Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 (pdf, en, 393 KB, 5/10/10)

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiLingua Inglese 2Lecture 15DOTT.SSA MARIA IVANA LORENZETTI1Graded Categories: Prototype Theory• Categorization is central to how we organize informationand the world• Categorization is a core cognitive process and has to dowith how individuals divide the continuum of experienceinto smaller meaningful units• The categorization process through which we identifyand recognize an individual as a member of a specificgroup is strictly connected to the process of significance↓• This suggests that it is impossible to talk aboutsemantics without making reference to our cognitivecapacitiesLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 1

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiGraded Categories: Prototype Theory(2)In recent years, centuries-old views ofcategories and categorization have been revisedCLASSICALCATEGORIZATIONNecessary andsufficient conditions formembershipGeneric to specificmonohierarchicalstructureMODERNCATEGORIZATIONCharacteristic features(family resemblance)Centrality/typicality(Prototypes)Basic-level categoriesGraded Categories: Prototype Theory(3)• The origin of Prototype theory is notsemantic, but is due to psychology, and tothe experiments conducted by Eleanor Roschand her colleagues in the 1970s on theprocesses of categorization• Research findings have demonstrated thatthe referential possibilities of many wordssuch as red, cup, or bird do not go hand inhand with the classical viewLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 2

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiGraded Categories: Prototype Theory(4)• These findings point to The absence of a set of necessary and sufficientconditions for membership in a category The privileged status of some entities as “betterexamples” of the category than others The fuzziness of category boundaries Features that frequently co-occur lead to theestablishment of categories Categories are formed through experience withprototype exemplarsPrototype Theory• The hypothesis is that that there are twoprinciples at the basis of category formation: The Principle of Cognitive Economy states thatthe task of category systems is to provide themaximum of information with the minimumcognitive effort↓So for the purpose of category formation,members of a category should maximize theirsimilarities as well as being maximally differentfrom members of other categoriesLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 3

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiPrototype Theory (2)The principle of Perceived World Structure “theworld is not an unstructured set of randomly cooccurringattributes. Rather, the material objects havea highly correlational structure” (Rosch 1978)Our way to categorize reality crucially depends on ourfunctional needs, as we interact with the surroundingenvironment↓This is why the Eskimo language (Inuit) possesses manylexemes to classify the various nuances of the color ofsnow. This does not mean that in other cultures peoplecannot perceive differences, but has to do with differentdegrees of salience in different culturesThe Dimensions of Categories• Categories are organized on the basis of twodimensions: A vertical dimension related to the degree ofinclusiveness of a category, i.e. the dimension alongwhich words such as poodle, dog, mammal, animaland living being vary. It has to do with intercategorialrelationsA horizontal dimension related to the internalstructure of a category, focusing on the segmentation(differentiation) at the same level of inclusiveness, i.e.the dimension along which dog, cat and apple varyLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 4

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Vertical Dimension• Despite the varieties of lexicons in naturallanguages, the process of lexicalization(giving names to things) is not completelyarbitrary, but follows some general principles(functional and cognitive) related to theoptimization of our interaction with theenvironment• Not everything is equally salient, noteverything around us has a name, but somethings can have more than one name. I cancall a creature living with me an animal, afeline, a quadruped, a Siamese, or a cat.The Vertical Dimension (2)• These words, as we have already seen, are notsynonymous, and do not convey the same kindor quantity of information• In the majority of cases, people’s judgmentstend to favor a generic term, as the one whichbest exemplifies the category. In this case, cat isthe noun which conveys a sufficient degree ofinformation in order to identify the creature inquestion properlyLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 5

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Vertical Dimension (3)• The vertical dimension is based ontaxonomies, i.e. systems by whichcategories are related in terms of classinclusion• The greater the level of inclusiveness of acategory within a taxonomy, the higher itsdegree of abstractionAn Example of TaxonomyANIMALdog cat birdCollie Poodle Siamese Tabby Robin Sea gullLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 6

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiLevels of a TaxonomySuperordinateFruitAnimalItem ofFurnitureBasic LevelApplePearcatdogchairSubordinateGoldenDeliciousGranny SmithWilliamsKaiserEuropeanPersianSiberian HuskyPoodleKitchen chairOffice chairBasic Level• The existence of a privileged level in the category structurewas hypothesized by the anthropologist B. Berlin (1978), whostudied the taxonomies of folk biological ranks in variouscultures.• He found out that all of them are based on a differentiation of5 ranks in a cross-linguistic study Kingdom plant, animal Life Form tree, fish, mammal Generic Pine, bass, dog Specific Whitepine, black bass, ShepherdDog Varietal Western whitepine, large mouthed(black) bass, Alsatian ShepherdDogLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 7

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiBasic-Level Categorization• Perception Overall perceived shape Single mental image Fast identification• Function General motor program• Communication Shortest, most commonly used and contextually neutral words First learned by children• Knowledge Organization Most attributes of category members are stored at this levelBasic Level (2)• The basic level is conceived as the most salient from aperceptual point of view, since the members share anumber of attributes, therefore category resemblanceis maximized at the level of abstraction at which basicobjects are categorized, while differences with othersuperordinate or subordinate levels are highlighted• The basic level is intuitively associated to a unitaryimage representative of the entire class. It is easier to form an image of a non-specific dog ortable, than of an animal or of a piece of furniture ingeneralLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 8

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiBasic Level (3)• Individual items are more rapidly categorized, asbelonging to a basic level than to superordinate orsubordinate categories A spaniel in a picture is more likely to be (more easilyor quickly) classified as a dog, than as an animal or aspaniel• The most inclusive level at which there arecharacteristic patterns of behavioural interaction:imagine being asked to mime how one wouldbehave with an animal. It is difficult without knowingif the animal in question is a crocodile or a squirrel.Basic Level (4)• It is the level at which the best categories can becreated, since good categories are those whichmaximizeDistinctness from neighbouring categoriesInternal homogeneityDifferential informativeness• Names of basic level categories tend to bemorphologically simple, and ‘original’, in the senseof not being metaphorical extensions from othercategories; take spoon, a basic-level term. All themore specific categories have more complexnames, tea spoon, table-spoon, soup spoon, coffeespoonLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 9

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Horizontal Dimension: Prototypes• Language users have clear intuitions aboutdifferences of status of items within a categoryCategories have more central members, less centralmembers and borderline cases• Prototypes are defined as the “clearest casesof category membership defined operationallyby people’s judgments of goodness ofmembership in the category”Goodness-of-Exemplar (GOE)• Prototypicality was defined on the basis of Goodness ofExemplar (GOE).• Subjects were presented with a list of putative membersof a given category and asked to give a numerical valuefrom 1 to 7 according to how good an example is as amember of a given category• The rating scale was something like this: 1: very good example 2: good example 3. fairly good example 4: moderately good example 5: fairly poor example 6: bad example 7: very bad example/not an example at allLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 10

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiGOE (2)• Provided the subjects come from a fairly homogeneousspeech community, judgments tend to cluster aroundparticular examples. Combining the results from a largenumber of subjects allows the identification of the bestexamples of the categories, i.e. prototypes, orprototypical members.• Considering the category VEGETABLE Carrot 1 Broccoli 2 Celery 3 Aubergine, Courgette 4 Basil, Parsley 5 Rhubarb 6 Lemon 7Judgments of Prototypicality• These judgments are highly cultural-dependent, andfamiliarity certainly play a role• But a large measure of agreement was found in thejudgments of goodness of exemplar. In addition it was foundthat prototypicality, as measured by GOE scores, correlatesstrongly with important aspects of cognitive behaviour:Frequency and Order of MentionOrder of LearningSpeed of VerificationPriming: lexical decision task. Subjects are shown a stringof letters and have to decide whether or not it forms a word.If the word is preceded by a semantically-related word, theresponse will be speeded up (Consider nurse, preceded bythe term doctor)Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 11

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Semiotic Framework• Certain members of a category are prototypical –or instantiate the prototype• Categories form around prototypes; new membersare added on the basis of resemblance to theprototype• No requirement that a property or set of propertiesbe shared by all members• Features/attributes generally gradable• Category membership a matter of degree• Categories do not have clear boundariesThe Semiotic Framework (2)• Our processes of categorization and of meaning construction arebased on a principle of similarity and analogy, rather thanidentity• The alternative view to the sign as equivalence, is that of thesign as inference, where meanings are viewed as systems orseries of instructions for the various semantic outcomes invarious contexts• The prototype is the reference point from a cognitive point ofview in a given category, and we use it to compare, contrastand evaluate other examples on the basis of their similarity withit• Language is not viewed as a code, but judgments are guided byinferential principles, which are not random, but follow constantregularitiesLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 12

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe New Dimension of Categories• No requirement that a property or set ofproperties be shared by all members -- nocriterial attributes• Features generally gradable• Degree of Representativity• Fuzzy BoundariesWhat is the Prototypical Bird?chicken kiwi robin ostrich penguinAnalyzing the category BIRD, it was found thatthese birds were not equally rated as goodexemplarsLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 13

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiProperties for the Analysis of Birds• Properties under analysis:1. Being able to fly2. Having Feathers3. Having a S shape4. Having wings5. Being tamed6. Being Oviparous7. Having a beakResults of the Analysis56 743kiwi1robin2ostrichchickenpenguin1-Being able to fly 2-Having Feathers 3-Having a S shape 4-Havingwings 5-Being tamed 6-Being Oviparous 7-Having a beakLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 14

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiSome Problems• Properties do not enjoy the same status. This isthe reason why we cannot say that penguins are notbirds, just because they cannot fly• Degree of membership and goodness of exemplarare not to be equated• Our categorization processes rely on complexevaluation systems which highlight how differentproperties are perceived as having different degreesof salience with respect to the individuation of theprototype.Some Problems (2)• The property “being oviparous” is considered asmore important than “having feathers”• Some properties cannot be cancelled withoutleading to the renegotiation of the ‘implicitagreement’ on which meaning crucially depends• This observation led to the revision of the concept ofprototype, since it was no longer possible to think ofmembership as guaranteed by some attribute incommon with the prototype• Not all the categories have fuzzy boundariesLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 15

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiImplications for a Semantic Theory• What is the relevance of the concept ofprototype for semantics?• Words have an inherently plastic meaning.• They can be used figuratively and theirmeaning can vary, but we can frequently relyon the concept of prototype to account for astable common core which functions as apoint of departure for all the possiblecontextual interpretationsFrame Semantics• Concepts do not simply float around in the mind. On theone hand, there are relations between words andcorresponding concepts described in structuralsemantics.• But concepts are organized in another way as well.Certain concepts “belong together”, because they areassociated in experience. To use a classic example, aRESTAURANT is not merely a service institution, but hasassociated with it a number of concepts such asCUSTOMER, WAITER, ORDERING, EATING, BILL,which are related to RESTAURANT not by hyponymy,meronymy, antonymy or other structural semanticrelations. They are related to RESTAURANT by ordinaryhuman experienceLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 16

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiWhat is a Frame?• Words are typically defined in terms of backgrounds ofexperience or frames, which are highly structured• A frame identifies the characteristic features, attributesand functions of a given denotatum, and it is built fromencyclopaedic knowledge• “A word’s meaning can be understood only withreference to a structured background of experience,beliefs, or practices constituting a kind of conceptualprerequisite for understanding its meaning. Speakerscan be said to know the meaning of a word, only by firstunderstanding the background frames that motivate theconcept that the word encodes” (Fillmore and Atkins1992)The Semantics of Understanding• Meaning cannot be conceived independently of the waywe conceptualise reality. Whenever we are engaged in acommunicative interaction we do not talk by words inisolated atoms, but words are embedded in texts and arepart of larger wholes. Therefore, the meaning of lexicalitems can best be understood in terms of theircontribution to the process of interpreting a text• Frame semantics is meant as a model for the semanticsof understanding: the full and rich understanding that aspeaker intends to convey in a text and that a hearerconstructs for that text.Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 17

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Semantics of Understanding (2)• A speaker produces words and constructions in atext as tools for a particular activity, namely toconvey a particular message• The task of the hearer is to figure out the activitythose tools were intended for, i.e. to invoke thatunderstanding (what did the speaker mean by that?)• Words and constructions evoke a frame, areassociated to certain background knowledge, andthe hearer invokes that frame in order to makesense of an utteranceFrames and Semantic Fields• Frame semantics shares significant properties withsemantic field theory• They both group together words that are associatedin experience• Semantic field theory posits systems of syntagmaticand paradigmatic relations connecting members of aselected set of lexical items → words are defined inrelation to other words like pawns in the game ofchessLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 18

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiFrames and Semantic Fields (2)• In frame semantic words are defined directlywith respect to the frame. The frame functionsas a link, as a mediator to guaranteeunderstandingWORDSactivateFRAMEevokesUNDERSTANDINGAn Example: Day Names• In semantic field theory we can say thatMONDAY, TUESDAY, WEDNESDAY etc.comprise a closed set of words related by asuccessor relation, which in this case definesa cycle.• These words are therefore interdefinable byvirtue of their position in the cycle, asestablished by their mutual relationships andby the “part of” relationship WEEK, whichnames the entire cycleLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 19

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiAn Example: Day Names (2)• A frame-based description of these terms would concentrate onthe manner they fit into the system of calendric terms• What holds these words together is the fact that they areconstructed and motivated by a special schematization ofexperience Natural cycle created by the apparent daily travel of the sun The standard means of defining when one day ends and anotherbeginsThe conventional calendric cycle of 7 daysThe practice of assigning different portions of the weekly cycle towork and nonwork• The awareness of the particular organization of our physical andsocial world provides the conceptual background for a number ofnouns (week, day), their adjectival derivations, the individualweekday names, and other categories such as weekday, weekend,fortnight etc.Frame Semantics: An EncyclopaedicView of Meaning• Frame semantics involves an encyclopaedicconception of meaning, and specifically it arguesthat meaning is not determined by linguisticproperties, but is strongly related to people’scollateral experience. More specifically, in the framesemantics perspective "words representcategorizations of experience and each of thesecategories is underlain by a motivating situationoccurring against a background of knowledge andexperience" (Fillmore 1982: 112).Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 20

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiFrame Semantics (4)• A number of important concepts figure into the FrameSemantics approach to linguistic description and analysis.One such concept is that of prototype, understood as a fairlylarge slice of the surrounding culture against which themeaning of a word is defined and understood. For example, tounderstand the meaning of the word breakfast, it is necessaryto understand the institutions and practices of the culture inwhich the category exists. In this case, it is necessary tounderstand the practice of eating three meals a day at moreor less fixed times and that the meal eaten in the early part ofthe day after a period of sleep has a special menu.• Another important concept in frame semantics is that ofperspective, as exemplified in the slogan "meanings arerelativised to scenes" (Fillmore 1977).The Commercial Transaction FrameLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 21

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Commercial Transaction Frame(2)• It is possible to characterise the commercialtransaction event by constructing a scenarioin which one person (a buyer) acquirespossession of something (the goods) from asecond person (the seller), by agreement, asa result of surrendering a sum of money tothat person• The background of such a frame requiresunderstanding of property ownership, moneyeconomy and implicit contracts.Semantic and Syntactic Roles• A frame semantic description is also an important bridge betweensemantics and syntax, since it aims at integrating a theory of thelexicon with the grammatical and semantic information for eachlexical item• Each word is associated to what we can call a valence description,a description that specifies (in semantic and syntactic terms) whatthe expression requires as its constituents• SLEEP → NP + VP The baby is sleeping• RECEIVE → NP1 + VP + NP2 + (from+NP3 /for+NP4) John received a letter from Margareth• EAT → NP1 + VP + NP2 / NP1 + VP John is eating an apple Mary does not want any pizza. She has already eatenLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 22

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiSemantic and Syntactic Roles (2)• Optional elements are those that appear in brackets ()• The more an element is important for the description of agiven word, the closer will be its relationship with it, in terms ofsubject or direct complement• Syntax specifies which argument becomes subject and whichthe complements• Simply saying that arrest takes two arguments (one as subjectand the other as object) in a sentence likeThe police arrested the suspectfails to recognize that the two arguments play a very differentrole in relation to the act of arrest, the police is the personwho performs the action, and the suspect is the one whosuffers the consequences of the actSemantic and Syntactic Roles (3)• Let us consider the following sentences John killed the monster John died John received a present for his birthday John feels sad John moved• In each case John is the subject, but therelation that the person represented as Johnholds with the action or state represented byeach verb is clearly differentLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 23

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiSemantic and Syntactic Roles (4)• Linguistics has developed a typology of semantic roles played byarguments in relation to their predicates AGENT (or CAUSE): the person deliberately carrying out theaction• John kicked Bill PATIENT (or THEME): entity undergoing the effect of someaction• Mary fell down the stairs / John kicked Bill EXPERIENCER: entity experiencing some psychological state• John feels sorry / Mark is angry RECIPIENT: entity receiving/ possessing something• John received a letter from his friend GOAL: entity towards which something moves• Sue went homeSemantic and Syntactic Roles (5) SOURCE: entity from which something moves• John came from the station OBJECT: the thing which causes some state ofaffairs or is involved in it• The hammer broke the window DATIVE: a conscious participant in the event,typically human, but not deliberately initiator• John heard Mary INSTRUMENT: the thing used to carry out theaction• John broke the window with a hammerLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 24

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiSemantic and Syntactic Roles (6)• The participants in states or events mayoccupy one of four distinct grammatical roles Subject Direct object Indirect object Nominal predicate• The woman (SUBJ) gave a book (OBJ) to the child(INDIR OBJ)• Mary (SUBJ) is an actress (NOM PRED)Semantic and Syntactic Roles (7)• Semantic roles of participants do notdistribute freely and equally in all grammaticalroles. There is a tendency for sources andgoals to be indirect objects and for patient tobe direct objects, but the rules are not fixed.• A hierarchy has been proposed forsubjecthood:• AGENT>DATIVE>PATIENT>OTHERSLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 25

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Commercial Transaction Frame(3)• Let us introduce an example, where Mark buys a cd for $18.Here are some of the things that we can say about this event. Mark bought a cd Mark bought a cd from Mr Smith Mark bought a cd for $18 Mark bought a cd from Mr Smith for $18 Mark bought a cd with the $18 that his mother gave him Mr Smith sold the cd Mr Smith sold the cd to Mark Mr Smith sold the cd for $18 Mr Smith sold the cd to Mark for $18 Mr Smith sold Mark the cd for $18 Mr Smith sold Mark the cdThe Commercial Transaction Frame(4) Mark spent $18 on the cd Mark spent $18 for the cd Mr Smith charged $18 for the cd Mr Smith charged Mark $18 for the cd Mr Smith charged Mark for the cd (he didn’t give it to him) The cd cost $18 The cd cost Mark $18 Mark paid for the cd (he didn’t get it free) Mark paid Mr Smith for the cd Mark paid $18 for the cd Mark paid Mr Smith $18 for the cd Mr Smith priced the cd at $18Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 26

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Commercial Transaction Frame(4)A complex of interwoven relations with only 4 main elements.Many complications are possible, i.e. the necessity to define thelarger scene, the difference between obligatory and optionalelements, the grammatical relations among the elementsMeanings are relativized to scenes• Among the large set of semantically relatedverbs linked to this frame are buy, sell, pay,spend, cost, and charge, each of which evokesdifferent aspects of the frame. The verb buyfocuses on the buyer and the goods,backgrounding the seller and the money; sellfocuses on the seller and the goods,backgrounding the buyer and the money; payis more directly concerned with the buyer, themoney, and the seller, backgrounding thegoods; and so on.Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 27

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiPerspectivization: BuyThe verb buy focuses on the buyer and on the good,backgrounding the seller and the moneyMary bought an Ipod from John for $150.Perspectivization: SellSell focuses on the seller and on the goodsJohn sold the Ipod to Mary for $150Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 28

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiPerspectivization: PayPay focuses on the buyer and on the moneyMary paid $150 for an Ipod / Mary paid $150 to John for anIpodPerspectivization: SpendSpend again focuses on the buyer and on the money,but uses different prepositions for peripheral elementsMary spent $150 for the Ipod/Mary spent $150 on the IpodLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 29

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Commercial Event Frame• The idea is that knowing the meaning ofany one of these verbs requires knowingwhat takes place in a commercialtransaction, and knowing the meaning ofany one verb means, in some sense,knowing the meaning of all of themLecture 15 - 12/05/2010 30

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Frame of RISK• Another example for analysis can be represented bywords whose semantic description has to do withthe possibility of an unwelcome outcome• It requires awareness of two notions, Chance andHarm• Words in the frame: RISK, DANGER, PERIL,HAZARD, VENTURE• Verbs: GAMBLE, INVEST, EXPOSE• Adjectives: RISKY, VENTURSOMEThe Frame of RISK: SemanticCategories• CHANCE: uncertainty about the future• HARM: a potential unwelcome development (riskdeath; risk losing a job)• VICTIM: the individual who stands to suffer, if theHARM occurs (danger to the children)• VALUED OBJECT: a possession of the victim, seenas potentially endangered (risk to our health)• RISKY SITUATION: the state of affairs within whichsomeone might be said to be at risk (dangerous,hazardous)Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 31

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Frame of RISK: SemanticCategories (2)• DEED: the act that brings about the risky situation(they risked drowning, by swimming in that part ofhe river)• ACTOR: the person who performs the DEED thatresults in the HARM• GAIN: the actor’s hoped-for gain in taking a risk (fora few bucks)• PURPOSE: what an actor intends to accomplish inperforming the DEED (in order to..)• BENEFICIARY: the person who gains• MOTIVATION: the reason why one risks (for vanity,for moral reasons)The Frame of RISK: LinguisticRealizations• He risked his good name (VALUED OBJECT) on thebattlefield of politics (SITUATION)• Why did he risk his life (VALUED OBJECT) for a man hedid not even know? (BENEFICIARY)• The men and women of the French resistance hadfought and risked everything (VO) for this day (GAIN)• Ready to risk everything (VO) for what he believes(MOTIVATION)Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 32

Lingua Inglese 2 CInt AA 2009/10Dott.ssa Maria Ivana LorenzettiThe Frame of RISK: LinguisticRealizations (2)• He risked his life (VO) to try to save Brooks(PURPOSE)• He risked being arrested (HARM)• He risked being arrested, by driving under theeffect of alcohol (DEED)• Rather than risk waking Peggy (HARM) insearching for my pajamas (DEED), I crept intobed in my underpants.Lecture 15 - 12/05/2010 33