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METHODOLOGYThe research design for this study was descriptive survey method. The population consisted of all women in EkitiState. Ekiti state has 16 local government areas (LGAs). However, four of the 16 LGAs were randomly selected forthe study. A total of 400 samples were randomly selected and given the questionnaires in LGA Headquarters andother towns.The instrument for data collection was a self constructed questionnaire titled “The Use of Barrier Methods toPrevent Pregnancy (BMPP) that had two Sections A and B. Section A was on the bio-data of the respondents whileSection B was on contraceptive methods used to prevent pregnancy. The Section B had 20 items. The instrumentwas judge to have face and content validity by experts in Tests and Measurement in the Faculty of Education,University of Ado-Ekiti. The test re-test reliability coefficient of the instrument was 0.78 that was obtained by usingPearson Product Moment Correlation Analysis after the instrument was administered to women in a LGA in KwaraState. Its validity coefficient was 0.68.ADMINISTRATION OF INSTRUMENTThe research instrument was personally administered with the aid of research assistants. The data collected wereanalysed using t-test analysis. The hypotheses generated were tested at 0.05 level of significance.General QuestionTable 1: Using Simple Percentages and Frequency CountsYesNoNo % No %1 Do you get pregnant accidentally 180 45 220 552 Common prevention methods useda. Condom and other barrier methods 250 62.5 150 37.5b. Abstinence 20 0.5 380 95c. Pills 50 12.5 350 87.5d. Having sex without precautions 80 20 320 80e. Withdrawal by partners 150 37.5 250 62.5From Table 1, it could be seen that 180 (45%) of 400 women said they got pregnant accidentally, while 220 (55%)said no. this could be as a result of the methods of contraception used to prevent pregnancy. On whether condomand other barrier methods are used, 250 (62.5%) of the sample said yes while 150 (37.5%) said No. On whether thesample abstain from sexual intercourse, 20 (0.5%) of 400 sample said Yes while 380 (95%) said No. On the use ofpills, 50 (12.5%) said Yes while 350 (87%) said No. On having sex without precautions, 80 (20%) said Yes while320 (80%) said No. On the use of withdrawal methods, 150 (37.5%) said Yes while 250 (62.5%) said No.From all indications, all these frequencies and numbers under the column of Yes are likely to get pregnantaccidentally except those that abstain which is 20 (0.5%). However, the rate of those that get pregnant accidentally isstill high 180 (45%) in a country where family planning offices are located in all the nocks and crannies of the stateand LGAs.204

HYPOTHESESHypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between married and unmarried women in the use of barriermethods to prevent pregnancies.Table 2: t-test analysis showing married and unmarried women use of Barrier Methods.Source N _ SD Df t-cal t-tab RemarkXMarried 280 64.38 12.61Unmarried 120 59.50 14.71 398 3.17 1.96 SignificantP < 0.05From Table 2, it could be seen that the number of married women was 280 with a mean of 64.38 and a standarddeviation of 12.61. Also, unmarried women had their number to be 120 with a mean of 59.50 and a standarddeviation of 14.71. The degree of freedom was 398, while the t-cal was 3.17 and t-table was 1.96. However, sincethe t-cal (3.17) is greater than t-table (1.96) at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis is thereby rejected. Thusthere is significant difference between married and unmarried women in the use of barrier methods to preventpregnancies.Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between women living in urban and rural areas in the use of barriermethods in preventing pregnancies.Table 3:t-test showing urban and rural women and use of barrier methodsSource N _ SD Df t-cal t-tab RemarkXUrban 305 64.34 13.23Rural 95 58.34 13.16 398 3.88 1.96 SignificantP < 0.05From Table 3, it could be seen that the number of women from urban areas were 305 with a mean of 64.34 and astandard deviation of 13.23. The number of women from rural areas were 95 with a mean of 58.34 and standarddeviation of 13.16. The degree of freedom was 398. The t-cal is 3.88 and t-table 1.96. However, since the t-cal(3.88) is greater than t-table (1.96) at 0.05 level of significance, the hypothesis is thereby rejected. Thus, there issignificant difference between women living in urban and rural areas in the use of barrier methods to preventpregnancies.205

DISCUSSIONThe findings revealed that the 20 (0.5%) of women that said „Yes‟ to abstinence were probably unmarried women.This could be because the Bible says there should not be fornication among the unmarried and adultery among themarried. That the bed should not be defiled, this is support of Osakinle, (2003). Those that said „Yes‟ to having sexwithout precautions 80 (20%) probably do so because of the economic situations in the country. If they need moneyand they have somebody to offer them, then they could give their bodies in exchange. At this time, the women arenot likely to be able to ask for any condom use. If she herself uses no preventive, she would probably be exposed toSTI/HIV. This is in agreement with Osakinle, (2003). Also, 150 (37.5%) of the women said their partners usewithdrawal methods. This is probably the reason why 180 (45%) of them said they get pregnant accidentally.Without the use of condom and any other back-up, during sexual intercourse, the point of withdrawal is always verydifficult since that seems to be the peak of enjoyment and live sperm must have slipped into the vaginal before thewithdrawal. Above all, it takes a lot of self control to do. This is in support of Osakinle, (2003).However, 250 (62.5%) of the women said „Yes‟ to the use of condom and other barrier methods. This is slightlymore than half of the sample. This appears quite encouraging even though some of subjects complained that theyhad problems with the use of condoms like tearing, and lack of ones ability to use the condom more than once, thisis good prevention against STI/HIV. This is in agreement with Osakinle, (2003), Crooks & Baur, (2002).The findings further shows that the two hypotheses were rejected. The first hypothesis on married and unmarriedwomen that used barrier method did have significant difference. Since the condom that is most commonly usedcould be bought without prescription, it becomes very common and available everywhere – in super markets, familyplanning offices and Guidance and Counselling centres in schools. Since it also protects against the contract ofSTI/HIV, and it is not known to have or cause any harmful side effects. This is in agreement with Strong, et al(2005), Osakinle, (2003). Also, since it is very portable, it is easy to carry and not expensive, the unmarried canafford to carry the condoms in their purses particularly those that have intercourse without precautions. This is insupport of Osakinle, (2003), Piccinino & Mosher, (1998).Furthermore, the second hypothesis revealed that there is significant difference between women living in urban andrural areas in the use of barrier methods to prevent pregnancies. The urban towns such as state capital and LGAheadquarters have a lot of supper-markets, family planning offices where the condom could be picked up ondemand. But in the rural areas, the outlet areas may not be as common. This could probably be the reason why someof the samples just ask their partners to use withdrawal method that could lead to the contract of STI/HIV andpregnancies. This could probably also be accountable for some of the samples getting pregnant accidentally. This issupported by Osakinle, (2003). For the fact that other backups that the women can use are not as common as thecondom, the women have to know the ways to persuade their men to wear condoms so that they (women) do not getunnecessarily exposed to unwanted pregnancies and STI/HIV, Osakinle, (2003), Strong, et al, (2005) and Delano,(1990).CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONFrom the study, it could be concluded that married women differ significantly from unmarried women in the use ofbarrier methods to prevent unwanted pregnancies. This is because those that are married already know their limitsregarding the number of children and so precautions need to be taken. But for the unmarried, they need to beencouraged to carry condoms in their purses since they are very portable and not expensive. They need to bediscouraged from asking their partners to withdraw. Since it could lead to emotional upset and lack of trust sincepregnancies can result. Also, condoms need to be made available in all the nocks and crannies of the state so thatboth married and unmarried could get to buy and use whenever needed.It is therefore recommended that women who are used and most times appear helpless could be encouraged to goabout with condoms so that anytime they feel like making love, they will easily make it without running helterskelter for condom. Also, government could be asked to have centres where the condoms will be given free so that206

people will go there and pick. This will bring about a more healthy citizens as well as healthier reproductive healthamong the people.REFERENCESCrooks, R. & Baur Karla (2002). Our Sexuality. P. Wadsworth Group, USA.Delano, E. (1990). Guide to Family Planning, Spectrum Books, Ibadan.Frezieres, R., Walsh, T. & Nelson, A. (1999). Evaluation of the efficacy of a polyurethane condom: Results from arandomized, controlled clinical trial. Family Planning Perspectives, 30(1) 4-10, 46.Osakinle, E. O. (2003). The Dynamics of Sexual Behaviour of female students in the South Western part of NigeriaUniversities. A Ph.D dissertation in the Faculty of Education, University of Ado-Ekiti.Steart, F. (1998). Vaginal barriers. In R. Hatcher; J. Trussell; F. Stewart, W. cates, G. Stewart; F. Guest, & D. Kowal(Eds) Contraceptive Technology, New York: Ardent Media, Inc.Strong, B., DeVault, C., Sayad, B. W. & Yarber, W. L. (2005). Human sexuality: diversity in ContemporaryAmerica (5th Ed). McGraw-Hill Companies, USA.207

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 3(3), 2010ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationEFFECT OF FULL AND HALF-SQUAT TRAINING ON POSTURAL CONTROLAND KNEE STRENGTH IN HEALTHY MENNEVIN ATALAY GUZEL, OZGUR SURENKOK, YAGMUR AKKOYUNLU* and GUL BALTACIUniversity of DumlupinarPhisical Edication and Sports,Germiyan Campus 43020 Kütahya,Turkey*E-mail address for correspondence: yagmur0906@gmail.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract : The aim of this study is to determine the effectiveness of full and/or half squat training on posturalcontrol in thirty-three healthy men without known neuromuscular and musculoskeletal impairments. For thisstudy sedentary university students were trained with full and half squat exercises on two fitness devicesconsisting of six sets at 60% of maximum strength 10 repetitions for 8 weeks. The full-squat (Group I, N=11),half-squat (Group II, N=11) and control group (Group III, N=11) consisted of 33 male university students andall groups having no athletic training or competitive background were participated in this study. Isokinetic peaktorques of knee flexors and extensors at angular velocities of 60º/s and 180º/s were measured in left and rightlegs before and after training and the improvements were compared. The postural control values were obtainedby using the kinesthetic ability trainer (KAT) diagnostic and rehabilitation device. After 8 weeks, subjects ingroups 1 and 2 demonstrated more improvement in maximum load and isokinetic peak torques of the kneeextensors and flexors compared with the subjects in Group 3, but Group 1 and 2 were statistically different.There were no correlation between static balance and strength in both full and half squat training groups.Balance performance was significantly different between before and after full squat training in dynamic test andhalf squat training in static test; respectively (p

H,2001),( Yeung SSM, Ng GYF.2000).The relationship between balance and strength has been notablyinvestigated to prevent falls and injury in the elderly and to improve rehabilitation procedures.(Ryushi T,Kumagai K, Hayase H, Abe T, Shibuya K, Ono A ,2000),( Verfaillie D, Nichols J, Turkel E, Hovell M,1997).During rehabilitation, limb strength symmetry is used as an evaluation criterion to determine the level ofparticipation in sporting events and activities of daily living. Non-weight bearing isokinetic testing is a widelyused method to measure maximum unilateral strength for strength comparisons between legs. Non-weightbearing strength testing may not provide sufficient information to predict performance during weight bearingtasks. (Pincivero D, Lephart S, Karunakara R,1997).The majority of previous studies have been conducted to analyze the effect of muscle strength on static anddynamic balance performance in populations with significant muscle weakness. These studies have utilizedelderly,.(Ryushi T, Kumagai K, Hayase H, Abe T, Shibuya K, Ono A ,2000),( Wolfson L, Whipple R, Judge J,Amerman P, Derby C, King M,1993),( Carter N, Khan K, Mallinson A, Janssen P, Heinonen A, Petit M, McMayH. 2002),stroke, (Liston RAL, Brouwer BJ,1996) and osteoporosis subjects to determine the relationshipbetween strength and balance but results have varied. (Heitkamp HC, Horstmann T, Mayer F, Weller J, DickhuthHH,2001). Non-weight bearing resistance training methods including open and close kinetic chain exerciseshave also been implemented to investigate the effect of improved strength on balance performance. ( BlackburnT, Guskiewicz K, Petschauer M, Prentice W.2000),(McCurdy K, Langford G,2005),(Wells JC, FewtrellMS,2006).No known studies have analyzed the relationship between balance and squat training measured in a weightbearing stance. Weight bearing strength assessment arguably best estimates the functional status of the lowerextremity due to its specificity with weight bearing tasks. To further understand the relationship between full andhalf squat training and balance, both variables should be investigated with measurements from weight bearingtasks to closely achieve specificity between the test demands. Therefore, the purpose of this study was todetermine the effects of half and full squat training on postural control via stabilometric test and isokinetic kneestrength.MATERIAL AND METHODSAll subjects in this study were volunteers from healthy undergraduate university students, the range of 19 and23-year-old men who were screened for medical and medication history that could adversely affect bone healthand contraindicate testing. Apparently healthy young adult men (N= 33) who had no previous injuries to the hip,knee, or ankle that would potentially reduce strength and balance performance gave their informed consent.Physical characteristics of the subjects are presented by group in Table 1. Subjects were randomly assigned tothree groups including full-squat (Group I, N=11), half-squat (Group II, N=11) and control (Group III, N=11).The control group consisted of 11 male university students and all subjects having no athletic training orcompetitive background. The subjects had no previous long-term participation in a sport or activities of dailyliving with high repetitions of asymmetrical lower body activity. The study was carried out the approval of GaziUniversity Health Sciences Ethics Committee.Prior to testing, each subject underwent a ten-minute warming-up period, which consisted of submaximal legergometry followed by stretching exercises. Subjects in the control group did not receive any training throughoutthe study group. Subjects in all 3 groups were tested before and after the 8-week training program.Training ProgramThe strength training groups (Group I and II) worked out on two exercise devices with six sets of 10 repetitionsat 60% of maximum strength. Squat exercises as training program in this study were performed in 3 days/wk for8 weeks. Prior to training program one repetition maximum (1-RM) of squat and leg curl exercises of subjectswas found and the strength training was performed within single repetition moderate-intensity (60%) trials ofmaximum strength which results in optimized recruitment order and activation frequency of motor units. Theload was adapted to the subject’s performance after four weeks. It was taken into 1 RM with same method in 4thweek and determined with the increase of weight as training intensity. A control group without training wasinvestigated additionally.Group I did exercise program for 8 weeks as follows Fig 1a-b-c. On the other hand, half-squat group performedexercise program in Fig 2a-b-c.210

Isokinetic Strength TestingIsokinetic concentric knee extension peak torque (pt) was measured using Cybex 350 isokinetic dynamometer(Lumex Inc., Ronkonkoma, NY). After calibration of the dynamometer, each subject was seated in the adjustablechair and thigh, hip and chest stabilized using straps. The axis of rotation of the knee joint was aligned with axisof the dynamometer lever arm. The force pad was placed 3-4 cm superior to the malleolus with the foot in plantgrade position. Range of motion during testing was set using the goniometer through an arc from 90 deg of kneeangle to full extension. Subjects were instructed to hold their arms across the chest to isolate extensionmovements in knee joint. During the testing the subjects were asked to perform knee extension as forcefully andquickly as possible through a complete range of motion. Two attempts were carried out at low (60 deg/s) andhigh (180 deg/s) angular velocities. The trial proceeded from the lower to the higher angular velocity. A restperiod of 1 min was allowed before and between attempts.Stabilometric Measurementa. Static TestIn the preliminary session, subjects were familiarized with the kinesthetic ability trainer (KAT) diagnostic andrehabilitation device (KAT 3000, Breg, Vista, Calif, USA) and the protocol. Subjects were asked to maintain abilateral stance with their eyes open while concentrating on an X mark on the computer screen 1 meter in frontof them at eye level. Every subject was barefoot on a force platform in a natural position and pressure pillow offorce platform of KAT was set on 6 bars. The arms were placed across the chest. Have the patient attempt tokeep; the RED X on the center of the monitor screen. Three trials of testing, each lasting 30 seconds, with 10seconds’ rest between trials, were performed. The SPORT KAT 3000 will score the patient based of time anddistance that the RED X cursor spends away from the centre. The scores range from 0 to 6000. Zero would be aperfect score, so the lower score the better the patient is performing.b. Dynamic TestDuring dynamic test the subject chased a moving point on computer screen by tilting the platform, attempting tokeep the balance point near the moving point on the computer screen. Clockwise moving square pattern waschosen and moving cursors speed was set a medium speed of 3 (1 is the slowest and 5 is the fastest).Order of the tests, positioning of the feet and instructions were the same for each subject. The balancing devicewas adjusted and calibrated for each subject.Statistical analysisThe data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) personal computer program.Kruskall-Wallis tests were used to determine whether there were differences in age, weight, height, body massindex, strength and balance among the 3 groups. All experimental results were expressed as means and standarddeviations. The statistical significance of the measured variables was tested using Wilcoxon test design to assesschanges over time (wk 0 and wk 8 wk of squat training) and between the groups. Pearson correlation was usedfor correlation among variables. Significant differences were determined at p

significant difference in dynamic test (p

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSThis project was not directly supported by any grants or other financial assistance. The authors would like tothank all students from School of Physical Education and Sports, Gazi University in Ankara for theirassistance with the project.REFERENCEBinda S, Culham E, Brouwer B. (2003).Balance, muscle strength, and fear of falling in older adults. Exp AgingRes.; 29: 205-19.Blackburn T, Guskiewicz K, Petschauer M, Prentice W. (2000).Balance and joint stability: The relativecontributions of proprioception and muscular strength. J Sport Reh.; 9:315-28.Bruhn S, Kullmann N, Gollhofer A. (2004).The effects of a sensorimotor training and strength training onpostural stabilization, maximum isometric contraction and jump performance. Int J Sports Med.; 25: 56-60.Carter N, Khan K, Mallinson A, Janssen P, Heinonen A, Petit M, McMay H.(2002).Knee extension strength is asignificant determinant of static and dynamic balance as well as quality of life in older communitydwellingwomen in osteoporosis. Gerontology. ; 48:360-8.Gribble PA, Hertel J. (2004).Effect of lower-extremity muscle fatigue on postural control. Arch Phys MedRehabil.; 85:589-92.Gu M, Schultz A, Shepard N, Alexander N.(1996).Postural control in young and elderly adults when stance isperturbed: Dynamics. J Biomec.; 29: 319-29.Heitkamp H, Mayer F, Fleck M, Horstamann T. (2002).Gain in thigh muscle strength after balance training maleand female judokas. Isokinetics Exerc Sci.; 10: 199-202.Heitkamp HC, Horstmann T, Mayer F, Weller J, Dickhuth HH.(2001).Gain in strength and muscular balanceafter balance training. Int J Sports Med.; 22:285-90.Iossifidou A, Baltzopoulos V, Giakas G.(2005).Isokinetic knee extension and vertical jumping: Are they related?J Sports Sci.; 23(10): 1121-7.Jones DA, Rutherford OM. (1987).Human muscle strength training: the effects of three different regimens andthe nature of the resultant changes. J Physiol..; 391: 1-11. Barrack RL, Skinner HB, Cook SD.(1984)Proprioception of the knee joint. Am J Phys Med.; 63(4):175-181.Johnston RB, Howard ME, Cawley PW, Losse GM. (1998).Effect of lower extremity muscular fatigue on motorcontrol performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc.; 30(12): 1703-7.Liston RAL, Brouwer BJ. (1996).Reliability and validity of measures obtained from stroke patients using thebalance master. Arc Phys Med Rehab.; 77: 425-30.McCurdy K, Langford G.(2005).Comparison of unilateral squat strength between the dominant and nondominantleg in men and women. J Sports Sci Med.; 4: 153-9.Paasuke M, Ereline J, Gapeyeva H. (2001).Knee extension strength and vertical jumping performance in Nordiccombined athletes. J Sports Med Phys Fitness.; 41: 354-61.Pincivero D, Lephart S, Karunakara R. (1997).Relation between open and closed kinetic chain assessment ofknee strength and functional performance. Clin J Sports Med.; 7: 11-6.Ryushi T, Kumagai K, Hayase H, Abe T, Shibuya K, Ono A. (2000).Effect of resistive knee extension trainingon postural control measures in middle-aged and elderly persons. J Physiol Antropol.; 19(3): 143-9.Tredinnick TJ, Duncan PW. (1988).Reliability of measurements of concentric and eccentric isokinetic loading.Phys Ther.; 68(5):656-9.Verfaillie D, Nichols J, Turkel E, Hovell M. (1997).Effects of resistance, balance and gait training on reductionof risk factors leading to falls in elders. J Aging Phys Act.; 5: 215-228.213

Wells JC, Fewtrell MS.(2006).Measuring body composition. Arch Dis Child.; 91(7):612-7.Wolfson L, Whipple R, Judge J, Amerman P, Derby C, King M. (1993).Training balance and strength in theelderly to improve function. J Am Geriatrics Soc. ; 41: 341-3.Yaggie JA, McGregor SJ.(2002).Effects of isokinetic ankle fatigue on the maintenance of balance and posturallimits. Arch Phys Med Rehabil.; 83(2): 224-8.Yeung SSM, Ng GYF. (2000).Effects of squat lift training and free weight muscle training on maximum liftingload and isokinetic peak torque of young adults without impairments. Phys Ther.; 80(6): 570-7.APPENDIXTable I. Mean values and standard deviations of subject’s data in this studyFull SquatGroup I (N= 11)Half SquatGroup II (N= 11)ControlGroup III (N= 11)Age (year) 21,5 ± 1,6 21,2 ± 1,3 21,9 ± 0,7Height (cm) 179,4 ± 5,2 176,9 ± 5,4 174,5 ± 7,4Weight (kg) 70,9 ± 6,3 70,7 ± 8,0 72,4 ± 6,3Body Mass Index (BMI)kg/m²22.0 22.1 23.5214

Table II: Comparison of the results of isokinetic peak torque at angular velocity of 60º/s and 180º/s in left andright legs before and after training between groupsVariablesMeasurementFull Squat(N=11)Half Squat(N=11)Controls(N=11)Hamstring (L) 60º/s 1 138,7 ± 15,3 123,6 ± 28,2 124,9 ±12,4 0,152 152,9 ± 21,2 133,5 ± 22,4 125,9 ± 12,9 0,00*p 0,00* 0,29 0,38Hamstring (L) 180º/s 1 96,0 ± 19,1 90,8 ± 18,9 97,0 ± 16,4 0,692 110.7 ± 14.7 115,3 ± 14,2 97,2 ± 15,6 0,02*p 0,00* 0,00* 1,00Hamstring (R) 60º/s 1 126,4 ± 22,6 114,6 ± 20,6 122,8 ± 17,3 0,392 154,3 ± 20,2 136,3 ± 23,2 122,7 ± 17,4 0,00*Pp 0,00* 0,00* 0,81Hamstring (R)180º/s 1 86,4 ± 26,3 79,0 ± 23,2 109,7 ± 19,5 0,01*2 103,0 ± 22,4 108,8 ± 15,4 109,5 ± 18,9 0,68p 0,00* 0,00* 0,65Quadriceps (L) 60º/s 1 218,3 ± 29,2 214,0 ± 47,6 209,5 ± 33,1 0,852 227,0 ± 41,9 217,4 ± 37,2 209,5 ± 32,4 0,55p 0,00* 0,76 0,77Quadriceps (L)180º/s 1 126,9 ± 20,2 116,9 ± 26,9 134,5 ± 28,5 0,282 142,1 ± 21,6 138,5 ± 17,3 134,5 ± 28,8 0,74p 0,00* 0,00* 0,65Quadriceps (R) 60º/s 1 217,3 ± 36,5 215,9 ± 47,7 207,2 ± 31,8 0,802 228,9 ± 25,1 212,8 ± 46,5 207,5 ± 31,4 0,35p 0,25 0,77 0,66Quadriceps (R)180º/s 1 113,8 ± 23,6 109,7 ± 31,7 136,1 ± 27,9 0,072 140,4 ± 31,9 141,1 ± 20,2 136,3 ± 28,0 0,90p 0,00* 0,00* 0,70* p< 0,051: before training 2: after training R- right L- left215

Table III: Comparison of the results of balance test before and after training between groupsFull Squat Half Squat ControlsVariables Measurement (N=11)(N=11) (N=11)PStatic test 1 296,2±39,8 232,5±17,4 232,9±10,0 0,132 227,0±16,3 177,4±14,2* 232,9±13,7 0,24Dynamic test 1 1376,7±56,0 1480,5±70,1 1480,5±70,1 0,532 1171,2±60,5* 1328,4±68,5 1387,4±43,0 0,10* p< 0,051: before training 2: after traininga b cFigure I. Exercise Program for Group Ia b cFigure II. Exercise program for Group 2.216

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 3(3), 2010ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationAN APPRAISAL OF INTERNET USAGE AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF MEMBERS OFJOSEPH AYO BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, IKEJI ARAKEJI, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA.OGUNREWO J. O*. and ODUSINA E. K.JOSEPH AYO BABALOLA UNIVERSITY, IKEJI ARAKEJI, OSUN STATE, NIGERIA.*E-mail address for correspondence: jogunrewo@yahoo.com_______________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The survey investigated and appraised the use of internet among academic staff members of Joseph AyoBabalola University, Ikeji Arakeji, Osun State, Nigeria. Pre-tested structured questionnaires were administered tosixty randomly selected respondents; fifty six were appropriately filled and were used for analysis. Data were analyzedusing descriptive statistics. The study revealed a greater percentage of male (83.9%) among the academic staffmembers. In addition, 7.1%, 8.9%, 12.5%, 12.5%, 21.4% and 32.1% were Professor, Reader, Senior Lecturer,Lecturer I, Lecturer II and Assistant Lecturer respectively. Majority (80.4%) of them had access to the net withminimum of three years exposure to it. However, the mostly acclaimed means of surfing the net was through their ownpersonal computers (66.1%) and the mostly sought information was on research and academic materials. More thanfour out of every five academic staff members indicated research and academic materials as the reason for surfing thenet. The rating result gotten from summation of weighted values (SWV) also buttressed this point. The study concludedthat the use of internet had greatly enhanced and contributed to effective, efficient and high performance level ofacademic staff members in the university.Keywords: Internet usage, Surfing, academic staff members._______________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONWith the introduction and the use of the internet, some information is only a few clicks away. In the contemporaryworld, information is an important ingredient to success. Inability of some establishments to perform or to performuptimally may be due to dearth of information. Availability of the right information at the right time can make all thedifference between failure and success in all levels of human endeavours. Today, relevant information outweighs theprice of gold. One of the yardsticks for measuring the effectiveness of individuals, institutions, organizations orcorporate bodies today is the extent to which they are exposed to information communication technology, that is,among many other things, the level of computer literacy and ability to access and surf the internet.Nowadays, the slogan ‘publish or perish’ is popular and a reality among the academics. This idea of publish or perishhas encouraged the academics to engage in serious research and search for scientific, correct and up-to-dateinformation through the internet or visit the library that is capable of providing access to various data bases and onlinejournals for their various uses. Some academic staff members have been exposed to the use of computer and internetright from their secondary school education or tertiary institutions, while some were exposed to the internet when theygot to the universities. The internet knowledge received has been helpful in the search for the right search-engine touse for their academic activities. Among the available popular search-engines, we have the Yahoo, Google, Alta vista,Northern light, L ycos, Excite Webcrawler, Info seek, Hotbot, to mention just a few. In Nigeria today, nearly all theuniversities are making use of internet to facilitate teaching, research and get connected with other activities in otheruniversities of the world. In fact, the world indeed has become a global community217

To facilitate a policy for Joseph Ayo Babalola University on Information and Communication Technology (ICT), anumber of measures has been put in place, conspicuous among them is the different workshops to create awareness,educate staff members on ICT. With the establishment of computer Science Department, it has been the base and thedriven force of the ICT operations in Joseph Ayo Babalola University. In this Department, academic staff membershave been working assiduously to create a structure envisaged by management. The university has also thought it wiseto have an ICT policy in place in order to drive its ICT activities. The constituents of the policy include: Establishment of a portal and functional website Establishment of social networks. Introduction of e-learning/e-library. Establishment of computer management policy. Creating of hotspots and expansion of networks. Creating a website for entrepreneurship and innovation. Formulation of distance and e-learning policy. Collaboration within colleges and inter-colleges and e-libraries. Fast tracking linkages with sister institutions and different research institutions. Affiliation of ICT unit with the Computer Science Department for effective and efficientperformance and maximum utilization of available resources.Joseph Ayo Babalola University is ICT driven and is almost four years old now. The academics rely on internet as oneof their major sources of information. Has internet contributed to their effectiveness and efficiency? What is the levelof their computer literacy? How do they access, surf the net and for what purpose? What is their level of exposure,reason for surfing and frequency of use? These are parts of the focus of this study. The need for study that will answerthe above questions was also mentioned by Robinson (2005) in his study.Internet can be multi-dimensionally explained. Internet is a computer-based global information system. The Internet iscomposed of many interconnected computer networks (Bane and Milhieim, 1995). Each network may link tens,hundreds, or even thousands of computers, enabling them to share information and processing power. The Internet hasmade it possible for people all over the world to communicate with one another effectively and inexpensively (Comer,2009). The invention of internet has led to the development of virtual library, other services in all facets of life,institutions and all human endeavours. The following services can be enjoyed via the internet, they are, just to mentiona few, sending and receiving e-mails, visiting websites, chatting, reading newspapers online, learning, accessing the e-journals, databases, etc. It is not an exaggeration to say that the internet has become an invaluable tool for teaching,learning and research (Yumba, 1997; Ojedokun and Owolabi, 2003; Adomi, Omodeko and Otolo, 2004).Moreover, internet involves searching and probing for information which touches all human activity and iscommunicated in many ways which include speech, pictures, video, text etc. Therefore, for academics to achieve theirnoble ends of imparting and dissemination of information necessary for self, socio-economic and communitydevelopment, internet is a sine qua non. Not only this, access to the required information is also important andparamount to effective performance in academics as well as other human endeavours and organizations. Adequate,timely and cost effective information has been generally recognized as contributing immensely to the effectiveness andefficiency of any organization. A functional internet relates to many advantages of the information systems. Recentdevelopments in computer communication and net-working technology have given new meaning to informationretrieval systems. It has created a wall-less library where necessary information can easily be retrieved when desired.This has turned the whole world to a global community. Today, there is no doubt that information sharing is beingachieved through network of networks. This information super highway is growing rapidly and is connecting millionsof people globally. Internet and Information and communication technology have turned the whole world into a globalvillage.METHODOLOGYStructured questionnaires after pre-tested at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria were used tocollect quantitative data from randomly selected sixty respondents. Quantitative information on gender, status, access,exposure, frequency and purpose of internet use among many other were collected. Data collected where edited, codedand analysed using descriptive statistics.218

RESULTSA total of 60 academic staff members of the institution were randomly selected and interviewed by using structuredquestionnaire. The study sample that cut across all colleges represented about 30 percent of the total academic staffmembers at the time of the survey. However, out of the 60 respondents, 56 filled their questionnaires appropriately andwere used for data analysis.TABLE 1: Gender of RespondentsSEXFREQUENCYN %Male 47 83.9Female 9 16.1Total 56 100.0Source: Field Survey, 2010As shown in Table 1, the sampled population contained more of male than female. More than three quarter of thesampled population of academic staff members of the university were male (83.9%). The record of academic staffmembers in the university buttressed this finding.TABLE II: DISTR IBUTION OF STAFF MEMBERS BY STATUS/DESIGNATIONSTATUS/DESIGNATIONFREQUENCYNO %Professor 4 7.1Reader 5 8.9Senior Lecturer 7 12.5Lecturer I 7 12.5Lecturer II 12 21.4Assistant Lecturer 18 32.1Graduate Assistant 3 5.4TOTAL 56 100.00Source: Field Survey, 2010Table II showed the distribution of academic staff members by status/designation. It could be observed that 32.1% and21.4% of the sampled population were Assistant Lecturer and Lecturer II respectively. The table also revealed that12.5% of respondents were Lecturer I while the same percentage also applied to Senior Lecturer. Both Reader (8.9%)and Professor (7.1%) were not less than 16.0% of the sampled population.219

TABLE 111: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THEIR ACCESS TO INTERNETDo you have access tointernet?FREQUENCYYes % NO %45 80.4 11 19.6Source: Field Survey, 2010Table III above showed the distribution of respondents by their access to internet. The study revealed that majority(80.4%) of the academic staff members had access to the internet. The study carried out in Kuvempu University byBirader and others (2006) had similar result.TABLE IV: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THEIR YEARS OF EXPOSURE TO INTERNETEXPOSURE TO INTERNETFREQUENCYNO %< 1 year 5 8.91-2years 5 8.93 – 4 years 12 21.4> 5 years 34 60.7TOTAL 56 100.00Source: Field Survey, 2010Table V indicated that 60.7% of the respondents had more than five years of exposure to the internet or had been usingcomputer/internet for more than 5 years. More than one quarter of the respondents (21.4%) had been using the internetfor about 3 to 4 years. While about 20% indicated they had been using internet in less or equal to 2 years.TABLE V: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY THE CHANNELS USED TO SURF THE INTERNETCHANNELS USED TO SURFTHE INTERNETFREQUENCYNO %Personal Laptop/desktop 37 66.1Office Cybercafé 5 8.9Computer Laboratory 7 12.5University Library Cafe 5 8.9Departmental Cafe 2 3.6TOTAL 56 100.0Source: Field Survey, 2010220

Table V showed that more than two third of the respondents (66.1%) indicated the use of personal laptop/desktop aschannel to surf the internet. While 12.5% indicated the use of Computer Laboratory to surf the net, 8.9% percentclaimed that they used Office Cybercafé and University Library Café.TABLE VI: DITRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY TIME SPENT FOR SURFING THEINTERNET PER WEEKFREQUENCYTIME SPENT PER WEEKNO %< 10 Hours 27 48.210 – 20 Hours 10 17.921 – 30 Hours 11 19.631 – 40 Hours 5 8.941 – 50 Hours 0.0 0.0> 51 Hours 3 5.4TOTAL 56 100.0Source: Field Survey, 2010A reasonable number, 27 (48.2%) of the respondents had a sort of romance with the internet for less than 10hours perweek. While 17.9% and19.6% of the respondents used the internet about 10 – 20 hours and 21 – 30 hours per weekrespectively, 8.9% used the net for about 31 – 40 hours per week.TABLE VII: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY PURPOSE OF SURFING THEINTERNETFREQUENCYPURPOSE OF SURFING THE INTERNETNO %For research and academic materials 47 83.9To send and receive e-mail 32 57.1Reading of Newspaper, for entertainment & sport 20 35.7Others 26 46.4Multiple responses were allowedSource: Field Survey, 2010Table VII showed the distribution of respondents by the purpose of surfing the internet. Close to 85% (83.9%) of therespondents indicated that they used the net for research and academic materials while 57.1% used the net to send andreceive electronic mails. Those who used the internet for reading of newspapers, entertainment and sport represented35.7% of the total respondents.221

TABLE VIII: DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY SELECTED REASONS FOR USING THE INTERNETAND THEIR RATINGVariablesStronglyagreed5Agree4Just agree3Disagree2Stronglydisagree1TotalIndexEase downloading of related informationmaterials for teaching and research140 32 30 10 5 217 3.88Ease the exchange of study materials/ideaswith colleaguesEase the sending and receiving ofmaterials/articlesEase access to study materials in obtainingpeer review thereby strengthening researchand journal publicationHelped in having access to database notfound in the libraryMaking choice of research easier and easethe sending and receiving of mails.Source: Field Survey, 201040 44 84 12 3 183 3.2730 88 42 12 8 180 3.2145 32 69 6 16 168 3.0025 28 78 36 5 172 3.0740 24 69 8 15 156 2.79Note: The values shown in the table were obtained by multiplying the preference scale (1-5) by the number ofrespondents at each level, e.g 28 respondents × 5 =140, 8 respondents × 4 = 32 etc.BENEFIT OF THE INTERNETThere were many reasons for the use of internet by the academic staff members. The study listed six perceived reasonsand respondents reacted to them. The results were analyzed using the statistical method of summation of weightedvalues (SWV). Five ratings were used. They were namely ‘strongly agreed’, ‘agree’, ‘just agree’, ‘disagree’ and‘strongly disagree’ corresponding to scales of preferences of 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. The preference index wasobtained by dividing the SWV for each attribute or reason by the total number of respondents analyzed. Table VIIIrevealed that ‘ease downloading of related information materials for teaching and research’ was given the highestpriority as the reason for surfing the internet with an index of 3.88 by the academic staff members. This was followedby ‘ease the exchange of study materials/ideas with colleagues’ with an index of 3.27. ‘Sending and receiving ofmaterials /articles’ came third in the rating with an index of 3.21 while an index rating of 3.07 represented respondentswho claimed that it helped in having ‘access to data base not found in the library’. The fifth position in the rating withan index of 3.00 went to ‘ease access to study materials in obtaining peer review thereby strengthening research andjournal publication’ as the reason for surfing the net while the least position with an index of 2.79 went to the claimedthat internet was useful for ‘making choice of research easier and ease the sending and receiving of mails’.CONCLUSIONThe study revealed that the majority of the academic staff members at Joseph Ayo Babalola University, Ikeji Arakeji,Ilesa, Osun State were male. All categories of academic staff members were well represented in the institution. Morethan four out of every five academic members indicated that they had access to the net and had at least three years ofexposure to the net. The mostly used means through which they surf the net was through own personal computer. Mostimportantly, internet was being used for research and to search for academic materials. The rating of the purpose of222

surfing the net also buttressed this point. More than half of the sampled population spent minimum of ten hours to surfthe net every week. The study revealed that internet had contributed immensely to high level performance ofacademic staff members in Joseph Ayo Babalola University. The earlier studies of Nath (1989) and Griffiths andBrophy (2005) buttressed this point. The study had also increased and deepened our knowledge and understandingabout the use of internet by the academic staff members in the universities, Joseph Ayo Babalola University as a casestudy. It had shown that the University had a functioning internet network that was contributing greatly to teaching,research and other activities in the university.RECOMMENDATIONIn view of the findings from this study, the following recommendations were made:Taking the benefits of internet into consideration, its use should be encouraged in order for it to contribute more toeffectiveness and efficiency in the institution. Since most of the academic staff members prefer the use of theirpersonally own computer to surf the net, the management of the university should encourage this by purchasingpersonal computers for them or in the least subsidize or give soft loan in this respect. Moreover, the effectiveness ofthe internet needs to be ensured for greater productivity. Feminism or gender issues in internet usage and employmentneed to be considered and studied.REFERENCESAdomi, E. E., Omodeko, F. S., and Otolo, P.U. (2004). ‘The use of Cybercafé at Delta State University, Nigeria’. Thelibrary Hi Tech 22(4):38-85.Bane, A. F. and Milhieim, W. D. (1995). ‘Internet insights: how academics are using the internet’. Computers in theLibrary 19 (2), 32-36.Biradar, B. S., Rajashekar G. R. and Sampath Kumar B T.(2006). ‘A study of internet usage by students and facultiesin Kuvempu University’. Library Herald.44 (4); December 2006. Pp283-294.Comer, Douglas E. "Internet." Microsoft® Encarta® 2009 [DVD]. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Corporation, 2008.Griffiths, J. R and Brophy, P. (2005). ‘Student Searching Behavior and the Web: Use of Academic Resources andGoogle’. Library Trends Spring. pp.539-554.Nath, R. (1989). ‘Are frequent computers users more satisfied?’ Information Processing and Management 25(5) P.557-562.Ojedokun, A. A. and Owolabi, E. O. (2003). ‘Internet access competence and the use of the internet for teaching andresearch activities by University of Botswana Academic Staff’. African Journal of Library, Archives andInformation Science, 13(1): 43-53.Robinson Jannie W. (2009) ‘Internet use among African - American college students: An Exploratory study’.Retrieved from http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/fullcit/3156015,Accessed 22 nd June, 2009.Yumba, D. (1997). ‘Internet in the Library: potentials’. African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science7(2): 163-168.223

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 3(3), 2010ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationSecretarial Education: A Catalyst for Family EmpowermentIgbinedion, Victor ImuetinyanDepartment of Vocational & Technical EducationFaculty of Education University of Benin, Benin City. NigeriaE-mail address for correspondence: vicidion@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: This paper discusses Secretarial education as a catalyst for family empowerment. This is againstthe background that when the family, which is considered as the bedrock of any society is empowered itsubsequently leads to the social, economic and political growth and stability of any nation. Though thehusband or man is generally regarded as the breadwinner, the wife or woman plays a major and criticalrole in family stability and economy. On this score she is acknowledged, projected and recommended formore education given the low accessibility of women to education in most developing countries. The pointis emphasized that substantial family income requires prudent management and financial literacy forproper family empowerment. Secretarial education is proffered as the catalyst education for familyempowerment based on the fact that secretarial skills and knowledge are needed in almost all spheres ofhuman endeavour. It guarantees prompt and decent employment for family members who have competentsecretarial skills. Family members could also go entrepreneurial to establish small-scale businesses of thetypes suggested in this paper for adequate family empowerment.Keywords: Secretarial education for family empowerment______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe family is the bedrock of any society. The foundation on which the solid social life of any society isbuilt derives from the „healthiness‟ of the families that make up that society or nation. “Healthiness” in thiscontext refers to a high standard of moral norms, mores, values and attitudes prevailing in a society and thelevels of social, cultural, economic, education, political, and health attainments of the people in the societyas to positively affect their national growth and development.In the national development equation education remains the fulcrum upon which other indices of nationaldevelopment revolve. The level and quality of education collectively attained in a given society determinesthe extent to which other factors of development are exploited for the advancement of that society.Education creates awareness and develops the potentials in man to subdue and harness the resources in hisenvironment for the betterment of himself and his society. Education according to Okafor (1984) is a225

process of acculturation through which the individual is helped to attain the development of all his/herpotentials and the maximum activation when necessary, according to right reason and thereby achieve hisperfect self-fulfillment.Education is generally seen as the greatest investment that the nation can make for quick development of itseconomic, political and sociological life (FRN 1981). It is a process through which a person acquiresknowledge, skills, habits and values that enable the person to function effectively as a member of thesociety in which he/she lives. According to Ojobo (2008) education helps one to maximize one‟s physical,mental and emotional capabilities which are useful for one and one‟s society. Education therefore is veryinstrumental to raising family income and empowerment. It has a multiplier effect on family resourcewhen all members of the family are educated.Family Resource ManagementThe family is the smallest unit of the society and it requires abundant resources for its survival. The familysurvival and relative social standing in the society is contingent on the resources available to it and itsability and capacity to efficiently and effectively manage these resources among competing familydemands and needs. This endowment – financial management, otherwise called family economics is a veryimportant art in family survival and excel. Simply put family economics mean what the family earns andhow it spends it. The greater income a family earns the greater its relative well being and prosperity of themembers of such family. Resources are scarce and their prudent allocation and utilization to needs andwants require more than the native intelligence. The family spends money on several areas of needsincluding: food, rent, utility, medical expenses, education and other essential demands. A family‟sconsumption and expenditure pattern is determined by the family‟s lifecycle, lifestyle and family goal.Many families are unable to meet their obligations due to poor earning and poor financial managementskills. Families, therefore, need to maximize input resources to provide and pursue family objective andsurvival. This can only be achieved by the level of awareness and education attained by the totality offamily members.The relative social standing of a family is determined in part by its earnings. Other factors that influencefamily social standing include cultural, social class, financial literacy, individual and personalcharacteristics. It is essential to discuss two of the critical issues that impinge on the relative social andeconomic standing of the family in the society. These are the social class or group relative to the objectiveof the family and family financial literacy. Economists have long posited that human wants are insatiable.Human beings strive to satisfy their legitimate wants and needs by hard work and the more successful theyare the more they move up the social ladder. When they are complacent they remain down the ladder.Certain factors could that stagnate a family include cultural barriers, access to education, laziness, lack ofrelevant information and poverty. Of paramount importance to the social class or group a family belongsor wants to belong as their objective. Miller (2000) lists the variables as including occupation, income,wealth, education, and value orientation. These are not conveyed on families by wishful thinking, theyrequire concerted effort, hard work, focus, family‟s cohesion dedication to family goals as well as divineprovidence.It ought to be noted that some family members around the world have by providence won huge lotterysums but such fortunes did not change their financial and social status. They frittered such winnings awayon frivolities as a result poor financial management skills hence thy returned to their status quo ante. Thislays credence to the fact that prudent financial management and literacy are very crucial in family survivaland social standing. According to Oyesola (2010) financial literacy is the awareness and consciousness ofhow to generate income or wealth and how to use the same wisely to expansively generate further wealth.On their part Molokwu and Oduma (2009) note that financial literacy is not just about knowing how tobalance a cashbook or how to maintain a credit book. It includes knowing how to generate money or assetand how to minimize and control family spending, improve family savings and invest to ensure futurefamily financial security. There lies the importance of resource management in a family. The core playersin a family are usually the husband and wife. The husband is generally seen as the breadwinner of thefamily but this role is now being complemented by the wife. The wife now in addition to handling herdomestic chores foray outside the comfort of her home to seek employment to bolster family income forempowerment. Though the woman or wife has joined in generating more income for the family, it is still226

her main responsibility to effectively manage the available financial resources of the family for survival.The efficient allocation of family and utilization of family resource among competing demands is mainlythe domain of the wife. Thus her education becomes a critical factor in this regards. .The trend of womenrole as the homemaker and keeper is gradually fading out in modern living. Women are taking up hugeresponsibilities to help empower the family and the society in the face of some socio-cultural barriers thatstifle their efforts and stultify their initiatives. Women education opens vast opportunities for them toempower their families.Women Education and Family EmpowermentWomen constitute a larger segment of any population of most countries. Indeed, in most countries they outnumber the men. They contribute significantly to family income and national development but as most ofthem are illiterates their contributions are limited.Machel (2010) observes that education is the bedrock of progress adding that educated women willempower Africa. She further notes that the gender gap in schooling remains a concern as Africa still lagsbehind many parts of the world in educating the girls from primary school through to university eventhough more girls are attending and completing schools now than a decade ago. The education of morewomen will raise the standard of living of families. Their contributions will significantly improve if theyare well educated. Ojobo (2008) asserts that women education is a process by which women acquireknowledge, skills, norms and values that are necessary for their development and that of the society.Women education has been at the center of world debate given the pivotal role they play in nationaldevelopment. Studies have revealed that women access to education especially in developing countries isminimal in spite of their capacity to influence national development very positively. A look at theenrolment pattern of Male-Female in Nigerian Universities by Faculties in 2003/2004 academic year paintsa lucid but a non-encouraging picture of the standing of women in nation‟s high manpower developmentequation.Table 1: Number of Male-Female in Nigerian Universities by Faculty in 2003/2004 Academic YearFaculty Male Female % FemaleAdmin/Mgt. Studies 56217 28551 33.68Agriculture 27755 12152 30.45Arts 48946 25214 33.99Education 64739 33992 34.42Engineering/Technology 48332 12607 20.68Environmental Science 22813 6922 23.27Law 20949 12097 36.60Medicine 27198 14791 35.22Pharmacy 4150 2067 33.24Science 92065 44606 48.45Social Science 72133 36387 33.53Veterinary Medicine 2517 695 21.03Dentistry 1560 840 35.00Source: National University Commission Data Bank, Abuja227

The recognition of the need for equity, equality in access to education by women has been the basis ofagitation for women empowerment. A landmark effort was the United Nations World Conference ofWomen in 1975 and the subsequent declaration in 1975 –1985 as the Decade for Women. Furthermore, the1978 General Conference of UNESCO meeting observed that increasing educational opportunities forwomen boosts equity and foster national development. The potential contribution of educated and trainedwomen to labor force and importance of their education in the improvement of family welfare and planningare factors still underestimated. This observation buttresses the fact that women education is the key toopening dormant areas of national development and provide fillip for social stability and it therefore standsto reason that the higher the education women receive the more they are mainstreamed into nationaldevelopment.The society is made up of families, while individuals make up families. The term family has come tomean, a man the wife and children or sometimes extra family relatives. This family is based upon maritalor conjugal relationship and it is referred to as a nuclear family. There is also the consanguine family madeup of extended clan of blood relatives together with their mates and children. Whether nuclear orconsanguine the family plays a very essential role in societal growth, development and stability. Theaggregate families constitute the society and in turn the nation. Though the male is usually regarded as thehead of the family the wife and mother is a major player in the affairs and survival of the family. Childrenaccording to Hochschild (2003) are intricately involved in the survival process as they take care of youngerones, feed animals and are responsible for a variety of chores. They have even moved outside the home tojoin economic activities to support the family. The traditional roles of the male as breadwinners and femaleas homemakers have changed in many countries. Awake (2006) observed that with the entry of womeninto the paid workplace, there has been a notable rise in the number of dual career households. Women infamilies are now required by modern lifestyle demands to assist in providing family necessities in severalareas. This, she cannot effectively do and ingeniously without empowerment. What is empowerment?Empowerment as defined by Sako (1999) is the process of strengthening the existing capacities andcapabilities of disadvantaged groups in society so as to perform towards improving themselves, theirfamilies and society as a whole. It involves the provision of enabling environment for their productive andintellectual abilities to be realized”. Ojob (2008) describes empowerment as a multidimensional processinvolving the transformation of economic, social, psychological, political and legal circumstances of thepowerless. These two perspectives view empowerment as advantageous to the individual, society and tothe nation at large and in all spheres of human endeavour. When the empowerment concept is thereforeapplied to women the advantages are innumerable to the women, families and the society, hence Fadeiyeand Olanegan (2006) saw women empowerment as a process of enabling women to develop the capacity toactualize their potentials . . . . That women should be looked on as individuals that possess hiddenpotentials for greatness and so should be encouraged to develop such to the fullest. The truth is that when awoman develops her full potentials the family is the first to reap the reward before the entire society.Secretarial Education for Family EmpowermentSecretarial studies started in the United States of America in the 17 th and 18 th centuries. By the 19 th and20 th centuries the course expanded rapidly to some developed countries and spread to developing countries.Today, Secretarial Studies is a specialized phase of vocational education that prepares students to enterteaching and office occupations as capable and intelligent members of the labor force. Women are nostrangers to secretarial education. They started to enter the vocation in the late 1880s about the same timewhen the adding machine, typewriters and telephone were invented. Since then secretarial education hasundergone a lot of transformation in all ramifications in order to meet changing office work andenvironment. The information and communication technology has taken secretarial education beyond thelevel imagined by its inventors. It has also provided job opportunities for both women and men. The useof secretarial services permeates all facets of a country‟s socio-economic and political life. For example,Secretaries – products of secretarial education - usually work in offices with other professionals in schools,hospitals, corporate settings, or in legal and medical offices.Secretaries and administrative assistants are employed in organizations of every type. They are employedin firms providing services ranging from education and health to legal and business services. Others workfor firms engaged in manufacturing, construction, wholesale and retail trade, transportation, and228

communication. Banks, insurance companies, investment firms, and real estate firms are also importantemployers, as well as Federal, State, and local government agencies. This non-restrictive nature ofsecretarial services provides its recipients with wide access to job employment opportunities.From the pervasive nature of secretarial services it is clear that virtually all sphere of life need secretarialintervention. All organizations need good information management systems, good record keeping foreffective competitiveness and profit making. Secretarial education has been evolving and developing withthe advancement in office work and technology. As a response many tertiary institutions in Nigeria havenow changed the nomenclature from Secretarial Education/Studies to Office Technology and Management.It portrays responsiveness to global changes in office and secretarial work especially with the application ofinformation and communication technology to office secretarial practices. This new perception opened awide vista in the development of new skills in the secretarial vocation and helped in the creation of manynew jobs and job opportunities for secretarial graduates and other secretarial operatives. Other secretarialoperatives are now commonly used as data entry clerks, coders and others with minimal training because ofthe flexibility of their skills. Today, secretaries play less of their traditional roles of typing and takingdictation and are able to function in administrative capacities where they support other members of theexecutive staff. In a number of organizations secretaries and administrative assistants work in teams inorder to work flexibly and share their expertise.Specific job duties vary with experience and titles. Executive secretaries and administrative assistants, forexample, perform fewer clerical tasks than other secretaries. In addition to arranging conference calls,scheduling meetings, they may handle more complex responsibilities such as conducting research,preparing statistical reports, training employees, and supervising clerical staff. From the foregoing it isobvious that secretarial work keeps expanding and has a lot of room for initiative and abilities to improveorganizations well being. Many job opportunities have been created for competent secretarial graduatesand other secretarial operatives. Thus a housewife with some basic education can undergo an informalsecretarial course where she can acquire some secretarial skill and knowledge that can secure for her adecent gainful employment that will empower her and her family. With basic education computer trainingcan be acquired for secretarial services in non-formal settings such as business centers or information andcommunication centers (cyber cafés) with flexible training hours. In addition, under apprenticeship schememany young ladies, housewives and other family members (boy and girls) can acquire secretarial skills forpersonal and family survival. Apart from married women, young family members who are unable to secureadmission to further their studies in tertiary institutions for lack of finance or ability can fill such gaps withcompetency in secretarial skills to enable them secure gainful employment to assist the family withadditional income or even save towards their further education.Secretarial education whether acquired through the formal education or non-formal setting helps recipientto secure employable and entrepreneurial skills for decent living. Unskilled graduates, secondary schoolleavers, both boys and girls, who for the scorn of unskilled labor could have embraced prostitution, armedrobbery, drugs and other social vices, could be gainfully employed through the acquisition of secretarialskills. Youths, and even adults unable to secure decent living could constitute societal nuisance, familyembarrassment. They could be constructively engaged through the acquisition of secretarial skills wherethey can contribute to family income and national productivity.Entrepreneurial areas in Secretarial Services for Family Investment and empowermentThe purpose of any type of education is to either to secure gainful employment for personal and familysurvival or to become an entrepreneur who can also employ labour. Recipients of secretarial educationhave the benefit of these two options. In terms of entrepreneurship they can establish any type of thesebusinesses for family empowerment:(1) Business Centres:The family can open a business centre where secretarial services are provided either in a higherinstitution of learning or in the central business district of the city. They can secure a loan frommicrofinance outfits to pay for the initial rent, purchase the necessary equipment like computers,229

printers, photocopiers, laminators, paper binders, scanners, telephone handsets etc. In the centre theycould provide the public with such services as typing of documents, typesetting, desktop publishing,paper and project binding, photocopying of documents, lamination of documents and telephoneservices. The centre could be manned by the wife and some family members. Children on holidayscould also assist in the centre for a fee. This could generate enough income for family empowermentif properly managed.(2) Cyber CaféThe family with some secretarial skills and additional training in information and communicationtechnology can easily establish a cyber café as their skills are easily adaptable. Schramm (2008) hasobserved that wherever ICTS are will developed, they are usually credited with considerable power toshape opinion, belief, change habit of life, and mould behaviour actively, more or less according to thewill of those who could control them and their contents. With these acquired skills in the familyservices can provided to the public for a fee. Training can also be given to outsiders willing to learnfor some fee while under apprenticeship. When adequately managed the family income will increaseand they will be empowered in diverse areas.(3) Consultancy ServicesWhen family members are well versed in complex secretarial work and ICT they can establish aconsultancy unit that can assist young firms to establish electronic office, records managementprocedures and even sell ICT and secretarial facilities and equipment to such firms. Huge incomecould be generated from such ventures to empower the family.CONCLUSIONThe acquisition of Secretarial education is certainly a catalyst for family empowerment. This is becauseSecretarial education is easily accessible in both the formal and non-formal education settings. Besides, itis affordable as it is not so capital intensive for the learners. The average family could afford the training inthe non-formal setting with flexible study time. It requires focus, patience and dedication. The acquisitionof secretarial skills opens numerous job opportunities to its recipients because secretarial manpower andservices are need in all areas of the economy. Thus, family members who have secretarial skills are notlikely to waste much time on unemployment queue before securing gainful employment. Family memberswith competent secretarial skills could establish small-scale businesses of the types earlier discussed whereother members of the family (adult and youths) could help to generate more income for familyempowerment.REFERENCESDavis, S. (2006). Can marriage withstand the storm? Awake Magazine JulyFederal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education. Lagos NERDCPress.Hochschild, A. R. (2003).When work becomes home and home becomes work Down to Earth Sociology:Introductory Readings Henshim, J. M. (ed.) (pp 407-409)New York Free PressMachel, G. (2010). Empowering Africa‟s women. BusinessDay. Thursday 27 May.Miller, C (2009). Family economics and financial literacy. Retrieved February 31 from www.FamilyEco.Com/Economy org/uk.230

Molokwu, N and Oduma, C. A. (2009). The case of positive financial behaviour among secondary schoolstudents in Abakaliki metropolis. Nigeria Journal of Home Economics (NigJHEC) (1). Pp32-37Ojobo, J. A. (2008). Education: A catalyst for women empowerment. Ethiopia Journal of Education andScience. (4) 1 SeptemberOkafor, R. K. (1984). Nigerian Teacher Education: A search for New Direction. Enugu. FourthDimension Publishers Co. LtdOyesola, B (2010). Global Economic depression and its implication for Nigeria. BusinessDay. Lagos.Tuesday, JuneSako, R (ed) (1999).Women empowerment and Advancement Manual. Kaduna League for DemocraticWomen. (Leads)Schramm, M (1990). International news wires and third world news in Asia. Edward, R.M. (ed) Rapports:The Fletcher in school of law and diplomacy. Pp130 – 132.231

Ozean Journal of Social Sciences 3(3), 2010ISSN 1943-2577© 2009 Ozean PublicationON CONFLICT HANDLING STRATEGIES OF MILITARY AND CIVILIANPERSONNEL OF MINISTRY OF DEFENCE, IBADAN, NIGERIAYARA, Philias Olatunde* and TUNDE-YARA, Esther Taiwo OlufumilolaKampala International University, Faculty of Science and Technology,Kampala, Uganda*E-mail address for correspondence: yaraphilias@yahoo.com_____________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Conflict is inevitable in all human social interactions due to their varying backgrounds, beliefs or valuesand experiences. Social scientists have diverse views about conflict, all gendering towards misunderstandingpreceded by relationship. The study examined the influence of demographic characteristics on conflict handlingstrategies among civilian and military personnel of the Ministry of Defence, Ibadan, Nigeria. The descriptive surveydesign of the ex-post facto type was used to study the conflict handling strategies. Two hundred and thirty- twoparticipants formed the study population. One validated instrument - Conflict Handling Strategies Questionnaire(CHSQ) (r =0.65) was used. Five hypotheses were postulated and answered. Data analysis was carried out with theuse of Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), t-test and Multiple regression analysis.The result showed that the main effectof sex on conflict handling strategy was not significant (F (1,151) = 1.33; p > 0.05). However, the main effect of ageand marital status was significant (Age: F (1,151) = 4.8; p < 0.05); marital status: F (1,151) = 3.63; p < 0.05). Inaddition the interactive influence of age and marital status was significant (F (1,231) = 3.81; p< 0.05). The studycontrary to the assumption showed that there is no significant difference between the military and civilian onconflict handling strategies. However, age and marital status are suggested to influence conflict handling strategiesamong civilians.Keyword: Conflict handling strategies, Ministry of Defence, Military, Civilian, Ibadan._____________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONConflict is a concept that involves two or more persons or groups with respect to perceived blockage of goal byeither of the parties towards an object or option of interest. Conflict could then mean opposition among socialentities directed against one another, in contrast with cooperation. It implies therefore that when the parties are notcooperating, they are opposing and conflict emerges. Conflict has its root from the genesis of creation. The Biblicalaccount of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3) reflects how the devil in serpent forms, subtly prevailed on both of them to goagainst God‟s order by eating the forbidden fruit and thus, chased out of their glorious position. Another instance ofconflict was that of two women claiming the ownership of a living baby. King Solomon effectively handled this233

through God‟s wisdom (I Kings 3). Conflict is inevitable in all human social interactions due to their varyingbackgrounds, beliefs or values and experiences. Social scientists have diverse views about conflict, all genderingtowards misunderstanding preceded by relationship.Ugwuegbu (1999) describes conflict as a basic and inherent feature of relationship, be they relationships betweenand among individuals, husband and wife, communities, one ethnic group and another, one religious group andanother or between one country and another. Simon (1974) sees social conflict as the state of social relationship inwhich incompatible interest between two or more persons give rise to a struggle between them. Otite (2000) positsthat conflict arises from the pursuit of divergent interests, goals and aspirations by individuals and or groups in adefined social and physical environment. According to Albert (2001), conflict is an ambiguous word that could beseen as a debate or argument or contest, disagreement, struggle, state of unrest, turmoil or chaos, dispute or quarrel.In a similar opinion, Standman (1991) sees conflict as emanating from the „tugs and pulls‟ of different identities, thedifferential distribution of resources and access to power and competing definition of what is right, fair and just.As earlier mentioned, if conflict is not perceived it will not exist because different persons perceive situations indifferent ways and attach different meanings to them. When people perceive unequal treatment or injustice, conflictis imminent. In this vein, Thomas (1976) refers to conflict as the process, which begins when one party perceivesthat the other has frustrated or is about to frustrate some concerns of his, ranging from intellectual disagreement tophysical violence. Nevertheless, conflict should not be seen as completely bad or something to be avoided at alltimes because it could be an avenue for creative solutions to human problems and a means to the development of acollective identity and organizational growth. Therefore, Thomas (1976) adds that, disagreements may confront anindividual with factors he had previously ignored and help him arrive at a more comprehensive view, whichsynthesizes elements of his own, and others‟ position. To support this, Deutsch (1971) asserts that conflict issomething that stimulates interest and curiosity. It is often a part of the process of testing and assessing oneself andas such may be highly enjoyable as one experiences the pleasure of full and active use of one‟s capacities. Fromthese definitions, we could infer that conflicts arise from (social) relationship and that conflicting groups must residein close proximity whether physically or psychologically (Albert, 2000).It is inevitable that conflict will always arise hence the only antidote is that we prepare a way out beforehand. Weshould also be careful not to rubbish the positive aspects of conflict by overwhelming its negative effects becauseconflict effectively managed is a necessary precondition for creativity. In recent times, workplace conflicts are onthe rise. Most of them result from personality clashes camouflaged as disagreement over legitimate interests,workplace rights or the appropriate distribution and use of power, but when constructively diagnosed, the false markis easily peeled. Situations of unresolved conflicts in any organizational setting could lead to dwindling performanceof the employees and pose threat to growth and accomplishment of set goals of the organization hence, leaderscannot overlook conflicts. Pilgrim (2004) submits that without conflict growth is limited. Conflict is feared andavoided by many managers because they do not know how to deal with it. Unresolved conflict can be as poisonousto the productivity of a company as the virus is to the computer. Having an understanding about how people dealwith conflict gives the manager an additional tool for managing effectively. Conflict handling is one of the mostimportant social skills required of leaders for growth and high performance in any organization. Certain conflicthandling strategies such as avoiding, accommodating, competing, collaborating and compromising have beendeveloped by management scholars for adoption by leaders as the situation demands.Avoiding strategy is when a party ignores, denies or escapes; it is proactive in avoiding, confronting the other partyor issue. For instance, some employees will rearrange their work area or tasks to minimize interaction with certainco-workers. In most cases avoiding is not the best strategy but rather aggravates conflicts. Accommodating strategyis when a party concedes or gives in completely to the other‟s position and is not assertive of own interests or needsor positions.Competing strategy is when a party tries to win conflict out-rightly at the other‟s expense; it is highly assertive orindividualistic. Collaborating strategy is when a party seeks a mutually beneficial or win-win outcome that isnaturally satisfactory; it is assertive of own interests and empathizes with other party‟s; it is usually the mostpreferred strategy. Compromising strategy is when a party is willing to settle for half a loaf or reach a middleground with the other party; it is inclined to split the difference to get the matter settled if not resolved.In theory and reality, these strategic options are available but may not likely be equally effective, hence the need fora contingency approach to the choice of conflict handling strategies by leaders in organizations. Moreover, none ofthese strategies requires any leader or parties in conflict to be adversarial, disrespectful, and hostile or incitingalthough these behaviours are associated with competing strategy. Conflict in organizations has always been234

associated with destruction (Robbins, 1993; Robbins, 1996). But according to Robbins (1996), conflict when inoptimal form can be a significant factor for organizational growth. Therefore, we posit that conflict can also play aconstructive role in organizational growth and add to organization‟s experience. The traditional conceptualization ofconflict focused primarily on destructive conflict and therefore, discourages development of conflict in anyorganization. However, recent theories of conflict contradict the traditional view of conflict in many ways. While thetraditional theories of conflict criticize the development of organizational conflict, the contemporary theoriesencourage the use of conflict to improve organizational performance and effectiveness. Though these theoriespointed out that at the optimum stage conflict can be advantageous for organization and therefore delineate betweenconstructive and destructive organizational conflict.Furthermore, handling conflicts at the workplace is a critical challenge for individuals and organizations and a topicof growing importance in organizational behaviour and human resource field. The success of every manager lies inhis or her ability to influence and get the best out of the employees. Where conflicts exist and are not handledappropriately, employees‟ performance may be adversely affected, thus hampering organisational success (Dyer,1986; Thomas, 1977). Moreover, the use of certain conflict handling strategies has been noted to be effective inresolving organizational conflict, especially those involving interpersonal strife. However, some studies likeThomas(1977), Robbins(1996), Robbins(1993) have criticized these strategies and that there is no strategy thatworks all the time. Therefore, they explained that the situation and the nature of the conflict may be the bestdeterminants of the strategy to adopt.In view of the recent happenings in the Ministry of Defence, there is need to investigate the nature of conflicthandling and the best ways conflict can be resolved in this organization. For instance, two years ago, the sameMinistry in Lagos was engulfed by fire. Unconfirmed report alleged that the event might not be unconnected withsome problems within the Ministry itself. The implication of this is that this organization may be enmeshed in somefeud that perhaps resides within the Ministry. Interestingly, the prevalent strategy to conflict handling at Ministry ofDefence has not been investigated and people tend to assume that such organization might perhaps be free ofconflict. But the fact remains that no organization is free of conflict irrespective of its constituents and its leadership.The question one may want to ask at this juncture is: will the ministry be effective in the conflict handling strategy ituses? Will the assumption that the ministry is effective in resolving conflict be true? Will civilian personnel of theministry and the military differ markedly in the strategies they use in handling conflict? To what extent dodemographic characteristics influence conflict-handling strategies? This, among other questions has prompted theneed to look into studying the conflict handling strategies between the military and civilian personnel of Ministry ofDefence.MATERIALS AND METHODSHypothesesThe following hypotheses were tested1. Male personnel of the ministry of defense will score significantly higher on conflicthandling strategy than their female counterparts.2. Military personnel of the ministry of defense will score significantly higher on conflict handling strategythan their civilian counterparts.3. There will be significant main and interactive influence of age, sex, and marital status on conflict handlingstrategy among military personnel of ministry of defense.4. There will be significant main and interactive influence of age, sex, and marital status on conflict handlingstrategy among civilian personnel of ministry of defense.5. Job tenure, religion, job status and education will independently and jointly predict conflict strategy.235

ParticipantsTwo hundred and thirty two (232) purposively selected staff of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan constituted the sampleof the study. The sample consisted of male and female, military and civilian personnel. One hundred and fifty-eight(68.1%) of the sample were males while females were seventy-four (31.9%). Military personnel sampled wereeighty (34.5%) while civilians were one hundred and fifty-two (65.5%). Their marital status ranged betweenmarried and single. Married subjects were two hundred and eight (89.7%) while single ones were twenty-four(10.3%). Their highest level of education ranged from WASC/TC II, ND/NCE, HND/BSC, MSc and PhD. Thosewho had WASC/TC II were seventy-six (32.8%); ND/NCE, forty-nine (21.1%); HND/BSC seventy-one (30.6%);MSc, twenty-five (10.8%) while those with PhD were eleven (4.7%). Junior staff that participated in the study weresixty-six (28.4%); one hundred and forty (60.3%) senior staff were sampled while twenty-six (11.2%) of the subjectswere within management level.InstrumentsConflict handling Strategy Questionnaire (CHSQ) was used to collect relevant information from subjects. Thequestionnaire was divided into two sections, A and B. Section A deals with relevant demographic information ofrespondents like sex, age, marital status, job status, job tenure, highest level of education, department and religion.Section B deals with Conflict Handling Strategies Scale. This section assessed subjects‟ conflict handling strategyby adopting a self-report, Likert-type 5 – point rating scale developed by Rahim (1983) and was adapted with that ofThomas-Kilmann (1977). It consists of 15 items which has five (5) conflict handling strategy dimensions. Theseare competing, collaborating, compromising, accommodating and avoiding. Items 1, 5 and 7 measure competingdimension of conflict handling strategy; items 4, 9 and 12 assessed the dimension of collaborating; items 6, 10 and15 measured avoiding dimension of conflict handling strategy; items 3, 11 and 14 assessed accommodatingdimension while items 2, 8 and 13 measured compromising dimension of conflict handling strategy. The scoringprocedure indicates that the higher the respondent‟s score on this scale the higher his or her interpersonal conflicthandling skill. However, there was no attempt to reverse any item in the scale in order to have high score whichindicate high interpersonal conflict handling strategy.The scale was revalidated and an item total correlation was carried out with inter-item correlation estimate rangingfrom 0.30 to 0.78. The alpha coefficient for the entire instrument was 0.79. Spearman-Brown coefficient obtainedwas 0.58 while alpha coefficient for the two halves was 0.48 and 0.55 respectively.Data AnalysisThe main statistical methods adopted in this study were:(a) The use of independent t – test, 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Multiple RegressionAnalysis(b) Finding the mean and standard deviation per conflict handling strategy.Hypotheses 1 and 2 were tested by the use of independent t – test statistical technique. This was done in order tocompare two independent groups‟ mean scores at the same time on conflict handling strategy and to remove theprobability of committing type one error. Hypotheses 3 and 4 were verified by using 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance(ANOVA) in order to compare three or more groups of means at the same time. Hypothesis 5 lent support to the useof multiple regression analysis. This was done in order to verify the predictor variables independent and jointinfluence on conflict handling strategy.236

RESULTSThe two hundred and thirty-two used questionnaires were assigned to their previously indicated groups (age, sex,job status, job tenure, department, marital status, level of education and religion) and their responses for each subjectwere recorded. Each subject had scores measuring conflict handling strategies. The result of the research study werestatistically analyzed on the basis of each hypothesis and represented on summary tables.Hypothesis one states that male subjects would score significantly higher on conflict handling strategy scale thanfemale subjects. The hypothesis was tested by using independent t-test statistical tool. The result of the analysis ispresented in table 1.The result showed that male staff of the Ministry of Defence, Ibadan did not score (mean x = 31.76) significantlyhigher on conflict handling strategy scale than their female counterparts (mean x = 30.74) (t = 1.16; df = 230; p>.05). Though the male participants scored higher on conflict handling strategy than their female counterparts, thedifference in their mean scores was not statistically significant. Therefore, the hypothesis was not accepted.Hypothesis two predicted that military personnel of the Ministry of Defence, Ibadan would score significantlyhigher on conflict handling strategy scale than their civilian counterparts. The hypothesis lent support to the use ofindependent t-test statistical technique. The result of the analysis is shown in table 2.The result showed that military personnel of the Ministry of Defence, Ibadan did score significantly higher (mean x= 31.60) on conflict handling strategy scale than their civilian counterparts (mean x = 31.35) (t = 0.29; df = 230; p>.05) but the difference in the mean scores of both groups on conflict handling strategy was not statisticallysignificant.Hypothesis three stated that there would be significant main and interactive influence of age, sex and marital statusamong military personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan on conflict handling strategy. The hypothesis was testedby using 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA) statistical tool. The result of the analysis is presented in table 3.The result of the main effect showed that older military personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan did not score (x =32.06) significantly higher on conflict handling strategy scale than younger ones (x = 30.95) (F (1,231) = 1.89; P = ns).The result of the main effect shows that male military personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan did not score (x =31.76) significantly higher on conflict handling strategy scale than their female counterparts (x = 30.74) (F (1,231) =1.62; P = ns). The result of the main effect showed that married military personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadandid not score (x = 29.50) significantly higher on conflict handling strategy scale than their single counterparts (x =31.66) (F (1,231) = 1.61; P = ns). The interaction effect of age and sex; age and marital status and sex and maritalstatus on conflict handling strategy among military personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan was not significant.Moreover, the interaction effect of age, sex and marital status on conflict handling strategy among Ministry ofDefence, Ibadan military personnel was not significant (F (1,231) = 1.69; P = ns).Hypothesis four predicted that there would be main and interactive influence of age, sex and marital status onconflict handling strategy among civilian personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan. The hypothesis was tested byusing 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance (ANOVA).The result of the main effect showed that older civilian personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan scored (mean x =32.49) significantly higher on conflict handling strategy scale than younger ones (mean x = 30.27) (F (1,151) = 4.87;p.05). The result of the main effect shows that married civilian personnel of Ministry of Defence,Ibadan scored significantly higher (mean x = 31.72) than single ones (mean x = 27.00) (F (1,151) = 3.63; p

p>.05). The predictor variables working jointly contributed 12% to the joint variation, which was in negativedirection. Furthermore, an examination of the individual influence of the predictor variables on conflict handlingamong Ministry of Defence, Ibadan personnel showed that none of the predictors had significant influence onconflict handling strategy.DISCUSSIONSThe first hypothesis verified the mean difference between male and female personnel of Ministry of Defence,Ibadan. The result indicated that the male personnel of the aforementioned organization had slightly higher score onconflict handling strategy. However, the differences in their mean scores were not statistically significant. In supportof this result, Robbins (1996) noted that there is no gender difference on conflict handling strategy. Though apopular stereotype held by many is that women are more cooperative, pleasant and relationship oriented innegotiations than are men. However, evidence does not support this belief. Comparison between experienced maleand female managers found women are neither worse nor less persuasive nor threatening than are men.The belief that women are “nicer” than men in negotiations is probably due to confusing gender and lack of powertypically held by women in most large organizations. For example, research evidence suggests that low powermanagers, regardless of gender, attempt to placate their opponents and to use softly persuasive tactics rather thandirect confrontation and threat. When women and men have similar power bases, it is suggested that there shouldnot be any significant differences in their conflict handling strategies (Robbins, 1996). Furthermore, it is worthyof note to mention that in this society, women are stereotyped to have less effective conflict handling strategies. Forinstance, women in managerial positions are usually perceived as confrontational and uncompromising bysubordinates, while male managers are viewed as soft negotiators and are more prone to see reasons. Even withinthe family, women are perceived as being confrontational and use threat during marital conflict.While gender may not be relevant in terms of negotiation outcomes, women‟s attitude towards negotiation andtoward themselves as negotiators appear to be quite different from men‟s. Managerial women demonstrate lessconfidence in anticipation of negotiating and are less satisfied with their performance and the outcomes they achieveare similar to men. The latter conclusion suggests that women may unduly penalize themselves by failing to engagein negotiations when such action would be in their best interests.Moreover, cultural background does seem to be relevant in conflict handling strategy Aldler (1991) noted thatnegotiating styles vary across cultures. For instance, the French like conflict. They frequently gain recognition anddevelop their reputations by thinking and acting against others (Robbins, 1993). As a result, the French tend to takea long time in negotiating agreements and they are not overly concerned about whether their opponents like ordislike them. The Chinese also draw out negotiations but that is because they believe negotiations never end justwhen you think you have pinned down every detail and reached a final solution with a Chinese executive, thatexecutive might smile and start the process all over again (Schimat, 1987).The second hypothesis tested the difference in the mean scores of military and civilian personnel of Ministry ofDefence, Ibadan on conflict handling strategy. The result revealed that civilian personnel scored higher on conflicthandling strategy than their military counterparts, but the difference in their mean scores was not statisticallysignificant and therefore the hypothesis was not accepted. In contrast to these findings, military training hardlyinvolves act of negotiating. Rather, the military is trained in the act of using violent means to achieve their goals.Though within the military interpersonal conflict among staff may not necessarily involve threat and confrontation,perhaps due to the level of discipline expected of military officers. However, there are cases where officers had beenseverely dealt with due to interpersonal conflict. But within the workplace with reference to military, there might bemore prevalence of competition approach to conflict handling. According to Vande Vliert (1990) and Vande Vliertand Euwema (1994), concern for self or assertiveness is strongly associated with a competitive strategy. Thuscompetition is motivated by “concern for self” and such conflict handling strategy has been noted not to be effectivein handling interpersonal conflict within the family as well as in organizations. The primary reason for this assertionhowever, is that competition is concerned with position and winning. It focuses on strategically withholdinginformation and using tactics to manipulate others to capitulate (Lewicks & Litherer, 1985). Cosier and Ruble(1987), in their opinion view competiting strategy as forcing and manipulating, which do not stimulate an open238

forum for discussing ideas and moreover, tend to create similar manipulative tactics in others resulting in resistance,defensiveness, resentment, tension and anger (Jehn, 1997).Contrary to competing strategy, which probably may predominate among military personnel, civilians may tend toadopt more of accommodation and perhaps collaboration. Though the scope of the present study was to look at thecomposite scope of military and civilian personnel on conflict handling strategies, therefore, it was beyond the scopeof this study to critically appraise the five dimensions of conflict handling strategies among the two samples.Nevertheless, accommodation, which focuses on understanding the concerns or desires of others and acceding tothem, may predominate more among civilian sample than the military. For instance, McCarthy (1996) noted that thestrategy of accommodation satisfies and placates others. Compromise which may be subsumed underaccommodation strategy of conflict handling reflects the distributive dimension; it recognizes the fact that all partiescannot win and therefore the resources which may be the bone of contention must be divided and goals partiallyachieved. Therefore, in the light of the premise that competition is associated with negative effect because acompetitor blocks others from achieving their goals, negative emotion such as anger, stress and distrust aregenerated (Jehn, 1997), civilian personnel should process better conflict handling strategies. Moreover, competitorsmisunderstand one another; develop negative attitudes, which have the potential to harm relationships (Bergman &Volkma, 1989; Dunn, 1995; Jehn, 1997). Against this background, competition is unlikely to contribute either toadaptation or cohesion (Lansberg & Astrachan, 1994). Ward (1988) and Dyer (1986) noted that adaptation isimportant for business or organizational success while cohesion is an essential ingredient for team management butmay jeopardize organizational success.The third hypothesis verified the main and interactive influence of age, sex and marital status among militarypersonnel on conflict handling strategies. The result derived from the analysis of variance did not confirm thehypothesis consistent with this finding. Research evidence indicates that there was no gender influence or conflicthandling strategies among experienced male and female managers.In addition, age may probably influence conflict handling strategy. Though there is no adequate research evidence tosupport this assertion, few studies alluded to the fact that older individuals are letter negotiators than younger ones(Lubman, 1993; Brett & Rogues, 1986; Thompson, 1967). Perhaps, the reason for this is that older individuals haveacquired adequate experience on interpersonal conflicts and strategies for resolving them whereas younger personsmay be more confrontational and competitive with little room for compromise. Such conflict handling strategieshave been severally reported to militate against effective and resourceful conflict handling (Jehn, 1997; Bergman &Volkeman, 1989; Dunn, 1995; Thomas, 1976; Pruit & Rubin, 1986). Moreover, older persons tend to take a gradualapproach to conflict handling unlike their younger counterparts. Though no known study has concluded thatpersonality of individuals influence conflict handling strategy (Robbins, 1996; Robbins, 1993; Wall & Blum, 1991)but it is possible that personality mediates the relationship between age and conflict handling strategies.The main effect of marital status on conflict handling strategy among military personnel were indicated to scoreslightly higher than their single counterparts on conflict handling strategies, however, the difference in their meanscores was not statistically significant. In contrast to this result, married individuals tend to use more ofcollaboration and accommodation strategies in conflict handling. The probable reason for this is that they have betterinterpersonal skill than those who are single and more so, the society expects married individuals to display somelevel of maturity in conflict situation. In addition, single persons may tend to use more of competing strategy, whichhas been criticized for not being effective (Jehn, 1997; Dyer, 1986). It is also important to point out that marriedindividuals may tend to adopt more of avoidance than collaborating. Rahim (1983) posits that avoidance isassociated with weak relationships among the conflict strategies. Research evidence suggests that individuals whouse more avoidance strategies tend to create an environment with more task conflict, which increases relationshipconflict and stress (Friedman Tidd, Currall and Tsai, 2000).Hypothesis four tested the interactive and main effect of age, sex and marital status on conflict handling strategiesamong the civilians sample. The result showed that marital status had significant main effect on conflict handlingstrategy among civilian personnel with married subjects scoring higher on conflict handling strategies than singleones. In addition the interactive effect of sex and marital status on conflict handling strategies was significant withmale and married civilian personnel having higher mean scores on conflict handling strategies than female andsingle personnel. More so, the interactive effect of age, sex and marital status on conflict handling strategies was notsignificant. As earlier said above, older and married persons have been identified as possessing better interpersonalskill than single and younger individuals. Specifically, older persons tend to adopt collaboration and compromise inconflict situation while younger individuals are apt to be confrontational and use more of competing strategy239

eventhough this may be mediated by individual differences. Seymour (1993) opines that collaboration requires timeand effort and also good interpersonal skills including open communication, trust and mutual support. It is evenmore likely than accommodation to promote organizational learning and adaptation that should enhance business ororganizational performance (Dyer 1986).The fifth hypothesis verified the influence of job tenure, religion, job status and education on conflict handlingstrategies among Ministry of Defence, Ibadan personnel. Using multiple regression analysis the result indicated thatnone of the predictor variables that had influence on conflict handling strategies was not significant. Contrary tothese results, Friedman, Tidd, Currall & Tsai(2000) suggests the influence of employee‟s work experience onconflict handling strategy.CONCLUSIONThis study critically examined the influence of demographic characteristics on conflict handling among civilian andmilitary samples of the Ministry of Defence, Ibadan. The study did not find significant difference between the twogroups that is, military and civilian samples on conflict handling strategies. The influence of sex on conflict handlingstrategies was not significant evenhough male personnel scored higher on conflict handling but the difference wasnot statistically significant. Furthermore, no effect of demographic variables of age, sex and marital status wasfound on conflict handling strategies among the military personnel. Nonetheless, male and married militarypersonnel scored higher on conflict handling strategies but the difference was not statistically significant. However,among civilian personnel age have significant main effect on conflict handling strategies with older personnelscoring significantly higher on conflict handling strategies than younger ones. Similarly, marital status havesignificant influence on conflict handling strategies among civilian personnel with married personnel scoringsignificantly higher on conflict handling strategies than single ones. There was interactive effect of age and maritalstatus on conflict handling strategy among the civilian personnel. Finally, the joint and independent influence of jobtenure, job status, education and religion on conflict handling strategies was not significant.Recommendations and implicationsThe result of this study indicated that sex did not have significant influence on conflict handling strategy. Theimplication of this finding is that women should also be encouraged to participate in conflict handling and be wellequipped with adequate formal training on conflict handling. More importantly, female managers need to beencouraged to adopt more participative approach to conflict handling whereby subordinates are given theopportunity to be included in those meetings organized to resolve conflict. In addition, female managers should beencouraged to adopt more collaboration and accommodation in their approach to conflict resolution. The reason forthis is that women in Nigeria tend to be more assertive and uncooperative in their strategies of conflict handling.Furthermore, age and marital status were found to impact significantly on civilian sample of the study but not for themilitary sample. The implication of this is that military personnel need to be trained on effective conflict handlingstrategies. It was posited in this study, albeit tentatively that military personnel might be more disposed to adoptingcompeting approach to conflict handling perhaps due to the nature of their training. Therefore, they need to betrained on better approaches to conflict handling within workplace. Collaboration and accommodation have beennoted by researchers to be more effective for business or organizational success.More so, age was found to have significant influence on conflict handling strategy. The implication of this result inany organization is that management should ensure the use of older employees during conflict and use them as rolemodels for younger employees. Older persons are apt to adopt collaboration and compromise more than youngerones and therefore by encouraging them to participate in conflict resolution they could serve as mentors to youngeremployees in the area of resolution of interpersonal conflict.In similar vein, marital status was found to have significant influence on conflict handling. Based on this result,management should encourage married employees to engage more in diffusing the effect of conflict amongpersonnel in an organization. Since they have good interpersonal skill, they tend to use more of collaboration andcompromise which has beneficial effect on conflict handling.240

Furthermore, many people assume that conflict is related to lower group and organizational performance. This studyhas demonstrated that this assumption is incorrect. Conflict can be either constructive or destructive to thefunctioning of a group or unit. Conflict can be either too high or too low as either extreme hinders performance. Anoptional level is where there is enough conflict to prevent stagnation, stimulate creativity, allows tensions to bereleased and initiate the seeds for change, yet not so much as to be disruptive or deter coordination of activities.What advice can be given to managers faced with excessive conflict and the need to reduce it? It should not beassumed that there is one conflict handling strategy that will always be best. Therefore, there is need to select astrategy appropriate for the situation. The following provide some guidelines as postulated by Thomas (1977).Use competing strategy when quick, deceive action is vital (in emergencies); on important issues, where unpopularactions need implementing (in cost cutting; enforcing unpopular rules, discipline); on issues vital to theorganizations welfare when one knows one is right; and against people who take advantage of noncompetitivebehaviour.Adopt collaborating strategy to find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to becompromised; when your objective is to learn, to merge insights from people with different perspectives; to gaincommitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus; and to work through feelings that have interfered with arelationship. Use avoidance strategy when an issue is trivial or more important are pressing; when one perceives nochance of satisfying one‟s concerns; when potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution; to let peoplecool down and regain perspective; when gathering information supersedes immediate decisions; when others canresolve the conflict more effectively; and when issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues.Adopt accommodating strategy when one finds one is wrong and to allow a better position to be held, to learn, andto show one‟s reasonableness; when issues are more important to others than one‟s self and to satisfy others andmaintain cooperation; to build social credits for later issues; to minimize loss when one is outmatched and losing;when harmony and stability are especially important, and to allow subordinates to develop by learning frommistakes.Use compromising strategy when goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of moreassertive approaches; when opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals; to achievetemporary settlements to complex issues; to arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure; and as a back-upwhen collaborating or competing strategies is unsuccessful.REFERENCESAdler, N. J. (1991). International Dimensions of Organizational Behaviour, 2 nd . Ed.Boston: PWS-Kent, pp. 179-217.Albert, I.O (2000): Building peace, Advancing Democracy: Experience with third party in Nigerian Conflicts.Albert, I.O (2001): Introduction to third party intervention community conflicts (Ibadan: John Archers)Bergman, T.J & Volkeman, R.J (1989): Understanding and managing interpersonal conflict at work: Its issues,interactive processes and consequences. In M.A.Rahim. (Ed) Managing Conflict: An interdisciplinary approach. New York:Praeger.Brett, J.M. & Rognes, J.K. (1986). Inter-group relations in organizations‟, in Goodman, P. S. and associate (eds),Designing effective of Groups (San Fransisco: Jossey - Bass) pp. 205.Cosier, R.A & Ruble, T.L (1981): Research on conflict – handling behavior: An experimental approach. Academyof Management Journal, 24,816 – 831Deutsch, M (1971): Toward an understanding of conflict. International Journal of Group Tensions, Jan – March1971, 1, 42 – 54241

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Vande Vlert, E & Eumema, M.C. (1994): Agreeableness and activeness as components of conflict behaviors.Journal of personality and Social Psychology, 66, 674 – 687.Ward, J.L (1998): Keeping the family business health. San Francisco:, Jossey – Bass.APPENDIXTable 1: Independent t-test showing the difference between male and female Ministry of Defence, Ibadan staff onconflict handling strategyVariables N Mean(X) SD Df t PMale 158 31.76 6.13Female 74 30.74 6.35230 1.16 >.05Table 2: Independent t-test summary table showing the difference between military and civilian personnel of theMinistry of Defence, Ibadan on conflict handling strategyVariables N Mean (x) SD Df T PMilitary 80 31.60 5.91Civilian 152 31.35 6.37230 0.29 >.05Table 3: 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance summary table showing the influence of age, sex and marital status ofmilitary personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan on conflict handling strategySource SS Df MS F PAge 70.76 1 70.76 1.89 nsSex 60.43 1 60.43 1.62 nsMarital status 60.35 1 60.35 1.61 nsAge x Sex 48.50 1 48.50 1.30 nsAge x Marital status 79.62 1 79.62 2.13 nsSex x Marital status 74.89 1 74.89 2.00 nsAge x Sex x Marital 63.02 1 63.02 1.69 nsResidual 8377.79 224 37.40Total 8887.03 231 38.47243

Table 4: Multiple regression summary table showing the predictors influence (job tenure, job status, religion andeducation) on conflict handling strategy among personnel of Ministry of Defence, IbadanVariables R 2 F P ß t PJob tenure0.00 0.02 >.05Religion-0.12 0.34 >.050.07 1.00 >.05Job status0.03 0.44 >.05Education0.02 0.31 >.05Table 5: 2 x 2 x 2 analysis of variance summary table showing the influence of age, sex and marital status ofcivilian personnel of Ministry of Defence, Ibadan on conflict handling strategySource SS Df MS F PAge 186.69 1 186.69 4.87 .05Marital status 139.39 1 139.39 3.63 .05Age x marital 146.33 1 146.33 3.81 .05Residual 5563.12 145 38.37Total 8124.52 151 40.56244