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A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics Sixth Edition David Crystal
© 1980, 1985, 1991, 1997, 2003, 2008 by David Crystal BLACKWELL PUBLISHING 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK 550 Swanston Street, Carlton, Victoria 3053, Australia The right of David Crystal to be identified as the Author of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks, or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Sixth edition published 2008 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1 2008 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Crystal, David, 1941– A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics / David Crystal. – 6th ed. p. cm. Revised ed. of: A dictionary of linguistics & phonetics. 5th ed. 2003. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4051-5296-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4051-5297-6 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Linguistics–Dictionaries. I. Crystal, David, 1941– Dictionary of linguistics & phonetics. II. Title. P29.C65 2007 410′.3–dc22 2007052260 A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library. Set in 10/12pt Sabon by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong Printed and bound in Singapore by Fabulous Printers Pte Ltd The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp processed using acid-free and elementary chlorine-free practices. Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards. For further information on Blackwell Publishing, visit our website at www.blackwellpublishing.com
Page 2 and 3: A Dictionary of Linguistics and Pho
Page 6 and 7: Contents Preface to the Sixth Editi
Page 8 and 9: Preface to the Sixth Edition vii di
Page 10 and 11: Preface to the Sixth Edition ix lan
Page 12 and 13: Acknowledgements For the first edit
Page 14 and 15: List of Abbreviations Term Gloss Re
Page 16 and 17: List of Abbreviations xv DAF delaye
Page 18 and 19: List of Abbreviations xvii IE Indo-
Page 20 and 21: List of Abbreviations xix part, PAR
Page 22 and 23: List of Abbreviations xxi UTAH unif
Page 24 and 25: List of Symbols xxiii * asterisk; s
Page 26 and 27: The International Phonetic Alphabet
Page 28 and 29: 2 A-binding abessive’) is found i
Page 30 and 31: 4 accentology of its syllables: one
Page 32 and 33: 6 accessible accessible (adj.) see
Page 34 and 35: 8 acquire fundamental frequency of
Page 36 and 37: 10 actualization actualization (n.)
Page 38 and 39: 12 adjoin class in English (and sim
Page 40 and 41: 14 adultocentric linguistic area. A
Page 42 and 43: 16 affixal morphology are a type of
Page 44 and 45: 18 AGR AGR /caìv/ see agreement ag
Page 46 and 47: 20 allegro with illative, adessive
Page 48 and 49: 22 alternative set usual symbol for
Page 50 and 51: 24 anacoluthon greater the intensit
Page 52 and 53: 26 anchor vowels are also known as
Page 54 and 55:
28 antiformant (2) The term is also
Page 56 and 57:
30 aphesis aphesis /cafvs}s/ (n.),
Page 58 and 59:
32 appropriateness appropriateness
Page 60 and 61:
34 arity other term to the predicat
Page 62 and 63:
36 articulator model airflow throug
Page 64 and 65:
38 aspect aspect (n.) (asp) A categ
Page 66 and 67:
40 assimilatory Several types of as
Page 68 and 69:
42 asymmetric rhythmic theory man d
Page 70 and 71:
44 auditory phonetics and John MacD
Page 72 and 73:
46 auxiliary linear arrangement of
Page 74 and 75:
B baby-talk (n.) see child-directed
Page 76 and 77:
50 barrier barrier (n.) A term used
Page 78 and 79:
52 benefactive anticipate the devel
Page 80 and 81:
54 binarity binarity, binarism (n.)
Page 82 and 83:
56 bivalent phones, and vice versa
Page 84 and 85:
58 Bloomfieldianism Bloomfieldianis
Page 86 and 87:
60 bow-wow theory bow-wow theory Th
Page 88 and 89:
62 branching quantifiers branching
Page 90 and 91:
C C An abbreviation in government-b
Page 92 and 93:
66 caregiver/caretaker speech VOWEL
Page 94 and 95:
68 cataphora used with an objective
Page 96 and 97:
70 causative cause and effect leadi
Page 98 and 99:
72 CHAIN (2) In government-binding
Page 100 and 101:
74 checking in a short time interva
Page 102 and 103:
76 Chomsky hierarchy and psychologi
Page 104 and 105:
78 classification classification (n
Page 106 and 107:
80 cline [!] formerly [t], and late
Page 108 and 109:
82 coalesce in syllables in English
Page 110 and 111:
84 cognise a cognate subject-verb-o
Page 112 and 113:
86 collapse elements belonging to t
Page 114 and 115:
88 comment term ‘command’, but
Page 116 and 117:
90 communication science that langu
Page 118 and 119:
92 competence lengthened when a syl
Page 120 and 121:
94 complete assimilation complete a
Page 122 and 123:
96 componential analysis the streng
Page 124 and 125:
98 concatenate take into account th
Page 126 and 127:
100 condition on extraction domains
Page 128 and 129:
102 connection connection (n.) A te
Page 130 and 131:
104 conspire conspire (v.) see cons
Page 132 and 133:
106 constraint demotion algorithm L
Page 134 and 135:
108 contact assimilation restricted
Page 136 and 137:
110 contextualize semantics. Contex
Page 138 and 139:
112 contrary that John has not gone
Page 140 and 141:
114 conversational turn conversatio
Page 142 and 143:
116 copula copula (n.) A term used
Page 144 and 145:
118 corpus-internal/-external evide
Page 146 and 147:
120 counter-agent much information.
Page 148 and 149:
122 creativity such as Oh I don’t
Page 150 and 151:
124 cross-sectional co-referential.
Page 152 and 153:
126 cycle phrase-marker (the first
Page 154 and 155:
D dangling participle In traditiona
Page 156 and 157:
130 deadjectival such as ∃(e[hit(
Page 158 and 159:
132 default default (n.) The applic
Page 160 and 161:
134 delayed delayed (adj.) One of t
Page 162 and 163:
136 denotation example, in the gard
Page 164 and 165:
138 dependent relation holds betwee
Page 166 and 167:
140 descriptive adequacy/grammar/li
Page 168 and 169:
142 diachronic [ai] etc.; a diamorp
Page 170 and 171:
144 dialectalization particular pro
Page 172 and 173:
146 diphthong has also been called
Page 174 and 175:
148 discourse argues that languages
Page 176 and 177:
150 disharmony signal can be analys
Page 178 and 179:
152 distinctiveness for particular
Page 180 and 181:
154 distributed representation dist
Page 182 and 183:
156 donkey sentence and N are direc
Page 184 and 185:
158 downward entailing generally as
Page 186 and 187:
160 dynamic linguistics/phonetics/p
Page 188 and 189:
162 ecological linguistics cultural
Page 190 and 191:
164 egressive egressive (adj.) A te
Page 192 and 193:
166 elision elision (n.) A term use
Page 194 and 195:
168 empiricism empiricism (n.) An a
Page 196 and 197:
170 entrench follows from (is entai
Page 198 and 199:
172 equi NP deletion equative sente
Page 200 and 201:
174 état de langue the increased u
Page 202 and 203:
176 evaluative (periodicity), such
Page 204 and 205:
178 exhaustiveness phonetics, the a
Page 206 and 207:
180 exponence exponence (n.) A conc
Page 208 and 209:
182 extralinguistic it is possible
Page 210 and 211:
F face (n.) In pragmatics and inter
Page 212 and 213:
186 fatherese remote degree of rela
Page 214 and 215:
188 felicity conditions felicity co
Page 216 and 217:
190 finite automata independent sen
Page 218 and 219:
192 flat flat (adj.) (1) A term use
Page 220 and 221:
194 FOOTBIN FOOTBIN (n.) In optimal
Page 222 and 223:
196 formant formant (n.) (F) A term
Page 224 and 225:
198 free used to specify the range
Page 226 and 227:
200 front /r/ is often articulated
Page 228 and 229:
202 functional application/composit
Page 230 and 231:
204 fusion component in a complex s
Page 232 and 233:
206 gemination gemination (n.) A te
Page 234 and 235:
208 generalized quantifier theory s
Page 236 and 237:
210 genitive genitive (adj./n.) (ge
Page 238 and 239:
212 gliding vowel gliding vowel see
Page 240 and 241:
214 goal different university centr
Page 242 and 243:
216 government theory government an
Page 244 and 245:
218 grammar induction term traditio
Page 246 and 247:
220 grapheme grapheme (n.) The mini
Page 248 and 249:
222 ground noun ground noun see gri
Page 250 and 251:
224 hapax legomenon hapax legomenon
Page 252 and 253:
226 head-driven phrase-structure gr
Page 254 and 255:
228 hiatus heuristic’), and used
Page 256 and 257:
230 hodiernal linguistic data; oppo
Page 258 and 259:
232 horizontal grouping/splitting h
Page 260 and 261:
I iamb (n.) A traditional term in m
Page 262 and 263:
236 idiom idiom (n.) A term used in
Page 264 and 265:
238 imperfect tense imperfect tense
Page 266 and 267:
240 inclusive given an excluding in
Page 268 and 269:
242 indicative has come to be known
Page 270 and 271:
244 inflectional language (2) (INFL
Page 272 and 273:
246 inheritance inheritance (n.) A
Page 274 and 275:
248 instrumental and business. As o
Page 276 and 277:
250 interlingua view, phonology wou
Page 278 and 279:
252 interruptibility interruptibili
Page 280 and 281:
254 invariable in generative gramma
Page 282 and 283:
256 isogloss intervals throughout a
Page 284 and 285:
J Jakobsonian (adj.) Characteristic
Page 286 and 287:
K Katz-Postal hypothesis A proposed
Page 288 and 289:
262 knowledge about language knowle
Page 290 and 291:
264 labio-velar for a labio-dental
Page 292 and 293:
266 language acquisition device of
Page 294 and 295:
268 language minority in the USA);
Page 296 and 297:
270 last-cyclic rules former headin
Page 298 and 299:
272 learning language can in princi
Page 300 and 301:
274 lenis studied in terms of the n
Page 302 and 303:
276 level-skipping level-skipping (
Page 304 and 305:
278 lexical retrieval ‘types’ i
Page 306 and 307:
280 lexotactics are used to simplif
Page 308 and 309:
282 linear precedence rule linear p
Page 310 and 311:
284 linguistics recent and rapid, h
Page 312 and 313:
286 lip-rounding lip-rounding see r
Page 314 and 315:
288 locus case form (‘a locative
Page 316 and 317:
290 loopback follows the course of
Page 318 and 319:
M macrolinguistics (n.) A term used
Page 320 and 321:
294 manner adverb(ial) features, so
Page 322 and 323:
296 marker sentences illustrate thi
Page 324 and 325:
298 maximal-command The student who
Page 326 and 327:
300 meaning construction the impera
Page 328 and 329:
302 meronymy to as ‘phonemic spli
Page 330 and 331:
304 metrical phonology L3 L2 L1 x t
Page 332 and 333:
306 minimal free form of go is Mary
Page 334 and 335:
308 mixing mixing (n.) M-level (n.)
Page 336 and 337:
310 modifier modification-head-qual
Page 338 and 339:
312 Montague grammar Montague gramm
Page 340 and 341:
314 morpheme-based morphology morph
Page 342 and 343:
316 morphotactics morphotactics (n.
Page 344 and 345:
318 multilingual the same set of fe
Page 346 and 347:
N narrative (adj./n.) An applicatio
Page 348 and 349:
322 nativism it as a second or fore
Page 350 and 351:
324 negative concord (as in French
Page 352 and 353:
326 neurological linguistics neurol
Page 354 and 355:
328 noise The notion has achieved s
Page 356 and 357:
330 non-definite non-definite (adj.
Page 358 and 359:
332 non-sexist language table. Such
Page 360 and 361:
334 noun incorporation are often de
Page 362 and 363:
O object (n.) (O, Obj, OBJ) A term
Page 364 and 365:
338 obsolete previous era, such as
Page 366 and 367:
340 open The structure is ill forme
Page 368 and 369:
342 opposition opposition (n.) A te
Page 370 and 371:
344 order is introduced, correspond
Page 372 and 373:
346 overt The notion of complete ov
Page 374 and 375:
348 palato-alveolar whole of the up
Page 376 and 377:
350 parametric phonetics (2) See pa
Page 378 and 379:
352 particle The name comes from th
Page 380 and 381:
354 past perfect past perfect see p
Page 382 and 383:
356 perception perception (n.) The
Page 384 and 385:
358 peripheral at the next level, h
Page 386 and 387:
360 phatic communion during which t
Page 388 and 389:
362 phoneme have as few as fifteen
Page 390 and 391:
364 phonetic setting reflects the a
Page 392 and 393:
366 phonostylistics both of which r
Page 394 and 395:
368 phylogeny generative device. Ph
Page 396 and 397:
370 pitch meter also been applied t
Page 398 and 399:
372 plethysmograph (2) In the study
Page 400 and 401:
374 polysyllable large proportion o
Page 402 and 403:
376 positive (e.g. unsuccessful can
Page 404 and 405:
378 postvocalic postvocalic (adj.)
Page 406 and 407:
380 Prague School to do with narrat
Page 408 and 409:
382 predicate calculus fixed number
Page 410 and 411:
384 prerequisites prerequisites (n.
Page 412 and 413:
386 primitive primitive (adj./n.) A
Page 414 and 415:
388 process procedures, of which th
Page 416 and 417:
390 pro-form or pattern. A pattern
Page 418 and 419:
392 prop relative pronouns, e.g. wh
Page 420 and 421:
394 protasis unit, such as consonan
Page 422 and 423:
396 psycholexicology interest, frig
Page 424 and 425:
Q qualia structure /ckwe}l}v/, sing
Page 426 and 427:
400 question produce such changes,
Page 428 and 429:
402 rank classical TG subject-raisi
Page 430 and 431:
404 reassociation taken together as
Page 432 and 433:
406 recursively enumerable These ru
Page 434 and 435:
408 referent referent (n.) A term u
Page 436 and 437:
410 regular grammar the notion was
Page 438 and 439:
412 relativized minimality relativi
Page 440 and 441:
414 resonance resonance (n.) A term
Page 442 and 443:
416 reversible reversible (adj.) se
Page 444 and 445:
418 right dislocation right disloca
Page 446 and 447:
420 root-and-pattern applies only t
Page 448 and 449:
S S′ An abbreviation used in gene
Page 450 and 451:
424 scansion by establishing four t
Page 452 and 453:
426 segment segment (n.) A term use
Page 454 and 455:
428 semanticity semanticity (n.) A
Page 456 and 457:
430 semantic selection semantic sel
Page 458 and 459:
432 semology that of a vowel; thoug
Page 460 and 461:
434 serial relationship he will win
Page 462 and 463:
436 sight translation a narrow, gro
Page 464 and 465:
438 single-feature assimilation sin
Page 466 and 467:
440 sluicing the sentence The child
Page 468 and 469:
442 sonorant sonorant (adj./n.) (so
Page 470 and 471:
444 space grammar (6) In the lingui
Page 472 and 473:
446 speech act illocutionary force
Page 474 and 475:
448 speech time acoustic or articul
Page 476 and 477:
450 stability enriched by the inclu
Page 478 and 479:
452 statistical universal the aim o
Page 480 and 481:
454 stray system deals with an aspe
Page 482 and 483:
456 stress-foot but in the phrase t
Page 484 and 485:
458 structural ambiguity largely da
Page 486 and 487:
460 stylistics stylistics (n.) A br
Page 488 and 489:
462 subjective subjective (adj.) su
Page 490 and 491:
464 substratum superiority, as can
Page 492 and 493:
466 supplementary movements supplem
Page 494 and 495:
468 syllable produce consonants. Th
Page 496 and 497:
470 syndeton synchronically to refe
Page 498 and 499:
472 synthesis examples: syntactical
Page 500 and 501:
474 systematic phonetics systematic
Page 502 and 503:
476 tactic the fact that their intu
Page 504 and 505:
478 taxis relationship. Combination
Page 506 and 507:
480 tensed Tense forms (i.e. variat
Page 508 and 509:
482 text deixis the text in which t
Page 510 and 511:
484 theolinguistics theolinguistics
Page 512 and 513:
486 tonal polarity tonal polarity s
Page 514 and 515:
488 tonogenesis on the meaning inte
Page 516 and 517:
490 transcription literary excellen
Page 518 and 519:
492 transformation (where be is a f
Page 520 and 521:
494 transitivity transitivity (n.)
Page 522 and 523:
496 triadic triadic (adj.) A term u
Page 524 and 525:
498 truth value functions which map
Page 526 and 527:
U ultimate constituent (UC) A term
Page 528 and 529:
502 unfooted binary feature matrice
Page 530 and 531:
504 universal universal (adj./n.) A
Page 532 and 533:
506 uvular But it has proved very d
Page 534 and 535:
508 valley valley (n.) see peak, sy
Page 536 and 537:
510 velaric A loose auditory label
Page 538 and 539:
512 vertical grouping/splitting wor
Page 540 and 541:
514 vocal lips (2) In phonetics, a
Page 542 and 543:
516 voice qualifier sometimes made
Page 544 and 545:
518 vowel shift vowel shift see sou
Page 546 and 547:
520 weak generative capacity weak g
Page 548 and 549:
522 word different structural types
Page 550 and 551:
524 word grammar In a more restrict
Page 552 and 553:
526 X-tier X-tier (n.) A term used
Page 554 and 555:
Z zero (adj./n.) A term used in som
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