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Managing Pines for Profit and Wildlife - Virginia Department of ...

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<strong>Wildlife</strong> In<strong>for</strong>mation Publication No. 98-1Revised June 2008<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries


<strong>Wildlife</strong> In<strong>for</strong>mation PublicationThis publication series <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong>Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries is intended to providenon-technical in<strong>for</strong>mation on wildlife-related topics.Subjects include life history in<strong>for</strong>mation,habitat management techniques,<strong>and</strong> wildlife management plans.This publication was funded in part by funds provided by Pittman RobertsonFederal Aid to <strong>Wildlife</strong> Restoration Project-WE99RCopies <strong>of</strong> this publication may be obtainedfree <strong>of</strong> charge from the<strong>Wildlife</strong> Division<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> FisheriesP.O. Box 11104Richmond, <strong>Virginia</strong> 23230.About the Cover:[background] Loblolly pines are the heart <strong>of</strong> <strong>Virginia</strong>’s re<strong>for</strong>estationprograms (photo Dept. <strong>of</strong> Forestry); [top insert photo], cutovers treatedwith Best Management Practices like these Streamside Management Zonesprovide excellent habitat <strong>for</strong> numerous early succession wildlife species(photo David C<strong>of</strong>fman, DGIF); [middle insert photo}, thinned pines maintainedwith prescribed burning combine financial return <strong>and</strong> excellent wildlife habitat<strong>for</strong> the l<strong>and</strong>owner (photo David C<strong>of</strong>fman, DGIF); [bottom insert photo],populations <strong>of</strong> early-succession wildlife like bobwhite quail are supportedby the vegetation <strong>of</strong> young pine plantations <strong>and</strong> can reach excellent numbersin later plantation stages when properly managed (photo Lloyd Hill).


MANAGING PINES FORPROFIT AND WILDLIFEK. Marc Puckett<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game & Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries107 Foxwood Dr.Farmville, <strong>Virginia</strong> 23901Patrick D. Keyser<strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Forestry, <strong>Wildlife</strong> <strong>and</strong> Fisheries274 Ellington Plant Sciences Building2431 Joe Johnson DriveKnoxville, Tennessee 37996-4563Dr. Harry L. Haney, Jr.Garl<strong>and</strong> Gray Pr<strong>of</strong>essor <strong>of</strong> Forestry<strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Forestry<strong>Virginia</strong> TechBlacksburg, <strong>Virginia</strong> 24601Cale L. Godfrey<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game & Inl<strong>and</strong> FisheriesP.O. Box 635S<strong>and</strong>ston, <strong>Virginia</strong> 23150Stanley F. Warner<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> ForestryP.O. Box 3758Charlottesville, <strong>Virginia</strong> 22903Stephen W. Capel<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game & Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries (retired)


A loblolly pine rotation begins with site preparation — creating a seedbed <strong>for</strong> the new seedlings. Prescribed burning creates excellent habitat<strong>for</strong> early-succession species like bobwhite quail by removing old loggingdebris, recycling nutrients <strong>for</strong> the new seedlings, opening up groundlevelcover <strong>and</strong> stimulating production <strong>of</strong> their favorite foods.(Photo David C<strong>of</strong>fman, DGIF)Some <strong>of</strong> the most pressing wildlife problems in <strong>Virginia</strong>,<strong>and</strong> throughout the Southeast, are declines in populations<strong>of</strong> early-successional 1 wildlife species. For example,since the mid-1960’s, <strong>Virginia</strong>’s bobwhite quail populationdeclined an estimated 70%. Simultaneously, populations<strong>of</strong> at least 18 species using similar habitats plummeted —brown thrashers, yellow-breasted chats, catbirds, field sparrows,loggerhead shrikes <strong>and</strong> cottontail rabbits to name a few. Whatbrought about these declines <strong>and</strong> what can be done to reversethem?Farming modernization, changes in types <strong>of</strong> farming, changesin timber management strategies, <strong>and</strong> suburbanization <strong>of</strong> oncerural areas all played a role. Ultimately, habitat loss was the governingfactor. Networks <strong>of</strong> small family <strong>and</strong> tenant farms oncecreated ideal environments <strong>for</strong> quail <strong>and</strong> their cohabitants. Doublecropping was unheard <strong>of</strong>. Small fields <strong>and</strong> tractors were the norm.<strong>Managing</strong> brushy fencelines, ditches <strong>and</strong> roadbanks was moredifficult as modern pesticides had not been perfected. Folks managedfewer cattle less intensively <strong>and</strong> relied on native <strong>for</strong>agespecies.Economics <strong>and</strong> human population growth have largely endedthese favorable conditions. In most cases today, active managementis required to maintain <strong>and</strong> increase early-successionalwildlife populations. Our world is far different from the world <strong>of</strong>1935, or even 1965. It is not likely that we will ever revert to thoseconditions. <strong>Wildlife</strong> managers must now develop solutions practicalin a modern, economically driven world.1Early-successional species are those inhabiting brush/scrub/grassl<strong>and</strong>communities that are in progression from bare ground to mature woodl<strong>and</strong>.Two


% COVERAGE100806040OverstoryGround200 0 5 10 15 20 25STAND AGE% Vegetative Coverage <strong>of</strong> Overstory<strong>and</strong> Ground Layers in Various AgedLoblolly Pine Plantations — As loblollypines grow older, their crowns(canopy) begin to intercept an increasingamount <strong>of</strong> sunlight. Eventually verylittle sunlight reaches the <strong>for</strong>est floor.Ground-level <strong>and</strong> understory plantsdecline with the decreasing sunlight.A pulpwood pine thinning at year 15to 20 will restore a better balance <strong>of</strong>understory plants, greatly benefittingnumerous wildlife species.300250DRY WEIGHT (grams)20015010050ForbsGrasses▲In the first five to seven years <strong>of</strong> a new plantation,the young pines <strong>and</strong> herbaceous growth <strong>of</strong>fer habitat <strong>for</strong>a host <strong>of</strong> early-successional wildlife species like pinewarblers, field sparrows, <strong>and</strong> bobwhites.(Photo Dwight Dyke)00 5 10 15 20STAND AGENon-Woody Biomass <strong>of</strong> UnderstoryPlants in Various Aged LoblollyPine Plantations — The herbaceousplants <strong>of</strong> a pine st<strong>and</strong> are valuable towildlife as food <strong>and</strong> cover. They alsoplay an important role in maintainingwater quality by reducing erosion <strong>and</strong>holding nutrients on the site. Grassesare most abundant early <strong>and</strong> decline asthe amount <strong>of</strong> sunlight reaching groundlevel declines. Forbs (broadleaf, nonwoodyplants) increase <strong>for</strong> 5-7 years, butalso decline as sunlight diminishes.Three


One step the <strong>Virginia</strong> Dept. <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries istaking to address early-successional species declines is the implementation<strong>of</strong> the Bobwhite Quail Management Plan (<strong>Wildlife</strong>In<strong>for</strong>mation Publication 96-1). Though titled the Bobwhite QuailManagement Plan, the practices carried out as part <strong>of</strong> this planhelp all early-successional wildlife. This plan focuses on promotingmanagement practical on today’s l<strong>and</strong>scape. With such dramaticdeclines in populations, only large-scale, l<strong>and</strong>scape levelmanagement practices have a chance at reversing the declines.One l<strong>and</strong>scape level strategy outlined in <strong>Virginia</strong>’s quail planconcentrates on getting the most <strong>for</strong> early-successional wildlifeout <strong>of</strong> the Old Dominion’s pine plantations. These l<strong>and</strong>s representnearly 10% (1.5 million acres) <strong>of</strong> the state’s timberl<strong>and</strong>. Duringthe five years preceding the most recent inventory, planted pineacreage increased 25 percent. Concentrated in <strong>Virginia</strong>’s easternthird, an area <strong>of</strong> extraordinary quail habitat potential, these pineplantations lie waiting to provide a boon <strong>for</strong> species in trouble.With a few minor adjustments in timber management strategies,you can help reverse the declines in early-successionalwildlife species. There are basically five decisions l<strong>and</strong>ownersmust make when managing pine 1) how to prepare a site <strong>for</strong>replanting, 2) what planting density should be used, 3) how torelease the pines from competition, 4) how to thin the st<strong>and</strong>swhen they reach proper age/size, <strong>and</strong> 5) how to manage thest<strong>and</strong> after thinning. ALL these decisions have impacts onwildlife populations.Site PreparationThe first decision involves site preparation after harvest. Al<strong>and</strong>owner must decide how to treat a site be<strong>for</strong>e planting. Thebest scenario <strong>for</strong> quail <strong>and</strong> other wildlife is preparation by burning.Alone, burning can accomplish a great deal, but is enhanced bysoil disturbance techniques such as pre-burn drum chopping, orwindrowing. During the first few years after site preparation,these sites will produce an abundance <strong>of</strong> <strong>for</strong>age. Legumes will becommon. Grasses won’t be too thick <strong>and</strong> insects will be readilyavailable to turkey, quail, songbirds <strong>and</strong> their young.Why are insects important? Recent studies demonstrated thatquail chicks not getting an adequate supply <strong>of</strong> insects in their dietgrew poorly, developed feathers slowly <strong>and</strong> had low survivalrates. The same is true <strong>for</strong> turkey poults <strong>and</strong> all songbirds. Insectsare critical! Insects make up 95% <strong>of</strong> a quail chick’s diet its firsttwo weeks <strong>of</strong> life. It is not difficult then, to see why hens willmove their broods long distances to find good, insect-rich broodFour


# Birds & Bird SpeciesInsect Biomass (g/ac)Insect Density (Thous<strong>and</strong>s)25201510# Birds# Species500 5 10 15 20 25STAND AGEAverage Number <strong>of</strong> Birds <strong>and</strong> BirdSpecies in Various Aged LoblollyPine Plantations — The number <strong>of</strong>birds <strong>and</strong> the diversity <strong>of</strong> bird speciesin loblolly pine plantations isgreatest in young st<strong>and</strong>s <strong>and</strong> declinesas canopy closure occurs.This is directly tied to a decline inunderstory vegetation density. Athinning (age 15-20) would markedlyincrease the number <strong>of</strong> birdsusing the st<strong>and</strong>.806060504040302020Biomass10Density000 5 10 15 20 25STAND AGE▲For five to seven years young pine plantations<strong>of</strong>fer quail nesting <strong>and</strong> brood rearing cover. Quail chicksneed overhead cover but vegetation must be open atground level so they can stalk <strong>and</strong> catch insects easily.(Photo Melissa McGaw, N.C. <strong>Wildlife</strong> Resources Commission)Biomass <strong>and</strong> Density <strong>of</strong> Insects inVarious Aged Loblolly Pine Plantations— Young birds need an abundantsupply <strong>of</strong> insects to thrive <strong>and</strong>survive. Insect abundance in loblollypine plantations increases initiallybut begins to decline as canopyclosure occurs. This is directly relatedto the decline <strong>of</strong> lush herbaceousgrowth in the st<strong>and</strong>.Five


habitat. A quail or turkey manager’s goal is to minimize thesemovements by providing an ample supply <strong>of</strong> well distributedbrood-rearing cover.Excellent quail <strong>and</strong> turkey brood habitat was once providedby idle cropl<strong>and</strong>. But very little idle cropl<strong>and</strong> exists today. In fact,fallowed cropl<strong>and</strong> has declined over 65% in our state since 1925.It is interesting that quail populations have declined at a rate similarto our loss <strong>of</strong> fallow l<strong>and</strong>. What has replaced these l<strong>and</strong>s? Inmany cases, cut-over timber st<strong>and</strong>s in early-regeneration fill theidle l<strong>and</strong> void. Though not perfect, young cut-overs are the laststronghold <strong>for</strong> many <strong>of</strong> our early successional wildlife species.Planting DensityDecision number two involves planting density. How manytrees per acre (TPA) are enough? At one time, <strong>for</strong>esters recommendedas many as 1000 TPA. Seedling survival was poorer inthose days. Also, seedling stock did not have today’s quality. Byplanting so many trees, l<strong>and</strong>owners felt they were insuring agood st<strong>and</strong>. As seedling quality changed <strong>and</strong> <strong>for</strong>esters becamemore knowledgeable concerning seedling survival, they realizedmuch lower planting densities were viable. They also realized thatpines compete with themselves. There is a point beyond whichadditional planted seedlings actually reduce pr<strong>of</strong>it.Today, 550 TPA is a common planting density. For wildlife,even lower densities are better. Densities <strong>of</strong> 435 – 450 TPA (10 x10 <strong>and</strong> 8 x 12 spacing) at planting can generate great income. Thelower densities are better <strong>for</strong> wildlife because they allow moresunlight to reach ground level, producing more <strong>for</strong>age <strong>and</strong> cover.Additionally, they will not reach canopy closure as soon as denselyplanted pines, increasing the number <strong>of</strong> years cut-overs remainuseful to wildlife populations. Lower planting densities also helpinsure that thinning is not delayed as a result <strong>of</strong> the slow growththat over-crowding produces. This translates not only to a quickermonetary return, but a quicker return to good wildlife habitat.Another place wildlife can benefit at planting time is alongcut-over/crop field edges. Rather than plant trees on the entirearea, leave unplanted margins 25' to 50' wide along field edges <strong>and</strong>manage these as field borders, with periodic discing. Sowing suchareas to a mixture <strong>of</strong> legumes like partridge pea <strong>and</strong> Korean <strong>and</strong>kobe lespedeza will enhance their value to early-successionalwildlife. The same prescription is suitable along haul roads <strong>and</strong>on log decks.Six


Overstocked st<strong>and</strong>s can beprecommercially thinned toenhance pr<strong>of</strong>it <strong>and</strong> wildlife values.(Photo Pat Keyser)▲In eastern <strong>Virginia</strong>, whereloblolly pine grows naturally,many thous<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> seedlings can“volunteer” into planted pines.This creates such a dense st<strong>and</strong>that little wildlife habitat isavailable, <strong>and</strong> any real hope <strong>of</strong>financial benefits is lost. To correctthis problem, the st<strong>and</strong> canbe thinned at four to six years <strong>of</strong>age using industrial weedeaterswith sawheads. This is referredto as “pre-commercial” thinningbecause trees being removed arenot yet <strong>of</strong> merchantable size.While the practice is expensive,studies have shown that it morethan pays <strong>for</strong> itself when used inheavily stocked st<strong>and</strong>s. It alsocreates a great deal <strong>of</strong> wildlifehabitat at a time when it wouldhave been otherwise unavailable.Another technique that canbe used to accomplish a precommercialthinning is to use asmall bulldozer to take out 8' to10' strips <strong>of</strong> trees in alternatingrows. This is less desirable thanselecting <strong>for</strong> individual trees withindustrial weedeaters, but muchbetter than doing nothing.Young pine plantations provide habitat <strong>for</strong>early-successional wildlife until they reach crownclosure (the tops grow together). This happensrapidly in heavily stocked st<strong>and</strong>s like this, but canbe prolonged without impacting economic returnsby planting at lower densities (450 trees/acre).(Photo DOF)▲Seven


Release From CompetitionAnother major decision l<strong>and</strong>owners must make is how pinesshould be released from hardwood competition. Today’s trend istoward chemical release only 1 to 2 years after planting. If youwant to release relatively soon after planting, use a legume-friendlychemical such as Arsenal®. Though Arsenal® will knock outmost hardwood competition <strong>and</strong> some grass competition, it willnot harm many legumes. If you desire to use a broader spectrumchemical application, such as an Arsenal® <strong>and</strong> Accord® mixture,underst<strong>and</strong> the Accord® will take out more <strong>of</strong> the legume component.If you use this mixture, it would be best <strong>for</strong> wildlife towait 4 to 5 years post-planting be<strong>for</strong>e releasing. You will be takingout the legume vegetation component, but it will be at a timewhen shading would begin to accomplish this naturally. Onemanagement note: due to the abundance <strong>of</strong> blackberry growth<strong>of</strong>ten found when using Arsenal® alone, it may be better to delayspraying <strong>and</strong> use the Arsenal® <strong>and</strong> Accord® mixture.For some, huntability <strong>of</strong> a cut-over may be a concern. Thickblackberry growth impedes hunter access <strong>and</strong> can be a painful experience<strong>for</strong> hunting dogs. Using Escort® in a chemical treatmentmixture will further reduce blackberry growth. However, totalelimination <strong>of</strong> blackberry should not be a goal. Having a few blackberry“tangles” provides great rabbit <strong>and</strong> quail escape cover.While the use <strong>of</strong> herbicides to control hardwood brush hasbeen with us about as long as pine plantations themselves, newtrends in herbicide use have developed over recent years. Chemicalsare now being used to kill grasses, weeds <strong>and</strong> legumes inpine plantations. This may help the seedlings grow, but it eliminatesvirtually all wildlife habitat value. Any attempt at totalcompetition control will adversely affect wildlife. With no grass,no lespedeza, no blackberries <strong>and</strong> few weeds, these sites producefew insects, little fall <strong>and</strong> winter food <strong>and</strong> poor cover. Such managementmay make sense to corporate l<strong>and</strong>owners or privatel<strong>and</strong>owners with economics as the top priority, but l<strong>and</strong>ownerswho place importance on wildlife should avoid total vegetationcontrol.(Photo Stan Warner, DOF)Eight


VOLUME(thous<strong>and</strong>s <strong>of</strong> board feet)▲Competing woody growth, mainlyfast-growing hardwoods like sweetgum <strong>and</strong>red maple, reduces economic returns.Many l<strong>and</strong>owners carry out an herbicide“release” treatment. This may removemany valuable wildlife food <strong>and</strong> coverplants. To minimize this impact, herbiciderelease treatments should be madewithin two years <strong>of</strong> the planting or justprior to crown closure.(Photo DOF)654UnthinnedThinned32107 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18TREE DIAMETER (inches)Comparison <strong>of</strong> Volume Per Acre <strong>of</strong>a Thinned <strong>and</strong> Unthinned LoblollyPine St<strong>and</strong> at Age 45 — Loblollypines that remain unthinned becomestunted. As a result, an unthinnedst<strong>and</strong> declines in productivity <strong>and</strong>economic worth. Thinning a pinest<strong>and</strong> dramatically increases thegrowth rate <strong>of</strong> the remaining pines— increasing both the diameter<strong>and</strong> volume <strong>of</strong> timber in a st<strong>and</strong> atmaturity.Total Vegetation Control is sometimes used in pine<strong>for</strong>estry. It maximizes growth by removing mostcompetition. Careful planning <strong>and</strong> application <strong>of</strong> thesepractices is vital to prevent soil erosion <strong>and</strong> minimizeharmful effects on wildlife. Gullying <strong>and</strong> a lack <strong>of</strong> wildlifefood <strong>and</strong> cover may result otherwise.(Photo Steve Capel)▲Nine


ThinningThe fourth major decision is how to thin a pine st<strong>and</strong>.Thinning a pine st<strong>and</strong> in mid-rotation (between 16 <strong>and</strong> 20years post-planting) will increase the quantity <strong>of</strong> future harvestedsawtimber. This is just the expression <strong>of</strong> reducingpine to pine competition. On most first thinning operationsin <strong>Virginia</strong>, trees are thinned by a process termed 50% operatorselect. This usually takes a st<strong>and</strong> down to 200 to 225TPA. At these densities, little canopy opening exists, there<strong>for</strong>every little sunlight hits the <strong>for</strong>est floor, few herbaceousplants grow, few insects are produced <strong>and</strong> usefulness <strong>for</strong>quail, turkey <strong>and</strong> deer is limited.As a general rule, to achieve benefits <strong>for</strong> wildlife undera <strong>for</strong>est canopy, sunlight should strike at least 50% <strong>of</strong> theground at noon. To accomplish this, pine st<strong>and</strong>s must bethinned to 175 or fewer TPA. An ideal compromise is to thinto 150 TPA. Underst<strong>and</strong> that this yields fewer but larger,higher value sawlogs in the future. It also yields morepulpwood at present. Thinning to this level (150 TPA) setsthe stage <strong>for</strong> a potential wildlife bounty.Even if thinning to a lower density is not judged feasibleon an entire plantation, much can be gained <strong>for</strong> wildlife bythinning heavily along field edges, road corridors <strong>and</strong>around st<strong>and</strong> openings. This “edge” habitat <strong>of</strong>ten yieldsthe greatest dividend <strong>for</strong> wildlife, acre <strong>for</strong> acre.By thinning to 150 TPA, much more <strong>of</strong> the <strong>for</strong>est floorreceives sunlight. Half the ingredients are in place, but justlike a chicken seasoning missing a certain spice, somethingmore is required to complete the perfect taste. How youmanage the st<strong>and</strong> after thinning is what really makes orbreaks the deal.▲Loblolly pine plantations reach thinning age <strong>for</strong> the pulpwoodmarkets in <strong>Virginia</strong> between ages 16 <strong>and</strong> 20. From canopy closure(about age 8 – 10) until they are thinned, very little sunlight reachesthe <strong>for</strong>est floor. As a result, there is sparse vegetation <strong>for</strong> most wildlifespecies during this period. A thinning down to 150 – 175 trees per acrepermits adequate sunlight to reach the <strong>for</strong>est floor, allows wildlife food<strong>and</strong> cover to flourish, <strong>and</strong> still retains adequate pines <strong>for</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>itablechip’n’saw or sawlog production. (Photo David C<strong>of</strong>fman, DGIF)(Photo DOF)Ten


The Effect <strong>of</strong> ThinningBACKGROUND - A Hypothetical <strong>Virginia</strong>Case StudyConsider a <strong>Virginia</strong> tree farm located in thePiedmont or Coastal Plain which is average insite quality. After harvest this tract is burned,planted <strong>and</strong> released with herbicide at an overallcost <strong>of</strong> $175 per acre. The site was plantedwith 550 trees per acre <strong>of</strong> second generation,improved loblolly seedlings with a resultantsite index <strong>of</strong> 65 (base age 25). Annual costs are $2per acre <strong>for</strong> property tax <strong>and</strong> $5 per acre <strong>for</strong>management expenses. The st<strong>and</strong> will bethinned at age 20 to three stocking densities <strong>of</strong>approximately 200, 150, <strong>and</strong> 100 residual treesper acre, respectively. This reflects the effects <strong>of</strong>potential trade-<strong>of</strong>fs between financial returnsfrom timber production <strong>and</strong> increased openspace <strong>for</strong> quail <strong>and</strong> other wildlife. The st<strong>and</strong>will be harvested at age 30. Prices <strong>for</strong> pine pulpwood(5"– 8" d.b.h.), chip-n-saw (9"–12" d.b.h.),<strong>and</strong> pine sawtimber (13" d.b.h. <strong>and</strong> up) are $19,$60 <strong>and</strong> $109 per cord, respectively. Prices arefrom Timber Mart-South <strong>for</strong> first quarter 1998,<strong>for</strong> the Piedmont <strong>and</strong> Coastal Plain regions <strong>of</strong><strong>Virginia</strong>. Projected yields are taken fromPCWTHIN, growth <strong>and</strong> yield s<strong>of</strong>tware developedat <strong>Virginia</strong> Tech from a <strong>Virginia</strong> database. Inflation is assumed to be two percent,<strong>and</strong> real price appreciation (price change overinflation) is assumed to be two per-cent. Theresults that can be expected from this case areshown in Table 1.FINANCIAL RETURNSThe results are compared among a no-thinalternative <strong>and</strong> thinning at the three stockingdensities to analyze the effects on returns. Thechoice <strong>of</strong> a 30-year rotation is arbitrary to facilitatethe comparison <strong>of</strong> the alternatives; however,it is close to what might be selected by atypical <strong>Virginia</strong> l<strong>and</strong>owner under similar circumstances.In practice, silvicultural treatmentssuch as thinning <strong>and</strong> fertilization will <strong>of</strong>tenextend or shorten an optimum rotation (i.e.,investment length). The results are examinedbe<strong>for</strong>e-tax, in current terms (with inflation),using internal rate <strong>of</strong> return (IRR), net presentvalue (NPV) at eight percent, <strong>and</strong> l<strong>and</strong> expectationat eight percent. NPV results are onerotation <strong>of</strong> 30-years. L<strong>and</strong> expectation valuesgive results <strong>for</strong> an infinite number <strong>of</strong> rotations.The financial returns <strong>for</strong> the various alternativesare remarkably similar (Table 1). TheIRR <strong>for</strong> the thinned st<strong>and</strong>s is slightly higherthan <strong>for</strong> an unthinned st<strong>and</strong> under theassumed conditions. Similarly, the NPV <strong>for</strong>thinned st<strong>and</strong>s is higher than <strong>for</strong> the unthinnedalternative, but the margin <strong>of</strong> gain issmall. A l<strong>and</strong>owner should include other benefitsto be gained from thinning be<strong>for</strong>e making afinal decision. Because the financial resultsfrom different thinning intensities are similar, al<strong>and</strong>owner may thin more heavily to promotefood <strong>for</strong> quail <strong>and</strong> other wildlife with a minimumsacrifice in financial outcomes.Financial gains from thinning result mainlyfrom promoting leave trees in the st<strong>and</strong> intolarger diameter classes which result in higherprices per unit <strong>for</strong> solid wood products. Theproducts possible from a timber st<strong>and</strong> — pulpwood,chip-n-saw, <strong>and</strong> sawtimber — vary by initialstocking, timing <strong>and</strong> severity <strong>of</strong> thinnings,<strong>and</strong> site index. Financial returns are also affectedby the differentials among the various productswhich are governed by the local market.Properly thinning loblollypines is vital to the longtermvitality <strong>of</strong> the st<strong>and</strong><strong>and</strong> to a l<strong>and</strong>owner ’s economicreturns. St<strong>and</strong>ard“operator-select” thinningin <strong>Virginia</strong> usually takesst<strong>and</strong>s down to 200–225trees per acre. This stopsjust short <strong>of</strong> the level bestsuited <strong>for</strong> wildlife. Thinningto 150–175 TPA maintainseconomic returns <strong>and</strong> provides<strong>for</strong> wildlife.(Photo David C<strong>of</strong>fman,DGIF)▲Table 1. Financial returns <strong>for</strong> loblolly pine on a 30-year rotation under fourthinning regimes, per acre.Thinning regime – IRR, be<strong>for</strong>e-tax NPV @ 6%, L<strong>and</strong> expectationresidual stocking, (%) be<strong>for</strong>e-tax ($) value @ 6%,trees per acre (#) be<strong>for</strong>e-tax ($)No-thin 13.1 688 764200 13.6 735 816150 13.8 766 851100 13.8 760 845Eleven


Prescribed BurningThe fifth decision is how to manage a st<strong>and</strong> after the firstthinning. Often, no management occurs after thinning operations.The one key ingredient to promoting wildlife, controlled understoryburning, is missing. Once fuel loads have declined to safelevels (usually one to two years following a thinning), allthinned acres should be burned. From this point on, burning 1 ⁄3<strong>of</strong> the existing acreage per year will maintain good hardwoodcontrol <strong>and</strong> high quality wildlife habitat. Any spring gobblerhunter worthy <strong>of</strong>toting a gun, quail hunter deserving <strong>of</strong> owning a dog, or deerhunter worth the weight <strong>of</strong> a tree st<strong>and</strong> step doesn’t have to betold how beneficial understory burning is to wildlife. This is thespice that stimulates herbaceous growth, particularly legumes.This is the ingredient that makes the understory good <strong>for</strong>aginghabitat <strong>for</strong> turkey poults <strong>and</strong> quail chicks.Traditionally, understory burns were conducted during Januaryor February. In recent years, quail managers have experimentedwith growing season burning (early-May <strong>and</strong> August).Given <strong>Virginia</strong>’s weather patterns, these months may actuallybe more feasible than traditional winter months <strong>for</strong> accomplishinga burn. Growing season burns are also more effective at controllinghardwoods <strong>and</strong> encouraging herbaceous plant growth.Studies have shown that burning during these time periods hasno negative effect on bird populations, or subsequent huntingsuccess.Regardless <strong>of</strong> season, burns should be conducted on days <strong>of</strong>building high pressure. Air should be rising. Humidity shouldbe between 30% <strong>and</strong> 55%. Wind speed inside the st<strong>and</strong> shouldnot exceed 3 mph. Moisture <strong>of</strong> fine fuels should be 15% to 20%.Consult a contract burner, <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Forestry or the<strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries <strong>for</strong> more details.Potential <strong>for</strong> cost-share exists.There are many small things that can be done to enhance afarm <strong>for</strong> wildlife, but focusing on improving the larger acreageslike pine plantations is the place to start. Planting properly, thinning<strong>and</strong> then managing the thinned st<strong>and</strong>s with prescribedburn-ing will bring economic <strong>and</strong> wildlife benefits. You canreward your family both economically <strong>and</strong> spiritually by managing<strong>for</strong> pr<strong>of</strong>it <strong>and</strong> wildlife.Twelve


(Photo Steve Capel)(Photo Dwight Dyke)▲Once a loblolly st<strong>and</strong> is thinned, hardwood competitionagain becomes a problem. Herbicides can be used, butmaintenance prescribed burning <strong>of</strong>fers more wildlife benefits.Loblolly pines are fire-adapted <strong>and</strong> thrive under a burningregime. Abundant herbaceous wildlife food plants are alsoproduced. The resultant pine savannah is a wildlife mecca.(Photo Pat Keyser)Thirteen


Forestry Best Management PracticesActivities that disturb the l<strong>and</strong> have the potential to negativelyimpact soil <strong>and</strong> water quality. Road construction, stream channelcrossings, felling <strong>and</strong> skidding trees <strong>and</strong> preparing sites <strong>for</strong> plantingduring timber harvesting will disturb the l<strong>and</strong>, increasing thechances <strong>of</strong> impacting soil <strong>and</strong> water quality. At the same time quailrespond well to some soil-disturbing activities. Best managementpractices (BMPs) reduce soil erosion <strong>and</strong> control water pollutionresulting from <strong>for</strong>estry activities. The challenge is to shape BMPs toconserve soil <strong>and</strong> yield quail benefits.Pre-Harvest PlanningPre-harvest planning should be used to outline specific BMP’srequired during timber harvesting. Although the need <strong>for</strong> someBMP’s will not become apparent until harvesting begins, the need<strong>for</strong> many BMP’s can be identified be<strong>for</strong>e the first tree is felled.Streamside Management ZonesStreamside Management Zones (SMZ’s) are areas adjacent tostreams that protect water quality. For perennial streams, SMZ’smust be a minimum <strong>of</strong> 50 feet wide. For intermittent streams, theSMZ must be 25 feet wide. These minimum widths should beincreased as slope increases, or if trout streams or water supplysources are adjacent. Trees can be harvested in SMZ’s. However,the maximum amount <strong>of</strong> canopy cover that can be removed is50%. You may want to protect valuable mast producing trees orshrubs just outside the SMZ — black gum, oaks, dogwoods,spicebush <strong>and</strong> viburnums in particular.Haul RoadsRoad construction is generally considered to have the greatestpotential to negatively impact soil <strong>and</strong> water quality. However,careful planning <strong>and</strong> construction can minimize these impacts.Roads should follow the contour, avoiding level ridgetops <strong>and</strong>wet flood plain soils that do not drain well. Gradients should bebetween 2% <strong>and</strong> 10%. Avoid stream channel crossings wheneverpossible. Properly constructed <strong>and</strong> appropriately spaced water controldevices (water bars) should be used on all roads. Roadsshould be “daylighted” by harvesting timber along one or bothsides creating a corridor 40–120 feet wide. This allows amplesunlight to reach the road surface. Partridge pea <strong>and</strong> korean lespedezaare excellent choices <strong>for</strong> seeding along roads. Orchardgrass<strong>and</strong> ladino clover are also a good option where wildlife is a priority.On steeper slopes where there is a serious threat <strong>of</strong> erosion,crown vetch should be included in any seeding mix.Fourteen


(Photo Jim Mehring)Best Management Practices minimizethe environmental impacts <strong>of</strong> loggingoperations. Leaving a buffer <strong>of</strong> st<strong>and</strong>ingtrees along water courses (StreamsideManagement Zones), revegetating fireguards(Herbaceous Buffers) <strong>and</strong> reseedinglog roads, skid trails <strong>and</strong> log decks(Permanent Vegetative Cover) are amongthe practices a pr<strong>of</strong>essional <strong>for</strong>ester willdesign into a logging operation to insurethat water quality <strong>and</strong> wildlife are notdamaged, <strong>and</strong> in many cases evenenhanced. (Photos DOF)Fifteen


Skid TrailsSkid trails are the trails used to move felled trees to a commonloading area. These trails have the ability to greatly impact soil<strong>and</strong> water quality by compacting soils <strong>and</strong> creating ruts. Skidtrails should not be located in an SMZ. If a stream crossing isneeded, a properly installed stream crossing structure is required.Skidding should be held to a minimum when soils are saturated.Upon completion <strong>of</strong> skidding, areas subject to erosion shouldhave properly constructed, properly spaced water control structuresinstalled. Seeding 10#/Ac Korean lespedeza in disturbedareas will speed healing <strong>and</strong> provide quail winter foods <strong>and</strong> broodhabitat widely distributed across the logged area.Log DecksLog decks are areas where logs are processed <strong>and</strong> loaded <strong>for</strong>shipping. Like skid trails, they can be subject to severe compaction,rutting, <strong>and</strong> erosion. Log deck sites should be determinedbe<strong>for</strong>e road construction <strong>and</strong> located more than 50 feet fromStreamside Management Zones. Log deck sites should be slightlysloped <strong>and</strong> contain well-drained soils. A diversion ditch should beinstalled on the uphill side <strong>of</strong> the deck to intercept water run<strong>of</strong>f.After logging, the deck will need to be deep-ripped to reduce thecompaction. Deck areas can <strong>of</strong>ten be enlarged at this time. Plantto Korean lespedeza or to a native grass mixture such as 2# switchgrass<strong>and</strong> 2# little bluestem/Acre. A fringe <strong>of</strong> VA 70 lespedezaaround the edge <strong>of</strong> the log deck would make an excellent food<strong>and</strong> cover planting.Re-vegetation <strong>of</strong> Bare SoilsBare soil areas need to be stabilized immediately followingtimber harvesting activities. Soil stabilization is recommended <strong>for</strong>all bare soil areas exceeding 5% slope or on highly erodible soils.Be<strong>for</strong>e seeding these areas, the necessary water control structuresshould be installed <strong>and</strong> a proper seed bed prepared. Also, a soiltest is recommended to determine proper application rates <strong>for</strong>lime <strong>and</strong> fertilizer. Forest soils are usually poor. Kobe or Koreanlespedeza work well. Native warm season grass mixes discussedearlier make fine nesting cover <strong>and</strong> travel lanes. Shrubs add food,cover <strong>and</strong> travel lanes.(Photo Jim Mehring)Sixteen


COST-SHARE PROGRAMS FOR MANAGING FOREST LANDSThe <strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong><strong>of</strong> Forestry <strong>and</strong> theNatural ResourcesConservation Service <strong>of</strong>ferconservation incentiveprograms to assistl<strong>and</strong>owners interested inmanaging <strong>Virginia</strong>’s<strong>for</strong>ests. For the latest in<strong>for</strong>mationon cost share programsplease contact yourDistrict <strong>Wildlife</strong> Biologistwith the <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong>Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong>Fisheries.LEEWISESCOTTDICKENSONBUCHANANRUSSELL3WASHINGTONTAZEWELLSMYTHMarion - Region 31796 Highway SixteenMarion, VA 24354(276) 783-4860Verona - Region 4P.O. Box 996, 517 Lee HighwayVerona, VA 24482(540) 248-9360BLANDWYTHEGRAYSONGILESPULASKICARROLLMONTGOMERYFLOYDCRAIGALLEGHANYROANOKEBATHBOTETOURTFRANKLINPATRICKHENRYHIGHLANDROCKBRIDGEAUGUSTAAMHERSTBEDFORDCAMPBELLPITTSYLVANIA4ROCKINGHAMNELSONHALIFAXSHENANDOAHPAGEFREDERICKWARRENMADISONALBEMARLEBUCKINGHAM2APPOMATTOXGREENECHARLOTTEPRINCEEDWARDCLARKERAPPAHANNOCKFLUVANNACUMBERLANDFAUQUIERCULPEPERORANGELUNENBURGMECKLENBURGForest - Region 21132 Thomas Jefferson RoadForest, VA 24551-9223(434) 525-7522LOUISANOTTOWAYLOUDOUNGOOCHLANDFAIRFAXPRINCE WILLIAM5STAFFORDSPOTSYLVANIAPOWHATANKINGGEORGECAROLINEHANOVERCHESTERFIELDAMELIADINWIDDIEBRUNSWICKGREENSVILLEFredericksburg - Region 51320 Belman RoadFredericksburg, VA 22401(540) 899-4169HENRICOKING WILLIAMPRINCEGEORGESUSSEXCHARLESCITYARLINGTONWESTMORELANDESSEXKING AND QUEENNEWKENTJAMESCITYSURRYSOUTHAMPTONRICHMONDLANCASTERMIDDLESEXGLOUCESTERYORKISLE OFWIGHTSUFFOLKNORTHUMBERLANDMATHEWS1NEWPORTNEWSHAMPTONPORTSMOUTHNORFOLKVIRGINIABEACHCHESAPEAKEACCOMACKNORTHAMPTONCharles City - Region 13801 John Tyler Memorial Hwy.Charles City, VA 23030(804) 829-6580Seventeen


The <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> Fisheries shall af<strong>for</strong>d to all persons anequal access to <strong>Department</strong> programs <strong>and</strong> facilities without regard to race,color, religion, national origin, disability, sex or age.If you believe that you have been discriminated against in any program, activity,or facility, please write to:<strong>Virginia</strong> <strong>Department</strong> <strong>of</strong> Game <strong>and</strong> Inl<strong>and</strong> FisheriesAttn: Compliance Officer4010 West Broad StreetP.O. Box 11104Richmond, <strong>Virginia</strong> 23230-1104

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