Managing Sustainability in Conditions of Change ... - Lonjsko Polje

Managing Sustainability in Conditionsof Change and UnpredictabilityThe Living Landscape and Floodplain Ecosystem of the Central Sava River BasinGoran Gugić

Goran GugićManaging Sustainability in Conditions of Change and UnpredictabilityThe Living Landscape and Floodplain Ecosystem of the Central Sava River Basin

This Book file has been carried out with the contribution of the LIFE financial instrumentof the European Community within the LIFE05 TCY/CRO/000111 project“Central Posavina – Wading Toward Integrated Basin Management”

Managing Sustainability in Conditionsof Change and UnpredictabilityThe Living Landscape and FloodplainEcosystem of the Central Sava River Basinby Goran Gugić

Published by:Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Public ServiceCopyright:2009 Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Public ServiceReproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is authorizedwithout prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is fully acknowledged.Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without priorwritten permission of the copyright holder.Citation:GUGIĆ, G. (2009): Managing Sustainability in conditions of Change andUnpredictability - The Living Landscape and Floodplain Ecosystem of the CentralSava River Basin. Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Public Service, Krapje, Croatia.ISBN:978-953-97950-9-5A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the National and UniversityLibrary in Zagreb under 696726.Photos:Boris Krstinić, Kristina Pandža (chapter 3)Language-editor:Graham McMasterLayout by:ITG, Zagreb, CroatiaProduced by:Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Public ServicePrinted by:ITG, Zagreb, CroatiaEdition:1000 copiesAvailable from:Lonjsko Polje Nature Park Public ServiceKrapje 16HR-44325 Krapje, Croatiainfo@pp-lonjsko-polje.hr

PrologueAt the time when urbanisation has become a truly global trend,another process has appeared simultaneously, a process that isleading more and more to an either-or situation in the world: onthe one hand, urban areas are developing uncontrollably, and on theother areas of “unspoiled nature” are being declared. In this processof polarisation, the space between is disappearing dramatically. It isthe rural area that constitutes this space, that playground in whichhumankind has practised and is still practising its ability to deal withnature. To speak in the language of ecosystem theories: with the lossof this ability humankind is losing its “robustness” and becomingmore “fragile”, more susceptible to changes in the environment.So, there is a serious reason to make every effort to maintain theorganically evolved cultural landscapes particularly there wherethey are presenting living systems. Those landscapes must be seenas both places of an endangered biodiversity that depends uponman-made habitats and places of holistic solutions already foundby humankind in its dealings with nature.

In the world of today, in which individuality and expertise arehighly valued, we like to connect a master-piece with a certain, famousindividual genius who created it at a certain historical moment.And so we very often admire an architectural or horticulturalmaster-piece and can easily identify ourselves with the ideas of itsfamous author. But when it comes to a master-piece created overhundreds of years by an uncertain, unknown, common genius,then we even have difficulties in recognising it as a master-piecelet alone in identifying with the ideas and experiences behind it. Infact, old living landscapes do not present any particular idea. Theymust be understood as the result of a long-term feed-back processamongst both ideas and experiences. A living cultural landscape isa masterpiece that deserves at least the same degree of admirationthat we express for a masterpiece by an individual genius.The living landscape of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park located in theCentral Sava River basin in Croatia is a still hidden masterpiece, anorganically evolved cultural landscape that has yet to be discoveredas such.These pages are - at first sight - about an outstanding area of bothnature and culture. It is in this area that nature and culture mergein such a manner that classical management structures and toolsdeveloped under either nature conservation or cultural heritageapproaches have had to address their own limitations. And so, oncloser inspection, these pages are dealing with the issue of howadequately to manage both the living landscape and the permanentlychanging, extraordinary dynamics of a floodplain ecosystem, that ofthe central Sava river basin.

ContentsChapter 1 GET VERSATILE BEFORE MANAGING CHANGE 9Chapter 2 THE SAVA RIVER – THE MASTER OF PARADOX 15Chapter 3 PLAINS OR MICRO-MOUNTAINS? 23Chapter 4Chapter 5Chapter 6Chapter 7RIPARIAN WOODLANDS – THE UNMISTAKABLEAPPEARANCE OF THE SAVA FLOODPLAINSTRADITIONAL PASTURING – A CULTURALAND AN ECOLOGICAL KEYSTONE PROCESTRADITIONAL PASTURING – THE ANSWERTO CHANGE AND UNPREDICTABILITYBREEDS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS ASESSENTIAL COMPONENTS OF THE PASTURING SYSTEMChapter 8 ADAPTATION TO FLOODING – A CULTURAL KEYSTONE71PROCESSChapter 9 THE OTHER WAY OF FLOOD CONTROL 77Chapter 10 THE PILLARS OF MANAGING CHANGE 8327394759Chapter 11 FROM VISIONING TO ACTION 93Chapter 12THE TWELVE PRINCIPLES OF MANAGING SUSTAINABILITYIN CONDITIONS OF CHANGE AND UNPREDICTABILITY105

8 Chapter 1

Get Versatile Before Managing Change 91Get Versatile Before Managing Change

Get Versatile Before Managing Change 11As was mentioned in the prologue, this publication is mainlyconcerned with the ways and means of managing sustainability inchanging and unpredictable conditions in a living landscape anda dynamic ecosystem. Thus, instead of with an introduction, thispublication begins with a short but essential exercise to preparethe reader for an understanding of the principle of versatility. Toget versatile, i.e. to be able to live with change and to be capable ofdoing many things with varied uses or many functions competently,one must permanently question one’s professional background,education, concepts of management and experiences. As thispublication is mainly about nature conservation, a short review ofthe development of this practice might help to meet the demandfor self-questioning. In the 1960s when nature conservationbecame a major issue at the global level, nature was understoodas the untouched wilderness, and it was the wilderness that wasendangered. Naturally, man had to be excluded from protectedareas. The management of those areas was exclusive, the decisionmaking was in the hands of elites, and both managers and politicianslooked at protected areas as upon isolated islands. Some twentyyears later, nature was no more characterised by the concept ofthe wilderness only, rather through ecosystems and biodiversity.Now it was natural resources that were declared threatened. Thestatement “man has to be excluded” changed into “man has not tobe excluded”. Management became integrated, decision making wastechnocratic and the idea of transboundary-protected areas madethe “island mentality” of the 1960s irrelevant. At the turn of themillennium, culture too was recognised as being an essential part ofnature conservation. Traditional knowledge has been recognised asbeing endangered. “Man can be involved”, is the new doctrine. Thus,management has changed to participatory management, decisionmaking has become authentic and protected areas have been moreand more linked up in networks.

12 Chapter 11960 1980 2000 2020Naturewildernessecosystems,biodiversitycultureand naturechangeProtectedareasislands transboundary networkextensivecoresManhas to beexcludedhas not tobe excludedcan beinvolvedhas to beinvolvedManagement exclusive integrated participatory inclusiveDecisionmakingelite technocratic integrated versatileEndangeredwildernessnaturalresourcestraditionalknowledgemixednatural andculturalprocessesWhat can one learn from this short reflection on the developmentof nature conservation? Obviously, there are mainstreams in natureconservation. A conservation manager has to acknowledge them,but he must not be blinded by them. He needs to keep capableof freeing himself of those mainstreams as their concepts do notobviously fit to the protected area he is managing. In the case of adynamic ecosystem like a floodplain which is additionally overlaidby complex traditional and/or new human activities, it is evenquestionable whether there is already an appropriate concept

Get Versatile Before Managing Change 13amongst those that have been accepted. Such a situation demands acapacity for versatility in the search for an appropriate managementapproach.If one thinks back over the above mentioned developmentsin nature conservation, over the next twenty years the followingchallenges might be expected: protected nature will be gripped bychange, even in those ecosystems that seemed to have long-termstability. Climate change and urbanisation will particularly endangermixed natural and cultural processes. The natural features becauseof which an area was protected may disappear in the area itselfbut may appear in another place outside the protected area. Thus,decision making must become versatile and flexible. There will bea need to make nature conservation, and with that the protectedareas, extensive. That does not necessarily mean an extension of theentire protected area. It might rather mean that protected areas willplay an active part as generative extensive cores in the developmentof the entire not-protected space. Thus, conservation managementmust get inclusive. Man has to be involved.

14 Chapter 1

Get Versatile Before Managing Change 152The Sava River – The Master of Paradox

The Sava River − The Master of Paradox 19affects the watershed. But in this case, clearly, the inundations arealmost beyond the scope of any forecasting.Let us simulate the situation after the snow has melted. The waterlevel of the Sava River rises. Normally, the Lonja River flows into theSava River because of the difference in altitudes. But now, when themaster river rises, at a certain moment it will achieve equilibriumwith the water level of the tributary. As a result, the master riverhalts the flow of the tributary. It becomes a liquid dam for thetributary at its mouth and the water level of the Lonja River risesupstream. The high level in the Sava forms a backflow in the LonjaRiver. If the Sava River continues rising - and faster than the LonjaRiver - another paradox appears: now the master river will flow intothe tributary. The Lonja River starts to overflow the natural leveeright next to its course and starts flooding the surrounding land.This is called indirect flooding. It is the main phenomenon in thefloodplains of the Central Sava River basin.The situation becomes more complicated still when the UnaRiver rises because of heavy rainfalls. Then, at its mouth oppositeJasenovac, it slows the master river, which consequently forms abackflow, the water level rising upstream of the Una and Savaconfluence. The water level of the Sava River at Jasenovac mayincrease up to 10 meters within 24 hours.Because of the exceptional arrangement of the river system,which comprehends three different climate regions, inundationmay occur at any time of the year. This volatility makes the area anoutstanding example of ecological processes caused by extreme andunpredictable oscillations of inundation dynamics occurring in thecentral course of a great river.A comparative look at the existing World Heritage list demonstratesthe uniqueness of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park as a completeand typical riverine-palustrine ecosystem. When the existingWorld Heritage properties in the Palaearctic realm (on the whole

20 Chapter 2primary wetlands containing major freshwater wetland values)are considered, then it is quite striking that no single property liesin the centre of a basin. They are located either in the delta itself,which is the case with the Danube Delta and the Doñana NationalPark, or in the lower part of the basin, as in the Srebarna NatureReserve; alternatively, they are large lakes, such as Lake Baikal,Ichkeul National Park or the Volcanoes of Kamchatka. Outside thePalaearctic zone, there are only a few examples such as KazirangaNational Park in the Indo-Malayan realm and Manu National Parkin the Neotropical realm, located in the central part of a river basin.This reflects the reality that today natural floodplain ecosystems,representing the ecological processes caused by the dynamics of ariver in its central part, belong to the most vulnerable and threatenedecosystems worldwide for the very reason that exactly those areasoffer the most favourable preconditions for industrialisation andthe intensification of agriculture.The great importance of the Central Sava Floodplains property isrelated to the absence in Europe of any other floodplain ecologicalsystems, as a result of the drainage and regulation of the great rivers,particularly in their central courses. It is only in the area of LonjskoPolje that the still surviving habitats and ecological processes ofinundation can be protected.

3Plains or Micro-Mountains?

Plains or Micro-Mountains? 25At first sight, a floodplain looks like a flat and level stretch ofland. But this is not how it looks to those who know it intimately,and listening to the local dialects of the Central Sava River basinone can identify a group of special terms describing what is calledthe microrelief. The microrelief is a geomorphological reflection ofthe work of the river and inundation, as described in the previouschapter. And so, on closer inspection, one discovers that thefloodplains actually are not flat and level but rather like micromountains.This microrelief is one of the most important factorsimpacting the habitats, particularly those in the forest and grassland.In the natural setting a difference of only 10 cm in altitude will have acrucial influence of the appearance and abundance of a certain plantcommunity. Through flooding and the work of the river, naturallyraised areas or ridges were formed, which are now almost neverflooded. They could be named the top of the mountains. There arealso micro-depressions, analogous to mountain valleys. If they arecompletely closed, like a plate, the flood water in them can disappearonly by transpiration. The micro-elevations are located between theridges and the micro-depressions. They could be named the slopesof the micro-mountains.But the microrelief is not only important for the appearanceand preservation of natural and semi-natural habitats. It is also ofthe utmost importance for the creation of the organically evolvedlandscape that constitutes the mosaic of the traditional culture of thecountryside, following both the microrelief and - related to it - theincidence and duration of flooding. The dynamics of flooding andthe shape of the micro-relief are thus intimately bound up with thelives of the people. They established their life, built their settlements,on the safest places, the ridges beside the master river. Behind thevillages they created orchards, ploughed fields and meadows, andfurther off the complexes of hay-making, flood pastures and at theend the riparian lowland forests. This sequence of land use strictlyfollows the way the floods advance and retreat.

4Riparian Woodlands – The UnmistakableAppearance of the Sava Floodplains

Riparian Woodlands – The Unmistakable Appearance of the Sava Floodplains 29HORVAT et.al. (1974) stated in their publication Vegetation ofSoutheast-Europe, which can still be seen as the most comprehensivegeobotanic overview of this part of the world: “Much though ... theforest associations and the entire character of the landscape of theIllyrian zone of oak and hornbeam recall Central Europe, the shapeof its riparian hardwood forests is still unique and unmistakable.Where else in Europe do highly natural oak stands extend over200,000 hectares in the floodplains, and where else has theirwater regime remained as undisturbed as here? Not only from aneconomic point of view, but also with regard to science these forests,hardly touched by man, are of extraordinary value. [Translated bythe present author] 1 .The vegetation of the Central Sava River floodplains belongsto the lowland or planar vegetation zone that ranges in elevationfrom 80 to 150 metres, since the whole space of Lonjsko Polje isbelow 150 m above sea level. It accordingly represents the initiallevel of the vertical arrival of forest vegetation in the area, and itis marked above all by forests of common oak, narrow leaved ash,alder, willow and poplar. The crucial ecological factor in the originand development of forest vegetation in this area is water, whetherflood water, as is the case with the woods of poplars and willows,or ground water (the forests of common oak), or whether the twotogether, as is the case in forests in which the dominant speciesare the alder or narrow-leaved ash. Forest vegetation of the planarzone here is characterised by certain specific features such as greatrichness of communities over a relatively small area, the thrivingof the famed Slavonian forests of common oak, the arrival of thenarrow-leaved ash, the marked biological diversity, and the goodstate of preservation of large forest complexes.1HORVAT, I., GLAVAČ, V., ELLENBERG, H. (1974): Vegetation of Southeast-Europe.In: TÜXEN, R.(Ed.): Geobotanica selecta. Band IV, Stuttgart, Germany. p. 370-371)

30 Chapter 4The phytocoenological features of the forests of the lowlandvegetation zone strictly follow the micro relief. They are complex,and within them we can distinguish wetland woods along the courseof the river, woods of depressions and woods of micro-elevations orridges.4.1 Wetland Woods Along The Course of The RiversWetland woods along the course of the rivers are regularly andperiodically flooded, and grow on shallow sills that are still beingvigorously developed and are well supplied with nutrients because ofthe sedimentation of material. They are shown as willow and poplarwoods understood in a very broad sense (Salici-Populetum). Suchstands are mainly composed of white willow (Salix alba) and moreseldom of poplars (Populus nigra and Populus alba). They extendin the parts between the river and the embankment, on the outersides of the embankments, and particularly on the already describededges of fields, commons and forests where the intensive naturalsuccession of forest vegetation is in the initial phase.In places, willow thickets, Salicetum purpureae Wend.-Zel. 52 arealso developed.In other places, there are very well developed communities ofGalio-Salicetum albae – Raus 73, most often along pools and verylarge areas of water, carrying on to the willow thicket communityor directly to rushes and pond phytocoenoses. There are frequentfloods in this community, and because of them the willow createsadventitious roots from the stem, which after the retreat of the watersremain pendent, giving the forest a very individual appearance. Oldstems of this kind can be seen along the Lonja and Česma.In the floral composition of the community the characteristicspecies is the white willow and occasional companions such as thealmond willow and the black poplar.

Riparian Woodlands – The Unmistakable Appearance of the Sava Floodplains 31It should be said that occasionally areas of this phytocoenosishave undergone soil fertility improvement operations and thatplantations of hybrid poplars are grown there.4.2 Forests of DepressionsForests of depressions occupy depths and depressions of from halfa hectare to several hundred hectares. Most often they belong to ash,black alder or common oak forests. These forests were once regularlyinundated, but today some parts, depending on the terrain and thedistance from the river, are periodically flooded, while others onlyhave a high level of ground water and a long retention or stagnationof precipitation because of the particular structure of the soil. Inthe whole of the area the following three basic associations can befound: Frangulo-Alnetum glutinosae Raus 1968, Leucoio-Fraxinetumangustifoliae Glav.1959 and the Genisto elatae-Quercetum roboris Ht.1938.The Frangulo-Alnetum glutinosae Raus 1968 is of fragmentarydistribution, with areas of a few hectares, with a specific microrelief and hydrological conditions. It most often overgrows oldwatercourse beds, less often marshes. The common alder takes apioneering role, and it will overgrow old watercourses when theconditions are right, and will through a number of generationscreate a normal forest soil and the conditions for the growth ofother tree species. It is important to state that this community wasfor the first time described right here in Central Posavina, where itis optimally developed.Forests of common alder with buckthorn are developed onorganogenic-marshy soil with a weak acid reaction that at a depthof 50 cm ranges around pH 5.7. Most of the year, the phytocoenosisis below about 20 to 70 cm of water, perhaps even more. It isbecause of this stagnant surface of the water that the alder develops

32 Chapter 4its distinctive conical shoots (lateral roots). Around them mud iscollected and soil is created, and the alder manages to vegetate inspite of the surface water under which a good part of the root systemis located. In the surface growth layer there are two structural unitsone of which (the mesophyte) develops on the outgrowths of thealder, or rather on the earth that is bound to the root system of thealder. These outgrowths sometimes occupy a diameter of 1 to 2 m,and they are 50 to 20 cm above the level of the stagnant water. Theother structural unit of the surface growth is on the soil itself.The Leucoio-Fraxinetum angustifoliae Glav.1959 forests of narrowleaved ash and late snowflake are from the general use and economicpoint of view among the most important forest ecosystems inCroatia. They are distributed over about 30000 ha in the riparian(inundated) areas of the Sava valley (Posavina), the basin of the KupaRiver, the Bjelovar basin and the Drava valley. The largest complexesare to be found in Lonjsko Polje Nature Park. In these forests about80% of Croatian ash groves thrive. With respect to ecologicalintegrity and structural, functional and economic preservation, theyare the largest complex of riparian ash forests in Europe. They areunique with respect to management techniques, which are based onthe principles of sustainability and natural rejuvenation correlatedwith stand dynamics.Particularly valuable and interesting are the stands of the initialphase of development that grow in pond habitats where woods havespread to the extreme edges of the possibility of their existence - thepool border of the forest. Pools that lie in greater depressions arenot overgrown with forest trees. Most of those stands are aroundPoganovo Polje in Lonjsko Polje Nature Park. They can be foundfragmentarily in other parts of the park as well. This communitywas determined and described for the first time in this area. Of allthe lowland phytocoenoses, this is the one that is most exposed tothe effect of surface and high ground water. Often in winter the

Riparian Woodlands – The Unmistakable Appearance of the Sava Floodplains 33surface water (with a depth of an average of 1 m) will freeze, andbecause of the deleterious effects of the ice, considerable damage isdone to the ash stems.Narrow leaved ash is a very important tree species, because itthrives in adverse and mainly marshy conditions where other speciesof tree cannot grow and where it has no competition.When stands of common oak die out in the community Genistoelatae-Quercum roboris, and where there has been marshificationor other change in the biotope, ash is an essential species in therehabilitation of the stands after draining.Forests of common oak and broom, Genisto elatae-Quercetumroboris Ht. 1938, appear after forests of willow, poplar, alder andnarrow leaved ash, in complexes that are very large, up to severalthousands of hectares, a unique case in Europe and indeed the world.The habitat on which it grows is a few metres above the normal waterlevel. They are either periodically inundated, with the flood lastingfor a short time, or else they are out of the reach of flood waters, butstill fairly damp. In the wood storey, which is very luxuriant, it isthe common oak that dominates, but a considerable proportion ofthe stand is taken - sometimes up to 40% - by ash, alder, elm, whiteelm, black and white poplar. The common oak and broom forestfrom a phytocoenological point of view can be divided into severalsub-associations, but for the region under investigation particularlyimportant are the following three: Genisto elatae-Quercetum roboriscaricetosum brizoides Ht 1938, Genisto elatae-Quercetum roboriscaricetosum remotae Ht 1938 and the Genisto elatae-Quercetumroboris carpinetosum betuli Glav. 1961. The sub-association Genistoelatae-Quercetum roboris caricetosum remotae represents the optimumdevelopment of this community, in which the celebrated Slavonianoak thrives, while the sub-association Genisto elatae-Quercetumroboris caricetosum brizoides represents a transitional phase towardsthe oak and hornbeam forest on the ridge and is very subject to

34 Chapter 4changes and to decline. The third sub-association with hornbeamis relatively less frequent, in conditions in which the oak stands aredisturbed, and are on the point of transition to the community withcommon hornbeam (Carpino betuli-Quercetum roboris).It must be mentioned that a marked intrapopulation variability ofCommon Oak has been determined in the Sava River floodplains.This variability is related to the onset of leafing - early forms such aspraecox and late leafing forms entitled tarda, tardissima and tardiflorawere noted - as well as to the appearance of Common Oak in pondhabitats entitled palustris.4.3 Forests of The RidgesIn the geomorphologic processes of the floodplains, over timecertain elevated portions became differentiated, lying outside therange of inundation, and in which the ground water was considerablylower than in the previously described communities. Those placesare occupied by forests of the elevations or ridges. For this reason, here,along with the common oak, the hornbeam grows, and sometimesit is even joined by the beech, which has survived here since theend of the Ice Age. The oak and hornbeam forest, Carpino-betuli-Quercetum roboris, Raus 1969, differs considerably in compositionfrom the oak and broom forest: there is a good deal of hornbeamand common maple, and many shrubs and herbaceous plants of thekind that we find in hilly and mountain forest habitats.Hornbeam is the best indicator of standing and groundwater,because it tolerates short-lasting transient floods but not standingwater or a high level of ground water. It appears only up to themedium water level of groundwater of 2 to 3 m, and this kind ofwater level is to be found only on the ridges. Common oak appearsin the phytocoenosis in a large proportion and has an essentialinfluence on its development and economic value.

Riparian Woodlands – The Unmistakable Appearance of the Sava Floodplains 35Oak-hornbeam forest with beech is a subassociation that appearsas a relict community in the lowland areas of Croatia together withtypical common oak and hornbeam forest. It grows only on theridges outside the reach of the floodwater, where the beech hasremained since the sub-Boreal, for in this period it dropped verylow into the plain and occupied the current common oak habitats.Mixed oak, hornbeam and beech forest was created during secularchanges of climate, and once upon a time occupied much greaterextents in the Pannonian lowlands.4.4 Woodland or Forest?It has to be stated that the lowland riparian hardwood forestsof the Central Sava River basin are the most complete and largestremaining complex of those oak and ash stands in the world,important for the understanding of the history and evolution ofthe genes of the genera of Quercus and Fraxinus. The mosaic of allthe development phases of the lowland riparian hardwood forestecosystem with marked intrapopulation variability of PedunculateOak is unique. So far, not a single property that primarily representsjust such an ecosystem in the Palaearctic realm has been inscribedon the World Heritage List. The only World Heritage propertywhich lies in the Udvardy biome of temperate broad-leaf forestsand contains a forest ecosystem of common oak is the property ofBeloveshskaya Pushcha / Bialowieza National Park. But the oakstands of that property consist of Querco-Carpinetum and are outsidethe riparian zone. It must also be stated that the site belongs to theBoreonemoral Biogeographical Province. Properties with markedriparian forests can be found only in other biogeographical realms,such as in the Afro-Tropical realm in Niokolo-Koba National Park,in the Indo-Malayan realm in Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng WildlifeSanctuaries and in the Neotropical realm in the Darien and LosKatios National Parks and in the Sian Ka’an Biosphere Reserve.

36 Chapter 4The recently inscribed Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathiansare the only property representing a forest ecosystem within theUdvardy Middle European Forest Biogeographical Province. Butthere is no property on the World Heritage list representing theriparian oak, oak-ash and ash forest plant communities. A similarstatement can be made for the 180 Balkan Rivers and Streams WWFGlobal Ecoregion, which is represented only by two mountain forestareas, the Durmitor National Park and the Pirin National Park.So, in the case of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park conservationmanagement has to balance between both the great natural valuesof the riparian hardwood forests and the unique cultural featuresthat are connected with these forests. In other words: this is theart of balancing between woodland as wilderness and forests asessential part of the organically evolved cultural landscape. For thewoodlands are also places where the traditional animal husbandrysystem appears, particularly the use of mast as fodder for pigs, asdiscussed in another chapter of this publication. The forests in theirspatial organisation still reflect the historical political features: theformer general division of the area into two parts Civil Croatia andthe Military Frontier as well as the division of the woodlands ofthe Frontier into imperial forest complexes and forests given to thecommunes of the former frontiersmen after the Frontier had beenincorporated into Croatian-Slavonian crownland in the secondhalf of the 19 th century. Finally, the area is of great importance forthe history of forestry. It was here that the forester Josip Kozaracwrote his famous short novel Slavonske šume [Slavonian Forests]and followed a forest management approach based on the naturalplant communities.When it comes to the natural values, experience has shown thatconservation management in the Central Sava River basin has togive a higher priority to the maintenance of the unfragmented largecomplexes of riparian hardwood forest than to their qualities aswilderness.

Riparian Woodlands – The Unmistakable Appearance of the Sava Floodplains 37The sheer size of these large woodland complexes in combinationwith the flood dynamics guarantees a high level of naturalness, eventhough the forests are managed and used. The appearance of birdspecies indicating primeval forest structures and large undisturbedwoodland complexes are an indication of this. The size and the flooddynamics allow the running of ecological processes, the appearanceof almost all structures and stages of a riparian hardwood forestecosystem and avoid both the intensification of forest managementand an increase of disturbance. In this discussion one must alsoconsider the importance of the principle of the right moment andsequencing in conservation management. At the beginning it wasmore important to solve, in alliance with the forest service, theissue of the naturalness of the flood dynamics, and this demandedstrenuous efforts to reach a consensus with the water managementagency. To open a second front with the forest management authoritywould have been fatal at that moment.

5Traditional Pasturing – A Cultural andan Ecological Keystone Process

Traditional Pasturing – A Cultural and an Ecological Keystone Process 41With its authentic organisation and traditional system of landuse, Lonjsko Polje Nature Park constitutes a unique example of anorganically evolved landscape with a preserved medieval system ofthe common pasturing typical of the whole of Central Europe untilthe second half of the 19 th century. This traditional animal husbandrysystem is run with indigenous breeds of horse, pig, cattle and goose.In the Palaearctic zone there are other examples of traditionalanimal husbandry systems, such as the Hortobagy National Parkand Fertö-Neusiedler See. However, these are of the steppe type ofanimal husbandry, and hence the systems are essentially different inboth composition of species and in use of the habitats. The rearingof these animals is mainly in the hands of the administrations ofthe conservation areas, while in the floodplains of the Sava River itis mainly in the hands of the local people, which is an indication ofthe existence of a live continuous cultural landscape.At this point, one has to say that nowadays conservationists andscientists focus mainly on traditional animal husbandry systemsor remains of them that appear in extreme habitats such as highmountains, dry southern slopes and karstic or steppe areas. It isreasonable that experts should draw their conclusions on the basisof their investigations in those areas. The point is that these systems,or their remnants, are still in place because they occupy poor andextreme locations. They have always been economical and ecological“border” areas. Nobody has been interested in occupying them forother land use purposes. This was not the case with traditionalpasturing systems in the highly productive alluvial lowlands thatonce dominated the Central European landscapes. With theindustrial revolution and with the intensification of agriculture thisdominant picture disappeared more or less completely, and has beenreplaced by industrial zones or industrial agriculture, particularlyalong the central courses of the great rivers. The lowlands losttheir alluvial character because of drainage and river regulation.

42 Chapter 5Today, there are some remnants, for example in Northwest Germany.But even these remains have gone out of continuous use, and whatone can see there are elements testifying to the former system likeancient, solitary oaks. And so, what has survived and remained todayas partly working systems are the pasturing systems on the “border”areas run mainly with animals naturally adapted to dry mountainhabitats, like sheep and goats. But what Europe in particular haslost are the former “core” areas of animal husbandry with animalsthat are naturally more adapted to the alluvial grass- and woodlandhabitats like horse, pig, cattle and goose. As a consequence, there isa temptation to forget about these “core” areas of animal husbandry.This is why the existence of the traditional pasturing system of theCentral Sava River basin is so important. It is the only example thathas remained in alluvial lowlands in such a complete manner, stillgenerated, in addition, by the local population.But it is not only from the cultural heritage aspect that thissystem is of outstanding value. Alongside the inundation, it is thetraditional animal husbandry that generates the other ecologicalkey process in the floodplains of the Central Sava. It causes theappearance of secondary wet grassland and freshwater habitats.These key processes generated by both the traditional land useand the dynamics of inundation have created a unique mosaic ofsecondary and natural habitats, which makes the area the mostcomplete integral floodplain ecosystem of the central part of ariver basin in the whole of the biogeographical province. Thoseoutstanding habitat conditions can be proved by reference to someglobally endangered bird species. In Central Europe the corncrakeis mainly considered to be an indicator of meadows and culturallandscape diversity. Lonjsko Polje Nature Park offers both naturaland secondary wet grassland habitats to the corncrake. Moreover,the extensively used inundated areas partly covered by willow shrubsare the last remnants of natural habitats where the corncrake in

Traditional Pasturing – A Cultural and an Ecological Keystone Process 43Central Europe may occur outside the cultural landscape. Thus, it isan exceptional example able to be used as a habitat for this species.While the secondary grassland in the floodplain provides the idealhabitats of a cultural landscape, the large depressions with naturalswamp vegetation offer suitable breeding areas particularly in yearswhen inundation does not occur.The unique simultaneous abundance of natural and secondaryhabitats is of the utmost importance for another endangered birdspecies, too. Lonjsko Polje Nature Park is one of the very few siteswhere the spoonbill has survived in the continental part of Europe 1 .It is the only recorded permanent colony of this species situated inan oxbow and the only recorded breeding area where the adult birdsuse the wet pastures for foraging during the reproduction period.This proves the claim for the outstanding habitat conditions as it isa unique site with the spoonbill as one of the key indicator species: itis here that the species is linked to both the alluvial natural wetlandsand the secondary wet grasslands created by the traditional animalhusbandry system, as the pig pastures are the preferred feeding sitesduring the breeding period 2 .It is also here that the white stork attains the greatest nestingsuccess ever recorded in the literature.WWF states under the 180 Balkan Rivers and Streams GlobalEcoregion: “The Balkan region hosts an extremely diverse andhighly endemic (both at a local and regional level) gastropod fauna,with about 200 known species. For example, the Sava River alone1Schneider-Jacoby, M. (2002): Croatia, home of the last Central European Spoonbill population inalluvial wetlands. In: Report of the 68th EUROSITE Workshop 19-22 April 2002, Texel, The Netherlands,Wetland Management for Spoonbills and associated waterbirds, 68: 17 - 21.2Schneider-Jacoby, M., T. Mikuska, D. Kovaćić, J. Mikuska, M. Šetina & Z. Tadić (2001): Dispersalby accident – the Spoonbill population, Platalea leucorodia, in Croatia. Acrocephalus 22: 191 – 204

44 Chapter 5harbours 103 species, of which 54 are endemic.” 3 With its mosaicof secondary and natural, in particular grassland, habitats and itsconnection to the Sava River, the floodplains of Central Posavinacan be seen as the largest remaining spawning area of the entireSava River catchment area and the largest one situated in a centralriver part within the whole Danube catchment area. Because ofits size and its position in the central basin part, it must be seencomplementary in correspondence with the Danube Delta.All these facts enforce the conclusion that the man-made habitatsgenerated by the traditional pasturing system are of at least the sameimportance for biodiversity conservation as the natural floodplainhabitats. Even more so, since pasturing has been identified as anecological key process and the key species which run this process arenot wild but domestic animals. Central Posavina is an exceptionalexample of the in-situ conservation of endangered indigenousdomestic breeds. It represents the place of origin of as many as twobreeds: the Turopolje pig and the Posavina horse. For a further twobreeds, the Black-Slavonian pig and the Slavonian-Syrmian greycattle, it is a remaining part of the former breeding area. Accordingto MASON and PORTER the Posavina horse was listed as anextinct domestic breed 4 .Although endangered indigenous domestic breeds do not featureon the IUCN Red List, these breeds are, according to the Conventionon Biodiversity, understood as part of the world’s biodiversity. But itis here in Central Posavina that the breeds may be seen not only as a3http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/ecoregions/balkan_rivers_streams.cfm of16.12.20074MASON, I.L. , PORTER, V. (1988): A Mason’s World Dictionary of Livestock Breeds, Typesand Varieties. 1988. Third edition: ISBN 0-85198-617-X, p 179: «(Posavina) (N.W. Yugoslavia) ....Posavska; extinct before 1982 (R. Sava valley)». Changed in Fifth edition 2002 ISBN 0 85199 430 X,p 196: «Posavina (R. Sava, C and NE Croatia) .....Cro. Posavac, Posavlje, Posavska; rare»

Traditional Pasturing – A Cultural and an Ecological Keystone Process 45part of global biodiversity. Rather, they are causal agents in increasebiodiversity, generating habitats for a lot of endangered wild specieswhose abundance would be less under purely natural conditions.Therefore, one must conclude that traditional pasturing representsboth an ecological and a cultural key process. Both processes are sointricate that the cultural landscape and floodplain ecosystem of theCentral Sava River Basin fits neither into current natural heritageapproaches nor into common cultural heritage approaches. Thisfact leads us again to the conclusions of Chapter 1: such a situationrequires the capacity for versatility in the search for an appropriatemanagement approach.

6Traditional Pasturing – The Answerto Change and Unpredictability

Traditional Pasturing – The Answer to Change and Unpredictability 496.1 The Reasons For ContinuityFor the management of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park, it is essentialto understand the traditional pasturing system. How does it work?Why does it work exactly in this manner? What are the reasons forthe system’s continuity and survival?As has been said before, the micro-relief is crucial in a floodplain.There are safe places, but they are limited to the ridges along thewatercourse. On this narrow strip of land man has to concentrateanything that is only slightly or not at all adaptable to inundation:housing and farm facilities, orchards and kitchen gardens as wellas arable land. For the latter, it happened that maize harvest forexample had to be done by boat. This piece of land was hardly largeenough to produce a sufficient quantity of vegetables or maize forthe needs of the local people. Straw for example is a rare material inthe floodplains, because of the paucity of arable land and because incomparison with wheat the old sort of maize can be harvested evenif the land is flooded. So, people prefer to sow maize not wheat.Traditionally, people of Central Posavina eat maize bread not wheator rye bread. A careful reader of this publication could remarkthat there is another strip of “safe” land along the tributaries of themaster river. This would be astute, but these places are too far awayfrom the settlements to be worthwhile for arable crop production.The huge area between the two ridges is too much exposed to change,unpredictability and dynamics to be used for such static systemsas arable crop production. Man needs a flexible system. An animalhusbandry system allows mobility and adaptation. Then, one caneven use the remote ridges of the tributaries: livestock can move tothem during a flood. Livestock will learn where the safe places are.

50 Chapter 66.2 The Basic Forms of PasturingThere are three basic forms of pasturing. The commons orgmajna occupy the area on the great flood-liable grazing lands usedin common by the populations of the villages located close to theinundation areas.The haymaking complexes or sjenokoša are on private or commonareas of meadows which may be used for pasturing from Marchto May 1, while the flooding on the commons in the plain lasts.After May 1 the livestock has to be driven off. Then the meadowsare used for hay-making. The haymaking complexes may be usedfor pasturing again when mowing is finished. Although those areasmay be private properties they are managed like the commons aslong as they are used for pasturing.The poloj is a type of pasturing used by villages that do not havecommons and that, because of the small size of private pastures,resort to using the embankments, the edges of the roads, the copsesand the inundation area between the old embankment and theSava, referred to as “poloj”. This type is very typical in the villagesthat once belonged to the Military Frontier. From this it is evidentthat the principle of versatility intrudes even into property rights.But apart from these land use patterns, management features arenecessary in the system. They have to be simple and be conduciveto sustainability.6.3 The Management FeaturesThe management features in the pasturing system are the shadeand rest areas, the pig sties and the salashes. The most importantfeatures that have to be provided in the forest are the wateringplaces, the feeding sites, the shade and rest areas and the pigsties.For the dairy cows that are driven every day through the orchardsand ploughed fields to the pasture, driving trails have to be provided.

Traditional Pasturing – The Answer to Change and Unpredictability 51Traditionally these trails are in the shade of trees, and hawthorn isused to make fences preventing the animals breaking through intothe ploughed fields.The basic purpose of the shade and resting place, the so-calledplandište, is to protect the animals from summer heats and flies.The high summer temperatures are a big problem for the cattle andhorses, particularly when connected with high relatively humidity,often the case in the park. An air temperature of 31 o C and a relativehumidity of 80% gives a Temperature Humidity Index (THI) of 84.Since the optimal THI value for cows is 70, this will produce heatstress. Long exposure of the animals to this kind of stress can havefatal consequences. Cows and horses can stand low better than hightemperatures. Critical temperatures start only below -10 o C, andproblems with maintenance of temperature of the terminal partsof the body (ears) and increased food consumption start only whenthe temperature falls below -15 o C (cold stress). For this reason theanimals need to be provided with a shade place where they can beprotected and cooled during the greatest heats of the day.Pigsties are traditionally built of wood and are thatched withreed or straw. These structures are highly picturesque, i.e., theirtraditional form, constructed with natural materials, gives them theworth of traditional features, and cultural value in the arranging andpreservation of the cultural landscape.A typical forest pigsty is open at the front, and located in sucha way that the open side faces SE, where there is usually a fencedoutlet. Although the other sides of the pigsty are closed, littleopenings are left so that the sow can control the surroundings,and the swineherd can control the pigsty without disturbing thepigs. The floor is covered with hay because there is not enoughstraw, but experience also shows that hay is actually better, rottingmore slowly.

52 Chapter 6Usually two types of pigsty are built, according to purpose: adivided pigsty for sows with piglets and an ordinary working pigstywith somewhere to sleep, gather and working (gelding the boars forexample).Pigsties can be built on ridges in the stands meant for pig forestgrazing, only of natural materials. The bearing columns of untreatedwood have to be dug into the ground at least one metre and theheight of a sty must be 2 m. Reed and sedge are used for the roofing.The walls are wood planks of 2.5 cm thick, closed completely up to50 cm high, after which a space is left between the boards, providing50% of it open (if the boards are 10 cm wide, then the gap betweenthem should be 5 cm). On the SE of the sty (open side) there is afenced outlet, of an area at least twice as big as that of the sty itself.Such sties fit very well into the landscape of the Park, are optimalfrom an ecological point of view, and are also very functional andallow the herdsmen to manage the large herd easily.The salash is a kind of bothie, a separate part of the land, wherethe herdsmen once lived with the animals, and hence drove the herdeveryday to the forests to pasture. There are no more salashes inLonjsko Polje and one of the aims should be the reconstruction ofa typical salash.6.4 PasturingPutting the livestock out to graze starts in early spring when thepastures are dry enough to be walked on. The criterion for drivingthe Posavina horses on the pastures is even lower. It already startswhen the snow has disappeared from the grassland. If there is a highspring water level, then the animals are first grazed on the haymakingcomplexes, until May 1 at latest. Then the complexes have to beleft so that they can recover by mowing time. Mowing begins onJuly 1 and lasts until August 15. Most of the meadows are mown

Traditional Pasturing – The Answer to Change and Unpredictability 53only once a year. The inundated and muddy meadows were alwaysmown last and the hay was used only for horse fodder. This kind ofhay does not make good feed for dairy cows. The large livestock is inthe pastures the whole summer, right until late autumn and the firstfrosts, or until the floods, which come in October or November. Butfloods can occur earlier too, at the usual time of grazing. Then thecountry people and the animals have to avoid the flooded pasturesand shift to the non-flooded haymaking complexes again; after themowing, private meadows become commons, and can be used forthe pasturing of the animals. This also holds true for the ploughlandonce the harvest has taken place, where the swine are allowed toglean in the stubble fields.In villages that possess large commons, the dairy cows are thewhole day out on the pastureland during the grazing period. Thevillage people take turns in looking after the cattle. The basis for thenumber of days spent herding, which every peasant has to do, is thenumber of cattle he has on the common pastureland. A full-timeherdsman is today only employed on the Osekovo pastureland. Butthere is always another villager available for help.The pasturing of pigs is different and is divided into field andforest grazing (field implying grazing on non-forest areas). Pigsdo not use only the oak stands for foraging for acorns but otherwoodland habitats. In early spring the pigs usually start goingout into the non-forest areas of pastureland; here they are able tofind enough animal protein in the water-filled micro-depressions.Before the large animals that are sent out to graze go onto to thepastures, the pigs have rooted through the whole of the area, thusincreasing its productivity by helping along the annual plant species.After the large animals go out to the pastures, the pigs, accordingto the traditional rule, have to leave the non-forest pastureland andmove into the woodlands, for by their rooting they would destroythe important grass layer for the cattle. Although few today stick to

54 Chapter 6these ancient rules, the pigs themselves move into the wetter forestareas when the pastures dry up in the summer. In the late autumnthe pigs glean from the stubble fields. At that time the herdsmanhas to switch over to the herd management system whereby hedrives all of his pigs on one place, forming one large herd that thehe has to supervise all the time. This type of management is verytime-intensive for the herdsman and needs his full attention. Thus,wherever possible he will favour the other type of management, theso-called jato management. In the local dialect jato means somethinglike flock. The very term indicates that the large herd composed ofall the pigs owned by a swineherd is normally separated into severaljatos which are the basic unit for the system. Such a flock is led by adominant senior sow and its average size is up to 50 pigs which arethe offspring of 6- 8 old experienced and related sows. The dominantsenior sow keeps the flock together and preserves the territory; sheis so experienced that she knows the safe places in the wood thatare not covered by water during inundations. She also hands downthe swineherd’s lure call to the piglets. This call is in fact the maincommunication tool for the herdsman to find a flock in the thicketof the huge riparian woodlands. The call is particularly importantafter a big flood, when the flocks had to leave their territories andmove to the ridges. There they mixed up, so that they have to befound and re-established.Jato management has a lot of advantages in comparison with herdmanagement: the dominant sow takes over the herdsman’s job ofsupervising and driving the pigs. The system makes the most of thenatural social behaviour of pigs. The herdsman can look after morepigs if he uses the jato system: even in the difficult terrain of thefloodplain, a swineherd can manage 8-10 flocks which make up 400– 500 pigs. For one person this would be impossible under the herdmanagement conditions.

Traditional Pasturing – The Answer to Change and Unpredictability 55Figure 1. Wherever possible the large herd composed of all the pigs owned by aswineherd is normally separated into several jatos which are the basic unit for theso-called jato management.Figure 2. In the late autumn the pigs glean from the stubble fields. At that time theherdsman has to switch over to the herd management system whereby he drivesall of his pigs on one place, forming one large herd that the he has to superviseall the time.

56 Chapter 6The common idea that pigs destroy forest and pasture vegetationhas been challenged by Gugić (1994 and 1996) 1 . Gugić, researchingthe impact of forest pasturing by pigs on the rejuvenation of thelowland forests in Posavina, comparing the impact of wild pigs(density 33 individuals per 1000 ha) and domestic pigs (density625 pigs per 1000 ha) came to the following conclusions:− Narrow leaved ash rejuvenates better and common oak worseunder a pig regime.− In a forest where there are domestic pigs, there are practicallyno sicknesses and damage by game− Wild pigs burrow deeper than domestic: a 19-times greaterdomestic pig population density produced only twice the amount ofrooted up land than with wild pigs, which root up almost 10 timesas much land area as the tame pigs.Rooting activates the diaspores quiescent in the soil, because itgives them the light and warmth required for germination. Rootingopens up the close vegetation cover, giving one-year and pioneeringspecies a chance for germination and development; otherwise theywould not develop. Rooting even helps perennial species (Agrostisstolonifera)Rooting establishes a microrelief that has a greater structuraldiversity. Some plants thrive better in shallow and some in deeperlayers. Summing up the results of both these research efforts it canbe said that the traditional manner of keeping swine (forest and fieldgrazing) has a positive effect on vegetation, reduces the occurrence1GUGIĆ, G. (1994): Utjecaj šumske ispaše pitomih svinja na pomlađivanje nizinskih šuma u Posavini.– Šum.list 1 (94), Zagreb (Einfluß der Waldweide von domestizierten Schweinen auf die Verjüngungder Auwälder in der Savaniederung).2GUGIĆ, G. (1996): Die Hudewirtschaft der Sava-Niederung (Kroatien). In: MATTHES, Heide-Dörte (Ed.): 2. Lenzener Gespräche. Landschaftspflege mit Nutztieren und nachhaltige Landbewirtschaftung.Dummerstorf, 1996.

Traditional Pasturing – The Answer to Change and Unpredictability 57of sickness and retains and increases biological diversity. Someactually rather rare and in other places threatened plant speciesare maintained in the Park only thanks to the pigs like Menthapulegium, Pulicaria vulgaris, Teucrium scordium, Marsilea quadrifoliaand Gratiola oficinalis.

7Breeds of domestic animals as essentialcomponents of the pasturing system

Breeds of domestic animals as essential components of the pasturing system 61Traditional pasturing has been identified as an ecological keyprocess in Lonjsko Polje Nature Park. The conclusion follows thatdomestic animals must not be seen as something apart from nature.Instead, they have to be recognised as key species, running the keyecological process. In addition, domestic breeds can be interpretedalso as a key feature of the key cultural process of traditionalpasturing. So, their position is janus-like, for on the one handthey are the substitute or perhaps even only developed versions ofthe tarpan, aurochs, wild boar and wild goose, and on the otherhand they are the result of a combination of natural and artificialselection.The domestic animals must have specific traits that enablesurvival in the extreme conditions of an intact floodplain. Parasites,the heavy soils and the appearance of both humidity and droughtare such powerful factors that they limit every attempt to get thebreeds heavier, bigger or more productive. In the case of traditionalpig breeding, for example, there is no ambition even to increase theaverage number of piglets per litter. The number of 5 piglets perlitter is seen as a guarantee that the sow will be able to raise all of thepiglets in the woodlands and defend them against the fox or jackalsuccessfully.In the case of the Posavina horse, there were several attemptsto get it heavier, particularly when the horse lost its function as adraught horse in the early 1970s and when meat production becamethe only purpose for breeding. All these attempts failed because ofthe natural conditions in the floodplain: the cross breeds were tooheavy for the marsh soils and too strong for the available food.This leads to the conclusion that the animals must be modestwith respect to food and food efficiency as the wet pastures are lowquality feeding grounds for any breed that is selected on the base ofmodern systems of animal feeding.

62 Chapter 7One of the most important criteria is the social behaviour andcharacter of the animals. The Posavina horses, for example, promptlyform into large herds organised in a natural manner while they areon the pastures. During this time they live in fact as wild animals ona wide area. Under such conditions it is essential for the breeder thatthe horse does not lose the connection to man even if the breeder isnot present for a long time. In November when the horses leave thepastures or even earlier on the occasion of a very high flood, whenthey have to be evacuated from the pastures, the horses immediatelyhave to change the wide open area for the cramped space of a smallwooden stable in which they are tethered the whole time. All thesesituations – and one must add here the mosquitoes – ask for anexceptional character and social behaviour.The phenotype of the animals has to be adapted to the naturalfloodplain conditions, too. Because of the heavy and muddy soils,the weight of the animals needs to be low. The hooves must havea face as large as possible to minimise sinking. Protection againstmosquitoes is essential. In response, the Turopolje pig has woollybristles, and the ears are floppy to protect the eyes of the animal.But at the end the ears are, as a compromise in selection, only semifloppybecause of another requirement – the necessity for the pigsto be able to swim. Floppy ears would hinder the view in such amanner that swimming could finally result in the animal drowning.The discussion on “purebred” phenotypes of old indigenousbreeds leads one to a possible misunderstanding in elaboratingbreeding programs for those breeds. Namely, the elaboration of abreeding program mostly involves the introduction of a studbook i.e.a written record of the genealogy of the animals. This consequentlyinvolves the transition from a more or less unintentional artificialselection to a breed standard. As the situation before theintroduction of a standard seemed to be chaotic, standardisationis often over-restrictive at the start: the concept of purebred

Breeds of domestic animals as essential components of the pasturing system 63breeding is contemporaneous with the actual process. In the caseof the Turopolje pig for example a serious discussion arose at thevery beginning, concerning the number of marks of dark bristles a“purebred” Turopolje pig may have. But this discussion on a puretrait of the phenotype was pointless at that stage. First of all, theoriginal base stock simply was never treated as purebred, andsecondly, the number of dark marks may be understood as a traitof distinction that enables the swineherds to distinguish their ownpigs from those of others at great distances on the wide area of thecommons.In the case of the Posavina horse the introduction of a studbook evoked the intention to close the registry immediately. Suchan approach excludes a large number of potential breeding animalsof the original base stock because of traits of the new but strictlydefined “purebred” phenotype only, although the entire base stockfits genetically in with the above mentioned conditions in thefloodplains.Another aspect appears with the standardisation of the breedingof Posavina horses. Since the Posavina horse has become popularin recreational horse riding, interested buyers demand horsestrained under today’s standards in horse riding. But this involvesexpectations quite opposite to the original purpose of the breed.A farmer was primarily interested in breeding horses he coulduse immediately without intensive training for all purposes inagriculture. This goes particularly for a farmer in the floodplainswho was often forced to carry out agricultural activities during thevery short dry period between two floods. The number of horses perfarm was therefore up to four times larger inside the floodplains thanthe average number of horses per farm outside the floodplains. Thefarmer would never have the time to train all his horses intensivelyin accordance to standards in horse riding or carriage driving. Theability of the Posavina horse to learn quickly and to follow the

64 Chapter 7necessary commands immediately was an essential trait in the past,and is forgotten today. But it is this trait that really makes the breedand needs to be part of the breed standard.As already mentioned in a previous chapter the Posavina horsewas already listed as an extinct domestic breed. Later, when thePosavina horse population of Central Posavina was re-discovered in1994, COTHRAN and KOVAČ concluded that the tested horsepopulation fitted the definition of a breed quite well. They also statedthat “the Posavina horse has a few variants that are uncommon invirtually all horse breeds ... and thus may be from the Tarpan” 1 . Thisindicates again a problem with standardisation and classification:the Posavina horse has no easily recognised position. By its height itshould be classified as a pony – but obviously the horse is not a pony.It has also characteristics of both warmblood and draught horse– but again: it is neither the one nor the other. The conservationmanager must recognise and accept this speciality in his geneticresource management. In this case he must be versatile with respectto the breed and obstinate against standards and classifications.One must conclude that in the case of endangered indigenousbreeds which came into being before the appearance of a breedstandard, the main emphasis on phenotypic traits may suppress theconsideration of genotypic and social traits which are mostly moreessential for the in-situ conservation of the breed. The traditionalanimal husbandry system itself, its conditions for and demands onthe breed have to be equally considered in the definition of the breedstandard and the conservation of the breed.Depending on the situation of the breed the conservationmanagement of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park applies differentapproaches to in-situ conservation under the common strategicgoal to maintain both the breeds and the traditional animal1COTHRAN, E.G., KOVAČ, M. (1997): Genetic Analysis of the Croatian Trakehner andPosavina Horse Breeds. ŽIVOČIŠNÁ VÝROBA, Volume 42, Prague, 1997. ISSN 0044-4847. pp.207-212.

Breeds of domestic animals as essential components of the pasturing system 65husbandry system. As the original base stock of the Posavina horsewas considered sufficient, and completely in the hands of localbreeders, the Park Service did not take over the breeding of animalsbut supported the breeders in their efforts to organise themselvesand to take on the competence for the stud book and the breedstandard, which had been primarily in the hands of the state. ThePark Service places its emphasis on the rehabilitation of the horsepasturing system.The situation with the Slavonian-Syrmian Podolian grey cattlewas completely different. The remaining base stock was consideredas critically endangered. The entire population was concentrated inone place and in the hands of one public “breeder” in the northeasternpart of Croatia. The Park Service decided to buy a sufficientnumber of animals in October 2004 and to transfer them toanother place. This was to reduce the risk of extinction by diseasesand to decrease the coefficient of inbreeding. For the park area, onecan state that the breed is still exclusively in the hands of the ParkService as it is of the utmost importance to minimise inbreedingat this stage. The achievement of this objective requires expertiseand very careful selective breeding. Nevertheless, the Park Servicehas started to involve local breeders as conservation managementhas to consider that there is no experience with grey cattle amongstlocal breeders and as it is therefore important to involve interestedvolunteers from the beginning: the oldest bull was thus transferredto a private farm the owner of which can be termed the firstvolunteer. This happened when the competent authority asked thePark Service to move the animal away and to eliminate it as almostthe entire herd is of his progeny. The Park Service did not agree tothe authorities’ demand to slaughter the animal as the old bull showsa lower coefficient of inbreeding than his sons. From the aspect ofminimising the coefficient of inbreeding it makes very good senseto take the bull back to the herd when the progeny of another bullcomes in place.

66 Chapter 7The situation with the Turopolje pig is quite different. There arestill a quite large number of local breeders with knowledge aboutthe traditional system of foraging the pigs with mast from the oakstands. A testimony of this long tradition can be seen in the firstwritten trace of the breeding of pigs in Turopolje, which is an orderof Croatian-Hungarian King Ljudevit [Louis] of 1352 to have thetheft of pigs in Turopolje Lug investigated. In the mid-19 th centuryMiško Lederer carried out an additional cross with pigs of unknownorigin and thus created a pig that met the economic needs of thattime. Since then the Turopolje pig has remained a fat type of pig.Thus, the local breeders began to crossbreed to get a pig of the bacontype. Thus, in the breeding area of the Turopolje pig, the remainingexamples of this pig can be counted on the fingers. However, a notless worthwhile population of pigs that is today bred in Lonjsko Poljeare various crosses of the Turopolje pig with the Duroc or Baniya pigwith the Duroc. So, in-situ conservation of the Turopolje pig had tohave the primary goal of rehabilitating the original Turopolje pig.The Park Service started with a very small population of five sowsand four boars, only. After reaching a sufficient number of animals,the conservation management decided to hold two complete geneticcopies in the Park’s breeding station. With the surplus of animals,the Park Service started a program for the rehabilitation of theTuropolje pig amongst local breeders, and this for three reasons:to minimise the risk of extinction by spreading the population, tomaintain the knowledge of the traditional pig management and tocreate a critical number of animals bred for commercial use.The latter makes an important aspect in the true applicationof the principle of sustainability. A traditional animal husbandrysystem that is run by conservationists exclusively for the purposes ofconservation might not be sustainable. Conservation managementmust create and maintain an entire range of reasons for maintainingthe system and must take cognizance of the essential economic,social, cultural and natural stimulating and limiting factors.

Breeds of domestic animals as essential components of the pasturing system 67Picture 1. The Posavina horse is high-spirited, strong and hardy, and very modestand docile. This is a medium-heavy working horse, of harmonious build that“covers plenty of soil”. It has a noble head, broad forehead and expressed eyes. Ithas the characteristics of small “mouse’s ears”. The chest is broad, medium-deepand very long. The legs are relatively short, with dry joints and broad, very flathoofs. It is mostly brown, bay or dark bay, seldom black or grey.

68 Chapter 7Picture 2. The Turopolje pig is a late maturing breed of the medium large and fattype. The basic bristle colour is white, with 5 to 9 black mottles, hand-sized. Thebristle is curly and medium length, and the skin is not pigmented, except beneaththe dark mottles. The head is longish with semi-floppy ears, medium length. Thetrunk is long, the back straight, and the sows have 10-12 regularly shaped dugs.

Breeds of domestic animals as essential components of the pasturing system 69Picture 3. The Slavonian-Syrmian Podolian is single coloured, light grey, with asimilar distribution of darker pigmentation. The horns are lyre-shaped and as arule a little larger than in the Istrian grey cattle. Average length of horn is about50 cm, and the distance between them is about 100 cm. The calf is born reddishyellow, but at the age of about a year it turns grey. It is a late maturing breed thatcompletes its growth at the age of about six.

8Adaptation to Flooding – A CulturalKeystone Process

Adaptation to Flooding – A Cultural Keystone Process 73In the previous chapters we have placed the emphasis on processeswhich are known as ecological key processes. The identification ofthose processes was said to be of the utmost importance for themanagement of the property. However, in a cultural landscapelike Lonjsko Polje Nature Park it seems to be obvious that themodel of keystone processes could be applied in a similar way tothe cultural features of the property. And indeed, one can identifycultural keystone processes that brought the landscape into beingand have continued to create its elements, structures and functions,particularly if the landscape has evolved organically or continuously.Following up this idea, we already have identified the traditionalpasturing as a keystone process, which can be seen in both aspects,ecological and cultural. In the case of Lonjsko Polje Nature Park,adaptation can be said still to be playing an important role in thetraditional life and wise use of the Sava floodplains. Adaptation hasbeen always an important capability of human societies. UNESCO’sWorld Heritage List is a good source to check this statement. Andindeed, there are several sites inscribed on the World HeritageList that demonstrate in principle human interaction with waterin terms of irrigation, such as the Palmeral of Elche in Spain andthe Qingcheng/Dujianggyan Irrigation System in China, in termsof encroachment such as Schockland and surroundings or in termsof land reclamation in the case of Droogemakerij de Beemster inthe Netherlands. A few sites demonstrate in principle the humancapability of adapting to the given geomorphological constraints,such as those of an insular environment in the AgriculturalLandscape of Southern Öland in Sweden and of a mountainoussetting in the Costiera Amalfitana in Italy as well as the AncientVillages in Southern Anhui-Xidi and Hongcun in China, andthe Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama in Japan.However, the essential difference between Lonjsko Polje NaturePark and the above mentioned properties is that only here hashumanity deliberately and consciously come to terms with the

74 Chapter 8occurrence of the flooding, and has subordinated almost everythingto this phenomenon: the organisation of the space, the architectureand the land management, while in other properties the idea hasbeen to tame the river. There is no property inscribed on the WorldHeritage List that demonstrates human adaptation to inundation.Moreover, the idea of adaptation to inundation has found a moderncontinuation in the implementation of a flood control system basedon the deliberate use of floodplains as retention and detention areas(Brundic et al. 2001). This happened in the area of the propertyalready in the late 1970s, and the project of that time can be seenas one of the very first attempts of the implementation on a largescale of what is known today as the Room for Rivers approach. So,one can say that the cultural landscape of Central Posavina is anoutstanding example of an area in which human beings have in themost complete manner adjusted their way of living to the floods.The long and continuous tradition of living with and not againstthe floods has created an extraordinary system that impinges onall aspects of human interaction with the environment, such asthe vernacular building, the settlement pattern and the shapingof the landscape, the use of the land as well as the creation ofindigenous domestic breeds perfectly adapted to the conditions ofthe floodplain.Adaptation, in modern society, tends to be seen as a messy andimperfect process. It stands in the way of radical greenfield measuresthat bring sweeping changes and satisfying advances. The livinglandscape of Central Posavina, a classic example of adaptation, mayserve to modify such perceptions and provide an object lesson inhow to bend to natural rhythms and configurations, rather thandeny them.Hereby, the behavior after “disasters” is important. Each “postdisaster reform” represents a great impetus for adaptation. The livinglandscape of Central Posavina can be also understood in this sense:it is the result of countless responses to the “disaster” of flooding.

Adaptation to Flooding – A Cultural Keystone Process 75Figure 3. Housing in Central Posavina is a perfect example of adaptation. The traditionalwooden houses are situated on the natural ridges beside the river – the safest place in thefloodplains. Nevertheless, inundation may occur even here. For that reason, the houses areoriented parallel with the direction of the flow and strictly follow the line of the advanceand retreat of the floodwaters. The external stairs enable the householders to take to theirboats whatever the water level. As the house is of wood, it dries up quickly. Timber alsoabsorbs humidity in the air much better than other materials. This is important particularlyin summer and autumn. The meandering of the river may cause another problem, the curvecoming uncomfortably close to the building. Then, the house as a whole was simply movedbackwards for some meters by oxen or horses.

9The Other Way of Flood Control

The Other Way of Flood Control 79The common concept of flood control in the past was embodiedin the construction of dikes along water courses wherever floodswere causing problems. With this solution the water discharge wassimply and as soon as possible diverted downstream. Today, thisconcept has become more and more questionable. The existence ofa dike automatically induces a feeling of safety in the population.The formerly flooded area seems to have been made secure by thedike and occupation of such an area starts immediately. But infact, the feeling of safety may be delusory, since dikes are alwaysconstructed under economic constraints. They are designed for acertain maximum water level. But what will happen if the real waterlevel exceeds the design maximum? What will happen if the dikebreaks? The damage could be catastrophic and more expensive thanthe benefit deriving from the existence of the dike. Such conceptsdo not lead to sustainability, if respect for natural limitations isconsidered an integral part of the principle of sustainability.In times of climate change it is even questionable whether it iswise to discharge water as soon as possible. In the event of drought,water will not be available because it has already been drained. Ifthere are heavy rainfalls the drainage structures may not be ableto clear all the discharge anymore and flooding will take on theappearance of a disaster.In the Central Sava River basin, this concept of flood control wasnever accepted. One of the reasons for this lay in the existence andpurpose of the former Military Frontier. A keystone of the militarystrategy of the Habsburg Monarchy in the defence system againstthe Ottoman Empire was the deliberate use of the natural barrierof the Sava River and its floodplains. A second reason inheres inthe vision of the experts who designed the 1972 Central PosavinaFlood Control Plan. Although it was primarily planned, in theframework of this project, to reduce the existing natural retentionareas by almost six times, the real innovation in flood control design

80 Chapter 9was the fact that an area of some 50,000 hectares was to remain aretention capable of being brought into play for flood control. Atthat time, it was unheard of to leave areas of potential arable land aswetlands, and it was difficult to convince international donors likethe World Bank to support this project. But things have changed.When Croatia asked for a new loan at the end of the millennium, theWorld Bank had already fundamentally changed its environmentalpolicy and now requested the elaboration of an EnvironmentalImpact Assessment. The conclusions of this assessment confirmedthe position of the park management which requested the floodcontrol system to take into consideration the entire currentretention area of the Central Sava Basin, simultaneously rejectingthe construction of further channels, dikes, dams and floodgates,except where absolutely necessary.This new strategic approach has fundamental consequences. Itavoids the occupation of the area of inundation by unsuitable formsof land use. It ensures the integrity of the floodplain ecosystem andallows the continuation of ecological key processes. It provides asufficient scope in water management to deal with equal successwith drought and flooding. It is cheap. It allows to local people tocontinue the traditional land use in the rural area.

The Other Way of Flood Control 81Figure 4. The development of the flood control system in Central Posavina mayserve as an example of getting versatile. The map at the bottom left shows thealmost natural situation before 1972 when the floodplains along the Kupa, Sava,Odra, Lonja, Sunja and Strug rivers comprised their natural range (areas in darkgrey). With the 1972 Central Posavina Flood Control Plan (second map fromthe top) a significant reduction of the surface of flooded areas was planned: thefloodplains along the Odra River were to be completely drained, as were largeareas along the Kupa River, along the left bank of the Sava River and along theSunja River. Today, only 40% of the plan has been implemented (second mapfrom the bottom) but the flood control system runs well. A by-pass channelevacuates high waters before Zagreb to the retention area of the Odra River.The channel stops here. Originally, the channel was supposed to continue anddrain the Odra floodplains. Along the left bank of the Sava River, Lonjsko Poljewas designated as a detention area. With the 2002 World Bank EnvironmentalImpact Assessment, a solution has been found to satisfy the requirements of bothnature conservation and flood control.

10The Pillars of Managing Change

The Pillars of Managing Change 8510.1 Keystone processesIn ecosystem theory, terms like driver and passenger speciesappear: the drivers are also called keystone species. They control thebeing of an ecosystem while the passenger species live in but donot have a significant influence on the ecosystem. However, speciesmay shift their roles, and that makes it difficult for the managerof a protected area to found conservation management on them.Even more, the concept of keystone species which is quite popularamongst conservation biologists, might narrow the manager’s view.It might drive him away from an integral, holistic and comprehensivemanagement approach, which is necessary in systems ecology.Particularly in a dynamic ecosystem like the floodplains of theSava River, processes that result in high ecological complexity andthe ongoing creation of discontinuous spatial and temporal patternswithin the ecosystem are taking place. Actually, the ecological keyprocesses bring the ecosystem into being. They form the ecosystemspecificstructures that shape the system’s morphology and diversity.A number of advantages attach to the decision to found theconservation management system of a protected area on the conceptof ecological key processes rather than on the concept of keystonespecies. It requires the conservation manager permanently toquestion ideas like equilibrium, resilience, disturbance and stability,scale and boundaries of the ecosystem. It offer the manager the basisof decision-making: as long as the ecological key processes are ableto run, there is space for negotiations on possible interventions in theprotected area and change might be tolerated. But if an interventionimpinges on the ecological key process itself, conservation cannotallow it any scope or space. On the other hand, the applicationof this concept also helps to avoid unnecessary or even harmfulconservation measurements or interventions.

86 Chapter 10The concept of ecological key processes does not only serveas the basis of decision-making. The ecological key process alsorepresents the central theme for any conservation managementactivity concerning the protected area. Any activity needs to be inaccord with the key process and should even contribute, if possible,to the continuation of this process. The following example mayillustrate an application of this postulate: Lonjsko Polje NaturePark Public Service ordered a study on the identification of fivetraditional farm products originating from the protected area. Ina second step, it is planned to start marketing activities for theseproducts. The overall objective of this management activity is toimprove benefits generated by traditional land use, particularly bythe traditional animal husbandry system. Although the five productswere identified by a scientifically proved methodology that includedinterviews with local producers, the Park Service intervened finallyand accepted three but asked for two of the proposed products tobe excluded, for they would not assist the ecological key process.Instead, the Park Service proposed that products ranked sixth andseventh should be included, as these products do contribute tothe continuation of both key processes identified for Lonjsko PoljeNature Park.Putting the main emphasis on ecological key processes enablesconservation management to make its decision-making andits management behaviour more transparent, comprehensible,consistent and versatile to both the park staff and the stakeholdersbut also to the broader public. It is much easier and provides greatermanagement effectiveness to interpret the one or two ecological keyprocesses to a ranger or a land user than a whole host of conservationmeasurements.

The Pillars of Managing Change 8710.2 ZoningThe floodplains of Central Posavina are an example of the roleof change within the concept of ecological key processes. Change isoften understood as a threat or at least as something undesirable.Here it is important to recognise that such an understanding ofchange may arise from the application of conservation managementtools and structures itself. Zoning, a favourite tool in naturepreservation, for example, or even the establishment of a protectedarea itself may lead conservation management to a spatial fixing ofecosystem patterns and processes. This may lead to problems indealing sufficiently with the ecological key processes, especially ifthe integrity of the ecosystem is not guaranteed by a sufficient sizeof the protected area. To be provocative: unsuitable conservationzoning as well as an arbitrary design of the protected area itself mayresult in the fragmentation of an ecosystem, almost no differentin this from other human impacts. In Lonjsko Polje Nature Park,change caused by natural geomorphological and flood dynamicsmay occur everywhere, regardless of the zoning. Here changemust be simply recognised as a permanent rearrangement of thesystem’s morphology and diversity. Change is, rather, an essentialpart of the process and accordingly it becomes an essential part ofthe Park’s integrity. The fact that, despite constant changes, all birdspecies ever historically recorded can still be found at the site todayunderlines the correctness of this statement. Thus, zoning that isdesigned simply on the basis of distinct levels of nature protectionmight be rejected as an unsuitable tool for managing change.Zoning in Lonjsko Polje Nature Park follows rather the traditionalland use patterns, which are directly connected to the ecological keyprocesses. The boundaries of a zone, although clearly and formallydefined, must not be seen as absolute or permanent boundaries.Zoning must be guided by other management tools that are able

88 Chapter 10to allow and create more flexibility and versatility. Joint practicalwork with present land users for example is the tool of first resort.It fosters cooperation between conservation management andstakeholders and increases the willingness to tolerate the applicationof conservation measurements even outside the zone for whichthose measures were originally provided. Another effective tool isthe consistent incorporation of the same or similar conservationmeasurements into different planning and ruling documents likethe management plans of the present stakeholders, physical plansand the nature park regulations. It is not sufficient to have a certainconservation rule only in one document as its implementation shouldhave horizontal, vertical and also diagonal effects in governance.10.3 IntegrityDuring the above discussion on zoning one term has beenmentioned that is crucial in conservation management, especiallyunder the aspect of managing change: according to Article 88of the Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of theWorld Cultural and Natural Heritage, integrity “is a measureof the wholeness and intactness of the natural and/or culturalheritage and its attributes”. Therefore, “a protected area shouldhave sufficient size and contain the necessary elements todemonstrate the key aspects of processes that are essential for thelong term conservation of the ecosystems and the biological diversitythey contain. … If a protected area constitutes a cultural landscape,relationships and dynamic functions present in this landscapeessential to its distinctive character should also be maintained.”However, conservation management has to consider the concept ofintegrity even when, as a result of inadequate design, a protectedarea has not met the criterion of integrity. In that case it is a majormanagement task to find ways of having an influence on the entire

The Pillars of Managing Change 89area in which the criteria of integrity would be met. The creation ofa buffer zone could be an appropriate management tool. The bufferzone should include the immediate setting of the protected area,important views and other areas or attributes that are functionallyimportant as a support to the protected area. But if it comes to apoint at which the buffer has to have complementary legal and/orcustomary restrictions placed on its use and development, to givean added layer of protection to the primarily protected area, thendifficulties may appear when the national law does not provide alegal status for the buffer zone. This is exactly the case with LonjskoPolje Nature Park. Therefore, the Park Service started the processof creating a buffer zone “in the mind”. The main management toolto achieve this goal is joint practical work carried out by the ParkService and major land users. A forester for example who has gainedpositive experience in conducting forest management activitiesjointly with the park staff forest management in a forest standwithin the protected area will be ready to apply the same or similarapproach in a forest stand outside of it. This process leads graduallyto the creation of a buffer zone “in the minds” of all the stakeholders.Such a buffer is not visible on paper, but is made visible in the field.10.4 The concept of serial sitesThe concept of serial sites represents another tool to ensureintegrity. It is an up-coming approach as yet, developed within theframe of the World Heritage Convention. However, it is obviousthat the serial site approach ensures the integrity of a protected areain a more effective way than the concept of buffer zones, particularlyin the case of river basin wetland habitats where it is more importantto include intact component parts that are related, from the entirebasin in addition, i.e. the upper, central and lower river course. Theserial site approach can be expected to be a more effective tool in

90 Chapter 10dealing with change as well. It offers on one hand effective riskmanagement through spatial dispersion and on the other hand itenables the conservation management to act over a broader scope byboth providing distributed but related parts and tending to lead tothe establishment of appropriate integrated management structuresand tools.10.5 Dynamic AuthenticityIf a protected area comprises a cultural landscape anotherdimension appears in managing change. It is the authenticity of thelandscape. But as a cultural landscape is constituted as a result ofboth natural and cultural processes, authenticity has to be derivedfrom both. This is very different from defining the authenticity ofan architectural or horticultural property the genuineness of whichis of more a static character and is defined more by the form, design,location and setting of the property. A living landscape with itsrunning ecological and cultural key processes is subject to dynamicsin its natural and cultural features. Dynamics are often the “trainers”of traditional management systems and techniques. Without them,the system and /or the techniques lose their significance and becomea mere matter of conservation intent.In the case of a wetland one has additionally to question whethera wetland can be seen exclusively as a landscape at all. The answeris: a wetland constitutes as the surface of intersection of two states,it is both a landscape and a waterscape. It is permanently shiftingbetween both the two states. This permanent impermanencemakes it almost impossible to catch the authenticity of a landscapewithout accepting change. Thus, change has to be recognised andaccepted as an essential part of authenticity. Here, this authenticityhas a dynamic character. It is more important in the conservationmanagement of landscapes clearly to identify and describe the

The Pillars of Managing Change 91Figure 5. A wetland constitutes as the surface of intersection of two states, it isboth a landscape and a waterscape.cultural key processes with their key elements and functions thanto focus on forms and settings in the sense of static legitimacy. Thisimplies another requirement: it becomes a “have to” to determine asystem of indicators by which it is possible to monitor authenticitydynamics. Logically, those indicators need to be related to thecultural key processes, elements and functions. Such a system allowsconservation management to get more versatile in its decisionmaking.At this point one can state that the ecological key processes,integrity and dynamic authenticity, represent the three pillarsof managing a cultural landscape and ecosystem in conditions ofchange. These pillars are strong enough to support the presence ofthe significant attributes of the natural and cultural heritage but areflexible enough to deal with change.

11From Visioning to Action

From Visioning to Action 9511.1 VisioningDeveloping a vision is one of the most important steps inconservation management. The manager may have his own visionat the starting point of this process. But his vision obviously mustnot be the final one. It is crucial to understand that the processof building a consensus among stakeholders has to end with amutual vision. On the other hand, it is also crucial to understandthat the three pillars mentioned in the previous chapter have to bethe basis of any vision for a protected area. This is the doctrine forconservation managers. It is the art of conservation managementto be able to convince the other stakeholders. Therefore, visioningis a time-consuming and controversial process which requires boththe conservation managers as well as the stakeholders to learn theexpert language of the others, to reflect their own points of view andto understand the points of view of the others. It is necessary to passthrough the visioning process several times. With each repetition ofthe process the vision becomes more accurate, complete and precise.Finally, it considers the entire system and is consistent as well as incareful conformity with the requirements.But what are the requirements? They are the answers to threecore questions of management:What is running wrong? How could it work in the right way?How should it work in the right way?Derived from this, the basic exercise of the visioning process is(1) to observe existing problems critically, (2) to find appropriatesolutions and (3) to point in possible directions of furtherdevelopment. As a first step this exercise should be done with eachstakeholder separately. Later, this exercise has to be done jointly.When it comes to the point of directing in possible ways of furtherdevelopment, the manager has even to look beyond the boundariesof the protected area. In the case of a riverine area like Lonjsko Polje

96 Chapter 11Nature Park this is obvious since it may not at all be a matter ofindifference to conservation management what is happening or isplanned up- and downstream of the protected area.Figure 6. It is crucial to understand that the process of building a consensusamong stakeholders has to end with a mutual vision.Thus, conservation management has to think about the creationof appropriate structures and techniques for generating the visioningprocess. Here one must note that there are two other importantsimultaneous processes that run at the beginning in the background.Nevertheless, both targeting and integrating become more importantas the visioning process moves forward. The existence of severalsimultaneous processes needs a constant questioning of the chosenstructures and techniques as well as the stakeholders’ profile. Inother words, there is no remedy except for the manager being readyfor adaptation and change all the time. As mentioned earlier, in thebeginning of the process it might be necessary to have roundtables

From Visioning to Action 97with each stakeholder separately. Later a stakeholders’ committeefor the protected area is established where stakeholders can workjointly. This co-operation needs its follow-up in the field. When thevisioning has to become more accurate and precise, the stakeholders’committee splits into working groups dealing with certain issues.Those working groups will come back to the committee with theirresults.Figure 7. When the visioning has to become more accurate and precise, thestakeholders’ committee (SC) splits into working groups (WG) dealing withcertain issues.During this process the problem of positive group dynamics mayappear. The members of the stakeholders’ committee understandeach other more and more. They get to be friends. Everything is fine,except that the members forget to bring the information from thestakeholders’ committee back to their own community of intereststo see whether there is a consensus among their community on acertain issue of the visioning process. For that reason, it may benecessary to come back to roundtables with each stakeholder.

98 Chapter 11Figure 8. Working with stakeholders is an iterative process.11.2 ComparingDuring the visioning process for Lonjsko Polje Nature Park,the need for elaborating a comparative analysis became importantwhen the park was nominated as a World Heritage site. Such ananalysis is a particular part of the nomination procedure under theWorld Heritage Convention. However, comparing a protected areain relation to similar sites might be an extremely useful exercisenot only for nominated world heritage sites but for sites in general.It helps very much to discover the particular values of the site. Ittherefore makes the position and importance of the site clear to allstakeholders including of course the conservation management itself.A good comparative analysis offers additional insights into whatis really essential for future conservation management in a given

From Visioning to Action 99protected area, and it directs conservation management to similarsites. The latter might be important in increasing the versatility ofconservation management, particularly when change appears. Theidentification of similarities amongst related sites by comparativeanalysis might lead to the establishment of a serial site, an approachthat has been recognised in the previous chapter as an effective toolof conservation management under conditions of change.Figure 9. The Cycle of Finding the Outstanding Universal Value (OUV).Although the concept of the outstanding universal value (OUV) is originally amatter of the World Heritage Convention, it is useful for the management of anyprotected area to pass the cycle as shown here: one may start the cycle with a draftstatement of the value of the site. Then, one should define the authenticity of theproperty (in the case of a cultural landscape), and identify the conditions whichmay ensure the integrity of the site. With a comparative analysis a clear pictureof both the site’s uniqueness and similarities with other sites will be reached.That enables one to justify the criteria of the site’s values. Now one needs to passthrough the cycle again.

100 Chapter 1111.3 TargetingSince visioning is the process of finding the goal toward whichone aspires, targeting is the process of determining the goal thatone is attempting to achieve. Both visioning and targeting shouldbe understood as mutually reinforcing processes: visioning shouldbe used to stimulate creatively the determination of goals, andtargeting should be used to get an achievable and accurate vision. Inthis context we have to look at the role of consultants. Consultantscan be very useful if the park management has a clear picture ofwhat the role of the consultant should be. But a consultant shouldnever be hired to do the whole job.Figure 10. The Role of Consultants. Consultants may play an important role inconservation management. However, at this point of the discussion, we must saysome words on this issue. The management of a protected area may use consultantsto ask for advice and expertise if the staff has no capacity to solve a certain problemin-house. Consultants may play a crucial role as neutral facilitators and mediators

From Visioning to Action 101when a problem appears between conservation management and stakeholdersor when a process has to be set in motion amongst them. Consultants can beused to evaluate and audit processes within the conservation management orbetween conservation management and stakeholders. But consultants must notbe used to superintend the co-operation between conservation management andstakeholders. Co-operation is exclusively a matter for the parties themselves. Evenwhen the conservation management uses consultants for the above mentionedpurposes of advising, facilitating and evaluating, the manager should avoid havingthe job done exclusively by the consultant. All parties involved have to be activelyinvolved. Otherwise, it is very probable that the final product has been producedonly to be put into the drawer.11.4 IntegratingIt is in the nature of the three pillars of managing change togenerate the process of integration. The appearance of change mayadditionally enforce this process. At the same time, this process, i.e.the set-up of integrated management structures and techniques mustnot be restricted to the protected area itself. Particularly in referenceto the pillars defined as “integrity” and “keystone processes” it mightbe necessary to link up the protected area with an area or even areasbeyond the park boundaries. In the case of Lonjsko Polje NaturePark the park management established not only a stakeholders’committee – as an appropriate structure for integrated management- at park level. It also set up another committee for Central Posavinaat the level of the central Sava river basin. This was because the centralpart of the basin comprises almost all the remaining inundationareas and plays therefore a key role in the flood control system thathas been based on those retention areas. However, a reductionof the remaining inundation areas would simultaneously mean areduction in the capability to manage change. For these reasons, thearea of Central Posavina is of strategic importance for the integrityof the park’s natural and cultural heritage, the ecological key processof inundation as well as the cultural keystone process of adaptationto flooding. Because of this strategic importance, conservation

102 Chapter 11management expected that exerting some influence over the centralriver basin would ultimately come to involve the management of theentire basin. With that, the establishment of serial conservation sitesin alliance with the enforcement of the flood control system basedon retention areas must be the strategic process that will integrateall the other elements.In this context, a few words should be devoted to the structureof the above mentioned stakeholders committees. Both committeesare established on a purely voluntary-interest basis. There wasno provision in the law for their establishment. They do not haveany competence, but only serve as a forum where stakeholderscan communicate problems, possible solutions or ideas on furtherdevelopments. The committees are different with respect to theircomposition and profile. In this context one must clearly statethat the composition and profile of a stakeholder committee mustnot be the result of stakeholders’ analysis only. It is also, or rather,a matter of the current main purpose of its work. However, thepurpose may change depending on the stage of achievements. Thework of the committee established at park level is currently mainlyorientated to solving conflicts amongst land users in the field andinvolves therefore, especially, operational stakeholders like landusers, municipalities, industries, tourist bureaus and scientists. Atthis stage, the committee established at the central basin level issearching for a more integrated management and tries to match waterresources strategies with land use strategies. It is thus composedof strategic stakeholders like ministries, directorates, agencies,national associations and – with the International Sava River BasinCommission - even international organisations. Analysing thecommittees’ structure one can identify an essential principle: thecommittees are structured in such a manner that they involve thestructures of governance of the next higher level. This is to prepareand ensure the link up to that level. As the Park’s committee mainly

From Visioning to Action 103deals with conflict management at this stage, another principle hasbeen applied here: although the competent authorities are regularlyinformed about the work of the committee, they are not representedin the committee. This is aimed at situations in which consensusis not achievable amongst the members of the committee. Then,a competent but neutral authority has to mediate and make adecision.11.5 SequencingThe participatory process and the process of integration shouldbe ideally guided by a process of sequencing and synchronization,particularly when it comes to the point of scaling the site up tothe level necessary for successful conservation management andof integrating the site into the environs. Then, a certain degree ofsequencing is required, between planning and management activitieson the upper scale and between management and user activitiesat individual site level. Activities need also to be synchronised,i.e. progressively initiated and completed, in time and throughscales from the upper down to site scale and the other way round.Sequencing and synchronization in fact place the highest demandson conservation management as they require the ability to recognizeand wait for the right moment, place and time to act correctly toachieve a certain goal.

12The Twelve Principles of ManagingSustainability in Conditions ofChange and Unpredictability

The Twelve Principles of ManagingSustainability in Conditions of Change and Unpredictability 107This discussion has been about the challenge of managingsustainability under conditions of change and unpredictablility ina protected area that contains the natural features of a dynamicecosystem as well as the cultural features of an organically evolvedlandscape. As stated at the outset, this challenge seems likely tobecome of major importance in conservation management. On theone hand, climate change is introducing change even into ecosystemsthat have enjoyed long-term stability; on the other hand, globaltrends such as urbanisation are erasing the sources of biodiversityinherent in the old living landscapes.Lonjsko Polje Nature Park manifests all these aspects of thechallenge and may therefore serve as an outstanding example ofthe continuous acquisition of knowledge about managing underconditions of change and unpredictability. The experience gatheredand discussed here leads to the identification of twelve principles ofconservation management:12.1 ModestySustainable land use systems respect and accept naturallimitations. They focus more on optimising success under the givenconditions and limitations of the environment than on maximisingsuccess by obviating or erasing limitations. This might be alsovalid for conservation management itself. This is the principle ofmodesty.12.2 Diversity of MotivationA traditional land use system run by conservationists exclusivelyfor the purposes of conservation might not be sustainable.Conservation management must offer an entire range of motivesfor running the system and must take cognizance of the essential

108 Chapter 12economic, social, cultural and natural stimulating and limitingfactors that generate and maintain the system. This is the principleof diversity of motivation.12.3 PlainnessManagement features and facilities are necessary in the system.But they have to be simple and conducive to sustainability. This is theprinciple of plainness. Very often the application of this principleleads to a necessary decommissioning of facilities. This might bevalid too for facilities of conservation management.12.4 VersatilityChange is often understood as a threat or at least as somethingundesirable. Conservation management must be aware that such anunderstanding may arise from the very application of conservationmanagement tools and structures, too. But change must be simplyrecognised as a permanent rearrangement of system morphologyand diversity. Change is, rather, an essential part of the processand accordingly it becomes an essential part of integrity. This is theprinciple of versatility.12.5 RobustnessThe ecological and cultural keystone processes, integrity anddynamic authenticity represent the three pillars of managing acultural landscape and ecosystem under conditions of change. Thesepillars are strong enough to support the presence of the significantattributes of the natural and cultural heritage but are flexible enoughto deal with change. The three pillars have to be the basis of anyvision for a protected area. They give to conservation managementthe necessary firmness to be able to cope with and respond to change.This is the principle of robustness.

The Twelve Principles of ManagingSustainability in Conditions of Change and Unpredictability 10912.6 Congruity With The Keystone ProcessesThe ecological key processes represent the central theme for anyconservation management activity in or related to protected area.Any activity needs to be at least in accord with the key process and,if possible, to contribute to the continuation of this process. This isthe principle of congruity with the keystone processes.In case of a cultural landscape the same principle has to be appliedto the cultural keystone process.12.7 IntegrityA protected area should have sufficient size and contain thenecessary elements to demonstrate the keystone processes. Ifa protected area constitutes a cultural landscape, relationshipsand dynamic functions present in this landscape essential to itsdistinctive character should also be maintained. If the protected areaitself has not met the criterion of integrity it is a major managementtask to find ways of exerting an influence over the entire area inwhich the criterion of integrity would be met. This is the principleof integrity.12.8 Dynamic AuthenticityA cultural landscape is constituted as a result of both natural andcultural processes, and authenticity has to be derived from both. Oldliving landscapes must also be understood as the result of a longtermfeed-back process involving both human ideas and experiences.Dynamics are often the “trainers” of traditional management systemsand techniques. Without them, the system and/or the techniqueslose their significance and become a mere matter of conservationintent. The permanent impermanence makes it almost impossibleto capture the authenticity of a landscape without accepting change.

110 Chapter 12It is more important in the conservation management of landscapesclearly to identify and describe the cultural key processes with theirkey elements and functions than to focus on forms and settings inthe sense of static legitimacy. Thus, change has to be recognised andaccepted as an essential part of authenticity. This is the principle ofdynamic authenticity.12.9 Extensive Dispersion in SpaceThe serial site approach can be expected to be a more effectivetool in dealing with change. It offers effective risk management andenables the conservation management to act over a broader scope byboth providing distributed but related parts and tending to lead tothe establishment of appropriate integrated management structuresand tools. This is the principle of extensive dispersion in space.12.10 ImmanenceAnother effective tool is the consistent incorporation of thesame or similar conservation measurements into different planningand ruling documents like the management plans of the presentstakeholders, physical plans and the nature park regulations. It isnot sufficient for a certain conservation rule to exist only in onedocument, as its implementation should have horizontal, verticaland also diagonal effects in governance. In this context, the creationof a buffer zone “in the mind” through joint practical work mustbe mentioned. Conservation management therefore becomesincreasingly inclusive. This is the principle of immanence.

12.11 Extensive CoresThe Twelve Principles of ManagingSustainability in Conditions of Change and Unpredictability 111Nature conservation, and with that the protected areas, must bemade extensive. That does not necessarily mean an extension of theentire protected area. It might rather mean that protected areas willplay an active part as generative extensive cores in the developmentof the entire not-protected space. This is the principle of extensivecores.12.12 IterationVisioning, comparing, targeting, integrating and sequencingare the most important processes in conservation management. Itis crucial to understand that the process of building a consensusamong stakeholders has to end with a mutual vision. On the otherhand, it is also crucial to understand that the three pillars have to bethe basis of any vision for a protected area. Visioning should be usedto stimulate creatively the determination of goals, and targetingshould be used to shape an achievable and accurate vision. Thecomposition and profile of an appropriate integrated managementstructure must not be the result of stakeholders’ analysis only. It isalso, or rather, a matter of the current main purpose of its work.However, the purpose may change depending on the stage ofachievements. Sequencing and synchronization in fact place thehighest demands on conservation management as they require theability to recognize and wait for the right moment, place and timeto act correctly to achieve a certain goal. The existence of severalsimultaneous processes needs a constant questioning of the chosenstructures and techniques as well as the stakeholders’ profile. All ofthese factors need frequent and permanent revisiting for the sake ofcorrection and adaptation. This is the principle of iteration.