado Sagin. In Environment, conservation and land. Proceeding 

of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 454-460. Michael Leigh, 

ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2000 Collective representation and individual experience: the Bhuket of Sarawak and 

the individuation of their religion. Shanthi Thambiah. In Borneo 2000. Ethnicity, 

culture and society. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research 

24




Sarawak. 

2000 Language and identity regarding the Penan of Brunei. Peter G. Sercombe. In 

Borneo 2000. Language, management and tourism. Proceeding of the Sixth 



2000 Atlas of the languages and ethnic communities of Brunei & Borneo: A project in 

progress. Saxena, et al. In Borneo 2000. Language, management and tourism. 

Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 206-211. 


2000 KATABBAÁN: explanation for and prevention of misfortune among the Kalis 

of West Kalimantan. Katsumi Okuno. In Borneo 2000. Language, management 

and tourism. Proceeding of the Sixth Biennial Borneo Research Conference. Pp. 

360-369. Michael Leigh, ed. Sarawak: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

2004 Leadership among the Penan of Belaga district in Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. 

In Contributions to Southeast Asian ehtnography, No. 12. Jayl Langub. Pg. 188- 

217. Anthony R. Walker, ed. 

CONFERENCES/PRESENTATIONS______________________________________ 

1993 Penan Worlds Exhibition. Dewan Tun Abdul Razak. Sarawak Museum. 

December 15, 1992-February 28, 1993. 

1994 Endangered forest, endangered people: environmentalist representations of 

indigenous knowledge. Peter J. Brosius. For panel Ethnoecology: Knowledge, 

Resources, Rights, 93 rd Annual Meeting of the American Anthropological 

Association, Atlanta Georgia, November 30-December 4. 

1990 Hunting and gathering: a view from within. Jayl Langub. In In change and 

development in Borneo. Ed. By Vision H. Sutlive Jr. Selected papers from The 

First Extraordinary Conference of the Borneo Research Council. Borneo 

Research Council: Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. August 4-9. 

2000 The Orang Ulu. Jayl Langub and Ipoi Datan. Kuala Lumpur. Di KLCC Pada 9 

and 10 Jun 2000. 

2000 The significance of Gawai Dayak to the Orang Ulu. Jayl Langub and Colin 

Belawing. Kuala Lumpur. Di KLCC Pada 9 and 10 Jun 2000. 

25



2000 Orang Ulu. Jayl Langub dan Ipoi Datan. Kuala Lumpur. Di KLCC Pada 9 and 

10 Jun 2000. 

2000 Kenyataan Bengkel Masyarakat Penan Bersempena Mulu World Heritage 

Conference. Jayl Langub. Majlis Adat Istiadat. 20-22 June, 2000. 

2000 Sihan Community. Abdul Rashid Abdullah, University Malaysia Sarawak. For 

workshop on Community profiles of Ethnic minorities in Sarawak, 26-27 May. 

2000 Bhuket Community. Shanti Thambiah, University Malaya. For workshop on 

Community profiles of Ethnic minorities in Sarawak, 26-27 May. 

2000 Begetan Community. Khoo Khay Jin, University Malaysia Sarawak. For 


2000 Profile of Five Penan Longhouses. Jayl Langub, Mailis Adat Istiadat. For 


2005 Tivai: Penan Rituals and Prayers. Jayl Langub, Institute of East Asian Studies. 

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. Presented at the International Conference on 

Languages and Literature of Western Borneo: 144 Years of Research. The 

Institute of Malay World and Civilization (ATMA), Universiti Kebangsaan 

Malaysia, UKM Bangi, Malaysia, January 31-February 2, 2005. 

JOURNALS____________________________________________________________ 

1. Akademika 

1993 No. 42 & 43, pp. 87-104 Between development and deforestation: Negotiating 

citizenship in a Commodified Landscape. J. Peter Brosius. 

2. Borneo Research Bulletin 

1970 Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 4-5 New subgrouping of the languages of west Borneo. Robert 

A. Blust. 

1972 Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 3-8 The Belaga district of Sarawak. Jerome Rousseau. 

1973 Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 10-12 Translation project of the indigenous songs and chants 

of Sarawak. Carol Rubenstein. 

1974 Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 5-15 Dayak land tenure: an alternative to ecological 

determinism. Gale Dixon. 

26



1974 Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 31-38 Some suggestions for future research in West 

Kalimantan. Victor King. 

1974 Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 39-42 Notes on Punan and Bukat in West Kalimantan. Victor 

King. 

1974 Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 42-50 The distribution of Punan in East Kalimantan. H.L. 

Whittier. 

1975 Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 3-4 Further notes on Sarawak and Kalimantan Punan (and 

Penan). Tom Harrisson. 

1975 Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 5-11 The concept of Malaria in Brueni Malay Indigenous 

Medicine. Linda Amy Kimball. 

1975 Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 25-27 Bibliography iii : Hunter-gatherers in Borneo. Donald H. 

Lambert. 

1975 Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 28 Towards an ethnic classification of Bornean peoples. J.B. 

Avé and V.T. King 

1975 Vol. 7, No. 2, pp. 45-48 Distribution of Penan and Punan in the Belaga district. 

Langub, Jayl. 

1978 Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 73-75 Shifting cultivation (Brief communication). 

1978 Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 75-82 Generalizations about place names: some Borneo 

examples. Allen R. Maxwell. 

1977 Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 54-67 Points on the collection of general ethnographic data 

among tribal peoples in Borneo. Michael R. Dove. 

1979 Vol. 11, No. 1, pp. 3-13 Ecological determinism: is the Appell Hypothesis valid? 

Joseph A. Weinstock. 

1979 Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 46-51 Soil maps and swidden –a caveat. P.A.Burrough 

1980 Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 2-19 Development of Tribal Land-Rights in Borneo: the role 

of ecological factors. Michael R. Dove. 

1980 Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 47-62 Looking at oral literature: interpretation, the 

Takna´Lawe, and Kayan inequality. Stephanie Morgan. 

1981 Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 3-14 Research in East Kalimantan on interactions between 

people and forests: a preliminary report. Andrew P.Vayda. 

27



1981 Vol. 13, No. 1, p. 16-32 Why do Apo Kayan Shifting Cultivators move? Timothy 

C. Jessup. 

1981 Vol. 13, No. 1, pp. 47-48 Kaharingan: Borneo´s “Old Religion” Becames 

Indonesia´s Newest Religion. Joseph A. Weinstock. (Brief communication). 

1981 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 71-75 Some notes on the origins of the “Punan” of Borneo. 

Carl L. Hoffman. 

1981 Vol. 13, No. 2, pp. 107-113 Weighing Environmental factors as determinates of 

Dayak Land Tenure. Joseph A. Weinstock 

1982 Vol. 14, No. 1, pp. 27-34 Epistemological problems in the analysis of Land 

Tenure in Borneo: A reply to Weinstock. Michael R. Dove. 

1982 Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 56-84 Where medicine fails: Belian disease prevention and 

curing rituals among the Lawangan Dayak of East Kalimantan. Andreas W. 

Massing. 

1983 Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 2-21 Change and indigenous agroforestry in East Kalimantan. 

Carol J. Pierce Colfer. 

1983 Vol. 15, No. 2, pp. 70-87 Change and indigenous agroforestry in East 

Kalimantan. (Continued.) Carol J. Pierce Colfer. 

1984 Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 12-29 Traditional migration in Borneo: the Kenyah case. 

A.J.Guerreiro and B.J.L.Sellato. 

1984 Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 76-81 More on Kenyah migrations. A.J.Guerreiro and 

B.J.L.Sellato. 

1984 Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 81-84 A response to Guerreiro and Sellato on Kenyah 

migrations. T.C.Jessup and Cynthia Mackie. 

1984 Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 85-95 Review Article: Four theses on the nomads of Central 

Borneo. Jerome Rousseau. 

pp. 95-98 The Borneo Collection of the Sutheast Asian Cultural Research 

Programme, Institute of Southeast Asia Studies Singapore. Victor T. King. 

1985 Vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 4-30 Resettlement of peoples in Indonesian Borneo: the social 

anthropology of administered peoples. George N. Appell. 

1986 Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 3-27 Plantation development in the perceptions of the 

indigenous population. Michael R. Dove. 

28



1987 Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 152-160 Ngaju Dayak settlements and cosmological 

constructs. Anne Schiller. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 3-15 Swidden agriculturists and planned change: the model 

village program in Belaga District (Sarawak, 7 th Division) A preliminary report. 

A.J. Guerreiro. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 15-28 The costs of development in Sarawak (Review Article). 

Victor T. King. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 14-29 Costs of development in Sarawak. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 81-105 A separate reality: Comments on Hoffman´s The 

Punan: Hunters and Gatherers of Borneo. J. Peter Brosius. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 106-120 The nomads of Borneo: Hoffman and “devolution”. 

B.J.L. Sellato 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 121-129 Carl Hoffman and the Punan of Borneo. Lars Kaskija. 

1988 Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 129-134 The longevity of Penan dart poison. Rodney 

Needham. 

1989 Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 22-49 Shifting cultivation and resource degradation in 

Sarawak: perceptions and policies. R.A. Cramb. 

1989 Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 82-94 Oral literature research and review: Request by 

Rubenstein for Clarification by Maxwell and by Rousseau. Carol Rubenstein. 

1989 Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 95-96 Response to Rubenstein. Jerome Rousseau. 

1990 Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 37-42 A Note on the Penan of Brunei. Bernard J.L. Sellato. 

1990 Vol. 22, No. 1, pp. 47 Penan texts: an elucidatory comment. Rodney Needham. 

1990 Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 148-149 Penans in Ulu Belait (Brief communication). 

1991 Vol. 23 pp. 3-13 Logging, conservation and Native Rights in Sarawak Forests 

from different viewpoints. Richard B. Primack. 

1991 Vol. 23 pp. 85-99 Errors in Borneo ethnography: Part I. G.N. Appell 

1991 Vol. 23 pp. 127-128 Long-terms effects of selective logging operations on the 

Malaysian avifauna. Frank Lambert. 

1992 Vol. 24 pp. 7-16 The prehistory of Borneo. Peter Bellwood. 

29



1992 Vol. 24 pp. 79-85 Errors in Borneo ethnography: Part II. G.N.Appell. 

1992 Vol. 24 pp. 86-92 An update on the Penan of Brunei. Peter W. Martin. 

1992 Vol. 24 pp. 112-139 Outline for a collector´s question list for Bornean oral 

literature and verbal tradition. Stephanie Morgan. 

1992 Vol. 24 pp. 139-144 Notes on the Punan of the Upper Belayan. Chris Obidzinski. 

1993 Vol. 25 pp. 122-211 Remarks on resettlement in the Belayan area. Chris 

Obidzinski. 

N/D 

Vol. 26 pp. 69-95 Local identity and regional variation: Notes on the lack of 

significance of ethnicity among the Luangan and the Bentian. Kenneth 

Sillander. 

1996 Vol. 27 pp. 52-63 An annotated bibliography of the Penan of Brunei. Peter G. 

Sercombe. 

1996 Vol. 27 pp. 70-76 Forest conversion and the role of Slash-and-burn agriculture in 

Lowland Kalimantan. Yoshiyuki Kiyono. 

1996 Vol. 27 pp. 146-148 Iban shamanism workshop (Aum Bala Manang) Clifford 

Sather. 

1997 Vol. 28 pp. 28-41 Having your medicine and eating it too: a preliminary look at 

medicine and meals in Kayan-Mentarang, Kalimantan, Indonesia. Lisa X. 

Gollin. 

1998 Vol. 29 pp. 128-142 Malaria vs. Genes in the Malayo-Bornean Arc. A.Baer. 

pp. 143-147 Medicinal and other uses of tobacco among rural Kadazans and 

Bajaus in Sabah, Malaysia. Chong-Ying Gan. 

3. Borneo Research Council Proceeding Series 

1990 Hunting and gathering: a view form within. In Change and Development in 

Borneo. Pp. 101-109. Vinson H. Sutlive Jr., ed. Selected Papers from the First 

Extraordinary Conference of the Borneo Research Council, August 4-9, 1990. 

Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia 

4. Brunei Museum Journal 

1972 Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 165-167 Comparative linguistics in Southeast-Asia. Its scope 

and method of approach. Asmah Haji Omar. 

30



1981 Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 56-77 Guide to modern archives and manuscripts found in 

the United Kingdom relating to Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak. 

1983 Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 104-107 A note on Iban birds. Edward Banks. 

5. Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 

1924 Vol. II, Part 1, pp. 76-77 the Gypsies of Sarawak (Punans.) E.L.Andreini. 

1937 Vol. XV. Pp. 100-101 A mysterious find in Brunei. H. Hughes-Hallett. 

1940 Vol. XVIII, Part II, 49-54 The natives of Sarawak. E.Banks. 

1955 Vol. XXVIII, No. 1, pp. 24-36 Punan Ba. Rodney Needham. 

1958 Vol. XXXI, Part 2 (No. 182) pp. 118-123 The Nanhai trade. A study of the Early 

History of Chinese Trade in the South China Sea. Wang Gungwu. 

1958 Vol. XXXI, Part 1 (No 181) pp. 40-82 Nomadic Penan of the Upper Rajan 

(Plieran), Sarawak. Guy Arnold. 

6. Sarawak Gazette 

1898 July 1, pp. 139- 140 Speaking with the Dead. C. Hose 

1899 May 1, pp. 85-87 Peace making at Baram. Alfred C. Haddon. 

1916 Vol. XLVI No. 701, pp. 82-83 Belaga. G.M. Gifford. 

1950 Vol. LXXVI, No. 159- District report, Kapit. Tinjar Kenyahs. 

1957 June 30, pp. 141-142 Law and Ulu problems. Peter Mooney. 

1966 November 30, pp. 355 Burial customs of the Kayans. 

1969 Vol. -------, December 31, pp. 298-301 Superstitions and beliefs of the Kayans 

and Sea Dayaks of Sarawak –Part I. Lina Chong. 

1970 Vol. -------, January 31, pp. 14-16 Superstitions and beliefs of the Kayans and Sea 

Dayaks of Sarawak –Part II. Lina Chong. 

31



1970 Vol. -------, January 31, pp. 95-96 The Baram cultures. C.H. Southwell. 

1972 Vol.XCVIII, No. 1371, pp. 83-86 Adaptation to settled life by the Punans of 

Belaga Subdistrict. Jayl Langub. 

1972 Vol.XCVII No. 1378, pp. 219-221 Structure and progress of the Punan 

community of Belaga District. Jayl Langub. 

1974 Vol. CI No. 1395, pp. 93-96 Background report on potential for agricultural and 

social extension service in the Penan Community of Belaga District. Jayl 

Langub. 

1974 Vol. C No. 1401, pp. 237-238 The hunting heritage of the headhunters. Joachim 

Ulok Laeng. 

1974 Vol. C No. 1401, pp. 238-240 Community development. Sidi Munan. 

1975 January 31, pp. 9-13 Belaga district Annual Report for 1973. Webber Ketit. 

1975 Vol. C No. 1404, pp. 27-28 Why and when the Kenyahs change their names. 

Joachim Ulok Laeng. 

1978 May 31, pp. 119-121 Notes on Human consequences of development: Some 

basic principles of Social Change. P.M. Kedit. 

1980 Vol. CVI No. 1466, pp. 64-73 The Penan of 7 th Division of Sarawak: Past, present 

and future. Johannes Nicolaisen. 

1980 Vol. CVI No. 1471, pp. 169-170 A review on the Constitution of communal 

forest in the general context of rural development. David Alexander Senada. 

1981 Vol. CVII No. 1477, pp. 52-63 Belaga District Annual report 1980. District 

Officer, Belaga. 

1982 Vol. CVIII No 1482, pp. 16-17 Baiyon-the Healing Session. Wong to Hoo. 

pp. 17-21 Blowpipe poison. Paul P.K. Chai. 

1982 Vol. CVIII No 1481, pp. 5-11 Reafforestation in Sarawak. Lee Hua Seng and Lai 

Khim Kuet. 

1982 Vol. CVIII No 1479, pp. 31-34 The Punans of Belaga District, 7 th Division. 

Andrew Kiyu. 

1982 Vol. CVIII No 1481, pp. 61-63 The Majlis Adat Istiadat, Sarawak. Joshua 

Melling. 

32



1983 Vol. CIX No. 1485, pp. 3-8 Native Court Systems in Sarawak. Chang Pat Foh. 

pp. 8-10 Extraction of Hill Sago by a Punan at lg. Lilin, Baram District. Andrew 

Kiyu. 

pp. 33-34 Spencer St. John and Bishop McDougall –Two Documents. Brian 

Taylor. 

1983 Vol. CIX No. 1484, pp. 4-10 Erosion and sedimentation in Sarawak´s forest. 

Gordon Butt. 

pp. 11-13 Punan settlement of Long Paloh, Sungei Layun, Baram. Andrew Kiyu. 

1983 Vol. CIX No. 1483, pp. 3-5 Reconnaissance Helath Survey of Two Eastern Penan 

groups on the Fringes of the Mulu National Park 3 rd -6 th May, 1982. Paul C.Y. 

Chen. 

pp. 32-35 Traveling to Penan areas. Dennis Langub. 

pp. 35-39 Planning the development of mixed tropical rainforests. Leo Chai. 

pp. 40-46 Some aspects of Charm making as practised in Sarawak. Wong To 

Hoo. 

1984 Vol. CX No. 1490, pp. 3-4 Plants used by Punans around Lio Mato area to treat 

diarrhoea. Andrew Kiyu. 

pp. 4-6 Medicine and magic in Sarawak. Andrew Kiyu. 

pp. 6-11 The bearded pigs erupt. Julian and Serena Caldecott. 

1984 Vol. CX No. 1485, pp. 11-15 Tamu: Barter trade between Penan and teir 

neighbours. Jayl Langub. 

1984 Vol. CX No. 1484, pp. 3- 6 Heritage, identity and cultural policy: the case of 

Sarawakian Burial Post. Ida Nicolaise. 

pp. 7-15 Little footsteps –Belaga: My kind of world Abang Yusuf Puteh. 

p. 34 Infant deaths in the 7 th Division. 

1985 Vol. CXI No. 1493, pp. 4-11 A note on socioeconomic indicators from Census 

data in Sarawak. Joseph KoTee Hock. 

1985 Vol. CXI No. 1492, pp. 25-30 A trip from Tubau to Belaga by Land. Andrew 

Kiyu. 

33



1985 Vol. CXI No. 1491, pp. 10-14 Family types. 

pp. 15-29 National Parks 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1497, pp. 12-14 Ninth Malaysian Forestry Conference Keynote 

Address. Miller Munang. 

pp. 29-37 Handicrafts in Sarawak. Lucas Chin. 

pp. 40-43 Lio Mato longhouse, Upper Baram. Andrew Kiyu. 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1495, pp. 12-19 Analyzing census data on religion in Sarawak, 

1947-1980. Joseph Ko Tee Hock. 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1495, pp. 26-28 My Stint through Belaga District. Dennis Langub. 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1496, pp. 35-37 Why such a land as this is peopled with such a 

race? Andrew Kiyu. 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1498, pp. 32-33 Ghosts and spirits of the Rayang Bidayuh. Saet 

Gadug. 

1986 Vol. CXII No. 1498, pp. 30-32 Much Ado about Death. Henry Chan. 

1987 Vol. CXIII, No. 1502, pp. 4-7 Speech by Dr. Yusoff bin Jaji Nanifah, Chairman of 

the Organising Committee of the Seminar on “Native Customary Rights” under 

the Land Laws. 

1987 Vol. CXIII, No. 1501, pp. 6-9 Cockroaches in Penan settlements in the Baram 

District of Sarawak. Andrew Kiyu and Chang Moh Seng. 

pp. 31-36 Minor indigenous groups in Sarawak. Joseph Ko Tee Hock. 

1987 Vol. CXIII, No. 1500, pp. 17-28 The Lahanan: Some notes on the history of a 

Kajang Groups. Antonio J. Guerreiro. 

1987 Vol. CXIII, No. 1499, pp. 15-25 The availability of some household items among 

Penan households in the Lio Mato area, Upper Baram, Sarawak. Andrew Kiyu. 

pp. 4-7 Internal migration in Sarawak 1981-1983. Joseph Do Tee Hock. 

pp. 7-15 Ethnohistory in Sarawak: A mostly untapped resource. Allen R. 

Maxwell. 

1988 Vol. CXIV, No. 1503, pp. 24-30 The impact of trade objects on the lives of the 

indigenous people of Sarawak. Lucas Chin. 

34



1988 Vol. CXV, No. -----, pp. 10-12 Burial poles (Klirieng): their construction and 

beliefs. Lucas Chin and Joseph Ingai. 

1988 Vol. CXV, No. 1505, pp. 18-22 Charles Hose and Borneo. Brian Durrans. 

1989 Vol. CXVI, No. 1509, pp. 20-22 Residents and District Officers of Kapit. Loh 

Chee Yin. 

pp. 22-30 For marrying Lian During Durian period. Carol Rubenstein. 

1989 Vol. CXVI, No. 1508, pp. 4-8 The Legends of the Tatau. Ambrose Labang Jamba. 

pp. 21-28 Some notes on Long Songs of the Dayak Oral 

Literature. Carol Rubenstein. 

1990 Vol. CXVII, No. 1514, pp. 5-28 A journey through the nomadic 

1990 Vol. CXVII, No. 1511, pp. 16-18 “Tread softly…”: A short visit to Mount Murud. 

Mike Friel. 

1990 Vol. CXVII, No. 1513, pp. 10-13 Christianity and local cultures. Peter M. Kedit. 

1990 Vol. CXVII, No. 1513, pp. Samsengs, gangsters and godfathers. Ken Yalang. 

1990 Vol. CXVII, No. 1513, pp. Urban forestry as a component landuse in town 

planning. Abang Haji Kassim Bin Abang Morshidi, and Desmond Dick Cotter. 

1991 Vol. CXVIII No. 1518, pp. 5-16 Environmental issues relating to logging and 

adverse publicity by non-governmental organisations. Leo Chai. 

pp. 16-19 Environmentalists out to destroy Malaysia. Rogelio A. Maduro. 

pp. 46-51 Tracing tattoos in Sarawak. Lim Ang Nei. 

1992 Vol. CXIX, No. 1519, pp. 5-22 Perspectives on Penan development in Sarawak. J. 

Peter Brosius. 

pp. 24-30 In search of the Lost Manuscripts and tribes: Library and archival 

research in Sarawak. Sanib Said. 

1992 Vol. CXIX, No. 1520, pp. 36-38 Some Eastern Penan traditional Prayers. Jayl 

Langub. 

1992 Vol. CXIX, No. 1521, pp. 46-51 Lun Bawang Oral literature: An Overview. Jayl 

Langub. 

1992 Vol. CXIX, No. 1521, pp. 67 The tales of the migration of Kayan Balui from Apo 

Kayan to Balui River. Geoffrey Usa Baleng. 

35



1992 Vol. CXIX, No. 1522, pp. 32-35 In Mulu with the Penans Kim Lee. 

1993 Vol. CXX, No. 1524, pp. 5-9 Native Adat and customary laws of Sarawak: an 

Overview. Jayl Langub. 

1993 Vol. CXX, No. 1524, pp. 27-30 Burial pole of Ukun Jaya (Liang Ukun Jaja). 

Clement Langet Sabang. 

1993 Vol. CXX, No. 1524, pp. 48-50 Ethnocentrism. Benson Heng Ngi Chong. 

1994 Vol. CXXI, No. 1527, pp. 15-18 On the Origin of Shamanism and concepts of 

Sickness. Boniface Jarraw. 

1994 Vol. CXXI, No. 1528, pp. 35-37 Hull publications on South-East Asia: A survey. 

A.V.M Horton. 

1994 Vol. CXXI, No. 1528, pp. 38-41 The historical relationship between the Cebup 

(Sebop) and Penan Geng. Clement Langet Sabang. 

1994 Vol. CXXI, No. 1529, pp. 48-56 Libraries for all: Towards a reading society in 

Sarawak. Johnny Kueh. 

1994 Vol. CXXI, No. 1529, pp. 33-53 The “Tin system”: a district data base. Jayl 

Langub. 

1995 Vol. CXXII, No. 1532, pp. 16-20 The trail of the Kayan Uma Beluvuh. Robert 

Laing Anyie. 

1995 Vol. CXXII, No. 1532, pp. 20-24 The Native Courts System in Sarawak and its 

Implementation –Part I. Jayl Langub. 


Implementation –Part II. Jayl Langub. 

1995 Vol. CXXII, No. 1534, pp. 36-39 Penan Marriage Customs: A general 

description. Jayl Langub. 

1995 Vol. CXXII, No. 1533, pp. 24-30 The Native Courts System in Sarawak and Its 

Implementation –Part II. Jayl Langub. 


Implementation –Part I. Jayl Langub. 

1997 Vol. CXXIV, No. 1536, pp. 4-14 Orang Ulu Musical Twilight… Endangered 

music and instruments of the Penan. Jayl Langub & Khoo Khay Jin. 

36



1998 Vol. CXIX, No. 1519, pp.3-4 Bringing development to the Penan. (In our 

opinion) 

1999 Vol. CXXVI, No. 1539, pp. 4-8 Evolution of Health care in Sarawak. Fauziah 

Zainal Ehsan &Fletcher Siner ak. Sipeng. 

pp. 9-11 The village health promoter program in Sarawak. Fauziah Zainal 

Ehsan &Fletcher Siner ak. Sipeng. 

pp. 12- HIV-AIDS 

2001 Vol. CXXVIII, No. 1543, pp. 38-43 The Elixir of Caves: Birds´ Nest Soup. Lim 

Chan Koon. 

7. Sarawak Museum Journal 

1949 Vol. V, No. 1 (New Series). Pp. 59-61 Dayak belief. Basil Temenggong. 

Pp. 130-146 Notes on Some Nomadic Punans. Tom Harrison. 

1951 Vol. V, No. 3 (New Series). Pp. 400-413 Human and hornbills in Borneo. Tom 

Harrison. 

Pp. 495-533 Some notes on Jungle Punans in Kapit District. I.A.N.Urquhart. 

1954 Vol. VI, No. 4 (New Series). Pp. 65-95 Towards the Usun Apau. Tom Harrison 

and D.L.Leach. 

1955 Vol. VI, No. 5 (New Series). Pp. 254-256 Dusun Fertility Rite. E. White. 

Pp. 328-330 Malaria research, British Borneo. McArthur, et al. 

1955 Vol. VI, No. 6 (New Series). Pp. 443- Early British. 

Pp. 510- Pioneer priest 

Pp. 561-562 Jerunai and the Slaves´Lament (Secondary burial) Harriette Brodie. 

Pp. 564-566 Berawan Death Chants (Secondary burial) Tom Harrison. 

1956 Vol. VII, No. 23 (New Series). Pp. Adat Bungan. P. Aichner. 

1957 Vol. VIII, No. 10 (New Series). Pp. 113-116 Some Kenyah-Pennan relationships. 

I.A.N. Urquhart. 

37



1958 Vol. VIII, No. 11 (New Series). Pp. 383-393 Teknonyms used in Baram district –I. 

I.A.N. Urquhart. 

Pp. 393-401 Megaliths of Central and West Borneo. Tom Harrison. 

1958 Vol. VIII, No. 12 (New Series). Pp. 639-740 Punan cementeries in the Niah River. 

Geoffrey Barnes. 

Pp. 741-742 Punan, Penan, Bukitan, Kajaman, Kajang and Kayan. Father P. 

Aichner. 

1959 Vol. IX, No. 13-14 (New Series). Pp. 33-46 Some Baram kinship terms. I.A.N. 

Urquhart 

Pp. 121-131 Near to Ngadju. (Rhinish missionaries in South Boneo, 1936-1913). 

Barbara Harrison. 

Pp. 194-202 A doctor among “Nomadic” Punans 

W.H.Huehne. 

Pp. 215-248 The Sarawak Anti-Malaria project. M.J.Colbourne, et. al. 

1960 Vol. IX, No. 15-16 (New Series). Pp. 389-392 Manjah the “Magic Stone” of Niah. 

R. Nyandoh. 

Pp. 393-396 A Niah Ballad. Lord Medway, translator. 

Pp. 388-395 Why some of the Best People aren´t Christian. Archdeacon Peter 

Howes. 

1961 Vol. X, No. 17-18 (New Series). Pp. 214-216 An After-life for Kayan Infants in 

Kalimantan. Tom Harrison. 

1962 Vol. XI, No. 19-20 (New Series). Pp. 409-411 Tibang, Tebang and Mandai. 

A.J.N.Richards, M.A. 

Pp. 563-589 The development of resource in British Borneo and its impact on 

settlement. Y.L.Lee. 

1963 . XI, No. 21-22 (New Series). Pp. 64-87 The Kayan-Kenyah “Bungan Cult” in 

Sarawak. Ian Prattis. 

Pp. 88-93 A Murut Wedding in Kalimantan. Penghulu Balang Siran and 

Benedict Sandin 

Pp. 94-98 The Punan corpse that smells Durian. Yap Yoon Keong. 

38



Pp. 214-219 Two Neolithic Burials from Lobang Jeragan, a Cliff-Cave at Niah. 

Calvin Wells. 

Pp. 327-339 The Sarawak Museum´s Punan Salong and Puso´s Jar. Tom 

Harrisson. 

1964? Vol. XI, No. 23-24 (New Series). Pp. 553-555 Some Baram (Sarawak) Coffin 

Burials, before 1900. A.C.Haddon. 

1965 Vol. XIII?, No. 25-26 (New Series). Pp. 185-187 Punan Laóng (two notes). 

Benedict Sandin. 

Pp. 188-200 Punan vocabularies. Tuton Kaboy. 

Pp. 201-206 Punan Busang Bird Names. Tom Harrison. 

1966 Vol. XIV, No. 28-29 (New Series). Pp. 81-86 Kakus Punan MUD healing rites. 

Rev.F. Baartmans. 

Pp. 249-268 The Jarang Caves in Sarawak. Tom Harrison and J.l. Reavis. 

Pp. 269-275 Caves of the Ulu Kakus, interior Sarawak. J.L Reavis and I. 

Background. 

1967 Vol. XV, No. 30-31 (New Series). Pp. 126-200 A classification of Stone Age 

Burials from Niah Great Cave, Sarawak. Barbara Harrison. 

1968 Vol. XVI, No. 32-33 (New Series). Pp. 209-234 Women´s tattoos of the upper 

Rajang. Sharon Thomas. 

Pp. 346-376 Asun´s “rebellion”: The political growing pains of a tribal society in 

Brooke Sarawak, 1929-1940. Robert Pringle. 

Pp. 377-406 The Anglican Church in Sarawak from 1848 to 1852. Peter D. 

Varney. 

1969 Vol. XVIII, No. 34-35 (New Series). Pp. 139-152 Influence of Christianity on 

Biatah-Speaking Land Dayaks. David Sidaway. 

Pp. 163-201 Some notes on traditional dances of Sarawak. Joan Seeler. 

1971 Vol. XIX, No. 38-39 (New Series). Pp. 47-51 Some stories about Siteng people. 

Tuton Kaboy. 

Pp. 314- Burial customs of the Kejamans. 

39



1972 Vol. XX, No. 40-41 (New Series). Pp. 173-178 Dancing out “the Journey of the 

Death”. Tom Harrison. 

Pp. 235-299 A study of Punan Busang. D.B.Ellis. 

1973 Special Monograph, No. 42 (New Series). Pp. 1327-1389 Poems of Indigenous 

Peoples of Sarawak: Some of the songs and chants. Part II. Carol Rubenstein. 

1974 Vol. XXII, No. 43 (New Series). Special Issue. The peoples of Central Borneo. 

Jerome Rousseau. 

I. Introduction 

II. Ares of Central Borneo 

1. The Apo Kayan area of East Kalimantan 

2. The Baluy area 

3. The Baram district: a survey of Kenyah, Kayan ad Penan peoples. 

III. Linguistic Studies 

4. An outline of Kayan grammar 

5. A vocabulary of Baluy Kayan 

6. A Murik Vocabulary. 

IV. Social Anthropology 

7. Indigenous ethnicity in Sarawak 

8. Maloh social structure. 

9. Community fragmentation among the Lun Bawang. 

10. Kampong Selanyau: social and economic organisation of a Kedayan 

rice-growing village in Sarawak. 

11. Notes on the Kajang. 

12. Berawan adoption practices. 

13. The Penan Aput. 

14. Adaptation to a settled life by the Punan of the Belaga Sub-district. 

V. Culture and History 

15. Kenyah cultural themes and their interrelationships 

16. Kenyah receptivity and response to Christianity. 

17. The Long Pekun Sebop. 

18. The flight from the Usua Apau to the headwaters fo the Tinjar. 

19. Story of the Long Kiput Denyah. 

20. Prayers for the erection of a new house. 

21. Some Apo Kayan megaliths. 

1975 Vol. XXIII, No. 44 (New Series). Pp. 53-83 The traditional folklores of the Kayan 

of Upper Rejang. Benedict Sandin. 

Pp. 81-91 The Passing of a Kenyah Chief (The Hon´ble Senator, Dato 

Temenggong Aban Lawai Jau). Rev. A.D.Galvin 

Pp. 91-94 Tribal Authority among the Kenyahs. Rev. A.D.Galvin 

40



Pp. 243-257 The forging of a Ritual Knife (Pendat) by Land Dayaks in Sarawak, 

Borneo, Cultural and Religious Background. Carsten and Inge Niemitz. 

1976 Vol. XXIV, No. 45 (New Series). Pp. 35-61 The Penan of the Seventh Division of 

Sarawak: Past, present and future. Johannes Nicolaisen. 

Pp. 63-95 Form and function of Punan Bah Ethno-historical tradition. Ida 

Nicolaisen. 

Pp. 97-99 The Punan. Paul McLoughlin. 

Pp. 101-111 Anthropometric and anthroposcopic studies in the Punan. Paul 

McLoughlin. 

Pp. 113-120 Craniometry of the Punan. Paul McLoughlin. 

1977 Vol. XXV, No. 46 (New Series). Pp. 71-80 Sago and nutrition in Sarawak. Paper 

for Sago 76 Symposium. A.J.U.Anderson. 

Pp. 101-105 The passing of folk religions in Central North Borneo. Peter 

A.Metcalf. 

1978 Vol. XXVI, No. 47 (New Series). Pp. 29-41 Penan Death-names. Johannes 

Nicolaisen. 

Pp. 103-113 Concepts of Adat and cosmology among the Kenyah Dayak of 

Borneo: Coping with the Changing Socio-cultural Milieu. Hrbert L. Whittier 

1979 Vol. XXVII, No. 48 (New Series). Pp. 89-101 The Penan language of Long Iman. 

Asmah Haji Omar. 

Pp. 103- 113 Concepts of Adat and cosmology among the Kenyah Dayak of 

Borneo. Herbert L. Whittier. 

1981 Vol. XXIX, No. 50 (New Series). Pp. 97-100 The dogs and their possible 

influence on health of the longhouse people of the Seventh Division of Sarawak. 

Andrew Kiyu. 

1982 Vol. XXX, No. 51 (New Series). Special Issue No. 2 Gunung Mulu National Park, 

Sarawak. 

1. Gunung Mulu National Park: the 1977-78 survey. 

2. Place names. 

3. Climate. 

4. Geology. 

5. Geomorphology. 

6. Caves of the limestone. 

41



7. Hydrology and water chemistry. 

8. Soils. 

9. Vegetation. 

10. Ecological studies in four forest types. 

11. An ecological survey of the Penan. 

1983 Vol. XXXII, No. 53 (New Series). Pp. 191-230 Change without development. The 

transformation of Punan Bah economy. Ida Nicolaisen. 

Pp. 251-272 Kayan personal names. Jerome Rousseau. 

1984 Vol. XXXIII, No. 54 (New Series). Pp. 68-74 Moraceae trees in the religious life of 

Borneo people. Richard B. Primack. 

1986 Vol. XXXVI, No. 57 (New Series). Pp. 13-42 Anthropology and rural 

development in Sarawak. Victor T. King. 

Pp. 43-74 The health consequences of development. George N. Appell. 

Pp. 75-116 Pride and progress: Kajang response to economic change. Ida 

Nicolaisen. 

Pp. 174-183 River, forest and mountain: The Penan G@ng landscape. J. Peter 

Brosius. 

Pp. 185-229 Aspects of musical style among the Kajang, Kayan and kenyah- 

Badang of the Upper Rejang River: A preliminary survey. Patricia Matusky. 

1988 Vol. XXXVIII, No. 59 (New Series). Special Monograph No. 5. Central Borneo: 

A Bibliography. Jerome Rousseau. 

1988 Vol. XXXIX, No. 60 (New Series). Pp. 53-65 Prayer in the religions of Borneo: 

The Berawan case. Peter Metcalf. 

1988 Vol. XXXIX, No. 60 (New Series). 

1. Addenda to Hugh Brooke Low´s Diaries of 1884. 

2. Cash crops and subsistance strategies: Towards a comparison of Kayan and 

Lahanan economies. J 

3. Prayer in the religions of Borneo: The Berawan Case. 

4. Preliminary notes on a Kejaman-Sekapan oral narrative form. 

5. Some insights into the art of sapé´ playing 

6. The Southwell collection of Kayan beads in the Sarawak Museum (An 

annotated checklist). 

7. Swidden cultivation among the Tunjung of East Kalimantan with particular 

emphasis on social-economic factors. 

8. Village medical treatment among the coastal Kadazan. 

9. Elnquiries into the Illanun pirates of North Borneo 

42



10. Edible and poisonous fungi form the forests of Sarawak –Part II 

11. A preliminary phytochemical survey of peat swamps. 

1989 Vol. XL, No. 61 (New Series). Special Issue No. 4. Part I. Sarawak Cultural 

Heritage Symposium held in conjunction with 25 th Anniversary of 

Independence. 

1. The cultures of Sarawak: an overview. 

2. Sarawak Culture vis-à-vis National Cutlure 

3. Sarawak´s Culture today and tomorrow. 

4. Ethnicity in a multi-cultural society: Dayak ethnicity in the context of 

Malaysian multi-cultural society. 

5. Ethnicity in a multi-cultural society: a Sarawak Showcase 

6. Ethnic identity in Multiethnic societies 

7. Identiti etnik dan aspirasi 

8. Ethnic identity and aspiration 

9. cuture and ethnic identity: The case of the Lahanan of Ulu Belaga 

10. Basic Iban designs 

11. Whither Dayak art? 

12. The traditional values and functions of pua kumbu 

13. Sarawak´s material culture with emphasis on preservation 

14. Kraf-pengenalan dan pendekatan 

15. Srawak handicrafts. The economic aspect 

16. Towards the integration of Sraawak traditional instruments into 20 th century 

Malaysian music 

17. Ethnomusicology and the musical heritage of Sarawak: implications for the 

future 

18. Oral tradition: strategies and rationale for collecting, archiving and 

recycling a culture heritage. 

19. language and oral tradition: the role of Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka 

20. A survey of the oral traditions of Sarawak. 

21. Issues in the identification and classification of indigenous ethnic groups in 

Sabah and Sarawak. 

22. Race, ethnicity and social harmony: a comparative perspective. 

23. What´s in a name? Ethnicity and the problems it poses for anthropologists. 

24. Native customary laws (from an aspect of judgements) 

25. Undang-undang adat: Melayu Islam Sarawak. 

26. Budaya yang dirancangkan untuk pelancongan 

27. Culture designed for tourism 

28. culture designed for tourism –the sarawak context. 

29. Cultural heritage seminars. Appendix. 

1989 Vol. XL, No. 61 (New Series). Special Issue No. 4. Part III. Orang Ulu cultural 

heritage seminar held in conjunction with the 25 th Anniversary of 

Independence. 

1. The people of central Borneo 

2. The Orang Ulu: an overview. 

3. Bisaya ethnography: A brief report 

43



4. Some aspects of Belaga Dajang ethnohistory 

5. Kayan people of Sarawak. 

6. Kelabit ethnography: A brief report. 

7. The Kenyah of Sarawak. 

8. A brief ethnography of the Lun Bawang of Sarawak. 

9. The Ngurek. 

10. Some aspects of life of the Penan. 

11. The Sa´bans of Sarawak. 

12. The power of objects: material culture´s strategic importance to Orang Ulu 

ethnicity and the processes of social change. J 

13. Ethnic arts and society –an Orang Ulu study. 

14. Origin themes in Orang Ulu ethnohistorical traditions 

15. Kejaman adaptive strategies in the context of development efforts. 

16. Orang Ulu festivals. 

17. Pangpagaq: religious and social significance of a traditional Kenyah Musicdance 

form. 

18. Orang Ulu customary lawas (Orang Ulu Customary Code of Fines) 

19. Charles Hose and Borneo. 

1989 Vol. XL, No. 61 (New Series). Special Issue. Part III, pp. 169-184 Some aspects of 

life of the Penan. Jayl Langub. 

Pp. 304- Orang Ulu Customary laws. 

1991 Vol. XLII, No. 63 (New Series). 159-176 Some features of the Solo Dance that 

maintain its viability for tribes in transition in Sarawak. Juliette T. Crump. 

1992 Vol. XLIII, No. 64 (New Series). Pp. 1-45 Baleui reconnaissances: The Sihan of 

the Menamang River. Allen R. Maxwell. 

1993 Vol. XLIV, No. 65 (New Series). Pp. 19-41 Rainforest and rural economy in 

Sarawak. P.P.M.Burgers. 

1993 Vol. XLV, No. 66 (New Series). Special monograph: Archaeology: Mulu 

1994 Vol. XLVI, No. 67 (New Series). Pp. 226-228 Migration to the Niah and Suai 

Rivers. Benedict Sandin. 

1994 Vol. XLVII, No. 68 (New Series). Pp. 7-16 Majlis Adat Istiadat and the 

preservation of the Adat of the Natives of Sarawak. Jayl Langub. 

Pp. 223-238 Planning for growth and sustainable development in Sarawak: a 

discussion on application of relevant planning techniques. Wilson Baya Dandot. 

Reprinted from the SMJ. Pp. 159-164 Significance and interpretation of motifs in 

Sarawak. Edric Ong Liang Bin. 

44



1995 Vol. XLVIII, No. 69 (New Series). Reprinted from the SMJ. Pp. 1-22 Tropical 

rainforests and indigenous peoples: symbiosis and exploitation. Victor T. King. 

1997 Vol. LII, No. 73 (New Series). Pp. 87-104 Cure by shamans. H. Stephen Morris. 

Pp. 105-148 Mortuary beliefs a practices. H. Stephen Morris. 

1998 Vol. LIII, No. 74 (New Series). Reprinted from the SMJ. Pp. 137-173 Language 

classification in Sarawak: A status report. Paul R. Kroeger. 

Pp. 95-107 Sarawak Museum, the Museum of Borneo. Gary Maitland. 

1999 Vol. LIV, No. 75 (New Series). Pp. 31-46 Unity in diversity: globalisation, 

democracy and cultural vitality. Michael B. Leigh. 

Pp. 47-59 Culture in the new reality: beyond economics –the quality of life. 

Zawawi Ibrahim. 

2000 Vol. LV, No. 76 (New Series). Pp. 61-109 Northern Borneo environments of the 

past 40,000 years: archaeozoological evidence. Earl of Cranbrook. 

Reprinted from the SMJ. Pp. 181-213 Historical writing on the indigenous 

peoples of Sarawak since 1945. Ooi Keat Gin. 

Pp. 111-149 The Niah caves project. Graeme Barker, et al. 

2002 Vol. LVII, No. 77 (New Series). Pp. 179-204 Two missionaries in Brunei in 1837: 

George Tradescant Lay and the Revd J.T.Dickinson. Bob Reece. 

2003 Vol. LVIII, No. 79 (New Series). Reprinted from the SMJ. Pp. [25]-43 The sense 

of order of Orang Ulu decorative arts: motifs, designs and patterns. Rashidah A. 

Salam. 

Pp. [163]-182 Bearded pigs (Sus Barbatus): Tooth-Wear and Aging Wild 

Populations in Sarawak. Earl of Cranbrook and David Labang. 

8. Sarawak Teacher 

N/D 

Vol. 2, No. 2 The history of the Catholic Church in the Rejang 1882-1966. Fr. 

Bruggemann 

BOOKS_______________________________________________________________ 

Laing Jau Eng 

1968 Mount Murud. A Kayan legend. Borneo Literature Bureau. 

45



Anderson et. al. 

1982 Subsistence of the Penan in the Mulu Area of Sarawak.(in “articles”) 

Chen, Paul C.Y. 

1990 Penans: The nomads of Sarawak. Selangor Darul Ehsan: Pelanduk 

Publications (M) Sdn Bhd. 

Davis, Wade and Henley, Thom 

1990 Penan: Voice for the Borneo Rainforest. Kuala Lumpur: S. Abdul Majeed & 

Co. 

INSAN 

1996 Why the Bakun Hydroelectric Project is Damned. Kuala Lumpur: INSAN 

Pierce Colfer, Carol J. 

1997 Beyond Slash and Burn. Building on indigenous management of Borneo´s 

tropical rain forest. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 

Chong Guan, Kwa 

1998 Oral History Manual. Singapore: Oral History Department 

Center for Orang Asli Concerns 

1999 The Orang Asli and the contest for resources. Kuala Lumpur: International 

Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. 

Lake´ Baling 

2002 The old Kayan religion and the Bungan religious reform. Translated and 

annotated by Jérôme Rousseau. Kuching: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

Langub, Jayl 

2001 Sukët: Penan folk stories. Kuching: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

46



Munan, Heidi 

1989 Sarawak Crafts. Methods, materials, and motifs. Singapore: Oxford 

University Press. 

Rousseau, Jérôme 

1990 Central Borneo. Ethnic identity and social life in a stratified society. Oxford: 

Clarendon Press. 

Sandin, Benedict 

1980 The living legends: Borneans telling their tales. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan 

Bahasa Dan Pustaka Malaysia Cawangan Sarawak 

Sulis Ridu, Robert, et al. 

2001 King and other Bidayuh folk tales. Kuching: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. 

OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS___________________________________________ 

1983 The constitution of the State of Sarawak (G.N.S. 163/63). Sarawak: 

Government Printer. 

1990 National Parks and Nature Reserves Ordinance (Chapter 127) 

1990 Wild Life Protection Ordinance (Chapter 128) 

1991 The Native Courts Ordinance 

1992 Charter of the indigenous-tribal peoples of the tropical forests. Statement of 

the international alliance of the indigenous-tribal peoples of the tropical 

forests. 

1992 The native Courts Rules 

1993 Some Aspects of Women´s Rights in Sarawak 

1994 Adet Kayan-Kenyah 

2000 Review of Penan development programs. Final Report. Sarawak State 

Government. Chief Minister´s Department (Division for developtment, 

Administration and General Affairs) 

47



2002 Sarawak socialization Study, 2001. Executive summary. In Socialization 

Study, Sarawak. Draft. Final Report.. Pp. 1-19. Universitis Kebangsaan 

Malaysia. 

2000 Bakun HEP: Rituals and ceremonies performed by the fifteen longhouse 

communities above the Bakun rapids. Majlis Adat Istiadat. 

2003 The Orang Ulu of Belaga District. Jayl Langub. 

N/D 

Report Bakun resettlement project 

PHOTOS 

1982 Preliminary report on traditional architecture of minority groups at 

Upper Rejang and Balui River. Sebastian Kelbling. 

2001 The changing faces of Sarawak. Pictures of local photographer Soon Lee 

Guan. 

BD8 Tanjong, Lisum, Belaga 

BD5 Kejaman, Sihan, Lahanan, Ukit, Punan Tawn 

1980 BD13 Belaga 4-Punan Bah 

1982 Trip to Balui and Ulu Belaga 

1990 BD50 Penan at Batu Bungan, Mulu National Park 

BD51 Penan at Lusong Laku, Belaga 

BD52 Penan at Ulu Suai, Batu Niah 

1992 BD54 Penan Long Luar, Belaga 

1992 BD55 Belaga Penan, Long Peran, Sg. Seping 

BD59 Penan World Exhibition 

BD 53 Penan Peran Long Beku 

1997 Penan settlement at Tuton Area 

Long Peran Belaga, Long Jek, Long Unum 

THESIS 

1965 Borneo Masks. Collected from various European & American Museums. 

Columbia University, New York. Sarah Gill. 

1971 A history of the Seventh Day Adventist Church in Sarawak From 1915-1956. 

M.A., Thesis, Philippines Union College H.C.Sormin. 

1972 The real and ideal participation in decision-making of Iban women. A study of 

a Longhouse Community in Sarawak, East Malaysia. Margit Ilona Komanyi. 

New York University. 

48



1973 Social Organisation and Symbols of Social Differentiation: An Ethnographic 

Study of the Kenyah Dayak of East Kalimantan (Borneo). Ph.D Thesis, Michigan 

State University, 1973. H.L.Whittier. 

1975 Tribal art in Borneo and Sarawak. 3 rd Year Graphics, Chelsea School of Art. 

London. Astrid Brenan. 

1978 Socio-Cultural Change Among the Penans of Kampong Tanjong Belipat, Batu 

Niah: A Study Conducted in Sarawak. B.A. Thesis, Univestiy Malay. Josephine 

Yaman. 

1987 Report on the Kayan of Belaga Distric, Seventh Division. Department of 

Cultural Anthropology, University of Tokyo (1987). Makoto Tsugami. 

1989 Bishops and Brookes. The Anglican Mission and the Brooke Raj in Sarawak. 

1846-1941. Ph.D Thesis, University of Hull (1989). Graham Edward Saunders. 

1989 The Lun Bawang of Lawas District: Social Change and Ethnic Identity. Institut 

Pengajin Tinggi, University Malaya (1989/1990). Raki Sia. 

1989 The graves of the Rich Ancestors: Changing Mortuary Patterning in Island 

Southeast Asia. M.A. Thesis, Australian National University. Dianne Margaret 

Tillotson. 

1990 Agrarian change and gender relations: rural Iban women at the Batang Ai 

resettlement scheme, Sarawak. M.A. Thesis, Faculty of Arts, University of 

Malaya. Hew Cheng Sim. 

1990 The Anglican Church in Sarawak 1848-1868. Degree of Master of Divinity, 

Seminary Theoloji Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Patrick En Wui. 

1992 The axiological presence of death: Penan G@ng death-names. 2 Volumes. Ph.D. 

Thesis. Peter J. Brosius. 

1993 Gunong Mulu Report: A Human-ecological Survey of Nomadic/Settled Penan 

within the Gunong Mulu National Prk Area, Fourth /Fifth Division, Sarawak, 

Sarawak Museum Field Report Series No. 1. Kuching: Sarawak Museum. Peter 

Kedit. 

1995 Community Studies in Bakun HEP Are. Report No. 1 The Badeng Kenyah of 

Long Geng: An ethnographic Report, University of Malaya. Chee-Beng Tan. 

Also: 

- Beyond Slash and Burn. By Carold Pierce Colfer. 

49



UNEDITED____________________________________________________________ 

2001 The Orang Ulu of Belaga District. Draft. Majlis Adat Istiadat. 

N/D 

Penan Folk stories 

50



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Bird-David, N. 

1990 The giving environment: another perspective on the economic system of 

gatherers-hunters. Current Anthropology 31: 189-96 

Boyer, P. 

1994 the naturalness of religious ideas. Berkeley: University of California 

Press. 

1998 Cognitive tracks of cultural inheritance: how evolved intuitive ontology 

governs cultural transmission. American Anthropologist 100(4): 876-89 

Cormier, L.A. 

2003 Kinship with monkeys. The Guajá foragers of Eastern Amazonia. New 

York: Columbia University Press. 

Durkheim, E. 

1965 The elementary forms of the religious life. New York: The Free Press. 

Fontenelle, B. 

1987 De lórigine des fable. In Explaining religion : Criticism and theory from 

Bodin to Freud. New Haven: Yale University Press. 

Geertz, C. 

1966 Religion as a cultural system. In Anthropological approaches to the 

study of religion. Banton, ed. London: Tavistock Publications. 

Guenther, M. 

1993 Independent, fearless and rather bold: a historical narrative of the 

Ghanzi Bushmen of Botswana. Namibia Scientific Society 44:25-40 

Guthrie, S. 

1993 Faces in the clouds. A new theory of religion. New York and Oxford: 

Oxford University Press. 

Harrison, T. 

1965 Peoples of North and West Borneo. In Malaysia. A survey. Gungwu ed. 

Pp. 163-178. New York, Washington, London: Frederick A. Praeger 

Publishers. 

Horton, R. 

1960 A definition of religion, and its uses. Journal of the Royal 

Anthropological Institute 90:201-226 

51



1982 Tradition and modernity revisited. In rationality and relativism. Hollis 

and Lukes, eds. Cambridge: MIT Press 

Hose, C. and McDougall, W. 

1966 The pagan tribes of Borneo. New York: Barnes&Noble,INC. 

Kimerling, J. 

1995 Dislocation, evangelization, and contamination; Amazon Crude and the 

Huaorani people. United Stas: J. Kimerling. 

Lee, R. and Daly, R., eds. 

1999 The Cambridge encyclopedia of hunters and gatherers. Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press. 

MacLean, A. 

1989 Yuquí. Forest nomads in a changing world. New York: Holt, Rinehart 

and Winston. 

Pyysiäinen I. and Anttonen, V. 

2002 current approaches in the cognitive science of religion. London and New 

York: Continuum. 

Radcliffe-Brown, A.F. 

1979 Taboo. In Reader in Comparative Religion: an anthropological approach. 

4 th ed. Lessa and Vogt, eds. New York: Harper and Row. 

Roosevelt, A. 

1999 Archaeology of South American hunters and gatherers. In The 

Cambridge encyclopedia of hunters and gatherers. Cambridge: 

Cambridge University Press 

Sahlins, M. 

1965 On the sociology of primitive exchange. In M. Banton (ed.), The 

relevance of models in social anthropology, pp.139-236. London: 

Tavistock. 

Sellato, B. 

1989 Hornbill and dragon. Kalimantan-Sarawak-Sabah-Brunei. Indonesie, 

Malaysia: Elf Aquitaine Malaysia. 

Tamney, J. 

1998 Animis. In Encyclopedia of religion and society. Swatos, ed. Pp. 22-23. 

Walnut Creek, London, New Delhi: Altamira Press. 

Turnbull, C. 

52



1996 The Cambridge history of the Native peoples of the Americas, Vol. I, 

North America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 

Tylor, E. 

1979 Animism. In Reader in Comparative Religion: an anthropological 

approach. 4 th ed. Lessa and Vogt, eds. New York: Harper and Row. 

Winzeler, R. 

1997 Introduction. In Indigenous peoples and the State: politics, land and 

ethnicity in the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo. Winzeler ed. 

Connecticut: Yale Southeast Asia Studies. 

i Malaysia Information: http://www.asia-planet.net/malaysia/religion.htm 

ii US Department of State: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2777.htm 

iii References in negrita refer to bibliographies. 

53

Working Paper Series No. 14 - IEAS' Virtual Home - Universiti ...

Create successful ePaper yourself

Delete template?

Save as template?