global outlook on sustainable consumption and production policies

Global Outlook onSustainableConsumption andProduction PoliciesTaking action togetherU n i t e d N a t i o n s E n v i r o n m e n t P r o g r a m m e

AcknowledgementsSupervision:Charles Arden-Clarke, Head, Goods and Services Unit, UNEP.Adriana Zacarias Farah, Programme Officer, UNEP.Project coordination: Nicole Polsterer, Consultant, UNEP.Authors and Contributors:SCP at the Global level and Introduction to Regional Chapters:Authors: Chris Beaton and Oshani Perera (International Institutefor Sustainable Development – IISD). Contributors: Charles Arden-Clarke, Adriana Zacarias Farah, Nicole Polsterer, (UNEP).Regional Chapters:Africa:Authors: Andrew Kitenge, Cleophas Migiro and Binelias Mndewa(Secretariat, African Roundtable on SCP-ARSCP). Contributors: UteSonntag (AEM-GIZ) and ARSCP Members: Cheikh Fofana (Senegal),Geofrey Bakanga (Tanzania), Moussa Barry (Mali), Hanan El Hadary(Egypt), Lambert Faabeluon (Ghana), Leonardo Guiruta (Mozambique),Hanan Hanzaz (Morocco), Ibimina Kakulu (Nigeria), Edga Mugisha(Uganda), Constantine Mwembela (Zambia), Yeo Napari (Côted’Ivoire), Ndivhuho Raphulu (South Africa), Sacheedanand Tahalo(Mauritius) and Louis Blanc Traore (Burkina Faso).Asia-Pacific:Author: Lewis Akenji (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies– IGES). Contributors: Magnus Bengtsson, Simon Olsen (IGES).Latin America and the Caribbean:Authors: Elisa Tonda and Silvia Ozuna Briggs (UNEP). Contributors:Maite Cortez, Jorge Alberto Alatorre Flores, David Lopez, (CentroEcologico Jalisco- CEJ) and Tanya Holmes (UNEP).United Nations Economic Commission for Europe Region:Author: Jimena Fernandez. Contributors: Mikkel Hansen Stenbaek,David Mc Kinnon and David Watson (Copenhagen ResourceInstitute), Hilary French, Jordan Menzel, Céline Ramstein, RieTsutsumi, Emily Werner (UNEP) and Chris Beaton (IISD).West Asia:Authors: Hossam Allam, Ahmed El-Dorghamy and Suzy Imam(Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region andEurope – CEDARE). Contributors: Khaled Abuzeid and MohamedElrawady (CEDARE), Emad Adly (Arab Network for Environment andDevelopment) and Nawal AL-Hosany (Masdar City Project), andRaouf Dabbas (Ministry of Environment, Jordan).Research Framework: Copenhagen Resource Institute and UNEP.Editorial Board: Ibrahim Abdel-Gelil (Arabian Gulf University),Luigi Cabrini (World Tourism Organization), Bernard Combes(UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), LaksmiDhewanthi (Ministry of Environment of Republic of Indonesia),Hanan El Hadary (Egypt National Cleaner Production Centre),Alexandre Meybeck (Food and Agriculture Organization),Ramjeawon Toolseeram (University of Mauritius), Olivier Vilaca(World Business Council on Sustainable Development).Special thanks to our partners: Dorothee Convens-Billerbeck,Györgyi Gurbán and Hugo-Maria Schally (European Commission).Thanks to our SCP Branch colleagues, in particular to: KhairoonAbbas, Nis Christensen, Patrick Clairzier, Jim Curlin, CarlosEnmanuel, Stefanos Fotiou, Curt Garrigan, Arab Hoballah, TanyaHolmes, Cornis Lugt, Desta Mebratu, Patrick Mwesigye, MoiraO’Brian, Fabienne Pierre, Liazzat Rabbiosi, Lowri Rees, Luc Reuter,Guido Sonnemann and Farid Yaker.Creation of survey and database: Alfred Dipa Iskandar, withcontributions from, Ester del Monte, Julien Hortoneda and SaifulRidwan (UNEP).Translation and communications for survey and website: MaiteAldaya, Samira de Gobert, Nicole de Santis, Solange Montillaud-Joyel, Nick Nuttall, Moira O’Brian, Elodie Perrat, Liazzat Rabbiosiand Olga Sedinkina (UNEP).Technical Support: Shabani Ely Katembo, Consultant, UNEP.Copy editors: Lisa Muirrhead. Contributing editors: Debora Holmesand Roger East.Photos: Unless otherwise stated pictures have been sourced fromiStockphoto® and Shutterstock®.Design/Layout: Steve Paveley Design.The report should be referenced as follows: UNEP (2012), GlobalOutlook on SCP Policies: taking action together.Copyright © United Nations Environment Programme, 2012This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in anyform for educational or non-profit purposes without special permissionfrom the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source ismade. UNEP would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication thatuses this publication as a source.No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any othercommercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writingfrom the United Nations Environment Programme.DisclaimerThe designations employed and the presentation of the material in thispublication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever onthe part of the United Nations Environment Programme concerning thelegal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities,or concerning delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Moreover, theviews expressed do not necessarily represent the decision or the statedpolicy of the United Nations Environment Programme, nor does citing oftrade names or commercial processes constitute endorsement.ISBN: 978-92-807-3250-4UNEP promotesenvironmentally soundpractices <strong>global</strong>ly and in its ownactivities. This publication is printedon 50% recycled/50% virgin pulp FSC paper,using eco-friendly inks and other practices.Our distribution policy aims to reduceUNEP’s carbon footprint.

The Global Outlookon SCP PoliciesTaking action togetherThis report is co-financed by the European Commission.

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESContentsAcronyms and Abbreviations 6Foreword 9Executive Summary 101 Background and Approach 151.1 Current challenges 15Box 1: Navigating the Outlook 151.2 Objectives of this report 171.3 Methodology 17Figure 1: Online Global Outlook on SCP Policies database 181.4 The evolution of the concept of SCP: From end-of-pipe to life-cycle solutions 18Figure 2: Evolution of the Cleaner Production Approach 181.5 SCP: A holistic approach 19Figure 3:The life cycle of products and influencing factors. Policies, innovation, market forces andour values and lifestyles are factors that can all influence various stages of the life cycle 201.6 Translating SCP into action 202 SCP at the Global Level 232.1 Introduction 232.2 Intergovernmental efforts on SCP 24CASE STUDY 1: The Montreal Protocol 28CASE STUDY 2: The Basel Convention 30Table 1: Conventions and multilateral agreements 31CASE STUDY 3: The Marrakech Process on SCP and its Task Forces 36Table 2: United Nations multi-stakeholder initiatives and partnerships 372.3 SCP initiatives for and by business 40CASE STUDY 4: Sustainability reporting for informing, benchmarking and improving productsand processes 45CASE STUDY 5: Sustainable business decisions based on data: Measuring carbon forcontinuous improvement 46CASE STUDY 6: Environmental and social standards driving SCP 47Table 3: Business organizations, initiatives and sectoral associations promoting SCP 482.4 Civil society initiatives for SCP 56CASE STUDY 7: Fairtrade labelling 58CASE STUDY 8: Sustainable forestry 59Table 4: Civil Society advocacy, research, partnerships, standard setting and otheractivities to promote SCP 612.5 Conclusions 672

taking action together3 SCP at the Regional Level 743.1 Introduction 743.2 SCP frameworks and policies 74Table 1: Examples of national government policy instruments 764 Global Outlook on SCP Policies: Africa 824.1 Introduction 834.2 SCP policies at the regional level 84Table 1: African 10YFP on SCP: List of themes and priorities 85CASE STUDY 1: Eco Mark Africa 864.3 National SCP policies 86CASE STUDY 2: Mauritius National Programme on Sustainable Consumption and Production 88CASE STUDY 3: Tanzania National Action Plan on Sustainable Consumption and Production 89CASE STUDY 4: South Africa National Framework for Sustainable Development 90CASE STUDY 5: Ghana National Programme on SCP 91CASE STUDY 6: Zambia: Vision 2030 93Table 2: Cement industry upgrades 954.4 SCP initiatives for and by business 96CASE STUDY 7: Commercial production of medicinal plants by a community forest conservation group 97CASE STUDY 8: Implementing the DSM Programme in South Africa 99Figure 1: Status of ISO 14001 Certification in 38 African Countries 1004.5 Civil society initiatives for SCP 100CASE STUDY 9: Organic farming in Kenya 1014.6 Conclusions 1025 Global Outlook on SCP Policies: Asia-Pacific 1085.1 Introduction 109Figure 1: Index of change in GDP, by income groupings of Asia-Pacific countries, 1990-2008 109Figure 2: Economies with more than 10 per cent of the population living on less than $1.25 a day 1105.2 SCP policies at the regional level 110CASE STUDY 1: Asia-Pacific Roundtable for Sustainable Consumption and Production 111Box 1: Weaving SCP into broader policy platforms 112CASE STUDY 2: The SWITCH Asia programme 1135.3 National SCP policies 114CASE STUDY 3: The Green Growth Roadmap in Cambodia 115CASE STUDY 4: Using local shops to bolster sustainable community lifestyles 117CASE STUDY 5: Supporting compost utilization in the Republic of Indonesia 118CASE STUDY 6: The Green Purchasing Network in Japan 1205.4 SCP initiatives for and by business 121CASE STUDY 7: Green business practices in China and Viet Nam 123CASE STUDY 8: Furniture business benefits from shift to sustainable production 1245.5 Civil society initiatives for SCP 124CASE STUDY 9: Collective buying and distribution in India 1265.6 Conclusions 1273

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES6 Global Outlook on SCP Policies: Latin Americaand the Caribbean 1306.1 Introduction 1316.2 SCP policies at the regional level 131CASE STUDY 1: The Central American Commission for Environment and Development (CCAD)initiative on sustainable public procurement 132CASE STUDY 2: The Mercosur Policy for Promotion and Cooperation on SCP 1336.3 National SCP policies 134CASE STUDY 3: SCP policy in Colombia 135CASE STUDY 4: Campaign: Plastic Bag is a Drag 136CASE STUDY 5: Sustainable Buildings in Brazil 1386.4 SCP initiatives for and by business 140CASE STUDY 6: Reducing GHGs by switching to solar energy for production in Guatemala 140CASE STUDY 7: Resource-efficient coffee production in Panama 141CASE STUDY 8: Recycling for energy credits 142CASE STUDY 9: The cost and benefits of implementing <strong>global</strong> sustainable tourism criteria 1436.5 Civil society initiatives for SCP 144CASE STUDY 10: Environmental awareness goes virtual 145CASE STUDY 11: Recognizing nature’s rights within the Ecuadorian constitution 146CASE STUDY 12: The participatory guarantee system for organic crops in Brazil 1476.6 Conclusions 1487 Global Outlook on SCP Policies: United NationsEconomic Commission for Europe region 1547.1 Introduction 1557.2 SCP policies at the regional level 155CASE STUDY 1: The EU Ecolabel 1577.3 National SCP policies 158CASE STUDY 2: The United Kingdom comprehensive framework on SCP 159CASE STUDY 3: Shrinking the environmental footprint: Beginning with government 163CASE STUDY 4: The French ecological ‘bonus-malus’ system for the purchase of private cars 165CASE STUDY 5: Producing and sourcing sustainable coffee 167CASE STUDY 6: Economic and energy-efficient housing in Ukraine 168CASE STUDY 7: The Canadian ecolabelling program 169Box 1: Sustainable Clothing Action Plan (United Kingdom) 1707.4 SCP initiatives for and by business 170CASE STUDY 8: Sustainable supply chain initiative in the agri-food sector 171Box 2: Global Environment Footprint (GEF) tool 172Box 3: Resource efficiency 172Box 4: Shops for reused goods 172CASE STUDY 9: Sustainability measurement and reporting 1737.5 Civil society initiatives for SCP 174CASE STUDY 10: Transition Towns 1767.6 Conclusions 177Annex A 1834

taking action together8 Global Outlook on SCP Policies: West Asia 1848.1 Introduction 185Figure 1: Domestic water consumption versus GDP per capita 185Figure 2: Energy consumption per capita in West Asia and other reference countries and regions 186Figure 3: Energy intensity of GDP in kg oil equivalent per USD 1,000 1868.2 SCP policies at the regional level 187Table 1: Recent milestones of SCP in the West Asia and Arab Region 188Figure 4: GCC Interconnection Scheme 189CASE STUDY 1: The Gulf Cooperation Council Power Grid Interconnection Project 1908.3 National SCP policies 189Table 2: National and regional SCP, SD strategies and plans, and national sectoraldevelopment policies 192CASE STUDY 2: Rational use of energy in Kuwait 193CASE STUDY 3: Qatar National Water Policy 194CASE STUDY 4: Dubai Sustainable Transport Project and Award 1968.4 SCP initiatives for and by business 197CASE STUDY 5: Energy efficiency in the aviation industry 198CASE STUDY 6: Green City: Masdar 2008.5 Civil society initiatives for SCP 199CASE STUDY 7: Encouraging corporate social responsibility among businesses 202CASE STUDY 8: Capacity-building for water management 2038.6 Conclusions 2039 The Way Forward 2089.1 Main findings 2089.2 Recommendations 211Glossary 2155

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESAcronyms and AbbreviationsABS Access Benefit SharingACES American Clean Energy and Security Act(2009)ACSR Arabia Corporate Social ResponsibilityNetworkACWUA Arab Countries Water Utilities AssociationADB Asia Development BankAEM African Eco-labelling MechanismAFSED Arab Fund for Economic and SocialDevelopmentAGD Group Aviation Global Deal GroupAMCEN African Ministerial Conference onEnvironmentANPED Northern Alliance for SustainabilityAPFED Asia-Pacific Forum for Environment andDevelopmentAPRSCP Asia-Pacific Roundtable for SustainableConsumption and ProductionARSCP African Roundtable on SustainableConsumption and ProductionARSO African Organisation for StandardisationASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsAWC Arab Water CouncilBMPBSRCAFCAMRECBDCCADCDPCEGESTICEJCFCCICJMCO2CoCCOM+COPCPCRICSDCSOCSRBest Management PracticesBusiness for Social ResponsibilityAndean Corporation for DevelopmentCouncil of Arab Ministers Responsible forEnvironmentConvention on Biological DiversityCentral American Commission forEnvironment and DevelopmentCarbon Disclosure ProjectCentro de Gestion Tecnologica eInformatica IndustrialColectivo Ecologista JaliscoChlorofluorocarbonsConsumers InternationalComercio Justo Mexico A.C.carbon dioxideChain of custodySustainable Development CommunicationAllianceConferences of Partiescleaner productionCopenhagen Resource InstituteCommission on Sustainable Developmentcivil society organizationcorporate social responsibilityDOTDSMEACECLACEEAEECCAEEGEfEEFTAEICCEMSEPRESGEUEVFAOFAROFLOFoEIFSCFYR ofMacedoniaGAIAGCCGCCIAGDPGEFGHGGIZGPN-JGPPGRIGTLGTZHCFCHLPEHUDDepartment of TransportationDemand-Side ManagementEast Africa CommunityEconomic Commission for Latin Americaand the CaribbeanEuropean Environment AgencyEastern Europe, the Caucasus andCentral AsiaEmirates Environmental GroupEnvironment for EuropeEuropean Free Trade AssociationElectronic Industry Citizenship CoalitionEnvironmental Management Systemextended producer responsibilityenvironmental, social and governanceEuropean Unionelectric vehiclesFood and Agriculture OrganizationFoundation for the Advance of Reformsand OpportunitiesFairtrade Labelling OrganizationsInternationalFriends of the Earth InternationalForest Stewardship CouncilFormer Yugoslav Republic of MacedoniaGlobal Alliance for Incinerator AlternativesGulf Cooperation CouncilGCC Interconnection AuthorityGross Domestic ProductGlobal Environmental Facilitygreenhouse gasDeutsche Gesellschaft für InternationaleZusammenarbeit (German Agency forTechnical Cooperation) (GIZ was formerlyknown as the GTZ)Green Purchasing Network of Japangreen public procurementGlobal Reporting Initiativegas-to-liquidGerman Technical CooperationHydrochlorofluorocarbonsHigh Level Panel of Experts on FoodSecurity and NutritionDepartment of Housing and UrbanDevelopementDEFRADJSIDepartment of Environment, Food andRural Affairs (U.K.)Dow Jones Sustainability World IndexesIARSEIATAArgentinean Institute of Corporate SocialResponsibilityInternational Air Transport Association6

taking action togetherIBLFICCICIPEIFAIFOAMIGESIIEDILACILOINCRIndyActIPCCISEALISOISWMITUCIUCNIWRMJaNEAPJCEDARJPOIKIOFKIPPRALACLASLCALCECLDCMDGMEAMENAMEWMFCGMGPMPAMPGMSCMSMENASCANBIInternational Business Leaders ForumInternational Chamber of CommerceInternational Centre of Insect Physiologyand EcologyInternational Fertiliser AssociationInternational Federation of OrganicAgriculture MovementsInstitute for Global EnvironmentalStrategiesInternational Institute for Environmentand DevelopmentLatin America and the Caribbean Initiativefor Sustainable DevelopmentInternational Labour OrganizationInvestor Network on Climate RiskLeague of Independent ActivistsIntergovernmental Panel on ClimateChangeInternational Social and EnvironmentalAccreditation and LabellingInternational Organization forStandardizationIntegrated solid waste managementInternational Trade Union ConfederationInternational Union for Conservation ofNatureintegrated water resource managementJamaica National Environmental ActionPlanJoint Secretariat of the Joint Committeeon Environment and Development in theArab RegionJohannesburg Plan of ImplementationKenya Institute of Organic FarmingKenya Institute for Public Policy Researchand AnalysisLatin American and the CaribbeanLeague of Arab Stateslife-cycle assessmentLebanese Center for Energy Conservationleast-developed countryMillennium Development Goalmultilateral environmental agreementsMiddle East and North AfricaMinistry of Electricity and Water (Kuwait)Muliru Farmers’ Conservation GroupMumbai Grahak Panchayatmarine protected areamiles per gallonMarine Stewardship Councilmicro, small and medium enterprisesNorth American Sustainable ConsumptionAllianceNile Basin InitiativeNCPCNEPADNGONSSDODSOECDOPECPEEFPERLPOPPRIPSCIPVQNDSRAEDRAEDREACHRTASANSBISCISCPSDSDISDDGSDSSEESIPSMEsSPPSUSHITaTEDOTEMMTMTTSCUAEUNAIDUNCEDUNDAFNational Cleaner Production CentresNew Partnership for Africa’s Developmentnon-governmental organizationnational strategy for sustainabledevelopmentozone-depleting substanceOrganisation for Economic Co-operationand DevelopmentOrganization of Petroleum ExportingCountriesProtection and Energy Efficiency Fund(Croatia)Partnership for Education and Researchfor Responsible Livingpersistent organic pollutantsPrinciples for Responsible InvestmentPharmaceutical Supply Chain InitiativephotovoltaicQatar’s National Development Strategy2011-2016Arab Network for Environment andDevelopmentArab Network for Environment andDevelopmentRegistration, Evaluation, Authorizationand restriction of ChemicalsRoads and Transport Authority (Dubai)Sustainable Agriculture NetworkSustainable Business InstituteSustainable Commodity Initiativesustainable consumption and productionSustainable DevelopmentSustainable Development IndicatorSainsbury’s Dairy Development GroupEU Sustainable Development StrategySouth-Eastern Europesustainable industrial policysmall and medium-sized enterprisessustainable public procurementSustainable Urban Housing InitiativeTanzania Traditional Energy Developmentand Environmental OrganizationTripartite Environment Ministers MeetingToyota Motor ThailandThe Sustainability ConsortiumUnited Arab EmiratesUnited States Agency for InternationalDevelopmentUnited Nations Conference onEnvironment and DevelopmentUnited Nations Development AssistanceFramework7

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESUNDESA United Nations Department of Economicand Social AffairsUNDESD United Nations Decade of Education forSustainable DevelopmentUNDP United Nations Development ProgrammeUNECA United Nations Economic Commission forAfricaUNECE United Nations Economic Commission forEuropeUNEP United Nations Environment ProgrammeUNEP FI UNEP Finance InitiativeUNEP-SBCI United Nations Environment Programme– Sustainable Buildings and ClimateInitiativeUNESCAP United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the PacificUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural OrganizationUNESCWA United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Western AsiaUNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention onClimate ChangeUNIDO United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganizationUNGC United Nations Global CompactUNWTO United Nations World TourismOrganizationUSAID United States Agency for InternationalDevelopmentVSCWBCSDWCEWEFWRIWSAWSSDWWFYXC Med6th EAP10YFPVirtual Schools of ConsumptionWorld Business Council for SustainableDevelopmentWestern and Central EuropeWorld Economic ForumWorld Resources InstituteWorld Steel AssociationWorld Summit on SustainableDevelopmentWorld Wide Fund for Nature (World WideFund for Nature was formerly called theWorld Wildlife Fund for Nature, whichremains its official name in Canada andthe United States)YouthXChange in the MediterraneanSixth Environment Action Programme ofthe European Community10-Year Framework of Programmes onSustainable Consumption and Production8

taking action togetherForewordWe are facing deeply interlinked economic, socialand environmental crises that stem, in large part,from current unsustainable patterns of consumptionand production, and pose serious threats tohuman development. Health, education, equity andempowerment are all adversely affected. Humanity isnow consuming more resources than ever, both perperson and in absolute terms, exceeding by far ourplanet’s regenerative capacity.But the many challenges confronting us should notstop us in our tracks. Instead, they should spur usto innovation and creative solutions. They shouldencourage us to scale up our efforts to adopt moresustainable economic activities and lifestyles, andthe policies and measures required to bring aboutthis transition.The necessary shift to sustainable consumption andproduction (SCP) patterns will do much to improvethe lives of some of the world’s poorest people,as well as protect the rich resources that natureprovides. These are essential requirements forsustainable development. But we will not succeed inthis shift unless we have effective policies in place,encourage social and technological innovation, andstimulate public and private investment. This requiresthe engagement of governments, business, civilsociety, consumers, educators, the media and allcitizens. In other words, each and every one of ushas a role to play.Fortunately, these efforts have already begun. TheGlobal Outlook on SCP Policies – a joint effort ofthe United Nations Environment Programme andthe European Commission – identifies examples ofeffective policies and initiatives being implementedworldwide. It reviews 56 case studies ranging from<strong>global</strong> multilateral agreements and regional strategiesto specific policies and initiatives. For example,Africa, the Arab region, the European Union and LatinAmerica have all developed regional strategies forSCP, and the Asia-Pacific region is working on a GreenGrowth strategy.and environmental impacts. Civil society organizationsare also highly active in promoting SCP, for instance,establishing effective ecolabelling and certificationschemes to enable wiser consumer choices.While much has been achieved, a lot more remainsto be done. We need now to rise to the challenge andsteer the transition to a more sustainable world. TheGlobal Outlook on SCP Policies was prepared to inspireand encourage cooperation across the globe. It showsprogress achieved in promoting SCP, highlighting bestpractices and offering recommendations to scale upand replicate these important efforts worldwide.As we look forward to the 2012 United NationsConference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20),we hope that it will successfully deliver a frameworkand set of concrete actions to advance sustainabledevelopment across the globe that will be followedup in the years to come. It is clear that existingpolicies, capacity-building activities and experiencesin promoting SCP patterns already provide essentialtools and recommendations for transitioning to aGreen Economy – but we need to go further andaccelerate the pace of our progress towards trulysustainable patterns of consumption and productionThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies is one step forwardin gathering and sharing information on SCP policiessupporting this transition. We encourage you tocontribute by reporting your initiatives to the onlinedatabase that will keep expanding The Global Outlookon SCP Policies.We hope that the current report will be useful tosupport your endeavors to promote SCP and is avaluable contribution for delivering on Rio+20.Furthermore, the Global Outlook reviews policytools such as regulatory, economic, voluntary andinformation-based instruments. The Outlook alsoexamines the promotion of SCP in key economicsectors including energy, transport and food, andintegrated approaches such as waste managementaround the world.Likewise, business and industry have engaged in abroad range of initiatives to reduce resource depletionSylvie Lemmet,Director, Division ofTechnology, Industryand Economics, UnitedNations EnvironmentProgrammeTimo Makela,Director, InternationalAffairs, LIFE & Ecoinnovation,EuropeanCommission9

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESExecutive SummaryThe Global Outlook on Sustainable Consumption andProduction (SCP) Policies, developed by the UnitedNations Environment Programme (UNEP) with thefinancial support of the European Commission,provides a non-exhaustive review of policies andinitiatives that are promoting the shift towards SCPpatterns. It is illustrated by 56 case studies rangingfrom <strong>global</strong> multilateral agreements and regionalstrategies to specific policies and initiatives beingimplemented by governments, businesses and civilsociety organizations.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies’ main objectivesare to provide information about existing activitiespromoting SCP, to identify best practices, and toprovide recommendations to adapt, replicate andscale up SCP policies and initiatives contributingto the overarching goal of achieving sustainabledevelopment.The Imperative of SustainableConsumption and ProductionAlthough economic development over the past 30years has managed to lift millions out of poverty andexpand the number of countries reaching middleincomestatus, it has also been accompanied bya wide array of negative environmental and socialimpacts. These impacts threaten to undermine, oreven reverse, the economic development that hasbeen achieved to date. Globally, resource consumptioncontinues to rise, waste and pollution grows, and thegap between rich and poor stretches wider. As we gaingreater scientific understanding about our planet’sbio-physical constraints, so too do we appreciate thegrowing scale of the challenges before us.At the time of writing this report, the <strong>global</strong> economicsystem is still plagued by recent multiple crises withsignificant consequences for the world’s poor. Highlyvolatile and rising oil prices put further pressure onthe gains that have been achieved through economicdevelopment. Rapidly increasing food and commodityprices, in part driven by increased fuel prices,reflect further the inter-linkages of economic andenvironmental challenges. Considering a projectedpopulation of 9 billion in 2050, feeding the worldwill be a major challenge, given current consumptiontrends. Putting in place a more sustainable foodsupply systems is clearly an urgent need.Consumption of natural resources is increasing andwill accelerate further if projected growth rates ofthe world economy are realized. This is alarmingfor both non-renewable and renewable resourcesthat depend on ecosystems, which can irreversiblycollapse after overexploitation.One thing in common for all of these challengesis the need for a concerted, cooperative effort toovercome them. In our interconnected world, supplychains are truly <strong>global</strong>. Resource extraction, theproduction of intermediate inputs, distribution,marketing, waste disposal and re-use of mostproducts take place across and linking the world’snational economies. The consumption patterns inone country can have negative impacts on the biophysicaland social environment in neighbouring oreven distant ones.Chapter one explores the evolution of the SCPconcept and its approach, with the life-cycleperspective at its core. SCP focuses on thesustainable and efficient management of resourcesat all stages of value chains of goods and services.It encourages the development of processes thatuse fewer resources and generate less waste,including hazardous substances, while yieldingenvironmental benefits and frequently productivityand economic gains. Such improvements can alsoincrease the competitiveness of enterprises, turningsolutions for sustainability challenges into business,employment and export opportunities.The fundamental objective of SCP is to decoupleeconomic growth from environmental degradation.Achieving SCP patterns will sustain improvementsin economic development and human welfare thatwe depend on, including improvements in healthand education. In other words, SCP aims at doingmore and better with less – across the entire lifecycle of products, while increasing quality of life forall. ‘More’ delivered in terms of goods and services,with ‘less’ impact in terms of resource use,environmental degradation, waste and pollution.SCP at the Global LevelThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies reviewsinternational efforts to promote SCP that are beingdriven by intergovernmental organizations, businessand civil society (Chapter 2). It highlights that atthe intergovernmental level, the adoption of a SCPapproach as an international commitment andgoal is an important milestone in tackling thesechallenges. The 1992 United Nations Conferenceon Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro(the Earth Summit), and the 2002 World Summit onSustainable Development (WSSD) in Johannesburglaid the <strong>global</strong> foundation for many efforts to10

taking action togetherpromote SCP at the regional and national levels.Another important way in which governments havepromoted SCP has been through the negotiationand implementation of multilateral environmentalagreements (MEAs). Although most MEAs do notexplicitly refer to SCP, in practice treaties impactand alter many stages of a product’s life cycle. Forexample, defining and understanding ozone layerdepletion were central to the speed with which theVienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol onSubstances that Deplete the Ozone Layer wereagreed upon. Governments have since reduced orcontrolled use of ozone-depleting substances in theproduction, consumption and disposal phases ofmany products.Intergovernmental efforts to promote SCP havealso been developed through initiatives focused onthematic issues. For example, the informal, multistakeholderMarrakech Process, which respondedto the call by the 2002 WSSD to develop a 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP (10YFP),supported the development of a <strong>global</strong> multistakeholderplatform for dialogue and cooperationto help implement SCP worldwide. The MarrakechProcess facilitated the establishment of seventhematic task forces, and development of expertiseand approaches to promote and implement SCPat regional, national and local levels. These taskforces have provided policies, capacity-buildingmethodologies, as well as supporting demonstrationprojects on SCP.Parallel to these activities, businesses in thepast few decades have developed and put intopractice a number of tools to promote SCP, suchas environmental management systems (EMS).This has been an important way for companiesto operationalize the concept of SCP, offeringopportunities to improve environmental performance,while yielding cost-savings. The InternationalOrganization for Standardization (ISO) has also beeninstrumental in establishing standards for EMS andtools to guide companies around the world on theconduct of Lifecycle Assessments (LCAs). The ISO14000 suite of standards enables an organizationto identify and manage the environmental impacts ofits activities, establish environmental performanceobjectives and targets, and adopt a life-cycleperspective in managing those impacts.Reporting on commitments to sustainability is alsobecoming increasingly common and important tobusiness interests. The Global Reporting Initiative(GRI) sets out the reporting principles and genericperformance indicators that organizations canuse to measure and report on the sustainabilityof their operations. With the aim of creatingsuch a <strong>global</strong>ly accepted integrated reportingframework, the GRI and the Prince’s Accounting forSustainability Project announced the formation ofthe International Integrated Reporting Committee,which brings together financial, environmental, socialand governance information in a clear, concise,consistent and comparable format.At the <strong>global</strong> level, the Civil Society Organizations(CSOs) represent a highly diverse set of actors onSCP. Many have evolved significantly in the pastfew decades, beginning as small, single-issueorganizations, and ultimately transforming intointernational organizations with wide portfoliosof activity and large budgets. Many CSOs can beseen multiplying their individual impacts throughpartnerships with governments, business and otheractors, which have been key means to promote SCPat all levels.The CSOs have also been instrumental in developingand harmonizing some important voluntarystandards. For example, Fairtrade International (FLO)coordinates labels for around 15 product groups,from agricultural commodities to gold and sportsballs. FLO’s label promotes sustainable consumptionby helping consumers identify goods that havebeen produced under socially fairer and moreenvironmentally friendly conditions. The label alsopromotes sustainable production by guaranteeingthat the price for each product group is set to besocially sustainable, giving producers the means toimprove their living and working conditions. FLOcertifiedproduct sales saw a significant increase of15 per cent between 2008 and 2009, amounting to€3.4 billion worldwide.Action on SCP at the Regional andNational LevelsAt the regional level, a number of intergovernmentalbodies have established SCP frameworks, such asthe European Union’s Sustainable Consumption andProduction and Sustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan. Africa, the Arab region and theLatin America and Caribbean regions have developedSCP strategies with the support of the MarrakechProcess. Those strategies have been endorsed bythe relevant regional intergovernmental bodies.Each regional chapter analyses activities onSCP undertaken by governments, business andcivil society as well as an analysis of the type ofinstruments (regulatory, economic, voluntary orinformation-based) that are used or promoted bythese three actors (chapters 3 to 8).In Africa, the regional 10-Year Framework ofProgrammes on SCP has spurred the developmentand implementation of a number of sub-regional,national and local SCP programmes. For example,pilot projects for mainstreaming SCP in national- and11

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIEScity-level development policies and action planson SCP were conducted in Tanzania and Cairo inEgypt. The recently launched African EcolabellingMechanism helps to validate and harmonizeecolabelling initiatives in the region, to better identifysustainable products and increase markets for themin Africa and beyond.The National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs)are very active in Africa. They have supported theestablishment of the African Roundtable on SCP in2002, which plays a key role in implementing variousSCP activities. Businesses in Africa have startedto integrate corporate social responsibility (CSR)by establishing business linkages with the localcommunities, forming public-private partnershipsand voluntary reporting. The CSOs in Africa arefocusing on education, skill development, promotionof clean production methods and conservationof natural resources; all this contributing toempowerment and capacity-building. If enabledtechnically and financially, this group has thepotential to disseminate the concept of SCP morewidely in both rural and urban areas (Chapter 4).In Asia and the Pacific, the Green Growth Initiativehas been widely adopted by countries as a wayto reconcile tensions between poverty reductionand environmental sustainability. The GreenGrowth Initiative promotes SCP, development ofsustainable infrastructure, and the introduction ofgreen tax reform, while improving the eco-efficiencyof economic growth. Another important regionalinitiative is the European Commission-fundedSWITCH Asia Programme, promoting SCP amongSmall and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) andsupporting Asian policymakers in shifting towardsSCP practices. The SWITCH Asia Programme hasfunded more than 47 projects in 15 Asian countriesin areas such as green public procurement, cleanerproduction and ecolabelling. An important multistakeholderplatform is the Asia and the PacificRoundtable on SCP which is an increasingly activeforum for dialogue and cooperation (Chapter 5).In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), a RegionalCouncil of Government Experts on SCP was set upin 2003 to support the implementation of the SCPregional strategy. This Council works closely withthe LAC Forum of Environment Ministers, whichhas endorsed important elements of the SCPRegional Strategy. The region has identified four SCPpriorities: national SCP action plans, sustainablepublic procurement (SPP), SMEs, and educationand sustainable lifestyles. Various activities arealso taking place at the sub-regional level such asthe Central American Commission for Environmentand Development initiative on SPP. The Mercosurcountries have developed a Policy for Promotion andCooperation on SCP, which focuses on harmonizingpolicies, encouraging cooperation on SPP andsustainable consumption, stimulating eco-innovationand promoting education.In the LAC region, over 95 per cent of the companiesare micro enterprises or SMEs. Although theycontribute to less than 50 per cent to the region’sGross Domestic Product (GDP) they are the sourceof almost 70 per cent of employment. An increasingnumber of tools and instruments are beingdeveloped to promote social and environmentalmanagement in SMEs, such as the guidelines forSMEs of the GRI; the indicators for CSR; and trainingon cleaner production and resource efficiency.The NCPCs have become key players in helpingbusinesses adopt good environmental practices andmove towards SCP (Chapter 6).The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE), the extent to which SCP related policyhas been implemented in different countries of theUNECE region reflects the widely divergent levelsof economic development, political structure anddifferences in governance. In the European Union(EU) and European Free Trade Association regionsSCP is high on the political agenda. The Europe2020 Strategy focuses on ‘smart, sustainable andinclusive growth’ including a flagship initiative onresource efficiency. The South Eastern Europe (SEE)and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia(EECCA) countries have no regional strategy on SCP– however, some countries have adopted NationalSustainable Development Strategies, includingSCP as a key priority. Regulatory tools are the mostcommon instruments in this sub-region, with policiessuch as standards in chemical use, constructionand energy labelling. North America is notable for itseffective use of partnerships with industry and civilsociety, such as the multi-stakeholder process thatled to the development of the Leadership in Energyand Environmental Design (LEED) certificationprogramme for buildings. The public sector in theUnited States gives strong signals to the marketthrough executive orders requiring federal agenciesto acquire products that are energy and waterefficient, and environmentally preferable.In general, businesses in the UNECE region havebeen making significant headway in respondingto public demand for more sustainable productsand greater transparency. In particular, retailershave been driving upstream improvements notonly within the UNECE region, but across <strong>global</strong>markets. Government-business initiatives in theEU and EFTA regions have been useful in formingsectoral consensus (e.g., the European Food SCPRoundtable and the EU Retail Forum) and engagingin collaborative action promoting SCP. The natureof CSOs is diverse. They promote partnerships,create and participate in platforms with the business12

taking action togethersector, inform and communicate on SCP andsustainable development, build capacity, and setstandards. One example is Transition Towns, aninitiative that advocates for sustainable living andseeks practical solutions to lessen dependence onoil. It has spread <strong>global</strong>ly, and such towns are nowestablished in 130 countries (Chapter 7).In West Asia, the Arab Regional Strategy forSCP was endorsed in 2009 by relevant regionalintergovernmental organizations. It encouragesthe use of products and services that ensureenvironmental protection; conserve water and energyas well as other natural resources, while contributingto poverty eradication and sustainable lifestyles.The strategy identifies six priorities: (i) energyfor sustainable development (ii) water resourcesmanagement (iii) waste management (iv) ruraldevelopment and eradication of poverty (v) educationand sustainable lifestyles and (vi) sustainabletourism. The regional cooperation on SCP policiesand initiatives are strengthened by initiatives suchas the Arab Regional Roundtable on SCP. Theregion is also experiencing an important increasein environmental policies, such as improving theefficiency of an electricity grid, providing new modesof transportation, and new technologies. The GulfCooperation Council (GCC) countries’ interconnectiongrid, the project on rational energy use in Kuwait, theMasdar Green City and Qatar Water Policy are goodexamples of SCP initiatives (Chapter 8).The Global Outlook on SCP Policies identifies arange of market, regulatory and voluntary policyinstruments and initiatives spanning entire productvalue chains and different sectors and themes,involving all major stakeholders. An example of apolicy initiative is the 50 per cent tax deduction onenvironmentally friendly hybrid cars imported intoJordan. An illustrative regulatory instrument is theEuropean Union’s REACH (Registration, Evaluation,Authorization and restriction of Chemicals) directivethat regulates chemicals. Information-basedinstruments include the National Green Passportcampaigns in Brazil, Ecuador and South Africa.At the national level, many countries have adoptedSCP action plans or strategies. In Africa, thisincludes Ghana, Mauritius, Tanzania and Zambia.In LAC, such plans have been drawn up in Brazil,Colombia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador,Mexico, Peru and Uruguay. In the EU, dedicatednational SCP action plans have been developed bythe Czech Republic, Finland, Poland, and the UnitedKingdom. In some regions, SCP has been integratedinto other planning processes. In SEE, EECCA, NorthAmerica and West Asia, for example, national-levelSCP planning is largely part of existing nationalstrategies for sustainable development or othershort- and medium-term development plans.In the Asia-Pacific region, national Green Growthstrategies have proliferated since 2005. Thesestrategies focus on investment in sustainableinfrastructure, raising revenue and improving ecoefficiencywhile reducing poverty. Many governmentsalso target policies in specific sectors, wherestrategies have been put together to promotesustainable agriculture. Transparent and openconsultation processes have been central to thesuccessful elaboration and further implementationof such national SCP action plans, as has theengagement of a broad range of stakeholders.More generally, SCP programmes in emerging anddeveloping countries continue to face significantfunding challenges and continue to rely oninternational donor support. A particular gap existswith regard to action on the consumption side.Initiatives and instruments promotedby Business and Civil SocietyOrganizationsBusinesses are highly dynamic actors in thepromotion of SCP. Indeed, many information-basedpolicies and schemes are voluntary and based onprinciples of corporate social and environmentalresponsibility (CSER). Sustainability reporting is onthe rise in a number of regions. This rise indicatesthat an increasing number of businesses haveimplemented resource efficiency, cleaner productionand environmental management programmes.Similarly, environmental management standardshave increasingly been taken up. In most countriesin Asia and the Pacific, for example, the number ofISO 14001 standards adopted jumped by more than130 per cent between 2006 and 2010. Businesseshave also formed platforms for information-sharing onwider sustainable development issues, such as theWorld Business Council for Sustainable Developmentand the Africa Corporate Sustainability Forum.In some cases, business initiatives alsoconcentrate on innovation in the design, productionand distribution of products that is informed by alife-cycle approach. Some businesses in the LACregion are focusing particularly on improvementsto production processes through the introductionof clean energy, the reduction of environmentallyharmful inputs and the recycling of waste. TheNCPCs in developing and transition economies,have been supporting businesses by generatingdata on resource-efficient practices and providingtechnical assistance to SMEs. Governmentstrategies have recognized the need for dedicatedfunding, such as the Resource-Efficient Europestrategy calling for a Small Business Act that helpsSMEs face the challenges of <strong>global</strong>ization andclimate change. But SCP has not yet become acore criterion in financial decision-making, which13

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESrepresents an obstacle to replicate and scale upgood practices.Civil society organizations (CSOs) have also playeda key role in making sure that SCP remains on bothgovernment and business agendas. Worldwide,the CSOs are strong advocates for SCP and animportant channel for informing, training, enablingand empowering citizens. In Africa in particular,CSOs fill a service provision gap for sustainableproducts by providing seed financing for theirdevelopment, offering education on sustainabledevelopment and establishing income-generatingventures. In West Asia, a number of CSO activities,while not labelled as SCP, clearly promote SCPthrough campaigns and education programmesrelated to sustainable development.A wide range of activities has been undertakenby governments, businesses and CSOs. However,much more needs to be done to bring us on to apath towards achieving the sustainable patternsof consumption and production that necessarilyunderpin sustainable development. Enhancingcooperation and more concerted and coordinatedaction at all levels will be essential to achievingthe necessary transformation in consumption andproduction patterns.The Way ForwardThe existing policies, tools and programmespresented in The Global Outlook on SCP Policies mustbe continued, expanded and improved upon; as wellas new and innovative strategies are needed. Thelast section of this report provides a summary ofthe main findings and recommendations for bothpolicymakers and decision makers in businessesand CSOs, aiming to foster such scaling up andreplication, and accelerating the transition to SCP.As we look forward to the 2012 United NationsConference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20),it is clear that implementing existing policies,expanding capacity-building activities and sharingexperiences in promoting SCP patterns around theworld, are required. The establishment of a 10-YearFramework of Programmes on SCP (10YFP), aselaborated at the 19th Session of the Commissionon Sustainable Development, would make a crucialcontribution in this regard.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies is one stepforward in gathering information on SCP policiessupporting this transition. Building on this effort,as well as on the work achieved by the MarrakechProcess on SCP, UNEP will continue to collect goodinitiatives and practices on SCP. This will be donein close cooperation with all stakeholders and UNagencies, with the objective of sharing informationand experience among all regions and all actors.In the future, these efforts could contribute to theestablishment of a more structured and dynamic<strong>global</strong> clearinghouse on SCP, facilitating exchangeof information, knowledge on effective policies,and disseminating capacity-building tools. Sucha clearinghouse could play an important role inpromoting dialogue, cooperation and partnershipsthat are needed to inspire and accelerate the shifttowards SCP patterns.Decision-makers in all arenas areencouraged to take action to:•Integrate SCP into policy frameworks andstrategic plans.••policy mix.•business investments on SCP.•beyond GDP.•promote sustainable lifestyles.•through policies and campaigns.•Ensure the collection of more SCP data tomeasure policy effectiveness and track progress.Learn from experience to develop an optimalProvide enabling policy frameworks to encourageAdopt and apply alternative measures of progressGive more emphasis to the demand side toEnhance responsible marketing and mediaDraw on and further develop partnerships amongall actors and regions.We continue to welcome contributions at http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/Login.aspxThe full report is available for download at http://www.unep.fr/scp/go/publications.htm14

taking action together1 Background and Approach1.1 Current challengesAlthough economic development over the past 30years has managed to lift millions out of poverty andexpanded the number of countries reaching middleincomestatus, it has also been accompanied bya wide array of negative environmental and socialimpacts. These impacts threaten to undermine, evenreverse the economic development that has beenachieved to date. Globally, resource consumptioncontinues to rise, waste and pollution grows, andthe gap between rich and poor stretches wider.As we gain greater scientific understanding aboutour planet’s bio-physical constraints, so too dowe appreciate the growing scale of the challengesbefore us.At the time of writing this Global Outlook, the<strong>global</strong> economic system is still plagued by risk andinstability that erupted in the 2008 financial crisis,with significant consequences for the world’s poor.For many, the world economy has failed to deliveron its promises of sustainable improvements inwell-being: according to a recent United NationsMillennium Development Goals report, an estimated1.4 billion people live in extreme poverty (UnitedNations, 2010).At the same time, highly volatile and rising oil pricesput further pressure on the gains that have beenachieved through economic development. The Foodand Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Price Index,for example, reached a record high of 238 points inthe first months of 2011 and remains high (UnitedNations, 2011). The FAO has estimated that the2007/2008 price spike increased the number ofundernourished people from about 850 million in2007 to about 1,023 million in 2009 (FAO, 2010).The High Level Panel of Experts on Food Securityand Nutrition, in its report on price volatility and foodsecurity, considers among the causes for rising pricesand increased price volatility the increased demandfor food and feed, along with underinvestment inagriculture (High Level Panel of Experts on FoodSecurity and Nutrition, 2011). This shift mayrepresent an early signal of a long lasting scarcity.Considering a projected population of 9 billion in2050, feeding the world will be a major challenge,given current consumption trends.Putting in place a more sustainable food supplysystems is not the only urgent need. There is alsono clear road ahead for the transition to sustainableenergy systems. According to the report on theimplementation on Agenda 21, growth rates inthe diffusion of renewable energy technologiesare still insufficient to achieve the requireddecarbonized <strong>global</strong> energy system by 2050. Atthe same time, the lack of access to modernenergy services is also a pressing developmentproblem. Electrification is vital for basic servicessuch as health and education, and the time andrisk involved in collecting traditional fuel sourcesincurs a high opportunity cost, particularly forwomen and children (United Nations, 2011).Box 1: Navigating the OutlookThis report is structured into four main partsclustered in 9 chapters:•Chapter 1: ‘Background and Approach’exposes the interlinked crises that the worldis facing from current unsustainable patternsof production and consumption. It outlinesthe objectives of the report and depicts themethodology and analytical framework usedfor The Global Outlook on SCP Policies•Chapter 2: The ‘SCP at the <strong>global</strong> level’provides the historical evolution of SCP andan outline of international efforts to promoteSCP, including intergovernmental policies andbusiness and civil society initiatives•Chapters 3 to 8: The ‘SCP at the regionallevel’ provides an overview of SCP policiesand initiatives undertaken by governments,business and civil society organizations.These chapters also analyze the type ofinstruments (regulatory, economic, voluntaryor information based) that are used orpromoted by these three actors. Thesechapters cover the following regions: Africa(Chapter 4); Asia and the Pacific (Chapter 5);the Latin America and the Caribbean (Chapter6); the United Nations Economic Commissionfor Europe (UNECE) region comprising Europe,the Commonwealth of Independent States,Canada and the United States of America(Chapter 7); and West Asia (Chapter 8)•Chapter 9: The ‘Way Forward’ summarizesa wide range of SCP policies and initiativesidentified by The Global Outlook on SCPPolicies and proposes recommendations forpolicy makers to foster more coherent policyframeworks to shift the world toward SCP15

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESConcurrently, greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs),mostly stemming from the use of fossil fuels,but also from agriculture and deforestationand more intensive agriculture, have causedan unfolding and already tangible climate crisis.Deforestation is contributing an estimated 17 percent and agriculture about 14 per cent of <strong>global</strong> GHGemissions (UNDESA, 2011). The impacts that havebeen linked to the increase of GHGs in the atmosphereinclude more intense heat waves, floods, storms,droughts and sea level rise (Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, 2007). The poor are the mostvulnerable to these disruptions, lacking options tomitigate and adapt to changing climactic conditions.More generally, <strong>global</strong> consumption and productionpatterns are inexorably driving humanity toward futurecrises, as extractive industries and waste generationcause the destruction of natural capital on a widescale. The increasing exploitation of non-renewableresources is unsustainable, particularly with thecurrently inadequate recycling rates. The Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development (2008)estimates, that even at a moderate growth rate inprimary production of 2 per cent per year, the world’scopper, lead, nickel, silver, tin and zinc reserves will allbe depleted at the latest by 2030. Yet, for example,an estimated <strong>global</strong> stockpile of 225 million metrictons of copper is estimated to sit in landfills (UnitedNations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2011d).Although material intensity of production has beendecreasing on average by 1 per cent per year inthe last decade, the consumption of resources inabsolute terms continues to increase with the world’srising population and growing economic demand.According to data from 2005, primary raw materialsare being harvested at a rate of 47 to 50 billion metrictons per year <strong>global</strong>ly. The volume of internationallytraded materials has increased from 5.4 billion tonsin 1970 to 19 billion tons in 2005 (UNEP, 2011c).Consumption of natural resources is increasing andwill accelerate further if projected growth rates of theworld economy are realized. This is alarming for bothnon-renewable and renewable resources that dependon ecosystems, which can irreversibly collapse afteroverexploitation (UNEP, 2011b).Among renewable natural resources, fisheriesare a stark example for over-exploitation. The FAOestimates that around half of commercial stocks arefully exploited with no further room for expansion,19 per cent are overexploited and eight per centare already depleted (FAO, 2009). The prevailingmodes of agriculture are also unsustainable, leadingto deforestation and increased land degradation.Though an estimated 1.5 billion people directlydepend on agriculture <strong>global</strong>ly, about 40 per centof the world’s land surface is now thought to bedegraded. (United Nations, 2011).The consumption of both renewable and nonrenewableresources also contributes to a massiveloss of biodiversity – with current extinction ratesof birds, mammals and amphibians estimated tobe at least 100 times, but possibly over 1,000times, higher than pre-industrial rates (MillenniumEcosystem Assessment, 2005). This loss, in turn,undermines those parts of our economies thatdepend on largely under-valued ecosystem services,such as the supply of water, raw materials or astable climate. The poorest are again most affectedby these changes, as many depend most directly onintact ecosystems and natural resources for theirlivelihoods, such as fishing, small-scale agricultureor forestry-related activities (UNEP, 2011e).All of these crises adversely affect equity, health,education and development more generally,undermining progress towards the MillenniumDevelopment Goals. Poor environmental quality canresult, for instance, in waterborne diseases, resultingin as many as 443 million school days missed dueto diarrhoea (UNDP, 2006), and respiratory infectionscaused by the inefficient combustion of solid fuels ininadequately ventilated buildings.The sustainability of the world economic systemalso needs to be analysed through the social lens.Although economic growth has caused living standardsto improve significantly for some, the rise of incomeinequality, as measured by the Gini coefficient, is nowhigher than in the 1980s (UNDP, 2010). The worldeconomic system needs to offer decent work andopportunities for people to increase their well-being ifwe are to avoid serious social crises.One thing in common among all of these challengesis the need for a concerted, cooperative effort toovercome them. In our interconnected world, supplychains are truly <strong>global</strong>. Resource extraction, theproduction of intermediate inputs, distribution,marketing, waste disposal and re-use of mostproducts take place across and linking the world’snational economies. The consumption patterns ofpeople in one country can have negative impacts onthe bio-physical and social environment of peoplein neighbouring or even distant ones. Increaseddemand for agricultural products for food, feed,and other uses such as biofuels is driving pricesup (High Level Panel of Experts on Food Securityand Nutrition, 2011). These price increases arenot expected to significantly reduce demand indeveloped and emerging economies where risingincomes have made food demand much lesssensitive to price increases. Instead, the impact ofthe price increases will fall disproportionately onthe poor in developing countries. Efforts to addressone specific sustainability issue can quickly becomeineffective when they drive unsustainable activity toother parts of the world or other parts of a product16

taking action togetherlife cycle. Ultimately, sustainable consumption andproduction (SCP) offers the kind of holistic approachthat is needed to render our economic activity, as awhole, more sustainable.1.2 Objectives of this reportThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies, commissionedfrom UNEP by the European Commission, providesa non-exhaustive review of government policiesand business and civil society initiatives to movetowards SCP. Broad in scope and worldwide incoverage, it includes examples ranging from <strong>global</strong>multilateral agreements and regional strategies tospecific policies and initiatives being implementedby individual countries, business groups and civilsociety organisations (CSOs).The Global Outlook on SCP Policies identifiespolicies that, in effect, address unsustainableconsumption and production patterns, even thoughthey may not have derived from the internationalprocesses that developed the term SCP, andmay not make explicit reference to SCP itself.For example, policies and sectoral initiativesaddressing resource efficiency were bothconsidered a vital step towards SCP.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies pursues six mainobjectives:•Providing information about government,business and civil society policies and actions tomove towards resource efficiency and SCP morebroadly•Reporting on examples of current practice thatare noteworthy for their effectiveness, innovationor potential for replication elsewhere•Sharing information on progress and actionon SCP•Identifying the needs of different actors forimplementing SCP•Providing inputs into the nineteenth session ofthe Commission on Sustainable Development inthe form of a preview brochure (UNEP, 2011d)•Informing on effective policies and investmentsto support the transition to a Green Economy,including providing inputs into the deliberationson Green Economy in the context of povertyalleviation and sustainable development atthe upcoming United Nations Conference onSustainable Development in 2012 (Rio+20)•Building a database of practices withdemonstrated development benefits across theentire life cycle of productsMore broadly, the report aims to serve as aninspirational tool for the design and implementationof further SCP policies and actions.1.3 MethodologyThe analytical framework for The Global Outlook onSCP Policies was developed jointly by the CopenhagenResource Institute and UNEP. It guided researchersto identify many different types of SCP-relatedactivities and strategies at three different levels:intergovernmental and governmental, businesses, andcivil society. Emphasis was placed on developing arobust overview of strategies at the governmental andintergovernmental levels. Researchers were guided toinclude SCP action plans and relevant strategies forsustainable development, such as Green Economyand Green Growth strategies, as well as a range ofpolicy instruments, such as regulatory, economic,voluntary and information-based instruments. Themethodology also encouraged researchers to focuson energy, food and housing as key thematic areas.At the level of business and industry, it emphasizedthe importance of identifying business models andmanagement strategies that address SCP. Withrespect to civil society, it identified influencinggovernments and businesses as well as empoweringcitizens as two key areas of activity. In addition, themethodology also emphasized more generally theimportance of SCP capacity-building activities andmulti-stakeholder partnerships, while identifyingneeds and gaps that must be addressed to achievefurther progress.Primary and secondary literature, as well asempirical data from a dedicated survey, served asinputs to this report. The survey was conductedonline from October 2010 to March 2011, usinga questionnaire tested with the MarrakechTask Forces on SCP and other partners in closecooperation with research institutions in five regions.Targeting government, business and civil societyrepresentatives, it sought answers on how policiesand initiatives have brought about change, andwhat impact they have had. Questions related to:the scope of policies; implementation activities;monitoring and evaluation mechanisms; funding;partnerships; challenges and needs; and social,environmental and development benefits.The survey was distributed through UNEP regionaloffices, the Marrakech Process partners, thematicmailing lists and links posted on networks suchas the Central Asia Gateway. More than 280users registered, which resulted in more than 100completed questionnaires. The information wasintegrated into an online <strong>global</strong> database of SCPpolicies, programmes and initiatives (see Figure1). Policies and initiatives were screened againstselection criteria such as timeliness, innovation,inclusiveness of stakeholders and developmentbenefits. To ensure wide participation, thequestionnaire was translated in five languages –English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic.17

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESFigure 1: Online Global Outlook on SCPPolicies databaseRegister to the survey and submit your example!http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/Login.aspxThe objective of the survey was to build a livingrecord of the <strong>global</strong> move towards SCP, servinggovernments and stakeholders as a resource in thedesign of solutions and policies for SCP. Becauseof the continuing need for valuable data on SCPpolicies, it will remain accessible online and opento all stakeholders. And, in response to the interestin the survey from the academic community, a newquestionnaire has been added to capture academicresearch efforts in the field of SCP.UNEP has partnered with SCP institutions andexperts from all over the world to depict and analysethe status quo and promising initiatives relating toSCP. Partners include the African Roundtable onSCP (Dar es Salaam, Tanzania); Colectivo EcologistaJalisco (Zapopan, Mexico); the Copenhagen ResourceInstitute (Copenhagen, Denmark); the Center forEnvironment and Development for the Arab Regionand Europe (Cairo, Egypt); the Institute for GlobalEnvironmental Strategies (Kanagawa, Japan); and theInternational Institute for Sustainable Development(Geneva, Switzerland). Consequentially the report isable to examine progress on SCP at the <strong>global</strong> aswell as regional levels in Africa; Asia and the Pacific;Europe; the Commonwealth of Independent States(CIS); Canada and the United States of America; LatinAmerica and the Caribbean; and West Asia.1960s and early 1970s, policy solutions weregenerally characterized by being single-issue,reactive, site-specific and end-of-pipe. At that time,two separate ‘wings’ of policy emerged. They stillexist today, although as different areas of emphasiswithin what has become an integrated set of tools,methods and approaches: sustainable consumptionand cleaner production.In the 1980s, ‘cleaner production’ (CP) was apolicy-making approach with growing importancein environmental policy. This was the result ofseveral parallel trends, including the application of asystems perspective to environmental policy. CP hasseen a number of shifts in approach, including:From reactive to preventative measures•From acute to chronic problems and sourcesof impacts•From single-pollutant or single-media to multimediaand multi-impact pollutantsFrom site-specific to supply chains•From throughput to material cyclesCP was promoted as a strategy for increasing theefficiency of natural resource use (eco-efficiency)and minimizing waste. Importantly, it implied thepreventative and precautionary approach thatwas eventually endorsed by the Rio Declarationon Environment and Development. This meantreducing pollution and health risks at their point ofgeneration, rather than the end of the productionprocess – the ‘end-of-pipe’ stage. The adoption ofCP has typically involved improving maintenance,technology or entire production processes andcould generate economic savings for companies byimproving efficiency of production processes.Following close on the heels of CP, the sameparadigm shift in environmental policy saw increasingattention paid to the subject of ‘sustainableFigure 2: Evolution of the CleanerProduction ApproachGreen designand life cyclemanufacturingCleaner productionstrategies1.4 The evolution of the conceptof SCP: From end-of-pipe to lifecyclesolutionsThe concept of sustainable consumption andproduction (SCP) emerged out of an evolutionaryprocess with a long history. During the rise ofenvironmentally focused legislation in the lateDump anddispose1960sOnsite wastetreatment1970sWasteminimization(Recycling)1980sSource: UNEP (forthcoming)Sourcereduction1990s2000+End-of-pipestrategies18

taking action togetherconsumption.’ This emphasized a number of shiftstoward a more systemic approach, including:•orientation•From single-company search to life-cycle-widesearch for solutions•From consumers as objects to consumersas agentsFrom adversarial stance to partnerships•From regulation to voluntary initiativesFrom production orientation to product life-cycleSignificantly, the Rio Summit in 1992 placedhigh importance on consumption and productionpatterns and the need to explore ways of reducingenvironmental pressure caused by intensifyingand unsustainable consumption and productionpatterns worldwide. At the 2002 World Summit onSustainable Development, this focus was reflectedin the third chapter of the Johannesburg Plan ofImplementation, titled Changing UnsustainablePatterns of Consumption and Production, whichcalled on governments to encourage and promotea 10-Year Framework of Programmes (10YFP)in support of regional and national initiatives topromote SCP. This shift toward SCP triggered amulti-stakeholder process to develop specific plans,management practices, partnerships and capacitybuildingactivities to develop pilot elements of the10YFP (United Nations Department of Economic andSocial Affairs, 2011a).Underlying the new approach were several importanttrends that had become apparent over the precedingten years. First, it was evident that attempts toreduce environmental degradation through gains ineco-efficiency had been overtaken and reversed bythe overall increase in production. Second, whileenvironmental problems during production were betterunderstood and controlled, problems that aroseduring the use of products were not being adequatelyaddressed. Third, the transition from an industrialand manufacturing-based economy to a technologybasedeconomy – the ‘new economy’ – had led to theemergence and quick development of sectors that hadyet to be effectively addressed. Fourth, it was clearthat environmental considerations were still not beingintegrated into many economic and social programmesand vice versa. The call for a new approach to thelife cycle of a product--from conception throughconsumption and to the end of its life--coincided witha call for better integration across all three pillars ofsustainable development: economic development,social development, and environmental protection.Today, the most widely accepted definition of SCP,as developed at the multi-stakeholder workshophosted by the Norwegian Ministry of Environment atthe Oslo Symposium on Sustainable Consumptionin 1994, is “the use of services and relatedproducts, which respond to basic needs and bringa better quality of life while minimizing the use ofnatural resources and toxic materials as well as theemissions of waste and pollutants over the life cycleof the service or product so as not to jeopardize theneeds of future generations” (Norway Ministry ofEnvironment, 1994).1.5 SCP: A holistic approachAchieving SCP requires a holistic approach. At its coreis the life-cycle perspective. Accordingly, it considers:the total use of resources as well as the resultingemissions, effluents and waste; aiming to minimizenegative environmental impacts; and promotinginclusive well-being. Its focus on the sustainable andefficient management of resources at all stages ofvalue chains of goods and services encourages thedevelopment of processes that use fewer resourcesand generate less waste, including hazardoussubstances, while yielding environmental benefitsand frequently productivity and economic gains. Suchimprovements can also increase the competitivenessof enterprises, turning solutions for sustainabilitychallenge into business, employment and exportopportunities. SCP also encourages capturing andreusing or recycling valuable resources, therebyturning waste streams into value streams.The fundamental objective of SCP is to decoupleeconomic growth from environmental degradation.Achieving SCP patterns will sustain improvements ineconomic development and human welfare that wedepend on, including improvements in health andeducation. In other words, SCP aims at doing moreand better with less – across the entire life cycleof products, while increasing quality of life for all.“More” delivered in terms of goods and services,with “less” impact in terms of resource use,environmental degradation, waste and pollution.Central to SCP is life-cycle management, which isbased on precautionary and preventive approaches.It aims to avoid the shifting of problems betweenstages of consumption and production, geographicareas or impact categories in the life cycle. Thelife-cycle approach covers the whole value chain,from the point where a product is designedand developed, to the selection, procurementand supply of raw materials. It examines themanufacturing, packaging and distribution phasesand considers potential impacts throughout theretail, purchasing, usage and service phases.Finally, it analyses the impacts of products whenrecycled, reused or disposed of.A life-cycle approach also assesses the value chainfrom an environmental and social perspective,identifying impacts on local communities; access19

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESto material and non-material resources; culturalheritage; safety and living conditions; as wellas considering the rights of indigenous people,community engagement and local employment.Hence it evaluates the true cost of a product overits full life cycle and points to benefits distributedalong the whole value chain. In essence, the lifecycleapproach incorporates tools to achieve thefollowing aims (UNEP and Society of EnvironmentalToxicology and Chemistry [SETAC], 2009):•Improving environmental performance of goodsand services and their production processes byreducing ecological footprints (e.g., water- andcarbon-intensities)•Taking account of the social impacts ofconsumption and productionDecreasing cost of production and/or use•Incorporating benchmarks and standards forassessing life-cycle impacts•Providing the basis for an objective and verifiableenvironmental claimThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies survey mentionedin the methodology section above identifiedmany actors that contribute to the design andimplementation of SCP using life-cycle approaches.For example, Chalmers University of Technologydevelops methods to characterize the environmentalperformance of products; the Danish companyNovozymes uses life-cycle assessments toevaluate ex ante the environmental performanceof new products under development; the EuropeanFigure 3: The life cycle of products and influencingfactors. Policies, innovation, market forces andour values and lifestyles are factors that can allinfluence various stages of the life cycleValuesand LifestylesDisposalConsumption& UseEnablingPolicy FrameworkReduce Re-use& RecycleProductDesignLife CyclePerspectiveDistribution &MarketingMarket ForcesNaturalResource Use& ExtractionManufacturingTechnologicaland Social Innovationphotovoltaic industry assesses the environmentalfootprints of photovoltaic technologies (energypayback time and CO 2 generation); and the UNEP-SETAC Capability Maturity Framework for Businesshelps to strengthen the capability of suppliers to uselife-cycle management tools effectively (ChalmersUniversity of Technology, 2010; Novozymes, 2010;Sustainability by Design, 2010).The SCP policies and initiatives examined in thisreport incorporate the life-cycle approach in oneway or another by having been designed andimplemented so as to address the impacts of morethan one stage in the life cycle of a product.1.6 Translating SCP into actionThe SCP approach is being applied in a wide varietyof different forms and settings. It has been appliedto: multilateral environmental agreements; nationalstrategies; market, regulatory and voluntary tools onmultiple governmental levels; and a broad range ofbusiness and civil society initiatives. Furthermore,many initiatives are formed by stakeholders fromdifferent sectors, each leveraging their uniqueassets.At the international level, multilateral environmentalagreements have often directly or indirectlypromoted SCP by fostering changes in productionand consumption patterns. To this end, for instance,the Montreal Protocol has successfully providedfinancial assistance to pay for industrial conversionand other activities that protect the ozone layer.National SCP policy frameworks include dedicatedSCP strategies or sustainable developmentstrategies explicitly addressing SCP. These havebeen developed (or are currently being developed)in several countries, including: Brazil, Burkina Faso,Colombia, Côte d’Ivoire, Croatia, Czech Republic,Dominica, Ecuador, Finland, Ghana, Indonesia,Kazakhstan, Mali, Mauritius, Poland, Senegal, St.Lucia, Tanzania, Uganda, the United Kingdom andZambia. Green growth strategies are further beingdeveloped in China and Korea. National policiesalso include thematic strategies such as integratedwaste management and forestry programmes alsosupporting the shift to SCP. At the regional level,the European Union had adopted an SCP actionplan. Africa, the Arab region and the Latin Americaand Caribbean regions have also developed SCPstrategies with the support of the MarrakechProcess. Those strategies have been endorsed bythe relevant regional intergovernmental bodies.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies also exploresa range of market, regulatory and voluntary policyinstruments and initiatives spanning entire product20

taking action togethervalue chains and different sectors and themes,involving international organizations, governments,business, research institutes and CSOs.Examples of economic instruments includedeposit schemes, emissions trading systemsand environmental taxes. An example of anenvironmental tax is a 50 per cent tax deduction onenvironmentally friendly hybrid cars imported intoJordan. An illustrative regulatory instrument is theEuropean Union’s REACH (Registration, Evaluation,Authorization and restriction of Chemicals)directive that regulates chemicals. Informationbasedinstruments include the National GreenPassport campaigns in Brazil, Ecuador and SouthAfrica. These advise tourists on how to minimizetheir ecological footprints by choosing cleanerforms of transport, eco-friendly accommodationsand products that improve livelihoods in hostcommunities, as well as showing how to offsetthe unavoidable greenhouse gas emissions fromtravel. Other examples from Africa include regionalandnational-level ecolabelling initiatives, such asKenya’s standard for footwear and Tunisia’s standardfor dates (Janisch, 2007).Business initiatives that promote SCP includeenvironmental management strategies, greensupply-chain management and sustainabilityreporting. In the area of environmental managementsystems, which helps to reduce the impact ofproduction processes, the two countries with themost International Organization for Standardization(ISO) certificates registered in 2008 were China andJapan (ISO, 2009). Business has also contributed toSCP through voluntary initiatives and partnerships.A bike-sharing scheme in Paris, for example,shows the viability of public-private partnershipsto foster sustainable mobility, with many millionsof bike trips being undertaken every year (France2, 2010). The concept has been exported toother cities in France as well as Japan, the UnitedKingdom and Mexico. Another category of businessaction is corporate social responsibility. At the<strong>global</strong> level, in 2009 more than 350 corporatesignatories in over 60 countries adhered to theUnited Nations Global Compact platform Caringfor Climate, committing themselves to settingvoluntary targets and strategies for energy efficiency(United Nations Global Compact and HSBC, 2009).Individual businesses also participate in voluntaryindustry sector initiatives with UNEP, among others.Another significant field is integrated reporting bycorporations, using guidelines developed by theGlobal Reporting Initiative.There are numerous examples of civil societyinitiatives that promote SCP. The kinds ofactivities CSOs engage in include advocacy,research, partnership-building with business andgovernments and awareness-raising. An example isthe Partnership for Education and Research aboutResponsible Living, which connects educators andresearchers from over 50 countries to empowercitizens to live responsible and sustainable lifestyles(Partnership for Education and Research aboutResponsible Living, 2011). In Latin America, CSOshave supported the establishment of ‘virtualconsumption schools,’ educating consumerson issues such as toxins at home, biodiversityand urban mobility (Colectivo Ecologista Jalisco,2011). In the area of advocacy campaigns, thenon-governmental organizations Greenpeace andWorld Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) are active onboth the national and <strong>global</strong> levels to promotemore sustainable consumption and productionmethods. These and other organizations follow multifacettedapproaches, also engaging in researchand forging partnerships. Other groups focus onthe promotion of sustainably produced goods, suchas Fairtrade Labelling Organizations Internationalor the Forest Stewardship Council, for agriculturaland forestry products, respectively. Promoted byCSOs, sustainable goods have seen strong growththroughout the last years and are poised to pushSCP further into the mainstream.21

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESReferencesChalmers University of Technology (2010).Centre for the Environmental Assessmentof Products and Material Systems. GlobalOutlook on SCP Policies, UNEP. Availablefrom http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/ShowPolicy.aspx?PolicyId=74&LngId=1.Colectivo Ecologista Jalisco (2011).Escuelas Virtuales de Consumo. Availablefrom http://www.cej.org.mx/escuelas.html.Food and Agriculture Organization(2009). The State of World Fisheriesand Aquaculture 2008. Rome: Food andAgriculture Organization of the UnitedNations. Available from ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/011/i0250e/i0250e.pdf.__________ (2010). 925 million inchronic hunger worldwide, 14 September.Press Release. Rome: United NationsFood and Agriculture Organization.Available from http://www.fao.org/news/story/en/item/45210/icode.France 2 (2010, June). Moins d’abonnésau Vélib. Available from http://info.france2.fr/planete/moins-d-abonnes-auvelib--62259512.html.High Level Panel of Experts on FoodSecurity and Nutrition (2011). PriceVolatility and Food Security: A Report bythe High Level Panel of Experts on FoodSecurity and Nutrition of the Committeeon World Food Security. Rome. Availablefrom http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/hlpe/hlpe_documents/HLPE-price-volatility-and-food-security-report-July-2011.pdf.Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (2007). Summary forPolicymakers. In Climate Change 2007:The Physical Science Basis. Contribution ofWorking Group I to the Fourth AssessmentReport of the Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. S. Solomon, and others,eds. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress. Available from https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar4/wg1/ar4-wg1-spm.pdf.International Organization ofStandardization (2009). The ISO Survey ofCertifications 2008. Geneva: InternationalStandardization Organization.Janisch, Claire (2007, July 19).Background Assessment and Surveyof Existing Initiatives Related toEco-Labelling in the African Region.Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP. Available fromhttp://www.unep.org/roa/docs/pdf/RegionalAssessmentReport.pdfMillennium Ecosystem Assessment(2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis. Washington,D.C.: World Resources Institute. Availablefrom http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf.Norway Ministry of Environment (1994).Report. Symposium on SustainableConsumption, Oslo, Norway, 19-20January.Novozymes (2010) Pipeline LCA.Global Outlook on SCP Policies.UNEP. Available from: http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/ShowPolicy.aspx?PolicyId=54&LngId=1&Pg=0.Organization for Economic Cooperationand Development (2008). MeasuringMaterial Flows and ResourceProductivity: Synthesis Report.Available from http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/55/12/40464014.pdf.Partnership for Education and Researchabout Responsible Living (2011). ThePartnership for Education and Researchabout Responsible Living. Available fromhttp://www.perlprojects.org.Sustainability by Design (2010). UNEP-SETAC Capability Maturity Frameworkfor Business. Global Outlook on SCPPolicies. UNEP. Available from http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/ShowPolicy.aspx?PolicyId=57&LngId=1.United Nations (2010). MilleniumDevelopment Goals Report 2010. NewYork: United Nations Dept. of Economicand Social Affairs. Available from https://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/pdf/MDG%20Report%202010%20En%20r15%20-low%20res%2020100615%20-.pdf.__________ (2011). Implementationof Agenda 21, the Programme for theFurther Implementation of Agenda 21 andthe Outcomes of the World Summit onSustainable Development. Report of theSecretary General. (Advance uneditedcopy.) Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/resources/res_pdfs/ga-66/SG%20report%20on%20Agenda%2021.pdf.United Nations Department of Economicand Social Affairs (2011a). RegionalConsultations. Available from http://www.unep.fr/scp/marrakech/consultations/regional.__________ (2011b). World Economic andSocial Survey 2011. Available from http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wess/wess_current/2011wess.pdf.United Nations Development Programme(2006). Human Development Report 2006,Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and theGlobal Water Crisis. New York. Availablefrom http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR06-complete.pdf.__________ (2010). Human DevelopmentReport 2010, The Real Wealth of Nations:Pathways to Human Development. NewYork. Available from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Complete_reprint.pdf.United Nations Environment Programme(forthcoming). Sustainable Consumptionand Production: Making the GreenEconomy Happen. Nairobi, Kenya: UNEP.__________ (2011a). Assessing MineralResources in Society: Metal Stocks &Recycling Rates. Available from http://www.unep.org/pdf/Metals_Recycling_Rates_Summary.pdf.__________ (2011b). Decoupling NaturalResource Use and Environmental Impactsfrom Economic Growth. United NationsEnvironment Programme, InternationalResource Panel. Available from http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/decoupling/files/pdf/Decoupling_Report_English.pdf__________ (2011c). Decoupling: NaturalResource Use and Environmental Impactsfrom Economic Growth, Excerpt of thereport. Available from http://www.unep.org/resourcepanel/Portals/24102/PDFs/DecouplingENGSummary.pdf.__________ (2011d). The Global Outlookon SCP Policies: Taking action together.Available from http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1387xPA-GlobalOutlookonSCPPolicies.pdf.__________ (2011e). Towards a GreenEconomy: Pathways to SustainableDevelopment and Poverty Eradication.Available from http://www.unep.org/GreenEconomy/Portals/93/documents/Full_GER_screen.pdf.United Nations Environment Programmeand Society of Environmental Toxicologyand Chemistry (2009). Life CycleManagement: How Business Uses it toDecrease Footprint, Create Opportunitiesand Make Value Chains More Sustainable.Available from http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1208xPA-LifeCycleApproach-Howbusinessusesit.pdf.United Nations Global Compact andHSBC (2009). Building a Green Recovery.Caring for Climate Series. Available fromhttp://www.un<strong>global</strong>compact.org/docs/issues_doc/Environment/Building_a_Green_Recovery.pdf.22

taking action together2 SCP at the Global Level2.1 IntroductionGlobal recognition of the need for sustainableconsumption and production (SCP) dates back tothe United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (UNCED) held 1992 in Rio de Janeiro.Agenda 21, the action plan for sustainable developmentadopted at the summit, called for “action to promotepatterns of consumption and production that reduceenvironmental stress and will meet the basic needs ofhumanity” (United Nations Department of Economicand Social Affairs [UNDESA], 2009b). Ten years later,the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)in Johannesburg reaffirmed at the highest political levelin the Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPOI) that“poverty eradication, changing unsustainable patternsof production and consumption and protecting andmanaging the natural resource base of economic andsocial development are overarching objectives of, andessential requirements for, sustainable development”(UNDESA, 2011). In order to accelerate the shift toSCP, the WSSD encouraged the development of a10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP. The multistakeholderMarrakech Process, launched in 2003,has supported the implementation of SCP and providesinputs for the development of the 10-Year Framework.This chapter outlines how governments andintergovernmental organizations, business and civilsociety organizations (CSOs) have been promotingSCP at the <strong>global</strong> level through policies, agreementsand initiatives. Given the scale and scope of <strong>global</strong>activity in this area, the chapter focuses on asample of these international efforts, chosen inorder to represent the broad spectrum of actorsand strategies involved in the promotion of SCP inthe world today. Where possible, it also highlightsexamples that are timely, high-impact, innovative,effective and have the potential for replication. Theobjective is to identify broad outlines of the stateof play, highlight good practice and pinpoint areaswhere more focused action is needed in the shorttomedium-term.One way in which governments have promotedSCP has been through the negotiation andimplementation of multilateral environmentalagreements (MEAs), which often involve effortsto change production and consumption patterns.Although the term ‘sustainable consumption andproduction’ as such is absent from many conventiontexts, some SCP aspects and policies to alteringconsumption and production patterns havenonetheless been successfully addressed acrossa number of treaties, such as the waste-relatedBasel, Stockholm and Rotterdam conventions. Inother cases, the SCP approach is clearly reflectedat the point of operations and implementation. Forexample, the Montreal Protocol’s Multilateral Fund,which promotes cleaner and more sustainableproducts, as well as providing information toconsumers and households, has successfullydisbursed billions of U.S. dollars for industrialconversion to switch to sustainable productiontechnologies and practices and other activitiesto protect the ozone layer. Elsewhere, MEAs areimportant for their future potential to promoteSCP, such as the emerging climate governanceframework: reducing greenhouse gas (GHG)emissions in line with scientific recommendationswould require a fundamental change to productionand consumption patterns worldwide.Governments have also tasked intergovernmentalorganizations and initiatives to promote SCP. Someof these have been formally linked with ongoinginternational processes. The Marrakech Process onSCP, for example, has developed and implementedpolicies, and projects, and has provided inputsfor the elaboration of a 10YFP on SCP. Othershave focused on building the scientific evidencefor policymaking or improving SCP methodologiesor practice in specific sectors, such as theInternational Resource Panel, which has producedanalytical reports on materials flow, metals andbiofuels, and the UNEP Sustainable Buildingsand Climate Initiative, which works to promotesustainable buildings practices and elaboratescarbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and energy-efficiency baselinesfor the building sector.Global business coalitions and multinationalshave contributed to the promotion of SCP too. Oneavenue for progress has been eco-innovation. Moresustainable products have been developed in manysectors, including agriculture, forestry, tourism,building and construction, telecommunications,electronics and financial services. The adoptionof add the abbreviation after responsibility (CSER)practices has also had a large impact. A commonapproach is to focus on reducing the environmentalfootprint of goods and services along supply chains,while respecting international employment andhuman rights principles. Some businesses areleading the way by going beyond compliance withinternational and national legislation, especiallythrough support for their members in addressingemerging, less regulated challenges. This chapterhighlights a range of business organizations andinitiatives that contribute to the promotion of23

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESSCP. One example is the International BusinessLeaders Forum, which provides a platform forthe exchange of best practices by engaging over100 multinational companies. Others working toimprove the environmental and social sustainabilityof supply chains include: the United NationsGlobal Compact (UNGC), which has partneredwith Business for Social Responsibility (BSR) todevelop a guide to assist business practitioners inembedding sustainability in supply chains, and theWorld Environment Center, which takes a sectoralapproach to supply-chain sustainability.CSOs have also made significant contributionsto SCP. At the <strong>global</strong> level, they have promotedSCP through a wide variety of activities, includingresearch, advocacy, training, awareness-raising,education, networking and catalysing multistakeholderpartnerships. They have developedsome effective and widely used environmentalproduct labels and environmental and socialcertification programmes, such as those ofthe Rainforest Alliance and Fairtrade LabellingOrganizations International (FLO). The InternationalSocial and Environmental Accreditation andLabelling (ISEAL) Alliance, has taken stepsto advance objective benchmarking andharmonization of certification schemes. In theareas of consumer protection and awareness,organizations like Consumers International(CI) have continued to promote consumerconsciousness of lifestyle and product informationissues. The Partnership for Education andResearch for Responsible Living (PERL) buildscapacity through the organization of trainingseminars and publication of toolkits, such as theone on personal consumption and climate change.CSO research has also been contributing to theprovision of scientific evidence for policymakingsuch as such as the International Union forConservation of Nature (IUCN), which providesknowledge and tools for biodiversity conservation.Meanwhile, labour unions have fought to ensurethe social pillar is better served by consumptionand production patterns, calling for its definition of‘decent work’ to be reflected throughout the <strong>global</strong>economy. Unions have also increasingly begun toaddress areas where the environmental and socialpillars intersect, such as climate change, themanagement of hazardous substances and wasteat the workplace.The following chapter outlines how governments,business organizations and CSOs have influencedthe promotion of SCP through action on the <strong>global</strong>level. Although the lens of analysis focuses oneach of these actors in turn, it should be notedthat partnerships between these three groupsare common and often instrumental to developingeffective policies, initiatives and campaigns.2.2 Intergovernmental effortson SCPMany of the problems that lead to unsustainableconsumption and production patterns are abovethe national and regional levels. To achieve a<strong>global</strong> solution, cooperation and intergovernmentalaction is needed to address issues that nationaland regional governments – or other actors forthat matter – cannot effectively address alone. ThisChapter focuses on a sample of MEAs, as well assome intergovernmental initiatives. Special attentionis also paid to partnerships, which have been vital topromoting SCP on the intergovernmental level. Theexamples that are highlighted were chosen on thebasis of their timeliness, effectiveness, innovation,scale of impact and potential for replication, aswell as in order to represent the broad spectrum ofintergovernmental policies and initiatives involved inthe promotion of SCP.The evolution of intergovernmentalefforts to promote SCP at the <strong>global</strong> levelA major milestone for progress on SCP was the 1992UNCED in Rio de Janeiro, which paved the way formany of the intergovernmental efforts described inthis chapter. The Rio Declaration on Environment andDevelopment was one of the key accomplishments ofthe conference. It consisted of principles laying outboth rights and responsibilities of states in achievingsustainable development. Directly relevant to SCPis Principle 8, which established that states should“should reduce and eliminate unsustainable patternsof production and consumption” (United NationsGeneral Assembly [UNGA], 1992b). As a declaration,the document, adopted by 172 governments, isnot legally binding. However, its principles laid thefoundation for many subsequent agreements thathave bound parties to specific actions contributing tothe shift to SCP patterns.The second major outcome of the 1992 RioSummit with particular relevance for SCP wasAgenda 21, the comprehensive action plan forsustainable development at <strong>global</strong>, national andlocal levels. Often described as the rallying call forsustainable development, it created the momentumfor much international, national and local action.One hundred and seventy eight states committedto its full implementation, as reaffirmed by theGeneral Assembly in the 1997 Programme forFurther Implementation of Agenda 21 and the2002 Johannesburg Declaration on SustainableDevelopment (UNGA, 1997; UNDESA, 2004b).Agenda 21’s fourth chapter positioned consumptionand production as one of the major leverage points forthe mitigation of <strong>global</strong> environmental deterioration24

taking action togetherand the sustainable improvement of human welfare.It also noted the importance of consumption andproduction in particular issue areas – such as energy,transportation, waste – and implementation tools –such as economic instruments and the transfer oftechnology (UNDESA, 2009a). This created the basisfor SCP to be reflected in the national strategies forsustainable development and local Agenda 21strategies that parties had agreed to establish.Importantly, Agenda 21’s emphasis on consumptionpatterns marked a significant change in environmentalpolicymaking, which had previously focused more onproduction. This stimulated a number of countries inthe 1990s to convene symposia on the environmentalimplications of consumption. The Organisation forEconomic Co-operation and Development (OECD),the United Nations Commission on SustainableDevelopment, and UNEP launched work programmesaround this theme.The WSSD, held in Johannesburg, South Africa, wasinstrumental in establishing the vital importanceof establishing SCP patterns at a <strong>global</strong> level toachieve sustainable development. The JohannesburgDeclaration on Sustainable Development recognizedthat “poverty eradication, changing consumption andproduction patterns and protecting and managingthe natural resource base for economic and socialdevelopment are overarching objectives of andessential requirements for sustainable development”(UNDESA, 2004a). Virtually the same text is included inthe more detailed JPOI, also adopted by governmentsat the summit, along with an entire chapter devotedto unsustainable patterns of consumption andproduction. This latter chapter opens by declaringthat “[f]undamental changes in the way societiesproduce and consume are indispensable for achieving<strong>global</strong> sustainable development” (UNDESA, 2004b).Recognizing that consumption patterns oftenundermine progress made in improving resourceefficiency in production, the text placed the term‘consumption’ ahead of the term ‘production’ resultingin the consistent reference to ‘sustainable consumptionand production’ from then on. This term also sought torecognize the interrelation between consumption andWorld Summit on Sustainable Development, 2002Photo courtesy of IISD Reporting Servicesproduction, between supply and demand, and the needto move beyond the tendency at the time to treat theseaspects in isolation from each other.The JPOI also laid the ground work for follow-up inthe longer term, with states agreeing to:“Encourage and promote the developmentof a 10-Year Framework of Programmes insupport of regional and national initiativesto accelerate the shift towards sustainableconsumption and production to promotesocial and economic development within thecarrying capacity of ecosystems by addressingand, where appropriate, delinking economicgrowth and environmental degradation throughimproving efficiency and sustainability in theuse of resources and production processes andreducing resource degradation, pollution andwaste. All countries should take action, withdeveloped countries taking the lead, taking intoaccount the development needs and capabilitiesof developing countries, through mobilization,from all sources, of financial and technicalassistance and capacity-building for developingcountries.” (UNDESA, 2004b).Launched in 2003, the <strong>global</strong>, multi-stakeholderMarrakech Process was the response to this call(see Case Study 3 on the Marrakech Process andits associated Task Forces). Its main objectiveswere to support the implementation of SCP in allregions of the world and to develop inputs for theelaboration of the 10YFP, which was considered bythe Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD)during its 2010-2011 implementation cycle (UnitedNations Envionment Programme [UNEP], 2011b).Recent negotiations in the course of the nineteenthsession of CSD (CSD19) in May 2011 resulted in anagreed-upon text establishing the 10YFP, comprisinga vision, goals, objectives, functions, an institutionalstructure, and an initial, open list of programmesfor inclusion in the framework. The work of theMarrakech Process was duly acknowledged by theeighteenth and nineteenth sessions of CSD, whereit was recognized as a sound basis to develop a10YFP. However, disagreements over other issues,such as the preamble regarding the thematiccluster of transport, chemicals and mining, and themeans of implementation in chemicals and wastemanagement, prevented CSD19 from adoptingan official decision (International Institute forSustainable Development [IISD], 2011b). However,SCP and the 10YFP have gained more visibilitysince CSD19, in various regional meetings and thenational submissions for the 2012 United NationsConference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20).Various countries are requesting the adoption of a10YFP including: Australia, Croatia, the Dominican25

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESRepublic, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Singapore, theEuropean Union, CARICOM, the G77 and the entireAfrican region. 1 Many of these submissions makereference to the adoption of the 10YFP as containedin the CSD19 Chair’s Summary. Hence, the 10YFPcould become an important outcome of Rio+20.Multilateral environmental and tradeagreements and SCPMEAs are important formal channels where SCP hasbeen addressed and promoted directly or indirectlyin a holistic manner or in some stages of the lifecycle. One of the most prominent examples of thisis the Vienna Convention for the Protection of theOzone Layer, negotiated in 1985 and in force since1988. This framework agreement for <strong>global</strong> efforts toprotect the ozone layer makes no explicit referenceto SCP or an SCP approach, but its accompanyingMontreal Protocol, which sets out legally bindingreduction targets for ozone-depleting substances(ODS), has in practice required interventionsacross the consumption and production chainsfor a number of goods (see Case Study 1). It wasagreed at the 1992 Rio-Summit that the UnitedNations Framework Convention on Climate Change(UNFCCC) has even greater potential to stimulate arevolution in consumption and production – indeed,nothing short of this can achieve the reductionin atmospheric levels of GHG concentrationsrecommended by scientific assessments. An SCPapproach is fundamental to this goal throughout thedifferent stages of the life cycles of many goods andservices. A full life-cycle analysis is now acceptedas good practice in assessing the potential ofpolicy interventions, from investments in renewableenergy technologies to increased sustainable publicprocurement (Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange [IPCC], 2011; Perera and others, 2009).The influence of SCP is even clearer in thethematically-related conventions on waste. Adoptedin 1989, the Basel Convention was originallyfocused principally on the transboundary movementof hazardous waste. Since 2000, however, ithas also emphasized the minimization of wastethrough environmentally sound management thataddresses virtually all stages in its productionand consumption, including generation, storage,transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recoveryand final disposal, thereby adopting an integratedlife-cycle approach (United Nations, UNEP andFood and Agriculture Organization [FAO], 2007;Basel Convention and UNEP, undated; BaselConvention, 2007b). The Rotterdam Convention,adopted in 1998, complements its sister treaty byestablishing mandatory rules regarding the import1. Submissions from all regions are available at http://www.uncsd2012.org/rio20/index.php?menu=115.and export of hazardous chemicals and pesticides,creating mechanisms for information sharing andencouraging the environmentally sound managementof permitted chemicals (United Nations, UNEP andFAO, 2004; United Nations, UNEP and FAO, 2007).The Stockholm Convention, adopted in 2001,addresses both production and waste treatmentprocesses in order to minimize, and in some caseseliminate, the release of long-lasting chemicalpollutants, as well as promoting the developmentof substitute materials, products and processesd(Stockholm Convention, 2009). Together, the threetreaties represent a framework for the life-cyclemanagement of hazardous chemicals (UnitedNations, UNEP and FAO, 2007).How MEAs have contributed to thepromotion of SCPAs a foundation for international action, informationis vital. The conclusion of agreements rests onreaching consensus around a strong body ofscientific evidence and its implications. The roleof science in defining and understanding ozonelayer depletion, for example, was a crucial factorthat explains the rapidity with which the ViennaConvention and Montreal Protocol were agreed.The IPCC is another example of the need to forgeconsensus around problems and solutions. Itscomprehensive reviews of scientific and policyliterature have been highly influential in establishingthe fact base for political discussions. Moregenerally, the information requirement of an SCPapproach is inherently high. Policy analysis andscience, for example, played a key role in successfulimplementation of the Montreal Protocol: identifyingproducts and life-cycle stages that led to therelease of ODSs and developing solutions, includingsubstitutes (see Case Study 1). A strong scientificevidence base is therefore central to stimulatingholistic, timely and effective agreements and policyactions at the <strong>global</strong> level.MEAs have been implemented most effectively whenthey include strong mechanisms for implementationat a national level. This is particularly important indeveloping countries, which often face financial andinstitutional barriers to compliance. The MultilateralFund for the Implementation of the Montreal Protocolis an outstanding example of an internationalfinancial mechanism that has enabled countriesto implement plans to eliminate the consumptionand production of ODSs, having disbursed morethan US$2.6 billion since its creation in 1991 (seeCase Study 1). Where financial mechanisms existas a part of other MEAs, they have also proven tobe significant in enabling countries to take action.The Stockholm Convention, for example, through theGlobal Environmental Facility (GEF), had as of 2009distributed US$360 million to persistent organic26

taking action togetherpollutant-related projects, leveraging an additionalUS$440 million in co-financing (UNEP, 2009a).Strong mechanisms for implementation are not onlya question of provision of financial resources. Forexample, the Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, in forcesince 1975, has achieved some success in promotingSCP. The convention regulates the trade of wildlifeproducts involving endangered species through alicensing system and two negotiated lists of threatenedspecies, trade in which is restricted or banneddepending on their conservation status. In addition tothis formal regulation, applied through governments,TRAFFIC, a specialist NGO, provides reliable andobjective information for enforcement agencies, alertsgovernment agencies to emerging threats, promotesdialogue and communicates wildlife trade news(TRAFFIC, 2010). In general, flexibility mechanismshave also been key in allowing states to achieveprogress within the bounds of their national constraintswhile still complying with international targets. Withmany <strong>global</strong> policy agreements, mechanisms areneeded to promote national implementation, taking intoaccount differing national capacities.Hawksbill Turtle, endangered speciesDespite the significant progress represented by thenumber of MEAs that have been agreed since theStockholm Conference on the Human Environmentin 1972, today the large number of agreements –numbering over 500 – and their relative fragmentationis increasingly being recognized as an operationalproblem. This is further complicated by the factParts of mobile phones for recyclingthat agreements are forged under the differentorganizations, frequently of diverse institutionalnatures, memberships and regional coverage(Najam and others, 2006). This complexity leadsto overlapping competencies between agreements,a neglect of the linkages between the ecologicalproblems being addressed by different MEAs andinefficient deployment of financial resources, as wellas placing significant administrative and financialburdens on national governments (UNEP, 2011f). Inrecognition of this, a consultative group of ministersand high-level representatives was establishedunder a UNEP Governing Council decision to identifyoptions for the reform of international environmentalgovernance. Among these, the ‘clustering’ of MEAswas recommended: encouraging ‘synergies’ betweenagreements and the joint delivery of services, tomaximize the impact of resources (UNEP, 2010c;UNEP, 2009c). The three major treaties on waste –the Basel, Rotterdam and Stockholm Conventions– have recently experimented with coordinating theirConferences of Parties (COPs), and, judging it asuccess, initiated processes to further coordinatea number of operational functions (see Case Study2). Similarly, the African, Caribbean and Pacific onMEAs programme is a partnership of countriesand international organizations seeking to enhancecapacities to implement MEAs. Its activities includepromoting regional frameworks for harmonizedlegislation and the establishment of informationclearinghouses (UNEP, 2010a). Efforts by regionalorganizations to cluster and integrate MEAs shouldlead to more effective responses to the range ofimpacts along the full life cycle of goods and services.It should also be noted that MEAs are onlyone part of a web of international agreements.As a significant area of <strong>global</strong> policymaking,international trade agreements have very importantimplications for SCP, as life cycles in a <strong>global</strong>izedeconomy often span a number of nations. Forexample, the average mobile telephone containsnine basic parts, each of which has its own27

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESThe Montreal ProtocolThe Montreal Protocol on Substances thatDeplete the Ozone Layer is an excellent exampleof how SCP can be promoted and achieved by anintergovernmental agreement.Although SCP is not mentioned explicitly inthe Montreal Protocol or its framework ViennaConvention (the Protocol entered into force five yearsprior to the signing of the Rio Conventions), theyhave nonetheless achieved important changes toconsumption and production patterns at the countrylevel given the wide range of products and life-cyclestages involving ozone depleting substances (ODS)they address.It is implicitly understood by Parties that actionsundertaken under the Montreal Protocol shouldpromote sustainable and environmentally friendlyresults. For developing countries, SCP issues areprimarily addressed through the review, approvaland monitoring activities of the Protocol’s financialmechanism – the Multilateral Fund. The Fundprovides financial and technical assistance forinter alia agreed incremental costs, including thoserelated to the supply of non-ODS substitutes (e.g.,conversion of existing production facilities), ODSuse in manufacturing as an intermediate good(e.g., conversion of existing equipment and productmanufacturing facilities), and end use (e.g., recoveryand recycling, technical assistance to reduceconsumption and unintended emission of ODS)(Ozone Secretariat, 2006, pp. 511-512).The Parties to the Montreal Protocol have beenconscious about the need to transfer “bestavailable and environmentally safe alternatives”since the early days of the Multilateral Fund (OzoneSecretariat, 2006, p. 532). In 2007, when theParties agreed to accelerate the phasing out ofhydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), they decided thatthe Multilateral Fund should give priority to costeffectiveprojects and programmes that focus on, interalia, substitutes and alternatives that minimize otherimpacts on the environment, including on the climate,taking into account <strong>global</strong>-warming potential, energyuse and other relevant factors (UNEP, 2007).Projects funded by the Protocol’s Multilateral Fundhave included: product-specific and sector-wide effortsto identify and eliminate ODS-related productionprocesses; the development of substitutes forODS; controls on the movement of ozone-depletingsubstances across borders; incentives for theconversion or retrofitting of ODS-based technology;and the processing of ODS-related waste (OzoneSecretariat, 2007; EPA, 2011b).The implementation of the Montreal Protocol createda huge new international market for chemicalproducts and equipment that replace ODS, plus therelated ancillary services (e.g., training, planningand consultancies). For example, industry hasdeveloped a wide range of technologies to replaceODS including those based on natural refrigerants(e.g. ammonia, carbon dioxide, hydrocarbons andblends), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs, unsaturated HFCsor hydrofluoroolefins) and ‘not-in-kind’ approaches(e.g. avoiding unecessary cooling requirements andsustainable building design).For the manufacturers of chemicals and equipment– many of which were previously mature and stableindustries with relatively fixed market shares – theMontreal Protocol provided the chance for them tobetter their rivals and capture new markets and marketshares by researching, developing and bringing tomarket new technologies faster than their competitors.Additionally, costs for new technologies were initiallyhigh, which provided incentives for companies tocommercialize alternatives quickly. The MontrealProtocol also created new opportunities for previouslyuntapped or under-exploited opportunities. Thismarket creation has been the main driver stimulating amassive and <strong>global</strong> investment by the private sector inlife cycle. Materials extraction, processing,manufacturing, packing and transportation, aphone’s useful life and its end-of-life stage mayall take place in different countries (EnvironmentalProtection Agency [EPA], undated, a). Interventionsthat lead to cost increases in one country maysimply lead companies to shift the location ofunsustainable life-cycle stages to other countries,effectively tying the hands of national policymakers.This implies the need for coordination, cooperationand agreements among states and betweenstakeholders across all areas of policymaking.It also implies ensuring that policies in nonenvironmentalareas are nonetheless aligned withcountries’ environmental priorities.One example of cooperation among states on theenvironment in economic agreements is the WorldTrade Organization’s Committee on Trade andEnvironment, which has been tasked with identifyingenvironmental goods and services, for which tariffand non-tariff barriers to trade might be reducedas part of the Doha Trade Round (Wooders, 2009).Alternatively, it might take the form of agreements28

developing a wide range of technologies ina very short time span.The success of the Montreal Protocol isundeniable: 98 per cent of all chemicalsit controls were phased out by the end of2009 (Ozone Secretariat, 2010). This beenattributed to a number of factors, including:•The role of science in defining andunderstanding the problem. Scientific andpolitical consensus about the nature of theproblem helped to create a shared sense of <strong>global</strong>urgency, with the world’s major powers activelypushing for an agreement.•The relatively limited number of ODS to becontrolled. This MEA controls 96 chemicalsused in several dozen industrial and agriculturalsubsectors. Though challenging, this scope hasproven to be manageable, has made it easier todefine actions and was a manageable burden forreporting. Related to this, the fact that leadingindustries were technically capable of developingalternatives to ODSs was central to the speed ofagreement and implementation.•The creation of the Multilateral Fund, the firstdedicated fund to assist developing countriestechnically and financially in implementing this kindof agreement. It has so far disbursed more thanUS$2.6 billion for industrial conversion, technicalassistance, training and capacity-building toreverse the deterioration of the ozone layer (UnitedNations and UNEP, 2011; UNEP Multilateral FundSecretariat, 2011, p. 1).•The use of ODS-related trade measures to inducenon-members to join the Montreal Protocol. TheMontreal Protocol is the first and so far only MEAto have achieved universal ratification by all UNmember states, with 196 Parties.•Providing information, training and othersupport to ensure the success of national ODSphase-out strategies. This included fundingfor the establishment of ‘national ozone units’for developing countries, improving nationalownership of implementation programmes,improving communication with Multilateral Fundimplementing agencies and improving compliancewith reporting requirements (Secretariat of theMultilateral Fund, 2007).•Establishing an Implementation Committee toverify compliance by checking annual countryreporting. Provisions were made to bring countriesback on track in cases of non-compliance, suchas helping them to comply by providing additionaltechnical assistance.The elimination of the remaining major ODS (i.e.,HCFCs and methyl bromide) is still ongoing and willlast until 2015 and 2030, respectively, for developingcountries. The Montreal Protocol’s prospects forthe future are excellent, based on the track recordof Parties with regard to respect of compliancetargets and of the Multilateral Fund in assistingdeveloping countries through technology transferand capacity-building. The Montreal Protocol remainsrelevant by flexibly responding to emerging needs, viaamendments such as expanding the list of controlledsubstances, modifying compliance procedures andmaking decisions on financial assistance. It hassuccessfully pursued this in the past by negotiatingamendments as ‘packages.’ For example, when newor additional substances were classified as ODSin 1990, Parties ensured that developing countrieswere allocated additional funds to implement thephase out (Weiss, 2010; Ozone Secretariat, 2003).Photo courtesy of SolarChillallowing states to impose environmentally relatedtaxes on imported products, or the provision oftechnical assistance and capacity-building todeveloping countries and SMEs to enable them tosecure certification to environmental standards soas to secure access to international markets. Forthe successful promotion of SCP patterns, therefore,it is vital that both trade and environmental policiesfacilitate a rational, equitable and integratedapproach to addressing life-cycle impacts ofproducts, which must be reflected in the relevantinternational agreements.In the run-up to the 2012 Earth Summit,Rio+20, and against the backdrop of a risingworld population, increasing per capitaconsumption, and food and fuel resourcescarcities, many voices are calling for betterimplementation of multilateral agreementsthat have been made to halt environmentaldegradation (UNGA, 2011). This means policiesat a <strong>global</strong> level need to shift from negotiationof agreements to the implementation of change,particularly the promotion of projects at thecountry level.29

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESExamples of such implementation-focused internationalactivity abound at the level of intergovernmentalinitiatives, many of which might support the promotionof SCP. If intergovernmental agreements are tocontribute to resource efficiency and promote SCPeffectively, the focus of intergovernmental activity mustshift away from the negotiation of goals – the ‘what’ – tomechanisms for inducing tangible progress – the ‘how’.The last decades have seen a wide range ofintergovernmental efforts that have progressedSCP. Many of these have been mentionedabove. Table 1 offers a concise selection ofsome multilateral environmental agreementsthat have contributed to SCP in the pastdecades, either in one or several stages of thelife cycle.The Basel ConventionIn its first decade, the 1992 Basel Conventionon the Control of Transboundary Movements ofHazardous Wastes and their Disposal wascreated to control the transboundary movementof hazardous waste. Since 2000 it has built onthis foundation by emphasizing the implementationof its criteria for the ‘environmentally soundmanagement’ of waste: using an integratedlife-cycle approach to minimize waste from themoment it is generated to its transport, storage,treatment, recovery, recycling, reuse and finaldisposal (Basel Convention, 2011b).Countries commit to annual reporting on thegeneration and movement of such wastes,and a compliance committee reviews countryimplementation. The Basel Convention activelyhelps countries implement it in a number ofways, including technical and legal adviceregarding national legislation and policies, theestablishment of Regional Centres for Trainingand Technology Transfer, and encouragingthe development of cleaner technologies andproduction methods. It has also establishedpublic-private multi-stakeholder partnerships,such as the Partnership for Action on ComputingEquipment and the Mobile Phone PartnershipInitiative. These programmes aim to establishguidelines for the environmentally soundmanagement, refurbishment, recycling anddisposal of their respective product groups(Basel Convention, 2011b; Basel Convention,2011c). In its next decade of operation, the BaselConvention aims to place additional emphasis onpartnerships and lowering demand for goods andservices involving hazardous side-products (BaselConvention, 2011b).The Basel Convention and its sister chemical andwaste treaties – the Rotterdam and StockholmConventions, respectively – have been the testingground for attempts to rationalize resourcesdedicated to thematically related MEAs. In 2010they held the first-ever simultaneous extraordinarymeeting of their COPs, with the aim of betterusing limited resources and improving coherencein decision making. During the COP, the threeconventions agreed to take further steps tocooperate and coordinate, calling for the creationof joint services within the three secretariats in theareas of administration, information technology,legal services, public awareness and outreach,and resource mobilization, as well as the alignmentof budget cycles and auditing of operations. Thisis seen as a way for the conventions to maximizetheir resources and their impacts, with consequentimplications for the effectiveness in promotingSCP (Basel Convention, 2011a; UNEP, 2009c).Discussions are now underway regarding thepotential for further clustering of agreements, withUNEP having proposed ‘marine and freshwater’and ‘atmosphere’ clusters (UNEP Division ofEnvironmental Law and Conventions [DELC], 2011).30

taking action togetherTable 1: Conventions and multilateral agreementsBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPVienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol(UNEP, 2007; Ozone Secretariat, 2010)The Vienna Convention,negotiated in 1985, isa framework agreementfor which legally-bindingmeasures were set out bythe 1987 Montreal Protocolthat entered into forcein 1989. The MontrealProtocol has 196 partiesand is legally binding.The Montreal Protocol agreed to phasing outthe production and consumption of entiregroups of ODSs, setting out provisions for thisto take place more gradually in developingcountries. The list of ODSs and reductionschedules were subsequently strengthenedand the Multilateral Fund was created tohelp pay the incremental costs incurred bydeveloping countries. The Montreal Protocolalso required annual reporting on production,imports and exports of controlled substancesand developed a mechanism to facilitateimplementation in cases of non-compliance.Its recognition of common butdifferentiated responsibilities has beeneffective in agreeing to timelines forthe compliance of developing countries,and its financial mechanism, havingdisbursed over US$2.6 billion since itscreation, has promoted implementationand compliance with annual reportingrequirements. Industry also played akey role in its effectiveness throughthe development of cost-effective ODSalternatives (see Case Study 1).The Basel Convention (Basel Convention, undated, a)The Basel Conventionon the Control ofTransboundary Movementsof Hazardous Wastesand their Disposal, whichcame into force in 1992,is a <strong>global</strong> agreementaddressing the problemsand challenges posed bydangerous waste, includingits generation and illegaldumping in developingcountries. The Conventionhas 178 parties and 53signatories.Developed principally to prevent thetransboundary movement of hazardous wastesfrom developed to developing countries, theBasel Convention also has provisions thataffect the entire product life cycle, which ithas emphasized in particular since 2000. Theagreement places conditions on the importand export of hazardous wastes and requiresstates to submit extensive annual reports. In1995 an amendment was adopted to ban themovement of hazardous wastes from certaindeveloped countries to developing countriesfor recovery, recycling or final disposal,although 17 ratifications are still neededbefore it can enter into force.The Basel Convention obligesparties to implement and enforceits provisions, has requirementsfor monitoring and compliance andmeasures for encouraging compliance.Its partnership programme has alsoencouraged the promotion of SCP ina number of sectors, for example,establishing guidelines on the soundmanagement of end-of-life mobilephones and computing equipment(Basel Convention, 2011c).Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) (CBD, 2011)The CBD was opened forsignature at the 1992UNCED at Rio, enteredinto force in 1993 and nowhas <strong>global</strong> participationwith 193 parties and 168signatories. Sustainableuse of the components ofbiological diversity is oneof its three main goals.Major new developmentstook place at the tenth COPin Nagoya in 2010, wherea protocol on Access andBenefit Sharing (ABS) wasagreed.The CBD sets out the principle that, althoughstates have the right to exploit naturalresources for the benefit of their people, theconservation of biodiversity is a commonconcern for the international communityand they are responsible for the biologicalresources in their jurisdiction. It made newand additional funding available to developingcountries for this purpose, to be managedby the GEF. It has significant implicationsfor SCP given the direct and indirectimpacts on ecosystems that are caused byresource extraction, production processes,consumption and waste. In 2010, Parties tothe Convention agreed on an ABS protocol,establishing that access to genetic resourcesshould be based on a country’s prior informedconsent and the equitable sharing of benefits.In 2010, Parties to the Convention also agreedupon a new strategic plan on biodiversity useand conservation targets until the year 2020.While much of the CBD relies oneffective national implementation,it supports countries in establishingNational Biodiversity Strategies andAction Plans, as well as providinginformation clearing houses, financethrough the GEF and cooperation andpartnerships with other agencies.The adoption of the protocol onABS in 2010 is widely regarded as acritical step in promoting SCP, as itsrequirement for countries to equitablyshare the benefits of economicresources will enable countries tocapture some of the economic valueof biodiversity, thus incentivizingconservation. Decision X/44 onincentive measures, also taken at theNagoya COP, explicitly invited countriesto foster “sustainable consumptionand production patterns for theconservation and sustainable use ofbiodiversity” (CBD, 2010).31

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 1 ContinuedBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPForest Principles (UNGA, 1992a)The Forest Principles arethe “non-legally bindingauthoritative statementof principles for a <strong>global</strong>consensus on themanagement, conservationand sustainabledevelopment of all types offorests.” They were signedat the 1992 UNCED at Rio(UNGA, 1992a). The ForestPrinciples were adopted by178 governments.The 15 principles had broad implicationsfor SCP, stating that national policies andprogrammes for the sustainable conservationand management of forests should take intoaccount “all aspects related to the production,consumption, recycling and/or final disposal”(UNGA, 1992a) of forest products, as well asnoting the need for SCP patterns at a <strong>global</strong>level. It included explicit recommendations forcountries to undertake environmental impactassessments and adopt national forestryaction plans.As a non-legally binding statementof principles only, no secretariat wasestablished to ensure compliance andfacilitate implementation. Nonetheless,the principles established an SCPapproach as fundamental to theforestry and timber sectors andcreated the foundation for furtherpartnerships and agreements thatwould promote implementation. In2001, 14 international organizationsformed the Collaborative Partnershipon Forests, with a mission to promotethe sustainable management offorests, including the FAO, World Bankand UNEP (Collaborative Partnershipon Forests, 2003). In 2007 the UnitedNations General Assembly also passeda Non-Legally Binding AgreementInstrument on All Types of Foreststo “strengthen political commitmentand action at all levels to implementeffectively sustainable management ofall types of forests” (UNGA, 2008, p. 3;UNFF, 2011).UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (UNFCCC, 2011)The UNFCCC was agreedat the 1992 UNCED atRio. It is the frameworkagreement on climatechange for which morepowerful, legally bindingmeasures were set out bythe 1997 Kyoto Protocol,which entered into force in2005. The UNFCCC is nowattempting to develop apost-Kyoto agreement. TheCopenhagen Accord andCancun Agreements arethe latest developments inthis process. There are 194parties to the UNFCCC and193 to the Kyoto Protocol.The Kyoto Protocol set GHG emissions targetsfor 37 industrialized countries until 2012.Due to the release of GHGs throughoutmuch economic activity, the Protocol haswide implications for consumption andproduction patterns. A range of provisionswere included in the Kyoto Protocol to promoteits implementation, including three flexibilitymechanisms – emissions trading, JointImplementation, and the Clean DevelopmentMechanism – as well as mandatory emissionsreporting by Annex I Parties (generally thedeveloped countries) and the principle thatthese should transfer technology and fundingto non-Annex I countries.The Kyoto Protocol’s targets are legallybinding and its comprehensive rangeof implementation mechanisms isbased on the principle of commonbut differentiated responsibilities. Itcan be seen as directly responsiblefor the establishment of regional andnational policies with far-reachingimplications throughout consumptionand production chains, such as theEuropean Union’s Emissions TradingSystem or Japan’s Nippon Kaidanren’sVoluntary Action Plan on theEnvironment (European Commission,2010; Nippon Kaidanren, 1997). Ifan ambitious post-Kyoto agreementcan be agreed, it would necessarilyrequire interventions throughout theconsumption and production stages ofthe life cycle of many products.32

taking action togetherBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPCopenhagen Accord and Cancun Agreements (UNFCCC, 2010; UNFCCC, 2011)The Copenhagen Accordwas the outcome ofthe UNFCCC COP15 inDecember 2009. TheCancun Agreements wereagreed upon at UNFCCCCOP16 in December 2010.The Accord and Agreementhave 114 parties and 193parties, respectively.The Copenhagen Accord is a non-legallybinding document that addresses a seriesof major issues under discussion in climatechange negotiations and asks countries tosubmit their emissions targets and plannedactions through a bottom-up approach.This included countries ‘taking note’ of anaspirational goal of limiting <strong>global</strong> temperatureincrease to 2ºC and the need for action withrespect to adaptation to climate change,forestry, finance and technology transfer(Diringer and others, undated). One yearlater, the Cancun Agreements legally adoptedmany of the Copenhagen Accord’s provisionsand spelled them out in more detail to makeprogress in their operationalization. Decisionsincluded the creation of a Green Climate Fund,a mechanism for the transfer of technologiesand a framework for helping countries withadaptation to climate change (UNFCCC, 2011).As part of the UNFCCC process, theoutcomes of the two COPs are deeplyintertwined with consumption andproduction patterns, by covering amultitude of issues, such as quantifiedemission reduction targets, NationallyAppropriate Mitigation Actions on GHGemissions; Reducing Emissions fromDeforestation and Forest Degradation(REDD+); financing; technologytransfer and capacity-building and themonitoring, reporting and verification(MRV) of emissions (Diringer andothers, undated; UNFCCC, 2011).The Cancun Agreements can beseen as a step toward facilitating theimplementation of SCP, particularly byaddressing emissions from all majoremitters, committing additional financeand representing progress towards apost-Kyoto agreement.Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)(Stockholm Convention, 2011; Stockholm Convention, 2009)The Stockholm Conventionis a <strong>global</strong> treaty, adoptedin 2001 and enteringinto force in 2004, toprotect human healthand the environment fromchemicals that remain in theenvironment for long periodsof time. It is concerned withpromoting more sustainableproduction, as POPs areoften inputs or by-productsof production processes,and consumption, asPOPs may be releasedinto the environment whenchemicals are used. TheStockholm Conventionhas 176 parties and 151signatories.The Stockholm Convention lists pollutants thatparties have to eliminate, restrict or reduceunintentional releases of. It also provides astandardized toolkit to identify POPs and todeal with them, and has a <strong>global</strong> monitoringplan, which includes an effectivenessevaluation of measures taken. The StockholmConvention uses the GEF to fund technicaland financial assistance, including fundingfor the development and updating of nationalimplementation plans. It is supported at aregional level by 15 regional and subregionalStockholm Convention Centres for capacitybuildingand technology transfer. TheStockholm Convention is working on acompliance mechanism.Although it does not refer to SCPexplicitly, by recognizing the needto address the creation of POPsthroughout different stages in the lifecycle of goods, it implicitly recognizesthe need for a holistic analysis ofproduct life cycles. The StockholmConvention is legally binding, widelyadopted, and has financial andtechnical support mechanisms fordeveloping country members to supportcompliance. It includes a monitoringand reporting mechanism on theelimination, restriction and reduction oflisted pollutants.33

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESUnited Nations initiatives to promoteSCP at the <strong>global</strong> levelIn addition to MEAs, there are also a wide number ofintergovernmental initiatives promoting SCP at the<strong>global</strong> level. As the United Nations body specializedon the environment, UNEP is the organization thathas perhaps most explicitly placed SCP at the heartof its activities. Resource efficiency and SCP is oneof the six cross-cutting thematic priorities that guidethe work of UNEP, with the objective that “naturalresources are produced, processed and consumedin a more environmentally sustainable way, in whichenvironmental impact is decoupled from economicgrowth and social co-benefits are optimized” (UNEP,2010d, p. 79). Towards this end, UNEP has focusedon enhanced resource efficiency and on encouragingthe use of life-cycle analysis to inform policies thatpromote SCP.Some of the activities by UNEP have focused on theprovision of technical assistance. For example, overthe past 15 years, UNEP in cooperation with theUnited Nations Industrial Development Organisation(UNIDO) has provided assistance to establishnational capacities and demonstrate the potential ofpreventative environmental strategies in developingcountries. The joint UNIDO-UNEP Programme onResource Efficiency and Cleaner Production (RECP)aims to support governments by increasing theapplication of preventative environmental strategiesto processes, products and services to increaseefficiency, as well as to reduce risks to humansand the environment. The programme has played akey role in raising SCP awareness in the public andprivate sectors as well as in business associationsand other intermediaries that work with companiesin developing countries and economies in transition.This programme has established National CleanerProduction Centres and programmes in over 47countries, with the aim of raising awareness,providing professional training and policy advice,supporting technology transfer and disseminatinginformation on good practice.UNEP, in collaboration with UNDESA, have alsoactively supported governments in developingpolicies and building capacity for the transitionto SCP within the framework of the MarrakechProcess (see Case Study 3), which was initiated asa response to the 2002 WSSD as a <strong>global</strong>, informalmulti-stakeholder process.Other activities have focused on the promotionof SCP in specific economic sectors or themes. Amultitude of United Nations agencies, funds andprogrammes are engaged on SCP issues, for themost part in multi-stakeholder partnerships. Sectorsand themes include education, lifestyles, food,agriculture, buildings and cities, and tourism.Education is a central theme in <strong>global</strong> efforts topromote a paradigm shift on SCP patterns. TheUnited Nations Decade of Education for SustainableDevelopment (UNDESD) 2005-2014 aims to “integratethe values inherent in sustainable developmentinto all aspects of learning to encourage changesin behavior that allow for a more sustainable andjust society for all” (United Nations Educational,Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2006,p. 4). To this end, UNESCO is promoting a <strong>global</strong>partnership for the UNDESD. Locally, the objective isto incorporate education for sustainable developmentinto curricula. Nationally, government departmentsare to prepare national concerted UNDESD responseplans. Regionally, consultations should draw upimplementation strategies. UNESCO supportsstakeholders with tools and guidelines, for example, onnational UNDESD launches and activities.Education also has the potential to empowerconsumers. By making them aware of theirrights and their collective market power, it cancontribute substantially to furthering SCP. Ideally,consumer behaviour should then promote ecoefficientbusiness practices, more sustainablyproduced goods and services and more transparentinformation on products.In the area of sustainable lifestyles, UNESCO, incollaboration with UNEP, has been active in raisingawareness and providing educational resourcesrelated to sustainable consumption. One of itsmost effective tools has been the UNEP-UNESCOYouthXchange (YXC) Initiative. Since 2001 theinitiative has promoted sustainable lifestyles amongpeople aged 15-24. YXC works with educators,NGOs, trainers and youth leaders around the worldthrough national partners in more than 45 countries.At the national and local levels, they conduct YXCtraining and capacity-building activities. Theseare supported by a training kit on responsibleconsumption providing information, ideas, tips andgood practices on topics such as lifestyles, mobility,tourism, water usage, waste reduction, energy andresource efficiency, and smart and responsible34

taking action togetherShifting towards SPC patterns provides opportunitiesfor poverty alleviation. These opportunities andlinkages are addressed in the joint UNDP-UNEPPoverty and Environment Initiative. The initiativesupports countries in integrating povertyshopping.Thanks to partnerships with local andnational organizations, the kit has been translatedinto more than 20 languages and reached over400,000 people worldwide (UNESCO, 2008).Regarding food and agriculture, the FAO-UNEPprogramme on sustainable food systems, to belaunched in 2012, aims to improve resource efficiencyand reduce pollution from food systems along theirvalue chains, throughout production and consumptionstages, while improving food security. The programmewill involve all concerned stakeholders, includingfarmers, agro-industry, retailers and consumers. TheFAO-UNEP-led Agri-food Task Force on SCP supportsthe efforts, comprising 14 national governments,United Nations Conference on Trade and Development,UNDESA, eight CSOs and three international businessorganizations that together represent 325 firms.The task force works to create knowledge platformsand support public-private and business-to-businesspartnerships for joint activities and information transferwithin supply chains.Buildings and cities are particularly importantinfrastructures to incorporate SCP patterns. Asurbanization increases, buildings and cities carry alarge potential to develop highly resource-efficientareas. The UNEP Sustainable Buildings andClimate Initiative addresses this area by bringingtogether stakeholders from all segments of thebuilding sector to realize the significant energyand resource saving opportunities that the sectoroffers. Another effort in this field is UN-Habitat andUNEP’s cooperation to mainstream environmentalconsiderations into local, national and <strong>global</strong> urbanpolicymaking, as well as to incorporate urbanperspectives into environmental policymaking. Theiraim is to enable cities to better assess and prioritizelocal environmental concerns and to have a voice inenvironmental debates. Current joint activities focuson establishing inventories of urban GHG emissions,the assessment of urban vulnerabilities to climatechange impacts and the development of innovativeadaptation mechanisms and mitigation efforts at theGreen City Singaporecity level, with a focus on the buildings and transportsectors (UNEP Governing Council, 2011).Tourism is another economic sector with greatpotential for the promotion of SCP. In 2010, UNEPlaunched the Global Partnership for SustainableTourism, building on the Marrakech International TaskForce for Sustainable Tourism Development. Aimingfor a broad impact, it has 80 members, including 19national governments, 8 United Nations agenciesand programmes, 32 non-profit organizations and9 business groups. Its mission is to transformtourism, making it more sustainable by bringingtogether tourism stakeholders in efforts to lower theirsector’s GHG emissions; promote and disseminatesustainable tourism good practices; encouragetourism as a mechanism for poverty alleviation;inform on policy frameworks; identify mechanismsfor sustainable financing and investment in tourism;and assist the sector in developing more sustainablesupply chains (UNEP, 2011e).The increasing GHG emissions in the tourismsector are among the issues targeted by the UnitedNations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).Specifically, the body supports the integration ofclimate change adaptation criteria into nationaltourism planning processes. It aims to achieve thisthrough awareness-raising, high-level policy forumsand policy paper publications. It also conductsfundraising support for climate change adaptationand mitigation projects in the tourism sector.Beyond specific areas and sectors, broader jobcreation and poverty alleviation are two themescentral to SCP. The Green Jobs Initiative is a jointinitiative by the International Labour Organization(ILO), the International Employers Organization, theInternational Trade Union Confederation (ITUC), andUNEP. The initiative was launched to assess, analyzeand promote the creation of such jobs (ILO, 2011a).Green jobs are defined as decent jobs that reduceconsumption of energy and raw materials, limit GHGemissions, minimize waste and pollution, and protectand restore ecosystems (ILO, 2011b). In 2008 theILO and UNEP co-authored a first stocktaking ofgreen job creation in a range of economic sectors.In early 2012 a follow-up report is envisaged, alsoto inform the Rio+20 process. In terms of countrysupport, the ILO has assessed the skills needed forgreen jobs in 21 countries, including Egypt, Brazil,India and South Africa. Moreover, ILO and UNEPjointly provide green economy advisory services tointerested countries.35

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESThe Marrakech Process on SCP and itsTask ForcesThe Marrakech Processwas a <strong>global</strong>, informalmulti-stakeholderprocess to promoteSCP. It was namedafter the host city ofits first internationalmeeting. The MarrakechProcess is a responseto the 2002 WSSD, wheregovernments recognizedthat SCP is an overarching objective of, and anessential requirement for, sustainable development.Specifically, Chapter III of the JPOI calls for thedevelopment of a 10YFP “to accelerate the shifttowards sustainable consumption and production,promoting social and economic development withinthe carrying capacity of ecosystems, by de-linkingeconomic growth from environmental degradation”(UNDESA, 2004b).The Marrakech Process main objectives:•To promote the development andimplementation of policies, programmesand projects on SCP, providing support forgovernments, the private sector and otheractors in implementing SCP policies andactivities at the national or regional levels•To provide inputs for the elaboration of the10YFP on SCP, meant to provide a coordinatedand cost-effective framework for internationalcooperation and capacity-building to support thetransition to SCPTo achieve these objectives, the MarrakechProcess developed a series of mechanisms,the Marrakech Task Forces being among themost effective. The Task Forces have focusedon SCP through voluntary partnerships relatingto specific sectors or themes. Each Task Forcehas involved experts from both developed anddeveloping countries to carry out capacity-buildingactivities, implement projects and promote North-South cooperation. Other mechanisms includedinternational and regional review meetings,national roundtables, a multi-stakeholder AdvisoryCommittee, and dialogues with major groups and,to some extent also with development cooperationand United Nations agencies.Key achievements of each of the seven MarrakechTask Forces include among others:•Task Force on Sustainable Public Procurement:A practical methodology for designingand implementing policies on sustainablepublic procurement, involving Ministries ofEnvironment and Finance, applied throughregional and national training workshops and theimplementation of 11 pilot projects.•Task Force on Sustainable Tourism: Developmentof policy recommendations, manuals and trainingkits on sustainable tourism development, and aGreen Passport campaign for awareness-raisingamong tourists.•Task Force on Cooperation with Africa:Development of an African EcolabellingMechanism and 8 national SCP strategies.•Task Force on Sustainable Lifestyles:Implementation of nine projects on sustainablelifestyles reaching 43 countries, includingdemonstration and capacity-building projects,research, toolkits and publications; as wellas a Global Survey on Sustainable Lifestylesconducted among 8,000 young adults from 20countries.•Task Force on Education for SustainableConsumption: Recommendations and Guidelineson Education for Sustainable Consumption (Hereand Now!), guiding policymakers and educators onhow best education for sustainable consumptioncan be integrated into national formal educationsystems and curricula.•Task Force on Sustainable Buildings andConstruction: A baseline study on buildings andclimate change mitigation, examining energyefficiency in buildings and construction andidentifying related policies and tools.•Task Force on Sustainable Products: Contributionto the establishment of a formal agreementfor international action to raise the efficiencyof energy-using products – InternationalEnergy Agency Implementing Agreement for aCooperating Programme on Efficient ElectricalEnd- Use Equipment (“4E”).The work of the Task Forces has yielded tangibleoutputs, however, more cooperation is needed toreplicate and scale up good practices as well asfor the creation of new Task Forces or initiatives.Potential foci of such new initiatives could includecrucial areas, such as water and sanitation, energyefficiency, transport, urban development, and foodand agriculture.Sources: UNEP (2011a); UNEP (2010b); MarrakechTask Forces (2009); UNEP and Centre on SustainableConsumption and Production (2006).36

taking action togetherTable 2: United Nations multi-stakeholder initiatives and partnershipsBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPInternational Resource Panel (UNEP) (UNEP, 2011a)The International ResourcePanel was launched in2007 to support a holisticand science-basedapproach to resourcemanagement decisions.The two objectives of the InternationalResource Panel are to “provide independent,coherent and authoritative scientificassessments of policy relevance on thesustainable use of natural resources and theirenvironmental impacts over the full life cycle”and “contribute to a better understandingof how to decouple economic growth fromenvironmental degradation” (UNEP, 2011a).The scientific panel consists of over 25experts, who are tasked with the productionof the assessments. It is supportedby a steering committee of over 20national governments, international andintergovernmental organizations (such as theEuropean Commission and the OECD) andCSOs providing strategic guidance on policyrelevance.The assessments strengthen thescientific basis for policymaking onresource use, resource scarcity andenvironmental degradation among theinternational community.It fills a previous gap in theassessment landscape by providingassessments on resource use witha <strong>global</strong> scope that can be used atthe international, regional or sectorallevels.Life Cycle Initiative (UNEP, 2011b)UNEP and the Society forEnvironmental Toxicologyand Chemistry launchedthe international Life CycleInitiative. It responds tothe call by governmentsfor a Life Cycle economyin the Malmo Declaration(2000), agreed at theSpecial Session of theUNEP Governing Council. Itaims to help put life-cyclethinking into practice.The Life Cycle Initiative gives users accessto a network of over 2,000 members fromemerging, developing and industrializedeconomies, with experts from government,industry, academia and the service sectorswho represent the leaders in developing andapplying life-cycle assessments (LCAs) andlife-cycle management worldwide. This enablesthem to gather examples of best practices.Creates a <strong>global</strong>, multi-stakeholder andexpert network to establish and buildcapacity in best practice in life-cycleanalysis and assessment, includingrecognized methodologies such ascarbon and water footprints.The Marrakech Process (UNEP, 2010e)The Marrakech Process,established in 2003, was a<strong>global</strong> effort to support theimplementation of SCP inall regions and to provideinputs for the 10YFP onSCP that countries wereencouraged to developby the 2002 WSSDJohannesburg Plan ofImplementation.The two goals of the Marrakech Process areto support the implementation of SCP in allregions and to provide inputs for a proposal ona 10YFP considered by the CSD during its 2010-2011 implementation cycle. Regional meetingsare held to identify SCP priorities, nationalroundtables and programmes support theimplementation of policies and programmes andinternational review meetings are held to reporton progress, coordinate and share information.In addition, seven Marrakech Task Forces act asimplementation mechanisms, building North-South cooperation and implementing concreteprojects at national, regional and <strong>global</strong>levels. Each of the seven Task Forces focuseson a specific theme: Sustainable Tourism,Sustainable Buildings and Construction,Sustainable Products, Sustainable PublicProcurement, Sustainable Lifestyles, Educationfor Sustainable Consumption and Cooperationwith Africa (See Case Study 3).UNEP and UNDESA formed theSecretariat of this <strong>global</strong> process,with active participation from nationalgovernments, development agencies,business and industry, civil society andother stakeholders. The MarrakechProcess developed and piloted SCPpolicies and tools, shares knowledgeand builds capacity to support theshifts toward SCP. The processdeveloped important mechanismsfor implementation, such as theregional consultation processes andimplementation meetings and theTask Forces with the participation ofdifferent countries and stakeholders.37

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 2 ContinuedBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPThe SEED Initiative (SEED, 2011)The SEED Initiativewas initiated by theGerman Ministry for theEnvironment in 2001 andformally founded by UNEP,UNDP and the IUCN at theWSSD in 2002. It supportssmall-scale and locallydriven entrepreneurshipthat integrates social andenvironmental benefits intotheir business models.The SEED initiative bases its programmeon four interlinked pillars. First, it presentsthe SEED awards to the most promisingand innovate start-ups. Second, it supportsthe winners of these awards by providingnetworks and business advice. Third, itidentifies best practices and develops toolkits for the entrepreneurs. Finally, based onthis collection of best practices, it makespolicy recommendations. In 2010 a two-anda-half-year-longfirst country pilot project wasinitiated to support innovative social andenvironmental entrepreneurs in South Africa.Its aim is to encourage more country andregional schemes along the lines of the <strong>global</strong>SEED Initiative.The SEED Initiative draws attention tothe business case for SCP among localstakeholders and builds policy advicefrom identification of best practices insocial entrepreneurship and its ownexperiences with pilot projects at thelocal level in support of the MDGs.UNEP Sustainable Buildings and Climate Initiative (UNEP, 2009d)The UNEP SustainableBuildings and ClimateInitiative is a sectoralinitiative designed topromote sustainablebuilding practicesworldwide.The Sustainable Buildings and ClimateInitiative works as a joint effort with keystakeholders in the building sector. Theseinclude industry, business, governments,local authorities, research institutions,academia, experts and NGOs. It aims toprovide a common platform for stakeholders,establishing baselines (initially focused onenergy efficiency and CO2 emissions, basedon a life-cycle analysis), developing toolsand strategies and finally promoting theuse of such tools and strategies among keystakeholders through pilot projects.The UNEP Sustainable Buildingsand Climate Initiative promotesdialogue and policy advice via amulti-stakeholder process, and alsoconvenes experts to develop guidanceon new sustainability measurementtools and strategies, influencingbusiness practices and contributingto UNFCCC negotiations. It providesa common language for performanceassessment of energy efficient andlow-carbon buildings as a basis for<strong>global</strong> reporting of building-related GHGemissions.UNIDO-UNEP Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production programme (RECP) (UNEP, 2011d)The UNIDO-UNEP RECPprogramme recognizes andsupports governments andindustry in implementingresource-efficient andcleaner productionpolicies and practices byaccelerating the applicationof preventive environmentalstrategies to processes,products and services toincrease efficiency andreduce risks to humans andthe environment.The RECP applies integrated and preventivestrategies to processes, products andservices in order to increase productionefficiency, minimize impacts on theenvironment and support human development.RECP programmes are implemented througha network of National Cleaner ProductionCentres, which provide research and technicalassistance on resource efficiency andcleaner production across a variety of sectorswithin a given country. National CleanerProduction Centres have been establishedin 47 developing countries and economies intransition.Information sharing, technicalassistance and capacity-building via aworldwide network supporting NationalCleaner Production Centres promotesthe implementation of resourceefficient,cleaner production across awide range of industrial processes.38

taking action togetherBackground General focus and purpose Notable mechanisms for the promotionof SCPUNWTO-UNEP Hotel Energy Solutions (Hotel Energy Solutions, 2011)Hotel Energy Solutionsis an initiative that hasbeen ongoing since 2008,co-funded by the EuropeanCommission. The initiativebrings together keyorganizations in the fieldsof tourism and energytechnologies.Hotel Energy Solutions aims to facilitatethe use of renewable energy technologiesand energy-efficient systems for small andmedium-sized hotels. This is expected to lowerhotels’ operational costs, while increasingcompetitiveness and sustainability andmitigating the industry’s impact on climatechange. The Hotel Energy Solutions e-toolkithas been tested in Bulgaria, France, Germanyand Spain.The project delivers technical supportand training to help small and mediumsizedhotels across the 27 EuropeanUnion countries to increase their useof energy efficiency and renewableenergy.UNWTO-UNIDO Collaborative Actions for Sustainable Tourism (COAST) project (COAST, 2011)The Collaborative Actions forSustainable Tourism projectsupports nine countriesin Sub-Saharan Africa(Cameroon, Gambia, Ghana,Nigeria, Senegal, Kenya,Tanzania, Mozambique andSeychelles) to promotesustainable coastal tourism.The Collaborative Actions for SustainableTourism project’s main objective is todemonstrate best practices and strategiesfor sustainable tourism development so as toreduce the degradation of marine and coastalenvironments with transboundary significance.The project encompasses technicalassistance, research on mechanismsfor sustainable tourism governanceand management in coastal areasand capacity-building via a seriesof training seminars to build thecapacities of project stakeholders inthe participating countries.39

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESenvironment links into development planning onthe national level. In some countries UNEP worksthrough national Poverty and Environment Initiativeprojects to mainstream SCP in development policiesand planning. In Mali, for example, the initiative’sactivities include assisting the government in itsefforts to green its Poverty Reduction Strategy Paperthrough the integration of SCP.The programmes and initiatives run byintergovernmental organizations have created awealth of knowledge, expertise and tools to promoteSCP. As these continue to evolve, they providelessons learned and best practices to countries andbusinesses on a range of policies and tools for thepromotion of sustainability (UNEP, 2011e).The last decades have seen a wide range ofinternational efforts that have explicitly or implicitlyprogressed SCP. Many of the policies and activitieshave been mentioned above. Table 2 offers a conciseselection of some representative multi-stakeholderinitiatives and partnerships that have promoted SCPat the <strong>global</strong> level in the past decades.2.3 SCP initiatives for andby businessBusinesses are crucial actors for the shift towardsSCP patterns and their involvement is a sine quanon condition for the required changes towardsSCP on a <strong>global</strong> scale. The processes of economic<strong>global</strong>ization of markets over the last two decadeshave been accompanied by the largest and mostrapid international transfers of finance, technology,goods and services and information in humanhistory. Today, the material output of productionprocesses and subsequent waste generation isgreater than ever, putting a substantial stress onenvironmental and social systems and broadersustainability. These developments have been drivenby a combination of factors, including increasesin populations; rapidly expanding middle classes,especially in the emerging economies; an increasein <strong>global</strong> transportation services; and increasedavailability and affordability of information andcommunication technologies (Hohnen, 2011).place at the level of consumption and production.However, this reality should not distract from the factthat many businesses have made genuine effortsbeyond compliance with local laws and regulations topromote sustainability.This section highlights that businesses have useda wide variety of strategies and tools to promoteSCP. Given the scale and scope of <strong>global</strong> activity inthis area, the chapter focuses on a sample of theseinternational efforts, chosen in order to representthe broad spectrum of actors and strategiesinvolved. Where possible, it also highlights examplesthat are timely, high-impact, innovative, effectiveand have the potential for replication. The examplesinclude: standards, cleaner technologies andmanufacturing processes, tools and methodologiesfor performance review and reporting, sharing ofexpertise and experience, and establishing multistakeholderpartnerships to address issues thatsingle actors or groups cannot address on their own.Partnerships, in particular, have played an essentialrole in effectively promoting SCP. Although nonexhaustive,the listed examples are representative ofsome of the most interesting applications of SCP bybusinesses at the <strong>global</strong> level.The evolution of business efforts topromote SCP at the <strong>global</strong> levelAt the <strong>global</strong> level, business innovations inSCP have been closely linked with the broadersustainable development governance process.International agreements have repeatedly stressedthe importance of business sector cooperation inpromoting SCP, and international business has beenengaged with governments at an international level.Agenda 21, the programme of action agreed by the1992 UNCED, established ‘business and industry’as one of the nine Major Groups – the socialpartners needed to support common efforts forsustainable development. It explicitly recognizedthe importance of SCP for business and industryRising access to information has facilitated publicscrutiny of social and environmental impacts ofbusinesses – even of those in faraway locations.The reduction of potential reputational risk forbusinesses and, more positively, taking advantageof the business opportunities from green or socialdifferentiation in the marketplace, has led manycompanies to promote and engage in effortscontributing to SCP. In some cases, these measureshave been denounced as ‘greenwashing’ – merebranding strategies, without any real change taking40

taking action together(UNDESA, 2009a). In order to address theserequirements and strengthen the role of business,two programmes – one promoting cleaner productionand one promoting responsible entrepreneurship –were proposed by Agenda 21. Simultaneously, thedocument also recognized that business plays acrucial role in the social and economic developmentof a country (UNDESA, 2009a). The origins of theWorld Business Council for Sustainable Development(WBCSD), one of the most influential businesscoalitions on sustainability today, dates back to the1992 Rio Summit.Ten years later, the 2002 United Nations WSSDprovided fresh international momentum andadditional definition, where the role of business wasagain widely recognized. Increasingly, businesseswere seen as part of the solution rather than just‘the problem.’ Noting a collective responsibility, theJohannesburg Declaration stated that “in pursuit ofits legitimate activities the private sector … has aduty to contribute to the evolution of equitable andsustainable communities and societies” (UNDESA,2004a).The WSSD also saw the launch of Business Actionfor Sustainable Development, an ad hoc businessplatform, by the International Chamber of Commerce(ICC) and WBCSD. The Business Action forSustainable Development’s pledge for action stated:“Sustainability is the opportunity which we embrace;responsibility is the standard by which we shouldexpect to be judged; accountability is the obligationwhich we assume; partnership is the pathwaywhich we pursue” (Business Action for SustainableDevelopment, 2002).Partnerships were one of the most tangible outcomesof the WSSD. As Type II agreements – unlike theType I intergovernmental agreements – they wereconceived as non-negotiated, concrete contributionsby stakeholders to sustainable development (UnitedNations, 2006). Out of around 350 internationalpartnerships that have so far been formed under theframework, more than 120 are filed under the category‘changing unsustainable patterns of consumption andproduction’ and overall the partnership-organizationtype ‘business and industry’ is counted more than 850times (UNDESA, 2011).Parallel to these international processes,businesses in the past few decades haveexperimented with and helped to develop a numberof tools that are now integral to the promotion ofSCP. Environmental management systems (EMSs)have been one of the most important ways forcompanies to operationalize the concept of SCP,offering opportunities to improve environmentalperformance, often at the same time as yieldingcost-savings. Since the early 1990s, theBiodegradable rice cake bundlesInternational Organization for Standardization (ISO)has been instrumental in establishing standardsfor EMSs and tools to guide companies around theworld on the conduct of LCAs (ISO, 2009). BusinesscentreLCA-partnerships, such as the Life CycleInitiative, launched by UNEP and the Society ofEnvironmental Toxicology and Chemistry in 2002,have also been active on a <strong>global</strong> stage, helpingcompanies put life-cycle thinking into practice withconcrete tools, data and indicators (UNEP, 2011e).Once implemented, EMSs and LCAs give companiesthe information they need to develop and adopt cleanerand more resource-efficient manufacturing processesthat reduce the overall environmental footprint ofgoods and services. Eco-efficiency measures generallylead to cost savings for the businesses that implementthem. More sustainable production can also leadbusinesses to profit if consumers perceive it as avalue-adding characteristic.Business activity is not just limited to production.Many businesses support the environmentallyand socially sound end-use and disposal of theirproducts by altering their properties or encouragingconsumers to behave more sustainably. Examplesare reduced, biodegradable and sustainably sourcedpackaging.Multinational companies are starting to lead the wayin addressing SCP across the entire value chain. TheUnilever Sustainable Sourcing Initiative, for example,commits to sourcing 10 per cent of its agricultural rawmaterials sustainably. By 2012, the company expectsto source 30 per cent; by 2015, 50 per cent; and by2020, 100 per cent (Unilever, 2011). The Unileverprogramme sets out targets for sourcing from certifiedsustainable sources in various categories of foodand consumables: palm oil, paper, soy, tea, fruitsand vegetables, cocoa, sugar, oils, dairy, ice creamand eggs. The programme goes further in articulatingtwo major challenges that the company is likely toface in scaling up its Sustainable Sourcing Initiative:the sourcing of low volume items, where Unilever41

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIEScannot influence change across supplier markets, andthe sustainable sourcing of non-agricultural, mainlychemical, raw materials. To address these issues,especially the former, Unilever has committed to workin partnership with other businesses, suppliers, NGOs,academics and local authorities (Unilever, 2011).In addition to sustainably sourced production, somebusinesses also promote SCP across the valuechain by focusing on the promotion of sustainableconsumption. The ISEAL Alliance is an illustrativeexample. Being a non-profit company, it acts asthe umbrella organization of organic, fair trade andother sustainable labelling bodies (including MarineStewardship Council [MSC], Forest StewardshipCouncil [FSC], Fairtrade Labelling OrganizationsInternational [FLO] and more). The labels promotesustainable consumption by informing consumersof the positive impacts of the labelled products,and thereby of the avoided negative impacts ofalternatives.In preparation for the next major conference onsustainable development – the Rio+20 Summit in2012 – the business sector is actively preparing itsparticipation. BASD, created at the WSSD, will againprovide a platform for business. The UNGC andsector-based business associations will also join theinitiative.How businesses, business coalitionsand partnerships have achievedinfluence in the promotion of SCPMany variables affect the extent to which differentbusinesses, associations and practices havemanaged to effectively promote SCP. Although notexhaustive, this section identifies some of thebusiness-focused strategies that have played a keyrole in shifting consumption and production patternstowards more sustainable alternatives.As with intergovernmental action, sound informationhas been a foundation of the promotion ofSCP among <strong>global</strong> businesses. Some businessassociations set up clearing houses of information– disseminating tools, methodologies, hosting SCPaward schemes and disseminating examples of goodpractice. For example, the Sustainable BusinessInstitute (SBI) awards the ’Seal of Sustainability,’which is presented by members of the United StatesCongress (SBI, 2009). Both the WBCSD and BSRtrack and publish best practices and give guidanceon firm-level.WBCSD has set out its Vision 2050 on howto meet the dual goals of sustainability: highhuman development and low ecological impact.Complementing Vision 2050, which mostly focusedon sustainable production, WBCSD recentlyreleased a follow-up report, A Vision for SustainableConsumption (WBCSD, 2011a). The report outlinesthe council’s perspective on what sustainableconsumption could entail in 2050, and how it couldbe mainstreamed by businesses. Recognizingthe potential of collaboration along value chainsfor sustainability, the WBCSD is also planning tolaunch a Sustainable Value Chain Manual. Thisincreased emphasis on sustainable consumption isrepresentative of businesses seeing opportunities inboth the production and consumption sides of SCP.The WBCSD has also set up the Eco-PatentCommons initiative, to which companies can submitpatents they hold that have environmental benefits.The patents are made freely available to othercompanies, allowing the dissemination of innovationin sustainable production methods (WBCSD, 2009).Other groups perform more basic informationservices, such as the communications platformGreenBiz, which offers news and information onbest practice. Others act as media sources, asfor example the Ethical Corporation, which hasa collection of analytical articles on responsiblebusiness. Business organizations have developedeffective ways to capitalize on group data collectionand learning, to publish and communicate the bestpractice of their constituents and to offer tailor-madeadvisory services to individual organizations.The establishment of networks and partnershipshas also been vital to the <strong>global</strong> coordinationof sustainability-related activities by the privatesector. It has enabled debate, discussion andcommunication with stakeholders and the sharingof experience and best practice. The WorldEconomic Forum (WEF), for example, holds regionalsummits to engage leaders from governments,business, academia and civil society to address<strong>global</strong> trade and market dynamics and theirimpacts on sustainable economic growth. At thepresent time, the WEF has chosen to focus on fivemajor development themes – economic growth,environment, financial systems, health and socialdevelopment – and addresses SCP issues in eachof them. The WEF also features high-level panels onsustainable lifestyles at its annual forum in Davos,Switzerland and in several of its regional eventsin Asia, Africa and South America (WEF, 2011).Similarly, the International Business Leaders Forum(IBLF) also provides a platform for businesses toidentify and discuss emerging issues before theybecome challenges in terms of compliance andoperations (IBLF, 2011). Business networks are apowerful way for businesses to engage with eachother about sustainability and learn from peers.Businesses have also undertaken efforts toactively shape the regulatory environment in whichthey are embedded. Organizations and initiatives42

taking action togethercommunicate with policymakers and otherstakeholders, in the capacity of lobbyists for certainbusiness and industry interests. Where businessassociations refuse to recognize their environmentaland social responsibilities, this means of influenceoften brings about perverse outcomes counteringefforts to achieve sustainability; but where businessgroups are actively promoting SCP, it can also domuch good. Different stakeholders hold diverse,sometimes critical, views on the advocacy activitiesof business networks and the positions theytake on environmental and social issues. Sectorassociations position themselves and commentofficially on laws and policies being developed.For example the World Steel Association and theInternational Fertiliser Association (IFA) publishposition papers on emerging issues and legislationin the pipeline. Some proactive businesses havecontributed to the development of more progressiveand transparent lobbying practices. Some businessgroups focus on improved dialogues with regulatorsand a joint search for solutions based on acceptedprinciples, such as the ‘polluter pays’ principle. TheInternational Chamber of Commerce, its affiliates,industry sector associations and clean technologybusiness groups, for example, maintain a growingpresence at the COPs of all major environmentalagreements. Together with a growing number ofother stakeholder groups, business participatesin standardization processes, including for LCAs,of the ISO, which also closely follows the evolvingUnited Nations agenda. Where they recognize theirenvironmental and social responsibilities, businessesnetworks can be powerful advocates for practical andcost-effective laws, policies and voluntary initiativesto promote SCP.On the operations side, businesses increasinglytake on SCP in a holistic supply chain perspective.This trend is driven by the increasing perceptionof a need for SCP by an increasing number ofbusinesses and is, for instance, supported by theUNGC, which is developing guidance on how itsmembers can integrate its principles into theirsupply chain management practices. Similarly, theWorld Environment Center has established a seriesof Greening the Supply Chain Initiatives, in which itencourages producers to collaborate with suppliersin order to adopt more sustainable practices acrossthe life cycle of products or services. UNEP isworking in unison with these efforts, having copublisheda report with independent think-tank andstrategy consultancy SustainAbility, addressingpartnerships and capacity-building of small suppliers(SustainAbility, UNEP and the Global Compact,2008). Currently, UNEP is working with governmentsand businesses to develop policies, voluntarymeasures and partnerships to establish moresustainable international supply chains, such asrice in Thailand and lobsters in Brazil. An emergingtrend is the focus on the sustainability performanceof <strong>global</strong> supply chains and on ways in which SCPaspects can be integrated innovatively across supplychain entities based in different countries.Sustainability efforts by businesses that affecttheir supply chains or numerous other areas arealso being communicated to different stakeholders.In the 1990s many business associations beganto establish environment and corporate socialresponsibility programmes to help their membersrespond proactively to the looming challenge ofsustainable development. They promoted theadoption of cleaner production principles andenvironmental management systems. Under theGlobal Reporting Initiative (GRI), in 2010, over 1,800organizations from around the world reported ontheir sustainability performance. Many of thesewere among the leaders in their respective sectors.This reporting activity is a revealing indicator forthe fact that ever more businesses see addressingenvironmental and social risks as in their interest.This rise can also be interpreted as recognition thatcommitment to promoting SCP can boost commercialand financial competitiveness. In addition, thevery act of monitoring and reporting equipsbusinesses with the information they need to identifyeffective points of intervention for improvement ofenvironmental and social performance. The numberof businesses reporting, as well as the qualityand sophistication of the data being reported, hasimproved substantially over the last ten years. TheGRI Guidelines include indicators explicitly on aspectsof cleaner production – such as resource efficiencyand emissions levels – and sustainable consumption– for instance product labelling and consumer health.GRI has published over ten sector supplements toaddress specific industries and to enable businessesto report on sector-specific risks and opportunities(see Case Study 4). Reporting on commitments tosustainability is becoming increasingly common andimportant to business interests.43

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESSeveral industry organizations have also begunto report on the collective performance of theirrespective sectors. Another trend is the emergenceof issue-based reporting and the strategic use ofreported information along with annual financialreporting. The Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP)holds the largest database of primary corporateclimate change information, and provides climateperformance information to 551 institutionalinvestors in order to align their lending andinvestment decisions with climate risks andopportunities (see Case Study 5). Stock marketindexes also play a role for integrating sustainabilityinto finance. Sustainable Asset Management andDow Jones Indexes have created the Dow JonesSustainability World Indexes (DJSI World) thattrack the performance of the <strong>global</strong> sustainabilityleaders (SAM & Dow Jones Indexes, 2011). 2 Thegrowing interest in the link between sustainabilityand financial reporting and the development of newintegrated reporting reflect the increasing interestand efforts in mainstreaming of SCP into corebusiness strategies. Reporting on sustainabilityperformance is coming of age and is increasinglybeing integrated with financial reporting.Part of the backbone behind reporting has been therise of robust, internationally recognized standards.They serve to benchmark environmental and socialperformance and to communicate the characteristicsof sustainable goods and services. Stringentenvironmental standards can also help businessesprotect themselves against rivals that ‘greenwash’– claiming sustainability credentials withoutjustification. Sustainability standards – includingmanagement, product, process and performancestandards – are being widely adopted by businessesin virtually all sectors. Firms play an important rolein the development of such standards, which, for themost part, takes place through multi-stakeholderprocesses. The ISO is the world’s most significantbody developing management and performancestandards that promote SCP. The ISO 14000series of standards address several aspects ofenvironmental management and include a specificstandard on life-cycle management (see CaseStudy 6). Standards are a vital tool for enablingbusinesses to promote SCP, as they provide practicalframeworks, differentiation in the marketplace andthird-party guarantees.In the broader domain of private standardsinitiatives, the 1990s saw the rise of firmlevel,sector-level and cross-sectoral voluntaryindustry initiatives on SCP. The objective ofthese initiatives was to help businesses surpassmere legal compliance and continuously improve2. The top 10 per cent of the 2,500 largest companies in the Dow JonesGlobal Indexes are selected for the DJSI World.environmental performance through implementingcleaner production, LCAs and EMSs to reachperformance levels that are ‘beyond compliance.’These efforts are supported, for instance, throughthe facilitation and capacity-building undertakenby the ISEAL Alliance. Maintained by a number ofinternational donors, the ISEAL Alliance exploresways in which standards can be developed throughmulti-stakeholder processes and works to facilitateharmonization across diverse and divergingstandards to advance their effectiveness andefficiency in promoting sustainable development.Its members include sustainability standard settingand accreditation organizations. ISEAL Alliancemembers are required to adopt the ISEAL Codes ofBest Practice on Setting Environmental and SocialStandards, Assessing Impacts of Environmentaland Social Standards and Assuring Compliance withEnvironmental and Social Standards. Many ISEALmembers are becoming increasingly significant in themainstreaming of SCP, as the market share of greenand fair trade goods increases. Given the increasingconcerns about accountability and transparencyover how businesses address life-cycle issues, theinternational business think-thank AccountAbilityhas developed the A1000 AccountAbility Principlesto provide a standardized methodology to helpbusinesses become more accountable, responsibleand sustainable (AccountAbility, 2011). Since2000 business initiatives have also been activelypromoting ‘design for the environment’ principles –arguing that the best way to ensure environmentalsustainability is to estimate and minimizeenvironmental impacts at the point of productdesign – and sustainable lifestyles. Voluntaryinitiatives can be an opportunity for forward-thinkingbusinesses to lead the way, and standards havebeen established to improve their accountability.Whether in environmental-standard setting oron other sustainability-related challenges, interbusinesscooperation is on the rise. Industryassociations have been increasingly active inproviding their members with tools and guidance44

Sustainability reporting forinforming, benchmarking andimproving products and processesThe Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) is a multistakeholderplatform and network-based organizationthat launched the first-ever sustainability reportingframework – its Sustainability Reporting Guidelinesin 2000. The GRI’s core goal is to mainstreamdisclosure on environmental, social and governanceperformance across all organizations and sectors.In 2010 over 1,800 reports following the GRIframework were issued worldwide. The guidelinesfacilitate comparability for companies and reducethe costs of sustainability reporting.The GRI’s main product is its Sustainability ReportingGuidelines, which set out the reporting principles andgeneric performance indicators that organizationscan use to measure and report their economic,environmental and social performance. By reportingon the sustainability of their operations, businessescreate the information needed to improve theirsustainability, as well as raise awareness andencourage other businesses to do the same. TheGRI Guidelines are developed through consensusseeking,multi-stakeholder processes. Participantsstem from <strong>global</strong> business, civil society, labour,academic and professional institutions.To complement the third version (G3) Guidelines,which are applicable to all organizations, the GRIalso engages in more specific activities:•Sector Supplements contain industry-specificperformance indicators and have so far beendeveloped for following sectors: electricity, miningand metals, food processing, financial services,automotive, logistics, telecommunications,apparel and footwear, and even public agencyand NGO sectors. Efforts are currently underwayto develop Sector Supplements for the airport,construction and real estate, event organization,media, and oil and gas sectors.•National Annexes contain country-levelinformation of relevance to ‘triple-bottom-line’reporting (covering environmental, social andeconomic sustainability). The first pilot projectto develop a National Annex was launched in2010 for Brazil. The experiences from this projectare to guide the development of other NationalAnnexes around the world.The GRI also recognizes the need for integratedreporting, which presents an organization’s financialperformance together with its environmental, socialand governance (ESG) performance. It is recognizedtoday that, for such holistic reporting to be viable,it must be underpinned by standardized financialand ESG reporting frameworks. ESG reportingframeworks, in particular the GRI’s G3, togetherwith financial reporting standards – such as theInternational Financial Reporting Standards orthe United States Generally Accepted AccountingPrinciples – can form the base for new, integratedreporting frameworks.With the aim of creating such an integrated reportingframework that is, moreover, <strong>global</strong>ly accepted, theGRI and the Prince’s Accounting for SustainabilityProject announced the formation of the InternationalIntegrated Reporting Committee in August 2010.The objective of the International IntegratedReporting Committee is an integrated frameworkthat brings together financial, environmental, socialand governance information in a clear, concise,consistent and comparable format. The GRI intendsthe next generation of its guidelines, the G4, toboost the robustness of the integrated reportingframework, enabling better analysis and assuranceof integrated reports.Source: GRI (2010)to manage environmental performance, to improvesocial responsibility and to promote good practices.Examples are the World Steel Association and theInternational Fertilizer Association (IFA), which bothpromote sector-specific sustainability principlesand provide their members with tools to complywith them. The International Federation of OrganicAgriculture Movements (IFOAM) goes even furtherby facilitating the development of standards andcompliance with them in markets worldwide, andgiving its backing to decentralized complianceprocesses. These examples reflect an evolution in45

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESSustainable business decisionsbased on data: Measuring carbonfor continuous improvementThe Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) holdsthe largest database of primary corporateclimate change information in the world. Thedatabase contains data from the thousands oforganizations that measure and disclose theirGHG emissions and climate change strategiesthrough the CDP. Their database and reportingmethodology is used by over 3,000 organizationsin some 60 countries around the world. Thegoal of the CDP is to collate and publish thisinformation and to lobby for its use in financialand policy decision making.The Carbon Disclosure Project operates five majorprogrammes of relevance to SCP:•For 511 institutional investors holding US$71trillion in assets under management, theCDP provides information from reportingorganizations so that they can align theirlending and investment decisions based onclimate risks and opportunities.•In public procurement, the CDP enablesnational and local governments to ascertainthe impact of climate change in their supplychains.•On water disclosure, the CDP provides waterrelateddata from a subset of the world’slargest water-intensive corporations to informthe <strong>global</strong> market place on investment risk andcommercial opportunities.•For supply chains, the CDP works with <strong>global</strong>corporations to understand the contributionsof supply chains to GHG emissions and climatechange, harnessing their collective purchasingpower to encourage suppliers to measure anddisclose climate change information.•For cities, the CDP provides standardizedreporting of emissions data, analysis of climaterisks, and opportunities and adaptation plansfor cities.By providing organizations with a frameworkand a platform for carbon and climate reportingas well as a dedicated service, the CDP helpsstakeholders use the reported information in acoherent and strategic manner.Source: CDP (2011)the role played by industry associations from theirtraditional functions – including representation,lobbying and information dissemination – toa greater focus on capacity-building andharmonization. Thereby, the associations create alevel playing field for their expanding memberships,often based around the world, and in developingeconomies in particular. Business groups thatfocus on the environment, such as the WBCSD andGlobal Environment Management Initiative, provideinnovative tools for companies to address emergingSCP issues such as carbon and water footprinting.Businesses have recognized that companiesoperating within specific industrial sectors need towork together to find solutions to sector-specificenvironmental and socio-economic challenges.Business associations have also worked on enablingmembers to pool efforts on sustainable supplychain management. For example, the ElectronicIndustry Citizenship Coalition (EICC) works topromote the adoption of SCP and corporateresponsibility across member companies and theirsuppliers. The EICC, consisting of <strong>global</strong> informationtechnology businesses, has developed dedicatedtools to audit supplier compliance across the fiveaspects of the EICC Code of Conduct: labour,health and safety, environment, managementsystems and ethics (EICC, 2009). Similarly, thePharmaceutical Supply Chain Initiative (PSCI),consisting of <strong>global</strong> pharmaceutical businesses,works to promote SCP across pharmaceutical supplychains. Having established the Pharmaceutical46

taking action togetherEnvironmental and social standardsdriving SCPThe International Organization for Standardization(ISO) is the world’s largest developer andpublisher of management systems and guidancestandards that span a diverse array of industrialactivities, processes and sectors. The ISO is anetwork of the national standards institutes from162 countries, some of which are public sectorentities, while others are established by industryassociations. As such, the ISO works to operateas a link between the public and private sectors.The most widely used ISO standard in the contextof SCP is the ISO 14000 suite on environmentalmanagement. These standards enable anorganization of any size and sector to: identify andmanage the environmental impacts of its activities,establish environmental performance objectivesand targets, adopt a life-cycle perspective inmanaging environmental impacts, implement anenvironmental management programme to achievethe set objectives and targets and continuouslyimprove on managing environmental impacts.ISO 14001 sets out the requirements andprocesses for an environment managementsystem, while ISO 14004 contains generalenvironment management system guidelines.Other standards in the ISO 14000 series linkthese standards by addressing performanceevaluation, life-cycle analysis, communication,auditing and labelling. ISO 14010 outlinedprinciples of environmental auditing, ISO 14011provided guidance on auditing an environmentalmanagement system and ISO 14012 providedguidance on qualification criteria for environmentalauditors and lead auditors. These three standardsare now superseded by the ISO 19011 series.Other standards in the ISO 14000 series include14013/5, which provides audit review andassessment material; the series of ISO 14020standards addressing labelling issues; the ISO14030 series providing guidance on performancetargets and monitoring within an environmentalmanagement system; and the ISO 14040 series,which covers life-cycle assessment (ISO, 2011a).development, management, reporting andverification of an organization’s GHG inventory.The sister standards to ISO 14064 are ISO14065, which refers to requirements for GHGvalidation and verification bodies for use inaccreditation, and ISO 14066, which deals withcompetence requirements for GHG validation andverification teams (ISO, 2011a).In June 2011 the ISO also launched ISO50001, which sets out requirements for energymanagement systems and is designed to providea recognized framework for integrating energyperformance into management practices. Thestandard also aims to help organizations promoteenergy efficiency across their supply chain andintegrate energy management into complementarymanagement systems, such as environment andhealth and safety (ISO, 2011c).Another ISO standard of particular relevance toSCP is ISO 26000, which provides guidance onsocial responsibility. Launched in late 2010, itwas developed by the ISO through one of thelargest multi-stakeholder processes in its history– over 800 stakeholders from over 70 countrieswere registered as members of the ISO 26000working group. ISO 26000 is designed to helporganizations to go beyond legal compliance andcontribute to sustainable development. ISO 26000also aims to promote a common understanding ofthe term ‘social responsibility’ and to complementother instruments and initiatives that addressthe same issues. An important distinction of ISO26000 is that it is not a management systemstandard and, as such, is not intended forcertification. The ISO also suggests that it is notintended for regulatory or contractual use andthat “any offer to certify, or claims to be certified,to ISO 26000 would be a misrepresentationof the intent and purpose and a misuse of thisinternational standard.” ISO 26000 coversseven core subjects: organizational governance,human rights, labour practices, environment, fairoperating practices, consumer issues, communityinvolvement and development (ISO, 2011b).With regards to addressing the reduction andremoval of GHGs, ISO 14064 (parts 1, 2 and3) deals with the quantification, monitoringand reporting of GHG emissions and removals.It includes requirements for the design,47

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 3: Business organizations, initiatives and sectoral associations promoting SCPBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPOrganizationsInternational Chamber of Commerce (ICC) (ICC, 2011)The ICC is a <strong>global</strong>business organizationwhose activities cover abroad spectrum of issues,from arbitration and disputeresolution to making thecase for the liberalizationof trade and investmentwithin the multilateraltrading system, businessself-regulation, fightingcorruption and combatingcommercial crime. TheICC promotes businessenterprise and investmentas the most effective wayof raising living standardsand creating wealth. TheICC groups over 1,000companies in more than130 countries worldwide.The ICC publishes a wide range of reports,policy briefs, as well as codes and modelcontracts on a range of issues, includingresponsible supply chain management,environmental management and corporatesocial responsibility, sustainable agriculture,biofuels and carbon capture storage. TheICC maintains close links with the UNGC andthe ISO. The ICC also represents businessinterests at <strong>global</strong> trade, environmental anddevelopment negotiations.The ICC has been active to facilitatecompliance and performance ‘beyondcompliance’ across a number ofsectors by promoting self-regulationin environmental improvement,sustainable production and responsiblebusiness practices.World Economic Forum (WEF) (WEF, 2011)The WEF is an independentorganization that engagesbusiness, political,academic and other leadersof society to shape <strong>global</strong>,regional and industryagendas aimed at buildingsustained economicgrowth, mitigating <strong>global</strong>risks, promoting health forall, improving social welfareand fostering environmentalsustainability. It has 1,000member companies, mostwith a turnover of overUS$5 billion.The WEF annual meeting is held in Davos,Switzerland, and brings together a wide groupof <strong>global</strong>ly significant development and policyleaders. The objective of this <strong>global</strong> summit,complemented by regional forums, is todebate topical and pressing <strong>global</strong> issues,often related to sustainable development.The WEF regional and national meetingsdebate and highlight issues of importanceon those levels. The Forum also maintainsresearch and advocacy activities that addressdifferent aspects of SCP, including the ‘urbanconsumer’ and ‘carbon neutral skies.’ Havingrecognized that sustainable consumption is anecessary condition for economic growth anddevelopment, it has designed a roadmap forsustainable consumption, in which it identifiessuch consumption as “more than corporatesocial responsibility; it is about necessaryfundamental changes in the way businessis done and the way the world consumes,requiring rethinking of business models,supply chains and how society values goodsand services” (WEF, 2010, p. 5).The WEF holds a forum for highleveldebate and consensus buildingamong governments, civil societyand the private sector on diverseaspects of SCP. The forum alsoaims to obtain buy-in for SCP andsustainable development from a widerbody of stakeholders who are not thetraditional participants in the <strong>global</strong>sustainability debate.48

taking action togetherBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPThe International Organization for Standardization (ISO) (ISO, 2011a; ISO, 2011b)The ISO is the world’slargest developer andpublisher of internationalstandards. It is a networkof the national standardsinstitutes of 162 countries(one member per country)with a central secretariatthat coordinates thenetwork. Some of itsmember standardsorganizations are part ofthe governmental structureof their countries, orare mandated by theirgovernment. Other membershave their roots uniquely inthe private sector, havingbeen set up by nationalpartnerships of industryassociations.The ISO is the world’s most significantbody developing internationally recognizedstandards. The standards are developed bytechnical committees, made up of expertsfrom the sectors that have requested thestandards, and who will ultimately use them.Committees may also feature representativesof government agencies, testing laboratories,consumer associations, NGOs and academia.The organization has publishedseveral standards of critical relevanceto SCP (see Case Study 5). TheISO 14000 series of standardsaddresses environmental management,environmental labelling and life-cycleassessment. ISO 26000 SocialResponsibility provides guidanceon several dimensions of SCP:organizational governance, humanrights, labour practices, environment,fair operating practices, consumerissues, community involvement anddevelopment.The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) (WBCSD, 2011b)The WBCSD is a CEOled<strong>global</strong> associationdealing exclusivelywith business andsustainable development.The council provides aplatform for companiesto explore sustainabledevelopment, shareknowledge, experiencesand best practices, andto advocate businesspositions on these issuesin a variety of forums,working with governments,non-governmental andintergovernmentalorganizations. The councilalso benefits from a<strong>global</strong> network of around60 national and regionalbusiness councils andregional partners. TheWBCSD is made up ofabout 200 companies frommore than 30 countries and20 major industrial sectors.While the WBCSD organizes some of its workin specific focus areas chosen by members,it also works on the wider role of business insustainable development, including a focus onSCP. Particularly relevant to SCP are its Visionfor Sustainable Consumption (2011), Vision 2050(2010) and Sustainable Consumption Facts &Trends (2008) reports. While Vision 2050 ismostly concerned with sustainable production,the Vision for Sustainable Consumption presentswhat sustainable consumption could look like in2050 and how business could help mainstreamit. The 2008 report assesses developments andtrends in worldwide consumption patterns. Manyof the wider work by the WBCSD on the role ofbusiness in sustainable development is alsohighly relevant to SCP. For example, in the caseof energy and climate, the 2010 report EnablingFrameworks for Technology Diffusion, puts forwardsix key elements to enhance investments andsales in low-carbon technologies. The programmeon Linking Pay to Sustainability looks athow companies are linking performance-relatedpay to progress against sustainability goals. TheHow to Value Ecosystems programme supportsbusiness in addressing biodiversity loss and ecosystemdegradation. WBCSD has also publishedtools including the WBCSD-WRI protocol on thequantification and monitoring of GHGs.The WBCSD provides a platform forbusinesses to learn about SCP andimprove environmental and socialperformance across the life cycle whilesharing experience and expertise about it.49

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 3 ContinuedBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPBusiness for Social Responsibility (BSR) (BSR, 2011)BSR works with its <strong>global</strong>network of more than250 member companiesto develop sustainablebusiness strategiesand solutions throughconsulting, research andcross-sector collaboration.BSR uses its expertise inenvironment, human rights,economic development,and governance andaccountability with theobjective to guide <strong>global</strong>companies towardscreating a just andsustainable world.BSR provides member companies with a widerange of issue- and sector-specific consultancyand research services on environmentalmanagement and social responsibility. Itsimpact potential is broad, as BSR membercompanies cover over 10 sectors, fromconsumer goods to financial services. BSRhighlights SCP in its programmes to inducesustainable consumer behaviour throughactionable information and a framework toincrease consumer awareness of sustainableliving. Another framework aims to promoteclosed-loop business models to extend theproductive life of materials and reduce energyconsumption and waste production. BSR alsoorganizes an annual summit and a series ofregional meetings for its members.The organization focuses on providingmembers with advice, analysis andsolutions to improve SCP, includingenvironmental management,social responsibility, consumerprotection, sustainable living andgood governance. It also enables itsmembers to benefit from the insights,expertise and relationships that theBSR secretariat has developed over theyears.AccountAbility (AccountAbility, 2011)AccountAbility helpscorporations, non-profitsand governments embedethical, environmental,social and governanceaccountability intotheir organizationalmanagement. At the core ofthis lies assurance throughsystematic and principledstakeholder engagement.AccountAbility focuses on two major areas ofinfluence: assurance standards and researchand consultancy. In terms of standards,the AccountAbility AA1000AS provides amethodology for assurance practitionersto evaluate the nature and extent to whichan organization adheres to the principles ofinclusivity, materiality and responsivenessin its environmental and social managementplans and reporting strategy.AccountAbility focuses on severalaspects that are integral to SCP:responsible competitiveness,stakeholder engagement, collaborativegovernance and standards andmanagement systems that embed LCAsand EMSs into the daily operationsof businesses. The elements of itsAA1000AS standard are intrinsicto SCP. The group’s research andconsultancy work of relevanceto SCP includes the ResponsibleCompetitiveness programme, whichadvises on how to reshape marketsto reward social and environmentalinnovation. It also conducts SCPrelevantresearch on supply chains inthe consumer goods industry.International Business Leaders Forum (IBLF) (IBLF, 2011)The IBLF is an independentorganization working withleading <strong>global</strong> companieson responsible businesssolutions to sustainabledevelopment challenges. Itis supported by a networkof over 100 multinationalcompanies.The IBLF provides a platform for companies toexchange experiences, produce topical researchand develop cross-sector partnerships ondiverse aspects of SCP across the life cycle.It supports capacity-building and training inpartnership building in developing countries.The IBLF is a founding member (along withPricewaterhouseCoopers and AccentureDevelopment Partnerships) of the BusinessInnovation Facility, a three-year programmeestablished in 2010 to promote inclusivebusiness models, broker new value chainlinkages for SMEs, provide technical assistanceand deliver successful partnerships inBangladesh, India, Nigeria, Malawi, and Zambia.The IBLF aims to work on emerging issues andincludes a strong focus on international supplychains. The IBLF also organizes regular summitsand provides advisory services to its members.The forum offers a strategic andneutral platform for businesses todiscuss their SCP challenges and toexplore solutions collectively.50

taking action togetherBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPSustainable Business Institute (SBI) (SBI, 2009)SBI works to encouragebusiness leaders toadopt and communicatesustainable businesspractices.SBI initiatives include a CEO forum,sustainable business user groups and a youthleadership and mentoring programme. TheSBI also operates the Seal of Sustainabilitycertification scheme for corporateenvironmental and social performance. Thecertification is awarded to companies thatfulfil a number of criteria, such as those thatset a new best practice standard or baselinewithin a business sector.The SBI Youth Leadership and Mentoringprogramme has mentored over 800 studentsand organized a large number of internships ingreen industry sectors.The Institute adopts a triple focuson stakeholder initiatives, advocacyand certification. SBI operates aSustainable Business User Group,which is hosted by a variety of businessleaders and aims to facilitate bimonthlylearning, teaching, supportingand networking opportunitiesamong stakeholders interested inimplementing SCP practices that havethe potential to increase return oninvestment.World Environment Center (WEC) (WEC, 2011)WEC is a <strong>global</strong> non-profitorganization that aimsto advance sustainabledevelopment throughthe business practicesof member companiesand in partnership withgovernments, multilateralorganizations, NGOs,universities and otherstakeholders.The organization hosts membershiproundtables in which business, governmentand civil society explore new ideas foridentifying and implementing sustainablepractices. WEC, for example, has variousGreening the Supply Chain Initiatives, in whichit brings together producers and their suppliersto discuss and implement environmentaland social improvement programmes acrosssupply chains.WEC takes a supply chain approachto improve environmental and socialperformance, working with bothproducers and their suppliers.InitiativesGlobal Reporting Initiative (GRI) (GRI, 2010)Launched jointly by UNEPand Ceres (a United Statesbasednational coalition ofinvestors, environmentalorganizations and publicinterest groups workingwith companies toaddress sustainabilityand SCP challenges)in the late 1990s, theGRI is a network-basedorganization that pioneeredthe world’s most widelyused sustainabilityreporting framework. Thecore goals of the GRIinclude the mainstreamingof disclosure onenvironmental, social andgovernance performance,across both the private andpublic sectors.The GRI Reporting Framework sets outprinciples and performance indicators thatorganizations can employ to measure andreport their economic, environmental andsocial performance. The cornerstone of theGRI Reporting Framework is the SustainabilityReporting Guidelines. Their third version,the G3 Guidelines, was published in 2006and is openly available. The developmentof the fourth version (G4) was started in2011, will be published in 2013 and aims totake integrated reporting further. The overallReporting Framework is complemented by GRISector Supplements (indicators especiallytailored to particular industry sectors),technical protocols and National Annexes(specific country-level information). All GRIoutputs are developed through consensusseeking,multi-stakeholder processes.Participants stem from <strong>global</strong> business, civilsociety, labour, academic and professionalinstitutions.The GRI offers a standardizedapproach to sustainability reporting.Its guidelines provide stakeholderswith a framework to benchmarkthe sustainability performance oforganizations between annual reportsand among different organizations.The GRI also offers capacity-buildingservices on sustainability reporting,including a dedicated programme forSMEs. In 2010, the GRI ReportingFramework was used by over 1,800organizations from the public andprivate sectors from around the globe.This represents a 22 per cent increasecompared to 2009.51

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 3 ContinuedBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPThe United Nations Environment Programme Finance Initiative (UNEP FI) (UNEP FI, 2011)UNEP FI is a partnershipbetween UNEP and the<strong>global</strong> financial sector,launched in the early1990s. The Initiativeworks closely with nearly200 financial institutions,mainly banks and insurancecompanies, who aresignatories to the UNEPFI Statements, as wellas a range of partnerorganizations, to developand promote linkagesbetween sustainability andfinancial performance.Through peer-to-peernetworks and researchand training, the UNEPFI carries out its missionto identify, promote andrealize the adoption ofbest environmental andsustainability practicesat all levels of financialinstitutions’ operations.UNEP FI work streams look at how environment,social and governance risks can be incorporatedinto financial and investment decisions, includingissues such as climate change, insurance,investment, property and sustainability reporting,biodiversity and ecosystem services, financeand conflict, human rights, finance and water,and finance and financial stability and systemicrisk. UNEP FI has also established a network ofRegional Task Forces to coordinate its activitiesaround the world and to provide an opportunityfor local signatories and other financial institutionsto interact and share best practices. TheTask Forces have become a major source ofinnovation, namely in the field of the FinanceInitiative’s risk training services.UNEP FI aims to establish anddemonstrate the link betweensustainable development and thefinancial industry. It has producedguidance material and tools to helpits members embed environmentaland social risks across the life cyclein investment and lending decisions.The Initiative’s task forces cover Africaand the Middle East, the Asia-Pacificregion, Europe, Latin America and theCaribbean, and North America.Principles for Responsible Investment Initiative (PRI) (PRI, 2011)The United Nations-backedPRI Initiative is a networkof international investorscommitted to incorporatingESG issues into investmentanalysis, ownership policiesand disclosure. They havealso committed to reportingon implementationprogress and to promotethe principles within theindustry. The establishmentof the PRI was coordinatedby the UNEP FI and theUNGC.The principles were devised by the investmentcommunity and reflect the view that ESG issuescan affect the performance of investmentportfolios and must therefore be given appropriateconsideration by investors if they are to fulfiltheir fiduciary (or equivalent) duties. The principlesprovide a voluntary framework by which allinvestors can incorporate ESG issues into theirdecision making and ownership practices, andthereby better align their objectives with thoseof society at large. The PRI Initiative was createdafter the launch of the Principles themselves tohelp investors implement them. Its work streamincludes an academic network, an engagementclearing house, a research portal, and reportingand assessment tools. It has sub-groupsfocussing on promoting the principles in emergingmarkets and developing countries at large,property, private equity and inclusive financemarkets. Further, a public policy network bringspublic policy and investment representativestogether to discuss and share best practicesaround responsible investment. Among theissues taken into consideration for responsibleinvestment decisions, companies that haveimplemented LCAs often have advantages toreceive these investments.The most important influence ofthe PRI is that it provides a neutralplatform for investors to workcollectively on internalizing ESG risks,thereby providing the springboard forSCP. Over 850 investment institutionshave become signatories of the PRIand they collectively represent assetsworth approximately US$25 trillion.The PRI works to change investors andsocieties’ perceptions of long-termrisks and thus facilitate widespreadSCP practices.52

taking action togetherBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPUnited Nations Global Compact (UNGC) (United Nations, 2011b)Launched by the UnitedNations Secretary-Generalin 2000, the UNGC is avoluntary strategic policyinitiative for businessescommitted to sustainabledevelopment. Signatorycompanies are requiredto commit to aligning theiroperations and strategieswith 10 principles onhuman rights, decent workand against corruption.Its three principles on theenvironment cover theprecautionary approach,greater environmentalresponsibility andenvironmentally friendlytechnologies. The UNGCalso operates a range offormal links with nonbusinesssectors includingacademia, cities, CSOs,public sector organizationsand United Nationsagencies, such as UNEP,which acts as guardianof the environmentalprinciples of the UNGC.Signatory companies are required to issuean annual Communication on Progress – apublic disclosure statement on progressmade in implementing the 10 principlesand in supporting broader United Nationsdevelopment goals. The UNGC has developeda range of tools to facilitate this disclosurerequirement and encourages the use of theGRI Reporting Guidelines. The UNGC alsopublishes a range of reports on environmental,social and development issues faced bymember companies, as well as managingLocal Networks. The latter are clusters ofparticipants in individual countries whocome together to advance the UNGC and itsprinciples. It is currently developing guidanceon how its members can take a more proactiveapproach to integrate the UNGC principlesinto supply chain management practices – anintegral aspect of SCP.The Global Compact works tomainstream its 10 principles inbusiness activities and to catalyseactions in support of broaderUnited Nations goals, including theMDGs. It has over 8,700 corporateparticipants and other stakeholdersfrom over 130 countries. The UNGChas collaborated with UNEP andothers to host policy dialogues anddevelop management guides on issuessuch as environmental performancemanagement, climate strategies, wateraccounting, and responsible marketingand communications.COM+ Sustainable Development Communications Alliance (COM+, 2011)COM+ is a <strong>global</strong>alliance of organizationsdevoted to increasingpublic awareness onthe importance ofenvironmental protectionand social cohesion. Itworks through partnershipsto achieve <strong>global</strong> outreach.COM+ builds on its partner organizations toimplement umbrella actions or address issuesthat are specific to an individual organizationor sector. It provides a platform fororganizations with different approaches andbusiness cultures to work together to addressdiverse aspects of SCP including waste watertreatment, energy efficiency, clean technology,low carbon solutions and pollution prevention.COM+ emphasizes the importance ofcommunication to advance SCP. Itsflagship programmes include the Com+Climate Change Initiative and the Com+Developing Country Media Trainingprogramme, which aim to generatepublic support and train journalistson reducing GHG emissions throughmultimedia channels, dialogues andmedia training.53

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 3 ContinuedBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPInvestor Network on Climate Risk (INCR) (INCR, 2011)INCR supports 100institutional investors withassets totalling US$10trillion by identifying thefinancial opportunities andrisks in climate change andby tackling the policy andgovernance issues thatimpede investor progresstoward more sustainablecapital markets. INCR iscoordinated by Ceres, acoalition of investors andenvironmental groupsthat aims to integratesustainability into day-todaybusiness practices.Sectoral AssociationsINCR provides investors with a range of toolsand tracking reports on the embedding ofclimate, water and natural resource risks intoinvestment decisions. INCR also providesexpert advisory services and facilitatesinvestor-company dialogues on a sector- andissue-specific basis. INCR also works withfederal and state policymakers to strengthenregional and national legislation to reducecarbon and other emissions, protect watersheds, and increase financing for low-carbonenergy technologies.With its unique capacity to fosterconstructive engagement betweeninvestors, companies, environmentalistsand policymakers, INCR has promotedSCP through successfully petitioning theUnited States Securities & ExchangeCommission and the Canadian securitiesregulators to issue formal guidance onclimate change-related disclosure thatcompanies must provide to investors intheir financial filings. It has led investorefforts with major oil and gas companiesto strengthen risk oversight measuresfor deepwater oil drilling, natural gas‘fracking’ and oil sands production. INCRhas also helped Fortune 500 companiesto improve their climate policies,practices and disclosure.World Steel Association (WSA) (WSA, 2011; WSA, 2010)The WSA is one ofthe largest industryassociations representingapproximately 170 steelproducers (including 19of the world’s 20 largeststeel companies), nationaland regional steel industryassociations, and steelresearch institutes. WSAmembers produce around85 per cent of the world’ssteel.The WSA acts as the focal point for the steelindustry, providing <strong>global</strong> leadership on all majorstrategic issues affecting the industry. It has aparticular focus on all three areas of sustainability– economic, environmental and social. TheWSA maintains an ongoing focus on life-cycleassessment, with members and stakeholdershaving access to an online LCA methodology andbest practice case studies. These studies giveinformation on how life-cycle performance can beimproved in the manufacture and use of steel.It also acts as a focal point for the industry’scommitment to reduce carbon emissions, withmember companies having agreed on a commonframework to reduce the carbon footprint associatedwith the manufacture and use of steel. TheWSA also publishes annual sustainability indicatorsof the industry’s sustainability performance.Through its representatives and <strong>global</strong>membership, the WSA has the potentialfor substantial impact through itsactivities encouraging sustainability. ItsLCA approach to assessing the carbonfootprint of steel reflects an SCPapproach to reducing GHG emissions.The International Fertilizer Association (IFA) (IFA, 2011)The IFA has some 525 membersin about 85 countries.Around half of the membershipis based in developingcountries. IFA membercompanies represent allactivities related to the production,trade, transport anddistribution of every type offertilizer, their raw materialsand intermediates. Membershipof the IFA also includesorganizations involved inconstruction, engineering,consulting, agronomicresearch and training.The IFA has developed a Fertilizer BestManagement Practice framework thatpromotes the more efficient use of plantnutrients in order to minimize possible damageto the environment. In addition, the IFA hasdeveloped 12 principles covering safety, healthand the environment – intrinsic elements ofsustainable agriculture.The IFA Fertilizer Best ManagementPractices online portal containsguidelines and good practice onthe whole spectrum of sustainableagriculture – integrated farming, cropmanagement, fertility management,plan nutrient management and fertilizermanagement.54

taking action togetherBackground General activities Notable mechanisms to promote SCPInternational Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) (IFOAM, 2011)IFOAM is the worldwideumbrella organizationof organic agricultureproducers, theirstakeholders and theirentire value chain. It unitesmore than 750 memberorganizations from 116countries.ISEAL Alliance (ISEAL, 2011)The ISEAL Alliance is a<strong>global</strong> association forsocial and environmentalstandards founded in2000 by the certificationorganizations ForestStewardship Council,IFOAM, Fairtrade LabellingOrganizations Internationaland MSC and is registeredin the United Kingdom asa not-for-profit company.It now has 11 full and8 associate members.Working with establishedand emerging voluntarystandard systems, ISEALdevelops guidance andhelps strengthen theeffectiveness and impactof these standards.ISEAL members aredescribed as leaders intheir fields, committed tocreating solid and crediblestandard systems that givebusiness, governmentsand consumers the abilityto choose goods andservices that have beenethically sourced, help theenvironment and guaranteeproducers a decent living.Having authored the Principles of OrganicAgriculture, IFOAM participates in internationalagricultural and environmental negotiationswith the United Nations and multilateralinstitutions. IFOAM also provides a marketguarantee for the integrity of organic claimscovering the part of the supply chain up to the‘farm gate.’ The Organic Guarantee Systemprovides a common system of standards,verification and market identity. IFOAM alsopublishes regular reports on the worldwidestate of organic agriculture.ISEAL facilitates regular meetings of social andenvironmental standard groups to learn abouteach other’s programmes and to find waysto collaborate. On a more advanced level, itcoordinates the peer review of members andrepresents their common interests in governmentaland inter-governmental forums. It alsoworks with companies, non-profits and governmentsto support their referencing and use ofvoluntary standards. It has developed a Codeof Good Practice for Setting Social and EnvironmentalStandards, which was launched in2004. This has become the <strong>global</strong> reference forgood social and environmental standard-settingprocesses. Standard-setting organizations canuse it to help to ensure that when they create orapply their standard, it will result in measurableprogress towards their social and environmentalobjectives, without creating unnecessaryhurdles to international trade (it builds on theWTO disciplines of openness, transparency andparticipation). In addition, a Code of Good Practicecan serve as a minimum bar against whichto evaluate the credibility of voluntary standardssystems. ISEAL has developed other goodoperating practices, such as the Code of GoodPractice for Assessing the Impacts of StandardsSystems (Impacts Code) that was launched in2010. This creates a way for standards systemsto measure and demonstrate their contributionsto social and environmental impacts using consistentmethodologies. Another code in the makingis the Verification Code of Good Practice thatwill define good operating practices in terms ofaccreditation, certification and auditing to socialand environmental standards. A key focus of theCode will be the balance between ensuring thatcertification to social and environmental standardsis both rigorous, in terms of meeting theneeds of consumers, and accessible, in termsof making sure that small-scale enterprises canafford to enter into certification programmesand see them as market enablers.IFOAM provides members withmanagement methodologies,certification, assurance, and researchand advocacy services. IFOAM alsomaintains a focus on the grassrootslevel though the IntercontinentalNetwork of Organic FarmersOrganisations, which it leads andfacilitates.With the worldwide proliferation ofvoluntary sustainability standards,ISEAL provides tools to ensure theircredibility and effectiveness. It isbacked by the foremost sustainabilitystandard bodies, and therefore hasboth authority and a considerablemarket impact. As the number ofproducts covered by standards ofISEAL members increases, so doesthe sustainability of production andconsumption around the world.55

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESIndustry Principles for Responsible Supply ChainManagement, the PSCI has also developeda PSCI Self-Assessment Questionnaire forPharmaceutical Industry Suppliers for use by itsmembers in promoting SCP across their supplychains (PSCI, 2011). By increasing informationabout supplier sustainability performance, suchinitiatives allow companies to choose supplierswith better sustainability credentials and raiseawareness of sustainability among suppliers.Cooperation may have considerable potential toimprove the sustainability of supply chains whenthey are shared by a number of businesses.The financial services sector is increasingly payingattention to environmental and social risks. This isan important driver of SCP and provides businesseswith a strong incentive to embed sustainabilityconsiderations into their own operations, includingsupply chains. There are a series of groups thatprovide the capacity-building needed by managers offinancial institutions to improve their understanding ofsustainability issues. This includes general sensitizingbut also technical aspects associated with productionand consumption on a sectoral and value chainbasis. An example of such a service is the InvestorNetwork on Climate Risk, which provides institutionalinvestors with information on the risks that neglectingsustainability entails. This allows investors tointegrate climate risks into investment and lendingdecisions (Investor Network on Client Risk, 2011).Similarly, over 70 financial institutions worldwide haveadopted the Equator Principles that are based onthe International Finance Corporation’s performancestandards on social and environmental sustainabilityand on the World Bank Group’s Environmental,Health and Safety Guidelines. The principles serveas a common framework for providers of capitalto integrate social and environmental policies,procedures and standards into their project financingactivities. Equator Principles Financial Institutionsalso commit to not give loans to projects where theborrower will not, or is unable to, comply with theirrespective social and environmental policies andprocedures under the principles (Equator PrinciplesAssociation, 2011). The financial services industry,as a main supplier of capital to businesses, has beenworking to integrate environmental and social risksinto lending and investment decisions.The numerous business projects, initiatives,networks and other activities outlined above arelargely based on bottom-up approaches. Whilepositive impacts can surely be observed, thisapproach alone will not lead to the scaling up ofefforts as fast as they are needed. To supportbusiness in moving forward, policy-makers shouldconsider complementing business innovationwith formal incentives. These can take the formof regulatory or market-based instruments thatshape the economic and legislative frameworkwithin in which businesses conduct their activity.This framework can both create opportunities andconstrain practices that constitute unfair formsof competition and/or negatively impact otherstakeholders. This framework can be crucial toincentivize increased business innovation and canbe crucial for the replication and scaling-up ofsuccessful business initiatives.Table 3 offers a concise selection of somerepresentative organizations, partnerships andinitiatives that businesses have used to promote SCPin the last few decades, chosen to illustrate the broadrange of actors in this area, as well as to highlightexamples that are timely, high-impact, innovative,effective and have the potential for replication. It alsoincludes examples of organizations that have principallyfocused on influencing the business agenda. Readersare invited to browse the table for examplesof effective strategies for the promotion of SCP.2.4 Civil society initiatives for SCPNext to governments and businesses, CSOs formthe third group that is key to the promotion of SCP.While government and business actors are relativelyeasy to define and identify, CSOs are a much morediverse category of actors. Based on definitions byleading research centres, the World Bank definescivil society as encompassing:the wide array of non-governmental and notfor-profitorganizations that have a presencein public life, expressing the interests andvalues of their members or others, based onethical, cultural, political, scientific, religiousor philanthropic considerations. Civil SocietyOrganizations (CSOs) therefore refer to a widearray of organizations: community groups, non-56

taking action togethergovernmental organizations (NGOs), labor unions,indigenous groups, charitable organizations, faithbasedorganizations, professional associations,and foundations (World Bank, 2010b).With highly diverse memberships, backgrounds andstructures, CSOs have the capacity to influence SCPthrough a wide range of strategies and activities.The last decades have seen an impressive risein the size, scope and capacity of CSOs on allcontinents. Social and economic <strong>global</strong>izationprocesses, expanding democratic governance,modern travel, and information and communicationstechnologies, have facilitated this growth. TheYearbook of International Organizations counts closeto 65,000 CSOs in 300 countries and territoriesaround the world, compared to around 6,000 in1990 (Union of International Associations, 2011).This section highlights the wide variety of strategiesand tools that CSOs have used to promote SCP. Giventhe scale and scope of <strong>global</strong> activity in this area, itfocuses on a sample of these international efforts,chosen in order to represent the broad spectrumof actors and strategies involved. Activities include:research, advocacy and lobbying; capacity-buildingevents and information-sharing events; training;financing and the implementation of projects;developing and supporting sustainability labelling andother standards; awareness-raising; building networksand dialogues; and providing independent third-partyevaluations of government and business activities.These activities are often undertaken in partnershipsbetween different organizations, frequently bringingtogether civil-society and business. Innovativepartnerships have catalysed many activities andshown to be vital to advance SCP. The examples havebeen chosen in order to illustrate the broad range ofactors involved, as well as to highlight interventionsthat are particularly timely, high-impact, innovative,effective and potentially replicable. Although nonexhaustive,they draw attention to some of the mostvaluable ways that civil society at the <strong>global</strong> level ispromoting SCP.The evolution of civil society efforts topromote SCP at the <strong>global</strong> levelCivil society has a long history of influence ininternational processes surrounding sustainabledevelopment. As far back as the 1972 UnitedNations Conference on the Human Environment inStockholm, widely perceived as the turning point inthe history of <strong>global</strong> environmental policymaking,NGOs were present through a large forum running inparallel to the governmental sessions. Following theconference, UNEP reached out to the NGO communityby developing dedicated structures to promote theirinvolvement in its activities and broader sustainabledevelopment processes (UNEP, 2009b).Civil society was then recognized at the 1992 RioUNCED in Agenda 21, the action plan for sustainabledevelopment drawn up and endorsed at this summit.It identified civil society as the social partner neededto achieve sustainable development, stipulatingthat “the commitment and genuine involvement ofall social groups” will be “[c]ritical to the effectiveimplementation of the objectives, policies andmechanisms agreed to by Governments in allprogramme areas of Agenda 21” and that “[o]ne ofthe fundamental prerequisites for the achievement ofsustainable development is broad public participationin decision-making” (UNDESA, 2009c). To this end, itestablished nine major groups representing importantsub-sections of civil society, with two exceptions:1) business and industry and 2) local authorities. Inaddition to the generic group of NGOs, a series ofspecific civil society groups were recognized: farmers,women, the scientific and technological community,children and youth, indigenous peoples and theircommunities, and workers and trade unions. Theexplicit participation of different parts of civil societyat Rio and the institutionalization of civil society inthe outcome documents of the conference markedit as a new high point for civil society involvement insustainable development governance.Some of the key outcomes of the WSSD werethe many <strong>global</strong> Type II partnerships that wereestablished between different stakeholders. Manyof the partnerships explicitly address SCP. In theofficial register of Johannesburg partnerships, outof the around 350 total partnerships formed todate, 121 are filed under ‘Changing unsustainablepatterns of consumption and production.’ A largenumber, 40 per cent, of these are either led by CSOsor involve them in another capacity (UNDESA, 2011).Another result of the WSSD was the 2003 launch ofthe Marrakech Process, to promote the implementationof SCP policies and activities and to support theelaboration of a 10YFP on SCP, as called for by theJPOI. Civil society has been involved in the MarrakechProcess, contributing to the implementation of SCPactivities, providing inputs for the elaboration of the10YFP, and enriching the intergovernmental debate(UNEP and UN, 2011). CSOs, in the form of the UnitedNations-recognized major groups, participate in multipleways. At the 2007 International Expert Meeting ofthe Marrakech Process, in Stockholm, an NGO forumwas created as a new engagement mechanism. Itspurpose was to serve as a platform for civil society(environmental NGOs, consumers, trade unions andother groups who participate actively in partnerships,initiatives and advocacy efforts around SCP and toengage more actively the CSOs in the MarrakechProcess). NGOs themselves expressed appreciationfor the NGO forum and committed to their continuedinvolvement (International Coalition for SustainableProduction and Consumption [ICSPAC], 2007).57

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESFairtrade labellingFLO is the world’s leading group of CSOs onfair trade labelling. Its label is now availablefor around 15 product groups, from agriculturalcommodities such as coffee, cocoa and bananas,to gold and sports balls. A minimum price is setfor each product group and FLO adjusts prices toreflect changing production costs. FLO has alsoestablished guidelines on fair trade labelling forcomposite products (FLO, 2011b).The strength of FLO lies in its strict standardsand the widespread recognition of its Fairtradebrand. As of July 2011, FLO was made up of 24members, including 19 labelling initiatives, threeproducer networks and two associate members.It commands increasing market power, withproduct groups in some nations accounting forbetween 20 and 50 per cent of the market share(FLO, 2011a). Overall, the most recent figuresshow an increase in FLO-certified product salesof 15 per cent between 2008 and 2009, despitethe financial crisis, amounting to €3.4 billionworldwide (Fairtrade Foundation, 2010).The basic idea behind the label is that itpromotes sustainable consumption by helpingconsumers identify goods that have beenproduced under socially fairer and moreenvironmentally friendly conditions. In turn,increased awareness among consumersincreases the demand for certified products,thereby influencing more producers to getcertified. The label also promotes sustainableproduction by guaranteeing price foreach product, which is based on socialsustainability and gives producers themeans to improve their living and workingconditions. The standards also includerequirements on good environmental practice,for instance, minimized and safe use ofagrochemicals, proper and safe managementof waste, maintenance of soil fertility and waterresources, and a ban on using geneticallymodified organisms. Although FLO does notrequire commodities to be produced organically,this is promoted and rewarded by higher minimumprices. The standard is also designed torecognize and reward continuous improvementin sustainability performance (FLO, 2011c).Among international organizations, there has alsobeen increasing engagement and cooperationwith CSOs. The number of organizationsaccredited by the Economic and Social Councilhas increased significantly, accreditation beingthe prerequisite for participation in many UnitedNations processes. Currently, 3,400 NGOs holdconsultative status with the Economic and SocialCouncil (United Nations, 2011a). By comparison,at the 1992 UNCED these were less than 1,000(UNEP, 2009b). UNEP has supported the trend ofgrowing involvement by CSOs in general UnitedNations activities by organizing an annual GlobalCivil Society Forum since 2000, in conjunctionwith the yearly Governing Council/GlobalMinisterial Environment Forum.In parallel to the evolution of the involvement ofCSOs in international processes, many CSOs havealso evolved considerably at an internal level overthe past decades. Many began as groups focusedon a single issue and have ultimately come toembrace a range of interconnected sustainabilityissues, ultimately acknowledging the need forintervention across the life cycle of goods andservices. An example is the World Wide Fund forNature (WWF), which was founded in 1961 as oneof the very first <strong>global</strong> conservation groups and hassince expanded its focus to cover broader humanimpacts on the environment by the late 1970s. In1980 it already employed a form of the sustainabledevelopment concept and today engages in a rangeof activities, including the funding and management58

taking action togetherSustainable forestryThe Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) isan international standard-setting bodyoffering certification for sustainable forestproducts. It uses a widely recognizedlogo to provide reliable informationto consumers and to help producersbenefit from managing forest resourcessustainably.One feature that illustrates bestpractice in standard setting is theFSC’s discrimination between differentparts of the forest supply chain. Astimber starts off as a commodity andis then manufactured, the FSC hasforest management certification forforest managers, chain of custody (CoC)certification for companies that manufacture,trade or process forest products, and FSCControlled Wood criteria to help companiesensure that mixing non-FSC certified woodwith FSC sources will not introduce materialthat has been produced in highly damagingways. These regulations guarantee thepreservation of sites of special cultural,ecological, economic or religious significance.Within its forest management standard, theFSC has developed a model for participatoryforest management that takes into accountthe challenges faced by forest workers andsmall and community producers as well asrecognizing and respecting indigenous peoples’rights. It allows groups of forest owners to jointogether under a single FSC certificate andshare costs. Similarly, the CoC standard takesinto account the different needs and resourcesof small and large companies.The FSC is also notable for its robustgovernance structure. In addition to separatingout the roles of standard setting, the issuanceof certificates and the verification of complianceinto separate, independent bodies, it ensurescredibility and balanced participation in itsGeneral Assembly of FSC members. TheGeneral Assembly includes three chambers– social, environmental and economic – eachof which is further divided into sub-chambers,North and South. This organizational structurepromotes comprehensive multi-stakeholderparticipation, with bodies such as non-profits,NGOs, indigenous peoples’ associations,unions and academia in the social chamber,environmentally focused non-profits, academiaand technical institutions in the environmentalchamber, employees, certification bodies,industry, trade associations (whether profitor non-profit), wholesalers, retailers, traders,consumer associations, and consulting andforestry companies in the economic chamber.Regardless of the number of members in anyone chamber, the tripartite structure ensuresthat each one has balanced voting power.These arrangements help explain both thecredibility of the FSC label and its penetration<strong>global</strong>ly, with the large network of partnersextending its outreach and spreading its namein a cost-effective manner.FSC has national initiatives in more than 50countries around the world. In their countriesthey work with relevant stakeholders likeNGOs to support the development of nationalstandards, and in particular to increase thecapacity of smallholders to secure certification.As of March 2011, 1,030 forest managingoperations were certified by FSC, covering atotal forest area of 141.14 million hectares in81 countries.Source: FSC (2011a)59

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES© Greenpeace / Oka Budhiof conservation projects around the globe, lobbyingpolicymakers, conducting research, and educationand awareness-raising (WWF, 2011). Particularlyrelevant to SCP is the WWF’s engagement withbusinesses, which includes company partnershipsto improve the sustainability of supply chains, andsupporting FSC and MSC certification for sustainableforest and seafood products, respectively.Greenpeace, founded in 1971, is another exampleof an organization that has undergone a largetransformation over time. From a single-issue groupto conserve wild species, it has evolved into a fullyfledged<strong>global</strong> CSO with a presence in dozens ofcountries and supported by millions of members.Through targeted, media-savvy campaigns, it raisesawareness and mobilizes consumers to exert pressureon <strong>global</strong> companies to change their practices.Recently for example, it organized a campaign toencourage consumers to put pressure on a majortoy manufacturer to renounce using paper stemmingfrom virgin rainforests in its packaging (Greenpeace,undated). Its activities have also engaged directly withproducers; for example, one campaign is reportedto have convinced large cattle ranchers in Brazil tosupport a moratorium on destroying forests for cattleranching (Greenpeace, 2009b).How <strong>global</strong> CSOs have achievedinfluence in the promotion of SCPMany variables affect the extent to which differentCSOs have managed to effectively promote SCP.Although not exhaustive, this section identifiessome of ways in which CSOs have played a key rolein shifting consumption and production patternstowards more sustainable alternatives. These areclustered around the core functions of advocacy,influencing business practices, capacity-building andstandard-setting.Regardless of which of these activities they areengaged in, it is clear that CSOs at a <strong>global</strong> levelare much more powerful when acting togetherthan alone. FLO, for example, provides acentral point for the harmonization of numerousdifferent labelling initiatives in many countries,while supporting disadvantaged producersaround the world (see Case Study 7). Inthis context, coordination offers benefits byincreasing the impact that labels can haveon consumption decisions and productionprocesses, by enhancing market transparency,reducing transaction costs and increasingconsumer recognition and trust. Other CSOsoperate initiatives that focus on harmonizingadvocacy, research and project implementationefforts. One such example is the WWF, whichenters into multi-stakeholder partnerships withnational organizations, stakeholders and expertsspecialized in a certain issue or sector. Globally,CSOs are multiplying their individual impacts onSCP through partnerships and coordination.CSOs are also increasingly being recognized as animportant component in accountability systemsfor governments, international organizations andbusinesses. In CSD 18, NGOs stated that theywere “deeply concerned by the lack of significantprogress” made by their respective countries(Sustainable Development Issues Network, 2010,p. 2). Many such organizations play a valuablerole in monitoring and evaluating the activitiesof governments, intergovernmental organizationsand businesses with respect to SCP and othercommitments. A primary function of <strong>global</strong> CSOsis still to hold businesses and governmentsaccountable by raising public awareness, includingmedia attention, of poor practice in environmentaland social sustainability.By participating in international processes,<strong>global</strong> CSOs also play a fundamental role byrepresenting civil society and ultimately, citizens.They can also act as a conduit for informationin both directions. The role of labour unions inpromoting SCP has been explored in severalstudies, which revealed growing awareness of anSCP agenda and of how issues such as climatechange intersect with the social agenda of unions(Ecologic, 2004; UNEP, 2006). The ITUC, forexample, has positioned itself extensively andexplicitly on climate change, calling for action thatrespects equity, justice and solidarity concerns,and grasps the opportunities for labour (e.g.,through green jobs). The above-mentioned labourunion studies also show that innovative, bottomupinitiatives by labour in both developed anddeveloping countries can lead to capacity-buildingand collaboration with the NGO community. GlobalCSOs bring local and national CSOs into contactwith decision-making processes related to SCP atthe international level.60

taking action togetherTable 4: Civil Society advocacy, research, partnerships, standard setting and other activities to promote SCPSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPAdvocacyConsumers International (CI) (CI, 2011)CI is the world federation ofconsumer groups, made upof over 220 organizations in115 countries. It is funded35 per cent through bymember fees and otherwisesupported by project grantsfrom foundations andgovernment agencies.As a broad federation of consumergroups, CI has the legitimacy torepresent and defend consumerinterests and build market demand forsustainable goods and services, withits work focused on areas as diverseas financial services, food, energy andcommunications. It also operates as aconduit from the international to the locallevel, such as its Green Action Fund,which provides grants of up to US$3,000to CI members for awareness campaignson sustainable consumption. Some ofits key functions include campaigning,awareness-raising and the publicationof information and training guides. CIhas also conducted consumer educationcampaigns with notable examples inLatin America and the Asia-Pacificregion. It also supports the work of thePartnership for Education and Researchabout Responsible Living (PERL).CI has explicitly promoted the concept ofSCP in a number of projects. Its programme,Education for Sustainable Consumption,advocates the Marrakech Task ForceHere and Now guidelines, a package ofeducational materials about SCP. It alsosupports advocacy programmes around theMarrakech Process, CSD and Rio+20 andits Green Action Fund. It has also promotedSCP through other activities, including itsleadership role in the development of ISO26000 standard on social responsibility;the promotion of ecolabels; lobbying forthe establishment of the United NationsGuidelines for Consumer Protection; and thepublication of a training guide on how theGuidelines for Consumer Protection can beimplemented.Friends of the Earth International (FoEI) (FoEI, 2011)FoEI is the world’s largestgrassroots environmentalnetwork, with 76 nationalmember groups and some5,000 local activist groups.With two million membersand supporters, it campaignson today’s most urgentenvironmental and socialissues, challenges thecurrent model of economicand corporate <strong>global</strong>izationand promotes solutions tohelp create environmentallysustainable and socially justsocieties.Greenpeace (Greenpeace, 2011)Greenpeace is aninternational non-profitenvironmental organizationthat campaigns againstenvironmental degradation.Greenpeace Internationaland 28 national and regionaloffices have a presence inover 40 countries.FoEI currently runs seven programmes:agrofuel; climate justice and energy;food sovereignty; economic justice –resisting neoliberalism; forests andbiodiversity; resisting mining oil andgas; and water. Its activities in theseareas include awareness-raising andcampaigning, from the communitylevel to international negotiations.They also work with local communitiesto help them fight for collective andtraditional rights to natural resources.Its various projects focus on differenttypes of actors, ranging from citizens tobusinesses to governments.Greenpeace campaigns and raisesawareness for a number of issuesrelated to SCP, including sustainableagriculture, fishing and forestry.The organization complements itsawareness-raising activities with soundresearch and topical partnerships.It also promotes the development ofmore sustainable products in alliancewith businesses.Through its <strong>global</strong> network and influence atthe local level around the world, FoEI canorganize well-informed, influential grassrootscommunity-based campaigns and projectsthat influence consumption decisions andproduction processes. It also emphasizesthe importance of sustainable consumptionthroughout its work, encouraging itsmembers to “consume less, live more”(FoEI, 2011).Although rarely part of its explicit messaging,many of Greenpeace’s campaigns promoteSCP, particularly where it seeks to influenceproduction patterns by raising consumerawareness and engaging consumers toput pressure on producers to change theirbehaviour. Its attempts to develop new, moresustainable products have also had significantimplications for SCP. A prominent exampleis 1990s development of an ozone-friendlyGreenFreeze refrigerator system, which wasthe recipient of a UNEP Ozone Award in 1997and has reportedly sold over 300 million units(Greenpeace, 2009, a).61

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 4 ContinuedSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPWorld Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) (WWF,2011b)WWF is an independent nongovernmentalconservationorganization established in1961. Its aim is to protectbiodiversity and ecosystemsand reduce humanity’simpacts on natural habitats.It has 90 offices in closeto 50 countries and on-thegroundconservation projectsin more than 100 countries.Research and PartnershipThe WWF combines on-the-groundconservation, awareness-raising,high-level policy and advocacy,engagement with business andindustry, and partnering with a widenumber of institutions. It also worksto build marketing alliances withbusinesses to promote, advise, raisefunds and implement joint initiativeson environmental protection and thereduction of corporate environmentalfootprints. Some of its projects alsoprovide services such as technicalsupport and training.The majority of the projects WWF describesdo not refer to the concept of SCPexplicitly. Nonetheless, much of its work ontransforming markets to reduce humanity’secological footprint is relevant to SCP,including its emphasis on ecosystem-basedmanagement in fisheries (WWF, 2007),its company partnerships to improve thesustainability of supply chains and itsco-founding of the standards body theAquaculture Stewardship Council (2011).The WWF-led partnership the Global Forest& Trade Network aims to assist companiesin overcoming challenges to certificationthrough a gradual, stepwise approach,including the provision of technical supportand training (WWF, undated)International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) (IIED, 2011a)Launched in 1971, theIIED is an independentinternational researchorganization. It pursues agrassroots strategy, workingclosely with local populationsof vulnerable regions. Italso advises government,business and internationaldevelopment agencies, andpublishes widely on policy.IIED conducts research focusing onfive main issues: climate change,governance, human settlements,natural resources and sustainablemarkets. Its Sustainable MarketsGroup drives the institute’s effortsto ensure that markets contributeto positive social, environmentaland economic outcomes, bringingtogether programmes on: businessand sustainable development, marketstructure, environmental economics,trade and investment, tourism, andmining.Much of the work done by IIED relatesto SCP, particularly its business andsustainable development programme, whichaims to address sustainable consumptionwith specific emphasis on the <strong>global</strong> socialdistribution of consumption impacts. IIED iscurrently conducting a study on sustainableconsumption with an eye to addressingconsumption issues among poorercommunities, countries and regions; creatingpolitical space for opinions, values, demandsand solutions from these constituencies;and providing clear analysis and critique onhow consumption problems and consumptionsolutions fall differentially on different socialgroups internationally (IIED, 2011b).International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) (IUCN, 2011)The IUCN is the world’soldest and largest <strong>global</strong>environmental network thatseeks to assist societiesin nature conservation andequitable and ecologicallysustainable usage of naturalresources. It offers a neutralforum for governments, NGOs,scientists and communities tofind innovative solutions andcoordinates thousands of fieldprojects around the world. Ithas a <strong>global</strong> network of morethan 1,000 government andNGO member organizationsand almost 11,000 volunteerscientists in more than 160countries.The IUCN identifies its threestrengths as being science,the active implementation ofconservation projects and influenceover international environmentalconventions, policies and laws. Its fivepriority areas of work are: biodiversity,climate change, sustainableenergy, human well-being and thegreen economy. The IUCN providesassistance in developing innovativesolutions for sustainable resourcemanagement.In the course of promoting conservation,many IUCN projects provide scientific,technical and project implementation supportthat contributes to the promotion of SCP.For example, its work on biodiversity andecosystem services supports national plansfor more efficient use of natural resourcesin a range of industries and consumergroups, from mining to tourism. Similarly,its work on the green economy emphasizesthe proper evaluation of the economic valueof biodiversity and ecosystems; and howmacroeconomic policies in general – and inparticular, trade and investment policies –influence the relationship between economicactivity and the environment.62

taking action togetherSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPThe Northern Alliance for Sustainability (ANPED) (Northern Alliance for Sustainability, 2011)ANPED aims “to empowerNorthern civil society throughcapacity development,exchanges and sharing ofknowledge… [and] workingin close cooperating withSouthern civil society andstakeholders; thus creatingand protecting sustainablecommunities and societiesworldwide” (Northern Alliancefor Sustainability, 2011, p.1) through the developmentof SCP patterns. It has over100 member organizations.ANPED engages Northern CSOs in avariety of capacity-building activities,such as information-, knowledgeandskill-sharing, and enablingtheir participation in local, national,regional and international decisionmakingprocesses on sustainabledevelopment. ANPED acts as a bridgebetween grassroots CSOs – mainlylocated across Eastern Europe, theCaucasus and Central Asia – andnational, regional and internationaldecision-making processes.Since 1992, ANPED has maintained aworking group dedicated to SCP. Its fivegoals are: strengthening knowledge andcapacity on SCP among ANPED membersand CSOs; keeping ANPED membersinformed about possibilities for them tocontribute to international processes andnational activities on SCP; developing andsharing tools on public awareness-raisingand education; developing an ANPED internalstrategy; and building a strong network oforganizations around SCP issues (NorthernAlliance for Sustainability, undated). Ithas also published research on countrypromotion of SCP and some policy tools thatcan be used to promote SCP.Sustainable Commodity Initiative (SCI) (SCI, undated)The SCI is a joint initiativemanaged by IISD andthe United NationsConference on Trade andDevelopment. Its missionis to discover ways toensure that sustainablepractices are adopted incommodity productionand trade. Its five priorityareas are: strengtheningtechnical assistance forsustainable production;supporting access to marketinformation on sustainableproducts; improving accessto finance for sustainableproduction; strengtheningevidence about the impactsof sustainable productsand supply chains; andfacilitating the design andimplementation of policiesfor sustainable products andmarkets. It has 60+ partnerand advisory organizationsfrom around the world.The SCI currently facilitates fourdifferent projects: a) the Committeeon Sustainability Assessment, a nonprofit<strong>global</strong> consortium of institutionsdeveloping and applying sustainableimpact assessment measurementtools to agricultural practices; b) theSustainable Commodity AssistanceNetwork, a partnership of 20 keystandards bodies, technical assistanceinstitutions and other stakeholdersthat provides customized, needs-basedassistance to producers wishing toadopt sustainable practices and entersustainable markets; c) the FinanceAlliance for Sustainable Trade, anon-profit organization representingfinancial institutions, producers andothers, dedicated to increasing thenumber of producers in developingnations who successfully accessquality trade finance; d) the State ofSustainability Initiatives, a knowledgesharingplatform that researches andreports on the impacts, effectivenessand scope of market-based, voluntaryapproaches to SCP and trade.The SCI brings together differentstakeholders working in a number ofSCP-related areas to increase dialogueand collaboration, support producersof sustainable products and increaseinformation about the effectiveness of SCPrelatedpolicies.63

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 4 ContinuedSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPWorldwatch Institute (Worldwatch Institute, 2011)The Worldwatch Institute,founded in 1974, was the firstindependent research institutedevoted to the analysisof <strong>global</strong> environmentalconcerns. Its mission is todeliver “the insights and ideasthat empower decision makersto create an environmentallysustainable society that meetshuman needs” (WorldwatchInstitute, 2011).Its focuses on “the 21stcenturychallenges of climatechange, resource degradation,population growth, andpoverty by developing anddisseminating solid dataand innovative strategiesfor achieving a sustainablesociety” (Worldwatch Institute,2011). Worldwatch has anetwork of internationalpartners in over a dozencountries.The Worldwatch Institute has threeprogram areas: climate and energy,food and agriculture and environmentand society. Its primary function inthese three areas is to develop anddisseminate data, research andanalysis. Its State of the World serieson sustainable development is highlyinfluential. Its research findingsare disseminated in more than 20languages via print and online media.The Worldwatch Institute dedicates reportsto <strong>global</strong> consumption and lifestyle trends,notably on large emerging economies.A number of the Worldwatch Institute’sresearch projects engage with SCP issues.The 2010 edition of the State of the World,for example, focused on how to shift towardsustainable consumption patterns. Italso runs a series of blogs that deal withdiverse topics related to environment anddevelopment.World Resources Institute (WRI) (WRI, 2011b)Launched in 1982, the WRIis a <strong>global</strong> environmentalthink-tank that focuses ondeveloping and implementingsolutions to urgentenvironmental challenges byworking with governments,companies and civil society.Its mission is to “movehuman society to live inways that protect Earth’senvironment and its capacityto provide for the needsand aspirations of currentand future generations”(WRI, 2011b). As of 2009,WRI was working with 400+partners in 50 countries. ItsNew Ventures programmehas facilitated over US$200million in investment andworked with 255 businesses.WRI is organized around four keyprogrammatic goals: climate protection,governance, markets and enterprise,and people and ecosystems. Amongits many activities, and in additionto its highly respected data, analysisand policy research on environmentalissues, it also engages with businessesdirectly, through the support ofsustainable entrepreneurs in developingcountries. The WRI has also adviseddevelopment organizations on how topromote the growth of environmentallyand socially beneficial SMEs.Much of the work done by WRI promotesSCP. Its Corporate Ecosystems ServicesReview, for example, is a methodology forcorporate managers to manage the risksand opportunities from their dependenceand impacts on ecosystems (WRI, 2008).Similarly, the WRI Business & EcosystemsLeadership Group works on sharing bestenvironmental practice and identifyingemerging market opportunities that aligncorporate performance with ecosystemstewardship (WRI, undated). Its NewVentures programme connects entrepreneursand SMEs to venture capital funds, angelinvestors and banks, including investment insustainable production processes, as wellas providing business development training(WRI, 2011a).64

taking action togetherSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPStandard SettingForest Stewardship Council (FSC) (FSC, 2011a)FSC is an independent,non-governmental,non-profit organizationestablished to promote thesustainable managementof the world’s forests. It ismulti-stakeholder in nature,involving CSOs and business.It governs and operatesthe FSC ecolabelling andcertification programme. Itoperates national initiativesin more than 50 countriesacross five continents.FSC certification provides a link betweenresponsible production and consumptionof forest products, enabling consumersand businesses to make purchasingdecisions that benefit people and theenvironment as well as providing valueto businesses. The council’s activitiesinclude: developing forest managementand CoC standards, deliveringtrademark assurance and providingaccreditation services to a <strong>global</strong>network of businesses, organizationsand communities. Its governance isparticularly robust, with independentbodies to issue certification and verifycompliance, this latter role beingplayed by the Accreditation ServicesInternational. FSC has a Global Strategythat currently stresses the need todevelop additional mechanisms todistribute the benefits of certificationacross the supply chain and to increasecertification of tropical forests (FSC,2011c) (see Case Study 8).FSC oversees the development of nationaland regional forest management standards,offers resources and training around FSCcertification and raises awareness of FSCcertification and the benefits of using FSCcertifiedproducts.Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) (MSC, 2011)The MSC is an internationalnon-profit organization thatoperates a certification andecolabelling programme tomaintain the health of theworld’s oceans and promotesustainable fishing. It wasoriginally founded in 1997by Unilever and WWF, butbecame independent soonafter.Similarly to FSC, MSC is an ecolabellinginitiative that sets standards andoperates a third-party certificationprogramme, where certificatesidentifying fish products that have beencaught using sustainable methodsare issued by accredited bodies andverified by Accreditation ServicesInternational. MSC also engages inoutreach with the fisheries sector,leading retailers and consumers. ItsDeveloping World Programme aimsto promote fair and equal access tocertification for developing countryfisheries. Activities include: outreach tostakeholders in developing countries,including fisheries, governmentsand NGOs; the development of newmethods to assess data-deficientfisheries; and helping link fisheries tofunding support for certification.The MSC works to promote SCP in seafoodmarkets and promote sustainable fishingpractices. The Developing World Programmepromotes work to ensure that MSCcertification becomes more widespread forfisheries in developing countries.65

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 4 ContinuedSummary General activities Notable efforts to promote SCPThe Rainforest Alliance (Rainforest Alliance, 2011)The Rainforest Alliance worksto conserve biodiversityand ensure sustainablelivelihoods by transformingland use and businesspractices and consumerbehaviour.OtherBusinesses that meet certainenvironmental and social standardsare given access to the RainforestAlliance family of marks for goods orservices, which help distinguish themin the marketplace. The RainforestAlliance also conducts projects topromote sustainable agriculture,forestry, tourism and environmentaleducation through the provision oftraining and encouragement of suchbusiness activity.The Rainforest Alliance works to incentivizeand enable SCP in the agriculture,tourism and forestry sectors through theimplementation of Rainforest Alliancecertification trademarks.International Trade Union Confederation (ITUC) (ITUC, 2011)The ITUC is the world’s maininternational trade unionorganization, formed in 2006from the Confederation ofFree Trade Unions and theWorld Confederation ofLabour, as well as a numberof trade union organizationswith no <strong>global</strong> affiliation. Itsmission is “the promotionand defence of worker’srights and interests” (ITUC,2011). As of July 2011, itrepresented 175 millionworkers in 151 countries andterritories.The ITUC works with its affiliates toestablish positions for the labourmovement with respect to various keyissues. It also conducts campaigns,including research, communications,grassroots trade union campaigns andpressuring businesses and businessorganizations.The ITUC is focused on the social pillar inSCP, through activities such as pushingfor improvements in working conditions,increased ceilings for minimum wages,negotiation of working hours and, indeed,all other aspects of decent work. It is alsoincreasingly engaged with the environmentalpillar through its work on climate change,in which it emphasizes the need to reach afair agreement on climate change in order toavert welfare impacts on jobs and workers,as well as the need for a ‘just transition’ inthe shift to a low-carbon economy.There has been an increase in the number of <strong>global</strong>CSOs focused on implementing programmes, asopposed to the more traditional roles of advocatingfor change or raising awareness. Examples of thisinclude attempts to improve market access in thefield of certification and labelling, where someproducers are vulnerable to ‘green protectionism’– being effectively closed off from markets due thecost of compliance with a standard that has becomea requirement. Although this is often a concernamong producers from developing countries, it canalso be an issue for small producers more generally,who may not have the resources to afford the costsof certification.The FSC is an example of a CSO whose strategicpriorities explicitly stress the importance of makingprogress with forest certification in the endangeredtropical forests of the economic south and smallforest owners (FSC, 2011b). Its stated aims are todevelop mechanisms that ensure equitable accessto FSC benefits more evenly across the supplychain, and it has already developed certificationstandards for groups of forest workers and smallforest owners (see Case Study 8) (FSC, 2011a). TheWWF also leads a partnership focused on helpingforest owners progress towards certification througha gradual ‘stepwise‘ approach (WWF, 2011).Other CSOs have focused on the challenges facingbusinesses as they start up, offering technicalassistance, training and networking to put socialentrepreneurs and other start-up ventures in touchwith investors. Such activities can take place inareas from clean energy to biodiversity. An exampleis the Word Resources Institute (WRI)’s NewVentures programme, which supports about 250businesses around the world by facilitating theiraccess to start-up capital (WRI, 2011a). The SEEDInitiative (see Table 2) also supports local-levelentrepreneurs in setting up sustainability businesses(SEED, 2011). The Sustainable Commodity Initiative(SCI), which includes CSOs and United Nationsbodies, attempts to improve access to financing andtechnical assistance for companies active in theproduction and trade of commodities, particularly66

taking action togetheragricultural, but also offering transversal assistancefor other such sectors (SCI, undated). CSOs at the<strong>global</strong> level are increasingly taking on a range of‘operational’ activities, showing how SCP can bepromoted on the ground at a country level.Table 4 offers a concise selection of somerepresentative organizations, partnerships andinitiatives that CSOs have used to promote SCP inthe last few decades, chosen to illustrate the broadrange of actors in this area, as well as to highlightexamples that are timely, high-impact, innovative,effective and have the potential for replication.Readers are invited to browse the table for examplesof strategies and organizations that have beennotable for their effective promotion of SCP. Pleasenote that, for the sake of readability, the table hasattempted to order the CSO activities according tobroad categories of function, but that this should notbe seen as strict definitions of the CSOs’ activities.In reality, many of the organizations are highlydiverse, and their activities could easily have beenplaced under several of the categories used.2.5 ConclusionsThere has been a great deal of activity at the <strong>global</strong>level over the past few decades. Governments,businesses and CSOs have all engaged in anumber of strategies and specific activities to makeheadway in promoting SCP – spurred on by theinternational declarations identifying the importanceof ‘sustainable consumption and production‘ fromthe 1992 UNCED in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to the2002 WSSD in Johannesburg, South Africa.Among governments, MEAs have been one ofthe most important instruments for promotingenvironmental protection at the <strong>global</strong> level.Although few conventions explicitly refer to SCPin their negotiated texts, many conventions havebeen influenced by the life-cycle approach inherentto the concept of SCP and others have stronglyreflected an SCP approach at the point of financeand in-country implementation. A strong basisof scientific evidence was found to have beenfundamental to the agreement on, influence andeffective implementation of MEAs. Mechanisms forimplementation have also been vital to their actualimpact on the ground. Today, efforts to simplify thenow complex international environmental governancestructure have much potential to enable greaterimpacts from intergovernmental agreements.Other aspects of international governancecould also be usefully reformed to promoteSCP. For example, the life-cycle approach andconsideration of environmental and social impactscould be better integrated within governmentalagreements and institutions that are notconsidered to be principally concerned with the‘environment’ or ‘sustainability.’ In the light ofa number of promising programmes initiated byintergovernmental organizations, it also seemsclear that the emphasis of <strong>global</strong> governmentaction in the twenty-first century needs to be ashift away from the negotiation of goals – the‘what’ – towards inducing tangible progress –the ‘how.’ International informal and voluntaryinitiatives like the Marrakech Process on SCPrepresent and bear lessons for achieving this shift.There are also many useful lessons about howSCP is taken up at the level of businessesassociations. Businesses have been the focus ofsignificant efforts to improve the sustainability ofproduction and products, as well as being highlyinnovative actors in the field in their own right. Likegovernments, the foundation behind much actionhas been sound information, with a number ofbusiness associations collecting data, conductingresearch, communicating best practice, encouragingpeer-learning and offering tailor-made advisoryservices to individual organizations. Businesseshave also recognized that companies operatingwithin specific sectors need to work together tofind solutions to sector-specific environmental andsocio-economic challenges. For example, the WorldSteel and the International Fertilizer Associationspromote sector-specific sustainability principles.Where they recognize their environmental and socialresponsibilities, such networks have much potentialto be powerful advocates for practical and costeffectivelaws, policies and voluntary initiativesto promote SCP. Cooperation among businessescan also play an important role in improving thesustainability of supply chains.Reporting on commitments to sustainability is alsobecoming increasingly common and importantto business interests. In many ways, reporting is‘coming of age,’ as it is increasingly backed byinternationally recognized standards and integratedwith financial reporting. Standards themselvesappear to have been one of the central tools forenabling the promotion of SCP among businesses,as they provide practical frameworks for action,differentiation in the marketplace and accountabilitythrough third-party guarantees. Voluntary initiativesremain an important avenue of action for forwardthinkingbusinesses.CSOs represent a highly diverse set of actors. Manyhave evolved significantly in the past few decades,beginning as small, single-issue organizations,and ultimately transforming into internationalorganizations with wide portfolios of activity andbudgets larger than some intergovernmentalorganizations. Many CSOs can be seen multiplying67

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIEStheir individual impacts through partnerships andcoordination at the <strong>global</strong> level. A number of CSOshave identified the ways in which they feel theyhave most significantly contributed towards SCP.These modalities include: engaging in internationalnegotiations; participating in the Marrakech Processon SCP; participating in research, programme design,planning and implementation; lobbying governments;and representing the ‘silent voices’ among the <strong>global</strong>community. CSO partnerships with business havealso been a key means to promote SCP.Indeed, representation is perhaps one of the mostimportant functions of CSOs at a <strong>global</strong> level,helping to bring the viewpoints of national andlocal CSOs (or even citizens) into internationalprocesses, as well as keeping regional and localCSOs informed about international developments.As part of this, CSOs execute a vital function inensuring the accountability of governments andbusinesses, comparing their performance with theirpromises, drawing attention to non-complianceand raising public awareness about the importanceof environmental and social sustainability.Like governments, CSOs at the <strong>global</strong> level arealso increasingly moving to take on a range of‘operational’ activities, showing how SCP can bepromoted on the ground at a country-level.And of course, none of these three categories ofactors operate in a vacuum. In the past few decades,networks and partnerships between governments,businesses and civil society have become common.Indeed, any ambitious attempt to promote SCP shouldbenefit from the breadth of information, of viewpoints,technical and financial resources and expertise that apartnership approach provides.Nonetheless, in light of the unsustainable trajectorybeing pursued by the <strong>global</strong> economy, it is clear thatthe significant progress that has been achievedis far from enough. Although this overview wasnot exhaustive, it can identify significant gaps innecessary action at an international level.There is a need to consolidate, integrate andsynergize the activities of the different actors,as well as to make widely available proven bestpractices on policies and other measures thateffectively support the transition to SCP. A 10YFPon SCP could be a useful and powerful mechanismto do so as well as to more exhaustively mapout the existence of SCP activities around theworld and identify findings and gaps on (cost-)effectiveness evaluations. It seems clear that manyof the fundamental drivers behind SCP at a <strong>global</strong>level are not sufficiently or effectively addressed.These drivers are numerous. The pricing of naturalresources and externalities, for example, continuesto dominate consumption and production decisions,and few attempts have been made at the <strong>global</strong> levelto better align economic pricing with environmentaland social impacts. Similarly, significant headwayhas to be made with respect to the consumer culturethat lies at the heart of unsustainable consumptionand production, including disposability and quantityover quality. Finally, in light of the above, there is anincreasing urgency for the actual implementation ofpolicies and projects to change consumption andproduction patterns for the better. To some extent,as noted with respect to government, business andCSO activities, this shift is already taking place, butmore cooperation and support is needed to scale upand replicate good practices.Nonetheless, the transition towards application andlearning-by-doing needs increased leadership andsupport at the <strong>global</strong> level. Ultimately, increasedcommitment from governments will be necessaryin order to significantly provide the means neededto support the transition toward consumption andproduction at a <strong>global</strong> level, supporting efforts todecouple economic growth from resource use andenvironmental degradation.First and foremost SCP needs to be mainstreamedin the decision making of businesses, CSOs, andcitizens alike. Surprisingly few of the examplesidentified in this chapter refer to SCP explicitly.While it is the action that contributes to the shiftto SCP that counts and not its labelling as such,this implies that SCP is yet to be formally put onthe agenda as a <strong>global</strong> priority. It also suggestsmore progress needs to be made in defining anddemonstrating its value in sustainable developmentterms. It is clear that more robust analysis of the(cost-)effectiveness of SCP initiatives, includingthe business case of SCP, is needed. Manyinitiatives are at the beginning, just developing their‘intentions’ as opposed to their ‘impacts.’68

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taking action together__________ (2011). Homepage. Availablefrom http://www.weforum.org.World Environment Center (2011). Home.Available from http://www.wec.org.World Resources Institute (undated).Business and Ecosystems LeadershipGroup. 27 July 2011. Available fromhttp://pdf.wri.org/business_and_ecosystems_leadership_group_brochure.pdf.__________ (2011a). New ventures.Available from http://www.wri.org/project/new-ventures.__________ (2011b Who we are.Available from http://www.wri.org/about.__________ (2008). The CorporateEcosystem Services Review: Guidelines forIdentifying Business Risks & OpportunitiesArising from Ecosystem Change. Availablefrom http://pdf.wri.org/corporate_ecosystem_services_review.pdf.World Steel Association (2011). AboutWorld Steel: History and objectives.Available from http://www.worldsteel.org/index.php?action=storypages&id=13.__________ (2010). Climate change.Available from http://www.worldsteel.org/?action=storypages&id=352.Worldwatch Institute (2011). About us.Available from http://www.worldwatch.org/mission.World Wild Fund for Nature (2011,27 July). Local Forests. Global Markets.Available from http://assets.panda.org/downloads/gftn_brochure.pdf.___________ (2007, February).Implementation of Ecosystem-BasedManagement in Marine Capture Fisheries.Available from http://assets.panda.org/downloads/wwf_ebm_toolkit_2007.pdf.__________ (2011). A brief history ofWWF. Available from http://www.wwf.org.uk/what_we_do/about_us/history.__________ (2011b). What does WWFdo? Available from http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do.org/downloads/wwf_ebm_toolkit_2007.pdf.__________ (2011). A brief history ofWWF. Available from http://www.wwf.org.uk/what_we_do/about_us/history.__________ (2011b). What does WWFdo? Available from http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do.73

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES3 SCP at the Regional Level3.1 IntroductionThis section of The Global Outlook on SustainableConsumption and Production (SCP) Policies providesan overview of the SCP efforts underway at regionaland national levels. Its aim is to illustrate the broadrange of innovative policies and initiatives beingpursued in countries and regions throughout the worldtoday. It is divided into five chapters, one for each ofthe following world regions: Africa, Asia-Pacific, theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Europe (theUNECE, consisting of Europe, the Commonwealthof Independent States, Canada and United Statesof America), Latin America and the Caribbean, andWest Asia. The chapters also review how a range ofdifferent actors in each region has promoted SCP:governments, businesses and civil society.At the level of governments, each chapter identifieswhether any SCP action plans exist at the regional andnational levels, as well as the ways in which SCP hasbeen reflected in the region’s policy frameworks, suchas national strategies for sustainable development(NSSDs), development plans, green economystrategies and sector- or theme-specific strategies.Where information is available, efforts were made toidentify concrete targets and indicators, as well asthe ways in which measures have addressed life-cyclestages. Key approaches and sectors addressed areidentified jointly with illustrations of the range of policytools used for implementation.At the level of businesses, each chapter identifiesexamples of the proactive efforts to promote SCP thatare being taken in each region, both in the presenceand absence of motivating public policy. This includesthe activities of individual businesses, as well asbusiness associations and organizations. Much ofthe analysis focuses on the take-up of innovativestrategies and management- and sustainabilitycentredbusiness models, such as the adoption ofcorporate social and environmental responsibilityprinciples, environmental management systems andsustainable supply chain management.The review of civil society identifies the rangeof activities being undertaken by civil societyorganizations (CSOs) to promote SCP in eachregion. This includes knowledge-building, networks,campaigning, advocacy, partnerships, implementationof SCP projects and policies contributing to SCP. Thechapters also distinguish between the three groupsof actors that CSOs focus on: businesses, such asthrough partnerships or by naming and shaming;governments, such as through lobbying or monitoringand reporting; and citizens, such as by informing andempowering people through information campaignsand social innovation projects.Due to the number and variety of activities to promoteSCP around the world, the subsequent chapters canonly provide a non-exhaustive review. The examplesthat have been highlighted were chosen to provide asummary of government frameworks for the promotionof SCP, alongside an informative and illustrativesample of the individual efforts taking place topromote SCP within these frameworks. The exampleswere selected for their innovativeness, effectivenessand potential to serve as good practice to inspirefuture efforts. The broad objective is to identify thegeneral state of play, while pointing to areas wherefurther, targeted efforts may be needed.3.2 SCP frameworks and policiesThe policies adopted by governments in the fiveregions can generally be divided into three categories:policies at the regional, national, and sector- (or issue-)specific levels.At both the regional and national levels, larger,overarching frameworks for SCP can often be found,either as dedicated action plans, or incorporated intoother sustainable development strategies. Among theregions described in this section, the European Union(EU) stands out, with its dedicated SCP action plan, inaddition to its Sustainable Development Strategy (seeUNECE chapter). The action plan includes a series ofinitiatives aimed at strengthening supply and demandfor sustainable products and production technologies.At the national level, a wide range of countries inall five regions has adopted SCP-related or broadersustainable-development-related frameworks, plans andstrategies. Countries that have developed (or startedto develop) dedicated SCP strategies or action plansinclude the Czech Republic, Finland, Poland and theUnited Kingdom, in Europe (see UNECE chapter), BurkinaFaso, Ghana, Mauritius, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambiain Africa (see Africa chapter); Brazil, Colombia, Cuba,Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Peru and Uruguay in LatinAmerica and the Caribbean (see LAC chapter); andVietnam in the Asia-Pacific (see Asia-Pacific chapter).The United Nations and bilateral developmentprogrammes have provided assistance, facilitatingmany countries’ efforts. Regional policies, such asthe EU’s Integrated Product Policy, have also been adriving force behind the adoption of national policies.74

taking action togetherIn turn, policies at the regional and national levelsincorporate more specific policies targeted at certainsectors or issues. Usually the competence for theirdevelopment and implementation lies at the nationalor even subnational governmental levels. Althoughcountries’ approaches to promoting SCP differwidely, many focus on improving resource efficiencyand product performance and increasing thedemand for more sustainable products. The regionaland national examples in the chapters categorizenational-level policies into four main types:regulatory, economic, information and voluntaryinstruments.Regulatory instruments comprise government normsand standards, common examples being productperformance standards (e.g., for energy efficiency),extended producer responsibilities (requiringproducers to take responsibility for the safe disposalof their products at end-of-life), chemical safetystandards, prohibition of certain substances orgoods, and building codes. While having proven to beeffective in many cases, regulation can sometimesrequire high enforcement costs, which can representa disadvantage, especially for developing countries.Economic or market-based instruments includepollution charges for industry (a charge according tothe amount of waste generated), pay-as-you-throwschemes for households (which charge accordingto the amount of waste a household generates),emissions trading systems (such as the emissionstrading system for CO 2 in the EU) and the pricing ofnatural resources such as water. Without mandatingspecific, more sustainable technologies or practices,this type of instrument leads to their uptake bysetting general economic incentives and internalizingto a certain extent the negative externalities ofproduction and consumption.Information-based instruments include awarenessraisingcampaigns, sustainability labels on products,tools for the calculation of ecological footprints andsustainable purchasing advice. Such instrumentscan also be directed at companies, for instance,by encouraging corporate sustainability reportingand general information disclosure, or by providingpurchasing advice. Information-based policies areoften designed as multi-stakeholder partnershipsand thereby rely on civil society or business tosuccessfully advance SCP.Voluntary instruments include many types ofagreements, including a range of the abovementionedmechanisms that governments mightotherwise make compulsory. Examples includepublic-private partnerships, certification schemesand extended producer responsibility, as wellas voluntary initiatives for government bodies.Prominent examples also include the adoptionof Environmental Management Systems bybusinesses. If they gain enough traction, voluntaryinstruments can become de facto market standards,such as Environmental Management Systemsin many parts of the world for certain types ofcompanies. Businesses can also be incentivizedto implement voluntary tools in order to preventbinding regulations. Voluntary and information-basedinstruments are common across all regions, as theytend to represent low-resistance policies and havebecome cheaper through the spread of informationtechnologies.Sustainable procurement as policy is effectivelysetting standards, but has sometimes beenenshrined in legislation and sometimes beenadopted as voluntary approach, in both casessending signals to the market for the demand formore sustainable products.Countries themselves recently reported on many oftheir SCP policies in submissions to the eighteenthand nineteenth sessions of the United NationsCommission on Sustainable Development. 1 Thetable below highlights a selection of these policies,as well as a few select examples from the dedicatedsurvey to this report. These measures are additionalto those described in the following regional chapters,and are intended to provide a taste of the broadvariety of policies being used to promote SCPthroughout the world.Page4 Africa 825 Asia Pacific 1086 LAC 1307 UNECE 1548 West Asia 1841. The reports are available in their entirety at http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_index.shtml.75

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 1: Examples of national government policy instrumentsSummary Major interventions Notable mechanisms promoting SCPRegulatory InstrumentsCroatian Ordinance on Classification, Labeling and Packaging of Chemicals (OCLPC), EU Registration, Evaluation,Authorization and restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation(Ministry for Environmental Protection, Physical Planning and Construction of Croatia, 2010)The OCLPC, the EU REACHRegulation, and otherlaws focus on creating thefoundation for responsibleand sustainable chemicals.The OCLPC regulates systematic evaluation,classification and labelling of chemicals,and is complemented by initiatives towardsa harmonized system of classification andlabelling of chemicals as part of the country’sEU accession. Partnerships with other CentralEuropean Countries are also envisaged.Among other policies promoting the safeuse of chemicals, the REACH Regulationrequires a Safety Data Sheet for all chemicalsubstances and mixtures. All companies thatimport, export or produce must provide suchdocumentation and make it available to thechemicals’ users. The laws promote SCP byrequiring transparency in chemical use andproduction.The combination of hard laws on thenational and the supranational (EU)levels, as well as regional partnerships,can create high-impact policies.Estonian Green Public Procurement (GPP) strategy (Estonian Ministry of the Environment, 2010)Since 2004, Estoniahas developed acomprehensive regulatoryframework to ensurethat publicly procuredgoods and services areenvironmentally preferable.In 2006, a working group was establishedto compile green purchasing criteria and topromote GPP. The 2007 Public ProcurementAct required government bodies to favourenvironmentally friendly goods and servicesin their procurement. Measures to supportimplementation of the law were included inthe National Environmental Action Plan 2007-2013. As of 2009, GPP criteria have beenset for ten product and service categoriesand plans were put in place for criteria tobe established for ten further categories bythe end of 2009. A target was set for thesecriteria to have been used in at least 50 percent of relevant procurement by 2010.Public procurement represents about14-16 per cent of Gross DomesticProduct in Estonia. There is thereforea powerful potential for GPP to createsubstantial market demand for greengoods and services, stimulating supplyand lowering costs throughout themarket as suppliers produce at largervolumes.Mongolian Law on Limited Use and Importing of Plastic Bags(Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism of Mongolia, 2010)Entered into force on 1January 2010, the lawbans the import and use ofplastic bags.Low-quality plastic bags have a short lifetimeand, due to their extensive use and easyspread, represent a significant source ofpollution on land and in water. When plasticbags photodegrade, they break down intosmaller, more toxic petro-polymers that killorganisms that ingest them. The Mongolianlaw prohibited the import and usage ofbags thinner than 0.025 mm, addressingwidespread use and disposal of plastic bags.Regulating plastic bags is a simple andhighly visible policy, often supportedby consumers, that prevents theproduction of waste while raisingawareness about SCP more generally.Moreover, policies such as this canalso have positive impacts downstreamby providing consumers with reusablebags.76

taking action togetherSummary Major interventions Notable mechanisms promoting SCPUnited Kingdom Market Transformation Programme, EU Ecodesign Directive (Defra, 2011; Defra, 2009)The Market TransformationProgramme implements theEU’s Ecodesign Directive,which establishes minimumenvironmental performancestandards for ‘energy-usingproducts’ and ‘energyrelatedproducts’ acrossa wide range of productcategories.Economic InstrumentsEcodesign policies aim to improve products’environmental performance by reducing impacton the environment throughout their lifecycles. This is achieved through regulation, butalso through voluntary agreements. Productcategories covered by EU – and thereby UnitedKingdom – law are: energy-using products thatuse, generate, transfer or measure energy(including boilers, computers, televisions,transformers, industrial fans, industrial furnacesand others); as well as other energy-relatedproducts that do not consume energy directlybut can contribute to energy efficiency (includingwindows, insulation materials, shower heads,faucets and others).The current and projected policiesare estimated to deliver considerablecarbon emissions reductions (about 24MtCO 2per year) and economic savings(a net benefit of around £28 billion)over the next 10 years. Additionally,there is considerable potential toincrease these figures by promoting theuptake of best available technologiesin the market and influencing consumerbehaviour.Canadian ecoENERGY Efficiency Initiative (Natural Resources Canada, 2010)The initiative furthersmore efficient energy usein homes, offices, andtransport by investingmore than C$960 millionfrom 2007 to 2011. Theobjective is to reduceenergy-related emissionsthat harm human healthand the environment, andultimately remove energyinefficient products fromthe marketplace.The initiative disburses funds to a range ofdifferent activities. By far, the largest shareof the funds (C$ 805 million) is destinedat retrofitting of homes, smaller buildings(including businesses and non-profits) andindustrial facilities. Construction of moreenergy-efficient buildings and houses is alsosupported. Another scheme supports efficiencyexplicitly in industry through investments inenergy-saving and information exchange onbest-practices in the sector. With the aim ofreducing fuel use and related carbon dioxide(CO 2) emissions, transport efficiency incommercial and personal vehicles is promotedthrough training and education, best-practicesharing, campaigns, technical demonstrationsand tips and tools. This scheme also coversa voluntary agreement with the car industryto reduce CO 2 emissions. Another schemesupports the regulation of vehicle fuelefficiency, which is set to become progressivelymore demanding up to 2016, creating aharmonized standard with the United States.The initiative further supports legislation onefficiency standards for energy-using productsthat will lead to the regulation of 80 per cent ofthe energy used in homes and businesses.The provision of public funds, oftencomplemented by legislation, createsopportunities for more efficient energyconsumption than private investmentdecisions alone would realize. Loweringenergy consumption achieves anumber of associated benefits, suchas lower CO 2 and sulphur dioxide(SO 2) emissions, and lower energyexpenditures. Many of the measuresaffect both the consumption andproduction of energy, such as electricalappliances, cars and the constructionand modification of buildings.Croatian Environmental Protection and Energy Efficiency Fund (PEEF)(Ministry for Environmental Protection, Physical Planning and Construction of Croatia, 2010)The PEEF supportsinitiatives that treat,recycle, reuse or disposeof waste at the source ofgeneration, according tothe polluter-pays principle.Producers and importers are required to makemandatory contributions to PEEF. The collectedrevenues are then used to improve wastecollection and treatment systems. Consumersbenefit from the scheme too, as waste collectionservices become free of charge for productsproduced by contributors to the fund. In thecase of vehicles, consumers receive monetarycompensation when they hand in their end-of-lifevehicles at designated collection points.77The fund encourages increasedproducer responsibility while raisingrevenues for waste management andrewarding consumers.

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 1 ContinuedSummary Major interventions Notable mechanisms promoting SCPGerman CO 2-based Vehicle Tax and Scrappage Scheme (Goverment of the Federal Republic of Germany, 2010)The German vehiclerelatedpolicies createeconomic incentives for theproduction and purchase ofmore efficient vehicles andlead to a less polluting carfleet.In 2009, the German government changedits existing motor vehicle tax to include CO 2-emissions instead of basing it exclusivelyon the cubic capacity of vehicles. As CO 2emissions correlate with fuel use, thenew tax incentivizes demand for moreefficient vehicles. This was reinforced by its“scrappage scheme” in 2010, which gaveprivate consumers a €2,500 grant for tradingin vehicles that were at least nine years oldwhen they replaced them with newer, energyefficientmodels.Both incentives work to create positivemarket signals that incentivize SCP.While the scrapping incentive hasceased to be in force, the CO 2-basedtaxation creates an ongoing incentivefor more sustainable production,reinforced by successive tightening ofemissions thresholds in the comingyears.Romanian Environment Fund (Government of Romania, undated)Romania’s EnvironmentFund is a financialmechanism that fundsthe implementation ofenvironmental legislationaccording to the ‘polluterpays’ and ‘producerresponsibility’ principles.The Environment Fund helps local authoritiesimplement the Romanian NationalDevelopment Plan and EU directives forincreasing clean technology investmentpotential, environmental rehabilitation andquality of life. It has, for example, beenused to subsidize investments in renewableenergy (Bojor, 2011). It also helps economicoperators fulfil any requirements set out bycompliance programmes. The EnvironmentFund is financed through ‘polluter pays’taxes on the production, import and use ofhazardous substances.By guaranteeing that taxes will be usedto pay for environmental improvements,policymakers can increase acceptanceof ‘polluter pays’ taxes, though atthe cost of reduced budget flexibility.The taxes that supply the fund alsoincentivize sustainability, by raisingthe cost of environmentally costlyeconomic activity.Turkey: Loans and direct financial transfers to support certain SCP efforts (Government of Turkey, 2010)Several ministries in Turkeyprovide financial support topromote SCP in areas suchas wastewater treatment,technology developmentand certification.Among various other programmes, the TurkishMinistry of Environment and Forestry providesloans and financial assistance for the cost ofsupervision, feasibility, consultancy, designand infrastructure in its wastewater treatment,waste disposal and waste recovery facilities;the Technology Development Foundationof Turkey provides financial support forresearch and development in the fields ofenvironmentally friendly products, sustainableproduction technologies and renewable energy;and the Under-Secretariat for Foreign Tradebears the cost of companies applying forISO 9000 series quality assurance systemcertificates and ISO 14000 environmentalmanagement system certificates.The government promotes SCP throughthe use of financial incentives, notablyloans and grants.78

taking action togetherSummary Major interventions Notable mechanisms promoting SCPInformation and Voluntary ToolsBarbados: Educational component in the Solid Waste Project Unit (Government of Barbados, 2009)The Integrated Solid WasteManagement Programmeof the government’s SolidWaste Project Unit has aneducational componentaimed at increasingawareness of solid wastemanagement practices.Complementary policiesimplemented under theSolid Waste Project Unitinclude waste reduction,reuse and recycling.The Integrated Solid Waste ManagementProgramme focuses on waste minimizationand the 3Rs – reduce, reuse and recycle. Ituses a combination of formal and informalactivities such as town hall meetings, mediaprogrammes, literature and website promotion,workshops and educational expos to achievethis. In addition, Barbados has institutionalstrengthening programmes to facilitate trainingopportunities for government agencies dealingwith solid waste management.Direct contact with local communities(e.g., through town hall meetings, etc.)and indirect contact (e.g., throughmedia campaigns) aim at raisingawareness about best practices andto stimulate increased consumerresponsibility.Japanese Eco Mark (Japan Environmental Association, 2011; Eco-Mark Office, 2007)The Eco Mark has been runby the Japan EnvironmentalAssociation for more than20 years and aims toprovide consumers withinformation on products’environmental impacts andto assist consumers topurchase more sustainably.The project is funded by theMinistry of Environment andcertified producers.Various labels under the Eco Mark indicatethat a good or service is environmentallyfriendly, considering its entire life cycle, fromextraction, through production and distribution,to usage and disposal. The criteria foreach product category are established incooperation with manufacturers, consumersand others. The increase in social awarenessfor environmentally friendly products, andconsequentially the number of labelledproducts and number of firms using thelabel, is attributed to complementary actionsincluding: news dissemination, campaigns,meetings, strengthening the labelling criteria,an award programme and internationalcooperation with other labels (including mutualrecognition).The eco-certification scheme bothbuilds on and fosters environmentalawareness in societies. It also helpscompanies differentiate themselvesin the marketplace, while providingconsumers with a trustworthystandard and product transparencythat facilitates more sustainableconsumption.Mongolian initiatives to reduce risks related to the use of chemicals(Ministry of Nature, Environment and Tourism of Mongolia, 2010)The Government ofMongolia has developeda strategy to gather andshare information aboutchemicals, including theuse of print and internetmedia.The government reports that it has conductedlife-cycle analyses of hazardous and toxicchemicals and that media campaigns havebeen organized throughout the country on thebasis of their findings. One specific outcome isthe ban of all mercury use in mining. In orderto share information, the Ministry of Nature,Environment and Tourism has created adedicated chemicals website. This allows usersto access national laws, regulations, standardsand international conventions on chemicalsfrom one source. The website also featuresa safety database of 250 chemicals that arewidely used in Mongolia, with informationon issues such as toxicity; rescue and reliefmeasures in case of spills and disasters; andguidelines for safe use, storage, transportationand disposal.Developing country-specific life-cycleanalyses helps identify nationalpriorities and builds capacity. Thedevelopment of an information storinghouse on chemicals promotes gooduse, although websites are reliant oninternet access.79

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 1 ContinuedSummary Major interventions Notable mechanisms promoting SCPPartnerships and CooperationBarbados: Sustainable gastronomic tourism in rural areas (Government of Barbados, 2009)This tourism initiative isa successful pilot projectthat Barbados now hopesto integrate into a UnitedNations Commission onSustainable Developmentpartnership framework forCaribbean Small IslandDeveloping States.The project was established as the result of anassessment of production and consumptionpatterns in a specific rural community. TheEnvironmental Unit and the Natural HeritageDepartment then collaborated to pilot a Farmand Food Lovers Trail, which, upon beingjudged a success by the government, waschosen for subsequent promotion within apartnership framework for Caribbean SmallIsland Developing States.Pilot programmes identified as bestpractice can be effectively sharedthrough partnerships with other states.United States Environment Protection Agency’s (EPA) inter-agency and external partnerships(United States Government, 2010)The EPA has addressedsustainability in a widerange of sectors bydeveloping partnershipswith other agencies, suchas the Department ofTransportation (DOT) andthe Department of Housingand Urban Development(HUD), as well as otherstakeholders, including thetransportation and freightindustry.The DOT-HUD-EPA Interagency Partnership forSustainable Communities works to improveaccess to affordable housing and to increasethe number of affordable transportationoptions, while protecting the environmentand promoting equitable development. TheSmartWay Transport Partnership, betweenthe EPA and the transportation technologyand freight industry, aims to accelerate thedeployment of fuel saving, low emissiontechnologies and operational best practicesacross the <strong>global</strong> freight supply chain. Ithas over 2,500 partners, including many ofthe world’s largest multinational retailers,manufacturers and transportation providers.Interagency and multi-stakeholderpartnerships facilitate policy alignmentand help ensure that sectoral initiativescan address sustainability issueseffectively.80

taking action togetherReferencesBojor, J. (2011). Romania: Investments inrenewable energy will receive subsidiestotaling approx. EUR 200 M, 7 April.Available from https://www.xing.com/net/erneuerbareenergien/ internationalboard-3217/romania-investments-inrenewable-energy-will-receive-subsidiestotaling-approx-eur-200-m-36308955.Defra (2009, December). Saving Energythrough Better Products and Appliances.Available from http://archive.defra.gov.uk/ environment/economy/documents/energy-products-1209.pdf.Defra (2011). Market TransformationProgramme. Available from http://efficient-products.defra.gov.uk/cms.Eco Mark Office (2007). Eco Mark MediumTerm Activity Plan. Available from http://www.ecomark.jp/english/pdf/vision2007.pdf.Estonian Ministry of the Environment(2010). Estonia UN CSD18: NationalReporting on 10 Year Framework ofProgrammes on Sustainable Consumptionand Production. 20 August 2011. Availablefrom http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/NationalReports/estonia/ESTONIA_SCP10YearCSD18.pdf.Government of Barbados (2009, October).National Report to The United NationsCommission for Sustainable Development(UNCSD) Cycle 18/19. Available fromhttp://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/ NationalReports/barbados/Full_text.pdf.Government of Romania (undated).Romania’s National Report for the 18thSession of the United Nations Commissionon Sustainable Development (CSD-18). 20August 2011. Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ ni_pdfs/NationalReports/romania/full_text.pdf.Goverment of the Federal Republicof Germany (2010, March). GermanNational Report for CSD 18 on theIssues “Chemical, Mining, the Ten YearFramework of Programmes on SustainableConsumption and Production Patterns,Transportation, and Waste Management.”Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs /NationalReports/germany/full_report.pdf.Government of Turkey (2010, April).National Report to the Eighteenth Sessionof the Commission on SustainableDevelopment. Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ ni_pdfs/NationalReports/turkey/Full_text.pdf.Japan Environmental Association, 2011.Eco-mark project. Global Outlook Project,UNEP. 20 August 2011. Available fromhttp://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/ShowPolicy.aspx?PolicyId=152&LngId=1.Ministry for Environmental Protection,Physical Planning and Construction ofCroatia (2010). National Report of theRepublic of Croatia to the UN Commission forSustainable Development CSD -18/19. 20August 2011. Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/NationalReports/croatia/full_text.pdf.Ministry of Environment and NationalDevelopment Unit Mauritius (2009, July).Mauritius National Reporting to CSD18.Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/ NationalReports/mauritius/Full_Report.pdf.Ministry of Nature, Environment andTourism of Mongolia (2010, February).Mongolia National Report on SustainableDevelopement for the 18th Sessionof the Commision on SD. 20 August2011. Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/NationalReports/mongolia/Full_text.pdf.Natural Resources Canada (2010). TheecoENERGY Efficiency Initiative, 30 June.Available from http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/corporate/eeinitiative.cfm.United States Government (2010). TheUnited States of America National Report:Transport, Chemicals, Waste Management,Mining, and Sustainable Consumption andProduction. Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_ni/ni_pdfs/NationalReports/usa/Full_text.pdf.81

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES4 Global Outlook on SCPPolicies: AfricaAuthors:Andrew Kitenge, Cleophas Migiro, Binelias Mndewa (Secretariat, African Roundtable on SCP-ARSCP).Contributors:Ute Sonntag, (AEM-GIZ) and ARSCP Members: Cheikh Fofana (Senegal), Geofrey Bakanga(Tanzania), Moussa Barry (Mali), Hanan El Hadary (Egypt), Lambert Faabeluon (Ghana), LeonardoGuiruta (Mozambique), Hanan Hanzaz (Morocco), Ibimina Kakulu (Nigeria), Edga Mugisha (Uganda),Constantine Mwembela (Zambia), Yeo Napari (Côte d’Ivoire), Ndivhuho Raphulu (South Africa),Sacheedanand Tahalo (Mauritius), Louis Blanc Traore (Burkina Faso).82

taking action together4.1 IntroductionAfrica is the planet’s second largest continent inboth land area and population (Dudley, 1999).The region is very diverse with regard to economy,culture, language, climate, industry structure andpolitics. It spans 54 sovereign countries with apopulation of approximately one billion people asof 2011 and represents 20.4 per cent of theEarth’s land area. Sovereign country size rangesfrom 243.7 km 2 in Seychelles to 2,381,700 km 2in Algeria (United Nations Environment Programme[UNEP], 2008).Countries in Africa can be grouped into fivesubregions – Northern Africa, West Africa, CentralAfrica, East Africa and Southern Africa – comprisingthe following countries:a) Northern Africa: Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco,Sudan, Southern Sudan, Tunisia and WesternSaharab) Western Africa: Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde,Côte d’Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, GuineaBissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria,Senegal, Sierra Leone and Togoc) Central Africa: Central African Republic, Chad,Democratic Republic of the Congo, Cameroon,Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, São Tomé and Prínciped) Eastern Africa: Burundi, Comoro, Djibouti,Ethiopia, Eritrea, Kenya, Madagascar, Mauritius,Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, United Republic ofTanzania and Ugandae) Southern Africa: Angola, Botswana, Lesotho,Malawi, Mozambique Namibia, Swaziland, SouthAfrica, Zambia and ZimbabweThe region’s economies are generally insufficientlydiversified, with a broad split between Northernand Southern African countries on one hand andthe sub-Saharan countries (Western, Central andEastern Africa) on the other. The former havemore diversified economies with more developedindustrial sectors, higher energy consumption andhigher carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions, while sub-Saharan African economies are mainly agricultural.About one third of Africa’s exports compriseagricultural raw materials, precious minerals and oil(United Nations, 2011).Country populations range from 200,000 inSão Tomé and Príncipe to 148 million in Nigeria.Population density ranges from 2.5 personsper km 2 in Namibia to 622 persons per km 2 inMauritius, while the estimated GDP of Africawas 2.3 per cent of the total GDP of the world in2009. In 2010 the GDP per capita was highest inSeychelles at US$24,837 and lowest in DemocraticRepublic of Congo at US$340 (InternationalMonetary Fund, 2010).The 24,165 km of peripheral coastline representsdiverse geographies, from the world’s largest hotdessert in the North, to the jungles and savannasof Central Africa, the source of the world’s longestrivers (the Nile, Congo and Zambezi).The region’s rich biodiversity boasts 40,000-60,000plant species, about 1,200 mammal species, 2,000bird species and 2,000 species of fish (UnitedNations Economic Commission for Africa [UNECA],2010). However, a significant proportion of theserich biodiversity resources risk extinction due to theirunsustainable exploitation.Environmental and development challenges aredeeply interlinked in Africa. Access to energy is aparticular challenge (African Roundtable on SustainableConsumption and Production [ARSCP], 2009). Inrural sub-Saharan Africa, less than 1 per cent of thepopulation has access to electricity. The majority ofthe population depends on traditional biomass energy.Alternative sources of power are not affordable to thepoor. The increased use of firewood, the expansionof agriculture and poorly regulated timber exploitationare all important factors contributing to deforestationin the region (UNEP, 2006). Between 1990 and 2000the forest cover declined by 0.8 per cent, comparedto <strong>global</strong> average forest decline of 0.2 per cent (UNEP,2006; ARSCP, 2009).Although Africa has enormous water resources,such as lakes, rivers, underground water anddams, more than 300 million people in Africa lackaccess to safe water (UNECA, 2009). Water scarcityand water pollution increase food insecurity andmalnourishment.On average, the people of Africa are the poorestin the world. More than 50.9 per cent of thesub-Saharan population of 736 million liveon under US$1 per day and 32 per cent areundernourished (Hunger Project, 2011). In Africa,rural populations are moving into urban centres inmassive numbers, leading to the highest rate ofurbanization in the world, 3.5 percent per annum(ARSCP, 2009). However, even in urban areas,these immigrants from rural areas are marginalizeddue to lack of skills. Sustainable consumptionand production (SCP) has the potential to increasecompetitiveness of agricultural products bycreating new markets and green jobs requiringlow skills, as well as providing renewable energytechnologies that are appropriate to rural areasand mitigating climate change.In order to reverse these trends, SCP principlesshould be mainstreamed in national developmentprogrammes, strategies and decisions withinthe region. This report highlights the progressmade in the region in SCP policy formulation and83

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESimplementation. It is divided into three sections:SCP policies by governments at the regional,subregional, national and local levels; businessinvolvement in SCP; and civil society activities topromote SCP.4.2 SCP policies at theregional levelSCP activities in Africa started in the mid 1990s.The United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization (UNIDO) and UNEP established NationalCleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) in 1995, whichhave remained the major institutions for promotingSCP in the region.Since 2000, the African network of NCPCs startedto convene biannual regional roundtables on SCP.In 2004, the NCPCs formed the ARSCP as a notfor-profitregional institution to promote SCP. TheARSCP is a multi-stakeholder forum and its activitiesinclude, but are not limited to, the organizationof national and subregional SCP roundtables,developing subregional and regional programmesand projects on SCP, and organizing trainings onselected SCP topics.The ARSCP pioneered the development of the African10-Year Framework of Programmes (10YFP) on SCPin 2005. The strategic focus of the 10YFP is linkingSCP with the challenges of meeting basic needsin a more sustainable manner. This frameworkof programmes brought new hope in the regionfor meeting the Millennium Development Goals(MDGs), with regard to the fight against povertyand environmental degradation (UNEP and ARSCP,2006).In 2005 the African Ministerial Conference onEnvironment endorsed the African 10YFP. As aresult, the Dakar Declaration (2005) emphasizesthe importance of linking SCP with the challengesof poverty and meeting basic needs. It calls uponnations to mainstream SCP in their national,subregional and regional activities under the 10YFP.The African 10 YFP has become the primaryframework for SCP development in the region. Itembodies four main thematic priority areas: energy,water and sanitation, habitat and sustainableurban development, and industrial development.The plan further points out priority projects andactivities in each thematic area. Development andimplementation of the African 10YFP have beensupported primarily by the Marrakech Taskforce onCooperation with Africa, which is led by Germany.The priority list of actions in each thematic area issummarized in Table 1.Since the endorsement of the African 10 YFP, a numberof subregional, national and local SCP programmes havebeen developed and implemented. This report highlightsSCP policies, initiatives, programmes and activities todate. The following major achievements of the African10YFP on SCP fall under five categories:Mainstreamingi. Pilot projects for mainstreaming SCP in national andsubnational development policies and plans wereconducted in Tanzania, Mauritius and the cities ofMaputo in Mozambique and Cairo in Egypt. OtherAfrican nations that have started or developed theirown national SCP plans in the context of the 10YFPinclude Burkina Faso, Ghana, Senegal, Uganda,Zambia, Côte d’Ivoire and Mali.ii. Development of subregional programmes suchas the Lake Victoria Environmental ManagementProgramme Phases I and II, which have been/or arebeing implemented in the East Africa Community(EAC) countriesEnergyiii. Development of the North Africa Energy EfficiencyInitiative, which formulates and applies a variety ofpolicies contributing to sustainable development inEgypt, Morocco and TunisiaWateriv. Establishment of the New Partnership for Africa’sDevelopment infrastructure project fund, whichprovides funding for sustainable energy projectsv. Studies on leapfrogging and reduction of waterconsumption in breweries, with these studies beingreplicated in other beverage industriesvi. Establishment of the Africa Ministerial Council onWater and the Africa Water taskforce to support theattainment of the MDGs on water and sanitationInformation-based instrumentsvii. Establishment of the Secretariat of the African EcolabellingMechanism (AEM) in Nairobi, Kenya underthe auspices of the African Union. This mechanismwill adapt, validate, harmonize and facilitateexisting ecolabelling initiatives in the region. It hasestablished the African Eco Mark label aiming toincrease international market access for Africanproducts (see Case Study 1)viii. Promotion of SCP in primary schools and mediagroups through the establishment of SCP clubs inTanzania (see Case Study 3)ix. Sustainable lifestyles and sustainableentrepreneurships have been promoted throughthe Smart Start-Up programmes for universities inTanzania, Kenya, Mauritius, Egypt and Ghana.Sustainable Public Procurementx. Mauritius has approved and Tunisia is currentlyfinalizing a National Action Plan on SustainablePublic Procurement.84

taking action togetherTable 1: African 10YFP on SCP: List of themes and prioritiesThemePrioritiesEnergy i. Assess and identify best practices for using renewable energy during the agricultural lifecycle, including policy analysis and recommendationsii. Implement projects on renewable energy technologies in rural agriculture, by providingdirect assistance to local communitiesiii. Promote and develop mini-hydropower for small rural enterprisesiv. Promote and support increased use of improved wood fuel stoves by households withappropriate financing mechanisms, offering credits to install better wood fuel stovesv. Promote the use of energy-efficient light bulbs and electric appliances through affordableprices and information to consumersvi. Develop campaigns on environmental education and information for sustainable useof energy through schools and other institutions in cooperation with non-governmentalorganizations (NGOs) and local communities.Water and sanitationPromote the implementation of the MDG on water and sanitation by mainstreaming SCPissues through:i. Knowledge management of best practice in Africa through documentation of bestpractises, identification of opportunities and making investmentsii. Transferring technology in water and sanitation by supporting efficient use of wateriii. Carrying out awareness and education on SCP in water resources by developing manualson best practises, campaigns and trainingiv. Replicating successful experiences in safe reuse of waste water by implementing pilotprojects on the topicv. Integrating SCP and a life-cycle approach in integrated water resource management(IWRM) and carry out surveys, awareness-raising and dissemination of resultsHabitat and sustainableurban developmenti. Promote integrated solid waste management (ISWM) in order to improve the wastemanagement for municipal and industrial waste, and promote waste prevention,minimization, reuse and recyclingii. Promote sustainable urban mobility by better managing the infrastructure fortransportation as a way of improving the health of people and the environmentiii. Reduction of vehicular emissions and the use of unqualified polluting carsiv. Sustainable urban development through the upgrading of unplanned settlements, aswell as employing city development strategies, and sustainable building designs andconstructionIndustrial development i. Strengthen the capacity of the ARSCP and its membersii. Explore the expansion of value chains for agricultural products and by-products byexpanding their industrial usesiii. Improve markets for sustainable goods and services to ensure competitivenessirrespective of destination marketSource: African Ministerial Conference on Environment (2005)All of these programmes support the implementationof SCP programmes and activities at regional,subregional, national and city levels. The followingsection describes selected activities at thesubregional level in more detail.SCP policies at the subregional levelAfrica has a number of subregional frameworks,programmes and initiatives based on its 10YFPon SCP.Northern AfricaThe Northern African states participate in the ArabStates Regional Strategy on SCP, which is supportedby the League of Arab States (LAS), the United NationsDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs and UNEP.They have held two regional SCP consultations (Al-Ain,in the United Arab Emirates, in March 2008, andCairo, Egypt, in September 2009). As a result, theArab states launched their Regional Strategy on SCPin September 2009. For detailed information, pleaseconsult the West Asia chapter of this report.East AfricaOne important initiative is the Lake VictoriaEnvironmental Management Project by the five EACPartner States and coordinated by the Lake VictoriaBasin Commission. It focuses on the collaborativemanagement of transboundary natural resources,with emphasis on management of the water andfisheries resources, interventions that will reduce85

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESEco Mark AfricaThe Eco Mark Africa label has been developedby the African Eco-labelling Mechanism (AEM).It is under the auspices of the African UnionCommission and hosted by the African Organisationfor Standardisation (ARSO) in Nairobi, Kenya.The initiative, which is supported by the MarrakechTask Force on Cooperation with Africa and theGerman Agency for Technical Cooperation (DeutscheGesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit[GIZ]) promotes African products in intra-African andinternational trade through the inclusion of ecologicalparameters into product standards. The objectiveof this project is to: reliably identify sustainableproducts from the agriculture, forestry, fisheries andtourism sectors; add to the value of African brands;and improve the image of sustainable Africanproducts on international markets. This improvesAfrica’s market share at national, regional andinternational levels (UNEP and ARSCP, undated).The importanceof ecolabelling hasbeen recognized inseveral countries.For example:•Tunisia hasnational organicstandards equivalentto those of the EuropeanUnion (EU) that focus onpromoting environmental quality, preservingconsumer health and safety, and improvingthe competitiveness of its exports abroad.In 2007 Tunisia started with a set of pilotproduct categories involving companies fromthe textiles, tourism, soap and detergents, andagro industries (UNECA and UNECA, 2008)•Kenya, which is the leading exporter of leatherproducts in the East African Community(EAC) and in the Common Market for Easternand Southern Africa, is developing ecolabelstandards with the help of UNEP, to meetEU standards for leather, to make full use ofits production capacity and to increase itsinternational market share (Janisch, 2007).environmental stress within the lake and itslittoral zone and watershed management. With theparticipation of local governments, communities andthe private sector as a prerequisite to promoting thesustainable use of indigenous people’s livelihoods,the project supports: (i) institutional capacitydevelopment and harmonization of policy, legislationsand regulatory frameworks and (ii) capacity-building atcommunity, national and regional levels.Another important initiative in East Africa is theNile Basin Initiative. The Nile River Basin, home tomillions of world’s poorest people, has a uniqueenvironment that is threatened by pollution andresource depletion. This initiative aims at enhancingthe analytical capacity of water resource experts tomanage, develop and protect the Nile Basin waters,contributing to security and prosperity for all (Foodand Agriculture Organization [FAO], undated).Southern AfricaThe Southern African Development Communityhas a subregional framework on renewable energy.The framework has set recommendations 1 onhow member states should: align their policies1. Among others issues, the framework recommends the use of fiscalincentives as drivers for renewable energy technology developmentand utilization through developing a ‘level playing field’ and adoptingfair pricing mechanisms, the use of the polluter-pays principle in orderto address externalities, gender mainstreaming and the creation ofrenewable energy enterprise zones, and prioritization of renewable energytechnologies.on this theme, collectively develop capacityto implement renewable energy projects, poolresources for development of appropriate renewableenergy technologies and facilitate trade in thesetechnologies. The ultimate objective is to increasecitizens’ access to affordable energy services andpromote sustainable development.This framework has been instrumental insuccessfully developing renewable energy capacityin the subregion. Examples include the Programmefor Energy Conservation and the Financing EnergyServices for Small-Scale Energy Users programme,which is supported by UNDP.4.3 National SCP policiesAt the national level, countries are increasinglydeveloping SCP action plans. To operationalize partsof the African 10YFP and generate region-specificknow-how that could be replicated in other countriesin the region (ARSCP, 2009), Burkina Faso, Ghana,Mauritius, Senegal, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambiahave developed or have started to developnational SCP action plans. The 10YFP priority areas– energy, water, urban development and industrialdevelopment – feature prominently in these nationalplans. The cities of Cairo in Egypt and Maputoin Mozambique have mainstreamed SCP in theirdevelopment plans. Additionally, Côte d’Ivoire and86

taking action togetherMali, have started to mainstream SCP in greeningtheir economies. In 2008 the National Roundtableon SCP in South Africa recommended priority areasfor SCP that should be included in its nationalstrategy on sustainable development(Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism,South Africa, 2008).The Marrakech Task Force on Cooperation withAfrica and UNEP supported the development andimplementation of the national- and city-level pilotaction plans (UNECA, 2009). Four of the countriesthat have developed SCP strategies and plans (Ghana,Mauritius, Tanzania and Zambia) and Senegal, whichhas included the 10YFP in its development plan, aredescribed more in detail below. Egypt and Mozambiqueare described in the city-level section. Efforts byCôte D’Ivoire and Mali are described in themainstreaming sections of this report.Mauritius has developed a comprehensive SCPprogramme with 44 projects, more than half ofwhich are being implemented. Its priority sectors areresource efficiency, ISWM and recycling, sustainablepublic service practice, increased market supply anddemand for sustainable products, and education andcommunication for sustainable lifestyles (see CaseStudy 2).The Senegalese 10-Year Action Plan on SustainableProduction and Sustainable Consumption wasdeveloped in 2006 in a participatory process,adopted in January 2007 and included in thesecond Strategy Paper Poverty Reduction (personalcorrespondence, Cheikh Fofana, 22 August 2011).It is based on an in depth analysis of national socialand economic development sectors, spanningfrom the primary (forestry, agriculture, water andlivestock), to the secondary (industry, construction,energy) and service (tourism, transport, commerce)sectors. It draws particular attention to the need forsustainable consumption of the following resources:firewood, construction materials (sand, basalt),some aquifers and overexploited species of fish.The action plan draws 10-Year Plans for the followingresources, production processes and sectors:firewood, tourism, textile, construction and housing,and agro-sylvo-pastoral production of fishing productsand aquaculture. For each sector, it provides acosted and staged plan comprising: awarenessraisingand information on SCP, capacity-building,setting up priority equipment, setting up monitoringand evaluation structures and mechanisms, andreinforcing public policy and legislation on SCP(Ministère de L’Environnement et de la Protection dela Nature, République du Sénégal, 2006).Tanzania developed its SCP National Action Plan in2008. It is based on the National Strategy for Growthand Poverty Reduction and focuses on the followingfive priorities, together with other crosscutting issues:energy efficiency, water and sanitation, habitatand urban sustainable development, industrialdevelopment (see Case Study 3).South Africa like, other countries, is developing anational ecolabelling scheme (see Case Study 4).Ghana’s Sustainable Development Action Plan, whichalso serves as its National Programme on SCP,provides the umbrella for action, development ofpolicy instruments and projects on SCP. It includesa major analysis of the country’s development plansand legislation to identify entry and leverage points(see Case Study 5).To accelerate the shift to SCP, Zambia has identifiedpilot activities that match the priorities of itsoverarching framework for sustainable development– called Vision 2030 – the African 10YFP and wherethe institutional structures are in place. For example,activities relate to demand-side managementof energy and water uses, integrated wastemanagement and sustainable agriculture. Zambiahas set indicators and identified possible sourcesof funding for these activities (Ministry of Tourism,Environment and Natural Resources, Republic ofZambia, 2011) (see Case Study 6).A variety of policies and practices exist with relationto harnessing Africa’s vast renewable energypotential. Zimbabwe has developed a draft energypolicy framework in 2008. The objectives of theenergy policy are to ensure accelerated economicdevelopment, to facilitate rural development, topromote small- to medium-scale enterprises, toensure environmentally friendly energy developmentand to ensure efficient use of energy resources(Renewable Energy and Energy EfficiencyPartnership, 2010). The following countries havemade use of their renewable energy potential(UNECA, 2006):•South Africa and Zimbabwe have developed minihydro plants. Mauritius already sources overhalf of its electricity from sugarcane bagasse(Karekezi and Kimani, 2010), Zimbabwe andMalawi produce ethanol from molasses.•South Africa, Namibia, Kenya and Zambiaproduce energy from geothermal sources. InKenya, its geothermal potential is estimatedin excess of 10,000 MW, which representsten times the current total power capacity(TradeInvest Kenya, 2011). Currently it hasinstalled capacity of 128 MW from geothermalsources (Access Kenya Group, 2011).•South Africa, Namibia and Mozambique startedwindmills and are researching the feasibility ofexpanding wind-energy harvesting.87

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESMauritius National Programmeon Sustainable Consumption andProductionIn Mauritius, the Ministry of Environment andSustainable Development, in collaboration with UNEP,has developed a National Programme on SCP forMauritius. The programme comprises 44 projects to beimplemented by 14 lead agencies within a 5-year timeframe (2008-2013).The National SCP Programme Framework is framedaround the following priority themes and sectors:energy, water, change in lifestyle, and mode ofproduction and consumption. A National SCPCoordination Committee has been set up to ensurethe effective and proper implementation of the NationalSCP Programme. These SCP initiatives contributeto Mauritius’s goal to become a sustainable island,commonly referred to as “Maurice Ile Durable.”In 2008 the Mauritius government introduced theMaurice Ile Durable Fund (Government of Mauritius,2008) to finance sustainable development in thecountry through taxes, subsidies, development partnersand carbon credits. It introduced a tax on plastic bags,polyethylene terephthalate bottles and petroleumproducts, and increased the road tax for large vehicles.In 2008 Mauritius was able to collect US$30 million,which is used to provide free consultancy serviceson energy audits for SMEs, subsidies for compactfluorescent lamps, grants for solar water heaters, taxremoval on hybrid vehicles and LED lamps for streetlighting (Ramjeawon, 2011).In the country’s National SCP Programme, 25 out ofthe above mentioned 44 projects are currently beingimplemented with a budget of US$1 million, throughjoint or individual action by multiple ministries. Someprojects identified under the National SCP Programmefor Mauritius did not take off due, inter alia, to a lackof funds. Projects on energy labelling and sustainablebuildings, among others, are progressing well, andenergy intensity per unit of output of the economy isfalling. However, absolute decoupling has not beenachieved and it is clear that high-level political aswell as technical and financial support are requiredfor successful complete implementation of theNational SCP Programme (Ministry of Environmentand Sustainable Development, Government ofMauritius, 2011).Source: UNEP (2011, a)Priority areasResourceefficiencyISWM andrecyclingSustainablepublic servicepracticesIncreasingmarket supplyand demandfor sustainableproductsEducation andcommunicationfor sustainablelifestylesPilot projectsEnergy: initiation of an auditingsystem, public procurementof energy efficient gadgets orappliancesWater: initiation of sustainableconsumption codes andregulations, audits, rainwaterharvesting systemsSustainable buildings andconstruction: initiation ofguidelines and a rating system,amendment of buildingregulations to embody energyefficiency principles, financialincentivesPromotion of supermarket wasterecycling (focus on cardboardsand plastics), diversion oforganic wastes from the hotelsector, backyard composting,elaboration of integrated wastemanagement action plans in alllocal authoritiesImplementation of a sustainablepublic procurement frameworkDevelopment of a nationalecolabelling framework, financialincentives, capacity-building forindustry in life-cycle managementand corporate sustainabilityreportingNational awareness campaign,locally adapted educationalmaterials targeting small andmedium-sized enterprises (SMEs)and awards programmes88

taking action togetherTanzania National Action Planon Sustainable Consumption andProductionAs an important step towards sustainabledevelopment, in 2008 Tanzania developed itsNational Action Plan on SCP (2008-2017) whichis based on the National Strategy for Growth andPoverty Reduction popularly known as MKUKUTA(a Swahili acronym).Tanzania’s National Action Plan focuses onthese five priorities: energy efficiency, waterand sanitation, habitat and urban sustainabledevelopment, industrial development, togetherwith other crosscutting issues.ThemeEnergyefficiencyWater andsanitationHabitatand urbansustainabledevelopmentIndustrialdevelopmentCrosscuttingareasPlanned pilot projectsDemand-side Management onEnergy UseDemand-side Management onWater Use and Water HarvestingIntegrated Solid WasteManagement in Urban Areas;Sustainable Building andConstruction; Cleaner City –Vehicular EmissionsSustainable Manufacturing;Sustainable Tourism; SustainableAgricultureEducation for SustainableConsumption and ProductionTanzania has set 96 national development targetsthat are monitored as part of its National Strategyfor Growth and Poverty Reduction, out of which 16pertain to the environment and are relevant to SCP.Activities:a. A national awareness-raising seminar wasconducted for Members of Parliamentdemonstrating the value of mainstreamingSCP in national development policies andstrategies. A media roundtable and campaignhelped to promote awareness on key issues inthe national action plan on SCP and facilitatethe dissemination of SCP benefits. Journalistsof mass media were trained to become SCPambassadors. The Journalist EnvironmentalAssociation of Tanzania, which has existedsince the 1990s, has started to make SCPone of its priority themes in their periodicalenvironment publications.b. SCP clubs in primary schools have beenformed as part of the Education for SCPPilot Project. In partnership with the NGONature for Kids and building on its children’senvironmental awareness and educationprogrammes in Tanzania, the project ran as apilot in three municipalities of Dar es Salaam(Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke) from July toOctober 2009 under the high-level coordinationof the Tanzania Vice President’s Office and theMinistry of Education and Vocational Training.c. In collaboration with Nature for Kids, theCleaner Production Centre of Tanzaniaimplemented a project promoting the 3Rprinciples: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Theproject aimed to sensitize parents and thecommunity at large with the help of the schoolagechildren. Forty-one schools and more than2,000 pupils in rural and urban locations ofDar es Salaam were involved. The pupils cameup with play stories on waste management andrecycled waste material into household objectsand artwork. They also campaigned to clean upa nearby market place.Lessons Learned•Involving and educating children helps todevelop their mindsets on sustainableconsumption•A good starting point are projects that havethe potential to produce quick results, that caneasily secure financial resources and that caneffectively demonstrate the benefits of SCP•To ensure the success of the programme, it iscrucial to communicate to stakeholders andinvolve them in the implementation process•Entertaining films and songs performed in thenational language are effective for educatingchildren on SCPSources: UNEP and Federal Ministry for theEnvironment, Nature Conservation and NuclearSafety (undated); UNEP (2011, a).89

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESExamples of moving towardsmainstreaming of SCP and a greeneconomy: Côte d’Ivoire and MaliCôte d’Ivoire and Mali have studied how to integrateSCP and green economy concerns into existingnational planning frameworks. The countries havebeen supported by UNEP, and in the case of Mali,also by the Poverty and Environment Initiative.The Republic of Mali produced a study called Étudesur les Modes de Consommation et de ProductionDurables (2010) on potential synergies and linkagesbetween sustainable consumption and productionand the country’s poverty alleviation efforts.The outcomes of the study are used as inputs tothe national sustainable development and povertyreduction strategies.In 2010 a two-day capacity-building workshopon SCP and Green Economy, in collaborationwith the Poverty and Environment Initiative,brought together a large group of participantsfrom different ministries including Environment,Planning, Finance, Economy, Water, and Energy.Mali is further planning to imbed a greeningprocess in the forthcoming Poverty ReductionStrategy Paper.South Africa National Framework forSustainable DevelopmentSouth Africa held its first roundtable on SCPin Johannesburg in August 2008 markingits initial step into the Marrakech Processand its contribution to the implementation ofthe Johannesburg Plan of Implementation. Itrecommended developing a framework strategyfor SCP that integrated all the existing SCP policiesand initiatives taken at various governmental levels.The roundtable identified the following priorityareas: energy and climate change, integratedwaste management, sustainable procurement,and sustainable building and construction.Later in 2008, South Africa finalized the NationalFramework for Sustainable Development, whichincluded priority areas for SCP that had beenrecommended by the National Roundtablementioned above. It proposes a national vision,principles and areas for strategic intervention thatwill enable and guide the development of thenational strategy and action plan. The fivestrategic focus areas for interventionare: enhancing systems for integratedplanning and implementation;sustaining ecosystems andusing natural resourcesefficiently; economicdevelopment via investing insustainable infrastructure;creating sustainablehuman settlements; andresponding appropriatelyto emerging humandevelopment, economicand environmentalchallenges.During the national Green Economy Summit in May2010, the South African government, in collaborationwith business and civil society organizations (CSOs),committed to investing in green industries and greenjobs to ensure that the country’s growth path isresource efficient, less carbon intensive and morelabour absorbing. It also committed to mobilizingand further developing the significant scientific andtechnological capacities of society at large.The different stakeholder groups worked togetheron the formulation and adoption of sustainabledevelopment indicators to guide the integration ofeconomic growth, social equity and environmentalprotection. This collaboration includes:•The stronger alignment of policies to maximizethe use of funds, capacity and tools that havebeen developed for the implementation of SCPprinciples•An examination of consumer information in orderto influence behaviour changes for the promotionof sustainable development•Development of green growth policies andregulations that support and enable an integratedstrategy that effectively covers, both economywideand sector-level demand and supply aspects.The integrated strategy ensures coherence inpolicy design and implementation and maximizesthe synergies among different policies toaccelerate the development and diffusion ofclean technologies and related knowledgeTo promote SCP, South Africa is also developing theSouth African National Eco-labelling Scheme. Thelabel aims to become a credible and independentguide to help consumers identify products withlower environmental impacts. It also aims to providefor standards in export markets that demand anational ecolabel certificate so they can grow thepool of eco-friendly goods and services and improvecompetitiveness in the sustainable goods andservice market (Eco Standard South Africa, 2010).90

taking action togetherGhana National Programme on SCPIn Ghana, the Sustainable Development ActionPlan is also the National Programme on SCPand includes a major analysis of the country’sdevelopment plans and legislation. The NationalProgramme places emphasis on education, inits broadest sense, to transform the country. Itfocuses on: education for sustainable lifestylesaimed at the broad population, developingthe science base, and applying and managingappropriate technology to achieve its goal ofbecoming a middle-income country by 2015. AsGhana is well endowed with natural resourcessuch as gold, diamonds and petroleum, the planincludes the promotion of research on naturalresources and better ways of mining theseresources to decouple growth from environmentaldegradation. One of the key areas of the GhanaPoverty Reduction Strategy is the restoration ofthe environment and sustainable natural resourcesmanagement (Environmental Protection Agency,Government of Ghana and UNEP, 2010).The National Programme on SCP focus on energy,water and sanitation, and urban and industrialdevelopment. It identifies priorities for energysuch as: assessment and identification ofbest practices on renewable energy to be usedduring the life cycle of agriculture; promotingthe use of energy-efficient light bulbs andelectric appliances through affordable pricesand information to consumers; and developingcampaigns on environmental education forsustainable use of energy through schools andother institutions in cooperation with NGOs. Onthe themes of water and sanitation, it aims topromote the implementation of IWRM, which wasendorsed by the National Water policy developedin 2007, adopting a life-cycle approach andreplicating successful experiences in safe reuseof waste water (Environmental Protection Agency,Government of Ghana and UNEP, 2010).For their theme on chemicals, the NationalProgramme identifies the need for creatingsynergies between Stockholm and Rotterdamconventions on chemicals and waste at thenational level and set a number of bannedchemicals as one measure to monitor progressin this respect. The plan also promotes cleanerproduction techniques in industry and highlightsthe need for increased capacity for implementationand enforcement. The National Programmespecifically recommends lowering the current 25per cent corporate tax in order to encourage firmsto invest in cleaner technologies (EnvironmentalProtection Agency, Government of Ghana andUNEP, 2010).Concerning policy instruments already in use, thegovernment has instituted the liquefied petroleumgas promotional levy aimed at promoting the useof the more environmentally friendly gas. Cleargoals are proposed in the Strategic NationalEnergy Plan (2006–2020), which aims to increaseliquefied petroleum gas penetration by 30 percent by 2020. To combat deforestation, theStrategic National Energy Plan also calls for 15per cent penetration of rural electrification bydecentralized renewable energy, and a reductionin firewood intensity by rural households by 10per cent and by urban households by 50 per cent(Environmental Protection Agency, Government ofGhana and UNEP, 2010).The Action Plan for SCP and Industry proposesactions encompassing ecodesign requirements,reinforcing energy and environmental labelling,incentives for highly performing products,green public procurement, and partnershipswith retailers and cooperation with consumers.The plan proposes, for example, to extend theecodesign directive to all energy-related products,including not only those that consume energy,but any product that has an impact on energyconsumption (e.g., water taps and windows)(Environmental Protection Agency, Government ofGhana and UNEP, 2010).On the theme of transportation, Ghana haschosen a short-term project to demonstrate SCPon eco-driving. This low-cost measure aims toreduce CO 2 emissions by 5-15 per cent in cars,buses and trucks, with the best drivers achievinga 50 per cent reduction (Environmental ProtectionAgency, Government of Ghana and UNEP, 2010).91

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESIn Côte d’Ivoire, the national sustainabledevelopment strategy guides economic and socialdevelopment, respecting and protecting thecountry’s natural resources and the environment.Developed with technical and financial assistancefrom UNDP, Organisation Internationale de laFrancophonie, Institute of Forestry/Institut del’Energie et de l’Environnement de la Francophonieand UNEP, it is in line with the national PovertyReduction Strategy Paper (2009-2013) and UnitedNations Development Assistance Framework-UNDAF(2009-2013).An awareness-raising and capacity-buildingworkshop using the Planning for Change 10-Step Methodology was organized in 2009 toreinforce national capacity on SCP and to promotesustainable development. The workshop was thekick-off event to develop an SCP pillar for thenational sustainable development strategy. Itbrought relevant ministries and other stakeholderstogether to discuss concrete modalities to developan SCP pillar.As a direct outcome of this training, the NationalSustainable Development Commission decided toconduct an additional study, SCP in Côte d’Ivoire:Challenges and Opportunities (Ministère deL’environnement des eaux et forêts, Republic ofthe Côte d’Ivoire, 2010), to complete the nationalsustainable development diagnostic stage.This study is an analysis of existing strategiesand policies relevant to SCP, baseline data andexisting activities. It presents the challengesand opportunities in mainstreaming SCP in Côted’Ivoire’s national development planning, where SCPcan become a key element for poverty alleviation.A second SCP training was held in May 2010 topresent the first draft of the national study on SCP.Both examples underscore the need for baselinedata, awareness and capacity-building for the issuesand linkages across ministries, and stakeholderconsultations.City-level SCP plansThis section describes two pilot city-level actionplans developed under the African 10YFP. Inconjunction with national pilots, city pilot SCPaction plans based on the 10YFP were developedin 2008 for Cairo, Egypt and Maputo, Mozambique.These pilots have been replicated in other citiesin Africa, such as Matola in Mozambique andAlexandria in Egypt.Maputo, MozambiqueThe Mozambican framework of SCP programmesat the city level was developed in the context ofthe Mozambique National Action Plan for AbsolutePoverty Reduction, which aims at reducing povertyby promoting sustainable and comprehensiveeconomic growth. It was developed in cooperationwith the Mozambique National Cleaner ProductionCentre and several committees formed by centraland local government officials and NGOs.The Maputo pilot programme supports fournational sectoral policies in the areas ofenergy, water, urban development and industrialdevelopment. Parallel with the development ofthe Maputo programme, a similar programmewas developed for the nearby city of Matola(Mozambique National Cleaner Production Centre,2007).The following priority programmes were identifiedfor the cities:Integrated Solid Waste Management•Education for Sustainable Consumption andProductionSustainable TourismDemand-Side Management on Energy Use•Demand-Side Management and WaterHarvesting•Sustainable Buildings and ConstructionFrom the above projects, the Sustainable TourismProgramme was further developed into a jointUNIDO and UNEP project on MainstreamingResource Efficient and Cleaner Production in theAccommodation Sector of Mozambique and itsSupply Chain. The project is coordinated by theMozambique National Cleaner Production Centre,and the UNIDO component is being implemented inseven hotels in Maputo and Matola cities. 2Cairo, EgyptWithin the framework of Africa’s 10YFP, Cairodeveloped its city SCP programme as a pilot foran SCP programme at the mega-city level. TheEgyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, the CairoGovernor and the Egyptian National CleanerProduction Centre jointly planned its development.After consultation with local authorities, a numberof pilot projects were identified in four thematicareas: solid waste management, industrialdevelopment, urban development with a focus onslum areas, and transportation and its emissions.One of the main achievements in implementingthe pilot programme was the development andimplementation of an ISWM plan, based on thepromotion of source separation of waste, forthe Heliopolis district. It included a baseline2. UNIDO (unpublished), Progress Report (August to December 2010):Mainstreaming Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production in theAccommodation Sector of Mozambique and its Supply Chain. ProjectNumber: UE/MOZ/10/002.92

taking action togetherZambia: Vision 2030The overarching framework for sustainabledevelopment in Zambia is its Vision 2030. Itsprincipal polices that integrate SCP elementsare: the National Policy on Agriculture (2005),the National Policy on Environment (2007), theNational Energy Policy (2008) and the NationalWater Policy (2010) (Ministry of Tourism,Environment and Natural Resources, Republicof Zambia, 2011).One key goal of the Zambia Vision 2030 is a fullyintegrated and sustainable water and resourcemanagement programme (Ministry of Tourism,Environment and Natural Resources, Republicof Zambia, 2011). In the areas of water andsanitation, one of its goals is to improve access toappropriate and environmentally friendly sanitationfor all, using the Devolution Trust Fund to fund pilotprojects in low-income areas (Ministry of Tourism,Environment and Natural Resources, Republicof Zambia, 2011). The Devolution Trust Fundwas established in 2003 by the National WaterSupply and Sanitation Council, and is fundedby the Government of the Republic of Zambiaand partners such as Deutsche Gesellschaft fürInternationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ, formerlyGTZ), Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau, DanishInternational Development Assistance and theEuropean Commission (Muyeba, undated). It fundswater kiosks set up by commercial utilities toprovide basic sanitation. In 2010, it provided thefunding to set up 65 water kiosks, 59 km of waterpipes and 350 m 3 of water tanks (Devolution TrustFund, 2010). One kiosk can serve up to 1,800people (Ministry of Tourism, Environment andNatural Resources, Republic of Zambia, 2011).For the pilot activities in the field of sustainableagriculture, Zambia plans to promote agroforestry.It has set a goal of increasing the numberof commercial famers employing sustainablefarming practices by 20 per cent and, for smalltomedium-scale farmers, by 30 per cent in thefirst year of implementation. An example of thesustainable practices they are promoting is treeintercropping. † One of the most effective speciesfor intercropping in Zambia is faidherbiaalbida.(Ministry of Tourism, Environment and NaturalResources, Republic of Zambia, 2011). This treehas been frequently reported to significantlyincrease crop yields for cotton, groundnut, maize,millet and sorghum when grown in proximity(FAO, 2011). The African Carbon Credit exchangeis working with Zambian and internationalpartners to get each famer to agree to plant 100faidherbiaalbida on one hectare of their land(Ministry of Tourism, Environment and NaturalResources, Republic of Zambia, 2011).To promote efficient use of energy, thegovernment, in cooperation with ZambiaElectricity Supply Corporation Limited, hasstarted an electricity demand-side programme.Some of its actions include the suspensionof duty and value-added tax on energy-savinglamps, energy-efficient appliances and powergenerators. The government also introduceda voluntary Time of Use tariff for high-demandusers, such as farmers and manufacturers.These users receive a discount of between 25and 50 per cent on capacity and energy chargesrespectively between 10p.m. and 6a.m. Thismeasure should free up capacity for power duringthe day (Ministry of Tourism, Environment andNatural Resources, Republic of Zambia, 2011).† Intercropping consists of planting crops directly below and between treesPhoto courtesy of National Water and Sanitation Council, Zambiaassessment of waste, collection systems,transportation and final treatment methodsand facilities. It could be replicated elsewherein Cairo and in other cities in the region. It alsoprovided a basis for mainstreaming SCP insectoral policies and strategies (Marrakech TaskForce on Cooperation with Africa and GermanFederal Ministry of Environment, undated;personal communication, Hanan El Hadary,22 September 2011).Policy instrumentsSome policy instruments that support the shifttowards SCP have been developed in Africa. Whilea combination of regulatory, economic, information-93

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESbased and voluntary instruments have beenused, much is still needed in the area of policydevelopment to meet the expectations of the 10YFP.Regulatory instrumentsA regulatory approach that features prominently inthe Africa SCP frameworks is the setting of minimumproduct specification standards. From a review often countries (Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ghana, Kenya,Mauritus, Rwanda, South Africa, Tanzania, Ugandaand Zambia), at least three have set such standardswith relation to plastic products.Thin plastic bags (below 30 microns) generally tendto be used only once and then are thrown away.This ‘single-use practice’ creates a lot of wasteand littering. However, thick plastic bags can bereused many times. For this reason, many countrieshave banned thin plastic bags. EAC countries havebanned thin plastic bags and have set minimumstandards for plastic bag thickness (ARSCPSecretariat, 2010).The Kenya Institute for Public Policy Researchand Analysis (KIPPRA) was commissioned by theKenyan government to review the various policyinstruments and experience of managing plasticwastes in other countries (both developed anddeveloping). As a result, KIPPRA came up witha policy package proposal for plastic bag wastemanagement in Nairobi. Based on their findingsand recommendations, the Kenyan governmentissued a report on 23 February 2005 proposing thatKenya should ban the common plastic bags thatconsumers get from retailers. Also, they placed alevy on other plastic bags such that money raisedfrom these levies is directed to create plasticrecycling programmes. The partial ban of flimsyplastic bags with thickness below 30 microns cameinto effect on 14 June 2007 (KIPPRA, 2006).Mauritius has set product standards to ensure thatonly energy-efficient appliances are consumed.Under the Energy Efficiency Act (2011), Mauritiusrequires energy audits for buildings, minimum energyefficient standards for appliances and labelling ofproducts. Labels for appliances must contain clearproduct specifications (Government Gazette ofMauritius, 2011).Regulation 5 of Uganda’s National WasteManagement Regulations (National EnvironmentManagement Authority, Uganda, 1999) mandatescleaner production techniques for productionprocesses, efficient utilization of raw material,energy conservation, exclusion of toxic raw materialsfrom the production process and waste minimization.In addition, these regulations emphasize productmonitoring, identification of product negativeimpacts, sustainable product design and recycling(National Environment Management Authority,1999). For example Sub-regulation 5.1 statesthat: “A person who owns or controls a facility orpremises which generate waste shall minimize thewaste generated by adopting cleaner productionmethods ie improvement of production processesand monitoring the product cycle from beginning tothe end” (National Waste Management Authority,1999).Another policy being promoted for SCP in the regionis sustainable public procurement. Projects oncapacity-building for sustainable public procurementin developing countries have been piloted inMauritius and Tunisia.Economic instrumentsEconomic instruments such as pollution fees andcharges are commonly used in Africa (ARSCP, 2009).Examples of economic instruments that promoteSCP in the countries studied include: a plasticbag levy in South Africa; contracts for managingsolid wastes between governorates and the privatesector in Egypt; subsidies for solid waste facilitiesin Tanzania; and levies on petroleum products,aluminum cans, polyethylene terephthalate bottlesand a road tax in Mauritius. Parry (2011) found that,in Mauritius, “excise taxes on petroleum productsand motor vehicles are the two largest sources ofrevenue raised from taxes in Mauritius that might berationalized on environmental grounds” (p. 9). In the2008-2009 fiscal year, fuel excise raised Rs2,213million or 4.7 per cent of total tax collections, whilevehicle excise raised Rs1,852 million, or 3.9 percent of total tax collections. Parry (2011) found thatwhile the levies’ main motivation is to raise revenue,it is close in design to an ideal tax for mitigatingCO 2 emissions. “Excise on plastic products (bottles,bags, and cans), an environmental protection fee (atax on hotels, guest houses, and tourist residences),and a solidarity levy, each contributed 0.2–0.3percent of total tax revenue, while passenger feecontributed 1.2 percent of total tax revenues” (Parry,2011, p. 9).In the 2008-2009 fiscal year, excise on fuelsraised Rs2, 213 million or 4.7 per cent of total taxcollections (Parry, 2011).Voluntary agreementsVoluntary agreements between governments andbusinesses can encompass measures such asvoluntary reporting, the setting of voluntary targetsand certifications. One example of voluntaryagreements that helped to decrease environmentalimpacts, while contributing to the country’sgross domestic product (GDP) are the voluntaryagreements between the Moroccan Ministry ofEnergy, Mines, Water and Environment and thecement industry.94

taking action togetherTable 2: Cement industry upgradesObjective Actions taken ResultsReducingemissions of dustand gasWater savingsEnergy saving andrenewable energyFuels andalternativematerialsLandscape andimprovement inliving conditions• z Dusting gas equipment upgrade• z Monitoring devices installation and upgrade• z Development and control of themanufacturing process• z Extension of paving and areas of dustemission covers• z Control of CO 2 emissions• z Generalization of dry processes• z Closed circuit for recycling of water• z Desalination of seawater• z Installation of pre-calcination in preheatertowers, vertical roller mills• z Improved fuel mix (fuel, coal and petroleumcoke and alternative fuels)• z Upgrading of equipment-process (variablespeed motors)• z Introduction of co-generation• z Development of renewable energy (windfarms)• z Use of alternative fuels (shredded tires,waste oil, etc.)• z Valorization of alternative materials such asscale, fly ash, ash pyrrhotite, sludge fromwater treatment plants, etc.• z Interior paving, paving areas and roadways• z Rehabilitation and quarries development• z Planting trees and shrubs• z Noise reduction• z Dust emission reduced by 70%• z SO 2 emissions reduced by 62%• z NO x emissions reduced by 41%• z CO 2 emissions reduced by 25%• z Consumption reduction from 300 to 120liters/t cement• z Sending waste water to semiarid areas• z Use of 1000 m 3 /day of desalinated water• z Recycling of water• z Reduce heat consumption from 1500 to 770kcal/t clinker• z Consumption reduction of electricity from120 to 78 kWh/t cement.• z Installation of windmills with a capacityof 37 MW• z Valorization of 80,000 to 100,000 t of waste• z Use of 680 kiloton/year of other materialsas a substitute or additions in raw cementmaterials• z Paving of traffic areas: 110 000 m 2• z Redevelopment of quarries: 250 ha• z Plantations: 450 000 trees and shrubs• z Development of an Argan tree planting:500 of 1200 ha planned• z Elimination of 550 t of plastic• z Improved visual appearanceSource: Association Professionelle des Cimentiers 2011In 1997, the Association of Cement Industries(Association Professionnelle des Cimentiers) signeda six-year voluntary agreement with the MoroccanMinistry of Energy, Mines, Water and Environmenton behalf of the industry committing to integratingthe environmental dimension in the choice of thelocation, equipment and industrial processes.Later it signed specific agreements on waste oilelimination (2004), plastic elimination (2008) toreduce pollution and environmental degradationand entered into a broader agreement with severalministries (Maradan and Zein, 2011).It is important to note that all these agreementsand conventions became effective in 2011. Some ofthem are gaining momentum. This is the case in theremoval of plastic bags, which increased from 190metric tons in 2010 to 1,000 metric tons in 2011.Achievements following the upgrades are shown inTable 2.In 1997 the costs of environmental damage andinefficiency were estimated at 15 per cent ofthe sector’s added value. Through the measuresadopted to fulfill the voluntary agreements, thecosts fell to 3 per cent by the year 2008. Thereduction of the cement industry’s costs of damageand inefficiencies has been linked to adoptionof measures such as: ISO 14001 certification ofmajor cement plants, the adoption of effectivefiltration systems, process optimization, the useof renewable energy, the reduction of water andelectricity consumption, and quarry reclamations,including planting trees, refilling, etc. (Maradan andZein, 2011).Between 1997 and 2008, the cement sectorinvested MAD2.5 billion (about €230 million) inenvironmental protection, as follows (personalcommunication, Hanan Hanzaz, 22 November2011):95

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES•MAD1.5 billion for upgrades and equipment atproduction plants•disposal•MAD500 million dedicated to waste valorization/MAD500 million for the production of electricalenergy, out of which 37 MW was produced fromwindmillsThe cement industry’s contribution to MoroccanGDP increased from 0.61 per cent to 0.74 per centduring this period, while the environmental impactsfell from 1.41 per cent to 0.19 per cent of totalenvironmental degradation. Thus, this voluntaryagreement not only contributed to the return of theinvested capital, but also for the well-being of thepopulation of Morocco (Maradan and Zein, 2011).Information and education instrumentsIn Africa, examples of public information andawareness-raising can be found in key areas suchas waste (Kenya), and energy and water savings(Tanzania, South Africa and Mauritius).One such example is the annual Water Week inTanzania. Since its inauguration in 2001, it hasaimed at educating the public about good watermanagement (Onyango, 2011), which is crucialsince the seasonal rainfall in Tanzania providesa challenge for collecting water during the dryseason. Normally, water collection for householduse is the work of women and children. Becausethey have to walk from early morning to midday tocollect water, productive hours are lost and childrenmiss school. A demonstration project in Biharamuloin rural Tanzania showed that an average schoolroof in Tanzania covering about 250 m 2 has thepotential to feed water tanks with about 20,000 m 3of water – enough for an average of 500 students.This represents enough water for a whole year(Concern, 2010).Another initiative found is introducing sustainablelifestyles and sustainable entrepreneurship intouniversities and colleges also known as SMARTStart-up, which trains the academic communityand young people in post-secondary education onSCP. This training has been supported by UNEPand the Wuppertal Institute Collaborating Centreon SCP (2011, a), and involves universities fromsix countries in Africa: Egypt, Ethiopia, Ghana,Kenya, Mauritius, Tanzania and Germany (WuppertalInstitute Collaborating Centre on SCP and Ministryof Environment Sweden, 2011). In 2010 the SMARTStart-Up ICT initiative was launched in collaborationwith Deutsche Telekom. It addresses the need toimprove entrepreneurship and ensure sustainablepractices in the ICT industry, presenting the conceptof sustainability as an opportunity for investment inand the development of sustainable business ideas(Wuppertal Institute Collaborating Centre on SCP,2011b).4.4 SCP initiatives for andby businessThe African 10YFP on SCP considers the privatesector as an important actor in driving the shiftto SCP. Businesses are urged to adopt policies,strategies and practices that are cleaner, safer,eco-efficient and socially responsible. Sustainableproduction initiatives in Africa date back to the early1990s. Initially, bilateral cooperation programmessuch as the cleaner production programme in Tunisiasupported by United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment and the Cleaner EnvironmentalProduction in Industry Programme in Tanzaniasupported by the Danish International DevelopmentAgency, were implemented.Starting in 1995, business was supported by theestablishment of cleaner production centres toassist them in becoming more efficient and lesspolluting. The 12 NCPCs in the region (Cape Verde,Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Morocco, Mozambique,Rwanda, South Africa, Tunisia, Uganda, theUnited Republic of Tanzania and Zimbabwe) playa vital role through training, capacity-building, anddemonstrating the economic and environmentalbenefits of SCP to the business community.Today, several programmes aimed at sensitizingbusinesses to voluntarily implementing SCP in viewof the benefits stemming from adopting sustainablepractices are in place.The UNIDO-UNEP Resource Efficient and CleanerProduction Programme in developing countries andeconomies in transition continues to be one of theleading <strong>global</strong> initiatives in adapting and adoptingsustainable production.Additionally, several research projects aiming atenhancing the scientific knowledge for SCP havebeen implemented. For example, the African BrewerySector Water Saving Initiative was conceived byARSCP and supported by UNEP. The project aimed todemonstrate how to save water in breweries. Breweriesin Ethiopia, Ghana, Morocco and Uganda, whose waterconsumption ranged from 7.2 to 22 litres of waterper hectolitre of beer (UNEP, undated) have reducedtheir water consumption considerably. For example,the Dashen Brewery, which is the best performer inEthiopia, has achieved a consumption rate of 6.5litres of water per litre of beer in 2011. 3 Furthermore,this initiative reduces the amount of chemicals usedfor water treatments in breweries. The initiative hasset parameters that could be used to measure waterefficiency in other breweries and has now beenextended to the beverage industry (UNEP, 2011b).3. UNEP and ARSCP (unpublished). Report on Regional SCP Meeting, Dares Salaam, 21-22 September 2011.96

taking action togetherCommercial production of medicinalplants by a community forestconservation groupIn a project that helps protect the uniquebiodiversity of the Kakamega Forest,researchers at the International Centre ofInsect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) in Kenyahave developed a successful enterprise withthe local community-based MFCG to produceointments from medicinal plants.The work of ICIPE focuses on tropical insectscience. Spanning prevention, cure and integratedpest management, it thereby contributes to health,the sustainable use of natural resources andsustainable livelihoods. First established in Kenyain 1970, it has partnered with the University ofNairobi, the Kenya Wildlife Service, the World AgroForestry Centre and the Kenya Forestry ResearchInstitute to set up a variety of forest conservationprojects. The work of ICIPE in the KakamegaForest, the eastern-most fragment of the Guineo-Congolian rainforest, brought it together withcommunity members from the neighbouringvillage of Virhembe. Thirty farmers in this villagehad originally started the MFCG in the 1990swith the aim of conserving the forest by plantingtree seedlings to sell to other members of theircommunity.ICIPE and its partners introduced to thesefarmers the techniques of on-farm cultivationof the medicinal plant species Ocimumkilimandscharicum, an indigenous herb of the mintfamily that they traditionally harvested from thewild and used to treat colds, flu, coughs, soreeyes, diarrhoea, abdominal pain and measles.Using the essential oil from its leaves, ICIPE,together with the University of Nairobi, developeda commercially branded range of products knownas Naturub®, which includes a balm and anointment. The oil is extracted locally by membersof the MFCG group, who have mastered thetechnology and set up a hydrodistillation facilityin their village, with assistance from ICIPE and itspartners. Funding is provided by the Small GrantsProgramme of the Global Environment Facility, theFord Foundation, the MacArthur Foundation andthe Swiss-based Biovision Foundation.The MFCG farmers are able to run a sustainableprofit-making venture based on this medicinalplant. Not only does it help with forestconservation, the growers also make a muchbetter income than they would from maizecultivation. The group now has the capacity tocontract with other farmers in Western Kenya toscale up production, manufacturing the Naturub®range for nationwide distribution (ICIPE, 2011).The initial farming group of 30 members fromVirhembe has fostered eight out-grower groupscurrently growing Ocimum kilimandscharicumon 20 hectares spread over three districts inthe Kakamega County of Western Kenya. Thesales benefit nearly 360 households (averagingseven people per household) participating in thecommercial cultivation, benefiting a population ofover 2,500 people. Since 2005 the communityenterprise has produced 450,000 pieces ofNaturub® balm and ointment products and thecollective sales stand at US$75,000 (Personalcorrespondence, Fred Nduguli, ICIPE, 11 August2011).The project won international recognition whenthe MFCG won the Equator Prize in September2010 during the United Nations GeneralAssembly and Millennium Development GoalsReview Summit in New York. It was also oneof 30 innovative start-up ventures selected aswinners of the SEED Awards for Entrepreneurshipin Sustainable Development (SEED Initiative,2010d; ICIPE, 2011)Photo courtesy of ICIPE97

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESOther platforms and business associations havebeen promoting sustainable business practicesin the region by providing seed funding ordisseminating good practices.On a regional level, the African Institute ofCorporate Citizenship, an initiative by the NewPartnership for Africa’s Development, wasestablished in 2001. This business associationpromotes the role of business in buildingsustainable communities. Related are organizedforums promoting the adoption of sustainablepractices among African companies. The AfricaCorporate Sustainability Forum is one such example(UNECA, 2008).On a subregional level, an example is the Easternand Southern Africa Leather Industries Association,which supports the interests of the RegionalLeather and Footwear Products Industry. A singleleather grading system was established, whichaims to facilitate the entry of leather products intomarkets in developed countries. For example, ithas enabled Uganda to produce quality leatherand leather goods from fish (Nile perch) skin thatis otherwise waste, turning waste into a resource,and export them to Europe. Today, Uganda exportsabout 7,000 skins per month of sizes 0.7 to 1.9 sqft at US$10 per sq ft. (personal correspondence,Edgar Mugisha, 1 June 2011).On an enterprise level, African business has startedto address SCP in their operations and in thecontext of social and environmental responsibility.In 2010, the SEED Initiative recognized 30sustainable start-up ventures in ten countries(Burkina Faso, China, Colombia, Ghana, Kenya,Niger, Rwanda, Senegal, South Africa and SriLanka), seven of which were African. The examplesfrom South Africa, Niger and Kenya show businessmodels based on sustainability practices bringingsocial and environmental benefits. They encompassdifferent life-cycle stages, from manufacturing ofsustainable products to consumption, use andwaste management. Three of the initiatives in Africaand their contribution to SCP are described here toillustrate the possible shift to SCP on the ground.The Claire Reid Reel Gardening project providesconsumers in South Africa with a pre-fertilized,biodegradable seed strip that encases seeds atthe correct distance apart. Implemented by a youthorganization with assistance from government andsocial development programmes, the initiative aimsto create sustainable subsistence gardens to growvegetables, herbs and flowers throughout SouthAfrica. Reel Gardening uses worm castings asorganic fertilizer and the paper and ink of the stripsare biodegradable (SEED Initiative, 2010a).A case for adopting a life-cycle approach is madeby Almodo, a partnership between a small businessand a research institution in Niger. Almodo collectsand recovers waste that is then transformed intoproducts for the local community, such as schoolslates, paving stones, bricks, latrines, organicfertilizers or combustibles, making a contributionto improving the environment and sanitation incities. The use of the equipment and the productionprocess do not require specific expertise, and hencethey offer accessible employment opportunities.According to the SEED Initiative, Almodo is aimingto show the feasibility of a new waste managementmodel as solution for other sub-Saharan Africancities (SEED Initiative, 2010b).Another example of a start-up building onsustainable consumption and production is theMuliru Farmers’ Conservation Group (MFCG)’spartnership with research and civil societyorganizations to market an ointment from medicinalplants (see Case Study 7).While the above show promising examples of Africancompanies and business partnerships to developlocal solutions incorporating SCP practices, somemultinationals are also contributing to introducingsustainable solutions to business processes inAfrica. Many supply chains rely on Africa for providingraw materials. An example of incorporating SCP intothe international supply chain of commodities fromAfrica is Cafédirect.Cafédirect, a U.K.-based company, helps growersto achieve certification and standards to accessinternational markets and reinvests 50 per centof its profits back into the cooperatives, forminglongstanding partnerships. Operating in 39 countriesin total, it is active in Africa in Kenya, Tanzaniaand São Tomé and Príncipe. With support from theInternational Fund for Agricultural Development, theU.K. Department for International Development,the São Tomé government and local NGOs havehelped smallholder farmers in São Tomé to form acooperative. Drying and fermenting their own cocoa,the cooperatives achieve Fairtrade certification andsell directly on international markets. The Guardianreports that the farmers’ incomes have increased by500 per cent within two years (Beavis, 2011).An example for an African company implementingbroad CSR policies can be found in Madagascar.UNIMA, an agro-food company and Madagascar’slargest shrimp exporter, has implemented a rangeof corporate social responsibility practices acrossits operations. For example, UNIMA has establishedpotable water supply systems, supported thecreation and operation of health centres in thevillages surrounding its Aqualma aquacultureand Verama cashew plantation operations, and98

taking action togetherprocesses in households and companiesthroughout South Africa.Implementing the DSM Programmein South AfricaThe South African economy has been growingquickly, resulting in an annual increase of 4 percent in electricity demand. This has triggered theneed for efficiency in electricity consumption.Eskom, a South African company and also thelargest producer of electricity in Africa, addressedthis challenge by exploring various options. Thisincludes a Demand-Side Management (DSM)programme whose aim is to influence efficientelectricity usage by consumers. This programmeis implemented by Eskom in collaboration with theDepartment of Minerals and Energy and the SouthAfrican National Electricity Regulator.Through this programme, Eskom aims to achievean overall 15 per cent reduction in energyconsumption in the country. They plan to reducethat energy consumption by: reduced powerconsumption in power generation plants, efficiencyimprovements in their thermal substations,reduction of line losses and customers’ energyconsumption.The DSM strategy comprises a dual approach:to reduce electricity demand at peak periods byshifting load to off-peak periods (e.g., by switchingon some machines only during off-peak periodssuch as lunch time, late night, etc.) and to reduceoverall electricity consumption by installing energyefficientequipment and optimizing industrialRaising customer awareness on energyefficiency is a very vital component of Eskom’sprogramme (Eskom, 2010). It has establishedcommunication campaigns designed to educatethe general public about energy efficiencythrough television, radio, printed advertisements,editorials, public events and expos. The mediaexposure is intensified during winter. The goal isto ensure short-term security of electricity supplythrough the optimal use of energy.A number of energy-efficiency tools are employedin Eskom’s energy-efficiency programme. Thisincludes campaigns promoting: energy-savingbulbs instead of halogen bulbs, employing asolar water heating rebate programme to replaceelectricity-heated water heaters and the useof low-pressure solar water heaters instead ofhotplates for bulk water heating. Another toolis industrial process optimization to achieve agreater efficiency per product unit produced.Raising awareness among consumersThis programme started in 1991 and has studied42 different tariffs that could be used at differenttimes or days (time-of-use tariffs). This systemhas grown to become a reliable national energystrategy for South Africa, making energy availablefor more consumers. The programme includesa broad range of marketing and public relationsactivities, and targets customers of diverseincome segments as well as different groupssuch residential, commercial and industrial.Benefits of raising awareness include:•Reduced electricity demand during peakperiods, thus avoiding immediate additionalcapital investment to further increase theelectricity supply•Conservation of the environment by reducingemissions and water consumption in itspower stations. For example, the new Medupiand Kusile power stations are planned touse dry cooling technology, which will reduceits current water usage of 1.35 L/kWh to1.21L/kWh (a reduction of 10.4 per cent) by2015–2016. Its coal-fired plants will reduceCO2 emissions from the current 0.99t/MWhto 0.68t/MWh (Eskom, 2011).•Furthermore, since its inception in 2003,Eskom’s Energy Efficiency and DSMprogrammes have realized total demandsavings of 2,372 MW from the evening peaktime, between 18:00 and 20:00 (Van derMerwe, 2010).99

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESsupported the construction and running cost ofprimary schools in communities neighbouringAqualma. In 2008, an assessment commissionedby World Wide Fund and UNIMA found that UNIMA’scommunity development activities resulted insignificant development impacts. The studyfound that UNIMA has implemented an overallremuneration and social protection policy exceedingthe legal minimum and that its cooperation withtraditional fishing promoted sustainable naturalresource use and helped to protect the marineand coastal environment in northwest Madagascar(Rajaosfara and de Peyrat, undated).Eskom is an example of a business driving sustainableconsumption. Eskom, a South African company andlargest producer of electricity in Africa, has put inplace a Demand-Side Management (DSM) programmeachieving 400 MW in saving (see Case Study 8).While these examples give a positive <strong>outlook</strong> onsustainable ventures on a nation-wide operation in adeveloped economy in Africa, the formal integrationof environmental concerns in business processes inAfrican companies remains low.Most of the International Organization forStandardization (ISO) 14001 certificates issuedto organizations in Africa went to South Africanorganizations, followed by Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia,Zimbabwe and Kenya. In 2008, about 1,520certificates were issued in Africa (see Figure 1).The 2005–2008 trend shows that almost constantnumbers (about 1,000) were issued each year.However, Africa holds only a very small share, lessthan 0.5 per cent, of ISO 14001 certificationsissued in 2008 worldwide (Nielsen Company, 2008).4.5 Civil society initiativesfor SCPCSOs play important roles in the development andmainstreaming of SCP in the region. They conductresearch, raise awareness and educate the publicon SCP. To determine which roles CSOs play in Africawith relation to SCP, desk research of fifteen civilsociety organizations 4 was carried out.Most CSOs are involved in empowerment, capacitybuilding,awareness for poverty alleviation, wastemanagement and natural resource conservation.For example, the Uganda Network for Water andSanitation helps to improve water protection throughapplication of IWRM methods in communities(Netwas International, 2011). The Association pourla Réhabilitation de l’Environnement au Mali workswith local authorities and communities in the fieldof household waste disposal, hygiene educationand sanitation, wastewater and capacity-building.It promotes environmental conservation educationin primary and secondary schools, colleges anduniversities. The Tanzania Youth EnvironmentalNetwork conducts climate change educationin schools through what is called the Chill Outproject. The project aims to enable young people toexchange ideas about the causes and effects of andmitigation measures for climate change (TanzaniaYouth Environmental Network, 2010)CSOs are also important contributors to researchand development on SCP. They seem to fill a gapin sustainable goods and services delivery leftby companies or government. They have beensuccessful in establishing sustainable incomegeneratingventures, as illustrated in the below textand case studies.Figure 1: Status of ISO 14001 Certificationin 38 African CountriesCertified number20001500100050002005 2006 2007 2008Source: Nielsen Company, 2008YearIn Madagascar, a partnership among the localcommunity, international NGOs and researchinstitutions is working with the Andavadoakacommunity to implement Madagascar’s firstexperimental community-run marine protectedarea (MPA). The team is developing managementsolutions to help sustain the traditional artisanalfishing economy while minimizing the environmentalimpacts of human activities on the region’s marineand coastal environments. The project aims todemonstrate the economic, conservation andfisheries benefits that can arise from establishing4. Action Aid, Africa Resource Centre, Afrisolar, Agency for theEnvironment and Wetland, Andavadoaka community, Association pour laRéhabilitation de l’Environnement au Mali, Centre for Environment andDevelopment, Consumer Unity & Trust Society, Endangered Wildlife Trust,Environ Care, Evergreen Habitat Organization, Gregory C. Carr Foundation,Kenya Food and Agriculture Organization, Kenya Institute of OrganicFarming, Micro Sow, Network for Water and Sanitation Uganda, TanzaniaTraditional Energy Development and Environment Organisation andTanzania Youth Environmental Network.100

taking action togetherMadagascar’s first community-run MPA. Thisproject helps to promote biodiversity and naturalresource management together with sustainabletourism by employing sustainable fishing practices.These sustainable practices protect coral reefs,mangroves, sea grass beds and other threatenedhabitats along Madagascar’s southwest coast.The initiative was replicated in several villagesin Velondriake. Following this success, the MPAnetwork has partnered with 23 villages to developa network of community-run marine and coastalprotected areas that will span more than 800 kmof protected area in southwest Madagascar (SEEDInitiative, 2005; United Nations, 2008).The Tanzania Traditional Energy Development andEnvironmental Organization is a local NGO thatpromotes the rational use of renewable energytechnologies and efficiency in energy use. It hasdeveloped 10 prototypes of modern, efficient cookingstoves and five types of baking and meat-roastingovens for households and SMEs. The thermalefficiency of the prototypes is between 30 and 40 percent, compared with 15 per cent for traditional stoves,Organic farming in KenyaThe Kenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF)is an NGO that was established in 1986 in Juja,Kenya. It operates in the Eastern Africa region.KIOF promotes rural development and educationfor organic agriculture and related marketingservices among smallholder farmers. It trainsand raises awareness in youth, women andself-help farming groups (KIOF, 2011).KIOF’s training in organic farming builds onindigenous farming knowledge with the aim ofmaximizing production of food crops to feeda growing population. KIOF adopts a holisticapproach to farming, looking at the choice ofcrops, composting techniques, planting systems,crop storage, animal husbandry, crop protectionand soil conservation. As an important meansto spearhead the organic farming objective, KIOFoperates two important initiatives: demonstrationgardens and an organic foods market in Juja. Inaddition, KIOF publishes books on smallholderorganic farming practices (KIOF, 2011).Demonstration gardens on organic farmingKIOF has established seven demonstrationgardens in three districts of Kenya, whichdemonstrate good crop and livestock productionpractices to the surrounding communities. Thesegardens aim to teach local communities moreabout organic farming methods for sustainablelivelihoods and increase food security usingorganic farming as a sustainable means of naturalresource management (KIOF, 2011).Juja Organic Market: Organic products fromKenya’s smallholder farmersThe Juja Organic Market, established in 2006,offers organic farm produce that has been grownwithout the aid of chemical fertilizers, syntheticpesticides or growth regulators. This marketoffers a unique venue to market strictly organicproduce. Currently, the main suppliers of theJuja Organic Market are the organic farmers whohave been trained by KIOF and/or other farminginstitutions around Kenya (KIOF, 2011).The KIOF model to empower people with skillsand knowledge of organic farming for sustainablerural livelihood is a good example of what needsto be done in Africa for green farming to pickup. KIOF has been supported by the Dutchdevelopment organization Hivos. For farmersto grow economically they need both skillsand markets. So far, KIOF has trained over20,000 small-scale farmers in Central Kenya.Farmers have increased their food production.Organic foods also obtain higher prices in theinternational markets and farmers need to beconnected to these international markets (Guijtand Woodhill, 2008)101

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESso they use 40 to 50 per cent less charcoal (Tanzania,Traditional Energy Development and EnvironmentalOrganization, 2011).The Micro Sow and Afrisolar organizations aim tofill the energy gap faced by citizens in rural areasof Burkina Faso that are excluded from the officialpower grid (98 per cent of the population). Throughan initiative that provides access to mobile solarpoweredcharging stations (the Nafore), ruralhouseholds can charge their mobile phones in acommercially and environmentally sustainable way.The Nafore kiosks, powered by 100 per cent solarenergy, replace petrol- and diesel-powered chargingstations, thereby reducing pollution and emissions.By improving communication capacity, people inrural areas receive better access to informationand services, such as market prices or medicalassistance (SEED Initiative, 2009).CSOs also help disseminate sustainble productionpractices in the agri-food sector. Research conductedby UNEP and the United Nations Conference on Tradeand Development (2008) involving 114 projects across24 African countries found that organic practiceshelped to more than double the yields, with yieldsincreasing to 128 per cent in East Africa. An exampleof training of farmers in organic farming to harnesspotential and environmental benefits is a project by theKenya Institute of Organic Farming (KIOF) (see CaseStudy 9).While the above are promising examples of CSOactivities related mainly to natural resourcesmanagement, an important part of moving towardmore sustainable consumption and productionpatterns is the development of more holisticactivities by CSOs.There is also untapped potential within Africansocieties for creating greater awareness of the risksassociated with pollution and with resource-intensiveproduction and consumption patterns. Raisingawareness will help change attitudes and increasedemand for appropriate policies and sustainableproducts.4.6 ConclusionsSCP is one of the overarching objectives and anessential requirement to achieve sustainabledevelopment. As a region, Africa has been at theforefront of the <strong>global</strong> Marrakech Process on SCP,through developing, approving and implementinga regional 10YFP. It has also created a regionalinstitutional support mechanism, the ARSCP.Together with the only regional Task Force onSCP, supported by the German Federal Ministry ofEnvironment, Africa has established appropriatestructures, political goodwill and mechanisms forsharing experience.National- and city-level pilot projects spurred thefurther development of SCP policies. Twenty percent of the countries in Africa have finalized thedevelopment of their national SCP programmes onthe basis of the African 10YFP on SCP.The African 10YFP has gained political andinstitutional support and SCP initiatives are carriedout at the regional, subregional, national and locallevels. Regional institutions and initiatives focussingon and contributing to SCP development includethe Climate for Development in Africa Initiative andthe African Eco-labelling Mechanism Secretariat.Organizations at the subregional levels can providegood platforms in the early stages of programmedevelopment, since countries in the subregionsshare many common issues and similar approachescould be adopted. Support on the subregional levelincludes the Lake Victoria Environment Managementproject by the Lake Victoria Basin Commission andthe North Africa Energy Efficiency Initiative. At anational level, NCPCs support the shift towards SCP.Most government initiatives fall in the areas ofrenewable energy and waste management asa matter of urban development. Analysis of 13countries shows that five countries and threecities have developed strategies that holisticallyembody SCP. These strategies include: the NationalProgramme on SCP (Ghana), the Mauritius NationalAction Plan on SCP; the Poverty Reduction StrategyPaper (Senegal); National Action Plan on SustainableConsumption and Production (Tanzania); NationalProgramme on Sustainable Consumption andProduction (Zambia); Sustainable Consumption andProduction Programme for Cairo City and Alexandria(Egypt); and the Action Plan on SustainableConsumption and Production, Maputo and MatolaCities (Mozambique).Other national- and local-level strategies havefocused on a specific theme or set of themes suchas Policy Instruments for the Management of PlasticBags in Nairobi (Kenya) and the Energy EfficiencyStrategy (South Africa), which focuses on extraction,use and management of raw materials.Few countries in Africa have come up with SCPrelatedindicators in their national development orenvironment plans. This is a major hindrance to thedevelopment of SCP in Africa, as progress cannot bemeasured. The few developed SCP indicators are onenergy and water. Some countries, such as Egypt,Mauritius and South Africa, have introduced reportingon environmental performance. Most countries,however, do not have SCP monitoring mechanisms inplace and have not formulated targets and indicators102

taking action togetherin their policy frameworks. Measuring the progressof SCP strategies would greatly benefit from theformulation of these targets and indicators.SCP legislation and enforcement have been enactedin Africa. Regulations exist in waste managementand pollution control. In order for the African10YFP to achieve its goals, there is a need formore measures on enforcement of legislation,using market- and information-based instruments.However, these require standards to be set for abroader base of products and resources.Businesses in Africa have started to incorporatepolicies and implement projects pertaining to SCPand corporate social responsibility. They havedesigned innovative ways of achieving these goalsby: establishing business linkages with the localcommunities, forming public-private partnerships withgovernments, carrying out environment and socialimpact assessments for their investments, carryingout voluntary reporting of their environment andsocial obligation performance, educating consumerson efficient use of their products, promoting cleanersmall-scale technologies and even contributing tothe collection of waste from their sold products. Allthis effort, in one way or another, helps to maintain ahealthy environment and eradicate poverty.Businesses in Africa, especially in the moredeveloped economies like South Africa, have startedto implement SCP practices and projects. Fromthe examples discussed herein, the focus lies onproviding better products and services and adoptingcleaner production principles. The adoption ofcleaner production practices, however, remains lowin francophone Africa, due to the absence of NCPCsupport for the agenda (UNECA, 2008).The mainstreaming of SCP in African nationaldevelopment and business policies is progressingslowly. More education and awareness on the meritsof SCP could speed up mainstreaming SCP intopolicies, helping to alleviate poverty in the regionand enabling Africa to meet the MDGs.Government, business, CSOs and intergovernmentalorganizations have a role to play in theimplementation of the African 10YFP on SCP.Governments must drive the process throughsufficient funding, the right policy and institutionalframework, strengthening the institutional capacityof regulatory institutions, enhancing the enforcementof regulations, mainstreaming SCP in educationalcurricula and providing the right incentives forstakeholders to push the SCP agenda forward.The case studies presented in this chapter illustratethe potential of SCP and how innovative andsometimes surprisingly simple solutions can helpto increase poor people’s incomes and access toresources throughout Africa, while at the sametime reducing environmental damage. Where theinitiatives include the introduction of moderntechnologies, they also offer an opportunity forleapfrogging – the ability for these countries toby-pass inefficient, polluting and ultimately costlyphases of development and jump onto a sustainabledevelopment path. Ultimately, the realization of SCPin Africa will involve implementing many differentstrategies than in other countries, in promisingareas such as biodiversity, tourism, reforestationand the transparent management of non-renewableresources.Africa needs to develop locally and regionallyadapted innovative business models, to makethe most of its enormous potential in renewableresources and maximize the use of green technologyfor its sustainable development and the achievementof faster economic growth.CSOs in Africa are also involved in the developmentand implementation of SCP programmes. They mainlycarry out programmes and projects that focus oneducation, skill development, promotion of cleanproduction methods and conservation of naturalresources. Many CSOs are working in single countriesand in local communities, contributing to empowermentand capacity-building. If enabled technically andfinancially, this group has the potential to disseminatethe concept of SCP more widely in both rural and urbanareas. They can bring change through seed financing,demonstration projects, awareness campaigns,education and capacity-building activities, especially tothe poor, who are a focus in the African 10 YFP.103

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107taking action together

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES5 Global Outlook on SCPPolicies: Asia-PacificAuthor:Lewis Akenji (Institute for Global Environmental Strategies – IGES).Contributors:Magnus Bengtsson and Simon Olsen (IGES).108

taking action together5.1 IntroductionThe Asia-Pacific region covers over 40 per centof the planet’s land area and is home to almosttwo thirds of the world’s population. Recently,it has witnessed some of the world’s fastesteconomic growth and, simultaneously, rapid rates ofurbanization. Conversely, the region also has someof the highest numbers of people living in poverty;in 2009 the United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP,2010a) estimated the number of people living onless than US$1.25 per day to be 979 million.Sustainable consumption and production (SCP)patterns are framed by the economic climate of thecountry. Policy responses and initiatives on SCPthus follow clustered characteristics for countriesof the region, which can be placed into three broadcategories: industrialized economies (e.g., Australia,Japan), emerging or fast developing economies (e.g.,the Kingdom of Thailand and the People’s Republicof China), and least-developed economies (e.g., theSocialist Republic of Viet Nam and the Lao People’sDemocratic Republic).Industrialized economies like Australia and Japanhave, over recent decades, seen single-digitFigure 1: Index of change in GDP, by incomegroupings of Asia-Pacific countries, 1990-2008475425375325275225175125751990Asia-Pacific19921994Low-income countries1996Lower Middle-income countriesUpper Middle-income countriesHigh-income countriesSource: UNESCAP (2011) (calculated by UNESCAP usingdata from United Nations Statistics Division, NationalAccount Main Aggregates Database)199820002002200420062008economic growth rates; however, Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) per capita remains high in thesecountries. Correspondingly, consumption perindividual is high, with overall higher ecologicalfootprints than are sustainable (World Wide Fund forNature [WWF], 2010). Rates of population growthin these countries have been fairly stable in recentdecades; some, such as Japan, are witnessingdecreasing population. Although rural-urbanmigration has slowed down, most of the populationresides in urban areas. With high minimum incomesdistributed over these countries – in both rural andurban areas – there is much disposable income, therate of poverty is low, and the income distributiongap between the rich and the poor is fairly smallwhen compared to other industrialized countrieslike the United Kingdom (Asian Development Bank[ADB], 2010).In emerging economies, a typical trend over thelast few decades has been the surge in industrialexpansion and consumption activity. This is mostclearly illustrated by China and India and, to a lesserextent, by Malaysia and Thailand. Even as thefinancial crises threatened European, American andother industrialized economies, these countries stillregistered growth rates of about 8 per cent. Aftersurpassing Germany as the world’s third largesteconomy in 2010, China further moved up behind theUnited States of America after replacing Japan as thesecond largest. Given its high growth rates and thefact that a large volume of the goods and servicesconsumed in industrialized countries are producedhere, the Asia-Pacific region is now the world’s largestuser of natural resources. In 2005, led by China andIndia, the region consumed about 32 billion tons, or8.6 tons per capita, of resources, including biomass,fossil fuels, metals, and industrial and constructionmaterials (United Nations Environment Programme(UNEP), forthcoming). This intensive industrial activityamong emerging economies has seen jumps in totalemissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs). Between1970 and 2005, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions inthe region grew by 400 per cent and rose from 13to 30 per cent of <strong>global</strong> emissions (United NationsEnvironment Programme [UNEP], forthcoming).However, in terms of per capita emissions, developingeconomies like China and India are still well belowindustrialized countries.Hand in hand with this economic growth, theseeconomies have seen the rise of a new consumerclass, with lifestyles that largely emulate thoseseen in more industrialized societies. A reportby the ADB (2010) looked at growth rates amongdeveloping Asian economies over the last 20 yearsand extrapolated that, at such rates, developingAsian countries will comprise about 43 per centof worldwide consumption by 2030. According tothe ADB authors, “Asia’s emerging consumers are109

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESlikely to assume the traditional role of the US andEuropean middle classes as <strong>global</strong> consumers”(ADB, 2010, p. xxvi). Unsustainable production andconsumption patterns are becoming an issue andgovernments are starting to address them. Thegrowing number of people now living in urban areasis leading to even more resource-intensive lifestyles;however, per capita consumption in these countriesis still much lower than in industrialized countries.There is a dichotomy of social existence (Akenjiand Bengtsson, 2010) in emerging Asian countries.Income distribution in China, India and othercountries in the region is lopsided, leading toconspicuous consumption by the rich, an emergingconsumer class cast against the many slums incities and large pockets of poor rural areas. About35 per cent of Asia-Pacific urban residents wereliving in slums in 2005 (UNESCAP, 2010a). Basichealth and social needs are yet to be met amongthe poor; in some cases, livelihoods are beingthreatened to accommodate development projects.Waste is increasingly a problem in Asia-Pacificeconomies. There is noticeable increased volumeand varieties, qualitative diversification and anincrease in transboundary movement of wastes.Industrialized economies maintain high wasteoutputs, a result of the relatively high materialconsumption lifestyles of citizens. Emergingeconomies have been seeing rapidly increasingFigure 2: Economies with more than 10 per cent ofthe population living on less than $1.25 a day60waste generation, correlating with increases in GDPand growth in disposable income. In China and India,for example, e-waste generation from old computerswas predicted to jump by a factor of 2 to 4 between2007 and 2020; during this period, the number ofdiscarded mobile phones was projected to increaseby seven-fold in China and 18-fold in India (UNEP,2009).Open dumping is the usual means of waste disposalby households, leading to water contamination,foul odours and other environmental, health andsocial problems (Akenji and Bengtsson, 2010).The situation among least-developed countriestends to be the worst. De-soldering and wetchemical leaching of printed circuit boardsfound in computers, televisions and radios oftencauses contamination via heavy metals and flameretardants; dioxins and furans are released fromopen burning of poly-vinyl chloride (PVC) or wireinsulation and this contributes to the contaminationof air, water and soil.Consumption and production patterns in leastdevelopedeconomies are more restrained versionsof those in emerging economies, the primaryrestraints being poverty and resource scarcity.As a region, the challenge is therefore to developproduction and consumption patterns that can meetthe needs of an increasing population that is rapidlyurbanizing and decreasing biophysical capacity dueto resource constraints, while at the same timecurbing increasing rates of pollution.5.2 SCP policies at theregional level50403020100NepalBangladeshUzbekistanLao PDRIndiaTimor-LestePapua New GuineaIndonesiaBhutanCambodiaTurkmenistanPhilippinesPakistanViet NamTajikistanChina, People's Rep. ofSri LankaGeorgiaSources: ADB (2010); Secretariat of the Pacific Community(2010); United Nations Statistics Division (2010)In the Asia-Pacific region, SCP rides on the backof the economic growth and broader sustainabledevelopment agenda. The strategy of EnvironmentallySustainable Economic Growth, or Green Growth, isan approach that, promoted by UNESCAP, has beenwidely adopted by countries in the region. It waslaunched in 2005 at the Fifth Ministerial Conferenceon Environment and Development in Seoul,Republic of Korea, as a way to reconcile tensionsbetween efforts to achieve two of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals, namely, poverty reduction andenvironmental sustainability (UNESCAP, 2005).Green Growth promotes SCP, the development ofsustainable infrastructure, and the introductionof green tax reform for reducing poverty, whileimproving the eco-efficiency of economic growth.UNESCAP has since provided capacity-building tosome national governments towards the developmentof Green Growth strategies. One such governmentis Cambodia, which has developed a nationalroadmap towards Green Growth. However, at the110

taking action togetherAsia-Pacific Roundtable forSustainable Consumption andProductionThe APRSCP is an Asia-focused international, nongovernmental,non-profit, network institution thatpromotes sustainable consumption and cleanerproduction in the Asia-Pacific. The APRSCP isconcerned with reducing environmental impactswhile maintaining or improving economic outputsand standards of living. It has a strong networkof industrialists, environmental professionals,university academics and researchers, andpolicymakers.The APRSCP was established between 1997 and1999, arising from a regional cleaner productionmeeting in Thailand with catalytic support fromUnited Nations agencies, the United States-AsiaEnvironmental Partnership, the ADB and otherpartners. The participants in this meeting agreedthat there was a need for a forum to discussand promote the idea of cleaner production andshare results regionally, in order to speed upacceptance of what was then a new concept.Along the way, cleaner production evolved into themore challenging topic of SCP. Since those earlieryears, a regional roundtable has been held every18 to 24 months.Participating countries, including those on theBoard of Trustees, are Australia, Bangladesh,Bhutan, Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, China,Fiji, Hong Kong (China), India, Indonesia, Japan,Taiwan (China), Kazakhstan, Lao PDR, Malaysia,Mongolia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Korea,the United States, Russia, Singapore, Sri Lanka,Thailand, Uzbekistan and Viet Nam, along withmember countries in the United Nations agencies(UNEP, the United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization, and UNESCAP) and the ADB.The APRSCP has undertaken severalprogramme activities, such as: (1) engagingin information exchange among members,using approaches such as newsletters,e-mail list servers, technical journals, specialpublications, conferences and symposia; (2)conducting training sessions, workshops andstaff exchanges for the purpose of increasingthe skills and knowledge of members andother interested parties; (3) acting as aclearing house for the exchange of data andinformation on sustainable consumption andcleaner production in the Asia-Pacific region,including reports, books, articles, data andstatistics; (4) developing and maintaining aregister of professionals involved in promotionof sustainable consumption and cleanerproduction who are available to provide adviceand counsel; (5) supporting development of newcountry-level SCP roundtables and fosteringthe sharing of information and experienceamong existing and planned country-levelSCP roundtables; (6) assembling qualifiedand objective committees and working groupsthat can provide competent and objectiveanalyses as well as information on sustainableconsumption and cleaner production; (7)maintaining relationships among APRSCP,its members, and appropriate regional andinternational organizations; and (8) carryingout activities, programmes and initiatives asnecessary to fulfil the mission and objectivesof APRSCP, such as the periodic regionalroundtable.The roundtable has been successful in includingparticipants from all subregions including SouthAsia, Southeast Asia, Northeast Asia, CentralAsia and Australasia. The stakeholders havecommented that the roundtable format is veryeffective for the consideration of technology,management and policy issues. APRSCPoutputs have been used as major inputs in<strong>global</strong> decision-making processes, such as theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development andthe 18th and 19th session of the Commissionon Sustainable Development, to name two.The APRSCP network has grown and maturedover the years and, with its supporters, hascooperated in recent projects such as ResourceEfficient and Cleaner Production activities in theAsia-Pacific region.Source: APRSCP (2011) and input from APRSCPBoard members.111

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES2010 Ministerial Conference on Environment andDevelopment held in Astana, Kazakhstan, severalmajor economies – including China and India –expressed the need for further clarification of theGreen Growth concept (Dorji and Dorji, 2010).The region has also actively participated in theMarrakech Process on SCP (See Chapter 2). In2009 the following priorities for SCP were identifiedat the Marrakech Process regional workshop andthe UNESCAP regional implementation meeting:green public procurement, development of fiscalinstruments, resource efficient and cleanerproduction, and greening business and markets.Some countries have also started to develop NationalSCP Action Plans (UNEP, 2011).A number of platforms exist in the region forcollaboration on issues of sustainability. Most ofthese involve meetings by government officials, butquite often other stakeholders are brought in at theproject implementation phase. A majority of theseplatforms address climate change, followed closelyby the number addressing biodiversity conservationand water problems. The Tripartite EnvironmentMinisters Meeting (TEMM) has been bringing togetherChina, Japan and Korea since 1999 for cooperationconcerning climate change, biodiversity conservation,pollution control and transboundary movement ofe-waste, among other issues. In 2005 TEMM membercountries formed a working group on commonstandards for environmental labels (TEMM, 2010a).Through the working group, the three countries haveagreed to develop common standards (for waterbasedpaints, stationery, personal computers andplastics) and to harmonize their ecolabels to facilitategreen purchasing with each other (TEMM, 2010b).One SCP-dedicated initiative is the Asia-PacificRoundtable for Sustainable Consumption andProduction (APRSCP). The APRSCP is a networkof industrialists, environmental professionals,university academics and researchers, andpolicymakers. It started in Bangkok in 1997 asa roundtable forcleaner production focusing ontechnical approaches (such as eco-efficiency).With a <strong>global</strong> shift to include social approaches tocleaner production such as consumer behaviour andpsychology, the forum was renamed and given a newfocus on thebroader subject of SCP. The roundtablehas been held every 18 to 24 months since beingfounded, working to facilitate uptake of SCPresearch, policy and practice (see Case Study 1).An example of a broader and more practice-orientedmechanism is the Asia-Pacific Forum for Environmentand Development (APFED). It promotes model localinitiatives and brings together experts to formulatelessons learned in policymaking and apply them toclimate change, biodiversity conservation, the 3Rs(reduce, reuse and recycle) and water management.In its second phase, launched in 2005, APFED hasbeen giving out awards to outstanding projects, fundingshowcase projects and running events on capacitybuilding,stakeholder empowerment, governance,technology and finance for sustainability (APFED, 2010).Several sustainability policy platforms tend to besubregional in geographic focus. Examples includethe Northeast Asian Sub-Regional Programme ofEnvironmental Cooperation, the North West PacificAction Plan, the South Asia Cooperative EnvironmentProgramme, and the Pacific Islands Forum. Othercorporation platforms are more focused on specificissues; the Asia Forestry Partnership and the AcidDeposition Monitoring Network in East Asia areexamples.Box 1: Weaving SCP into broader policy platformsRather than being stand-alone, SCP policies andprogrammes are quite often embedded in broaderpolicy platforms. As an example, recognition forSCP is enshrined in the Association of SoutheastAsian Nations (ASEAN) key documents, amongthem the ASEAN Declaration on EnvironmentalSustainability (ASEAN, 2007). ASEAN wascreated out of security concerns amidst politicalupheavals in the 1960s. Over time, it hasexpanded its scope, with economic cooperationbecoming a priority. ASEAN founding documentsfrom Bangkok, 1967, highlight the need forprosperity of the peoples.In 2003 the Bali Declaration of ASEAN Concord II(ASEAN, 2003) created a Socio-EconomicCommunity as a third pillar of the associationand under which ASEAN environmental issues areaddressed through a working group. The ASEANVision 2020 (ASEAN, 1997), which charts a futurefor ASEAN countries, aspires for “a clean andgreen ASEAN with fully established mechanismsfor sustainable development to ensure theprotection of the region’s environment, thesustainability of natural resources and the highquality of life of its peoples” (p. 4).SCP is further built into the Roadmap for anASEAN Community 2009-2015 under theASEAN Socio-Cultural Community Blueprint(ASEAN, 2009). Components of Section D, onEnsuring Environmental Sustainability, showSCP as a cross-cutting theme for “promotingclean and green environment by protectingthe natural resource base for economic andsocial development.” The ASEAN EnvironmentalEducation Action Plan 2008–2012 (ASEAN, 2008)also provides a basis for stakeholder awarenessraisingand involvement in SCP activities.112

taking action togetherSome countries have also championed regionalinitiatives as part of their foreign environmentalpolicies. One example is the promotion of the CleanAsia Initiative by the government of Japan. Launchedin 2008, the initiative’s goal is for developing countriesto learn from the experiences of Japan in order to‘leapfrog’, primarily through transfer of technologyand the sharing of know-how. The goal is to achievea low-carbon society with a sound material cycleand to live in harmony with nature. A cross-cuttingobjective is to promote environmentalism in themarketplace (Ministry of the Environment, Japan,undated, a). A number of high-level forums andinitiatives have been started under the Clean AsiaInitiative to address environmental issues related towater, pollution, biodiversity and other concerns. Anexample is the Regional 3R Forum in Asia (Ministry ofthe Environment, Japan, 2010b), which brings togetherministers of environment for high-level meetings tocollaborate on the problem of growing waste that hasparalleled rapid urbanization in the region.Other governments around the world are also activein promoting SCP in the Asia-Pacific region. TheSWITCH Asia programme is one such example andremains one of the better-funded major initiatives inthe region. Through the programme, the EuropeanCommission provides grants to build the capacityof small and medium-sized (SMEs) enterprises inSCP practices, maintains a Networking Facility thatfacilitates the upscaling of successful practicesand offers a Policy Support component for theimplementation of SCP-related policies in the region.The SWITCH Asia programme (see Case Study 2)has funded over 47 projects in 15 Asian countriesin areas such as green public procurement, cleanerproduction and ecolabelling. The Policy Supportcomponent targets 19 Asian countries eligible underthe programme (European Commission Developmentand Cooperation – EuropeAid, 2011).Despite recognition of their necessity by regionalorganizations such as ASEAN and by nationalThe SWITCH Asia programmeThe SWITCH Asia programme was set up by theEuropean Commission in line with its StrategyDocument for Regional Programming in Asia andprovides funding opportunities of €152 millionover the period 2007-2013. The aim is to promoteSCP among SMEs and support Asian policymakersin designing policies to promote the shift to SCP.The SWITCH-Asia Programme is made up of threestrategic components:1) Through project grants, projects are fundedthat show a potential for replication and canproduce quantifiable reductions both of CO 2emissions and of resource, water and energyconsumption. So far SWITCH Asia has funded47 projects in 15 Asian countries in areas suchas greening supply chains, marketing for ecoproducts,green public procurement, cleanerproduction, ecolabelling and products for thepoor.and implementation of SCP policies in Asia.On a regional level this is done primarilythrough capacity-building in collaboration withUNEP. Furthermore, national policy supportcomponents, managed by EU Delegations,will focus on selected countries – Malaysia,Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines – thathave already gathered experience in applyingSCP tools.In addition to promoting specific SCP practices,the projects employ innovative replicatingmechanisms such as voluntary agreements,public-private partnerships, and upgrading oftechnical standards or reinforcement of existingSCP service providers to make countries selfsustainableon the market.Source: European Commission Development andCooperation – EuropeAid (2011)2) The Network Facility provides support forprojects funded under the SWITCH Asiaprogramme in order to increase the qualityand impact of project activities, along withfacilitating the uptake of successful results byAsian policymakers.3) The Policy Support component, launched in2010, aims to strengthen the formulation113

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESgovernments, SCP policies have so far not been metwith sufficient follow-through to implementation –and although demonstration programmes and pilotshave occurred, SCP on the whole has yet to becomemainstream. Even at the policy level, however,achievements encourage the establishment ofprecedents and provide the necessary groundworkfor further developments.5.3 National SCP policiesThis section highlights positive examples of progressin the Asia-Pacific region that could be emulated asgood practice and improved upon.Following the Rio and Johannesburg Earth Summits,Asia-Pacific countries actively developed nationalstrategies for sustainable development (NSSDs).The 2002 Johannesburg Earth Summit called uponcountries to draft these by 2005. Although manycountries in the Asia-Pacific region got off to a slowstart due to capacity and financial constraints, withsupport from UNEP, the ADB and the NorwegianMinistry of Foreign Affairs, most governments in theregion have formulated NSSDs as part of a largereffort to mainstream sustainability into decisionmaking (UNEP, Regional Resource Center for Asiaand Pacific, 2008). There is also strong regionalinterest in the Millennium Development Goals, withmost countries – especially the least-developedcountries – pursuing them as primary objectives oftheir NSSD.The concept of SCP is embedded in NSSDs, usuallyas a cross-cutting theme, but in some cases as adedicated strategy that parallels other approaches.The following examples do not comprise anexhaustive list of representative SCP policies; rather,they demonstrate some of the innovative approachesemerging in the region – with some showing how SCPpolicies take shape in the local context.In 2005 the Republic of Korea launched its NationalVision for Sustainable Development (Chung andHwang, 2006), which highlighted the need foreconomic growth that enhances the quality oflife and, through environmental preservation,ensures resources for future generations. Thevision was followed by development of an NSSD(2006-2010), which was approved by the nationalcabinet in 2006. Similar to most other NSSDs,the Korean strategy contains five main themes:sustainable management of natural resources,social integration and national health promotion,sustainable economic development, climate changeand <strong>global</strong> environmental issues and education forsustainable development. Each of the five themeshas ‘implementation tasks’. SCP is included asan implementation task in the strategy. Morerecently, in 2010, Korea passed the FrameworkAct for Low Carbon, Green Growth (Ministry ofGovernment Legislation Korea, 2010), laying outa strategy towards “creating the green technologyand the green industry to ensure that the economyand the environment are harmonized, encouraginggreen buildings, and helping people to lead a greenlife.” As an economic priority, Korea has created aPresidential Committee on Green Growth (Ministry ofEnvironment Korea, undated).The NSSD in Japan, based on an act passed in 2000and called the Fundamental Plan for Establishinga Sound Material-Cycle Society (Government ofJapan, 2008), has the objective of restraining theconsumption of natural resources and minimizing theenvironmental burden. In 2007 the Japanese cabinetpassed a broader plan to guide environmental policyin Japan, entitled Becoming a Leading EnvironmentalNation Strategy in the 21st Century: Japan’s Strategyfor a Sustainable Society (Government of Japan,2007). The strategy aims to achieve a low-carbonsociety, a sound material-cycle society and a societyin harmony with nature. Under this plan, for example,Japan’s 3R activities are based on the spirit of‘Mottainai’. Mottainai is a long-established Japaneseconcept expressing, essentially, that it is a shame forsomething to go to waste without having made useof its full potential. This expression encompasses arespect for the environment that has been handeddown from ages past (G8, 2008). In 2010 theJapanese strategy was revised and integrated into anational New Growth Strategy (Government of Japan,2010), emphasizing the country’s strength in lowcarbontechnology and providing incentives for greeninnovation. Among others, the strategy providesincentives for green production and procurement,development of smart energy grids and energyefficienthousing. It also sets targets for 2020, amongwhich are to realize a ¥50-trillion green market, create1.4 million new environment-related jobs, and reduceCO2 emissions by 1.3 billion tons.Each country’s strategy introduces aspects ofsustainability unique to the national context. Forexample, the NSSD in New Zealand pays attention tothe role of women in the country’s society. The strategyalso focuses on the integration of Maori communities.SCP is one of four national strategies of the TenthNational Economic and Social Development Planof Thailand, effective from 2006 to 2011 (NationalEconomic and Social Development Board, 2007).It is complemented by a guidance manual coveringthe period of 2007 to 2036. Thailand aspires toa balanced state of happiness, self-sufficiencyand social security for present and subsequentgenerations. The Thai approach of a SufficiencyEconomy (UNEP, 2006) was developed by His MajestyKing Bhumibol Adulyadej as a guiding philosophy114

taking action togetherThe Green Growth Roadmapin CambodiaCambodia has joined the Republic of Korea as aninnovator in the field of low-carbon Green Growth.Supported by the Korean International CooperationAgency and UNESCAP, the country has recentlydeclared its intention to embark on a path toenvironmentally sustainable economic growth.To aid this process, the Cambodian governmentcreated a Green Growth Secretariat in the Ministryof Environment, who has liaised heavily with otherministries to set up an inter-ministerial workinggroup. Throughout 2009, the group convenedseveral times and identified the contents andstructure of the recently published National GreenGrowth Roadmap. The roadmap was produced inconsultation with other development experts andpractitioners, with a view to identifying a way ofbalancing economic growth with environmentallimitations.The roadmap lays out a vision for increasedmulti-stakeholder collaboration in the design andimplementation of projects and programmes,placing special emphasis on agriculture, tourism,industry and commerce. As an overall goal, theroadmap accentuates the increase of accessto crucial goods and services necessary forCambodian people. Being a communicativeeffort by the government to propose greatercoherence between sectoral and agencydevelopment priorities, the roadmap begins byproposing a number of interventions to aid themainstreaming of Green Growth concerns intothe overall development framework of Cambodia.Such interventions aim to enhance interministerialand multi-stakeholder cooperation. Ifimplemented, the suggested interventions will,in the short term, create green jobs and makemajor contributions towards stimulation of theeconomy while protecting vulnerable groups andimproving environmental sustainability.The roadmap identifies necessary actions,including the creation of a National MinisterialGreen Growth Council, a national publicawareness and consultation process, theintegration of eco-village/eco-city initiatives intothe country’s National Strategic DevelopmentPlan, development of a national strategy forgreening industries that is based on resourceefficiency and the 3Rs, and development ofstimulus measures for promotion of sustainableagriculture in cooperation with internationaland local development agencies. Finally, thedocument proposes the establishment of greenfunding mechanisms, including paymentsfor ecosystem services, internalization ofenvironmental externalities, and debt-swapschemes and measures to strengthen thenational environmental industry sector.Source: UNESCAP (2010b)for the country’s sustainable development. It seeksa balance between society at the local level andthe market in the <strong>global</strong> context. According tothe King, it is not important for Thailand to be an‘economic tiger’ or to become characterized as anewly industrialized country; instead, a SufficiencyEconomy requires people to live in moderation andbe self-reliant in order to protect against changesthat could destabilize the country. Among others,the objectives of the Government of Thailand are toincrease the proportion of national income from greenservice sectors; to reduce government subsidies andsupports for dirty production and service sectors;to increase tax on dirty sectors and decrease taxon incomes; and to promote green governmentalprocurement (Termpittayapaisith, 2008).In China, SCP is guided by the Circular Economyapproach, which promotes the 3Rs through reducedmaterial input, increased efficiency in production,and integration of consumption and productionsystems in order to facilitate resource circulationwithin industries and municipalities. Reflecting thefast pace of China’s resource-intensive growth inthe last decades, one of its priorities is ecologicalefficiency in economic development. A series ofpilot projects towards the above objectives havebeen initiated at the levels of individual firms, ecoindustrialparks and networks, and at the municipaland provincial levels (Pintér, 2006).In September 2006 the Royal Government ofCambodia organized an inception workshop for115

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESbeginning the formulation process of its NSSD. In aprocess of over a year of consultations, the NSSDwas formulated by consolidating a CambodianSocial-Economic Development Plan and its NationalPoverty Reduction Strategy and aligning it withthe country’s Millennium Development Goals andAction Plan (Royal Government of Cambodia, 2009).The strategy underscores the need in Cambodia,as with the least-developed Asian countries, tolift substantial portions of the population out ofpoverty. Recently Cambodia, with the assistance ofUNESCAP, has developed a Green Growth Roadmap(see Case Study 3).Bhutan places a strong emphasis on cultural andenvironmental preservation, and SCP is verymuch embedded in its use of Gross NationalHappiness (Centre for Bhutan Studies, undated)as a guiding framework for development. Thecountry’s strategy is explained in The Middle Path:National Environmental Strategy for Bhutan (RoyalGovernment of Bhutan, 1998).As is typical of least-developed countries inthe region, good strategies are not necessarilycomplemented by concrete targets. Sri Lanka,for example, has an NSSD that emphasizes ecotourism,cleaner production, sustainable fisheries,high quality of healthcare and so on, and yet notargets or indicators have been set for any of theaforementioned policies; more capacity-building isneeded to realize NSSD objectives (UNDESA, 2007).Broader sustainability activities by the governmentof Viet Nam are guided by the Operational andOrganizational Charter of the National Council onSustainable Development (Government of Viet Nam,2005). Although Viet Nam showed a keen interest incleaner production in the 1990s, it got off to a slowstart, due in part to capacity constraints and limitedawareness of sustainable options. However, by2010 the Government of Viet Nam had establisheda cleaner production model for industry, developedand implemented 3R projects through cooperationwith Japan, established economic incentives forenvironmentally friendly investment, and integratedthe Green Growth/Economy concept into the nationalsocio-economic development strategy for 2011-2020(Thuy, 2010). In 2010 Viet Nam, with support fromUNEP, developed an SCP national action plan.In December 2009 the Prime Minister of Viet Namsigned its National Strategy for Integrated SolidWaste Management covering the period up to 2025and with a longer-term vision to 2050 (Viet Nam,2010). The objectives are to improve communityhealth and environmental quality, achieve sourceseparation of domestic waste by households,and apply the 3R approach to minimize wastedisposal and reduce pollution. Among some of thetools, Viet Nam will provide state incentives forinvestment in solid waste management facilities;boost environmental technology development andsupport technology transfer; develop capacity ofwaste collectors and volunteers at local and centrallevels; develop a database system on solid wastepatterns for use at central and local levels; create afund to support solid waste reduction and recycling;and promote scientific research, environmentaleducation and awareness-raising at schools,communities and business establishments. Up until2015, Viet Nam’s target objectives under its wastemanagement strategy are to collect and sustainablytreat 85 per cent of domestic solid waste in cities,50 per cent of construction waste in urban areas, 80per cent of non-hazardous industrial solid waste and60 per cent of hazardous solid waste from industrialparks, and to clean up all its seriously polluteddumping sites. These percentages and goalsincrease and expand from 2015 to 2025.Most countries see economic growth as a way toend poverty. Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia allhave strategies that reflect this. In the Viet NamVision 2020, the country aspires to be a modernindustrialized country in 2020 by doubling its GDP,increasing the level of savings and investment andimproving upon the Human Development Index.SCP activities in Lao PDR are a part of the NationalSocio Economic Development Plan, and also theNational Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy;the government’s overarching development goal isto lift the country from the ranks of least-developedcountries by 2020. Bhutan, Bangladesh, Lao PDR,Nepal, Thailand and Viet Nam have all been workingwith UNEP to mainstream poverty-environmentlinkages in national planning, through the UNEP-UnitedNations Development Programme (UNDP) Poverty andEnvironment Initiative (UNEP and UNDP, undated).Local strategies and initiatives have also contributedto multiplier impacts that, in turn, have promotedfurther SCP. Examples include sustainable localagriculture and marketing in the rice-producing townof Ikeda in Japan, and the Green Shop movementstarted in the city of Gwacheon, Korea (see CaseStudy 4).The Phitsanulok municipality in Thailand has carriedout a number of waste management initiatives usingthe 3R approach; these have helped to reduce theamount of waste for final disposal, thereby mitigatingenvironmental impacts and GHG emissions. As astrategy, the municipality decided to make wastemanagement a priority area in several departments. Iteducated residents through a door-to-door campaignand by making public announcements. The municipalitythen reduced the budget for automatic street sweepersby 70 per cent, creating 97 new jobs for residents. Inaddition, public-private partnerships were established116

taking action togetherUsing local shops to bolstersustainable community lifestylesIn the rice-farming town of Ikeda, in the Fukuiprefecture of Japan, the decreasing number offarmers in the town (whose population declinedby almost 20 per cent from 1995 to 2005) and afaltering local economy inspired the mayor to usesustainable local production and consumption ofagricultural products as part of an overall plan topromote sustainable lifestyles and revitalize thecommunity. One successful initiative is a storenamed Koppoi-ya, which means ‘thankful’ in thelocal dialect. People from Ikeda run the store,which sells organic rice and other agriculturalproducts produced by Ikeda’s farmers at ashopping centre in the capital city (population270,000) of the Fukui prefecture. Ikeda has itsown certification mechanism for organic foods,in particular for products consumed by farmersthemselves; today, about 160 farmers participate.In 2007 the annual sales through this storeexceeded 20 per cent of Ikeda’s total agriculturalsales. The town developed a centre to producefertilizers from organic waste, generated bytown residents by mixing dung and rice husks.Collection of household organic waste isimplemented by local non-profit organizationvolunteers, of which about one third are towngovernment staff. The fertilizer produced at thecentre supports Ikeda’s agricultural production.One factor in the project’s success has beenthe mayor’s effort to develop and deepenthe trust between local government staff andlocal residents. To highlight its importance,the mayor identifies agriculture as “a part oflife, bond among people, art for living, and thecornerstone of local lives” (Nakamura and Elder,2010, p. 105). The mayor instituted a greentourism package that invited people to come andexperience the agricultural way of life. This projectincluded the development of a facility where urbanresidents can stay and experience agriculturein Ikeda, further deepening the commoncitizen’s understanding of the fundamentals of asustainable lifestyle and culture.good condition. It soon became very popular andgathered support from the wider community andfrom the municipal government. As a result, thecity of Gwacheon started to support this GreenShop movement, setting up a formal officeto replicate the city’s achievements in othercities in Korea. By supporting governmentalagencies and citizen organizations, the GreenShop network expanded, with 55 Green Shopsoperating in different provinces across thecountry by 2009.When a Green Shop opens in a new city orprovince, an education programme is providedto community members. The Green ShopMovement’s primary website shares informationand experiences to facilitate sustainability,not only via the exchange of products but alsothrough citizen donations and other activities.This expanded activity indicates an evolutionof the Green Shop goals over the last twodecades, from simple recycling or energysavingactivities to the creation of a cultureof sustainable community living. According toone of the participating cities, Suwon-City, itsGreen Shop has raised KPW19,400,000 andprovided student grants to 28 local students.Local volunteers continuously offer varioussocial service activities – for example, provisionof services, food and daily necessities twice aweek to local elderly people living alone or inpoor conditions. The Green Shop membershipalso runs a ‘Green Farm Sharing Happiness’ anddonates products to social welfare facilities. Thelocal authority is now considering setting up anadministrative unit to oversee the Green Shop,as its scale increases.Source: Choi and Didham (2009)In the city of Gwacheon, Korea, local communitymembers initiated the opening of a ‘Green Shop’.The original aim of this shop was to encouragecitizen participation in exchanging everyday itemsthat they did not use anymore but were still in117

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESPhoto courtesy of IGESSupporting compost utilization inthe Republic of IndonesiaThe Kitakyushu Initiative for a Clean EnvironmentNetwork, initiated by the city of Kitakyushu,Kitakyushu International Techno-CooperativeAssociation and the Institute for GlobalEnvironmental Strategies (IGES), with support fromUNESCAP, provided its technical assistance to thecity of Surabaya in establishing a sound materialcyclesociety through promotion of composting in2004. The system was first piloted in an urbancommunity called Rungkot Lor, which is locatedadjacent to the largest industrial area in the city.Pusdakota, a local non-governmental organization(NGO), organized a community meeting andeducated its residents in the separation of wasteat the source, introducing a simple technology totreat the organic waste at the household level (thedesign of the household compost bin was basedon the Takakura Home Method) and encouragingresidents to grow vegetables and herbal plantsin home gardens using household compost.The results revealed that the project providedextra economic opportunities for communitymembers, improved the sanitary conditions inthe community, and created greener and cleanerwaste handling at the community level.Based on the success of the pilot project,the city of Surabaya introduced some policymeasures to positively support the communitybasedcomposting programme at a city level,building partnerships with the women’s network,local NGOs, informal waste pickers, academicinstitutions, private ventures and the media. Asystem of environmental waste collectors andvolunteers was established to share informationregarding the new waste collection system,to assist new families in starting householdcomposting and to educate those families aboutthe benefits of keeping the environment cleanand green. Once the households had a generalknowledge of the system, free compost binswere given to them by the city. In addition, 16composting centres have now been establishedthroughout the city to process waste collectedfrom markets, streets and parks. City-wideenvironmental competitions and awardsystems were established in partnership withthe private sector to motivate and strengthencommunity participation in the city’s newwaste management system and to encouragecommunities to improve their neighbourhoodenvironments. The city also enacted a localregulation, No. 1/2006, on community-basedsolid waste management and incorporated thisnew strategy into the preparation of the midtermdevelopment plans (2006-2010) of the city.As a result of this supportive policy environment,there has been a significant reduction oftransported waste to the final disposal site,as much as 20 per cent. About 1,797community groups in the city are activelyinvolved in promoting community compostingactivities, which has provided additional incomeearningopportunities for low-income families,since they are able to sell their own compost,on average, for US$0.07 per kg. The greenspaces in housing areas have increased from269.29 acres in 2006 to 274.44 acres in 2007,due to the establishment of an urban farmingprogramme by the communities. About 15small- and medium-scale recycling businesseshave been started by private ventures, creatingnew job opportunities for low-income people.The social capital within communities hasbeen strengthened by the active involvementof community members in the pursuit ofcommon goals. In addition, compost utilizationhas mitigated GHG generation in landfills, areduction of about 8,000 tons of CO 2 equivalentin 2009. The city of Surabaya has also receiveda number of international awards in recognitionof its achievements, including the EnergyGlobal Award in 2005 from Austria, the GreenOrganisation’s Green Apple Award in London in2007 and Urban Environmental Improvementfrom UNESCAP in 2007.Source: Personal communication, D. G. J.Premakumara, Toshizo Maeda, and Miwa Abe ofthe Secretariat of the Kitakyushu Initiative for aClean Environment: IGES, 22 November 2011.118

taking action togetherto promote recycling and decentralized composting ofhousehold waste. While these interventions alreadymanaged to reduce waste generation by 40 per cent,the ‘Faber-Ambra’ mechanical biological treatmentmethod prior to landfill further reduced the amountof waste. The combined impact of these activitiesyielded an 80 per cent reduction in waste headedto the landfill; the potential exists for even furtherreduction via using plastic waste fragments as refusederivedfuel, increasing composting and reducingthe arsenic contamination of the organic fractionfrom the mechanical biological treatment. The SCPbenefits of the Phitsanulok municipality’s strategy areincreased resource efficiency, income generation forfamilies supporting the recycling business, a raisedsocial status of waste pickers, and increased socialacceptance and awareness of 3R practices (Sang-Arunand Bengtsson, 2009). This example mirrors anotherby the city of Surabaya under the so-called KitakyushuInitiative that has come to be seen as a model ofwaste management success in the region (see CaseStudy 5).Waste management remains the most widelyaddressed life-cycle stage by governments. This isa reflection of the visible pressures that come withincreased consumption. But it also reflects that policyis more reactive than proactive. Although there ismuch consensus on the scarcity of resources to feedbusiness-as-usual economic growth in several Asiancountries, there is yet to be an implementation ofpolicies aimed at shifting from a consumptive growthscenario to a more sustainable economy. Closest tosuch a scenario is the strategy of Bhutan, which strivesto replace GDP with the happiness of its citizens asa measure of successful development. Even so, theGross National Happiness strategy in Bhutan facesimplementation challenges and is still seen more as anovel concept rather than a replicable policy approach.Going forward, government policy instruments wouldhave to encourage reduced material consumptionamong the growing middle class while simultaneouslybalancing it with increased consumption of basic needsamong the large numbers of poor. Progressive taxationsystems for the rich, reward systems for communityservice and for corporate social and environmentalresponsibility, development of infrastructure for cleanwater, and rural energy, as well as subsidies for viablerural economies to avoid rural-urban migration, wouldbe possible approaches.Policy instrumentsAnalysis shows that there are differences in approachesacross the region, depending on economic, political,environmental and social contexts.Regulatory instrumentsThese are the least-preferred instruments bygovernments, in part because they need morehuman, financial and technical resources tomonitor implementation. Given such demands, itis relatively easier for regulations to be enforced inindustrialized economies than in developing ones.Japan and Australia, for example, maintain very strictmonitoring procedures and liabilities for the use ofcertain banned chemicals in food, food packaging orchildren’s toys. Although China and India have suchregulations, enforcement remains a challenge; testsof common products often reveal traces of bannedchemical components above regulated limits.Regulatory instruments also tend to be applied morewhere there is high social pressure or there aredirectly visible damages or point sources. There isa partial ban on plastic shopping bags in Australia,China, Singapore and other countries. The SouthKorean Ordinance on the Standards of PackagingMethods and Materials sets ‘empty space ratio’goals for most product packaging. A complementaryAct restricts the use of disposable cups, plates,plastic bags and paper bags in restaurants,public baths and department stores, among otherplaces. In Taipei, Taiwan (China), there is a per-baghousehold waste collection fee, based on a socalled‘Pay as You Throw’ scheme. In the Republicof Korea, the Volume-Based Garbage Collection Feesystem also charges per garbage bag dischargedper household. Authorized bags can be bought ingrocery and department stores; unauthorized bagsand illegal waste dumping are fined (Akenji andBengtsson, 2010).A regulatory approach that features prominently isextended producer responsibility (EPR), wherebyproducers are required to take responsibility formanaging waste from their own products at the postconsumerphase. Several economies now includeEPR as a part of their waste management strategy.Typically, industrialized economies like Japan,Australia and Korea have properly implemented EPRlegislation; emerging economies like China, Thailandand Malaysia either have drafts or have developedsystems where implementation is still a challenge;least-developed economies like Lao PDR and VietNam are still in evaluation stages or simply have EPRmentioned as an instrument but lack the capacity toput it into practice.To boost the competitive advantage of its greentechnology market and encourage employment inthe sustainable production sector, the Korea’s GreenProcurement Policy was adopted in 2005. It legallyrequires all public sectors including the CentralAuthority, Provincial Councils and GovernmentalInvestment Institutions to use sustainable products.As a result, between 2004 and 2010, the scale ofgreen production has increased by a factor of four– from 1,540 products (443 companies) to 6,531products (1,739 companies).119

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESThe Green Purchasing Networkin JapanThe Green Purchasing Network of Japan (GPN-J)was initiation by the Environmental Agency asa collaboration of consumers, businesses andgovernment organizations to promote greenpurchasing. As of June 2009 GPN-J had 3,000members. The early efforts of GPN-J were tobuild consensus on the ‘Principles of GreenPurchasing’; from these principles GPN-J wenton to create purchasing guidelines coveringproducts in 16 different categories. GPN-J hasalso developed a database in which assessmentsof 11,000 products are provided, consistent withthe purchasing guidelines. In 2000 the effortsof GPN-J were supported with the Ministry ofEnvironment’s enactment of the Law on PromotingGreen Purchasing, which requires governmentagencies to purchase environmentally friendlyproducts. To disseminate the purpose of thislaw and the purchasing guidelines, GPN-J nowruns training courses six to eight times a yearfor purchasing officers in the government. Theother notable outcome of the Law on PromotingGreen Purchasing is that many companies haveimproved their products to meet the criteria ofthe purchasing guidelines, and this has helped toexpand the quantity and quality of environmentallyfriendly products available to consumers.One of the key factors in GPN-J’s early successwas the achievement of strong multi-stakeholdercollaboration that promoted many innovativeactivities. The coordinated efforts of thesestakeholders served to stimulate each other andresulted in overall performance improvement.GPN-J was supported by the Ministry ofEnvironment to collect and disseminate goodpractice through award schemes and seminars.The mandating of governmental green purchasinghas been the key factor in ensuring the long-termeffectiveness of this project; an additional factoris that the various stakeholders have clearlyunderstood their roles and responsibilities.GPN-J has also engaged in several importanteducational activities through promoting thegreen purchasing criteria to companies/productdevelopers, training government procurementofficers in the new criteria, internationalnetworking to share good practice, and workingto raise consumer awareness regarding theavailability of green products.GPN-J has taken a leading role in the formationof the International Green Purchasing Network,whose objectives are similar (albeit on a broaderscale) to the national network. It further servesto share information and good practice on greenpurchasing and to harmonize green purchasingactivities among countries.Source: Didham and Hayashi (2011)Japan has been a leader in sustainable publicprocurement, mainly facilitated by its GreenPurchasing Network (see Case Study 6). The totalJapanese government expenditure is equivalentto 17.6 per cent of its GDP, or about ¥58 trillionper year (¥14 trillion from the national governmentand ¥44 trillion from local governments). With theproper economic incentives, such an amount has aleveraging power to usher in a strong market for SCP.Economic instrumentsIndustrialized economies with mature industries,like Japan, are capitalizing on their experiences todrive economic growth in a more resource-efficientmanner by using new technologies. Japan providesincentives for green technological innovation; India,Malaysia and other countries undergoing fast growthare employing economic instruments to signaldirections for preferred growth.In 2009 Japan revised its laws on industrialdevelopment and innovation, introducing programmesaimed at increasing the resource efficiency ofindustrial production facilities and the energyefficiency of household appliances, while at the sametime providing financial support to industry. Underone of these programmes, companies that achievecertain improvements in energy efficiency or carbonefficiency can receive tax reduction measures, suchas immediate depreciation of capital investment,financial assistance and exemptions from certainregulations. The other programme offers similarbenefits to companies producing appliances rankedamong the top 20 per cent most energy-efficient.120

taking action togetherThe Chinese Renewable Energy Law from 2005offers a variety of financial incentives, suchas a national fund to foster renewable energydevelopment, discounted lending and taxpreferences for renewable energy projects, and arequirement that power grid operators purchaseresources from registered renewable energyproducers. The combination of investments andpolicy incentives has encouraged major advancesin the development of both wind and solar power(UNEP, 2010).Much like regulatory instruments, in order to generatethe desired effects, economic instruments usuallyrequire sophisticated institutions to implementand enforce them. Charges and taxes need to becollected, and monitoring is needed to avoid freeriding.Tradable permits are especially challenging:to create a well-functioning market can require afairly large administration, and the regulated entitiesusually need training in how to utilize the permitmarket effectively (IGES, 2010). This, again, leavesleast-developed countries challenged in terms ofcapacity to take control of their own sustainabilitydirection through use of economic instruments.Voluntary instrumentsDue to the challenges in the use of mandatoryregulatory and economic instruments, governmentsoften prefer the use of voluntary measures to addressunsustainable production and consumption patterns.The Singapore Packaging Agreement came intoeffect in 2007 between the government and the foodand drink industry. Each industry sector preparesits action plans, in which it set targets to reducepackaging waste from various packaging materials.The government encourages more sustainablepackaging by giving an annual award to exemplarycompanies. A similar agreement is the NationalPackaging Covenant in Australia, which promotesreduction in consumer product packaging. Partiesto the Covenant submit a three- to five-year planto meet the negotiated targets, prepare annualprogress reports and contribute an annual fee thatis used to fund waste recycling.Information-based instrumentsInformational instruments are some of the mostwidely used, especially through ecolabels, consumerawareness-raising campaigns and corporatesustainability reporting. Thailand has a CarbonReduction Label to help consumers purchase moreenvironmentally friendly products. The schemeresults from cooperation between the ThailandGreenhouse Gas Management Organisation andthe Thailand Environment Institute. It uses a lifecycleapproach to give a measure of a product’scontribution to GHG emissions, thus providing theconsumer with information that can help directconsumers towards less environmentally harmfulpurchases. Among businesses that have applied forregistration are producers of dried food, cement, ricebags, condoms, artificial wood, milk cartons, cookingoil and floor tiles (Rabhi and others, 2010).Most governments, in collaboration with NGOs,encourage corporate sustainability informationdisclosure. The Indonesian Program for PollutionControl, Evaluation and Rating (PROPER), GreenWatch in China, Eco Watch in the Philippines andthe Environmental Rating Project in India are someexamples.The emergence of better information technology hasdecreased costs of information dissemination, partlycontributing to the popularization of informationalinstruments in recent years. One of the advantagesof informational instruments is the relatively lowimplementation cost, compared to the complexadministration often needed in order for regulatoryapproaches to work properly. The limited costs inthe use of such tools means they can be more easilyemployed by least-developed economies. However,the effectiveness of informational and voluntaryinstruments is more pronounced in societies whereconsumers, investors, government officials and otherkey actors have high awareness of sustainabilityissues, and where there is the availability ofsustainable product options at competitive rates(IGES, 2010). This again puts least-developedeconomies at a disadvantage, because informationon a sustainable product or service will have littleeffect in a society where people are still trying tomeet their basic needs, let alone choosing betweensustainable and unsustainable options. Fair tradeand highly energy-efficient products are generallyconsumed by the middle class, who can afford topay slightly higher market prices for such goods.5.4 SCP initiatives for andby businessRecently, due to a combination of externalstakeholder pressure, government regulation andbusiness competitive strategy, businesses tend tohave a pro-sustainability stance.Some of the most conspicuous voluntary businessinitiatives towards sustainability have been indeveloping greener corporate images. Some ofthis has been through advertising or repositioningof products to carry green labels. Sustainabilityreporting, as a part of corporate social responsibility(CSR) communication, is also on the rise. Both theGlobal Reporting Initiative (GRI) and the InternationalOrganization for Standardization (ISO standards)have reported an increasing number of CSR reports121

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESby companies from Asia and the Pacific. Whereasin 2000 there were fewer than 10 reports fromAsia-Pacific businesses registered with the GRIdatabase, in 2005 that number had climbed to over60, and in 2010 there were over 300 registeredreports (GRI, 2010). The situation is similar withrespect to implementation of ISO 14001 standardsfor environmental management systems. In 2008the top two countries for number of ISO 14001certificates were China (with 39,195 certificates)and Japan (with 35,573 certificates). In mostcountries, the number of certificates jumped by over30 per cent between 2006 and 2008 – in Malaysia,the number went from 593 to 997; in Indonesia,from 369 to 849; in Korea, from 5,893 to 7,133(ISO, 2009).Corporate sustainability awards are also adeveloping trend, with international agencies andbusiness associations either giving out their ownawards or affiliating with a third-party corporatesustainability award. The International Chamber ofCommerce, UNDP, and the International BusinessLeaders Forum have developed World Business andDevelopment Awards in support of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals. Every two years, winners arerecognized for their roles in alleviating poverty, thuscontributing to more sustainable production. Amongthe winners in 2008 was SMART Communications,a telecommunications corporation in the Philippines,for providing millions of people access tocommunication and micro-enterprise opportunitiesthrough its mobile phone services in the Philippines.A more recent winner in 2010 was a socialenterprise, LifeSpring Hospitals in India, described inmore detail below.Although awards and sustainability reports havebeen touted as early steps to more integratedcorporate sustainability, participating businessesare usually major corporations. The selectioncriteria, financial and human resource costs andorganizational membership fees are generally greaterthan SMEs can meet. SMEs often lack the technicalexpertise needed for improvements in environmentaland social responsibility. This means that localpractices and SMEs, which constitute the majorityof businesses in Asia and are active within the valuechain as suppliers of major corporations, are left outof these pro-sustainability incentives.Asia and Pacific businesses have been developingtheir capacities to meet the sustainability challenge.For example, Business for Social Responsibility,a <strong>global</strong> network of over 200 major corporations,started the China Training Institute in 2004 as aCSR capacity-building project for brand companiesand their suppliers in China. It offers long-term andshort-term training on topics such as environmentalrisk management, worker healthcare programmesand analyzing the causes of excessive overtime. InApril 2010 the Institute held a workshop in GuangZhou, China, in collaboration with the CleanerPartner Project of Hong Kong government, to shareexperiences on energy saving in manufacturingindustries. Participants explored trends of energyefficiency in manufacturing industries and werepresented best practices.Like awards, such capacity-building trainings areincreasingly common, funded or supported byinternational agencies, national governments orindustry. Another example is a partnership formedamong Fraunhofer IFF of Germany, the Asian Societyfor Environmental Protection in Thailand, the VietNam Productivity Center, Government of Viet Namand the Louth County Enterprise Board of Ireland,and funded through the European Commission’sAsia Invest programme. The partnership’s aim hasbeen to empower Asian business intermediariesthrough knowledge-based networking focused onsustainability management. The partnership hasbrought together European and Asian researchersand business-intermediary organizations topromote European know-how and information andcommunication technologies, along with the transferof best practices. Over 800 representatives of SMEswere trained in Viet Nam and Thailand.New business strategies, such as socialentrepreneurship, are also spreading in the region.A well-known example is the Grameen Bank, whichprovides micro-grants to rural women who wouldotherwise not have the collateral to receive loansfrom traditional banks for their small business.Entrepreneurial activities using micro-grants havelifted several families out of poverty. LifeSpringHospitals, a 2010 winner of the World Business andDevelopment Awards, is another example of socialenterprise. Across India, it provides low-cost, highqualitymaternal care to low-income mothers whowould otherwise not have access to such services.Launched in 2005, LifeSpring Hospitals has grownto a chain of nine clinics; it has delivered more than7,000 babies and its doctors have treated over100,000 outpatient cases, thus contributing toreduced rates of infant mortality and better healthcare for mothers.Some financial and insurance organizations arebeginning to insist on comprehensive environmentalaudits to limit the environmental risk in their projectfinancing. In order to promote a green credit policyto businesses, in 2007 China’s State EnvironmentalProtection Administration, the People’s Bank ofChina and the China Banking Regulatory Commissionjointly issued a policy called Notes on Reducing LoanRisk by Enforcing Environmental Protection Policiesand Regulations. Incorporation of environmentalconcerns into business planning is increasingly a122

taking action togetherprerequisite to obtain loans. These are broadeningsigns of socially responsible investment.An example of an Asian company addressing SCPis Toyota Motor Thailand (TMT). TMT has developedGreen Purchasing Guidelines. Suppliers are requestedto submit certified test reports that productssupplied do not contain substances of concern (lead,mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium), showimprovement in their use of natural resources, takemeasures to reduce CO 2 emissions generated bydeliveries to the company and cooperate with theefforts of TMT to reduce usage of packaging andwrapping materials. In its own operations, TMT reducedwaste by 7,900 tons and water by 1,910,000 tonsbetween 2001 and 2008 (TMT, 2007; TMT, undated).Businesses are also getting innovative regardingmanagement strategies. Criterion Furniture, afurniture manufacturer with headquarters in NewZealand, has seen multiple benefits (financialand non-financial) by shifting its managementand manufacturing approach towards sustainableproduction. Another example is TanTec, a leathergoods company with bases in China and Viet Nam,which has invested extensively in reducing energyneeds, raw materials and waste generation (seeCase Studies 7 and 8).Least-developed countries, driven by the need forforeign direct investment, are generally more relaxedwhen it comes to regulating corporate behaviourtowards sustainability, inviting major multinationalcorporations as a means of offering employment tolocal populations. There is, however, internationalcollaboration to encourage voluntary sustainablecorporate behaviour.The most widely addressed business aspectis sustainability communications. This is partlybecause business sustainability is seen to give acompetitive advantage in a market of increasinglyconscious consumers, and also becausecommunication comes naturally to businesses, asthey need to advertise their products and services.Going forward, there are still opportunities forbusinesses to explore models such as leasing orhiring services instead of the outright purchaseof products. For example, car leasing instead ofcar sales, and collaborative consumption, suchas community computer services, would be in thecommunity spirit of Asian societies.Green business practices in Chinaand Viet NamTanTec produces leather goods for overseascompanies from tanneries located in China andViet Nam and has achieved significant costsavings by implementing energy-efficiency andwaste management practices. The key, accordingto the CEO, is to constantly innovate and look forbetter solutions. The company uses a combinationof existing in-house and external benchmarks,comparing them with the company’s existingmanufacturing performance. Accordingly, theSaigon TanTec uses on average only 33 MJ ofenergy per square metre of leather, comparedwith a leather industry standard of approximately52 MJ – as calculated by the British LeatherTechnology Centre (Leather International, 2010).The energy reductions have been achieved througha host of improvements, including: the installationof continuously controllable compressors andpumps, the retrofitting of dryers, the installationof energy-efficient re-tanning drums, and the shiftfrom oil to liquefied gas as a heating source.In addition, the factory has invested in energyefficientlighting systems with light sensors andtimer control and is using translucent plasticpanels that allow sunlight to penetrate parts ofthe roofs and walls. Bamboo walls also allowfor a natural ventilation of the factory. The useof reed grasses and ‘wetland’ methods forwastewater management and post-purification,along with the use of solar thermal and windenergy, have been among the central measures.The company has now achieved a 40 per centreduction of its energy consumption, and hasreduced CO 2 emissions by 2,700 tons per year.In addition, TanTec has reduced water andchemical consumption by 50 per cent and 15per cent, respectively.Source: Leather International (2010)123

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESFurniture business benefits fromshift to sustainable productionAn example of a company that has changedits management strategy to embrace moresustainable production is New Zealand-basedCriterion Furniture, manufacturer of ready-toassemblefurniture and employer of 200 people.In 2005 the company noticed initial indicatorsfrom its target export markets in Europe thatenvironmental sustainability criteria wereincreasingly becoming important. In addition,it noticed that waste treatment and energyconsumption had an impact on the company’sfinancial bottom line. These provided an initialnudge for the company to change its managementapproach and manufacturing practices.The company went through a process ofdeveloping an environmental vision and strategyfor itself, estimating the resource requirements,potential savings, and benefits of running asustainable operation. It developed the basisfor an Environmental Management System andaccountability structure, which it then proceededto implement. In 2009 Criterion’s EnvironmentalManagement System was certified to ISO14001, which added further recognition to itssustainability efforts among external stakeholders.It adopted a 3R approach in its design andmanufacturing process and integrated environmentalconsiderations into its purchasing decisions. Further,it works together with its suppliers to ensure thatthe raw materials used for manufacturing have lowenvironmental impact. It also set up an ecoportalto facilitate communication among variousfunctions of the business.Excess polystyrene in packaging was identifiedas a needless waste of material and resources.That project resulted in a 15 per cent reductionin polystyrene usage, leading to an NZ$75,000annual material cost savings. By reducingpackaging size, the company also achieved a 7per cent increase in the number of products thatcan be shipped in containers, leading to costsavings and reductions in carbon emissionsfrom transport. Criterion Furniture achievedfinancial benefits of about NZ$100,000 incost savings through material reduction fromcutting optimization, and a further NZ$300,000reduction in landfill costs.Source: Criterion Furniture (2011)5.5 Civil society initiatives for SCPCivil society organizations (CSOs) work on a varietyof issues related to sustainable development –from Asian values in sustainability to Pacific islandclimate change adaptation to zoological speciesmanagement. Thus, their activities vary dependingon the targeted sustainability stakeholder group:government, the general public or the private sector.The creation of public awareness on SCP issues hasbeen central in civil society in recent years. In VietNam, for example, the groups Center of Support forCombating Climate Change and Action for the Cityhave joined forces to organize ‘The Green Days’,a campaign to encourage people to change theirbehaviour and promote a sustainable lifestyle. Inaddition to media activities, during the campaign,organizers get people and businesses to pledge touse green transportation, support organic agricultureand avoid the use of plastic bags.Holding corporations accountable is also a coreactivity of CSOs, through commenting on CSRreports or boycotting companies or products that areconsidered unsustainable. Primary targets of recentcampaigns in the region include pharmaceutical andagricultural businesses – including those dealingwith seeds, farming and fertilizers. In 2007 theNational Asian chapters of Consumers Internationalcampaigned for a ban on promoting unhealthyfoods in schools, along with broader restrictionson television and Internet advertising. In Nepal, Fiji,Malaysia, Hong Kong, India, the Philippines andThailand, there have been campaigns against junkfood. Consumers International members in Asia and124

taking action togetherthe Pacific have also held campaigns demandingmore transparent practices in the marketing ofpharmaceutical products.CSOs are good at mobilizing grassroots action. Throughthe Indian Office of the Global Alliance for IncineratorAlternatives (GAIA), grassroots action is coordinatedagainst polluting, end-of-pipe waste-managementactivities. ‘Zero Waste for Zero Warming’ is one ofGAIA’s coordinated campaigns. GAIA members shareinformation online and in regional meetings, organizetrainings and skillshare events, provide technicalsupport to member groups and communities, andprovide mini-grants for advocacy and educationcampaigns to stop the expansion of incineration asa method of waste management. According to GAIA,its members in the region have contributed to thecancellation of the Broga mega-incinerator projectin Selangor, Malaysia, and the success of wastereductionprojects at the 2002 World Cup in SouthKorea and the 2005 Southeast Asian Games in thePhilippines (GAIA, 2010).APFED (2010) has documented an extensive numberof civil society initiatives, some of which are highlightedby Kobayashi (2010), a coordinator at the APFEDSecretariat. NGO involvement at a local level alsoprovides opportunities to promote resource-efficientlifestyles. Since 2006, a local NGO from Nikaweratiya,Sri Lanka, has supported experimentation on theproduction of oil from the jatropha shrub in order tosupplement fuel consumption in the local communityof Gurugoda. With support from an international NGO,this project has seen multiple benefits, from mitigatingcontributions to climate change to supportinglivelihoods and, of course, the cost savings fromreduced dependence on imported fuel and local-levelrecognition of sustainable alternatives to fossil-fuelbasedenergy. Jatropha shrubs have been plantedas natural barriers around houses and gardens toprevent crop damage from animals. In so doing, thecommon land-use conflict that occurs with biofuelproduction has been avoided. Further avoiding conflict,jatropha oil is inedible by humans and the plantstypically can grow in soil unsuitable for plants usedfor consumption. The locals harvested the seeds andsold them to a local processing centre, later benefitingfrom reduced expenses on fuel for local transport andequipment. One limiting factor is the water demandof jatropha during its first year of life. However, afterthe initial water-intensive year, jatropha grows quitewell as a hardy shrub in tropical climates with a fairamount of annual rainfall. Although the allure ofjatropha is compelling, it should be seen as one partof an overall approach to sustainable consumption,which necessarily includes other lifestyle changes(Kobayashi, 2010).CSOs also run capacity-building projects. Live andLearn Environmental Education, a Fijian NGO, hasbeen running a project in which training workshopsare conducted to promote environmentally soundresource and waste management practices suchas composting and recycling. A unique feature ofthe project is the involvement of youth leadersin the training programme to encourage them todisseminate their newly acquired knowledge andskills within their own community. As a part of theproject implementation process, monitoring andevaluation are carried out to share successes andfailures and to ensure the delivery of expectedoutcomes. Throughout the project activities, thepeople participating in the project have beenchanging their consumption patterns, therebyreducing waste generation and promoting resourcecirculation (Kobayashi, 2010).CSO understanding of traditional practices andcommunity engagement, and using these to addresssustainability problems, is demonstrated by a casein Viet Nam, where poaching and illegal trade inendangered species has become a major socialconcern. Education for Nature Viet Nam, a VietnameseNGO, has been carrying out an environmentaleducation project to promote public understanding ofthe protection of endangered species and to increasepublic collaboration to halt illegal wildlife poachingand trade. One of the key features of the project is a“wildlife hotline.” Tigers and bears are poached illegallyfor the trade of bones and gallbladders, respectively,as alleged aphrodisiacs, a claim that is rebuffed bymainstream science. In winning support to preventthe unsustainable consumption of endangeredspecies, public education and consumer awarenesscampaigns have contributed greatly. To curb such illegaltransactions, community members keep an eye out forillegal trading of wildlife and its by-products and operatepublic peer pressure systems involving the media. Fromthe beginning of 2005 to the end of 2006, almost400 cases were reported and culprits were arrestedin over 80 per cent of the cases. By 2008, more than1,400 criminal cases were reported and documented.Information disclosure on illegal trafficking of wildlifeand its products, along with prosecution of the culprits,strengthens local authorities and communities in theirsuppression of illegal poaching and trading of wildlife(Kobayashi, 2010).Another dimension of civil society activity calls forgovernment action to address the sustainabilityissues identified. Examples include a call for banningplastic bags in almost all countries of the regionand extensive campaigns for legislation to mandateenvironmental labelling by producers as a meansof providing information to consumers. CSOs havebeen active through policy processes, pushing for theright policies to address unsustainable consumptionand production. In China, Cambodia, Thailand,Korea and other countries, CSOs have been activeparticipants at SCP roundtables and in the provision125

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESof input to NSSDs. The first national consultation inthe region towards the United Nations Earth Summitin 2012 was organized in Sri Lanka by civil society,through the Climate Sustainability Platform. At theCommission on Sustainable Development eighteenthsession in New York, interventions were made byIGES, on behalf of NGO Major Groups at the HighLevel Segment on SCP.Collective buying and distributionin IndiaThe case of the Mumbai Grahak Panchayat(MGP) in India demonstrates CSO understandingof local communities and the use of thatunderstanding to self-organize into meetingsocietal needs in a more sustainable manner.MGP brings together households in Mumbaiunder a common system to collectively buyand distribute groceries. To overcome foodshortages, ensure better distribution andget better prices for food, consumers areorganized into buying groups, which then takeadvantage of their large numbers to eliminatethe middleman and buy directly from producersand wholesalers. In 2010 there were more than2,000 buying groups and more than 26,000families as members of the system, managed byvolunteers and housewives.MGP has seen 15 to 20 per cent savings infamilies’ grocery budgets. Collective buyingand bulk delivery eliminates about 60,000km of transportation and saves about 10,000litres of fuel per month, thereby reducingcarbon emissions and air pollution. The groupuses textile bags instead of plastic bags forpacking sugar, wheat and rice. These bagsare then reused several times. It has alsobanned the use of plastic bags at product fairs,which bring together local producers, smallentrepreneurs and consumers; this prevents theuse of nearly 1,500 kg of plastic per month or18,000 kg of plastic per year, reducing wastegeneration. Broader sustainability benefits ofMGP’s activities include wider awareness andparticipation in SCP and inspiration for othercommunities to follow suit.Source: Mumbai Grahak Panchayat (2010)CSO partnerships with business and the privatesectors have been instrumental in bringing solutionsto some sustainability issues. The Regional 3RsForum for Asia has spurred collaboration amonggovernments, businesses, research groupsand NGOs towards better technology for wastemanagement in countries including Japan, Malaysiaand Thailand. In Sri Lanka, the Federation ofElectricity Consumer Societies promotes the useof environmentally sustainable energy technologiesby developing the technical capacities of off-gridcommunities, working together with the nationalgovernment and local communities. In one suchproject, the federation helped members of theremote Sinhala, Tamil and Muslim areas of Sri Lankato generate energy for households through microhydrotechnology. Some 300 remote villages nowhave micro-hydro schemes, providing electricity tosome 10,000 households. The federation’s activitieshave led to establishment of national standards formicro-hydro power generation.The World Resource Institute (WRI), through its NewVentures programme, has gone beyond research,facilitating partnerships and helping small businessesto access investment opportunities. It connectsentrepreneurs and SMEs to venture capital funds,angel investors and banks, and then helps theentrepreneurs achieve success by providing businessdevelopment training. Within its portfolio is AccuraBikes Private Limited in India, which manufacturesand sells pollution-free and noise-free electric bikes.A China-based company in WRI’s New Venturesportfolio is Landwasher, a producer of environmentallyresponsible toilets that utilize a water-free flushingsystem. This technology both conserves resourcesand meets the sanitation needs of rural communitieslacking access to current public infrastructure. InIndonesia, WRI works with Intaran on sustainableagriculture through the Tree of Life programme.Intaran has reforested more than 200 hectares withneem trees, supplied over 30,000 seeds to thelocal community, and provided technical assistanceand training on the environmental benefits of thissustainable activity. By providing communities withan alternative, stable economic activity, Intaran hasaided efforts to prevent further deforestation in threeprovinces. The company has developed a line of 15products, including organic fertilizers, pesticides,cosmetics and natural medicine, maximizing the useof the different parts of the neem tree (WRI, 2010).126

taking action togetherIn general, civil society has been most active in areasof raising awareness, especially through education onsustainable livelihoods and lifestyles. CSOs have alsobeen instrumental in getting businesses to respondpositively to CSR and other sustainability concerns.However, owing to limited research capabilities,funding and other relevant capacity, CSO engagementhas not been able to go much further than grassrootsactivism and the taking up of causes that reflect moreimmediate societal concerns, such as food shortagesand water pollution. There is a need for efforts toinvolve CSOs in policy dialogue processes, to exposethem to scientific research on sustainability, andfor deliberate efforts to increase funding for theiractivities. CSO initiatives should also be encouragedto cover more nuanced areas, for example, theupholding of traditional values and sustainablecommunity examples of consumption and production.5.6 ConclusionsSeveral countries have policies and programmesin place that could effectively guide a societal shifttowards SCP. Despite recognition of its necessity,however, and positive examples highlighted in thisreport, SCP does not seem to have been effectivelymainstreamed in society and policymaking. A movefrom political commitment, demonstration and pilotingto implementation and enforcement of SCP policies ona wider scale is needed.There is little coordinated action or collaborative effortfor common capacity-building and addressing crossregionalissues. One action that could begin to makecollaboration more concrete would be the creation andfunding of a programme-oriented working group on SCP.The Marrakech Process consultations have identifiedsome priority tools for SCP in the Asia-Pacific region.Among them is the development of national SCP actionplans and education for all stakeholders. Consumersneed information on sustainable lifestyles, whereas,for businesses, the main need is for enhancingcompetitiveness through sustainable production,with a special focus on SMEs. Governments needto lead by example, by developing sustainable publicprocurement guidelines and practices. This will allowthe high purchasing power of public institutionsthrough economies of scale to increase demand forsustainable products and services, thus reducingtheir prices and increasing their competitiveness. Itwill also send a signal to the market about future andencouraged production directions.Economic growth is the overriding policy driver inAsia and the Pacific, meaning that SCP-relatedpolicies and initiatives are scattered throughoutvarious components of national economic growthstrategies. As such, Asia and Pacific economiestend to approach SCP policy as an add-on, ratherthan as a common thread running through NSSDs,as well as an opportunity for policy integration. Therelationship between achieving SCP and the regionalGreen Growth Strategy and associated policiesneeds to be more closely analyzed and betterunderstood, to enable more effective integrationof policies. This should involve development ofconcrete indicators for a green economy, includingproduction and consumption standards and targetsthat reflect resource constraints, societal needs andenvironmental carrying capacity.There tends to be a heavy emphasis on solid wastemanagement in several countries, a reflection ofwhere government feels pressured; when economiesgrow quickly, the national infrastructure cannot keeppace with waste generation. In order to promoteSCP, emphasis needs to be shifted upstream toaddress issues of resource efficiency. The threat oflow biophysical capacity in the region means that ifcountries are to meet their economic developmenttargets, provide infrastructure for fast growing cities,feed their growing populations and lift hundreds ofmillions of people out of poverty, there is an urgentneed to shift to proactive approaches rather than endof-pipemanagement.To ensure that economic growth in the region issustainable, policies need to use ecological taxationas a tool to address the problem of resource scarcityand inefficient use, as well as to internalize the costsof pollution. Further, given the rapid development ofinfrastructure among countries, approaches such assustainable public procurement to drive the marketand life-cycle methodologies to assess the besttriple bottom line outcome over the long term shouldbe applied. Lessons from environmental impactassessments should also feed into policy design forthe built environment.To give a sense of ownership, individual country andcultural interpretations should be encouraged, alongwith initiatives demonstrating clear benefits to societyand individuals. Part of this entails moving beyondthe technology emphasis that puts eco-efficienteconomic growth at the centre of development. Someappropriate policy approaches include provision ofinfrastructure for local markets and programmes thatencourage local produce, a policy shift from taxinglabour to taxing resource consumption and pollution,and the subsidizing of traditional food productionand distribution systems. There is now recognitionof the need for broader socio-technical approacheswith core elements of social well-being and ecologicalintegrity. In Asia, this would tap into rich Asian andPacific traditions, sustainable local communities anda positive sense of contribution by the people – thosewho on a day-to-day basis undertake activities ofconsumption and production in society.127

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GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES6 Global Outlook on SCPPolicies: Latin Americaand the CaribbeanAuthors:Elisa Tonda and Silvia Ozuna Briggs (UNEP).Contributors:Maite Cortez, Jorge Alberto Alatorre Flores, David Lopez, (Centro Ecologico Jalisco- CEJ)and Tanya Holmes (UNEP).130

taking action together6.1 IntroductionHome to 580 million people, covering about 21 billionkm 2 of territory, the Latin America and Caribbean(LAC) region is full of diversity and contrasts. The stateof development varies among the countries in theregion. While the region comprises a great majorityof upper-middle-income countries, it also counts aleast-developed country 1 (LDC), Haiti, and a numberof lower-middle-income countries, such as Nicaragua,Guatemala and El Salvador (Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development [OECD,] 2009).While the expansion of industrial development hasbrought about substantial economic growth, povertyalleviation and social progress, industrial productionprocesses and consumption patterns have also ledto an increase in environmental degradation anddepletion of natural resources.The statistics below demonstrate the pressing needto change consumption and production patterns:•Between 1970 and 2006, average electricityconsumption quadrupled from 427 to 1,688 kWhper capita (United Nations Environment Programme[UNEP], 2010c)•Water demand in LAC increased by 76 per centbetween 1990 and 2004 from 150 km 3 /yr to264.5 km 3 /yr, due to population growth andincreased agricultural use (UNEP, 2007)•The amount of solid waste per capita hasdoubled in the last 30 years (UNEP, 2010b)•In 2008, LAC countries consumed 749.5 milliontons of oil, which amounts to 6.6 per cent of theworld’s total (UNEP, 2010c)•Between 2000 and 2005, approximately 64 percent of all <strong>global</strong> forest loss took place in LAC(UNDP, 2010). However, there are some countries,like Brazil, that have already reversed deforestationrates and made a commitment to reducedeforestation by 80 per cent a year by 2020.The main driver for deforestation is the expandingeconomic activity that produces higher revenuethan other activities more compatible with forestconservation. Often, the same public policies thataim to foster economic growth also encouragedeforestation of native forests (United NationsDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs, 2007).The highest rates of deforestation are found in CentralAmerica and the largest deforested land areas arein South America, mostly in the Amazon region.Deforestation rates in the region are twice as highas the <strong>global</strong> average, which is partly responsiblefor the region’s increase of CO 2 emissions. Althoughgreenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the LAC region1. LDCs are defined by the United Nations, and others according to theirgross national income per capita.are lower than those observed in more industriallydeveloped regions, this is a worrisome trend (UnitedNations Economic Commission for Latin America andthe Caribbean [UNECLAC], 2009).These challenges stressed the vital role thatthe promotion and adoption of sustainableconsumption and production (SCP) patterns playsin LAC and <strong>global</strong>ly. The LAC region has started totake action, adopting and implementing subregionaland national policies on SCP, as described in thefollowing sections.This report gives examples of SCP policies andinitiatives according to the following subregions:•Costa Rica and Panama)•Mesoamerican subregion (Mexico, Belize,Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua,Caribbean subregion (Antigua and Barbuda, TheBahamas, Barbados, Cuba, Dominica, Grenada,Haiti, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, Saint Kittsand Nevis, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, SaintLucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname)•Andean subregion (Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,Peru and Venezuela)•Southern Cone subregion (Argentina, Brazil,Paraguay, Uruguay and Chile)6.2 SCP policies at theregional levelThe LAC region was the first to host a regionalconsultation meeting on the international MarrakechProcess on SCP in 2003. During this meeting, aregional platform was formed to respond to theJohannesburg Plan of Implementation and the LatinAmerica and the Caribbean Initiative for SustainableDevelopment. A regional SCP strategy was developed,defining priorities, concrete actions and specific pilotprojects to be implemented. The strategy emphasizesthe importance of strengthening the capacity ofgovernment institutions as well as the importance ofimplementing SCP-related polices and activities in theproductive and financial sectors.Likewise, a Regional Council of Government Experts onSCP was set up in 2003 to support the implementationof the SCP regional strategy. The Regional Councilhas also provided inputs and advice to the LAC Forumof Ministers of the Environment (UNEP, undated, b).The LAC Forum of Minister of the Environment isthe most representative and influential gathering ofenvironmental policymakers in the region and endorsedimportant elements of the regional SCP strategy.In 2005 the Fifteenth Meeting of the Forum ofMinisters of the Environment of Latin America and131

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESthe Caribbean (Caracas, Venezuela) decided to fosterthe preparation of SCP policies, strategies andaction plans (UNEP, 2005). The Sixteenth Meeting ofthe Forum (in Dominican Republic in 2008) approvedthe Action Plan on SCP (see UNEP, 2008b).Since 2003, various regional meetings and capacitybuildingworkshops on SCP have taken place at theregional, subregional and national levels. The regionhas identified the following four priorities on SCP 2 :2. In 2009, on the occasion of the fifth regional meeting on SCP, underthe umbrella of the Marrakech Process, in Colombia, these four priorityareas were identified (UNEP, 2009); which later were also recognized atthe Regional Implementation Meeting organized by UNECLAC in 2009 andendorsed by the Forum of Ministers of Environment during its seventeenthmeeting in 2010.•National Policies and Strategies: incorporate SCPcriteria in development policies, programmesand strategies; quantify regional costs andbenefits of SCP policies; enhance knowledgeexchange and training among the population;emphasize the importance of SCP amongindustries producing mass consumption goods,aiming to ameliorate undesirable environmentaland social impacts•Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (SMEs): prioritizethe sectors linked to environmental or ecosystemservices at the subregional level; coordinate andcreate economic mechanisms and instruments thatmay facilitate an industrial conversion, including thegeneration of specific SCP indicatorsThe Central American Commissionfor Environment and Development(CCAD) initiative on sustainablepublic procurementGovernments are among the largest singleconsumers within any given market. Recognizingpublic procurement as a powerful tool, the CCADhas launched an initiative to promote sustainablepublic procurement (SPP) at the regional level andby national governments.The Regional Policy on Public Procurement wasdeveloped with the purpose of ensuring costefficiency in procurement by governmentalinstitutions, while at the same time identifyingopportunities for more efficient use of materials,resources and energy, contributing to theprotection of human health and fostering thedevelopment of a regional market for sustainableand innovative goods and services. This proposalwas further discussed with the members ofthe Regional Technical Committee on CleanerProduction, who supported the organization ofnational consultations in the member countriesof CCAD during 2010 (CCAD, 2006). Key nationalstakeholders were involved in consultationsincluded representatives of the Ministries ofEnvironment, Economy, Agriculture, Tourism, andLabour, national procurement authorities and civilsociety organizations (CSOs).(ii) Legal, ensuring that SPP is included in acoherent way in member country legislationand that their approaches are harmonized(iii) Technical, providing support to the providers ofgoods and services in the shift towards moresustainable production practices(iv) Information and capacity-building, developingthe essential technical skills for implementingSPP in both the public and the private sectors.The regional procurement policy builds on a numberof core sustainability practices, among them,environmental responsibility, pollution prevention,extended producer liability, substitution of materialsand substances using less polluting alternatives,and continuous improvement and innovation inproduct life cycles.Having concentrated its efforts in 2010 onformulating this regional policy and gettingit approved, CCAD is now focusing on itsimplementation in the Central American countries,in partnership with the United Nations and otherinstitutions. This process will build on results alreadyachieved in pilot projects within the subregion.Particular attention will be paid to the greenprocurement guidelines developed by the Centrode Gestión Tecnológica e Informática Industrial(CEGESTI, Costa Rica), and to the Marrakech TaskForce approach on Sustainable Public Procurement,adapted to the Latin American context as a result ofthe implementation of a pilot project in a number ofcountries in the region, including Costa Rica (UNEP,2008d; CEGESTI, 2008).The policy foresees national and regionalinterventions addressing four specific areas:(i) Institutional, ensuring that relevant informationand methodologies are adapted to the specificcontext of the countries132

taking action together•Sustainable Public Procurement: promotehigh-level political leadership in nationalpublic procurement, and gradually incorporateenvironmental and social criteria in thepurchasing processes of priority goods andservices•Sustainable Lifestyles: adjust and apply policiespromoting the availability of sustainablegoods and services at affordable pricesThe Mercosur Policy for Promotionand Cooperation on SCPAgreeing on the need for a common SCP policywith a focus on eco-efficiency and the reductionof hazards for human health and the environment,Mercosur member countries (Argentina, Brazil,Paraguay and Uruguay) signed the Declaration onCleaner Production Principles in October 2003.This led to the approval of the Mercosur Policyfor Promotion and Cooperation on SustainableConsumption and Production (Decision 26/07) in2007 (Mercosur, 2007).The eleven articles of the SCP policy list theprinciples that signatory countries should committo implementing, such as the establishment oftheir own SCP plan within a year of the inceptionof the policy or the enforcement of the policy’sprinciples within their own territory. Signed by oneof the most important trade blocks of the world,this policy sets an important example for regionalcoordination on SCP. The policy is expected tosubstantially affect the design and production ofproducts from South America exported worldwide.The Mercosur SCP policy focuses primarily onthe productive sector, and on small, micro, andmedium-sized enterprises. Signatories commit todeveloping a competitiveness strategy driven byenvironmental performance criteria, aiming at thesustainable use of natural resources, encouragingthe use of less polluting materials and minimizingresidues and toxic emissions.The Mercosur SCP policy establishes the followingguidelines:•Harmonize production and environmentalpolicies of the Mercosur countries•Encourage cooperation between the publicand private sectors on the implementation ofSCP, such as sustainable public purchases andsustainable consumptionfor all segments of the population; devisecommunication strategies, consideringlanguage diversity of ethnic groups; encouragethe inclusion of education for sustainableconsumption in educational programmes; makean appeal to transnational corporations to applythe same environmental management standardsapplied in their countries of origin or in countrieswith more stringent norms in the LAC region.•Stimulate innovation for design anddevelopment of product and services withlower environmental impacts•Strengthen formal and informal educationon SCP; promote capacity development andknowledge among signatoriesReports on the early effectsof Mercosur’s SCP policyhave been developed bythe Ad-Hoc Group onCompetitiveness andEnvironment. In thecase of Argentina,Mercosur’s SCPpolicy was addedinto the country’slegislation witha presidentialdecree (Decreto1289/2010) andnow serves asthe national SCPpolicy. Uruguay hasalso followed up onthe Mercosur policy witha participatory processto formulate its own nationalaction plan for SCP.Another important follow-up programme derivedfrom this policy is the Cooperation Program on Econorms(ECONORMAS), which supports the economicintegration of the Mercosur SCP policy within asustainability-driven framework. This particularprogramme is expected to foster the incorporation ofSCP practices within SMEs of the region (Mercosur,2011a). The European Union has supported theMercosur SCP policy (Mercosur, 2011b) in thedevelopment of cleaner production and bestpractices to reduce poverty. The implementation ofthe Mercosur SCP policy, however, faces importantchallenges, such as insufficient financial support,and a lack of specific goals and clear timelines foreach of the commitments.Sources: Government of Argentina (2010a, 2010b,2010c).133

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESSubregional SCP policiesBased on the regional SCP strategy, four subregionalstrategies and action plans have been developed.MesoamericaThe Mesoamerican Strategy for EnvironmentalSustainability contains a plan to establish a coordinationmechanism for the follow-up on environmentalcooperation. It includes concrete initiatives and goalsto support: the development of national-level actionplans on SCP or the inclusion of SCP in sustainabledevelopment or other strategies; the development ofeconomic and financial instruments on SCP; and publicprocurement, as well as the technical and financialresources for their implementation.Another important initiative is the Sub-RegionalPolicy for Sustainable Public Procurement,steered by the Central American Commission forEnvironment and Development (CCAD, ComisiónCentroamericana de Ambiente y Desarrollo). It aimsto redirect public procurement by governments in theregion toward the purchase of products and servicesthat integrate environmental and social criteria, asillustrated in Case Study 1 (see also UNEP, 2010a).The Caribbean subregionThe Caribbean subregion has identified priorityareas for SCP, such as the diversification of energysources, food security and support to SMEs. Otherareas identified as important issues during theregional consultation in 2008 include: financing,enforcement of the regulatory framework, public andprivate cooperation at bilateral and subregional levelsand institutional strengthening (UNEP, 2008e).Since the adoption of the conclusions andrecommendations on SCP numerous actions havebeen carried out, including a workshop in Guyana in2010 to strengthen the enabling environment for thedevelopment and implementation of national SCPaction plans or mainstreaming SCP into nationaldevelopment strategies.The technical arm of the Caribbean community,the Caribbean Institute of EnvironmentalHealth, carried out another training session. Ithas provided technical advice and training tostakeholders in the tourism sector. As the majordriver of the economy in the region, the tourismsector has benefited from a number of initiativesto green the sector through various environmentalmanagement programmes (CaribbeanEnvironmental Health Institute, 2011).The Andean subregionThe Andean Environmental Agenda 2006-2010(Secretária General, Comunidad Andina, 2011)incorporates SCP as a cross-sectoral aspect basedon a recommendation from the first subregionalmeeting of government experts (UNEP, 2008c).The priorities of the Andean Environmental Agenda2006-2010 are:a) The formulation and strengthening of nationaland regional policies on SCPb) To incorporate the concepts of cleaner productionin the industrial sector, and work in favour ofsustainable consumptionc) To support the Centre for Production andConsumption for the Andean subregion.Little attention in the Andean Environmental Agendais given to consumption aspects.Building on the Colombian experience in developingan SCP strategy, the countries created an AndeanConsumer Group in 2003. The group focuses onresponsible investment and capacity-building, andtheir activities include the definition of technicalstandards at a subregional level for the life-cycleassessment of batteries. Bolivia, Columbia, Ecuadorand Peru developed a panel on competitiveness andthe environment (UNEP, 2009).The Southern Cone subregionIn this subregion, Mercosur 3 has incorporated SCPpolicies in its agenda. This includes the Política dePromoción y Cooperación en Producción y ConsumoSostenibles en el MERCOSUR (Mercosur Policy forPromotion and Cooperation on SCP). The process todevelop the policy started with regional consultationsand included the definition of subregional priorities,the preparation of national action plans on SCP andthe strengthening of international cooperation (UNEP,2008b) (see Case Study 2).6.3 National SCP policiesProgress on SCP has taken place at the national levelas well. Most SCP initiatives in the LAC region focuson cleaner production (CP) and clean technologies,voluntary agreements between industry andgovernment, and information instruments such aseducation and certification schemes.Within the LAC region, various countries havenational policies on SCP such as: Brazil, Colombia,Cuba, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico,Peru and Uruguay. Others have CP strategies/policies including Chile, Cuba, El Salvador, Hondurasand Panama.To assess progress made on SCP towards theimplementation of regional priorities and identify3. Mercosur is a free trade agreement among the countries of Argentina,Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.134

taking action togethertechnical assistance needs to support the creationof SCP proposals for Latin America and theCaribbean, a survey was carried out by CEGESTI(2009). Twenty countries in the region responded.According to this survey, 14 of the 20 countries havemechanisms in place to foster changes towards SCP.Of those mechanisms, 35 per cent are policies, 20per cent are programmes, 10 per cent are projectsand 5 per cent are developing activities to adoptSCP (CEGESTI, 2009). More than 40 per cent of thecountries have included SCP policies within theirNational Development Plans. Only 14 per cent havemaintained the policies of SCP exclusively within therealms of environmental authorities (CEGESTI, 2009).Since the introduction of SCP to the Forum ofMinisters of the Environment agenda in 2003, theformal processes of SCP have been solidified.Although not all of these actions have beenembedded in coherent policy frameworks with aholistic life-cycle approach, much has been achievedin terms of concrete actions and measurable results.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies survey (UNEP,2010a) captured 15 government initiatives in LAC thatSCP policy in ColombiaColumbia’s SCP policy provides guidelines forchanges in production and consumption patternsthat should enhance businesses’ competitivenessand contribute to the well-being of the population.The significant efforts that were put into itsdevelopment were recognized in the region:UNECLAC publicly acknowledged the Colombianexperience as the most comprehensive SCP policyin the region (Ministry of Environment, Housing,and Territorial Development of Colombia, 2010).The fifth meeting of the Council of Experts alsorecognized the quality of the Colombian SCP policy.The Colombian SCP policy builds on severalnational thematic policies such as: the NationalCleaner Production Policy (1997), the NationalSystem of Competitiveness (enacted in 2006),the creation of an Environmental Programme forCompanies and Industries (2007) and a NationalPolicy of Logistics (established in 2008). Theseconfirm the commitment to SCP expressed in theColombian National Plan of Development of 2006.The principles on which a series of agreementsbetween Colombian environmental authorities,industry, civil society and technical expertsare based contribute to the success of theColombian National Plan of Development.Among its principles are (Government ofColombia, 2010):• EthicsAssistance to the enforcement ofenvironmental regulations•Transparency on the implementation of thepolicy•Participation of public, private and socialactors within a framework of collaborationand mutual engagementColombia’s SCP policy also includes guidelinesfor its implementation, and instruments forevaluation and follow-up of environmentalcommitments. The policy targets specificsectors such as construction, agribusiness,tourism, SMEs and the public sector.These measures have contributed to thefollowing environmental accomplishments inColombia:•Recycling of 14 million gallons of used motorand industrial oil (Ministerio de Ambiente,Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial, República deColombia, 2009)•Recycling and/or disposal of 3 millioncomponents of cellular phones (Catorce6,2009)•Refrigerators produced in Colombia are nowchlorofluorocarbon-free•Products containing halon gas cannot beimported anymore•Ninety per cent reduction in the baseline ofcarbon tetrachloride (CCI4), frequently usedin fire extinguishers and cleaning agents(UNECLAC, 2010)•Reduction of toxic waste in Colombian miningprocesses involving mercury and otherhazardous substances135

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESare taking place in Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, Cuba,El Salvador and Nicaragua. These initiatives focusmainly on the energy, water and tourism sectors.Cuba stands strong both in terms of its institutionsand laws related to the environment and socialaffairs, as well as in the number of SCP-relatedindicators. The Cuban government developed anSCP programme with a sectoral approach in 2010.It has a strong environmental policy framework,which builds on the National Environmental Strategy(Estrategia Ambiental Nacional, 2007-2010). Itregulates the protection of the environment, itsconservation and its rational use, combating thecauses of its deterioration, and it reduces andeliminates environmentally unsustainable modes ofproduction and consumption. Likewise, the Ministryof Environment and other state administrationshave developed specific strategies for resourcesand sectors such as water resources, energy, foodproduction and construction (Ministerio de Ciencia,Tecnología y Medio Ambiente [CITMA] and Centro deInformación, Gestión y Educación Ambiental, 2010).The Cuban SCP and Resource Efficiencyprogramme (2010-2015) addresses the problemsof consumption, production and use of resourcesin an integrated manner in all different politicalareas, including national, sectoral and institutionalorganizations. SCP has also been integrated inCuba’s guidelines for economic and social policies.The SCP programme is considered an essentialinstrument used to support the national process toactualize the Cuban Economic Model and contributeto the achievements of its goals, according to theCuban presentation at the regional SCP meeting inPanama (November 2011).Colombia also developed its National SustainableProduction and Consumption Policy in 2010. TheSCP policy in Colombia is an extension of twoearlier policies, one addressing CP and the other,green markets. The SCP policy revolves aroundeight priority areas of intervention, which includesustainable infrastructure, environmental regulation,responsible procurement, capacity-building andinvestigation, culture and self-management, supplychain management, green markets and, as anumbrella for all other priorities, management andintegration of different stakeholders (Ministeriode Ambiente, Vivienda y Desarrollo Territorial,Viceministerio de Ambiente, Dirección de DesarrolloSectorial Sostenible, República de Colombia, 2011).The government promotes awareness and actionon SCP through regulation and public policiesthat influence the behaviour of the population, forexample, by providing information on the impactof large infrastructure projects, such as the publictransportation system. Also, through taxationand regulations such as a deposit-refund schemeor favouring reuse over single-use, the state ispromoting closing the loop of materials. Sucheconomic and regulatory instruments are also thecentral mechanisms that assures the applicationof multilateral environmental agreements ratifiedby the Colombian government (Ministry ofEnvironment, Housing and Territorial Developmentof Colombia, 2011).By 2020 the National Sustainable Production andConsumption Policy aims to significantly curb theCampaign: Plastic Bag is a DragTo address the priority ‘Education forSustainable Consumption,’ in 2009 the Ministryof Environment of Brazil, launched a campaigncalled Bag is a Drag (Saco é um saco!). Thelargest supermarket chains in Brazil supportedthe campaign. In March 2011, the Ministry ofEnvironment signed a sectoral pact with theAssociation of Supermarkets with the objectiveof reducing 30 per cent of plastic bags in storesof all over country by 2013 and 40 per cent by2015. After 18 months, the campaign achieveda reduction of five billion plastic bags in Brazil(Silva, 2011).Photo courtesy of Ministry of Environment, Brazil136

taking action togetheruse of natural resources, while increasing the valueof exports of environmental goods and services. Italso focuses on strengthening institutional capacityfor SCP. Columbia’s Environmental Programmefor Business focuses on raising awareness ofsustainability among companies. The results ofthe SCP strategy are published annually using 15sustainable development indicators, many of whichare directly relevant to SCP, such as: efficiency inthe use of resources, number of green companies,number of employees among the institutionsdedicated to programmes and projects on SCP(Ministry of Environment, Housing and TerritorialDevelopment of Colombia, 2011).Brazil is another country that has developed aNational Action Plan for Sustainable Consumptionand Production (2010-2013). It shows a vigorousand continuous process of coordination with othernational policies and engagement of all stakeholders(state governments, private sector and civil society).The National Action Plan builds linkages with otherstrategic plans such as the National Plan for ClimateChange and the National Plan for Solid Waste(Secretária de Articulação Institucional e CidadaniaAmbiental, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, 2011).Brazil’s 1998 National Action Plan on SCP led the wayin the region by being the first of its kind. Currently,the plan has already been revised and integratedwith the policies for climate change and wastemanagement. The policy foresees an implementationstructure that strongly reflects the managementof the Marrakech Process, with the establishmentof task forces, the involvement of private sectorvoluntary initiatives and other activities promoted bygovernmental counterparts. It seeks broad inclusionof different ministries in the country. The Ministry ofEnvironment maintains a coordination and facilitationrole, but does not lead the implementation of actionsin a number of thematic areas.Under the coordination of the Ministry of Environment,the latest Brazilian National Action Plan was launchedin November 2011, after a broad participatory nationalconsultation process. This action plan is a guide toidentifying, managing and coordinating actions to changethe current patterns of consumption and production.TheThe plan will be implemented in the 2011-2013period and identifies five main priorities:•Education for Sustainable Consumption (seeCase Study 4)Sustainable BuildingsSustainable RetailGreen Public Procurement•Administration•Increased Recycling of Solid WasteImplementing an Environmental Agenda in Public137National Action Plan has helped to raiseawareness on sustainable consumption through:an initiative on SPP; policies for the disposal ofsolid waste; the green label Colibri, run by theBrazilian Association of Technical Standards; andsustainability initiatives in the building sectorin general and more specifically in housing, likethe Sustainable Urban Housing Initiative (SUSHI)project (see Case Study 5).Uruguay has developed a 2010-2015 NationalAction Plan for Sustainable Consumption andProduction. This plan is to be integrated andcoordinated with other strategic plans suchas the National Plan for Climate Change andEnergy Development. The SCP action plan wasdeveloped in coordination with the RegionalAction Plan of the Mercosur.In Jamaica, the National Environmental ActionPlan 2006-2009 remains the most importantsustainable anchor in Jamaica’s politicalstructure. It has 16 areas, many of which arerelated to SCP, such as green consumption,demand management and environmentalsystems management, among others. Itcontains a set of indicators, some of whichare related to the Millennium DevelopmentGoals and linked to regional and nationalinformation systems.The Dominican Republic National Policy onSustainable Consumption and Production 2010-2020 established 23 goals to achieve theiroverall objectives, and a total of 63 indicators tomonitor compliance with those goals (DominicanRepublic, 2011). The Domincan Republic’s SCPpolicy has been developed on the basis of theCentral American Regional Policy on CleanerProduction 2005-2010, and is promoted by theCentral American Commission for Environmentand Development. It incorporates guidelinesassociated with Environmental ManagementSystems into its approach to operate with theprivate sector, enabling businesses to reduceenvironmental impact and increase operatingefficiency (Dominican Republic-Central America-United States Free Trade Agreement [CAFTA-DR]Environmental Cooperation, 2011).The Dominican Republic’s policy sets out tocreate and promote links among the public,private and academic sectors, to incorporatepractices, processes and technologies forsustainable production. Current institutionsthat foster integration of SCP, such as theInter-Agency Technical Committee of CleanerProduction and the National Network of CleanerProduction, will be strengthened as a matter ofpriority (Dominican Republic, 2011)

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESSustainable Buildings in Brazil †Developing tools and strategies for achieving thewide acceptance and adoption of sustainable buildingpractices throughout the world is one of four key goalsguiding the work of the UNEP Sustainable Buildingsand Climate Initiative (UNEP-SBCI). To achieve thisgoal, UNEP-SBCI provides policy advice and supportfor achieving high-efficiency and low-GHG-emissionbuildings, particularly in developing countries.The Sustainable Urban Housing Initiative (SUSHI),drawing on the research of UNEP-SBCI and itsnetwork of expert members, develops approaches forincluding sustainable building principles in the designand construction phases of social housing. The addedvalue of SUSHI lies in addressing common problemsin the development of affordable housing, such asemploying standardized design solutions, which areoften poorly adapted to local conditions, and the useof low-quality materials (Vanderley, 2010).SUSHI it has already been piloted in Sao Paulo, Brazil,and Bangkok, Thailand (Vanderley, 2010). A rangeof stakeholders have been engaged in these twolocations, including federal and local governments,the Federal Economic Bank, the CommunityOrganization Development Institute, the BrazilianChamber of Construction Industry, UNEP-SBCImembers and private companies.At the Brazilian pilot site (in Cubatão, Sao Paulo),SUSHI has resulted in improved working conditions,higher-quality construction, better waste managementand reduced impact of new buildings on theirsurroundings. † † It has highlighted some key designfeatures that are easily replicable. These include:the use of natural ventilation, lighting and shadingto increase energy efficiency and reduce energydemand, and the use of rainwater harvestingand water recycling techniques to minimize theproduction of wastewater from domestic appliancesand activities (SUSHI, 2010).In Brazil, the National Programme on EnergyEfficiency provides building ratings by selectingbuilding materials, considering the choices oflighting and air conditioning (SUSHI, 2010).Additionally, the Federal Economic Bank labelsthe housing projects according to the degree thedeveloper adheres to sustainability practices. Toaward a Blue House Seal, the Federal EconomicBank analyzes criteria grouped in six categories:urban insertion, design and comfort, energyefficiency, conservation of material resources, gooduse of water and social practices. The objectiveis to encourage construction of housing units thatrespect the environment during construction andoperation, while at the same time providing goodcomfort and health conditions for their users. TheBlue House Seal is divided into Gold, Silver andBronze categories. To receive a Gold ranking, thebuilding must meet at least 24 of the 46 conditions.Those that meet 19 criteria will receive Silver, andthose that meet at least the 14 mandatory criteriawill receive Bronze. This system allows developersto properly market projects that have gone beyondthe minimum building requirements.† For more information on the SUHSI project, go to: http://www.cbcs.org.br/sushi/images/relatorios/Final_Brazil_reports_160511/1_Mapping_090511.pdf† †SUSHI (unpublished). Progress and Results, December 2010.Policy instrumentsTo improve resource efficiency and promote SCP,governments use a number of policy instruments toshape consumption and production patterns (GermanTechnical Cooperation and Centre on SustainableConsumption and Production, 2006). According to theGlobal Outlook on SCP Policies survey and desk researchin the countries of the LAC region, the most widely usedpolicy instruments are voluntary agreements, 4 followedby information-based and economic instruments.4. Voluntary agreements are often developed by partnerships betweengovernment and business and include voluntary reporting initiatives,setting of voluntary targets for product improvements and emissionsreductions, voluntary certification schemes, etc.Voluntary agreementsSome of the voluntary agreements in the region includecertification schemes for CP, based on principlesof corporate social responsibility. The two countriesin Central America, where real advancements havebeen achieved, are El Salvador and Costa Rica. InGuatemala and in Nicaragua, technical programmessimilar to the voluntary agreements have been carriedout. In Honduras a voluntary agreement is beingdeveloped for the Hotel sector.In Costa Rica, Corporación de Fomento Ganadero,which comprises around 60 per cent of totalnational beef production – agreed in 2008 to adoptCP practices through a voluntary agreement with138

taking action togetherthe Environmental Management Department.The agreement includes measures to reduce theuse of water and electricity, to seek alternativesfor the disposal of solid waste, to recycle waste,and to train their staff on CP issues. A similaragreement was signed in 2009 with 19 pig farmers.This initiative has had good results with relevantmeasures being applied at the slaughter plants,especially when dealing with liquid and solidwaste. The Ministries of Health, Labour and SocialSecurity, Agriculture, Environment, Energy andTelecommunication, together with representativesfrom livestock sectors, form part of the follow upCommittee for Voluntary Agreements on CP inCosta Rica (United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment [USAID] and CCAD, 2009b).In Guatemala, the Ministry of Environment andNatural Resources released a Cleaner ProductionVoluntary Agreement Regional Strategy promotingpublic-private partnerships for the application andenforcement of environmental laws. It includescollaboration with the CCAD and the GuatemalanCleaner Production Centre. The strategy also aimsto create the appropriate conditions to improvecompetitiveness and adoption of CP plans. Supportfor the programme is provided by USAID (USAID andCCAD, 2010).In Nicaragua, the Ministry of Environment andthe National Cleaner Production Centre haveworked on a voluntary agreement on CP for thedairy sector. This process is part of an agreementbetween CCAD and USAID, to support Nicaraguain fulfilling its environmental obligations under thetrade agreement between the Dominican Republic,Central America and the United States (USAID andCCAD, 2009a).Nicaragua is a major producer of dairy productslike milk and cheese. The government isdetermined to curb the environmental pollutionresulting from these activities, and at the sametime, promote industrial development of SMEs.Hence, the agreement is expected to increasecompanies’ efficiency and their compliance withenvironmental legislation, as well as strengthentheir environmental commitments (USAID andCCAD, 2009a).In Colombia, the National Centre for CleanerProduction and Environmental Technologiesoperates the Industrial Waste and ByproductsExchange, an electronic platform where companiesvoluntarily disclose information on qualityand quantity of waste (Bolsa de Residuos ySubproductos Industriales, 2011). This disclosure,in turn, stimulates other firms to assess theirinterest in utilizing such materials within theirproduction cycle, therefore turning waste into aresource. Costa Rica also has a waste and byproductexchange system. The concept buildson similar international experiences, such as theby-product exchange of Catalonia, Spain, and therecuperation, recycling and reintegration schemesin Switzerland. The platform concept is beingexpanded to other Central American countries,such as Ecuador, with the support of the CCAD(National Cleaner Production Centre Colombia andEmpa, undated).Information-based instrumentsThe Tourism Institute of the Government ofCosta Rica provides Certification for SustainableTourism, which includes aspects of social andenvironmental responsibility such as: services andinfrastructure (product use and disposal, waterand energy management); social and economicimpact (looking at the impact that businesseshave on local communities); client orientation(looking at business actions to raise awareness forresponsible tourism with their guests) (Certificationfor Sustainable Tourism, 2010). Although theapplication process is voluntary, the certificationis only awarded to applicants that have met theprescribed standards.Regulatory instrumentsSince the inception of environmental policy, thepredominant strategy for pollution control has beenthe use of regulatory instruments, where a publicauthority sets standards, and then monitors andenforces its compliance. These regulations mayspecify an environmental goal, or mandate theuse of a particular technology or process (UNEP,undated, a).With respect to policy and legal instruments,SPP schemes are commonly used in the LACregion. According to CEGESTI (2009), half theLAC countries claim to implement SPP. Forexample, Mexico and Brazil started implementingSPP policies in 1999 and 2006 respectively.Recently, with the support of UNEP and theMarrakech Task Force on Sustainable PublicProcurement, 50 people from governmentalinstitutions, representatives of the private sector(industrial associations), and technical experts/consultants from 17 countries within the LACregion have been trained on SPP (CEGESTI, 2009).As a result, countries like Colombia, Costa Rica,Chile and Uruguay have started to implementpilot projects on SPP. Furthermore, institutionslike the Organization of American States and theInter-American Development Bank provide ampleplatforms for exchange and discussion in the fieldof public procurement. UNEP plans to scale upits current activities on SPP in the region from2012 to 2014 as interest grows in more countries(Ecuador, Peru, Nicaragua, among others).139

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES6.4 SCP initiatives for andby businessThis section reviews business activity in the LACregion that helps to promote SCP. It looks at the widercorporate, social and environmental responsibilitypractices, examples of sustainable productionprocesses, new business models and trainingactivities, and identifies relevant and promisingexemplary activities and practices to move towardsSCP in the region. The examples explored here wereselected for their relevance to the region and theimportance of the SCP agenda in respective countries.In the past, the concept of corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) was linked to the corporatephilanthropic activities of some big companies.However, the concept has evolved to include theenvironmental, social and economic performanceof companies (Correa and others, 2010). Accordingto Correa and others (2004), key issues amongthe CSR programmes in Latin America include:community development and environmentalimpacts, supply chain management, and corporategovernance and transparency. 5In the LAC region, over 95 per cent of the companiesare micro enterprises or SMEs, and even though theycontribute less than 50 per cent to the region’s grossdomestic product, they are the source of almost 70per cent of employment (Correa and others, 2010).The increasing number of tools and instrumentsdeveloped to promote better social and environmentalmanagement in SMEs serve as indicators forprogress in the shift towards SCP patterns.Some of these tools include: the guidelines for SMEsof the Global Reporting Initiative; the Indicators for CSR(IndicaRSE), developed by CentraRSE in Guatemala;the indicator tool created by the Colombian BusinessCouncil for Sustainable Development and implementedin Colombia; and the indicator systems proposed byEthos Brazil and the Argentinean Institute of CorporateSocial Responsibility (Correa and others, 2010). The5. The countries studied in this report were Argentina, Brazil, Chile,Guatemala, Mexico, Panama and Peru.Reducing GHGs by switching to solarenergy for production in GuatemalaAlimentos Campestres, S.A. is a Guatemalanproducer of dehydrated fruits and vegetables,and distributor of foodstuffs in general. Thecompany has been processing dehydrated fruitsand vegetables for more than 20 years. It sells itsproducts in Guatemala and exports its productsto Canada, Mexico, the United States and CentralAmerica.To reduce its costs in fuel and independence onoutsourced dried fruits, the company decidedto convert its propane-based drying system toa 100 per cent solar drying system. In 2008,the project was completed with cooperationfrom partners including Alianza en Energía yAmbiente con Centroamérica, CONA, Austria,a producer of solar air energy technology fordrying processes, and E+CO Lac of Costa Rica,a fund manager specializing in the developmentand management of investment portfolios incompanies and projects in the sectors of cleanenergy, energy efficiency and cleaner productionin developing countries (Eandco Investments,2011; Revistaindustria, 2009).This change contributed to the reduction ofGHG emissions and generated employmentand community development in rural areas.The conversion of the energy system preventedthe combustion of 11,918 gallons of propanegas, and therefore reduced CO 2 emissionsby 68 tons. In one year, the company savedalmost US$87,000 on its gas bill (AlimentosCampestres S.A., 2010).The recovery period of such an investment isestimated at approximately 5.47 years, if currenttrends of use at the plant continue for 150 daysa year. However, if the plant is used throughoutthe year, the recovery period is reduced to 2.28years. The project has attracted strong interestin the use of solar energy by other countriesaround the region. The company currently hasabout 400 m 2 of solar panels; this representsthe largest area of solar energy collection inCentral America (Eandco Investments, 2011).140

taking action togetherResource-efficient coffee productionin PanamaKotowa was founded in 1999 and employsabout 35 people in low season and around 100during harvest time. Exporting to specialty coffeemarkets in Europe, Japan and the United States,the company produces, exports and sells itscoffee in retail coffee shops.Kotowa reports that it does not use any chemicalpesticides or herbicides in the cultivation ofcoffee. The company produces and processesabout 123 tons of coffee on approximately75 ha of land dedicated to agriculture, and hasretained around 500 ha of virgin forest as awildlife sanctuary. The company has invested inthe development of new products, such as organiccoffee, and in improving their systems to makethem more socially and environmentally friendly.They also assist their workers’ children withmedical care, food and education. Their effortshave been recognized by UNICEF.Kotowa has also invested in water efficiencysystems. For example, in 2000, it switched fromsiphon water tanks, where good and bad coffeegrains are separated using 6 litres of water/kgof dry coffee, to dry tanks and a mechanicallydriven transport system that uses no water at all.It changed the transport tubes for the pulp andcoffee that used 2 litres of water/kg of dry coffeeto systems driven by mechanical screws that useno water. Kotowa’s traditional disk pulp, used forremoving the cover of the grains, that had a highwater consumption of 15 litres/kg of dry coffee,were replaced with systems that do not needwater. To remove mucilage, Kotowa switched toa mechanical fermentation system that reducesthe use of water from 1.5 litres/kg to 0.18 litres/kg, thus reducing the amount of water used by88 per cent. The company also installed a waterrecirculation system for classifying the washedcoffee by density, reducing water consumptionfrom 4.2 litres/kg of dry coffee to 0.14 litres/kg of dry coffee. In total, they have been able toreduce water consumption from 30 litres/kg ofdried coffee to less than 1 litre/kg of dry coffee.The company has also been able to convert300 tons of waste in the form of coffee pulpinto organic fertilizer, hence turning waste intoa resource. In 2006 Kotowa was awarded theannual prize for the cleanest industry by theNational Environmental Authority in Panama.Source: personal communication, Ricardo Koyner,16 May 2011Argentinean Institute of Corporate Social Responsibilitywas founded in 2002 with the mission to promote anddisseminate the concept and practice of CSR andsustainable development in Argentina.To encourage SMEs to incorporate and measure CSRpractices, the Argentinean Institute of Corporate SocialResponsibility, in partnership with Grupo Prominente,an information technology solutions company,developed the ETHOS/IARSE SMEs indicators. SMEscan use this software for self-evaluation, measuringthe company’s performance in seven areas of socialresponsibility management. The data can be uploadedto the web and companies’ performances can then becompared (Pectra, 2007).In addition to the above SME indicators, theEthos Institute of Brazil has developed indicatorsin these selected sectors: mining, energy, paperand cellulose. The Institute’s website (www.ethos.org.br), has become the main portal for corporatesocial responsibility in the country. In order tomobilize and support companies willing to managetheir businesses in a socially responsible way, theinstitute relies on regional associates to promoteCSR through periodical events and the exchange ofexperiences among companies.A number of associates have already establishedcentres and programmes for CSR promotion andimplementation, including: 8 industrial federations, 33associations and NGOs, 7 media groups and 45 thirdleveleducational institutions. The Institute currentlyruns regular activities in the 12 states with the highestconcentration of companies in Brazil. In Brazil andacross the region, companies are increasingly takingaction on environmental management. The numberof companies with International Organization for141

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESRecycling for energy creditsLa Companhia Energetica do Ceará, Brazil, is oneof the largest electricity suppliers in the country,covering 184 municipalities with a populationsurpassing 8 million people. In 2007, it launched amajor exchange programme of recyclable products forenergy credits in the state of Ceará. This programme,called Ecoelce, allows low-income consumers toexchange a number of recyclable items for creditstowards their electricity bill. Considering that closeto 8 per cent of the Brazilian population lives onless than a dollar a day, † this kind of programmecan promote poverty reduction at the same timeas environmental protection (Infoambiental.es,2010). This initiative has benefited 345,000 clients,who have received the equivalent to €515,000in credits towards their electricity bills (personalcommunication, Sergio Araujo, 6 October 2011).The success of this initiative depends on factorssuch as: direct contact with local authorities andwith the National Agency of Electric Energy, aconvenient collection system and a flexible systemof billing, allowing clients to exchange their credits(Compromiso RSE, 2010). The future viabilityof this programme will largely depend on thestrengthening of these institutional agreementsand the participation of CSOs in the promotion ofrecycling activities. Areas for improvement includethe need for an increased number of strategicallylocated recycling posts, as well as improvementsto the system for accounting for waste.Source: InfoAmbiental.es (2010); CompromisoRSE (2010)† According to figures from the United Nations MillenniumDevelopment Goals of 2006 (ECLEC, 2009)Standardization (ISO) 14001-certified environmentalmanagement systems has grown significantly in thelast 5 years. Between 2000 and 2009, the numberof certified companies grew extraordinarily in manycountries: in Argentina, it grew almost tenfold from 114to almost 1,000; in Brazil, it grew from 330 to 2,600;in Mexico, it grew from 159 to 550; and in Venezuela, itgrew from 7 to almost 60. The increase in ISO 14001certificates is a significant development for the LACregion (Baskin, 2006).The National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs)have become key players in helping businesses adoptgood environmental practices and move towards SCPin the LAC region. Funded with the support of theUnited Nations Industrial Development Organization(UNIDO) and UNEP, NCPCs promote the investment,development and transfer of CP technologies andequip SMEs with the necessary tools to respondto the demands of regional and <strong>global</strong> markets forenvironmentally sound products. Sixteen out of 45NCPCs worldwide are located in Latin America (inBolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala,Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru andUruguay). The technical capacity established at thesecentres has also made them key government partnersin the implementation of SCP-related activities(UNIDO, 2009b).The NCPSs support businesses in the region in threemain industrial sectors: agro-industries (food, drinks,coffee, milk); the chemical industry (chemicals,plastics, paint); and the metal-mechanical industry(UNIDO, 2009b).At the regional level, the CPLatinNet bringstogether cleaner production centres that had beenestablished under the UNIDO-UNEP programmeand through other bilateral initiatives from 12countries. The knowledge management system 6 ,developed with funding support from thegovernments of Austria and Switzerland, contributesto knowledge sharing.On a national level, the Center for Eco-Efficiencyand Social Responsibility in Peru providestechnical assistance for issues such as integratedmanagement of solid waste, development andimplementation of systems for the quantificationof GHGs, and the implementation of projectsunder the Clean Development Mechanism(Centro de Ecoeficiencia y Responsabilidad Social,2011). The implementation of several CP optionsproposed to Metalexacto, a small lead foundry inPeru, by NCPCs reduced the lead content in theirwaste by 19 per cent and enabled the recovery of6. Explore CPLatinNet at http://www.produccionmaslimpia-la.net.142

taking action togetherThe cost and benefits ofimplementing <strong>global</strong> sustainabletourism criteriaIn 2003, the Rainforest Alliance initiated itsSustainable Tourism Best Management Practicesprogramme, suggesting solutions and helpinghotels meet the standards of their respectivenational certification programmes. In an effortto identify commonalities among national-levelcertification standards and help communicationamong programmes, the Rainforest Alliance helpedto create a set of baseline criteria that wouldreflect the standards of all programmes within thenetwork. Working with standards from Costa Rica,Ecuador, Brazil, Guatemala and the United States,along with the Green Globe International Standard,a group of consultants from Rainforest Alliance andother network members developed a database tosystematically categorize the different standards(Newsom, 2008).In 2009 the Rainforest Alliance, with the supportof the Inter-American Development Bank’sMultilateral Investment Fund, surveyed a groupof 14 tourism business owners who had beeninvolved in its sustainable tourism best practicesprogramme for over two years. The businessesthat participated in this study are located in fiveLatin American countries: Belize, Costa Rica,Ecuador, Guatemala and Nicaragua. They operatein different market segments and are of varyingsizes (Rainforest Alliance, undated).The following are some of the most notableresults as reported by the Rainforest Alliance(Rainforest Alliance, undated):•Of the hotels surveyed, 71 per cent decreasedtheir water consumption. In monetary terms,this decrease resulted in average annualsavings of $2,718 per year; one Nicaraguanhotel reported a savings of $7,900, the mostof any property in the study.•Ninety-three per cent of the businessesdecreased their energy consumption, eventhough 15 per cent of them expanded theirinstallations. The reduction in electricityconsumption resulted in lower power costsfor 64 per cent of the businesses. Theaverage savings in this area was US$5,255annually, with one Nicaraguan hotel savingUS$17,300.•Seventy-one per cent of the businessesreduced their solid waste production, andthe remaining 29 per cent maintained stablewaste levels, even though their occupancyrates increased.•The decrease in garbage production alsogenerated savings, with 79 per cent of thebusinesses repurposing discarded materials.For example, one hotel in Ecuador calculatedan annual savings of US$3,600 from therepurposing of materials, which resulted indecreased waste transfer costs.•All of the hotels utilized the services of microand SMEs in their area. As a result, 64 percent indicated that they had experiencedsavings in transportation and other costsrelated to goods and services.•The connection with local development isnotable in various areas; 100 per cent ofparticipants hired local people and businessesfound that their employees were moremotivated after attending sustainability trainingsessions and seeing improvements in jobquality. Ninety-three per cent of the businessesreported a decrease in staff turnover.•Of the hotel owners surveyed, 79 per centindicated that, as a result of hiring localpeople and supporting microenterprises,the local community showed them morerespect and collaborated with them to agreater degree.•The greatest investments in implementingbest practices were time and the purchaseof equipment and infrastructure. The rangeof investment reported was between 1 and 3per cent of the hotels’ operating costs.•Of those surveyed, 83 per cent indicated thattheir businesses had invested in improvingelectrical installations, whereas 50 per centtook other steps, such as using solar energyto heat their pools, installing heat insulation,creating natural cooling systems andproducing educational pamphlets. The costsof these improvements were between 1 and10 per cent of annual operating costs.Source: Rainforest Alliance (undated)143

Environmental awarenessgoes virtualPublic awareness and education onenvironmental issues is a concern of the GlobalEnvironmental Citizenship Programme of UNEP.A partnership with Consumers International gavebirth to projects such as the Virtual Schools ofConsumption (VSC). As part of this movement,the Colectivo Ecologista Jalisco (CEJ), anenvironmental NGO that has advocated forenvironmental education in Mexico since 1986,has implemented VSC in Mexico in 2005. Thesevirtual schools are developed on the basis thateveryone is a consumer and our habits matter.People are socially conditioned and influencedby many different factors to consume more thanthey need. Many have never been taught howto consume in a responsible manner. Seekingto accomplish such a purpose, VSC provides aninteractive learning platform.The VSC guides the consumer through thefollowing six topics: i) how to become aresponsible consumer, ii) toxic products athome, iii) waste management, iv) biodiversityand consumption, v) trees living in the city andvi) urban mobility. The section on toxic productsat home, for example, covers subjects suchas how toxic products enter the human bodythrough cleaning and personal care products,food and insecticides. It also educates aboutrisks particularly relevant for children andprovides alternatives as well as ways to find outabout the level of toxicity in daily life.Each of the virtual schools contains a selfassessmenttool allowing the consumer toassess his or her level of knowledge. Thewebsite provides a powerful education tool forteachers, community organizers and parents.The educational material can be used for free bythird parties within seminars, academic courses,blogs or other formats.Source: CEJ (2011a, 2011b)Based on desk research, this section reviewsactivities by CSOs that are illustrative of the workrelated to SCP by CSOs in the region. Brazilianorganizations have taken considerable leadership onresearch and action on SCP, which might be relatedto Brazil’s economic leadership in the region and thedemands for better products by its growing middleclass with increased spending power.The Brazilian Institute for Consumer Protection wasfounded in 1987 and has no financial links withbusiness, government or political parties. It is a LatinAmerican member of: Consumers International; theBrazilian Forum of Civil Society, which is designedto strengthen the consumers’ movement acrossthe country; and the Brazilian Association of Non-Governmental Organizations. The institute’s workfocuses on education about consumer rights andconsumer protection, including work on regulating oravoiding the inappropriate advertising of unsafe andunhealthy foods and beverages for children.Another example of SCP-related work for sustainableconsumption in Brazil is the work of the AkatuInstitute for Conscious Consumption. It buildspartnerships with the private sector and raisesawareness on education for sustainable lifestylesin Brazil. Since May 2003, with the support of theAvina Foundation and other partners, Akatu hasbeen working on creating tools to disseminatethe concepts and practices related to consciousconsumption.An example of online tools for educating civilsociety and promoting SCP, are the Virtual Schoolsof Consumption (VSC) (Escuelas Virtuales deConsumo), implemented in Mexico by the ColectivoEcologista Jalisco (CEJ) which attempts to showthe consumers the importance of their purchasingdecisions (see Case Study 10).The UNEP/UNESCO YouthXchange Initiative,which promotes sustainable lifestyles amongyoung people aged 15 to 24 around the world,is one of the most active networks focusing onsustainable consumption regionally. This initiativehas implemented national and local activities inArgentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, DominicanRepublic, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru. TheYouthXchange training kit on sustainable lifestyles145

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIEShas been adapted and translated into Spanish(Spanish title: Jovenes por el cambio). YouthXchangecontains regional, national and local statistics, casestudies, games, examples and useful tips on howto adapt sustainable lifestyles to a young audience.In addition, partnerships and capacity-buildingworkshops have taken place at the regional andnational levels, with governments, universities andnon-governmental institutions in the region.Influencing government is one of the core aimsof CSOs. While it is difficult to measure the exactinfluence of CSOs over governments when it comesto SCP, their activities are important drivers. InUruguay, for example, after the national electionsof December 2009, the Uruguayan Networkof Environmental Organizations established aconsulting panel of environmental organizations andaccredited experts from each of the political partieswith representation in Congress. The purpose ofthe panel was to provide advice on issues such aseducation, energy and environment. To date, thenetwork has issued recommendations across fourstrategic areas: environmental management, climatedefence against extractive industries, especiallyoil exploitation.Recognizing nature’s rights withinthe Ecuadorian constitutionAs a component of the Greening Public Policiesproject, run by Grupo FARO with the supportof the CAF and in partnership with severalinstitutions, this initiative was born out of theconviction that building new trails for Ecuador’ssustainable development path requires adeliberate and proactive civil society with thecapacity to effectively influence public policy onthe environment. To this end, it is necessaryto build bridges between citizens and decisionmakers, creating lasting partnerships and sharingresponsibility.To this end, in 2010, Grupo FARO called ona number of CSOs to systematize and reflecton their advocacy experiences as a way tostrengthen knowledge and share lessons ontheir role in policy formulation for sustainabledevelopment and sound environmentalmanagement. One of the cases selected by theproject was Pachamama Foundation’s experiencein their efforts to have the National ConstitutionalAssembly recognize nature’s rights.Pachamama Foundation has been working since2009 to foment the processes of recognizingnature’s rights within national legislations ofthe Andean communities and institutions. Aftera series of consultations with these groups,Pachamama Foundation formulated a proposal forgranting rights to nature.With the help of the law and human rightspolicies, the communities of the Shuar, Achuarand Kichwa people of Sarayaku in the southcentralEcuadorian Amazon have managed to stopthe intended conversion of the extraordinarilybiodiverse forests, which constitute their ancestralterritory, into oil fields.The support of key partners, such as assemblyleaders, the President of the ConstitutionalAssembly, and recognized leaders of CSOs, werekey for the initiative’s success. A campaign toexplain nature’s rights was carried out with thehelp of media, such as television, radio andnewspapers, as well as alternative means suchas theatre, puppetry, film and video. On 7 July2007, four articles (71-74) that form part of thearticles developed to recognize the rights of natureand their support, were finally included in theEcuadorian constitution under chapter VII, Title II.By incorporating the rights of nature in Ecuador’sconstitution and approving them in a referendum,the constitution’s contents were democratized. TheEcuadorian experience represents a new model forhuman stewardship of the environment, aimed atreconciling conservation with development and thesustainable use of resources.Source: Grupo FARO (2008)Pachamama Foundation built their advocacy planbased on their experience working with a numberof indigenous peoples in the Ecuadorian Amazonwho have endorsed the recognition of nature’srights as part of their strategy for territorial146

The participatory guarantee systemfor organic crops in BrazilFamily farms, agricultural experts and committedconsumers: Ecovida brings together buyers andsuppliers, assuring quality, price and sustainabilityin the farming sector in Brazil. Ecovida encouragesthe production of organic crops throughconsumption partnerships, where farmers committo delivering products that meet environmentallysound standards. Farmers commit to improvingproduction processes, from incorporating varioustechniques for correction of soils to controllingpests, diseases and harmful weeds without theuse of agro-chemicals. Ecovida, in turn, helpsfarmers organize themselves better and helpsthem to overcome barriers in the process ofcommercialization and industrialization.In order to accomplish its purpose, a key toEcovida’s viability is the organization of adecentralized system of commercialization,through 23 regional centres in more than 170municipalities in Brazil. Over 200 groups offarmers, 20 NGOs, 10 consumers’ cooperativesand several environmental fairs work together forthe production, distribution and consumption oforganic produce. Ecovida also produces trainingmaterial on the certification of organic productsand on issues associated with transgenic farming.Seeking to ensure that producers fulfil theirenvironmental commitment, Ecovida uses acertificao participa (participative certification)eco-labelling system. Farmers certify thatproducts have been cultivated and harvestedfollowing national and international criteriafor organic food production. The Ecovida labelis awarded after a series of auditing andverification inspections at each regional centre.The Ministry of Agriculture recognized Ecovida in2010, acknowledging the environmental qualityof their products and their productive units.During the International Seminar on AlternativeCertification, organized jointly by the Agro-Environmental Movement of Latin America andthe Caribbean and the International Federationof Organic Agriculture Movements, the case ofEcovida was highlighted as an example of goodpractice in collaborative programmes betweenfarmers and consumers in the creation offunctioning organic markets.Source: Uriart and others (undated)change, public engagement and environmentalinstitutions. Within the area of environmentalmanagement, the network has stressed the need forthe promotion of cleaner production processes andpreventive environmental strategies (Grupo AsesorConsultivo Interpartidario de Medio Ambiente,undated).In Ecuador, the Foundation for the Advance ofReforms and Opportunities (Grupo FARO) promotesthe shift from an unsustainable model of economicdevelopment based on the extraction of naturalresources to a sustainable model of economicand human development. One of Grupo FARO’sobjectives is to help draft and evaluate publicpolicies at local, central and regional levels, throughresearch, capacity-building and strengtheningpublic and private institutions, bringing them intodialogue with one another for better environmentalgovernance (Grupo FARO, 2008). Thanks to theendorsement of the Andean Corporation forDevelopment (CAF), Grupo FARO lead a project calledGreening up Public Policies, with the participationof environmental CSOs. One of the innovativepublic policy proposals, compiled by the initiative(an editorial series) was the recognition of nature’srights within the Ecuadorian constitution (see CaseStudy 11) (Grupo FARO, 2008).Another way that CSOs contribute to SCP is tosupport business in producing and marketing moresustainable products. Consumers can also becomeagents of change by demanding better qualityand more sustainable products and services. Theexample of Comercio Justo illustrates the work ofCSOs in LAC at the interface of consumption andproduction.Comercio Justo Mexico A.C. (CJM)/Fair TradeMexico, is a CSO that regulates and promotes fairlytraded products and services from small producers.It supports small producers in introducingenvironmentally sustainable practices, contributingto their social and economic development. CJM147

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESwas founded to create a fair trade market followingexamples in other countries.CJM found that it was necessary to consolidatethe many efforts to create a domestic market forproducts from small producers and create a logothat would allow the consumer to identify qualityproducts from those small producers. Some of theproducts that are already CJM-certified are: coffee,sesame oil and seeds, and honey (CJM, 2011)Another example that illustrates the power ofpartnerships for SCP is the Ecovida Initiativein Brazil, which encourages the sale of organicagricultural products. While suppliers commit toquality and environmentally conscious productionpractices, the buyers commit to regular purchases atpre-determined prices.6.6 ConclusionsThe promotion of SCP policies in the LAC regionhas greatly benefited from a strong politicalcommitment at the regional and subregional levels.This commitment is demonstrated by the formulationof a regional SCP strategy supported by theRegional Forum of Ministers of Environment (2003),and through the engagement of the subregionalinstitutions, such as the Andean Community, CCAD,the Caribbean Community and Mercosur amongother intergovernmental processes and institutions.These frameworks have been supporting thedissemination of national initiatives, which led to thedevelopment of numerous national SCP action plans,strategies and policies. Dedicated SCP policies existin many countries, including Brazil, Colombia, Cuba,Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico,Peru, St. Lucia and Uruguay. Honduras has startedthe process of national consultation.In the majority of the cases, the SCP policyframeworks have been established in or after2009. For this reason, concrete results of theimplementation of the respective SCP policies willbe reported within time. An effort is being madein the region to ensure that a common metrics isdeveloped to assess the regional progress in thetransition towards SCP patterns.The case studies highlighted in this report have acommon characteristic: a transparent and openconsultation process involving governmental bodies,business and society, as illustrated in Brazil andColombia. Further engagement of other ministersbeyond departments of the environment will be vitalif SCP objectives and policies are to be effectivelyembedded in national policy frameworks. The visionpromoted by some of the countries involved in thisprocess actually delegates the implementation ofthematic and sectoral components of the strategyto other governmental or CSO national stakeholders,leaving the environmental authority to focus moreon coordination, facilitation and engagement of therelevant actors.The policies identified in the region suggest thatgovernments have developed significant experiencein cleaner production. The first NCPCs in Brazil andMexico were jointly established by UNEP and UNIDOin 1995, and currently 19 countries in the LACregion promote the incorporation of sustainabilityin production practices. This is also reflected inCP policies, which often establish the basis forthe formulation of an SCP policy. In a number ofcountries, NCPCs have also proved instrumental infostering public-private partnerships that furtheredSCP goals.The evolution of the incorporation of sustainability inthe production agendas foresees the incorporationof tools such as eco-labels, corporate environmentaland social responsibility, corporate reporting,and environmental certification and accreditationprogrammes. The efforts on sustainableconsumption in the region are more recent and SPPprojects have been important components of it.Several countries, including Argentina, Brazil,Colombia, Costa Rica and Uruguay, have made theirfirst steps in implementing particular parts of the SCPagenda. They have promoted markets for sustainablegoods and services by: translating regional policyinto national legislation, developing SCP indicators,setting up a waste exchange platform and certifyingsustainable tourism organizations.CSOs have played a significant role in ensuring thatSCP remains high on the government agenda. Inparticular, they have been successful in drawing theattention of consumers to SCP. By focusing theirefforts on creating more educated and demandingconsumers, CSOs are indirectly influencing thebusiness practices of companies and stimulating thedevelopment of a market for sustainable goods andservices. To this end, CSOs can play a vital role inbetter understanding and communicating the currentpatterns of consumption in the region. They have animportant role to play in the promotion of formal andinformal education on sustainable consumption atdifferent levels.In the business sector, changes and improvementsto production processes have been some of theenterprises’ main goals, through clean energy (solar),reduction of pesticides, recycling, and by buildingcompetitive advantages through the developmentof innovative products or services, including in thetourism sector.148

taking action togetherDespite the benefits of such practices tobusinesses (not only environmental benefits, butalso economic and quality advantages), SMEs inthe region, which represent a significant share ofthe production sector and employment generation,need to be better equipped to consistently promotethe inclusion of sustainable practices in their corebusinesses. Two major constraints that SMEsface are: (1) the lack of governmental incentivesfor continuous environmental improvement,which should become a vital component of SCPstrategies to be developed in the region and (2)poor governmental tracking of the environmentalperformance of companies, which does notstimulate the compliance of environmentallegislation by companies (Sosa-Reyes, 2000). Thereis a great need for additional financial support soSMEs can continuously improve by implementingenvironmental management and CP processes.Poverty and inequality are a continuing challenge inthe LAC region; SCP practices can help to alleviatepoverty and improve the quality of life.The fundamental role played by consumption andproduction patterns in the sustainable developmentagenda of the region has been continuouslystressed by the governments of the region, and isagain reinforced as a component in the process ofpreparing for the 2012 United Nations Conferenceon Sustainable Development. As the cases citedsuggest, SCP promotes the development of betterand safer products, the creation of new markets,the sustainable management of resources and thepreservation of ecosystems services, while fosteringthe creation of decent jobs and a new path for thesustainable development in the region.149

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GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES__________ (2007). Fourth GovernmentExperts Meeting on SustainableConsumption and Production for LatinAmerica and the Caribbean, Sao Paolo,Brazil,18-19 October 2007. Availablefrom http://www.unep.fr/scp/marrakech/consultations/regional/pdf/Regional_Meeting_Brazil2007_ReportENGLISH.pdf.__________ (2008a). Final Report of theSixteenth Meeting of the Forum of Ministersof the Environment of Latin America andthe Caribbean. Santo Domingo, DominicanRepublic. January-February 2008. Availablefrom http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/PDF/FinalReport16Meeting08Feb2008.pdf.__________ (2008b). Final Report of theFourth Government Experts Meeting onSustainable Consumption and Productionfor Latin America and the Caribbean,Sao Paulo, Brazil, 18-19 October 2007.Available from http://www.pnuma.org/forumofministers/16-dominicanrep/rde06tri-ReportFourthMeetingProductionandConsumption.pdf.__________ (2008c). Informe sobre elcumplimiento de las decisiones de la XVReunión del Foro de Ministros de MedioAmbiente de América Latina y el Caribe,Caracas, Venezuela, October-November2008.__________ (2008d) RegionalConsultations. Available from www.unep.fr/scp/marrakech/consultations/regional/latinamerica.htm__________ (2008e). Report on the FirstSub Regional Meeting on SustainableConsumption and Production for theCaribbean and Latin America. Trinidadand Tobago, August 2008. Available fromhttp://datos.redpycs.net/MD_upload/redpycs_net/File/reunion_caribe/draft%20final%20report%20on%20scp%20meeting%20trinidad.pdf.__________ (2009). V Meeting of Councilof Government Experts of Latin America andthe Caribbean for Sustainable Production andConsumption: Final Report, Cartagena deIndias, Colombia, 16-18 September 2009.Available from http://www.uneptie.org/scp/marrakech/publications/pdf/Final%20Report%20LAC%20SCP%20meeting%20Cartagena%202009_english.pdf.__________(2010a). Global Outlook onSustainable Consumption and ProductionPolicies. Electronic Survey. Available fromhttp://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/Loging.aspx.__________ (2010b). Latin America andthe Caribbean: Environment Outlook. OficinaRegional para América Latina y el Caribe.Available from http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28511.__________ (2010c). Perspectivas delMedio Ambiente: América Latina y el Caribe.Available from http://www.pnuma.org/geo/geoalc3/Doc%20COMPLETO/GEO%20ALC%203%20WEB%20VERSION%20C.pdf.United Nations Environment Programmeand Ministry of Environment Sweden(2009, 30 November). Background Paperfor the Fourth RIM Preparatory Meeting onSustainable Consumption and Production:Progress Review of Policy Development,Geneva, Switzerland. Available from http://www.unep.org/civil-society/Portals/59/Documents/SCP-Background-paper-prpscpmtg.pdf.United Nations Industrial DevelopmentOrganization (2009a). IndustrialDevelopment Report 2009: Breaking In andMoving Up: New Industrial Challenges orthe Bottom Billion and the Middle-IncomeCountries. Available from http://www.unido.org/fileadmin/user_media/Publications/IDR_2009_print.PDF._________ (2009b, June). Implementacionde Produccion y Consumo Sostenible enel Sector Productivo. La Contribucion delos centros Nacionales de Producción Maslimpia. Informe sobre la encuesta realizadaa Centros Nacionales de Producción maslimpia (PML) de la region de America Latinay el Caribe._________ (2011). Principal achievements.Available from http://www.unido.org/index.php?id=o5134.United Nations World Tourism Organization(2011). International Tourism: First resultsof 2011 confirm consolidation of growth,11 May. Available from http://media.unwto.org/en/press-release/2011-05-11/international-tourism-first-results-2011-confirm-consolidation-growth.United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment and Central AmericanCommission for Environment andDevelopment (2009a). Cleaner ProductionVoluntary Agreement Proposal is consultedwith Dairy Sector of Nicaragua, 15 May.Available from http://www.sica.int/busqueda/Noticias.aspx?IDCat=3&IDMod=2&IDItem=36014&IdEnt=401&Idm=2&IdmStyle=2.__________ (2009b). Empresarios deSubasta Ganadera y Porcinocultores deCosta Rica firman Acuerdos Voluntariosde Producción más Limpia. Available fromhttp://www.sica.int/busqueda/Noticias.aspx?IDItem=40451&IDCat=3&IdEnt=696&Idm=1&IdmStyle=1.__________ (2010). Guatemala presentsStrategy to promote Cleaner ProductionVoluntary Agreements. Available fromhttp://www.caftadr-environment.org/news/36_Guatemala_presents_strategyl.html.Uriart, Henrique, Sonia Regina de MelloPereira and Xavier Simón (undated).Building Participative Processes the Case ofthe “Rede Ecovida de Acroecologia” in theSouthern Region of Brazil. 12 September2011. Available fromhttp://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/standards/pgs_projects/pgs_downloads/rede20ecovida.pdf.Vanderley, J. (2010, March). UNEP – SUSHI:Stakeholder Roundtables: Outcomes. SaoPaulo, Brazil: UNEP-SUSHI. Available fromwww.unepsbci.org/newSite/SBCIActivities/SUSHI/Documents/SUSHI_Roundtables_Outcomes_1.pdf.152

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GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES7 Global Outlook on SCPPolicies: United Nations EconomicCommission for Europe regionAuthor:Jimena Fernandez.Contributors:Mikkel Hansen Stenbaek, David McKinnon, David Watson (Copenhagen Resource Institute).Hilary French, Jordan Menzel, Céline Ramstein, Rie Tsutsumi, Emily Werner (UNEP) andChris Beaton (IISD).154

taking action together7.1 IntroductionThe United Nations Economic Commission forEurope (UNECE) region consists of 56 countries(see Annex A for a full list), including 53 in the pan-European region, two in North America (Canadaand the United States) and Israel. It is a culturallyand environmentally diverse group that includescountries in widely varying stages of development.The pan-European map, redrawn by the social,political and economic transitions experienced bysome countries of the region during the last 20years, spans the following political, economic orgeographic subregions: European Union (EU), theEuropean Free Trade Association (EFTA), South-Eastern Europe (SEE) and Eastern Europe, theCaucasus and Central Asia (EECCA).The effects of current consumption and productionpatterns clearly indicate that the region is on adevelopment path that will prove unsustainable.This is particularly the case in the EU and EFTAcountries and in the United States and Canada. Itis, however, also applicable in the other subregions,with the transition countries of SEE and EECCAfollowing similar development patterns (Watson andothers, 2009).Current environmental challenges in Europe andNorth America include (but are not limited to):•The generation of waste is a major challengein the pan-European region. The amount ofmunicipal waste increases by an average of 2 percent each year, and even more in EECCA (EEA,2007). The intensification of economic activitiesoutweighs the effects of waste preventioninitiatives.•Overfishing is still widespread in all pan Europeanseas. Stocks in the North and Celtic Seas are inthe poorest condition. A decline in biodiversityand the loss of ecosystem services continue tobe a major concern. More than 700 Europeanspecies are currently under threat (EEA, 2007).•Despite the abundance of freshwater in NorthAmerica, users are not always close to watersources. Limited water supplies have led toincreased competition for water in parts ofwestern North America, the Great Plains and theGreat Lakes basin. Glaciers and snowpacks, amajor source of the Canadian Prairies’ water,are declining (United Nations EnvironmentProgramme [UNEP], 2007).The aim of this document is to provide a generalregional analytical report of the most relevantsustainable consumption and production (SCP)policies in the UNECE region. It is not intended to bea detailed list of all SCP policies and strategies, noris it an exhaustive comparison of all the subregions.7.2 SCP policies at theregional levelIn the first initiative of its kind across the UNECEregion, the Environment for Europe (EfE) ministerialconference 1 committed to SCP at its 2003 meetingin Kiev. UNECE followed up its Kiev initiative fouryears later, in Belgrade in 2007, by committing theregion to the “development of national programmes,strategies and implementation plans, sub-regionaland regional partnerships, involving stakeholders,in order to promote sustainable use of resourcesand SCP patterns” (Ministers of the region of theUNECE, 2007, para. 24). Many countries have sincedeveloped and begun to implement SCP strategiesand action plans in line with these commitments.Among the subregions of the UNECE region, the EUstands out with its regional-level SCP Action Planand a range of related policies and strategies toincrease the demand for sustainable goods andproduction technologies and create markets forsustainable products (UNEP, 2004). There is noequivalent regional SCP strategy in the SEE, EECCAor North America.The SCP policy framework in the EU is a key aspectof its approach to sustainable development (SD),in line with the SCP goals in the JohannesburgPlan of Implementation endorsed at the 2002Johannesburg World Summit for SustainableDevelopment. Another important early driver ofSCP initiatives at the EU level was the CardiffProcess (1998), which promoted the integrationof environmental considerations into sectoralpolicies. The Sixth Environment Action Programmeof the European Community (6th EAP) identifiedthe environmental goals for the period 2002-2012and mandated seven thematic strategies relatingto air, waste prevention and recycling, the marineenvironment, soil, pesticides, natural resources andthe urban environment.The broader framework of the EU 2020 Strategy,entitled EUROPE 2020: A strategy for smart,sustainable and inclusive growth (2010), tieseconomic growth to sustainability and socialcohesion. Its flagship initiative, ‘resource-efficientEurope,’ supports the shift toward a resourceefficientand low-carbon economy (EuropeanCommission, 2010). It calls for: the use offinancial and economic instruments, such as thenational implementation of the Small Business Actsuggesting inter alia to help small and medium-1. The EfE is a high-level platform for stakeholders representing thegovernments of UNECE member countries, United Nations organizationsin the region, other intergovernmental organizations, regionalenvironment centres, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the privatesector and other major groups.155

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESsized enterprises (SMEs) face the challenges of<strong>global</strong>ization and climate change; the wider useof green public procurement to encourage greaterresource and energy efficiency; a more integratedtransport system; a more rapid transfer of lowenergy technology into buildings; and energyintensiveindustry. The strategy has key relevancefor SCP, although its focus is mainly on technologicalsolutions, with little emphasis on behavioural change.The EU Sustainable Development Strategy, adoptedby the European Council in 2006, was the first EUstrategy to accord full political recognition explicitlyto SCP. Recognizing the need to make a gradual shiftaway from current unsustainable consumption andproduction patterns, and towards a better-integratedapproach to policymaking, it identified SCP as one ofseven key challenges to address. 2 It also establishedthe need to define an action plan on SCP.The EU Sustainable Consumption and Production andSustainable Industrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan(COM (2008) 397/3) 3 fulfils this commitment. It buildson the European Commission’s 2003 IntegratedProduct Policy, which focused on minimizing theenvironmental impact of products by examiningtheir life cycles and taking action wherever it canbe most effective. The Integrated Product Policyuses both mandatory and voluntary tools, including“economic instruments, substance bans, voluntaryagreements, environmental labelling and productdesign guidelines” (European Commission, 2010)while favouring market-driven approaches that takeaccount of concerns over competitiveness.The 2008 SCP/SIP Action Plan is the majoroverarching SCP policy document at the EU level. Itaims to foster SCP by improving the environmentalperformance of products throughout their life cyclesand stimulating demand for more sustainable goodsand production technologies (Watson and others,2009) through:•A revised Eco-Design Directive for Energy-UsingProducts. Whereas the original 2005 directivecovered only products that used energy directly,the revised Directive 2009/125/EC appliesto any product that “has an impact on energyconsumption during use,” thereby covering suchthings as insulation materials, windows, and tapsand shower heads.2. The progress of EU Sustainable Development Strategy was reviewedtwice, in October 2007 and July 2009. Both documents arrived at thesame conclusion: there have been significant policy improvements andSD remains a central objective of the EU; however, in relation to SCP,unsustainable patterns persist and policy needs to be translated intoconcrete action.3. As the result of the mid-term review of the EU’s industrial policy, theCommission was to develop an action plan on sustainable industrialpolicy (SIP), parallel with the EU SCP Action Plan. During the inter-serviceconsultation processes of these strategies, it has been decided todevelop an integrated action plan that addresses both SCP and SIP.•Stronger and more far-reaching ecolabellingand energy labelling, under the EU Ecolabelregulation completed in 2009 (EC Regulation(EC) 66/2010) and the Energy Label Directive2010/30/EU. The new EU Ecolabel regulationwill include 40 to 50 product groups by 2015.It has a faster process for developing criteriaand a simplified assessment procedure.Annual fees are reduced and there is moreharmonization with other national and <strong>global</strong>ecolabelling initiatives (see Case Study 1).•The policy objective of the Communication onPublic Procurement for a Better Environment(COM(2008) 400/2) is raising the averagelevel of EU green public procurement (GPP) tothe standard achieved by the best performingmember states in 2006 by 2010. Operationalobjectives include establishing a process forsetting common GPP criteria in 10 prioritysectors, providing information on the lifecyclecosting of products, providing legal andoperational guidance, and monitoring progressin terms of the percentage of public tendersthat are green, aiming to reach 50 per centby 2010. As of October 2011, the EuropeanCommission had developed EU GPP criteria for18 product and service groups.•The EU Retail Forum is a multi-stakeholderplatform that identifies opportunities andbarriers to SCP and exchanges best practiceson sustainability. Recognizing the Europeanretail industry’s central role in the production/consumption chain, it seeks to leverage itspotential to influence both production andconsumption patterns.The European Commission has reviewed theSCP/SIP Action Plan with the aim of extendingand improving the existing policy instruments aswell as designating new ones to further promoteSCP within the EU and internationally. The midtermevaluation (Ecorys, 2011b) found that of theeconomic, environmental and social criteria usedin the evaluation, “the environmental (includingenergy) issues are covered most comprehensively,with economic issues receiving a reasonablecoverage” (p. 77). This result can be illustratedby the objectives of promoting eco industries,making industry more efficient and encouraging itto produce goods that have a lower environmentalimpact. Social challenges such as the employmentrights of workers and the affordability of greenproducts are, according to Ecorys, the least clearlyaddressed by the action plan. The mandatoryinstruments (energy labelling and eco-design)were regarded as having larger impacts than thevoluntary instruments in quantitative terms. Tomore accurately assess the effect of individualinstruments, the evaluation points towards aneed for more data. The evaluation gives many156

taking action togetherThe EU EcolabelIn 1978 Germany introduced ‘Blue Angel,’ thefirst national ecolabelling scheme in the world,as a means of informing consumers of theenvironmentally friendly aspects of products.National schemes around the world followed.By1987 the EU introduced the idea of asupranational ecolabel during the first EuropeanYear for the Environment. In 1992 the regulationon the EU Ecolabel entered into force.The EU Ecolabel, also called the EU-Flower forits shape, is a voluntary, market-based toolthat encourages businesses to produce – andconsumers to purchase – goods and services withlower environmental impacts. While in 1992 theEU Ecolabel was more of a stand-alone instrumentin the field of product-related environmentalpolicy and promotion of sustainable consumptionpatterns, the innovative and multi-dimensionalcharacter of ecolabellingas a policy instrumentmade the EU Ecolabela catalyst for severalimportant policies onclimate change, energyefficiency, health,hazardous substances,use of natural resources,waste, recycling and eco-design. Today the EU-Flower has been awarded to more than 17,000products in 23 product groups. SMEs fromdeveloping countries pay reduced applicationand licence fees.A survey of over 26,500 randomly selectedcitizens conducted in April 2009 found that55 per cent of EU citizens claimed that, whenbuying or using products, they were generallyfully aware or knew about the most significantimpacts of these products on the environment.Approximately half of EU citizens said thatecolabelling played an important role in theirpurchasing decisions (Gallup Organization,2009).recommendations including the identificationof accompanying measures to the action plan,which should be a combination of existing fundingprogrammes and new ones aimed at increasingconsumer awareness and changing consumerbehaviour (Ecorys, 2011b).The EU has also developed strategies that focus onspecific parts of the production-consumption life cycle:•The Sixth Environment Action Programmeincludes a Thematic Strategy on the SustainableUse of Natural Resources, addressing thebeginning of the life cycle, and a ThematicStrategy on the Prevention and Recycling ofWaste, addressing end-of-life issues. Theformer seeks to reduce the environmentalimpact of resource use within the context ofa growing economy by developing monitoringtools, encouraging strategic approachesto resource use and raising awareness ofnegative environmental impacts. The latteraims to introduce life-cycle thinking into wastepolicy, focus on waste prevention and moveEurope toward a recycling society (EuropeanCommission, 2002).•The Raw Materials Initiative (COM(2008)699)aims to create framework conditions forsustainable use and supply of Europeanresources, as well as improve overall resourceefficiency and promote recycling (Commissionof European Communities, 2008).•The Environmental Technologies Action Plansupports the development and implementationof environmental technologies in the middle ofthe life cycle to improve the environment andEuropean competitiveness (Commission ofEuropean Communities, 2004a).•At the end of the production-consumption lifecycle, the Waste Framework Directive “lays downmeasures to protect the environment and humanhealth by preventing or reducing the adverseimpacts of the generation and managementof waste and by reducing overall impacts ofresource use and improving the efficiency ofsuch use” (Directive 2008/98/EC Article 1).Other measures to address SCP are containedwithin policies targeted as specific sectors of theeconomy. Examples include:a) Food. Agro-environmental strategies aim toaddress the environmental impacts of farming,including by reform of the Common AgriculturalPolicy. The 2004 EU Action Plan for Organic Foodand Farming sets out 21 initiatives to develop themarket for organic food and improve standards(Commission of European Communities, 2004b).The European Food Sustainable Consumptionand Production Round Table, co-chaired by the157

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESRepublic (Framework of Programmes on SustainableConsumption and Production in the CzechRepublic, 2005), Finland (Getting More and Betterfrom Less, 2005), Poland (Strategy of ChangingProduction and Consumption Patterns to Favourthe Implementation of Sustainable DevelopmentPrinciples, 2003) and the United Kingdom(Changing Patterns: UK Government Framework forSustainable Consumption and Production, 2003)(see Case Study 2).European Commission and partners within the foodsupply chain, aims to establish the food chain as amajor contributor towards sustainable consumptionand production in Europe.b) Housing and buildings. The 2002 EnergyPerformance of Buildings Directive sets minimumefficiency standards for both residential andcommercial buildings, while the EU Commission’s2006 Action Plan for Energy Efficiency aims toreduce energy consumption by 20 per cent by2020, potentially reducing carbon dioxide (CO 2 )emissions by 780 million tons and saving €100billion in fuel costs (Commission of EuropeanCommunities, 2006).c) Transport. The EU communication A SustainableFuture for Transport: Towards an Integrated,Technology-Led and User-Friendly Systemidentifies objectives for the next 10 years ofEuropean transport (European Commission,Mobility and Transport, 2009).7.3 National SCP policiesThis section provides information on thedevelopment and adoption of dedicated SCP actionplans, efforts to mainstream SCP into broaderpolicy frameworks and examples of selected policyinstruments that have been used at the nationallevel to promote a shift towards SCP patterns. Ithighlights examples of national SCP policy making inthree geographic areas: 1) EU and EFTA, 2) SEE andEECCA and 3) United States and Canada.EU and EFTA countriesAt the national level, a large number of EU and EFTAcountries have policies that explicitly address SCP. Afew have developed specific SCP strategies or actionplans (European Topic Centre on Resource andWaste Management and EEA, 2007; Organisationfor Economic Co-operation and Development, 2008;Watson and others, 2009), namely the the CzechSeveral other countries explicitly address SCPwithin their National Strategies for SustainableDevelopment (NSSD), including Austria, Belgium,Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Romaniaand Sweden. Furthermore, Sweden has developeda sustainable consumption action plan, ThinkTwice! An Action Plan for Sustainable HouseholdConsumption.At the subnational level, the Basque Country,Spain (2006-2010) has adopted a Plan forEnvironmentally Sustainable Consumption (Adelland others, 2009).In their national policy approaches to achievingSCP, most EU and EFTA countries – if not all – focuson improving production processes, improvingproduct performance and increasing the demandfor green products (for example, the Danish actionplan promoting eco-efficient technology, theGerman master plan on environmental technologyand the Finnish SCP programme Getting More andBetter from Less). Most countries also use policymeasures such as green public procurement,environmental management and eco-design. Someinclude SCP in their national waste managementplans (e.g., the Austrian waste management planand the 2009-2050 United Kingdom waste strategyTowards Zero Waste) and raw materials strategies(the Austrian Raw Materials Plan). Changingconsumption behaviour in a sustainable direction isless widely addressed (Adell and others, 2009).SCP targets and indicators are used in EU and EFTAcountries but have initially tended to be expressedin qualitative rather than quantitative terms. In mostcases, SCP targets have been included in sectoralstrategies (e.g., agriculture, transport) or thematicstrategies (e.g., energy efficiency, waste). They mostfrequently relate to GHG emissions, energy-efficiencyimprovements, the share of renewable energy in finalenergy consumption, recycling in key waste streamsor the share of organic agriculture in total arableland. France and the United Kingdom have definedSCP indicators within their larger SD indicators andmost countries use indicator frameworks to monitorthe implementation of their SCP targets (ETC/RWMand EEA, 2007).158

taking action togetherThe United Kingdom comprehensiveframework on SCPSince the commitments made at the World Summiton Sustainable Development in 2002, the UnitedKingdom has developed a comprehensive frameworkto address SCP. It uses a variety of mechanisms,including regulation, market-based instruments,partnerships, voluntary and information tools andbroader strategic guidelines. Since 2005, theDepartment of Environment, Food and Rural Affairs(Defra) has coordinated its projects and activities.The agenda is mobilized around three main themes:production, products and consumption patterns(Defra, 2011). In all three areas, programmes aredeveloped using an evidence-based approach.This directs specific attention to life-cycle thinkingby improving ways to measure the impacts ofconsumption and production, including, among othertools, ecological footprinting, material-flow analyses,life-cycle assessments and indicators for SCP(Defra, 2010b).In its theme on production, the United Kingdomhas published tools and frameworks that canbe used by businesses and other organizationsto become more sustainable, for example,environmental reporting guidelines and tools tomeasure greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Defra,2010c). Defra also conducts projects on resourceefficiency and provides economic support tobusinesses in this regard. Since 2010 this supporthas been coordinated and delivered via one singlebody: the Waste and Resources Action Programme(Defra, 2010d). In addition, the government set upa commission to advise them on how to maximizethe potential economic benefits of the transitionto a sustainable economy (Defra, 2010e).Concerning products, Defra’s MarketTransformation Programme aims to lower carbonemissions and energy consumption in productssuch as dishwashers, refrigerators, computersand lighting, using life-cycle approaches. Itthereby implements the EU’s Eco-DesignDirective targeting energy-using and energyrelatedproducts. It is expected that Defra’sprogramme will save 24 MtCO 2 per year andresult in economic savings through reducedenergy bills with a net benefit of about £28billion over the next 10 years (Defra, 2010a;Defra, 2009a). In collaboration with businesses,Defra also created more detailed, voluntary‘product roadmaps’ to develop and implementvoluntary action plans to address problems in10 high-impact product groups (Defra, 2010f).Another products and services project by thegovernment is the increase in sustainable publicprocurement and the setting of governmentbuying standards for products such ascomputers. As a guide to decision-making andchoices in public procurement and other policyareas, the government has also developed thePublicly Available Specification (PAS 2050). Thisis a leading carbon footprinting methodologyfor products and services (Defra, 2010h; BSIGroup, 2010).In terms of sustainable consumption, Defrahas developed multiple projects to improveunderstanding and influence consumerbehaviour. Governmental policy teams can drawfrom Defra’s Centre of Expertise on InfluencingBehaviours to help them develop new policies toinfluence consumer behaviour (Defra, 2010a).The SEE and EECCA regionSince the 2007 Belgrade UNECE meeting, severalSEE countries have included SCP as a thematicchapter of their NSSD. 4 Examples include Croatia(2009), Serbia (2008) and the Former YugoslavRepublic of Macedonia (FYR of Macedonia) (2008).Croatia is currently in the process of preparingan SCP action plan. Other countries, such asMontenegro, have included some SCP-relevant areas4. According to Agenda 21, NSSDs should reflect SCP policies andstrategies. However, several EECCA countries do not have NSSDs.in their NSSD, but have not incorporated SCP asa specific theme.The EECCA countries have generally doneless to articulate SCP strategies. Kazakhstanwas the only country in Central Asia to havebeen developing an explicit SCP model by2009. Kazakhstan had included some SCPcomponents in its 2006 Strategy on SustainableDevelopment. Its State Environmental 10 YearProgramme, currently in preparation, includes asubprogramme on SCP.159

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESIn Eastern Europe, only Moldova refers explicitlyto SCP in its 2005 National Strategy of Social andEconomic Development. Belarus has adopted aNSSD that includes some SCP concepts (suchas the shift toward resource preservation, thenecessity for ‘greening’ the economy and thedevelopment of the economic capacity of localecosystems), but SCP is not named (MAMA-86,2008). The Russian Federation does not have anSCP strategy (or a SD strategy), but it has a numberof legislative directives and programmes underdevelopment and implementation that include SCPconcepts, such as the document, Main Areas ofSocial and Economic Development of the RussianFederation for the Long-Term, which is currently indraft form. Ukraine makes almost no mention ofSCP in any of its policies, although it has includedsome SD principles (such as the equal importanceof economic, environmental and social aspects inthe country’s development) in its new Concept ofNational Policy until 2020.In the Caucasus, no countries have a specificSCP policy or a NSSD where SCP concepts couldhave been included. However, Azerbaijan hasincorporated some SCP principles into some stateprogrammes, such as the 2005 State Programmefor Development of the Fuel and Energy Complexof the Azerbaijan Republic for 2005-2015. Armeniahas included SCP elements in several lawsand decrees, most recently the 2007 NationalProgramme on Energy Conservation and RenewableSources of Energy, which, among other measures,proposes 16 categories of energy efficiency.With respect to policies for implementing SCPacross the whole product life cycle, several SEEcountries have adopted national policies oncleaner production (such as Albania, Armenia andFYR of Macedonia). Policies on energy efficiencyand emission reduction from the energy sectorinclude the Albanian Energy Efficiency Law and theArmenian Renewable Energy and Energy EfficiencyProgramme, which has required the energy labellingof appliances since 2007 (UNEP-CopenhagenResource Institute, forthcoming, Annex 2). Croatiahas a Strategic Framework for Development (2006)on waste management, which refers throughoutto “permanent sustainable development.” 5 GPP islargely absent from SEE policy, with exceptions5. Particularly, this document stipulates “prudent space and naturemanagement,” “energy efficiency” and “recycling of secondary rawmaterials,” as elements of sustainable consumption and production(Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2006, unpublished,Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies on sustainable consumptionand production in SEE and EECCA countries.such as the public procurement laws in Bosnia andHerzegovina, 6 and Montenegro. 7Policies on SCP that cover the whole product lifecycle are very rare in EECCA countries, althoughsome have addressed particular themes, notably,cleaner production in Belarus, Moldova (NationalDeclaration on Cleaner Production Policy, 2003,and National Strategy on Reducing and NeutralizingPersistent Organic Pollutants, 2004), and Ukraine,where the International Finance Corporationlaunched its Ukraine Cleaner Production Programmein 2010 (International Finance Corporation, 2011).Others address the energy sector (Azerbaijan’sStrategy for Sustainable Development of the EnergySector), domestic water consumption, and use ofenergy services and waste management policies.Few EECCA countries have addressed GPP.In both the SEE and EECCA subregions somecountries have sector-specific SCP policiesaddressing key areas such as transport and energyefficiency (in the housing and building sectors, forexample). Sustainable agriculture is addressed inthe Strategy of Agricultural Development in Serbia(UNEP and European Environment Agency [EEA],2007) and in Croatia, which also has a specificpackage for promoting organic farming. 8 Thereis also a focus on traditional food production inCroatia, as part of the Croatia in the 21st Century:National Agriculture and Fisheries DevelopmentStrategy (2002). 9 Armenia 10 and Montenegrosimilarly emphasize the sustainability of traditionalfood production.The use of specific SCP targets or indicators in SEEand EECCA countries has mainly been concernedwith energy intensity, GHG emissions, and wastegeneration and management. Croatia and Serbia,for example, both have a number of SCP indicatorsin the Sustainable Development Indicator (SDI) sets6. This law regulates all aspects of public procurement tendering andcompetitive bidding procedures for all procurement of goods, servicesand works by any public institution, organ and organization at alladministrative levels (state, entity, canton, city or municipality), and bypublic utilities and government-owned companies and business entities(Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey:Policies and strategies on sustainable consumption and production inSEE and EECCA countries).7. Montenegro adopted its law on public procurement in 2001,harmonized with EU standards; its commission for public procurement isresponsible for managing public procurement at the national and locallevels (Government of Montenegro, 2006, unpublished, Questionnairesurvey: Policies and strategies on sustainable consumption andproduction in SEE and EECCA countries).8. The package includes the creation of a certification scheme for organicfood, economic incentives for farmers to take up organic agriculture andinformation campaigns promoting organic products to consumers (UNEP-CRI, forthcoming, Annex 2).9. This strategy provides long-term guidelines for food production withina rural development context and focuses on food safety and organicfarming to achieve more sustainable management of land resources(UNEP-CRI, forthcoming, Annex 1).10. One of the major sectors under the national Poverty AlleviationStrategy of Armenia is Agriculture. Several strategies and policies arealso adopted by the Government of Armenia to promote developmentof agriculture as a sector and to respond social challenges in ruralcommunities (UNEP, 2011).160

taking action togetherPhoto courtesy of Tomradescribed in their NSSDs. In Croatia 11 the SDI setsinclude 21 indicators under the themes of waste,agriculture, consumption and social responsibility.The NSSD in Serbia 12 includes eight indicators underthe themes of energy, waste, transport and thebalance between production and consumption.The United States and CanadaThe United States and Canada have a range of SCPrelatedpolicies and programmes, at the federal,state/provincial and local levels (UNEP and others,2008; Watson and others, 2009).In the United States, although no specific federal,regional or state-level strategies on SCP havebeen endorsed, many SCP-relevant policies arenonetheless being implemented at all of theselevels. Policies related to SCP at the federal levelin the United States include the 2007 EnergyIndependence and Security Act, which sets a numberof important standards, including a renewablefuels standard, energy efficiency equipmentstandards and a Corporate Average Fuel Economystandard. Additionally, the Executive Branch hasissued a series of Executive Orders, such asthe 2009 Executive Order No.13514, FederalLeadership in Environmental, Energy and EconomicPerformance, which requires federal agenciesto set sustainability goals and to improve theirenvironmental, energy and economic performance(Office of the Press Secretary, The White House,2009). It mandates federal agencies to set a 2020GHG emissions reduction target and includes anumber of measures with respect to purchasingenvironmentally preferable products and services,such as a requirement that 95 per cent of federalpurchasing contracts meet sustainability criteria.With the federal government spending approximatelyUS$500 billion in annual purchasing contracts, thisrequirement has focused considerable attentionon the federal purchasing process as well as thebroader world of green purchasing (Office of thePress Secretary, The White House, 2009).11. NSSD of the Republic of Croatia, adopted 2009 (UNEP-CRI,forthcoming, Annex 1).12. NSSD for Serbia, 2008 (UNEP-CRI, forthcoming, Annex 1).At the regional level, the Regional GreenhouseGas Initiative is a market-based regulatorysystem established in ten states in the UnitedStates: Connecticut, Delaware, Maine, Maryland,Massachusetts, New Hampshire, New York, RhodeIsland and Vermont. The Regional Greenhouse GasInitiative sets up a cap-and-trade system that aimsto reduce CO 2 emissions by 10 per cent from theparticipating states’ power plants by 2018 (RegionalGreenhouse Gas Initiative, 2011).At the state and local levels, SCP measures includethe Massachusetts State Sustainability Program(Energy and Environmental Affairs, Commonwealthof Massachusetts, undated), the City of MinneapolisSustainability Initiative, the California Green BuildingAction Plan (State of California, undated) and theCity of Denver Green Fleet Program (GreenprintDenver, 2009).In Canada, the Federal Sustainable Development Act2008 requires the development and implementationof a Federal Sustainable Development Strategy. Thefirst strategy was released in October 2010, withrequired progress reports to be released at least onceevery three years thereafter. The first was releasedin June 2011. The Federal Sustainable DevelopmentStrategy includes all of Canada’s federal governmentSCP-related activities, such as promoting the use ofcorporate social responsibility (CSR) managementtools by industry, and providing tax relief to Canadianswho use public transit regularly.The Federal Sustainable Development Act 2008further stipulates that each department of thefederal government should produce a departmentalSD strategy one year after the Federal SustainableDevelopment Strategy is first tabled in a Houseof Parliament (with updates at least every threeyears thereafter) (Government of Canada, 2010).Other federal SCP-related initiatives include the2007 Regulatory Framework for Air Emissions(Environment Canada, 2007a), and the 2008initiative Growing Forward: The New AgriculturalPolicy Framework (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,2011). The federal government works with provinces161

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESand territories through the Canadian Council ofMinisters of the Environment, which is Canada’sprimary minister-led intergovernmental form forcollective action on environmental issues of nationaland international concern. The Canadian Councilof Ministers of the Environment has led a numberof initiatives that contribute to SCP. Key activitiesinclude: endorsement of a National PackagingProtocol in 1990; endorsement of the Canada-wideAction Plan for Extended Producer Responsibilityin 2009; completion of a country-wide standard forcompostable products and packaging in 2010; and anumber of standards and guidelines associated withtoxic substances, pollution prevention, waste andwater. At a provincial level, SCP measures includethe 2003 Environmental Management Act (Ministryof Environment, Province of British Columbia, 2004),the 2007 Carbon Tax Act in Quebec (ResourcesNaturelles et Faune, Province of Quebec, 2007) andthe 2009 Green Energy and Green Economy Actin Ontario (Province of Ontario, 2009) (CanadianCouncil of Ministers of the Environment, 2009).SCP policies addressing whole life cycles of productsare not common in either the United States orCanada. Both do, however, have federal policies onenergy efficiency (the United States Energy Policy Actof 2005 and, in Canada, the Energy Efficiency Act,as updated in 2008), and waste management andrecycling, mostly at the state/provincial and municipallevels. For example, San Fransisco has the PlasticBag Reduction Ordinance (City of San Francisco,2007) and seven provinces in Canada run adepositrefundsystem (Environment Canada, 2007b). Cleanerproduction initiatives also exist at the federal, state/provincial and local levels in both countries, andthroughout the private sector. Examples includeUnited States Executive Order No. 13423 of 2007on Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, andTransportation Management (President of the UnitedStates of America, 2007) and the provincial carbontax acts of 2007 and 2008 respectively in Quebecand British Columbia.With respect to sectoral policies in key production andconsumption areas in the United States, transportand mobility have received significant attention,including funding from the American Recovery andReinvestment Act (2009) and other governmentprogrammes. Other notable measures addressenergy efficiency in federal buildings and otherpublic and private buildings (e.g., State of California,undated; California’s Green Building Initiative,Executive Order S-20-04) and water conservationand energy efficiency in the agricultural sector (theFood, Conservation and Energy Act of 2008, alsoknown as the 2008 United States Farm Bill [Harrisand others, 2008]). Canada has recently developeda multi-stakeholder Green Mining Initiative under theleadership of Natural Resources Canada to improvethe mining sector’s environmental performance andpromote innovation in mining driven by research anddevelopment (Natural Resources Canada, 2011).Dedicated indicators for SCP have not yet beendeveloped in the United States or Canada. However,Canada’s Federal Sustainable DevelopmentStrategy 13 includes concrete goals, targets andimplementation strategies, including one goal onminimizing the environmental footprint of governmentoperations (see Case Study 3).The governmental action in key sectors describedabove does not give a full picture of the situation inthe United States and Canada, which both have awide range of other initiatives focusing on differentaspects of SCP. The North American SustainableConsumption Alliance (NASCA) 14 describes agrowing but decentralized sustainability movementthat often addresses SCP more through a ‘bottomup’than a ‘top-down’ approach. Individuals,organizations and initiatives constitute differentcommunities of practice focusing “on a particularproduction/consumption pattern or leveragepoint and involving a particular configuration ofstakeholder groups and individuals” (NASCA, 2008,p. 1). As reported in the 2010 United States NationalReport for CSD-18 on Transport, Chemicals, WasteManagement, Mining and Sustainable Consumptionand Production, these efforts are not oftencoordinated within or across organizations (UnitedStates Department of State, 2010). According toNASCA (2008):Some initiatives and strategies focus primarilyon consumption, in turn more specifically onparticular aspects of consumption, such aslifestyle changes, shopping choices such asethical shopping, green consumerism, boycottson sweatshop labour, consumer protectionrights, product use, recycling re-use, and productknowledge. Other initiatives focus primarily onchanging production patterns. Some cover a widerange of processes, such as life cycle analysis(LCA), industrial ecology and clean productionwhile others target more specific parts of aproduct life cycle such as product design andextended producer responsibility. … Otherstrategies … focus on leverage points withinthe consumption and production system, suchas distribution or marketing of products andservices. (p. 4)13. See: www.ec.gc.ca/dd-sd/default.asp?lang=En&n=D39CB7AC-114. NASCA is a strategic partnership of people and organizations thatare working to promote more sustainable consumption patterns inMexico, Canada and the United States. They share the common goalof encouraging individuals, businesses, institutions and governmentsto reduce their impact on the environment and society by changing howthey consume materials and resources. For more information see: http://nasca.icspac.net.162

taking action togetherShrinking the environmentalfootprint: Beginning withgovernmentUnder its greening government operations goal11, the Canadian 2010 Federal SustainableDevelopment Strategy (Theme IV) includesgovernment-wide targets, covering a variety ofissues including paper use, green meetings,green procurement, electronic waste, GHGemission reductions and green buildings. Thestrategy establishes a new system of reportingon SD, namely through the Government ofCanada core expenditure planning and reportingsystem by way of annual departmental reportson plans and priorities and performance reports.In addition, a Federal Sustainable DevelopmentStrategy Progress Report will be prepared atleast once every three years.The greeninggovernmentoperationstargets build onand support otherrelated governmentwideinitiatives,including the TreasuryBoard SecretariatapprovedPolicy on GreenProcurement, which requiresthat environmental performanceconsiderations be integrated intofederal procurement decision-makingprocesses. The Federal Electronic WasteStrategy addresses the environmentally sounddisposal of all federally generated e-waste. Thegreening government operations targets willbe monitored annually through DepartmentalPerformance Reports.Source: Natural Resources Canada (2011);Environment Canada (2011)Other strategies target investment decisions, suchas “procurement initiatives, socially responsibleinvestment, subsidy reform, and financialinstitutional reform” (NASCA, 2008, p. 4), whichultimately shape production.Additionally, there is a cluster of initiatives that focuson the underlying values that shape consumption,production, investment and distribution decisions.Such efforts aim to redefine conventional conceptsof progress and growth, for example, or toresearch best practices and define frameworks formeasurement (NASCA, 2008).Policy instrumentsThe tools and instruments used for implementingSCP-relevant policy in the EU and EFTA countries atEU, national and local levels have been many andwide-ranging. Most commonly, they have focused onthe supply side – cleaner production and sustainableproducts – via regulatory or economic instruments.With respect to sustainable consumption policy, onthe other hand, information-based tools, and to alesser extent economic instruments, seem morecommonly used than regulatory instruments (Berg,2007). Complementary mixes of different tools withinthe same package are also beginning to be used.In most of the SEE and EECCA countries, whereSCP polices have yet not been developed, suchimplementation tools are still in their infancy. This is inpart because strategies are relatively new, especiallyin SEE countries, but it may also reflect a lack ofearmarked resources and institutional capacityand, possibly, that SCP is not a high priority on thepolicy agenda. As an exception, Croatia is currentlydeveloping SCP action plans (2011-2020) that consistof a set of regulatory, 15 economic 16 and voluntarymeasures.In the United States and Canada, a range ofinstruments are used to foster more sustainableproduction and consumption, some of whichencourage the implementation of moresustainable production practices and some ofwhich target products themselves. However, fewpolicies focus on changing underlying consumptionpatterns (UNEP and Ministry of the Environment,Sweden, 2009).Regulatory instruments and standardsIn the EU and EFTA regions, examples of regulatoryinstruments and standards at the regional levelinclude EU product performance standards (theEU EuP Directive) and the application of extended15. Such as: Air Pollution Act (Official Gazette No. 48/1995) andEnvironment Protection Act (Official Gazette No. 82/1994 (Governmentof the Republic of Croatia, 2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey:Policies and strategies on sustainable consumption and production inSEE and EECCA countries).16. Such as: water protection fee; pollution charges (levied on) onSO2 and NO2, “soft” loans and subsidies (Government of the Republicof Croatia, 2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies andstrategies on sustainable consumption and production in SEE andEECCA countries).163

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESproducer responsibility in waste managementpolicies (the Packaging Directive and the WasteElectrical and Electrical Equipment Directive). Atthe national level, the application of regulatoryinstruments to promote SCP is less common inEU and EFTA countries.In SEE and EECCA countries, regulatoryinstruments historically played a key role as themain tools for policy implementation. Areas wheresuch instruments have been developed include thephasing out of lead in petrol by eight countries inSEE and EECCA, the regulation of the applicationof chemicals in agriculture and food products(e.g., the 1995 Law on Pesticides and AgriculturalChemicals in Ukraine [UNEP-CRI, forthcoming] andlaws and regulations on fertilizers and pesticidesin Bosnia and Herzegovina 17 and Armenia 18 ),building standards (e.g., Albania, the RussianFederation 19 and Tajikistan 20 ) and energy labelling(Albania, Armenia, 21 Croatia 22 and Turkey 23 ).In both the United States and Canada, thenumber of regulatory instruments and standardsrelating to SCP has been increasing in recentyears. Recently, President Obama announcednew standards that will raise the fuel efficiencyof vehicles in the United States to 54.5 milesper gallon (mpg) by 2025. This builds on earlieragreements that increase the fuel efficiency of17. Law on Mineral Fertilizers (Official Gazette of BiH, No. 46/04) andLaw on Plant Protection Products (Official Gazette of BiH, No.49/04)introduced general stipulations on imports, distribution and use ofplant protection products. However, no explicit lists of preferred orbanned pesticides have been adopted yet, except that pesticidesregistered under category of POP-S (Persistent Organic Pollutants)are prohibited for use in agriculture of Bosnia and Herzegovina(Government of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, 2006,unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies onsustainable consumption and production in SEE and EECCA countries).18. Government Regulation on Approval of Technical Procedures forFertilizers, 18.11.2004, N 1692-H and Government Regulation onApproval of Technical Procedures for Toxic Chemicals and Fertilizers,03.11.2005, N 1899-H (Government of the Republic of Armenia,2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies and Strategies onSustainable Consumption and Production in SEE and EECCA Countries).19. Package of codes and standards for new buildings by the StateCommittee on Construction, Architecture and Housing Policy, 2005.The package includes new thermal standards for new and renovatedbuildings to improve energy efficiency by more than 35 per cent,technical assistance to architects and contractors on meeting thecodes, methodologies for energy audits, methods for identifying energyretrofits and finally an energy labelling scheme for new and renovatedbuildings to provide information to the buyer (Russian Federation,2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies onsustainable consumption and production in SEE and EECCA countries).20. The building codes of the Republic of Tajikistan were adopted on12 December 1997, but the minimal level of thermal efficiency hasnot been established, except for radioactive gamma emissions, whichare covered by the sanitary regulations. All other issues are avowedbut no mechanisms for implementation exist (Republic of Tajikistan,2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies onsustainable consumption and production in SEE and EECCA countries).21. Armenia requires energy labelling of appliances under theRenewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Programme from 2007 (UNEP-CRI, forthcoming, Annex 2).22. Regulation on Energy Efficiency Labelling (Official GazetteNo. 133/2005) (Government of the Republic of Croatia, 2006,unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies onsustainable consumption and production in SEE and EECCA countries).23. Turkey has mandatory energy labelling for a number of appliancesfollowing closely behind EU labelling initiatives (UNEP-CRI, forthcoming,Annex 2).vehicles in the United States to 35.5 mpg by 2016.These programmes are expected to reduce oilconsumption by 2.2 million barrels a day by 2025and reduce GHG emissions by more than 6 billionmetric tons by 2025 (Environmental ProtectionAgency [EPA], 2011).In Canada, in December 2010, new regulationsrequiring an average renewable fuel contentof five per cent in gasoline came into effect.Furthermore, in October 2010, the Government ofCanada announced final regulations that establishprogressively more stringent GHG emissionstandards for new passenger automobiles andlight trucks for the 2011-2016 model years.These are aligned with similar regulations inthe United States. In the summer of 2011, theGovernment of Canada also announced a new 2per cent renewable content requirement in dieselfuel and heating oil. Canadian provinces alsohave regulatory initiatives related to SCP such asthe 2008 Greening the Building Code initiative inBritish Colombia (Ministry of Energy and Mines,Province of British Columbia, undated; personalcommunication, Holly Palen, 7 October 2011)Economic instrumentsMarket interventions play a key role in EU initiativesto promote SCP (European Topic Centre on Resourceand Waste Management and EEA, 2007), notablycreating incentives for more sustainable behaviourwith respect to energy consumption, low-energyhousing, water and mobility (Watson and others,2009). At the regional level, the best-knownexample is the EU Emissions Trading Scheme.This scheme is now in its second implementationphase. It covers almost half of the CO 2 emissionsand around 40 per cent of the total GHG emissionsof the EU, requiring the major polluters to obtainpermits for each ton of CO 2 equivalent they emit.However, over-allocation of free permits and pricevolatility affecting those that are traded have sofar limited the EU Emissions Trading Scheme’seffectiveness in reducing overall emissions.At the national level, Watson and others (2009)highlight the use of economic instruments toreduce energy use in housing. Such instrumentsinclude White Certificates in Italy and Franceto induce power providers to help increaseenergy efficiency during consumption; financialsupport in Austria, France and Greece for energyefficientbuilding construction, refurbishment andheating; and eco-loans at zero rates in France.Other examples are differentiated taxes on theregistration of motor vehicles, favouring those withlower fuel consumption (United Kingdom, Denmark,Ireland and France), incentives for purchasing lesspolluting private cars (France) (see Case Study 4)and tax exemptions for electric cars (Denmark).164

The French ecological ‘bonusmalus’system for the purchaseof private carsThe bonus-malus system is a financial instrumentthat provides a financial reward (bonus) forpurchasers of fuel-efficient new cars and a financialpenalty (malus) for those buying cars emitting highlevels of CO 2 . The amount of the bonus or malusdepends on the amount of CO 2 /km emitted by thevehicle. For instance, a bonus of €200 to €1,000is provided for vehicles emitting a maximum of130g CO 2 /km and €5,000 for those emitting nomore than 60g CO 2 /km. Similarly, a malus of €200to €2,600 is applied to those vehicles emittingover 160g CO 2 /km (consuming around 6.9 litresof fuel per 100km) and even more for the least fuelefficientvehicles. A super bonus scrapping fee ofup to €300 is paid to people delivering a car thatis at least 15 years old to the breakers yard andbuying a vehicle eligible for the a bonus (Ministèrede l’Écologie, de l’Énergie, du DéveloppementDurable et de la Mer, 2009).The overall goal of the bonus-malus system is toreduce the average level of CO 2 emissions fromnew vehicles in France to 130 g/km of CO 2 . Themore detailed objectives of the system includethe acceleration of the removal of obsoleteand polluting vehicles from French roads, whileencouraging manufacturers, retailers and carowners to produce, sell and purchase greenervehicles (ETC/SCP and EEA, 2010a).The bonus-malus mechanism will be progressivelytightened by lowering the thresholds of eligibilityfor the bonus and imposition of the malus by5g of CO 2 /km every two years, thus allowingmanufacturers to adapt their production. (ETC/SCP and EEA, 2010b)According to an assessment of the results ofthe bonus/malus scheme done in March 2008,just three months after the implementation ofthe scheme, the sales of the most polluting carshad decreased by 70 per cent and sales of lesspolluting cars had increased by 38 per cent.An evaluation undertaken in February 2009showed that in just one year of implementationthe bonus-malus led to a decrease in theaverage CO 2 emissions of new sold cars by 7g,which allowed France to reach the EU objectiveof 140g km. By December 2009 averageemissions went down to 132.8g/km. (ETC/SCPand EEA, 2010b)The combination of the bonus-malus schemeand the scrapping premium has had a significanteffect in changing the structure of privatecar sales in France since 2008. Consumersand manufacturers have responded beyondexpectations to the price signal (Ministère del’Écologie, de l’Énergie, du DéveloppementDurable et de la Mer, 2009).Source: ETC/SCP and EEA (2009)In SEE and EECCA countries, economic instrumentshave not been used on a regular basis forenvironmental protection. Where they do exist,they are mostly aimed at industry rather thanconsumers. Indeed, the subsidization of communalservices, which was the standard practice ofcentralized political systems and continued moreor less throughout the 1990s (UNEP and EEA,2007), tended to run contrary to the internalizingof environmental costs into the price of goods andservices. More recently, economic instrumentshave focused on gradually increasing the tariffs forcommunal services, to the point where consumersdo pay their full operational costs. 24 Other examplesof policies influencing consumption are road andfuel taxes for vehicles (Kazakhstan 25 and Belarus),economic instruments encouraging waste treatmentand recycling (e.g., under the Law on Waste in24. Subsidies to vulnerable groups may still be justified in terms ofcontinuing high levels of poverty and social inequality, as for example withthe retention of block tariffs that keep down electricity prices for basiclevels of consumption in Serbia and Georgia.25. Annual car taxes are based on engine capacity. The higher thecapacity, the higher the tax (UNEP-CRI, forthcoming, Annex 2).165

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESArmenia 26 ) and pollution charges for industry (theRussian Federation, 27 Moldova 28 and Ukraine 29 ).The United States and Canada have considered avariety of economic instruments to foster SCP. In theUnited States, Acid Rain Program (introduced by theEPA under the 1990 amendments to the Clean AirAct) instituted a nationwide cap-and-trade system toreduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and oxidesof nitrogen (NO x ) from electric power plants. Theprogramme has successfully reduced such harmfulpollutants; as of 2005, emission reductions weremore than 7 million tons from power plants, or 41per cent below 1980 levels (EPA, 2008).More recently, legislative efforts have been made toenact a cap-and-trade system for GHG emissions,notably the American Clean Energy and Security Actof 2009, which proposed an economy-wide cap-andtradesystem with targets for reducing 2005 GHGemissions levels by 17 per cent by 2020 and by83 per cent by 2050. 30 The American Clean Energyand Security Act of 2009 passed the United StatesHouse of Representatives in June 2009, but failedto move forward in the United States Senate.In Canada, as previously mentioned, the provincialgovernments of Quebec and British Columbiaintroduced carbon tax legislation in 2007 and 2008respectively, while the Western Climate Initiativebrought several American states and Canadianprovinces together with the aim of creating a regionalcap-and-trade programme for GHG emissions thatwill be fully implemented in 2015 (Western ClimateInitiative, 2011). Examples at the local level include26. (1) The Law on Waste was adopted in 2004 to introduce a statechemicals management policy including economic instruments for wastetreatment and recycling (Chapter 5). (2) Armenia developed the ChemicalManagement National Profile (endorsed by the Government DegreeNo. 26, 08 July 2004), and it is considered an important milestone inachieving sustainable development in the country (Government of theRepublic of Armenia, 2006, unpublished, Questionnaire survey: Policiesand Strategies on Sustainable Consumption and Production in SEE andEECCA Countries).27. To comply with Federal Environmental Protection Law No.7-FZ(2002), one of the instruments of economic regulation in the field ofenvironmental protection is the environmental impact charge levied onmarket participants for pollutant emissions, effluent discharge and wastedisposal. Payments are charged based on graduated rates establishedfor a list of pollutants dependent on the hazard of their environmentalimpact and waste hazard class (Russian Federation, 2006, unpublished,Questionnaire survey: Policies and strategies on sustainable consumptionand production in SEE and EECCA countries).28. Law on Environmental Protection, Law on Payments for EnvironmentPollution (1998), with subsequent addenda, have introduced chargeson emissions (Republic of Moldova, 2006, unpublished, Questionnairesurvey: Policies and strategies on sustainable consumption andproduction in SEE and EECCA countries).29. Such as Article 44 of Law on Environmental Protection providesthat environmental pollution charges are based on de facto emissionsreleases, emission pollutant limits and waste disposal (Governmentof Ukraine, 2006, unpublished. Questionnaire survey: Policies andstrategies on sustainable consumption and production in SEE and EECCAcountries).30. In addition to establishing a cap-and-trade system for GHG emissions,the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 included manyadditional provisions, including: a mandate that, by 2025, 25 per centof the nation’s energy be produced from renewable sources; creation ofnew energy efficiency programmes; limits on the carbon content of motorfuels; and requirements on GHG standards for new heavy duty vehiclesand engines.cities introducing taxes on plastic bags (New York,Toronto and Washington, D.C.).Information-based instrumentsInformation-based instruments seem to be themost widely applied type of SCP-related policyinstruments in EU and EFTA countries, particularlyat the national level but also including significantEU-level examples, including eco-labels (theEuropean Ecolabel and the Energy Label), carboncalculators (Mycarbonfootprint.eu), guidelines forauthorities (e.g., the Buying Green Handbook)and eco-tips for citizens (the EEA’s Eco-agents).A number of countries, such as Austria, theCzech Republic, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy,Switzerland and the United Kingdom, have launchedGPP guidelines and portals to help buyers makesustainable choices (for example, topten.info). Civilsociety organizations (CSOs) can be important inpromoting the development and implementation ofmulti-stakeholder partnerships and projects aimingat increasing consumer awareness on SCP. Forexample, under the Ecolaboration pact, Nespressoand the Rainforest Alliance jointly develop andimplement a programme helping farmers supplyingNestlé to meet the Sustainable Agriculture Network/Rainforest Alliance certification standard (see CaseStudy 5).In SEE and EECCA countries, policies and campaignsto educate consumers have not tended to givepriority to SCP issues (UNEP and EEA, 2007).Some non-governmental organizations (NGOs)have nevertheless done important work to promotesustainable development (e.g., the Green Choicefor Ukraine, developed by MAMA-86) (see CaseStudy 6). Certification and labelling, particularly fororganic food, is widespread in SEE, but not in EECCAcountries. For example, Croatia has implementedmuch of the EU’s environmental certification andlabelling; Turkey has mandatory energy labelling fora number of appliances; and the Albanian EnergyEfficiency Law makes energy labelling of appliancesmandatory.In the United States and Canada, there have beennumerous recent initiatives and programmes to raiseawareness of the critical importance of greeningconsumption and production patterns. In the UnitedStates, the EPA developed the Energy Star labellingprogramme, which provides information to consumerson energy efficiency appliances performance. TheUnited States Green Building Council’s Leadershipin Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) buildingcertification programme provides a frameworkfor identifying and implementing practical andmeasurable green building design, construction,operations and maintenance solutions (United StatesGreen Building Council, 2011). Another Americanexample is the National Standards on Organic166

taking action togetherProducing and sourcingsustainable coffeeIn 2003, Nestlé Nespresso developed the AAASustainable Quality Coffee Program withthe Rainforest Alliance and other partners.The programme applies the SustainableAgriculture Network criteria and standards.In 2009 Nespresso and Rainforest Alliancecollaborated again with other partners to launchEcolaboration as a framework addressing thewhole value chain. Nespresso publicly committedto achieving three objectives by 2013 (Nespresso,undated):•Rainforest Alliance certification••To source 80 per cent of the coffee from theAAA Sustainable Quality Program, includingTo put systems in place to triple the capacity torecycle used capsules to 75 per centTo reduce the carbon footprint per cup ofNespresso by 20 per centThe coffee farms will apply guidelines forfarming that help to ensure economic viability,environmental conservation and social justice.To this end, agronomists and ecologists fromNespresso, with the input of the Rainforest Allianceand their supply partners support more than 200agronomists to help farmers meet the SustainableAgriculture Network (SAN) standards whileimproving productivity (personal communication,Karsten Ranitzsch, 22 September 2011)These standards andrequirements includesoil and waterconservation,protection ofwildlife andforests, andensuring thatfarm workers,women andchildren haveproper rightsand benefits. Forinstance, the SANstandard requiresthat farmers conservewater by keeping trackof water sources andconsumption. Protectingstreams ensures that mills will haveclean water to process the beans and healthysoils to grow better quality coffee (SustainableAgriculture Network, 2011). Hence, thisalliance brings benefits to nature, farmers,workers, the company and consumers.In 2010, 60 per cent of Nespresso’s greencoffee beans came from the AAA Programme.More than 40,000 farmers from LatinAmerican and Asia (Brazil, Colombia, CostaRica, Guatemala, India, Nicaragua andMexico) benefit from it. It is estimated thata total of 80,000 farmers and their familieswill benefit from the programme by the endof the 2012-2013 harvest season (personalcommunication, Karsten Ranitzsch, 22September 2011).Agricultural Production and Handling, issued by theUnited States Department of Agriculture’s AgriculturalMarketing Service in 2000, which aims to regulateany farm, wild crop harvesting or handling operationthat wants to sell an agricultural product marketed asorganically produced (United States Department ofAgriculture, 2011).In Canada, much effort is also focused on consumereducation and awareness, through web portalssuch as ConsumerInformation.ca and governmentfunding and labelling programmes such as theCertified Organic Associations of British Columbia,the EcoLogo programme (see Case Study 7) and theEnerGuide Label. Due to the highly integrated natureof the Canadian and United States economies,many energy efficiency codes and standards areshared. Given Canada’s relatively smaller economy,integrating programmes with a larger economy suchas the United States provides economies of scalefor equipment manufacturers. For example, theinternational Energy Star symbol is promoted andmonitored in Canada, and the Canadian buildingssector promotes the LEED building certificationprogramme (personal communication, Holly Palen,7 October 2011).Voluntary instrumentsA wide range of voluntary instruments related toSCP are applied in several EU and EFTA countriesand at the EU level. Examples include the EURetail Forum (public-private collaboration), theEco-Management and Audit Scheme registrationsystem (a voluntary Environmental ManagementSystem). Voluntary agreements exist on energyefficiency for washing machines, refrigerators,freezers and dishwashers. For example, in 1999the industry presented, through the European167

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESPhoto courtesy of MAMA-86Economic and energy-efficienthousing in UkraineThe Ukrainian National Environmental NGOMAMA-86 was founded in 1990 and registered itsnational status in 2001. The mission of MAMA-86 is to enhance women’s and mothers’ roles ineducation and the decision-making processesfor improvement of the environment and livingstandards of citizens.MAMA-86 implements advocacy and publiclobbying campaigns, raising awareness andcapacity-building activities, and implementingpilots on its three main areas of work onsustainable development: greening policy andpractice, including the promotion of SCP patterns;access to safe drinking water and sanitation; andpromoting safe management of chemicals andwaste. Environmental democracy, health andenvironment are treated as crosscuttingthemes.MAMA-86 has been workingon SCP issues since1995. Since 2005MAMA-86 has beenrunning lobbyingand communicationcampaignsdemandingmore effectiveenvironmental policyin Ukraine, includingmeasurable goalsand objectives, aset of indicators,a monitoring andassessment mechanism,and the broad involvementof citizens and otherstakeholders. In 2007 theGovernment of Ukraine adopted the Conceptof National Environmental Strategy. Parliamentadopted the New Law on State EnvironmentalPolicy Strategy at the end of 2010 and the NewEnvironmental Action Plan for 2011-2015 insummer 2011.One of the MAMA-86 projects, Green Choicefor Ukraine, conducted between 2004 and2007, developed a programme for economicand energy-efficient housing in the cities ofOdessa and Artemivsk. The project targeted657 local residents of multi-storey apartmentbuildings who participated in the campaign,along with representatives of the local authority,students, experts, local businesses and housingcooperatives. Measures that were introducedto save energy and water consumption were theinstallation of motion-detecting light switches,energy-saving bulbs and water meters, insulatinghot water and central heating pipes andmodernizing windows. Twice-monthly meetingswere held to raise environmental awarenessamong the participants (Centre on SustainableConsumption and Production and others,2010). The project received financial supportfrom Oxfam Novib, Netherlands. In Odessa,participants installed water meters and heatinginsulation at their own expense.The participants saw energy efficiencyimprovements in their building, which significantlyreduced costs. Electrical bills were reduced by 30per cent, heating cost was reduced by 70 per cent,hot water cost was reduced by 80 per cent andoverall water consumption was reduced by half.The information and communication campaignreached up to 2.5 million of Ukrainians via massmedia. In Artemivsk, cooperation among thecommunity, government and businesses wasestablished and lead to the development andimplementation of a new municipal programmecovering 35 buildings.Source: MAMA-86 (2011)Committee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers(CECED), a unilateral commitment to energy savingfor dishwashers to the European Commission. Theoverall target of the commitment was to reducethe specific energy consumption of householddishwashers by 20 per cent by 31 December 2002,related to the base case figures of 1996. This wasto be achieved by reducing the consumption ofthe dishwashers and a gradual phase-out of lessefficient appliances by stopping producing for andimporting dishwashers that belong to less energyefficientclasses (European Committee of DomesticEquipment Manufacturers, 2002). Participants inthis commitment represented more than 90 percent of the European dishwasher market and closeto 200 brands were affected. This initiative andother agreements have expired, mostly in the light ofthe EU EcoDesign directive preparations (EuropeanCommittee of Domestic Equipment Manufacturers,2002).168

The Canadian ecolabelling programIn 1988, the Government of Canada created NorthAmerica’s largest environmental standard andcertification mark, its EcoLogo. Managed by thegreen marketing group Terra Choice, the EcoLogoProgram approaches certification using a life-cycleapproach, rating environmentally preferable goodsand services under ISO 14024.Currently, there are more than 10,000 EcoLogocertifiedproducts in the marketplace, across75 categories. EcoLogo certification is knownfor “devising its standards in a transparent andpublic process, and for scrutinizing products forenvironmental impact throughout their life cycles,from manufacturing and use, to disposal” (UNEP,undated). For example, laundry detergents carryingthe EcoLogo must not contain certain chemicalsand be fully biodegradable.ISO recognizes EcoLogo as a Type 1 ecolabel,meaning the program “compares products andservices with others in the same category,develops rigorous and scientifically relevantcriteria that reflect the entire lifecycle of theproduct, and awards the EcoLogo to those that areverified by an independent third party a complyingwith the criteria” (UNEP, undated).As a founding member of the GlobalEcoLabelling Network (GEN), EcoLogo hasbeen a key figure in organizing the <strong>global</strong>standardization of environmental performancelabeling. Founded in 1994, GEN’s mandate isto “improve, promote, and develop the ecolabellingof products and services” (UNEP,2010). To date, “EcoLogo and the Green Sealprogramme in the United States are the onlytwo North American eco-labelling programsapproved by GEN as meeting internationallyrecognized ISO 14024 requirements” (UNEP,undated).As a market instrument that benefits bothconsumers and producers, EcoLogo is alsoused by the Government of Canada under itsgreen procurement policies.Sources: UNEP (undated); EnvironmentCanada (2011)The update of the EcoDesign directive showed thatself-regulation, including voluntary agreementsoffered as unilateral commitments by industry,allows for flexible adaptations to technologicaloptions and market sensitivities. This self-regulationcan enable quick progress due to rapid and costeffectiveimplementation. It indicated that, for theassessment of self-regulation measures presentedas alternatives to implementing measures,information on the following issues, among others,should be available: participation in the mechanism,representativeness, quantified and stagedobjectives, involvement of civil society, monitoringand reporting (Bertoldi and Rezessy, 2010). For anational voluntary agreements example, see Box 1.Such voluntary instruments are much less commonin SEE and EECCA countries. However, registrationsunder some environmental certification schemes,such as ISO 14001, 31 have been steadily increasing(especially in SEE and the Eastern European EECCA31. “The ISO 14001 standard provides a framework within which todevelop plans to meet those targets, and to produce information aboutwhether or not the targets are met” (International Institute for SustainableDevelopment, 2011).countries), and are encouraged in particular incountries with significant export markets (e.g.,Azerbaijan, Belarus, Croatia, the Russian Federation,Serbia and Ukraine) (UNEP and EEA, 2007).In the United States, the EPA promotes ProductStewardship Partnerships, also known as extendedproduct responsibility, whereby manufacturers, retailers,the users of products and those involved in theireventual disposal – in other words all the actors acrossthe life cycle of products – can share responsibility forreducing their environmental impacts. 32 The Network forSustainability, a collaborative network of federalagencies in the Western United States focuses onfostering and furthering the concept of sustainabilitywithin government.In Canada, the Canadian Council of Ministers ofthe Environment have endorsed the Canada-WideAction Plan for Extended Producer Responsibility,and established a Task Group to provide guidance32. More information is available at http://www.epa.gov/osw/partnerships/stewardship/basic.htm.169

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESon the development and implementation of extendedproducer responsibility and stewardship programsin Canada. Workshops have been held and toolspublished to help decision makers in implementingextended producer responsibility (personalcommunication, Holly Palen, 7 October 2011).Box 1: Sustainable Clothing Action Plan(United Kingdom)The Sustainable ClothingAction Plan, a voluntaryclothing industry initiativeto improve theenvironmental andethical performance ofclothing, was launched atLondon Fashion Week in2009. Coordinated by Defra, this plan sets outactions by 38 clothing and fashion companies andsupport organizations to improve the sustainabilityperformance of clothing. A demonstration projectis working with a range of dye houses in India thatsupply the United Kingdom market, includingTesco and Marks & Spencer. This project willshare best practices and seek to increase theuptake of tools and metrics to improveenvironmental performance.Source: Defra (2009b; 2010g; 2011)7.4 SCP initiatives for andby businessBusinesses have a key role to play in the transitiontowards SCP throughout the product life cycle, fromraw material extraction to waste management viamanufacturing and retailing. The financial sector,too, has a special role as a potential vehicle fordirecting investment towards sustainable solutions.In the UNECE region, some parts of the businesssector are doing much to promote more sustainableproduction practices and to encourage moresustainable consumption. Examples of their SCPrelatedinitiatives are described below.In terms of engagement on SCP issues beyondnational or sectoral boundaries, CSR Europe,founded in 1995, is a leading European businessnetwork for corporate social responsibility (CSR).With a membership of some 70 multinationalcorporations and 27 national partner organizations,it provides a platform for them to share best practiceon CSR, to develop innovative collaborative projectswith stakeholders and to shape business and policydialogue on sustainability and competitiveness.Many sector-specific regional business associationsinclude SCP-relevant initiatives in their workingprogrammes; for example:•Digitaleurope.org, the trade advocacy group ofthe European digital economy. Its working groupon environmental policy provides support on SCPrelevantissues like the use of chemicals, waste,eco-design and energy efficiency.•The European Crop Protection Associationpromotes modern agriculture in the context of SD.The association provides support for sustainablefarming practices and tools such as integratedpest management to encourage efficient use ofpesticides.•The European Committee of Domestic EquipmentManufacturers works towards increased energyefficiency and responsible disposal of domesticappliances.An example of an industry’s success as a whole in using100 per cent of its raw material is the European sugarindustry. It has managed to use all of its raw material,the sugar beet. While the industry processes 110 milliontons of beets on a yearly basis, sugar constitutes only16 per cent of this amount. The industry has used theremaining components as follows (Ecorys, 2011a):Water (75 per cent) reused for beet washingMolasses (3.5 per cent) used as animal feedBeet pulp (5 per cent) used as animal feed•Other material (0.5 per cent) incorporated into sugarfactory limeBusinesses have also joined government-led SCPinitiatives like the EU Retail Forum and the EuropeanFood SCP Roundtable. The EU Retail Forum is amulti-stakeholder platform set up in 2009 in order toexchange best practices on sustainability and to identifyopportunities and barriers to SCP. 33 Membership isopen to all retailers who join the 20 retailers and 7retail associations that had signed up to the Retailers’Environmental Action Programme as of December 2010.The European Renewable Energy Council is an umbrellaorganization for 11 industry, trade and researchassociations active in the sectors of photovoltaics,small hydropower, solar thermal, bioenergy, geothermal,ocean, concentrated solar power and wind energy.It works to influence decision makers in favour ofrenewable energy solutions and to promote Europeantechnologies on the <strong>global</strong> market, and acts as a forumfor its members on issues related to renewable energyin Europe.The implementation of environmental managementsystems such as ISO 14001 and the Eco-Management33. For more information on the EU Retail Forum, please see: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/industry/retail/issue_papers.htm.170

taking action togetherlaunched in 2000; Sainsbury’s Dairy DevelopmentGroup (see Case Study 8); and the WalmartSupplier Sustainability Assessment, in whichmore than 100,000 <strong>global</strong> suppliers are asked tocomplete a survey to evaluate their own companies’sustainability performance (see Case Study 9).and Audit Scheme has become widespread in theUNECE region. As an example, the number of ISO14001 certified organizations and companies basedin the 27 countries of the EU increased from roughly44,262 in 2005 to roughly 71,606 in 2008 (NielsenCompany, 2008).Sustainable supply-chain management initiatives areanother sign of business action in the productionaspect of SCP. Highly visible examples include: theIKEA Way on Purchasing Home Furnishing ProductsA number of cleaner production and ecodesigninitiatives have also been launched bybusinesses in the UNECE region. Examples includeHenkel’s low-impact laundry detergents, Phillips’pioneering work on energy-efficient lighting andAdidas’s ‘Green’ footwear and apparel. Procterand Gamble has focused on low-cost waterpurification equipment, Nokia on improving theenergy efficiency of its products, and Novozymeson developing second generation biofuels andenzymes for low-temperature laundry detergents(World Business Council for SustainableDevelopment, 2008; 2004). Nestlé Waters hasintroduced a Global Environment Footprint tool(see Box 2) to reduce its products’ footprint, whileGeneral Electric has devised a new businessstrategy on sustainable products (see Box 3).Sustainable supply chain initiative inthe agri-food sectorSainsbury’s Dairy Development Group (SDDG),based in the third largest chain of supermarketsin the United Kingdom, supports initiatives to helpfarmers and suppliers produce more sustainably.Together with an environmental consultancy,SDDG developed a carbon footprint model forits producers. The model provides farmers withindividual advice on how to improve their footprint.By 2010, it had carbon footprinted over 325SDDG farms, 98 cheese development farms,260 beef development farms and 1,400 lambdevelopment farms (J Sainsbury PLC, 2010). Thecompany explains that, in SDDG farms, someof the reductions in energy and emissions havecome from simple measures, such as harvestingrainwater for re-use. Other farmers have achievedhigher yields per cow by using feed moreefficiently, or managing their fertiliser and manureapplications differently. Farmers receive additionalveterinary support to improve the health andwelfare of their herds, and information technologyequipment and training to help monitor progress(J Sainsbury PLC, 2010).profitability for Sainsbury’s dairy farmersof £1.6 million in 2009 (J Sainsbury PLC,2010). Following the success of its SDDG, thesupermarket rolled out this approach across itsprimary agricultural supply base, consisting ofbeef, lamb, pork, eggs, chicken, milk, cheese,grain and produce. Sainsbury’s also won BestRetail Initiative at the BBC Radio 4 Food andFarming Awards for helping its farmers reducetheir carbon footprint and achieve financialsavings in 2010 (J Sainsbury PLC, 2010). In2006 a study called Greening Supermarketswas carried out by the United KingdomNational Consumer Council. It looked at carbonfootprint and seasonality of produce, wasteand sustainable farming. In the study of eightmajor United Kingdom retailers Sainsbury’sreceived the second best rating (togetherwith Marks & Spencer). The study highlightedSainsbury’s achievements in theareas of offering MarineStewardship Councilcertifiedfishand organicproducts(Dibb,2006).According to Sainsbury’s, the health and welfarework stream has delivered improvements in171

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESBox 2: Global Environment Footprint (GEF) toolThis tool was specially designed to prioritize keyactions to reduce the environmental footprintof Nestlé’s bottled water operations. In 2008,after four years of development, Nestlé Watersofficially launched it across the whole company.According to the company, between 2004 and2009, it reduced water use per litre of product by38 per cent between, reduced energy use by 40per cent and cut packaging by 25 per cent. Theidentification of opportunities for lighter plasticbottles, for example, decreases the company’sdemand for plastic resin, which also helps toreduce costs.Source: Nestlé Waters (2010)Box 3: Resource efficiencyIn 2009 General Electric invested US$1.5 billionon research and development into more resourceefficientproducts as part of its ecomagination TMbusiness strategy. For example, a new gasturbine consumes less fuel and produces loweremissions than earlier models. In 2009 GeneralElectric’s ecomagination revenues grew by 6 percent to US$18 billion, while the company reducedits water consumption by 30 per cent compared toa 2006 baseline.Source: General Electric (2009; 2010)Business efforts promoting the demand forsustainable products and services are scarcer, buta number of interesting initiatives are emerging.One trend is the increased use of ecolabels.Since the introduction of the EU Ecolabel in1992, the number of companies licensed to useit has grown annually, to a total of over 1,000 atthe beginning of 2010. Another growing area iscorporate sustainability reporting. Response ratesto the corporate carbon emission surveys of theUnited States-based Carbon Disclosure Project, forinstance, have continued to rise, reaching 70 percent for United States companies and 84 per centfor EU companies by 2009.Several major retailers in the UNECE region have usedtheir central location in the product chain betweenproducers and consumers to launch initiatives onSCP. Marks & Spencer, for example, has declared theultimate aim of being the world’s most sustainableretailer and launched a Plan A initiative comprising 100commitments. Meanwhile, Walmart’s sustainabilityassessment aims to benchmark their suppliers andcommunicate the life-cycle impacts of its products(see Case Study 9). Two of many examples on theconsumption side are Tesco’s Greener Living Initiative,an online customer club providing information ongreen consumption, and COOP Sweden’s Änglemarksustainability label. Increasingly, several retailersare using choice editing (the voluntary removal ofunsustainable choices). Choice editing remains a fairlynovel field to many businesses, with huge, yet stillunharnessed, potential.More comprehensive and holistic action on SCPby businesses can extend to reorienting their verybusiness models toward sustainability by puttingsustainability at the core. One possible route isfor businesses to move away from the concept ofselling products and instead to focus their offer onthe services they provide. Examples of this socalledproduct-service system are the leasing ofcars, photocopiers, carpets and other products.An immediate benefit of leasing is recuperation ofresources: rather than letting them go to landfill,they are turning waste into a resource. DuPont, forinstance, has developed a programme that enablescustomers such as hotels and office buildings tolease their carpets (MSA Worldwide, 2011).Another major player in this industry, InterfaceGlobal, aims to eliminate all negative impacts onthe environment by the year 2020. It has beenredesigning processes and products to close thetechnical loop using recycled and bio-based materials.Since 1995, it has reduced its waste by a third.As of 2010, 40 per cent of Interface Global’s rawmaterials were recycled and bio-based, reducing itsdependence on oil while preserving natural resources(Interface, 2011; Business Standard, 2010). Anotherroute to save material is to make reuse less costlythan the purchase of new items ones (see Box 4).Box 4: Shops for reused goodsThe Helsinki MetropolitanArea Reuse Centre’sfour shops for reusedgoods redistribute wellover a million items peryear, making significantsavings in life-cycleresource use and ecological footprint, whencompared with the sale of equivalent quantitiesof new products. In 2009, based on thedistribution of 1.2 million used or repaired items(mainly clothes, toys and books), the Centreestimated these savings at 14,500 tons ofmaterials; 1,300,000 tons of water; and,according to Material Input per Service Unitcalculations, 3,740 tons of CO 2 emissions.Source: Helsinki Metropolitan Area Reuse Centre(2010)Photo courtesy of Helsinki Metropolitan Area Reuse Centre172

taking action togetherSustainability measurementand reportingIn 2009 Walmart started a programme to helpevaluate the sustainability performance oftheir suppliers and products. The first phaseof this work included a Supplier SustainabilityAssessment that evaluated the supplier’s effortsin four key areas: Energy and Climate, MaterialEfficiency, Natural Resources and People andCommunity. In phase two, Walmart will useinsights from The Sustainability Consortium (TSC)to scorecard and benchmark their suppliers’performances on the key issues and opportunitiesin the life cycle of their products.The TSC is a <strong>global</strong>, academically led, multistakeholderorganization conducting researchand developing data, standards, systems andtools that will improve decision-making and drivesustainability in consumer goods. With offices inthe United States and Europe and expansion plansin Asia and Latin America, TSC is actively workingin food, beverage and agriculture; home andpersonal care; consumer electronics; toys, paperand forestry products; and packaging. TSC plansto continue expanding membership and sectorsin other areas. The Sustainability Measurementand Reporting System under development willdeliver sustainability information through productCategory Sustainability Profiles, and deliver alarge-scale system supporting standardization andharmonization of product life-cycle assessmentsover time.A wide range of retailers and suppliers arebeginning to put TSC’s work to use, informinghow they design products, source materialsand buy merchandise. TSC’s ConsumerScience working group is actively researchingthe effective communication of sustainabilityinformation for consumers, work that willinfluence how retailers and brands engageconsumers around these issues. TSC’s workwill have important <strong>global</strong> business implicationsby fostering, and enabling, communication andreporting of sustainability characteristics acrossthe supply chain.Sources: Walmart (2011a; 2011b; 2011c) TSC(2011); personal communication, Greg Thoma,7 September 2011Picture courtesy of TSCThe clean-tech sector (e.g., renewable energies)has been the main area for the emergence of greenbusinesses. This sector is still growing in the UNECEregion; indeed, in the EU it is the only businesssector that has shown growth throughout the currenteconomic crisis, albeit with support from deliberateeconomic stimulus policies. Outside the cleantechsector there are still relatively few cases oftransformation into sustainable business models inthe UNECE region. One example of successful greenentrepreneurship is Beacon Press, which had been theleading environmentally friendly printer in the UnitedKingdom until it was purchased in 2004 (Scott, 2004).In the banking and investments sector, SCP-relatedchanges can be observed in examples of private andpublic financing for energy efficiency and renewableenergies. For example, in 2007, the EuropeanInvestment Bank (2007) issued a €600 million ClimateAwareness Bond to fund projects that provide financingin the fields of renewable energy and energy efficiency.In 2010 the Swiss Climate Foundation, foundedby <strong>global</strong> reinsurer Swiss Re and other servicecompanies, financed 16 projects run by SMEswith contributions of over CHF1.2 million. Theseprojects included installing a groundwaterpoweredheat pump for a printing company,adding a thermal energy screen to an organic foodproducer’s greenhouse, transforming a 30-yearoldmetal manufacturing plant into a state-of-theartproduction facility that runs without any fossilfuels, among other initiatives. Over half of allprojects currently supported by the foundation aimto raise energy efficiency, while the others focuson advancing innovative technologies. Swiss Reestimates that, once fully implemented, all energysavinginitiatives combined will save approximately26,000 tons of CO 2 emissions and 14 GWh ofpower over their full life cycles (Swiss Re, 2011).In the United States, Citi announced plans in 2007to direct US$50 billion over 10 years to activities173

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESthat mitigate climate change. These activitiesinclude internal projects, such as retrofitting existingor constructing new Citi facilities, and businessinitiatives, such as financing alternative energy andinvesting in clean technology. The company reportsthat it has directed US$30 billion to this initiativeto date. This includes, for example, a US$1.4 billionpackage to finance the Shepherds Flat Wind Projectin Oregon. When completed in 2012, the companyexpects the wind project to produce enough energyto power more than 200,000 California households,avoiding over 1 million tons of CO 2 , and creatinghundreds of jobs in the community (Citi, 2011).These can include publishing challenging evidence,undertaking consumer-focused campaigning, lobbyinggovernments, engaging with communities, buildingcoalitions, engaging in partnerships with businessand convening multi-stakeholder processes to create,develop and test sustainable innovations (ActionTown, 2009). 34 This section touches upon a verylimited number of these organizations and platforms.Promoting partnerships is one way in whichCSOs influence business. The World Wide Fund forNature (WWF) Climate Savers initiative, for example,enables World Wildlife Fund to work with business andindependent experts to set GHG emissions reductiontargets. The collective reductions by Climate Saverspartners were predicted to reach over 50 million tonsof CO 2 equivalent by the end of 2010 (WWF, 2011).Joining in on platforms with the business sector isanother way for CSOs to develop actions on SCP. Forexample, Forum Waschen is a dialogue platform ondetergents for stakeholders in the industry.CSOs such as NorWatch and DanWatch are ‘watchdog’organizations that focus on policing businesses thatare not following through with SCP commitments bynaming and shaming them publicly. An innovativealternative approach is ‘buycotting’ (the oppositeof boycotting), which mobilizes people to supportsustainable businesses by purchasing its products.These initiatives are prime examples of the sector’sefforts on renewables and energy efficient issues.However, a survey of 16 financial institutions’interventions on energy efficiency concludes that,though private-sector financial institutions are veryinterested in energy efficiency, they find it difficultto get the level of scale and financing opportunityrequired to make specific energy-efficiency activitiescommercially attractive, particularly in the context ofproject financing (UNEP, 2009).Further investment in clean-tech and moreencouraging incentive structures for sustainableenterprises remain critical elements in the transitiontowards SCP in the UNECE region.7.5 Civil society initiatives for SCPCivil society organizations (CSOs) have a key role toplay in facilitating the development and implementationof SCP strategies, as well as in encouraginggovernments, businesses and people to act. They arenot only a channel for the expression of the needs ofpeople and communities to policymakers, but also anavenue for the implementation of SCP strategies.The numerous CSOs working on SCP issues in theUNECE region have a variety of approaches to tacklingunsustainable consumption and production patterns.Civil society traditionally influences policymakers.Several mechanisms established at the internationallevel provide the opportunity for CSOs in the UNECEregion to take part in the international governanceprocess, as participants in meetings, consultationsand expert panels. The European EnvironmentalBureau, for example, plays an active role as astakeholder in the formation of European SCP policies.Access to these international forums, however,requires a level of knowledge of internationalprocesses that medium-sized and smaller CSOsdo not always possess, as well as funding forattending. Consequently, one of the conclusions ofthe UNECE Fourth Regional Implementation Meetingon Sustainable Development in Geneva in December2009 was that medium-sized and small CSOsrequire further support and stronger networks.At the national level, CSOs have been activelyinvolved in promoting SCP on the political agenda inthe EU and EFTA countries. In the United Kingdom,34. Action Town conducted a survey and published a discussionpaper with the objective of developing partnerships between researchorganizations and CSOs with the aim of increasing the effectiveness ofthe CSOs. It also addressed the question of what civil societies advocatefor. Project partners include: Collaborating Centre on SustainableConsumption and Production, Sustainable Europe Research Institute,Stockholm Envrionment Institute, the Northern Alliance for Sustainabilityand World Wide Fund for Nature United Kingdom. Action Town is a SeventhFramework Programme project funded by the European Commission. Itsofficial name is CSOContribution2SCP. For more information, please see:http://www.scp-centre.org/fileadmin/content/files/project/civil_society_platform/NetworkOfChange.pdf.174

taking action togetherexamples include the Sustainable ConsumptionRoundtable, a joint initiative of the NationalConsumer Council and the Sustainable DevelopmentCommission, and the Sustainable Procurement TaskForce. 35 A Swedish example of a CSO influencingpublic policy is the Stockholm congestion tax,aimed at reducing traffic congestion and improvingair quality, that was implemented in August 2007in response to CSO lobbying efforts with thesupport of the Green Party (Centre on SustainableConsumption and Production and others, 2010). Anexample from Latvia is Green Liberty lobbying forgreen procurement policies. In Germany, the FederalEnvironment Ministry, in cooperation with the FederalEnvironment Agency, launched a national dialogueprocess on SCP. Other examples of countries ofgovernment consultations with civil society includeAustria (Building our Future: A Sustainable Future forAustria), the Czech Republic (the Czech Frameworkof Programmes on Sustainable Consumption andProduction), Finland (the Getting More and Betterfrom Less programme), and France (the NationalCouncil for Sustainable Development).In SEE and EECCA countries, CSOs play a veryimportant role by putting pressure on their respectivegovernments to address SCP issues. In Kazakhstan,for instance, the Centre for Sustainable Productionand Consumption was one of the main driving forcesin the development and adoption of the nationalSCP model in 2009. In Croatia, communication withCSOs is managed by the government’s Office ofCooperation with NGOs. 36 However, the Ukrainiannetwork of environmental NGOs called MAMA-86 37 characterizes the impact of CSOs on policyformulation in EECCA countries as weak. Despite suchcountries having ratified international mechanisms onallowing public participation in governmental decisionmaking, MAMA-86 says that, in practice, thesemechanisms do not work “due to an inefficiency ofthe mechanisms for authorities and public interactionand often public opinion is simply ignored by thegovernment” (MAMA-86, 2008).In Canada and the United States, a growingmovement of CSOs exists at all levels, includingpublic-interest organizations, academic researchers,individual citizens and neighbourhood groups.Initiatives to unite them include the North American35. This task force includes government, businesses, NGOs andtrade unions. The task force developed a national action plan thatrecommended coherent guidelines for sustainable procurement, minimumstandards for agencies and budgetary mechanisms such as whole-lifecosting. For more information, please see: http://www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/government/36. For more information, please see: http://www.uzuvrh.hr/defaulteng.aspx37. Mama-86 was established in 1990 by a group of young mothersconcerned about the post-Chernobyl accident problems and their impacton children’s health. Mama-86 activities aimed at supporting Ukraine’smove toward sustainable development through active educationalactivities among the general public, focusing particularly on womenthrough information collection and dissemination, ongoing training, aswell as public and inter-sectoral debates, lobbying the government in theinterests of citizens.Sustainable Consumption Alliance, a partnership ofNGOs and academic and government organizationsthat promotes SCP in Canada, Mexico and theUnited States; the North American Roundtableon SCP 38 ; the Citizens’ Network for SustainableDevelopment; and the Canadian EnvironmentalNetwork.Throughout the UNECE region, single CSOs andnetworks of organizations provide research,analysis and information on SCP. One suchnetwork, the Sustainable Consumption ResearchExchanges project, established an EU-widenetwork of SCP experts between 2005 and2008 that included researchers, policymakers,businesses and NGOs. 39 The SustainableConsumption Research and Action Initiativeperforms a similar role in North America and<strong>global</strong>ly. Other examples include ConsumersInternational, the Partnership for Education andResearch about Responsible Living and theInternational Coalition for Sustainable Productionand Consumption. A regional example is theNorthern Alliance for Sustainability, whose memberorganizations work to empower civil society tocreate and protect sustainable communities andsocieties worldwide. 40 The Northern Alliance forSustainability also focuses on enabling CSOsto participate in local, national, regional andinternational decision-making processes on SD.CSO information campaigns tackle issues suchas where to buy sustainable products or guidanceon reducing consumption often using electronicmedia, or working with local communities. Some38. The North American Round Table on SCP is a network of networkslaunched in 2010 at the Eighteenth session of the United NationsCommission on Sustainable Development. Following the session, aseries of workshops, outreach to other networks, and other projectsaimed at expanding the overall public dialogue on SCP in the regionwere planned.39. For more information, please see: http://www.score-network.org/score/score_module/index.php.40. ANPED has quite a few of their member organizations located inthe SEE and EECCA, especially in Central Asia and Caucasus. For moreinformation please see: http://www.anped.org/index.php?part=122.175

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTransition TownsTransition Towns is a civil society movement thatjoins the forces of local people, local governmentand local businesses in a town to overcome thethreats of pollution and climate change and peakoilchallenges at a community level. It started witha small group of people in Ireland and has alreadyspread over 300 ‘official’ transition initiativesacross the world, from Australia to the UnitedStates (Hopkins and Lipman, 2009).The Transition Towns movement’s goal is forcommunities to eliminate their dependence onoil, mitigate climate change and, at the sametime, increase local resilience and life quality.The Transition Network was established in 2006with the aim of supporting current and potentialnew Transition Towns. It performs a co-ordinatingrole for the national networks and producestools on different aspects of transition such asenergy and food. It has developed best practicedocumentation and communication material suchas a movie translated into several languages,describing itself as a catalyst for the Transitionmodel (Transition Culture, 2008).Transition Towns have developed local systemsfor energy and food production, and product reuse,recycling and repair. Several local communitycurrencies have also been developed. To‘transition together’ is understood to be a groupof households that come together to address keyenvironmental challenges (e.g., energy, water,food, waste, transportation). The movement alsooffers training on production of sustainable goodsand services, and education for businesses andlocal governments to explain sustainability issuesand manage risks (Hopkins and Lipman, 2009).For example, Norwich locals share a farm, aninitiative that grew out of the Transition NorwichFood Group, and is supported by local NGO EastAnglia Food Link. As of 2011, almost 50 vegetableshareholders share a weekly harvest and volunteeron the farm, learning new skills and sharing theirknowledge (Transition Norwich, 2011).Typically, Transition Towns develop small-scaleenergy companies to enable communities to takeadvantage of local wind, micro-hydro, or woodchip boilers or to fund the joint purchase of solarpanels. For example, Transition Town Totnesis developing plans to use wind energy and ananaerobic digestion plant based on food, gardenand farm waste materials to generate renewableelectricity and heat for the local community(Totnes Renewable Energy Society, 2011).Another example of an initiative is the BristolGreen Doors initiative, an open-homes eventshowcasing a range of no-cost to highcostmeasures reducing domestic energyconsumption. Over 50 homes were free tovisit, where the owners demonstrated how theywork in practice and share their knowledge andexperience of living in homes they are making fitfor the future. This was supported by informationon energy efficiency advice and services in‘hubs’ based in community venues in at least10 neighborhoods of the city. This project hasbecome an official Green Capital MomentumGroup of the Bristol Partnership, which sets thelong-term vision for the City of Bristol (TransitionNetwork, 2010).examples are the Center for a New AmericanDream’s Cater to the Earth campaign (which makescrucial links between people’s food choices, theenvironment, health, and social justice); the NaturalResources Defence Council’s Green Living Toolkit;and, in Canada, Environmental Defence and theDavid Suzuki Foundation. Examples of pertinentnews media include: the Northern Alliance forSustainability newsletter, The Switch, which isavailable both in print and online; Opcions, themagazine of the Barcelona-based Centre de Recercai Informació en Consum; and EMUDE, a digitalmagazine from the Sustainable Everyday Project.A holistic approach in mobilizing entire communitiesin sustainable living is taken by the TransitionMovement (also known as Transition Network orTransition Towns), which first emerged in Ireland,brings together local people, local government andlocal businesses at a community level to overcomethe threats of pollution and climate change andthe challenges of peak oil. It has now spread tomore than 300 communities in numerous countriesworldwide, including the United Kingdom, Ireland,United States, Canada, Denmark and Italy (Centreon Sustainable Consumption and Production andothers, 2010) (see Case Study 10).176

taking action togetherCSOs in the UNECE region are also engaged in moreformal education and implantation of educationprojects. In 2008 the Move4Nature TeacherTraining Project on Education for SustainableDevelopment started as a network of teachers andactivists. It turned into a partnership for education onthe sustainable management of mountains withcounty school inspectorates in every training locationwith the support of the Ministry of Education,Research and Innovation of Romania. The programmefocuses on the Carpathian environment (CarpathianConvention, 2011). The One Did It initiative in Finlandencourages consumers to live more sustainablelifestyles by offering an ‘ecological backpackcalculator’ for people to work out the environmentalpressures of their consumption. 41 Other relevant CSOinitiatives include the European Roundtable on SCP.It is important to highlight that the themes andmodes of organization of CSOs are constantlyevolving. New and informal online communities arepart of this process. Not only are movements verywell connected by their use of web tools and socialmedia (blogs, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, MySpaceetc.), but in some cases, they may exist entirelyonline (Centre on Sustainable Consumption andProduction and others and others, 2010).7.6 ConclusionsThe extent to which dedicated SCP policy and SCPrelatedpolicy has been implemented in differentparts of the UNECE region reflects the widelydivergent levels of economic development, politicalstructure and differences in governance.In the EU and EFTA regions, SCP is high on the politicalagenda. The EU added an environmental dimension toits Lisbon Strategy as far back as 2001. Its successor,the Europe 2020 Strategy, focuses on “smart,sustainable and inclusive growth,” including a flagshipinitiative on resource efficiency. SCP was accordedfull political recognition in 2006 in the EU SustainableDevelopment Strategy. In 2008 the EU SustainableConsumption and Production and SustainableIndustrial Policy Action Plan provided high-level regionalleadership, strengthening eco-design, ecolabel, energylabel and green public procurement activities, andestablishing a multi-stakeholder platform to exchangebest practice on sustainability in retail. SCP actionat the EU level also relies and builds on regulatoryframeworks such as the REACH regulation onchemicals and their safe use, and the Energy Efficiencyin Buildings directives. At a national level, Austria,Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary,Italy, Malta, the Netherlands, Norway, Romania and41. For more information, please see: http://www.onedidit.com/pdf/Onedidit_ecobackpack.pdfSweden all address SCP through their NSSDs,while countries with stand-alone SCP strategiesinclude the United Kingdom, Poland, Finland andthe Czech Republic. In short, SCP-related policy,targeted at different stages of the productionand consumption life cycle and at high-impactconsumption activities and sectors, is commonthroughout the EU and EFTA regions. Furthercoordination of these policies through dedicatedSCP strategies would be of great benefit.EECCA and SEE countries have no regionalstrategy on SCP and, in general, do not placesignificant emphasis on SCP in nationalpolicymaking. A handful has adopted NSSDstrategies, but only some of these include SCPas a key priority. Several countries have includedSCP as a thematic part of their national SDstrategies since 2007, including Croatia, theFYR of Macedonia and Serbia. In Central Asia,Kazakhstan alone has been developing an SCPmodel, and is preparing a national 10-yearprogramme on the environment with a subsectiondedicated to SCP. Regulatory tools are the mostcommon instruments in the countries in thissubregion, with policies such as standards inchemical use, construction and energy labelling.However, the use of specific mechanisms topromote SCP is generally low. Integration of SCPgoals into energy, transport and agriculturalpolicies is a key need in this subregion.In the United States, no regional-, federal- orstate-level strategies on SCP has been endorsed;many SCP-relevant policies are nonethelessbeing implemented at all these levels. In Canada,a Federal Sustainable Development Strategywas released in October 2010. Canada and theUnited States are notable for their effective useof partnerships with industry and civil society,such as the multi-stakeholder process that ledto the development of the LEED certificationprogramme for buildings. The public sector inthe United States gives strong signals to themarket through executive orders requiring federalagencies to acquire products that are energyand water efficient, bio-based, environmentallypreferable, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic (orless toxic alternatives), and contain recycledcontent.In general, the review of frameworks and policiesin the UNECE region suggests an overall need forgovernments to shift from the more traditionalrole of controlling through regulation andstandards to encouraging collective action andengagement by producers, consumers and civilsociety. Further and accelerated development ofdedicated indicators and benchmarks were alsoidentified as an important step that would enable177

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIEScontinual review and improvement of SCP policyformulation and implementation. The role of thepublic sector in leading change, through initiativeslike GPP, could be bolstered across the region.Businesses have been making significant headwayin responding to public demand for more sustainableproducts and greater transparency, although withtheir influence again diverging significantly betweensubregions. In particular, retailers have beendriving upstream improvements not only withinthe UNECE region, but across <strong>global</strong> markets. Thebusiness activities identified in the UNECE region,however, could do more to promote transformationalchange in consumption and production patterns.Government-business initiatives in the EU andEFTA regions have been useful in forming sectoralconsensus (e.g., the European Food SCP Roundtableand the EU Retail Forum) and engaging incollaborative action promoting SCP.The activities of CSOs are diverse. They promotepartnerships, create and participate in platformswith the business sector, inform and communicateon SCP and SD, build capacity, participate in namingand shaming, and set standards. One example isthe Northern Alliance for Sustainability newsletter oninitiatives that are making the shift to a sustainablesociety. Movements for sustainable living havesprouted. Transition Towns, which advocate forsustainable living and seek practical solutions tolessen dependence on oil, has spread <strong>global</strong>ly, andsuch towns are now established in 130 countries.Building on the collaborative action betweenall stakeholders as demonstrated in the aboveexamples of initiatives, alliances and partnershipswill be central to shifting towards SCP patterns.178

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GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES__________ (2009, January). EnergyEfficiency and the Finance Sector: A Surveyon Lending Activities and Policy Issues.Report Commissioned by UNEP FinanceInitiative’s Climate Change Working Group.Available from http://www.unepfi.org/fileadmin/documents/Energy_Efficiency.pdf.__________ (2011). SustainableConsumption and Production Branch.Available from http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/ShowPolicy.aspx?PolicyId=157&LngId=1&Pg=0.United Nations Environment Programmeand European Environment Agency (2007).Sustainable Consumption and Productionin South East Europe and Eastern Europe,Caucasus and Central Asia – Joint UNEP-EEA Report on the Opportunities andLessons Learned. EEA Report No. 3/2007.Copenhagen, Denmark. Available fromhttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/eea_report_2007_3United Nations Environment Programmeand Ministry of the Environment, Sweden(2009). Progress and Review of PolicyDevelopment. Background Paper forthe 4th RIM Preparatory Meeting onSustainable Consumption and Production.Available from http://www.rona.unep.org/documents/partnerships/SCP/Background_paper_prp_scpmtg%5B1%5D.pdf.United Nations Environment Programmeand others (2008, 9 November). NorthAmerican Workshop on SustainableConsumption and Production (SCP):Co-Chairs Summary and WorkshopReport. North America SCP WorkshopBulletin, vol. 156, No. 1. Available fromhttp://www.iisd.ca/ymb/sdwsc/html/ymbvol156num1e.html.United Nations Environment ProgrammeCopenhagen Resource Institute(forthcoming). Policies and InstrumentsPromoting Sustainable Consumption andProduction in the UNECE Region. Annex 2.Geneva, Switzerland.United States Department of Agriculture(2011). National Organic Program.Available from http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop.United States Department of State(2010). Transport, Chemicals, WasteManagement, Mining, and SustainableConsumption and Production. Submittedto the United Nations Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs Commissionon Sustainable Development 18/19.Available from http://www.state.gov/documents/organization/140444.pdf.United States Green Building Council(2011). Welcome to USGBC. Availablefrom http://www.usgbc.org.Walmart (2011a). Global SustainabilityReport, 2011. Available fromhttp://walmartstores.com/sites/ResponsibilityReport/2011/social_Communities.aspx.__________ (2011b). Sustainability.Available from http://walmartstores.com/Sustainability/9292.aspx.__________ (2011c) Walmart announcesSustainable Product Index. Press release.Available from http://walmartstores.com/pressroom/news/9277.aspx.Watson and others, 2009 (revisedversion 2010, forthcoming). BackgroundPaper for 4th RIM Preparatory Meeting onSustainable Consumption and Production– Progress Review of Policy Development,Geneva, Switzerland. Available fromhttp://www.rona.unep.org/documents/partnerships/SCP/Background_paper_prp_scpmtg%5B1%5D.pdf.Western Climate Initiative (2011) Programdesign. Available from http://www.westernclimateinitiative.org/designingthe-program.World Business Council for SustainableDevelopment (2004). CorporateResponsibility and Business Success inChina. Available from http://www.wbcsd.org/web/publications/ymt-china.pdf.__________ (2008), SustainableConsumption Facts and Trends, froma Business Perspective. The BusinessRole Focus Area. Available fromhttp://www.wbcsd.org/DocRoot/I9Xwhv7X5V8cDIHbHC3G/WBCSD_Sustainable_Consumption_web.pdf.World Wildlife Fund for Nature (2011)Climate Savers: Mobilizing Companiesto Cut Carbon Dioxide. Available fromhttp://www.worldwildlife.org/what/<strong>global</strong>markets/Climate%20Change/climatesavers2.html.182

taking action togetherAnnex AList of countries in the UNECE areaThe EU and EFTA (Western and Central Europe):•The EU-27 includes the EU-15 (Western Europe): Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany,Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom,and the EU-12 (Central Europe): Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania,Malta, Poland, Romania, Slovakia and SloveniaThe European Free Trade Association (EFTA): Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.•Other WCE countries: Andorra, Monaco and San MarinoEastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA):Eastern Europe: Belarus, Republic of Moldova, Russian Federation and UkraineCaucasus: Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia•Central Asia: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and UzbekistanSouth-Eastern Europe (SEE):Western Balkans: Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, FYR of Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia•Other SEE country: TurkeyNorth America:• USACanada• Israel183

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES8 Global Outlook on SCPPolicies: West AsiaAuthors:Hossam Allam, Ahmed El-Dorghamy, Suzy Imam (Centre for Environmentand Development for the Arab Region and Europe – CEDARE).Contributors:Khaled Abuzeid and Mohamed Elrawady (CEDARE)Emad Adly (Arab Network for Environment and Development)Nawal AL-Hosany (Masdar City Project)Raouf Dabbas (Ministry of Environment, Jordan)184

taking action together8.1 IntroductionThe West Asian region consists of 12 countries:six countries in the Gulf Cooperation Council(GCC) subregion (Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman,Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates [UAE]) andsix countries in the Mashreq subregion (Jordan,Lebanon, Syria, Palestine, Iraq and Yemen). Theregion hosts a population of 128 million (WorlddataBank, 2011a). It has experienced rapiddevelopment in the recent years. This developmenthas manifested itself primarily in sharply risingconsumption patterns, especially in countries oflower populations such as Qatar, Kuwait, UAEand Bahrain. In fact, according to World dataBankstatistics (2011a), in 2008 the average energyconsumption of these four countries was 13,348kg oil-equivalent per capita, compared to a worldaverage of 1,835 kg oil-equivalent per capita, morethan tripling the figures in European countries.The region is highly urbanized, with 69 per centof the population living in urban areas, but urbangrowth does not reflect major improvements insocio-economic conditions. The average realgross domestic product (GDP) growth across theUnited Nations Economic and Social Commissionfor Western Asia (UNESCWA) region in 2010 isestimated to have been 4.3 per cent, up from 1.7per cent in 2009, and the forecast is an increase to5.1 per cent for 2011 (UNESCWA, 2011).Most countries in the region are high-incomecountries, including Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait, Oman,UAE and Saudi Arabia; there are also some uppermiddle-incomecountries, namely Jordan andLebanon. Lower-middle-income countries includeSyria, Iraq and Yemen (World Bank, 2011).The region has a dry, harsh climate and limitednatural resources of water, soil and vegetation.Rainfall is erratic and droughts are frequent. Mostof the West Asian countries are currently below thewater scarcity limits of 1,000 m 3 per capita per year.The main water demand stems from agriculture,households and industry. Agriculture represents86 per cent of water demand, with exceptions inBahrain and Palestine, who use less than 50 percent of their water resources for agriculture and50 per cent for domestic use (UNESCWA, 2009).Figure 1 shows that domestic water consumption percapita in West Asian countries differs according tothe standard of living; the higher the GDP, the higherthe consumption.Non-conventional water resources are vital tominimizing the gap between water supply andconsumption. West Asian countries have developedpolicies to use non-conventional water supply,especially wastewater treatment and waterdesalination. The total <strong>global</strong> desalinated capacityis 61 million m 3 /day (UNESCWA, 2009). West AsianFigure 1: Domestic water consumption versus GDP per capitaGDP per capita ($PPP)$80,000$70,000Qatar$60,000$50,000$40,000United Arab EmiratesKuwait$30,000$20,000OmanSaudi ArabiaBahrain$10,000JordanLebanonYemen The SudanEgyptIraqPalestine Syrian Arab Republic$00 100 200 300 400 500 600 700Domestic water consumption (litres/capita/day)Source: UNESCWA (2009)185

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESFigure 2: Energy consumption per capita in West Asia and other reference countries and regionskg of oil-equivalent per capita2500020000150001000050000BahrainIran, Islamic Rep.IraqJordanKuwaitLebanonOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyrian Arab RepublicUnited ArabYemen, Rep.Egypt, Arab Rep.United StatesJapanOECD membersArab WorldEuro areaWorld2006 2007 2008Source: World dataBank (2011b)Figure 3: Energy intensity of GDP in kg oil equivalent per USD 1,000 (constant 2005 Purchasing Power Parity)kg of oil-equivalent per $1,000 GDP450400350300250200150100500BahrainIran, Islamic Rep.IraqKuwaitLebanonOmanQatarSaudi ArabiaSyrian Arab RepublicYemen, Rep.JordanEgypt, Arab Rep.United StatesJapanEuro areaMENA (developing)World2006 2007 2008Source: World dataBank (2011a)countries have an estimated capacity of 27 millionm 3 /day, representing 44 per cent of the <strong>global</strong>desalination capacity, and that capacity is expectedto increase in the coming years (UNESCWA, 2009).Energy generation and use represent other majorchallenges in the region. The majority of electricityin West Asian countries is produced in thermalpower plants. Of the installed thermal plants, oil andnatural gas are the main fuels. Oil meets about 53.6per cent of the total thermal energy demand and gasabout 43.9 percent. Other resources, such as coaland renewable resources, account for only about 2per cent (Arab Monetary Fund, 2007). The proportionof renewable energy in total energy production isminor. Relatively small capacities are in place toprovide wind and solar power, such as the 10 MWsolar photovoltaic (PV) power plant, Masdar (Masdar186

taking action togetherInstitute, 2009). Otherwise, the renewable energythat is available is predominantly hydropower (EnergyStatistics Database, 2007).Between 1990 and 2007, energy consumption hasroughly doubled in most of these countries (EnergyStatistics Database, 2007), except for Iraq, whichshows significant fluctuations in installed capacityover the years, likely to be due to the unstablepolitical conditions.Figure 2 illustrates the disparities in energyconsumption per capita in West Asia and otherdeveloped countries in different regions. The WestAsian region is characterized by high energy intensity(measured in kg oil-equivalent per US$1,000 GDP,see Figure 3). High energy consumption per capitaimplies high CO 2 emissions. The average per capitaCO 2 emissions in the West Asian countries increasedfrom 6 to 7.2 tCO 2 per capita between 1990 and2003, compared to a world average of 3.9 tCO 2 (JointSecretariat of the Joint Committee on Environment andDevelopment in the Arab region [JCEDAR], 2009).The high dependence on non-renewable fossil fuels,together with the concern over the environment,has made energy a top priority in the region. Thisconcern is reflected in the Arab Regional Strategyfor Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP),where clear objectives and suggested policies wereagreed upon. However, despite the need to improvepractices in energy consumption, a study by GermanTechnical Cooperation (GTZ, 2008) points out thatmost of the GCC countries, namely Bahrain, Kuwait,Qatar and Saudi Arabia provide fuels, specificallysuper gasoline and diesel, at prices that are belowthe world market price.One of the major challenges of the intensiveurbanization in the West Asian region is the increasein solid waste. The West Asian region producesabout 250,000 tons/day of solid waste, of which,less than 20 per cent is properly treated or sentto landfills (Arab Forum for Environment andDevelopment, 2008).Other environmental challenges in the region includeland desertification and degradation, managementof coastal and marine environment and intensiveurbanization, which affect peace and security (UnitedNations Environment Programme [UNEP], 2007).There is an urgent need to adopt and implementpolicies that lead to a shift in SCP patterns in thisrespect in the region.This report illustrates effective SCP policies. Itfocuses on the two highest priorities in the region –energy and water – as identified by the Arabstrategy for SCP. In the regional policies section,the focus is on energy policies, given their highpriority and often direct relevance to the watersector. However, examples from both the energyand water sectors are illustrated in the sectionaddressing national policies.8.2 SCP policies at theregional levelWest Asia’s active involvement in <strong>global</strong> efforts toreach sustainable development (SD) is a tributeto the political commitment of governments in theregion to addressing the challenges of unsustainablegrowth and the threat of depleting energy andwater resources. At the international level, theMarrakech Process 1 on SCP has contributed to theidentification of “priority implementation areas”and the development of national and regional SCPstrategies towards the achievement of SD in theWest Asian region.At the regional level, during its 2009 meeting,the Council of Arab Ministers Responsiblefor Environment (CAMRE) 2 endorsed the ArabRegional Strategy for Sustainable Consumptionand Production. West Asian countries constitutenearly half of the Arab countries. This strategy hasbeen developed with the support of the MarrakechProcess on SCP and responds to the call of the firstArab Roundtable for Sustainable Consumption andProduction. Three roundtable meetings on SCP havebeen organized since the first in 2008 (see Table1). A secretariat was established, which comprisesthe League of Arab States (LAS), UNEP’s regionaloffice for West Asia, UNESCWA, the Centre forEnvironment and Development in the Arab Regionand Europe (CEDARE), a representative of theNational Cleaner Production Centres, a regionalnongovernmental organization and an investmentfund (UNEP, 2011b).The Arab SCP strategy aims to “promote theconcept of sustainable consumption and productionin the Arab region by encouraging the utilization ofproducts and services that ensure environmentalprotection, conserve water and energy as wellas other natural resources, while contributing topoverty eradication and sustainable lifestyles” (JointSecretariat of the Joint Committee on Environmentand Development in the Arab Region (JCEDAR,2009, p. 4). It identifies six priorities, of which thehighest priorities are the energy and water sectors.The priorities are listed as follows, labelled in the1. The Marrakech Process, launched in 2003, was a <strong>global</strong> multistakeholderplatform to support the implementation of SCP and thedevelopment of the 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SustainableConsumption and Production (the 10YFP), as called for by theWorld Summit on Sustainable Development Johannesburg Plan ofImplementation (2002). See Chapter 1 for details.2. CAMRE is the major ministerial forum that develops, coordinates andfollows up on the environmental programme for the region.187

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESstrategy paper as ‘priority implementation areas’(JCEDAR, 2009):1. Energy for Sustainable Development2. Water Resources Management3. Waste Management4. Rural Development and Eradication of Poverty5. Education and Sustainable Lifestyles6. Sustainable TourismThe focus of this study is on illustrative examples ofpolicies and policy instruments in priority areas, theenergy and water sectors, both of which are highlyinterrelated.At the subregional level, the GCC has alsoencouraged cooperation among the six GCCcountries on the environment, especially as relatedto the energy and water resources sectors.Regional policies in the energy sectorThe Kuwait Declaration (2009) that followed theArab Economic Summit recognizes the need forenvironmental preservation and cooperation onenergy issues. It emphasizes the need for Arabcooperation, in particular by increasing energyefficiency to realize SD. SD should be achievedby strengthening the existing Arab power gridTable 1: Recent milestones of SCP in the West Asia and Arab RegionMilestones Key Actors OutcomeMarch 2008First ArabRoundtableMeeting on SCP,Al-Ain, UAESeptember 2009Second ArabRoundtableMeeting on SCP,Cairo, EgyptOctober 2009Arab RegionalStrategy forSustainableConsumptionand ProductionJanuary 2011Third RoundtableMeeting onSustainableConsumption andProduction inthe Arab Region:Paving the Path toa Green Economyin the Arab Region,Cairo, EgyptLAS and UNESCWA,CAMRE, the UNEPRegional Office for WestAsia, United NationsDepartment of Economicand Social Affairs, UAEFederal EnvironmentalAuthorityCAMRE, UNEP, LAS,UNESCWA, UNIDO, UnitedStates EnvironmentalProtection Agency,CEDARE, United StatesNational PollutionPrevention roundtableand the Egyptian NationalCleaner Production CentreJCEDARUNEP, UNESCWA, LAS,CEDARE• z SCP priorities identified: energy, water, waste, rural developmentand poverty alleviation, and education and sustainable lifestyles.• z Agreement to develop an SCP action plan• z Cooperation built with the Marrakech Task Forces on SustainablePublic Procurement and on Sustainable Lifestyles, and aworkshop on YouthXChange was held• z The region called for the establishment of a regional network onNational Cleaner Production Centers (NCPCs), to be organized inclose cooperation with UNIDO• z The UAE announced their interest in establishing an NCPC.• z Agreement on the Arab Regional Strategy for SCP (JCEDAR,2009)• z Agreement on the updating of SCP priority areas (adding smalland medium-sized enterprises and technology transfer)• z Establishing a permanent roundtable for SCP cooperation• z Establishing a temporary secretariat to formulate the mandatesof the roundtable• z The regional SCP strategy for the Arab region, as a contribution tothe Marrakech Process on SCP, was finalized.• z Objectives and recommended policies for each SCP priority wereincluded in the study.• z Reviewed progress and provided the region’s inputs to theIntergovernmental Preparatory Meeting and the NineteenthSession of the United Nations Commission for SustainableDevelopment (CSD19)• z Identified the regional priorities to pave the path towards a GreenEconomy in the region, and to feed into the regional preparations forthe 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development,regional success stories are also highlighted• z Discussed the terms of reference to be drafted by the LAS toinstitutionalize the Arab Roundtable on SCP and secure itscontinuation for exchange of expertise and knowledge, carrying outof capacity-building for, and the overall development of, an ArabSCP network to effectively implement the 10YFP once adopted188

taking action togetherFigure 4: GCC Interconnection SchemeSource: GCC Interconnection Authority (2011b)interconnections, establishing an Arab marketfor electricity, enhancing and widening naturalgas networks, increasing the participation of theprivate sector in its investment and administration,and broadening the usage of renewable energytechnology and nuclear energy for peaceful purposesin production processes (State of Kuwait, 2009).The Kuwait Declaration can be viewed as acommitment to pursue further expansion in powersupply in a more sustainable manner. There is,however, no mention of demand-side measures; thefocus is on the supply side of energy.The existing interconnecting electricity grid betweenKuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Omansignificantly reduces the need to construct newpower plants and standby backup capacity, in casethe main generators fail or there is a need for moreelectricity than installed generators can provide(Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development[AFESD], 2011). The temporary periods of peak loadcan be handled by importing the additional electricityinstead of building additional local capacity only forthese temporary periods. Interconnecting grids ofmultiple countries can balance the fluctuating energydemand. This could help Kuwait address frequentpower supply crises in the summer season, such asthe one faced in 2010 (Arab Times, 2010; Gulf DailyNews, 2010). The challenge remains, however, tocurb the increasing per capita consumption ratherthan only focusing on meeting demand, albeit in amore efficient manner.Details about the GCC Power Grid InterconnectionProject, the benefits it brings, and limitations, arepresented in Case Study 1.8.3 National SCP policiesThis section provides an overview of nationalpolicies and strategies for SCP in the region. Theregional priorities, as mentioned earlier, have beenidentified as energy, water, waste, rural developmentand poverty eradication, education and sustainablelifestyles, and sustainable tourism. This sectionshows to what extent these priorities have alreadybeen incorporated into the national agenda, withreference to existing plans and policies, as well asthose under development. Relevant SD conceptsin the respective national agendas are often crosscuttingand cannot be clearly classified into theaforementioned different sectors. Based on deskresearch and drawing on progress of the MillenniumDevelopment Goals and State of Environmentreports, Table 2 attempts to summarize the manyefforts of West Asian governments to incorporate SDinto their policies.The desk research has showed that 75 per cent ofWest Asian countries have adopted national shortormedium-term development plans. SCP policies,as well as green economic policy initiatives, are notidentified at the national level, with the exception ofJordan’s plans to adopt the Strategy for a Transitionto a Green Economy by the end of 2011. Someelements of SCP policies, however, are integrated innational development plans or strategies aimed atachieving economic sustainability, as in the case ofKuwait’s Medium Term Development Plan 2010-2014.Most sectoral development policies are beingdeveloped under broad national environmentalstrategies, which have been elaborated to achieveenvironmental sustainability. Forty per cent of WestAsian countries (including Bahrain, Jordan, Qatar,Syria and Yemen) have adopted policies that focuson water, waste and transport. Iraq and Yemen focuson the water and energy sectors.Table 2 shows that all countries in the West Asianregion have undertaken some activity in promotingenvironmental and SD considerations, at thevery least, in the form of reporting on MDGs,incorporating SD into national plans or visions, orotherwise acknowledging the need to do so. Somecountries show significantly more activity thanothers, as implied by the indicators in Table 2, butinformation remains scarce. There remains roomfor improvement as well in the monitoring andevaluation practice, which would provide muchvalue in updating policies and tailoring them tonational conditions.Although there are few examples of clear adoptionof a national overarching green economy agendaencompassing principles of SCP in the region,189

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESwould optimize such load exchanges. Theinterconnection scheme is illustrated in Figure 4.The Gulf Cooperation Council PowerGrid Interconnection ProjectThe The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC)Interconnection Authority (GCC InterconnectionAuthority, 2011a) has developed a CommonPower Grid with a cost of US$7 billion that aimsat exchanging electricity among GCC countriesequal to the construction of 6.5 GW local powerplants (AFESD, 2011). This project is expectedto reduce the needs for standby capacity andimprove the economic efficiency of the electricalpower systems in each of the member countries.In this context, the project would enhance energyefficiency due to the reduction of energy lossesassociated with fluctuations in power production,where plants would frequently operate atsuboptimal loads. It would also facilitate expansionin renewable energy sources due to the widercoverage of the electrical grid. This allows morefreedom to select optimal locations within theentire GCC region rather than limiting the choicesto areas in proximity to national grids. It alsoallows export and import of renewable energy.Nevertheless, GCC countries may not fullybenefit from load sharing due to the limitedtime-zone differences (Kraemer, 2011). Loadsin any given country vary throughout the day. Forthe load between any two connected countriesto balance each other out effectively, thegrids should ideally be in significantly differenttime zones so that peak hours do not hit allcountries at the same time. Furthermore, lateralexpansion of interconnections with other regionsThe GCC Power Grid Interconnection is beingimplemented over three phases (Arab Fund forEconomic and Social Development (AFESD), 2011):•linked their grids.••Phase 1: In 2009 the northern countries ofGCC (Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and Qatar)Phase 2: The southern GCC countries aim tolink the grids of the UAE and Oman.Phase 3: The northern and southern GCCcountries will be linked.The most recent milestone in the project wasthe connection of the UAE, as part of the secondphase, to Saudi Arabia, inaugurated on 20 April2011. The completion of Oman’s final connectionhas been postponed to 2013 (Jain, 2011).Other countries that might potentially be linked tothe GCC grid in the future are:•Countries participating in the Eight CountryInterconnection Project: Egypt and Libya wereinterconnected in 2008, while the rest of thegrid interconnections are being implemented toconnect all project countries (AFESD, 2011)•The Maghreb Countries Interconnection Project:connecting the grids of Libya, Tunisia, Algeriaand Morocco (AFESD, 2011)Such interconnections will reduce capacity needsand increase production efficiency, as well asoptimize the allocation of renewable energy projectsdue to the wider geographical coverage. As anexample of recent progress, Saudi Arabia is exploringHashemite Kingdom of Jordan displays themost plans and policies in progress. Jordan iscurrently adopting a leading initiative within theWest Asian region by implementing the transitionto a green economy in line with the Arab Strategyfor SCP under the National Agenda 2006-2015.Jordan’s strategy is being prepared with thesupport of UNEP in partnership with nationalstakeholders, non-governmental organizations(NGOs) and private sector enterprises. Jordanis planning to launch a programme for greenservices and industries to meet the requirementsfor compliance with environmental standardsand “turning Jordan into a regional center for‘green services’ and industries” (UNEP, 2011a).An example of demonstrated commitment is theFebruary 2010 ratification of the Renewable Energyand Energy Efficiency Law.The National Agenda 2006-2015 (Governmentof Jordan, undated) recommends the followingmeasures to address challenges in achievingenvironmental sustainability:1. Developing and enforcing the regulatory andinstitutional framework2. Supporting renewable energy resources andenergy-efficiency programmes3. Promoting sound waste management policies4. Improving natural resources and land-usemanagement5. Promoting environmentally sound managementprinciples190

taking action togetherFigure 5: The Eight Country Interconnection projectturkey• Bersik• Cizre300MW400MWlebanonKsara •500MW• Al-Dimas Aleppo •Dair Alzour •syria300MW• Keesik• Al quaimiraqDar’a •Tobruk •170MW• Alsailoum300MW• Northern Ammanlibya egypt palestine JordanOyun mousaa •300MW• AqabaSource AFESD (2011)400kV lines (500kV in Egypt)220kV and 132kV linesthe option of connecting the grid to the wider DESERTECgrid (Kraemer, 2011). The DESERTEC Initiative, formedby European countries and the DESERTEC Foundation,proposes generating solar and wind energy in theMiddle East and North Africa (MENA) region and deliverit to Europe (DESERTEC Foundation, 2009).Over the past 20 years, the total investment in thevarious Arab interconnection projects has reachedUS$2 billion, including: US$556 million for the EightCountry Interconnection Project, US$1,100 million forthe GCC Power Grid Interconnection Project, US$169million for the Maghreb Countries InterconnectionProject and US$86 million for the interconnection ofthe two electricity grids in Yemen (AFESD, 2011).AFESD contributed US$678 million to thefinancing of most of these projects through loanson concessionary terms. These loans covered34 per cent of the total costs of these projects, withthe balance coming directly from the participatingcountries. The total capital savings accruing overa 15 year period is estimated to be approximatelyUS$3.7 billion, attributable to the postponement and/or cancellation of the investment in a new generatingcapacity of around 6.5 GW (AFESD, 2011).In the meantime, with the support of thispolitical will, multiple integrated and supportiveactivities are underway. Examples include theEco-Cities Forum, a multi-stakeholder platform forMediterranean municipalities held in cooperationwith UNIDO, and the Zarqa River RehabilitationProject in cooperation with the InternationalUnion for Conservation of Nature, among othersustainability initiatives (Eco-Cities Forum, 2008;International Union for Conservation of Nature,2011). Furthermore, Jordan is the first countryin the region to support the promotion of lowemissionsmobility, demonstrating an example ofsustainable public procurement. To this end, theGovernment of Jordan signed a Memorandum ofUnderstanding with Nissan Motors to introduceelectric vehicles with a planned purchase of300 units for public sector use. The programmeaims to open the market for the establishmentof renewable energy for electric vehicle charging,including the use of solar energy and second-lifebatteries.National sectoral policiesThis section discusses examples of nationalprogrammes that address SCP at different levels.The three case studies selected are related towater and energy, which are priority themes for theregion: the Kuwaiti Tarsheed National Programmepromoting efficiency in water and electricityconsumption, water management in Qatar andthe relevant policies in its national developmentstrategy and the UAE’s efforts to promote191

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESTable 2: National and regional SCP, SD strategies and plans, and national sectoral development policiesIndicators: In-implementation◦ In-progressPoliciesCountryBahrainIraqJordanKuwaitLebanonOmanPalestineQatarSaudi ArabiaSyriaUAEYemenRegionalNational PoliciesDevelopment Vision/Plan 6 Short to Medium Term Development Plan 5 Sustainable Development Strategy ◦ 1 SCP StrategyEnvironmental Strategy ◦ Green Economy Policy Initiatives 2National ReportingMDG reporting State of Environment Reporting ◦ ◦ Sectoral Development Policies (National Level)Energy Sector 3 ◦ 4 ◦ ◦ Water Management Sector 3 ◦ 4 ◦ ◦ ◦ Waste Management Sector ◦ 4 ◦ ◦ICT Sector ◦ 4Transport Sector ◦ 4Notes:1 In Bahrain, an integrated national strategy for SD has not yet been developed, although elements of the SD process are being embeddedin sectoral development plans executed by various governmental bodies in the country.2 The National Economic Strategy 2009-2014 promotes sustainability through implementing green solutions to development by addressingkey priority areas and identifying actions aimed at reducing energy consumption, developing clean energy technology, enforcing pollutioncontrol laws, improving water resource management and conservation of biodiversity.3 Sectoral policies are being developed and implemented in Iraq under the National Development Plan 2010-2014.4 Recommendations and initiatives for addressing challenges aimed at improving the sectoral infrastructure, towards advocatingenvironmentally sustainable economic development and environmental sustainability, are provided under the National Agenda 2006-2015.5 The Kuwait Medium-Term Development Plan 2010-2014 includes policies aimed at targeted sectoral development, towards achieving longtermeconomic sustainability. Key areas include: SCP, transport, water and energy resource efficiency.6 National planning in Lebanon is illustrated in the National Reform Program 2007 addressing post-conflict recovery and reconstructionactivities, which identifies challenges to achieving environmental sustainability. “Among the major challenges identified in the MDG2007 draft report are the decreasing national green cover, the need to adopt a comprehensive environmental strategy and mainstreamenvironmental plans among different ministries, in addition to reducing air pollution and the better management of natural resources,including integrated water management” (United Nations Development Assistance Framework [UNDAF], 2009, p. 39).sustainable transportation in Dubai. The casestudies show the diverse nature of sectoral policiesin the region and how they relate to promoting ashift towards SCP patterns.In the case of Kuwait, frequent power outagesdue to the seasonal peak load on the grid seemto have spurred action and raised awareness on anational level about the sustainable consumptionof energy and water. This example is furtherillustrated in Case Study 2. It is notable that in theimplementation of the programme, it was effectiveto segment the market. Mosques were identified as“quick wins” and addressed in a specific mannerthrough the Ministry of Endowments and IslamicAffairs. Meanwhile, the residential sector andoffice buildings were seen as a different marketand approached in collaboration with NGOs, whilethe public at large was subject to a powerful massmedia campaign.192

taking action togetherIt is noticeable, however, that, similar to othercountries in the West Asia region, the governmentrarely resorts to coercive instruments anddisincentives to promote energy and waterconservation among citizens, such as taxation,reducing energy subsidies or enforcing various typesof measures that restrict the end-user.In addition to energy concerns, Qatar also faceswater scarcity threats. Qatar is the second highestwater consumer per capita in the West Asian region,second only to Bahrain (see Table 2). It alsohas the highest GDP per capita in the region.This consumerist culture is being acknowledgedand addressed in the development of theirnational policies. Qatar has developed astrategy to address several sustainabilityissues, including water conservation (see CaseStudy 3); however, this strategy has not yettranslated into a set of campaigns. The caseof Kuwait’s Tarsheed offers inspiration andlessons in this regard.Rational use of energy in KuwaitKuwait is among the highest per-capita consumersof electricity and water in the region, and has beenexperiencing the adverse impacts of its excessiveuse of resources. This impact is evident in thefrequent power outages that occur during thesummertime peaks hours when temperatures canrise to 50°C and higher. Meanwhile, power remainsheavily subsidized (Middle East Online, 2010; GulfDaily News, 2010).In August 2007 the Ministry of Electricity andWater (MEW) of Kuwait adopted a policy forreducing electricity and water consumptionrates. MEW launched a nation-wide conservationcampaign and action programme at the startof the summer season, the Tarsheed NationalProgramme for Energy (Water and Electricity)Conservation (“Tarsheed”). The programme wasimplemented with the cooperation of the KuwaitiEngineers Association.The campaign involves short message service(SMS) messages, television and radio ads, flierstaped to car windshields and fed into mailboxes,as well as street billboards calling for energyconservation by users. Messages are delivered inall Kuwaiti languages. Much of the content is alsoavailable online (Tarsheed, 2008e), and a hotlinewas established so residents could report energyabuses in the country (Tarsheed, 2008d).and from MEW. It holds periodic meetingsto monitor energy and water conservation inthe mosques of Kuwait. Energy conservationmeasures included reducing the number ofair conditioning units and disconnecting thembetween prayers in the mosques, improving thecontrol systems of the air conditioning units, andallowing passive ventilation and outdoor lightingas much as possible. The mosques also switchedto energy-efficient halogen light bulbs instead ofincandescent ones (Tarsheed, 2008a).Furthermore, NGOs assisted the residential sectorand office buildings to improve their energy andwater consumption. For example, an Al-KhaledeyaNGO, in cooperation with the Kuwaiti Institute forScientific Research, distributed water-conservationequipment to residents of Al-Khaledeya City(Tarsheed, 2008c). A total of 11,000 efficientwater faucets and other water-saving equipmentwere distributed to consumers in residential andpublic-sector office buildings. The initiative isestimated to reduce water consumption by 30per cent in the residential sector and conserve atotal of 20 million gallons per day. The cost of theproject is a reported KD1.46 million per year, yetthe estimated savings are KD14 million annually(Tarsheed, 2008c).This initiative has been widely recognized in theregion, and received the Distinction and Innovationin the Gulf award in 2008 (Tarsheed, 2008b).In 2007 the Ministry of Endowments and IslamicAffairs formed a committee for the sustainableuse of energy and water (Tarsheed, 2008a). Itincludes representatives from Kuwait’s mosques193

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESQatar National Water PolicyQatar has one of the world’s lowest levels ofrainfall, while having one of the world’s highestper-capita water-use rates. Qatar relies on waterfrom three sources: desalination, groundwater andrecycled water. These are all subject to technicaland economic inefficiencies, posing a threat towater security. Large volumes of desalinatedwater are being lost in distribution, while aquiferwater is extensively wasted through open fieldirrigation methods for crops of low value. Recycledwastewater is inadequately collected and treated.Desalination, which accounts for about 50 percent of water used in the country, depends on acostly and energy-intensive cogeneration processas explained in the Qatar National DevelopmentStrategy (QNDS) 2011-2016 (General Secretariatfor Development and Planning, 2011). TheQNDS presents several alarming facts aboutthe challenges in the water sector including thefollowing:•1995, reaching 312 million m 3 in 2008.•With rapid population growth and urbanization,the use of desalinated water has tripled sinceLoss of desalinated water due to leakage ishigh by international standards, with estimatednetwork losses as high as 30 to 35 per cent,compared with the Organisation for EconomicCo-operation and Development average of 18per cent.•a year.•Leakage in the distribution system fordesalinated water costs as much as QR1 billionFresh groundwater drawn from natural aquifersaccounts for about 36 per cent of water use (anestimated 250 million m 3 ) and is mainly used forirrigation purposes.Furthermore, groundwater supplies are subject toextensive losses, as they are being used for floodirrigation of open fields, which places a heavydemand on water exceeding the recharge rate ofaquifers. This loss is disproportionate to the valuecreated by the agricultural sector. The governmentis planning to introduce a programme of agriculturalreform to improve irrigation methods, aiming atthe conservation of water resources (GeneralSecretariat for Development and Planning, 2011).Recycled water, or treated sewage effluent,accounts for 14 per cent of water use, whileabout 40 per cent of treated sewage effluentis discharged into septic lagoons (GeneralSecretariat for Development and Planning, 2011).Some wastewater, particularly from industrialsources, is not treated but is discharged or storedin tanks that cause leakages, thus contaminatingthe limited supplies of groundwater. There isa case for recycling more water, which is 75per cent less expensive than to desalinatewater (General Secretariat for Developmentand Planning, 2011). A national strategy is afundamental prerequisite to start addressing allthese challenges.The QNDS 2011-2016 developed by the GeneralSecretariat for Development and Planning(GSDP) was therefore developed to expresscommitment to a range of initiatives promotingsound environmental management to addressthe challenges of environmental sustainability,including water issues (General Secretariat forDevelopment and Planning, 2011). Aligningeconomic growth with social developmentand environmental management to addressenvironmental sustainability challenges is amongthe priorities identified in the strategy.The Strategy for Environmental Management,under the QNDS, calls for advancing specificactions to conserve water, improve air quality,manage waste and protect biodiversity, througha regulatory reform approach. QNDS specificallyidentifies a range of initiatives in the water sectorto tackle technical and economic inefficienciesin the production, distribution and use of water,with the aim of reforming unsustainable waterconsumption patterns through the developmentof an integrated approach to water management.By 2014 Qatar will enact a comprehensiveNational Water Act, establishing an integratedsystem of quality requirements, dischargecontrols and incentives for conservation in orderto develop a set of policies and regulations forthe government to align consumption and supply,while protecting water quality (General Secretariatfor Development and Planning, 2011).194

taking action togetherAddressing problems in national strategies,as illustrated in Case Study 3, can be seen asa significant step toward promoting SCP andasserting political will. Another very importanttheme in energy consumption and productionpatterns is transportation. Case Study 4 illustrateshow the use and the provision of more sustainabletransportation services has already drawnattention of policymakers, even in relatively youngcities such as Dubai, UAE.National policy instruments in theenergy sectorPolicy instruments used in the region are illustratedby examples from the energy sector, withimplications for the water sector, both of whichare the SCP priorities of the West Asian region. Itis notable that sustainable energy policies in theregion are more focused on supply-side measuresthan on demand-side measures. Some governmentshave committed more clearly than others to SCPin the energy sector. A few promising initiativesfor comprehensive policies are presented in thissection.The UAE has been developing a new green buildingcode to save energy and reduce the environmentalimpact of buildings. It has also developed theflagship project of Masdar City (see Case Study 6).Masdar City is a carbon-neutral, zero-waste citythat began construction in 2006, with completionplanned for 2016. The city aims to host 90,000people, of which 40,000 would be residents(Reiche, 2010b). Abu Dhabi, the largest state ofUAE, pledged in the World Future Energy Summitof 2009 to achieve a 7 per cent CO2 reductionby 2020 and meet 7 per cent of its energy needsfrom renewable energy by 2020 (Hartley, 2009).A study on energy policies and relevant initiativesin the GCC countries, which is, to a great extent,representative of most of the West Asian region,concluded that the GCC countries have recentlyadopted a more proactive approach towardsenvironmental sustainability (Reiche, 2010a).Reiche’s study (2010), however, also concludesthat despite relevant initiatives, this reorientationhas not yet resulted in the development ofconsistent strategies and policies. Nevertheless,there is a possibility that such flagship initiativeswill continue to propagate throughout the regionand that policy transfer from successful projectsand innovative regulations will replicate throughoutthe GCC countries. Reiche (2010) suggeststhat policy transfer is likely to be successful,extrapolating from existing efforts to harmonizeenvironmental policies and legislations. Theseare evident in the Environmental Cooperationchapter of the Charter of the GCC SecretariatGeneral, which lists the common priorities andthe environmental guidelines to be adopted bythe member states (GCC Secretariat General,2011). The following are examples of promisingdevelopments.Regulatory instrumentsAn example of a regulatory instrument is theestablishment of a green building code in Dubai toimprove resource efficiency in buildings. The DubaiGreen Building Code came into effect in January2009 and was a significant step towards developingenvironmental policies. The code is based on theLeadership in Energy and Environmental Design(LEED) rating system, and tailored to the conditionsof the UAE (Saseendran, 2010).The development of this code started at a timewhen a new resolution on the implementation ofgreen building specifications and standards inthe emirate of Dubai had been issued in 2007.As per the resolution, all owners of residentialand commercial buildings and properties inthe emirate of Dubai must comply with theinternationally recognized, environmentally friendlyspecifications provided by the LEED system.By implementing this resolution, Dubai becamethe first city in the Middle East to adopt greenbuilding specifications (The Emirates NewsAgency, 2007). The move is also part of the DubaiStrategic Plan 2015. Meanwhile, the new PacificControls Systems LLC building became the 16thbuilding in the world to comply with green buildingspecifications and standards (The Emirates NewsAgency, 2007).Another example of a regulatory measureis a ban on imports of inefficient lighting inLebanon. This is part of the National EnergyEfficiency Action Plan for Lebanon (2011-2015) developed by the Lebanese Center forEnergy Conservation (LCEC) in September2011 (LCEC, 2011a; LCEC, 2011b). Oneof its targets is the promotion of efficientlighting and replacing incandescent light bulbswith compact fluorescent lights. The keyregulatory measure is the ban of the import ofincandescent lamps by the end of 2012 underwhich supportive initiatives have already beenlaunched, most distinctly the 3 million compactfluorescent lights project (LCEC, 2011a).With an investment of US$9 million financeddirectly by the government of Lebanon, thisinvestment would result in savings of US$76million annually over a period of four years byreplacing energy-intensive incandescent lightingwith 3 million compact fluorescent lights (LCEC,2011b).195

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESMass transit means less environmental impactand energy consumption per passenger-kilometretravelled compared to private vehicles.Dubai Sustainable TransportProject and AwardA study by the Ministry of Planning in the UAErevealed that the number of vehicles in the UAEalmost doubled between 1985 and 2002, from443,000 to 820,000. The annual increase of 9.2 percent is remarkably more than the population growthrate of 6.5 per cent and even higher by 7.1 percent than the annual national income growth rate(Al-Zubaidi and others, 2005).Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the emirates with thehighest vehicle rates in the UAE. Dubai’s population isexpected to reach 4 million in 2020, while the numberof trips is expected to reach 13.1 million per day (Al-Zubaidi and others, 2005).Recognizing the threat to the environment andsustainability, the Dubai government adopted a policyencouraging sustainable transportation in order toavoid traffic congestion and vehicle pollution. WithDecree 17 (2005), it established the Roads andTransport Authority (RTA). RTA is responsible forplanning and providing the requirements of transport,roads and traffic in Dubai and between Dubai andother emirates of the UAE and neighboring countries.The RTA is responsible for planning and integratingbuses, taxis, and intercity transport, thereby enhancingthe availability of attractive and reliable alternativemodes of transportation to the personal vehicle.Mass transportation modes in Dubai serve more than332 million passengers. On average, about 910,000persons use daily public transportation includingbuses, taxis, metro and boats (Ahmed, 2011).One RTA project is the creation and developmentof a metro for Dubai City (RTA, 2007). Such masstransit solutions are among the measures thataddress the rapid increase in private vehicleownership and the noise and air pollution, fuelconsumption, congestion and time loss incurred.Although the established RTA serves the needs ofsustainable transportation, its vision and missionstatements do not explicitly mention environmentalor sustainability goals. This aspiration is, however,implied in their goals and activities, such asestablishing the Dubai Award for SustainableTransport.The award is offered under various categories thatrecognize initiatives addressing sustainable transport;the following are examples of award recipients in2010 (Ahmed, 2011):•in mass transportation.•The Dubai Electricity and Water Authority wasawarded for its role in fostering positive impactUniversity of Wollongong in Dubai was awardedfor its initiative entitled: “Why should you driveif you can ride the Dubai Metro?” The universityprovided buses to shuttle students betweenthe metro station and the university in a bid tofurther the culture of mass transport, minimizingthe number of private vehicles.Government of Dubai awards awareness-raisingabout the role of transportation and sustainablemobility in development, and recognizes andencourages action-oriented initiatives andachievements.The largest project of the RTA is the Dubai Metro,with a total investment of approximately AED15.5billion. Today, the metro has 47 stations (nineunderground) in two lines with a total length of 75kilometers (Dubai Metro, 2011).The stations are designed to further promotesustainable mobility and environmental awarenessin the following ways (Dubai Metro, 2011):•bicycles•Upon completion, every station will have busconnections, taxi pickup and places to lockOther considerations of aesthetics andenvironmental consciousness are shown in thedesign of the stations: the station themes areearth (12 stations), water (13 stations), air (11stations) and fire (11 stations), while the roofshape is inspired by the pearl diving heritage ofthe UAE (Dubai Metro, 2011)The Dubai Metro was launched on 9 September2009 as the world’s longest automated driverlesstrain system and the first metro in the Gulf region.196

taking action togetherEconomic instrumentsThe economic instruments being used in the WestAsian region to promote sustainable energy useare limited and mainly in the form of incentivesrather than disincentives. Examples of instrumentsused on national and regional scales are providedin this section.In line with government directives of promoting afiscal incentive package on renewable energy andenergy-efficient equipment, the Jordan governmenthas introduced ‘green taxes’ by offering a 50 percent tax deduction on environmentally friendly hybridcars imported into the kingdom, starting in 2011.Another national-scale economic incentive is thepromotion of energy efficiency in buildings inLebanon under the National Energy Efficiency andRenewable Energy Action through a subsidizedloan scheme accompanied by other initiativesto promote efficient lighting (LCEC, 2011a). TheNational Energy Efficiency and Renewable EnergyAction offers an incentive to private individuals andsmall- and medium-sized enterprises whereby anyinvestment in energy efficiency or renewable energycan be financed by a subsidized loan accessiblethrough local banks. The loan requires a 0 per centinterest rate for investments up to US$1 million and3 per cent for larger investments, to be repaid over5-10 years (MED-ENEC, 2011). Other than credit,a partial grant is also offered in the case of solarthermal systems.Other than national initiatives, there are alsoattempts to address aspects of SCP on a regionalscale. In 2007, Organization of Petroleum ExportingCountries member states established a fund tocombat climate change. During the Organizationof Petroleum Exporting Countries Ministers’Meeting that year, member countries announcedthe establishment of a US$750 million fund forclimate change aiming to promote cleaner petroleumtechnologies and developing other measures formitigation, such as carbon capture and storage(Wardam, 2008). Saudi Arabia paid US$300 millionfor the fund, while Kuwait, Qatar and the UAE eachpledged US$150 million (Abdel Gelil, 2010).Although incentives such as the tax deductionson hybrid cars, subsidized loans or allocation offunds for climate action can be found in the region,the disincentives imposed on unsustainableconsumption and production trends remain scarceif they exist at all. Reiche’s (2010a) study ofenergy policies and the enabling environment inthe GCC region revealed that certain environmentalpolicies, such as energy taxes, are unlikely tomaterialize due to high political cost. The studysuggests that less politically risky and ‘topdown’measures are more likely to succeed. Suchexamples could include green building codesor standards for efficient vehicles, which areexpected to continue to play an important role inthe energy policy agenda.Research for better businessSeveral projects in the region are underway topromote research on sustainable development.Currently, Qatar is building an Energy City thataims to incorporate the latest green technologyand solutions for energy efficiency and pollutionreduction (Energy City, 2009). Once complete,they will invite multinational natural gas and oilcompanies to set up headquarters in Energy City.Another example is a sustainable university campusbeing built in Saudi Arabia. The King AbdullahUniversity of Science and Technology hosts two solartowers on the campus, which are designed to usethe sunlight and prevailing winds blowing in fromthe Red Sea to create a continuous breeze throughthe shaded courtyards. Solar water heating is usedon rooftops together with PV arrays for electricity.Many other green innovations are showcased in thecampus (King Abdullah University of Science andTechnology, 2009).In 2009, Abu Dhabi successfully convincedmembers of the International Renewable EnergyAgency to locate its headquarters in Masdar City. Itis the first <strong>global</strong> agency based in the Middle East.Furthermore, the Abu Dhabi Fund for Developmentwill allocate US$50 million annually for sevenyears to support the agency’s endorsed projects indeveloping nations (Stanton, 2009).8.4 SCP initiatives for andby businessNCPCs promote the implementation of cleanerproduction (CP) methods, practices, policies andtechnologies. With the support of UNIDO and UNEP,they have been established in 47 developing andtransition countries. The West Asian region has fourNCPCs, in Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and UAE.NCPCs contribute to improved environmentalperformance and resource efficiency through theimplementation of cleaner production methods byproviding technical assistance to enterprises andorganizations, training for national experts, informationdissemination and technology transfer, policy advice,and CP technology and investment promotion.One of the indicators of stakeholder commitmentsto adopting CP technology and practices isthe adoption of the International Organizationfor Standardization (ISO) 14001 standard for197

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESEnergy efficiency in theaviation industryAs part of its environmental policy (Qatar Airways,2011b), Qatar Airways implemented a five-pillarCorporate Social Responsibility Programme calledThe Oryx Flies Green.The five pillars of The Oryx Flies Greenare: change management, environmentalmanagement, integrated fuel management,communication and sustainable development.The environmental management system activitiesinclude (Qatar Airways, 2010):•dependency on fossil fuels•offset trading scheme•A dedicated Fuel Optimisation Department,to identify ways to reduce fuel burn and theWorking with the International Air TransportAssociation (IATA) to develop a <strong>global</strong> carbonReducing the usage of water, paper and othermaterial including a recycling program foronboard and airport wasteAlthough the airline sought the ISO 14001certification, they elected not to go for it sinceother airlines experienced this ISO as moreappropriate for a stationary source of emissionssuch as a factory, not for a mobile sourcesuch as an airline (Qatar Airways, 2011a;personal correspondence, Chris Schroeder,12 June 2011). They are, however, working ona pilot project with the IATA to spearhead thedevelopment of an airline-specific environmentalmanagement system, called the EnvironmentAudit Scheme-IATA, which will follow the ISO14001 principles, including carbon offsetting, butin a more sector-specific manner (Qatar Airways,2011).Qatar Airways also announced its commitmentto seek compliance with the European UnionEmissions Trading Scheme, aimed at thereduction of carbon emissions. Qatar Airways hastaken a step forward in this regard by becoming amember in the Aviation Global Deal Group (AGD).AGD Group is an industry coalition that bringstogether leading international airlines, aviationsectorcompanies and international NGOs tocollaborate on climate action. The coalition aimsto develop a practical, business-led solution thathelps contribute to <strong>global</strong> efforts to addressclimate change (AGD Group, 2011). An exampleof how these policies are translated into actionsis the development of alternative fuels for theaviation industry.In 2007 Qatar Airways partnered with severalcompanies, including Qatar Petroleum, Shell,Airbus, Rolls Royce, Qatar Science & TechnologyPark and Woqod to introduce alternative fuels tothe aviation industry. Cleaner-burning alternativefuels are to be tested on commercial flights, toreduce the impact of aviation on air quality (QatarAirways, 2010).In 2009 Qatar Airways successfully conductedthe world’s first commercial flight from London toDoha powered by a gas-to-liquid (GTL) 50/50 fuelblend with kerosene. The alternative fuel emitsless sulfur dioxide and particle matter, althoughthe limited impact on CO2-reduction is still subjectof further study (Middle East and North AfricaFinancial Network, 2011).environmental management systems, one of themost recognized sustainability standards.All standards organizations in the West Asianregion are members of the ISO, except Palestineand Yemen, which are correspondent memberslacking a fully developed national standardsactivity (ISO, 2009a). The number of ISO 14001environmental management certifications in theWest Asian region reached 1,137 in 2008, from248 in 2005 (ISO, 2009b). Approximately 75 percent of the total number of certifications wereissued in the UAE, amounting to 856 certificatesin 2008. The ISO Survey of Certifications 2009shows continued growth of ISO 14001: 2,004certificates were issued, a number that hadtripled from 2005 to 2008. However, the totalnumber of ISO 14001 certifications in the region198

taking action togetherremains very low in comparison to a world averageexceeding 200,000 certifications in 2010 (althoughcertification only indicates the extent to which acompany or organization conforms to its own statedenvironmental policy) (Global Environmental OutlookData Portal, 2010).Lebanon has been taking positive steps towardsachieving environmental sustainability and enhancingits response to national environmental challenges,within its Reform Program-Paris III Conference.Several initiatives led by international organizationsand national stakeholders are being developed tostrengthen the capacity of Lebanese industries toadopt and implement international environmentalsystems and standards (UNDAF, 2009).The initiatives aim at greening industries throughsound environmental management systems,including cleaner production methods, ISO 14001certification and implementation of pollution controlmeasures in highly polluting industries to complywith national environmental standards. As a result,12 industries received ISO 14001 certification in2008, while at least 50 per cent of target industriesare expected to register ISO 14001 certification in2014 (UNDAF, 2009).One of the important practices of CP is energyefficiency and reduction in greenhouse gassesin order to achieve sustainable production, suchas using alternative fuels that are less carbonintensiveor carbon neutral. There are examples ofbusinesses in the region that actively address thisissue with a proactive approach. One example isQatar Airways, which has set a clear environmentalpolicy and shown tangible progress toward theirgoals. Qatar has the highest energy consumptionper capita in the Middle East and such initiativesare very much needed. Qatar Airways invested inan experimental alternative fuel programme, amongother measures to reduce emissions (see CaseStudy 5).Qatar Airways intends to become the first airline tooffer regular commercial flights using gas-to-liquid(GTL) jet fuel, assuming commercial agreements canbe reached. The current plan is to have GTL jet fuelproduced in Qatar by around 2012 (Qatar Airways,2009). Furthermore, studies are also underway toinvestigate the technical and economic feasibilityof using biomass-derived fuels in aviation, such asalgae-based biofuel (Enviro News, 2010).Another larger initiative that involves the promotionand testing of renewable energy and innovativeenvironmental solutions is Abu Dhabi’s governmentledbusiness venture, Masdar. For now, MasdarCity (see Case Study 6) offers sustainable high-endhousing in a gated community. Eventually, solutionsdesigned for this initiative should cater to the needsof all segments of society.8.5 Civil society initiatives for SCPCivil society organizations (CSOs) in the West Asianregion, including environmental NGOs, play a role inpublic awareness and advocacy campaigns on issuesrelated to SD, including environmental conservationand sustainability. Countries in the West Asianregion (especially the GCC) are fossil fuel-dependenteconomies, with a high environmental strain andincreasing consumption patterns. They are alsocharacterized by a lack of an enabling environmentfor civil society engagement, which significantly limitsthe role of CSOs in the policy and decision-makingprocess (Al-Jayyousi, 2011).Desk research could not identify CSOs thatare directly engaged in SCP policies, althoughorganizations in this region target cross-cuttingissues with some impact on the development ofSCP policies.Efforts to mainstream environmental prioritieson the political agenda are being advocated forby organizations such as the Arab Network forEnvironment and Development (with observer statusto CAMRE and advisor status to the Economicand Social Council of the United Nations GeneralAssembly) (Arab Network for Environment andDevelopment, 2009).The Arab Network for Environment and Developmenthas been involved in the implementation of variousenvironmental and developmental sustainabilityprojects, including the YouthXChange in theMediterranean (YXC Mediterranean) Project. YXCMediterranean is a joint initiative of UNEP and theUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and CulturalOrganization, and supported by the MarrakechTask Force on Sustainable Lifestyles. It aims toraise awareness among youth about sustainablelifestyles. It is implemented in Arabic-speakingMediterranean countries, including Jordan, Lebanon,Tunisia, Syria, Egypt and Morocco (UNEP andUNDESA, 2011).An example of a successful regional network is theLeague of Independent Activists (IndyAct), which iscomprised of independent activists for environmental,social and cultural sustainability. IndyAct also aimsto place environmental concerns on top of theregional political agenda, by adopting campaignssuch as the Arab Climate Campaign and the ZeroWaste Campaign, promoting a shared responsibilityamong member states in addressing these concerns(IndyAct, 2011a, 2011b), in cooperation with theGlobal Alliance for Incineration Alternatives.199

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESGreen City: MasdarEstablished in 2006, Masdar is a commerciallydriven enterprise to make Abu Dhabi the preeminentsource of renewable energy knowledge,development and implementation, and theworld’s benchmark for Sustainable Development(SD) (Masdar, 2011a). It aims to manage longterm,capital-intensive investments that deliverstrong financial returns and tangible socialbenefits for the emirate (Mubadala, 2011).Masdar has the following objectives:Expand the export base of productsEncourage private-sector entrepreneurship•Invest in education and research thatstimulates innovation•Train, attract and retain skilled workers inknowledge-based sectors•Encourage investment in areas that generateintellectual property gains•Grow the non-oil sector’s share of theemirate’s economy and decouple economicgrowth from fluctuating oil pricesMasdar aims to meet these objectives throughits five integrated units (Masdar, 2011c):•Masdar Institute, an independent, researchdrivengraduate institute developed withthe ongoing support and cooperation of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology•Masdar Capital, an investment companythat seeks to build a portfolio of the world’smost promising renewable energy and cleantechnology companies•Masdar Power, a developer and operator ofrenewable power generation projects•Masdar Carbon, which manages projects that bringreductions in carbon emissions such as energyefficiency and waste heat recovery, CO 2 recovery,as well as through carbon capture and storage•Masdar City, which is aspiring to be one ofthe most sustainable cities in the world. Theapproximately 6-km 2 Masdar City is an emerging<strong>global</strong> clean-technology cluster that places itsresident companies in the heart of the <strong>global</strong>renewable energy and clean-tech industry.Masdar City aspires to be a zero-waste, zero-carboncity (Masdar, 2011c). It is located 17 km fromdowntown Abu Dhabi. It aims to host 40,000 citizensupon completion and hundreds of businesses. Themajority of seed funding for this project is providedby the government of Abu Dhabi, which put up US$15billion in seed capital (Economist, 2008).The first six buildings and infrastructure built so farshowcase several techniques to achieve the zerocarbonand zero-waste city planning. These includethe following (Masdar, 2011b):•Life-cycle considerations are integrated in thematerials used, leading to substantial cuts inembodied carbon quantities: all timber is suppliedfrom sustainably managed forests, 90 per centrecycled-content aluminum is used for the innerfacades, green concrete that uses slag replacescement, and safe water-based paints and 100per cent recycled steel for reinforcing bars areemployed.•Passive lighting and passive ventilation through thedesign of narrow passageways induce soft breezes,while carefully maintaining sunlight without heat gain.While the Arab Network for Environment andDevelopment and IndyAct initiatives are notexplicitly labeled as SCP programmes, they aredirectly relevant. Other examples include educationand community programmes about solid wastemanagement and recycling by the EmiratesEnvironmental Group (EEG), an NGO establishedin the UAE in 1991 (EEG, 2011a) (see Case Study 7).The examples above show cases of vibrant civil societyinitiatives developing in the region. Cases of regionalcivil society initiatives expanding and networking toaddress common water-related issues are illustrated inexamples in the following section.Regional cooperation on watermanagementThe Arab Water Council (AWC) was establishedas non-profit organization in response to therecommendation of the Second Regional Conferenceon Arab Water held in Cairo, Egypt in April 2004to address challenges to the water sector in theArab region. It promotes regional cooperation forintegrated water resource management basedon a multidisciplinary and scientific approach(AWC, 2011). Regional activities by the AWCinclude analyzing water governance and waterusemonitoring indicators, and strengthening civil200

• Transportationby clean electricbusses, and inlater phases, AbuDhabi’s metro andlight rail will serveMasdar City.•Energy efficiency inbuildings is achievedby ensuring a low ratioof windows to walls,using passive ventilationand lighting, and incorporatingother smart-building managementsystems. This also involves usingdistrict cooling, an infrastructure system thatcools an entire city via an underground networkof cooling water. It provides cooling for all theconnected buildings with a more efficient centralcontrol. Results revealed that the buildingshave 55 per cent less cooling demand than theaverage UAE building, 54 per cent less waterconsumption and a 51 per cent reduction inelectricity demand.•Harnessing solar energy:– PV arrays in the city are mounted on rooftopsand on the ground with a capacity of 1 MW,meeting 30 per cent of the city’s peak powerdemand– The city hosts the Middle East’s largest PV farmof 10 MW, connected to the Abu Dhabi grid.– Evacuated-tube solar thermal collectorsmounted on rooftops for water heating reduce75 per cent of the hot-water energy needscompared to the usual building in the UAE.•Saving water through efficient fittings and fixturescuts building consumption, along with the use ofmicro irrigation and careful landscaping. Indigenousflora reduces evapotranspiration. In addition,100 per cent of wastewater is reused.•Waste recycling leads to 60 per centrecovery for reuse, recycling or composting.This is facilitated through implementing asorting-at-source system in the city togetherwith awareness campaigns. Constructionwaste is also being recycled for reuse inconstruction.Masdar City applies principles developed underthe a One Planet Living programme, developedby NGO Bio Regional in partnership with theWorld Wildlife Fund and is working on meetingthe standards of sustainability to qualify it asa One Planet Community (World Wildlife Fund,2008). The programme looks at principles of SDin the areas of energy and carbon emissions,waste, sustainable transport, sustainablematerials, local and sustainable food,sustainable water, land and wildlife, culture andheritage, equity and local economy, health andhappiness (One Planet Living, 2011).©Foster + Partnerssociety’s involvement in assessing their countries’water service performance.In 2011, the AWC compiled regional experienceswith wastewater management in the region, includingadvanced wastewater reuse experience in Jordan, Iraq,Kuwait, Oman, Saudi Arabia and the UAE. Wastewaterreuse is a particularly promising approach foragriculture expansion in arid and hyper-arid zones suchas West Asia, as wastewater production is continuouslyincreasing with a growing population (AbuZeid, 2008).The AWC advised that regulations in Arab countriesshould allow for better application of wastewaterreuse in edible and non-edible agricultureaccording to the level of wastewater treatment.It also recommended its effective enforcementand monitoring to track impacts on healthand the environment. The AWC established aWastewater Reuse Network to share experiences.Together with the establishment of its Networkon Desalination the Wastewater Reuse Network,these are important steps toward formulatingsustainable water consumption and productionpolicies in the region.Another regional initiative aimed at preparing waterand wastewater utilities for regulations such as the201

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESEncouraging corporate socialresponsibility among businessesThe Emirates Environmental Group (EEG) isISO 14001-certified and the only organizationof its kind in the UAE with accredited statusto the United Nations Convention to CombatDesertification (United Nations Global Compact[UNGC], 2011a). In its capacity as a member ofthe Board of the UNGC, EEG became the focalpoint for the UNGC in the GCC states in 2007(UNGC, 2011a).By leading this initiative in the GCC region andestablishing the UNGC Local Network, EEG adoptedan established and <strong>global</strong>ly recognized policyframework for the development, implementationand disclosure of environmental, social andgovernance policies and practices. Three of the 10universal principles adopted by all UNGC signatoriesaddress sustainable production and consumption(UNGC, 2011b):•Principle 7: support a precautionary approach toenvironmental challenges•Principle 8: undertake initiatives to promotegreater environmental responsibility•Principle 9: encourage the developmentand diffusion of environmentally friendlytechnologies.EEG formed the UNGC Local Network to pursue thefollowing goals for the region (UNGC, 2011c):•To advance the UNGC and its principles inthe GCC•To raise the standards of local corporate socialresponsibility (CSR) practices to internationalbenchmarks•To rally the support and participation of themembers of the GCC Local Network for theactivities of the NGO•To create opportunities for multi-stakeholderdialogue, learning and collective actionsIntegrating such goals into their policy frameworkgave way to many initiatives, such as:•The Million Tree Campaign was launched aspart of the UNEP Billion Tree Campaign in2007. The EEG pledged and planted over 1.6million indigenous trees in the UAE, significantlysurpassing its original target of 1 million (EEG,2011c). The trees were planted by EEG on behalfof contributors from all over UAE, including theEmirates Heritage Club, United Arab Emirates(UAE) Public Parks and Horticulture Department,Dubai Industrial City and Sharja Municipality, inaddition to 41 schools and many individuals.Indigenous plants were chosen in considerationof the local conditions, water scarcity and salinity.•The Arabia Corporate Social ResponsibilityNetwork is a multi-stakeholder forum thatpromotes CSR in the Middle East (ArabiaCorporate Social Responsibility Network, 2011).Formerly named the CSR Network, five yearsafter its launch in 2004, it grew strong andeventually spun off of EEG and is today its ownentity. Among its prominent activities is theArabia Corporate Social Responsibility Networkannual award recognizing leadership in CSR inthe Arab region and the creation of a databaseof best practices and success stories.•The Waste Management Programme targetscommon waste streams, such as paper, cans,glass, plastic, toners and batteries (EEG, 2011b).A recent progress report demonstrates itsachievements and wide networking with diversestakeholders, including businesses, schools,households, hotels and industries (see Figure 1).In one month, the following quantities of wastewere collected:– 6,710 kg of paper out of 95,868 kg fromABB Industries– 65 kg of cans out of 461 kg from Al AinEnglish Speaking School– 11,255 kg of glass out of 23,362 kg fromFairmont Hotel660kg of plastic out of 8,244 kg fromEmirates Golf Club– 620 toners out of 1,026 from the PetroleumInstituteThese activities are accompanied by education andawareness programmes in partnership with relevantstakeholders. Such programmes contribute stronglyto the promotion of a circular economy and to thereduction of energy and water consumption andcarbon footprint, thereby saving natural resources.Photo courtesy of EEG202

taking action togetherabove amendments, and to meet the SCP targetsfor the sector, is the Arab Countries Water UtilitiesAssociation (ACWUA) (see Case Study 8).8.6 ConclusionsThe vast majority of SCP policies that exist in theWest Asian region are in the form of declarations,recommendations and guidelines. They arepredominantly not, however, legally or politciallybinding in nature. Policies curbing consumer demandusing taxes or rationalizing fuel subsidies are rarelyused, as they are seen as politically risky. Instead,supply-side policies and measures, such as improvingthe efficiency of a grid, providing new or improvedmodes of transportation and improving treatmenttechnologies, are more common, as they do notrestrict the consumer. For example, policies thatinternalize environmental costs, taking into accounta life-cycle perspective of products, or policies thatestablish more accurate prices, like green taxes andsubsidy phase-outs, are rarely used in the region.In terms of supply-side measures, there is a needfor policies that have an impact on the behaviourand lifestyles of people, rather than focusing solelyon resource efficiency and “greening” the existingpractices. This challenge however is not limited tothe West Asian region, although more elaboratethere, but is shared with the rest of the world.The 2010 report of the World Economic Forum on<strong>global</strong> trends of sustainable consumption in factconceded that current trends towards sustainability,although welcome, are still “rooted in a model ofconsumption” (WEF, 2010, p.15).There are, however, several good examples ofpolicies that address issues related to SCP.For instance, the gradual shift from private topublic transportation in Dubai demonstratesa favourable policy mix in city planning. Moreprogressive examples can be found in MasdarCity’s experimental features and other innovationhubs in the region. Often, links between thesepolicies, plans, programmes and projects need to bestrengthend. An example is the allocation of fundsCapacity-building for watermanagementThe Arab Countries Water Utilities Association(ACWUA), a regional non-profit organization,was established in April 2007 (ACWUA, 2007)to help address the growing challenges inthe water sector in the Arab region, such aswater scarcity, weak water and environmentalpolicies, high investment needs, lack ofmanagement and technical capacity, increasingdemand due to growing populations, andconflicts (ACWUA, 2011). It receives supportfrom the UNESCWA, the GTZ, the ArabMinisterial Water Council, the Ministry of Waterand Irrigation of Jordan, the Arab-GermanChamber of Commerce and Industry, amongother international organizations.At present, six working groups (ManagementUtilities, Management of Water Resources,Benchmarking, Capacity Building & Training, Water& Health, Utility Reforms) are operational as part ofthe ACWUA work plan in the region (ACWUA, 2010).The organization has gained a significantpresence in the region and internationally, and isa good example of regional collaboration with alarge membership base. There are currently 84members in the association in 16 countries in theMiddle East and North Africa (MENA) region, ofwhich 10 are in West Asia.The most recent activity of ACWUA was the thirdACWUA Best Practice Conference on Non-RevenueWater in the Arab Region: Solutions for DrinkingWater Loss Reduction, held in Rabat, Morocco inJanuary 2010, where various cities in the regionpresented their cases (ACWUA, 2010).As a regional centre of excellence with apermanent secretariat established in Ammanin 2009, it partners with water supply andwastewater utilities in Arab countries to providecapacity-building services; promote standardsof performance in managing water supply andwastewater utilities; provide of advice on waterlegislation, policies, and sector managementand reform; and dissimenate information(ACWUA, 2011).203

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESfor supply-side pilot projects addressing climatechange issues, while on the other hand nationalenergy consumption continues to grow unrestrictedlyand fuel prices in many of the countries remain lowerthan the world market fuel prices.Regional cooperation on SCP policies and initiativesexists, such as the Arab Regional Roundtable onSCP. However, more emphasis on outreach anddisseminating information on success storiesis needed, as well as continous monitoring andevaluation of impacts on both the demand andsupply sides. Continuous monitoring and evaluationof policies is also needed to document theenvironmental, social and economic improvementsand feedback into a balanced and feasible approachto shift towards SCP patterns.The GCC countries’ interconnection grid serves asan example of a common energy policy, wherebyconnections across different time zones helps balancedaily energy consumption fluctuations across thecountries. The abundance of solar radiation shouldalso be seen as a unique opportunity for sustainablepower generation in the region. Additional capacityfor regional or national grids should be created usingrenewable power, rather than investing in new fossilfuelledpower plants. Energy is also directly relatedto water supply, which is predominantly sourced fromenergy-intensive desalination. With the fast rate ofpopulation growth, energy-efficient technologies andrenewable energy technologies are therefore neededto ensure sustainable water supply. All measuresfor energy and water, however, must essentially bedone in parallel with efforts to address unsustainableconsumption habits.Measures contributing to SCP are evident in theadoption of cleaner production methods, and incompliance with environmental standards (such asthe ISO 14001). Although the total number of ISOcertifications in the West Asian region remains belowthe world average rate, it is expected that increasingawareness of the need for compliance with soundenvironmental management systems will advanceSCP policies.CSOs in West Asia play a significant role in publicawareness and advocacy campaigns on issuesrelated to SD, including environmental conservation.However, CSOs should be further engaged for themainstreaming of environmental considerations inthe decision-making processes of key governmentand public institutions and push for transformativechange, especially at a local level. There is greatpromise in this respect in the near future, especiallynow that the impact of civic engagement in partsof the West Asia (and Arab) region is rapidly gainingground. This shift could promise many opportunitiesfor positive change, with a future of empoweredyouth engaged in striving for better lives, freedom,social equity and sustainable development.204

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Qatar Airways CDSRflyer. Available from https://secure2.eventadv.com/btm/resources/CSR_DL-FLYER55_30_Mar_2011_14_54_19_109.pdf.__________ (2011). Qatar AirwaysEnvironmental Policy. Available fromhttp://www.qatarairways.com/<strong>global</strong>/en/csr-docs/Environment-policy.pdf.Reiche, Danyel (2010a, May). Energypolicies of Gulf Cooperation Council (GCCCountries): Possibilities and Limitationsof Ecological Modernization of RentierStates. Energy Policy, vol. 38, no. 5,pp. 2395-2403. Available from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=PublicationURL&_tockey=%23TOC%235713%232010%23999619994%231783173%23FLA%23&_cdi=5713&_pubType=J&view=c&_auth=y&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=95abf89071814e838a176545b241731d.__________ (2010b). Renewable energypolicies in the Gulf countries: A casestudy of the carbon-neutral “Masdar City”in Abu Dhabi. Energy Policy, vol. 38, pp.378-382.Roads and Transport Authority (2007).Dubai Metro Project. Available from http://www.rta.ae/wpsv5/wps/portal.Saseendran, S. (2010). Green buildingcode from next year, 29 November.Available from http://www.khaleejtimes.com/DisplayArticle08.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2010/November/theuae_November778.xml&section=theuae.Stanton, Chris (2009). Abu Dhabi fora greener Irena, 28 June. Availablefrom http://www.thenational.ae/news/uae-news/environment/abu-dhabi-for-agreener-irena.State of Kuwait (2009). Kuwait Declarationof the Arab Economic Summit, ArabEconomic Summit, 19-20 January 2009.Available from http://www.da.gov.kw/eng/articles/arab_economic_summit_2009_speeches.php?p=summit_declaration.Tarsheed (2008a). Abdallah Shehaab:Studying scientific solutions to addressthe electricity crisis on the long run(original in Arabic). Available from http://www.tarsheedq8.com/magalat/f84455/.__________ (2008b). Kuwait awardedthe Distinction and Innovation in theGulf Award for the National EnergyConservation Project (original in Arabic).Available from http://www.tarsheedq8.com/magalat/dfd604/.__________ (2008c). El-Khaledeen NGOdistributed water conservation tools toparticipants for free (original in Arabic),25 May. Available from http://www.tarsheedq8.com/magalat/x00x568/.__________ (2008d). Tarsheedcelebrated the success of its project(original in Arabic), 6 January. Availablefrom http://www.tarsheedq8.com/magalat/ew96888.__________ (2008e). Video (originalin Arabic). Available from http://www.tarsheedq8.com/video.The Emirates News Agency, WAM,(Wakalat Anba’a al-Emarat) (2007). Newresolution on green building specificationsby Dubai Ruler, 24 October. Available fromhttp://www.greendubaiworldforum.org/more.html.206

taking action togetherUnited Nations Development AssistanceFramework (2009, May). Lebanon Report(2010-2014). Available from http://planipolis.iiep.unesco.org/upload/Lebanon/Lebanon_UNDAF_2010-2014.pdf.United Nations Economic and SocialCommission for Western Asia (2009).ESCWA Water Development Report 3:Roles of Desalination in Addressing WaterScarcity. E/ESCWA/SDPD/2009/4.Available from http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sdpd-09-4.pdf__________ (2011). Summary ofthe Survey of Economic and SocialDevelopments in the Economic and SocialCommission for Western Asia Region,2010-2011. Available from http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/EDGD-11-2.pdf.United Nations Environment Programme(2007). Global Environment Outlook (GEO)4. Available from http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4.asp.__________ (2011a). Green Economy,Advisory Service: Jordan’s Pathway to aGreen Economy, December 19, 2011,available from: http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/AdvisoryServices/Jordan/tabid/56335/Default.aspx.__________ (2011b). Paving the way forSustainable Consumption and Production:The Marrakech Process Progress Report.Available from: http://www.unep.fr/scp/marrakech/pdf/Marrakech%20Process%20Progress%20Report%20FINAL.pdfUnited Nations Environment Programmeand United Nations Department ofEconomic and Social Affairs (2011).Paving the Way for SustainableConsumption and Production: TheMarrakech Process Progress Reportincluding Elements for a 10-YearFramework of Programmes on SustainableConsumption and Production (SCP).Background Paper CSD18/2010/BP4.Available from http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/resources/res_pdfs/csd-18/csd18_2010_bp4.pdf.United Nations Global Compact (2011a).Global Compact Network in Gulfregion launched, 7 April 7. Availablefrom http://www.un<strong>global</strong>compact.org/NewsAndEvents/news_archives/2008_04_07b.html.__________ (2011b). The tenprinciples. Available from http://www.un<strong>global</strong>compact.org/AboutTheGC/TheTenPrinciples/index.html.__________ (2011c). The Gulf Region(Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, SaudiArabia, United Arab Emirates). Availablefrom http://www.un<strong>global</strong>compact.org/NetworksAroundTheWorld/local_network_sheet/AE.html.Wardam, Batir (2008). The Arab world getsserious about climate change, 15 April.Available from http://www.arabclimate.org/regional_news/aew15_04_08.html.World Bank (2011). World Bank Listof Economies, 18 July. Available fromhttp://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/CLASS.XLS.World dataBank (2011a). 2009 data.Millennium Development Goals,Population (Total). Available from http://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=1&id=4.__________ (2011b). World DevelopmentIndicators (WDI) & Global DevelopmentFinance (GDF), 14 May. Available fromhttp://databank.worldbank.org/ddp/home.do?Step=1&id=4.World Economic Forum (2010).Redesigning Business Value: ARoadmap for Sustainable Consumption.REF: 110110. Available fromhttp://www.deloitte.com/assets/Dcom-UnitedKingdom/Local%20Assets/Documents/Industries/Consumer%20Business/UK_CB_DrivingSustainableConsumption.pdf.World Wide Fund for Nature (2008).Abu Dhabi unveil plan for world’s firstcarbon-neutral, carbon-free, car-freecity, 13 January. Available from http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/press_releases/?121320/WWF-Abu-Dhabiunveil-plan-for-worlds-first-carbon-neutralwaste-free-car-free-city.207

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES9 The Way ForwardLooking at the scale of current challenges facingthe world, it is clear that the need to shift towardsustainable consumption and production (SCP) hasgrown more urgent, since its first formal recognitionat the Rio Earth Summit in 1992. Economicdevelopment over the last 30 years has done muchto improve the quality of life and alleviate poverty,but it has also been accompanied by a wide array ofnegative environmental and social impacts. Theseimpacts threaten to undermine, or even reverse thegains that have been achieved. Globally, resourceconsumption, waste and pollution continue to rise,while the untapped potential of many materials andminerals sits in landfills. At the same time, the gapbetween rich and poor has been growing wider. As weaccumulate greater scientific understanding aboutour planet’s biophysical constraints, so too do wecome to appreciate a new the scale of the challengesbefore us and to be faced by future generations.9.1 Main findingsAt the intergovernmental level, the adoption of a SCPapproach as an international commitment and goal isan important milestone in tackling these challenges.The 1992 United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, and the2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development(WSSD) in Johannesburg laid the <strong>global</strong> foundationfor many efforts to promote SCP at the regional andnational levels.One way in which governments have promoted SCPhas been through the negotiation and implementationof multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs).Although most MEAs do not explicitly refer to SCP,in practice, treaties impact and alter many stagesof a product’s life cycle. For example, defining andunderstanding ozone layer depletion were central tothe speed with which the Vienna Convention and theMontreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete theOzone were agreed upon. Governments have sincereduced or controlled use of these substances in theproduction, consumption and disposal phases of manyproducts. These agreements were key to identifyinglife-cycle stages in which ozone-depleting substanceswere released, as well as in developing solutions. Thesuccessful implementation of the Montreal Protocolultimately has spurred <strong>global</strong> investment by the privatesector, driving the creation of new markets for moresustainable products in a relatively short time span.The success of international agreements alsodepends on national capacities and funds toimplement the agreements. The Multilateral Fundfor the Implementation of the Montreal Protocolis an outstanding example of supporting nationalimplementation. The African, Caribbean and Pacific onMEAs programme is another example of a mechanismthat contributes to the promotion of effective policyframeworks and implementation.Intergovernmental efforts to promote SCP have alsobeen developed through initiatives focused on thematicissues. For example, the Marrakech Process on SCP,which represents a respose to the Johannesburg Planof Implementation (WSSD, 2002) WSSD, supportedthe implementation of SCP worldwide. It facilitatedthe establishment of seven thematic task forces,and developed expertise and tools to promote andimplement SCP at regional, national and local levels.These task forces employ policy design and capacitybuildingactivities, as well as demonstration projects onsustainable public procurement, sustainable tourism,sustainable lifestyles and education for sustainableconsumption, sustainable buildings and construction,sustainable products and ecolabelling. As an exampleof policy design, the Task Force on Sustainable PublicProcurement developed a practical methodology fordesigning and implementing policies on sustainablepublic procurement, which are now being implementedin 11 pilot projects. The Task Force on SustainableLifestyles has reached 43 countries throughdemonstration and capacity-building projects.Other <strong>global</strong> initiatives have been seeking to identifybest practices and promote knowledge transfer,bringing together a multitude of stakeholders incollaborative action. For example, the World TourismOrganization-UNEP- Hotel Energy Solutions projectproviding support to small and medium sized hotels toapply energy efficiency measures in 27 countries. TheFood and Agriculture Organization (FAO)-UNEP Agri-FoodTask Force, representing more than 330 firms andorganizations, including relevant government ministries,works on integrating SCP in supply chains. In thearea of resource-efficient and cleaner production,a dedicated UNIDO-UNEP programme on ResourceEfficiency for Cleaner Production supports small andmedium-sized enterprises (SMEs) through a network ofNational Cleaner Production Centres in 47 developingcountries and economies in transition.At the regional level, a number of intergovernmentalbodies have established dedicated SCP frameworks.The European Union’s (EU) SCP and SustainableIndustrial Policy (SCP/SIP) Action Plan stands out asa comprehensive plan comprising SCP policies andprovisions for partnerships that aim to influence the208

taking action togetherwhole life cycle of products. Africa, the Arab regionand the Latin America and Caribbean (LAC) regionhave developed SCP strategies or frameworks with thesupport of the Marrakech Process. Those strategiesor frameworks have been endorsed by several regionalintergovernmental bodies, including: the AfricanMinisterial Conference on Environment and the AfricanUnion, the Council of Arab Ministers Responsiblefor Environment, and the Latin America and theCaribbean Regional Forum of Ministers of Environmentrespectively. At a subregional level, the MercosurPolicy for Promotion and Cooperation on SCP guidesthe harmonization of production and environmentalpolicies of member countries and encourages theestablishment of national SCP action plans. All thesestrategies can provide the basis for a more specificplan of policy design with implementation to bedeveloped subsequently.In Africa, the adoption of the African 10-YearFramework of Programmes on SCP has spurred thedevelopment and implementation of a number ofsubregional, national and local SCP programmes.For example, pilot projects for mainstreaming SCPin national- and city-level development policies andaction plans on SCP were conducted in Tanzania,Mauritius and the cities of Maputo in Mozambiqueand Cairo in Egypt. Likewise, pilot projects are carriedout in priority sectors such as water and energy, andcross-cutting areas such as sustainable procurementand education and information for SCP. The African10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP and theTask Force on Cooperation with Africa have recentlylaunched an African Ecolabelling Mechanism (AEM).The Secretariat of the African Ecolabelling Mechanismin Nairobi, Kenya, was established under the auspicesof the African Union, helping to validate and harmonizeecolabelling initiatives in the region, to better identifysustainable products and increase access for them toregional and international markets.At the national level, numerous countries have adoptedSCP action plans or strategies. In Africa, this includesGhana, Mauritius, Tanzania and Zambia; and in LAC,such plans have been drawn up in Brazil, Colombia,Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Mexico, Peruand Uruguay. In the EU, dedicated national SCP actionplans have been developed by the Czech Republic,Finland, Poland, and the United Kingdom. In someregions, SCP has been integrated into other planningprocesses. In South Eastern Europe (SEE), EasternEurope, the Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA),North America and West Asia, for example, nationallevelSCP planning is largely part of existing nationalstrategies for sustainable development or othershort- and medium-term development plans. In theAsia-Pacific region, national Green Growth strategieshave proliferated since 2005. These strategies focuson investment in sustainable infrastructure, raisingrevenue and improving eco-efficiency while reducingpoverty. Many governments also target policiesin specific sectors, such as Serbia and Croatia,where strategies have been developed to promotesustainable agriculture.Transparent and open consultation processes havebeen central to the successful elaboration and furtherimplementation of such national SCP action plans, ashas the engagement of a broad range of stakeholders.Many strategies reviewed are also based on an indepthstudy of the national development situation aswell as key consumption and production patterns, forexample in Brazil, Ghana and Mexico.Implementation at the national level has, in mostcountries, just begun. These will offer importantlessons for institutional and financial frameworks toeffectively support SCP. For example, in Mauritius, theMinistry of Environment and Sustainable Development,with UNEP’s financial and technical support, hasdeveloped the National Programme on SCP. Twentyfiveout of the 44 planned projects for the 2008-2013period are currently being implemented with a budgetof US$1 million, through joint or individual action bymultiple ministries. Some projects are progressing welland energy intensity per unit of output of the economyis reportedly falling.More generally, SCP programmes in emerging anddeveloping countries continue to face significantfunding challenges and continue to rely oninternational donor support. In other cases, aparticular gap exists on the consumption side. Forexample, a review of the EU SCP/SIP Action Plancalled for new programmes to be developed andfunded, aiming at increasing consumer awarenessand changing consumer behaviour.Governments in every region have been applying arange of policy instruments to promote SCP. In theUnited Nations Economic Commission for Europe(UNECE) region, regulatory tools such as the EUproduct performance standards and the UnitedStates Presidential Directives on energy efficiencyare widespread and used by most countries. In theSEE and EECCA subregions, the use of SCP-relatedregulatory instruments is also common. Althoughmost countries implement regulations for minimumproduct standards, analyses of the Asia-Pacific andAfrica regions show that complex regulations tend tobe put in place in more industrialized economies, whichhave more human, financial and technical resourcesfor implementation and enforcement. Consequently,regulation seems to be one of the least-preferred typesof policy tools in the Asia-Pacific region. A generalexception to this rule appears to be sustainable publicprocurement policies, which are being considered orapplied as regulatory or voluntary policies in everyregion. For example, half of LAC countries report thatthey have sustainable public procurement policies.209

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESAll regions have broad experience with voluntaryinstruments. Their use has, in some cases, precededfurther regulation. In the EU, this has been the casefor agreements on energy efficiency for washingmachines, refrigerators, freezers and dishwashers.These voluntary agreements have subsequentlybeen phased out with the establishment of the EUEcoDesign Directive. A first evaluation of the EU SCP/SIP Action Plan shows that mandatory instrumentssuch as energy labelling and ecodesign wereregarded as having a larger impact than voluntaryinstruments in quantitative terms. In the UnitedStates and Canada, extended producer responsibilitypartnerships bring together all actors across thelife cycle of products to share in the responsibilityfor reducing their environmental impacts. In Africa,the voluntary agreements between the Moroccangovernment and the cement industry have lead tocleaner and more resource-efficient production byusing waste as a resource, recycling and reducingcost. In LAC, voluntary cleaner production agreementshave been successful in the meat and dairy sectors,whereas the Asia-Pacific region has voluntaryagreements for reducing waste in packaging.Economic instruments such as green taxation andfeed-in tariffs are also more common among moreindustrialized economies. Pricing instruments andtax- and obligation-related incentives are applied inEU member states, Canada, Japan and the UnitedStates. Economic instruments are also found in rapidlyindustrializing economies in the form of discountedlending and tax preferences for renewable energyprojects in the People’s Republic of China. Theseare often also reflected in the Asia-Pacific region’sapproach to Green Growth. Elsewhere, such as inthe SEE and EECCA countries and much of Africa,economic instruments are generally restricted to theapplication of fees and charges on pollution and forcommunal services such as waste collection, roadconstruction and maintenance. Exceptions, of course,do exist: Mauritius has implemented a greenhouse gastax and Jordan provides tax deductions to promote thepurchase of hybrid cars.Information-based instruments are in usethroughout every region, in more and lessindustrialized economies alike. In the Asia-Pacificregion, for example, information-based policiesare widely used, especially through ecolabelsand consumer awareness-raising campaigns.Examples of government-led certification are alsofound in LAC and Africa, such as the SustainableTourism Certificate in Costa Rica and the ongoingprocess of developing a pan-African Eco Markfor sustainable products. In the UNECE region,ecolabels have long been a key informationinstrument. In Canada, there are more than10,000 products certified under EcoLogo that areavailable in the marketplace. Other informationtools in the UNECE regions include carboncalculators and green purchasing guidelinesfor local authorities and consumers. Despitetheir relatively broad spread, there is still muchpotential for further implementation of informationbasedtools. In some regions – the EECCA forexample – sustainably certified goods are stillnot widely available. Yet sustainable certificationcan help provide more reliable and transparentinformation to consumers, while facilitatingsustainable goods’ access to new markets orincreasing their market share.Businesses are also highly dynamic actors in thepromotion of SCP. Indeed, many information-basedpolicies and schemes, as described above, arevoluntary and based on principles of corporate socialand environmental responsibility. Sustainabilityreporting, in accordance with the Global ReportingInitiative (GRI) Guidelines, is on the rise in a number ofregions. This rise indicates that an increasing numberof businesses have implemented resource efficiency,cleaner production and environmental managementprogrammes. Similarly, environmental managementstandards have increasingly been taken up. In mostcountries in Asia and the Pacific, for example, thenumber of International Organization of Standardization(ISO) 14001 standards adopted jumped by over 130per cent between 2006 and 2010. Businesses havealso formed platforms for information-sharing on widersustainable development issues, such as the WorldBusiness Council for Sustainable Development and theAfrica Corporate Sustainability Forum.In some cases, business initiatives also concentrateon innovation in the design, production and distributionof products that is informed by a life-cycle approach.Some businesses in the LAC region, for example, arefocusing particularly on improvements to productionprocesses through the introduction of clean energy,the reduction of environmentally harmful inputs andthe recycling of waste. Some pioneering companiesnow aim to put sustainability at the very heart of theirbusiness model. Examples include efforts to promotelow-impact laundry detergents and energy-efficientproducts in the UNECE region and waste re-useprogrammes in South Africa and Niger.On a national level, institutions and governmentfundedprogrammes, such as the 47 National CleanerProduction Centres in developing and transitioneconomies, have been supporting businesses bygenerating data on resource-efficient practices andproviding technical assistance to small and mediumsizedcompanies to implement these practices.Government strategies have recognized the need fordedicated funding, such as the Resource-EfficientEurope strategy calling for a Small Business Act thathelps SMEs face the challenges of <strong>global</strong>ization andclimate change. Private-sector financial institutions210

taking action togetherhave found it difficult to get sufficient scale to makespecific energy-efficiency activities commerciallyattractive. This challenge shows that SCP has notbecome a core criterion in financial decision-making.Encouraging the use of metrics and the application ofenvironmental, social and governance criteria couldhelp investment decision-making that leads to theadoption of technologies, management practices andproduct development that promotes SCP.On the interface of business, government and science,key actors are working to make the West Asia regiona clean technology hub. For example, Abu Dhabi’sMasdar enterprise aims to meet this objectivethrough five different clusters: research, investmentin renewable energy and clean technology companies,operating renewable energy-based power generationand carbon emission reductions projects, and settingup a clean technology cluster in a city aspiring to befree of waste and carbon emissions.Civil society organizations (CSOs) have also playeda key role in making sure that SCP remains on bothgovernment and business agendas. On an internationallevel, CSOs with a <strong>global</strong> reach have been instrumentalin developing and harmonizing some importantvoluntary standards. For example, the InternationalSocial and Environmental Accreditation and LabellingAlliance is advancing objective benchmarking andharmonization of certification schemes. It acts as theumbrella organization of organic, fair trade and otherbodies promoting and implementing environmentaland social labelling, including the Marine StewardshipCouncil, the Fairtrade Labelling Organization, the ForestStewardship Council and more.In the UNECE region, CSOs are highly active inestablishing partnerships, naming and shamingcompanies responsible for unsustainable activities,lobbying governments and the private sector, andconducting influential research. For example, theTransition Towns project combines research andconcrete implementation through pilot projects thathelp communities live more sustainably and becomemore energy resilient. Over 300 initiatives have beendeveloped under the Transition Towns movement,ranging from developing small-scale renewableenergy companies to showcasing measures to reducedomestic energy consumption.CSO activities were also identified in LAC, Asia-Pacific and Africa, where there is an emphasis oncapacity-building. In Africa in particular, CSOs seemto fill a service provision gap for sustainable productsby providing seed financing for their development,offering education on sustainable development andestablishing income-generating ventures. In West Asia,a number of CSO activities, while not labelled as SCP,clearly promote SCP through campaigns and educationprogrammes related to sustainable development.Across all sectors, partnerships among governments,businesses and CSOs effectively promote SCP andmultiply the impacts of any intervention. Amonggovernments, international initiatives and technicalassistance are common, such as the Japanesegovernment’s Clean Asia Initiative. Businesses andCSOs also often work together to help low-incomeproducers qualify for certification standards. Indeed,standards themselves are usually the result of an indepthcollaboration between all three types of actors.Governments, businesses and CSOs also work togetherto share information and to implement initiativescontributing to SCP, as in the case of West Asia’s plansto become industrial hubs for green technologies.9.2 RecommendationsThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies finds that awide range of activities has been undertaken bygovernments, businesses and CSOs. However,it is also apparent that much more needs to bedone to bring us onto a path toward achievingthe sustainable patterns of consumption andproduction that necessarily underpin sustainabledevelopment. While meeting basic needs andservices will require increasing the use of naturalresources and food intake in some countries, othersmight need to reduce their ecological footprint andmodify their current consumption and productionpatterns. Countries share common but differentiatedresponsibilities, and developing countries will requiretechnical and financial assistance in order to shifttoward SCP patterns.Increases in resource efficiency, although tangible,have failed to catch up with the escalatingdemand for resources that is fuelled by rapideconomic growth and unsustainable consumptionpatterns. Efficiency gains are often offset by therebound effect, whereby reductions in the costsof products due to enhanced resource efficiencylead to increased purchases of those or otherproducts. Decoupling economic development fromenvironmental degradation calls for a combinationof supporting policies, technological innovations andimportant lifestyle changes.To accelerate the shift towards SCP, more coherentpolicy frameworks addressing both the supplyand demand side, as well as more effectiveimplementation and enforcement of existing policiesand regulations, are needed. The responsibilityfor achieving SCP should be extended acrossdifferent sectors and institutional structuresbeyond Ministries of the Environment. This sharedresponsibility can be facilitated by providing trainingon how to mainstream SCP and assisting in the useof relevant tools and methodologies such as lifecycleapproaches, sustainable public procurement211

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESand ecolabelling. Economic incentives will also needto be provided to encourage demand-led reductionsin resource use and increases in private investmentscontributing to the shift to SCP.Enhancing cooperation and more concerted andcoordinated action at all levels will be essential toachieving the necessary transformational changes inconsumption and production patterns. The existingpolicies, tools and programmes must be continued,expanded and improved upon, and new, innovativestrategies are needed addressing gaps or emergingissues. Policies, tools and programmes successfulin a certain local, national and regional context needto be replicated and, where necessary, adapted inother contexts. The information presented in GlobalOutlook on SCP Policies is provided to foster suchscaling up and replication, and also leads to specificrecommendations for action.Decision-makers in all arenas areencouraged to take action to:1 Integrate SCP into policy frameworks andstrategic plans: The Global Outlook on SCP Policiesshows that in every region, governments havedeveloped policies and/or policy frameworks topromote SCP. Many have drawn up dedicatedregional or national action plans, which areusually embedded within broader developmentstrategies, such as national sustainabledevelopment strategies and poverty reductionstrategies. This report presents examples fromSenegal and Thailand, among others. Often thestrategies and action plans focus on specific policyareas (e.g., procurement, economic instruments) andsectors (e.g., agriculture, water, energy, etc.) thathave been prioritized for action and where specificmeasures have been proposed. However, in manycases, SCP policies and actions are not anchoredin coherent policy frameworks, thus reducing theireffective contribution to sustainable development.Coherent and overarching strategies for SCP andresource efficiency are needed to fully harness thepotential of SCP. In order to fully integrate SCP intopolicy frameworks and strategic plans, internationalsupport, domestic political commitment and interministerialcoordination are vital and need to bemaintained over the medium-to-long term.2 Ensure the collection of more SCP data tomeasure policy effectiveness and track progress:While many innovative and replicable policiesexist, their effectiveness and impacts have rarelybeen measured. Case studies on business andCSO initiatives featured in The Global Outlook onSCP Policies have shown that measures to monitorprogress achieved by applying specific technologiesor management practices are available. For example,the reduction in energy consumption resulting fromthe installation of energy-saving and insulatingdevices in apartment buildings in Ukraine, thereductions in landfill emissions due to compostingin Indonesia, and the conservation of waterdue to switching to a different coffee-producingtechnology in Panama have been quantified. Inthese cases, success can often be attributed toone specific measure. However, it is generally moredifficult to establish causal links between policyimplementation and a change on the ground. Mostsurvey respondents did not provide informationrelated to SCP policies, such as targets, indicators,or monitoring and evaluation systems to measureoutcomes. In many instances, this omission is dueto the relatively recent development of SCP policiesand the lack of clear indicators of their success.This gap in research underlines the urgent need todevelop SCP indicators, clear monitoring systemsand build capacity to track progress.3 Learn from experience to develop an optimalpolicy mix: There is no one-size-fits-all policy that isappropriate for SCP. Its cross-cutting nature meansthat specific priorities and needs are determined toa large extent by the local context. Policy mixes mustalso be used to shift all stages of product life cyclestoward sustainable patterns. One example fromThe Global Outlook on SCP Policies is the policy onsustainable transport in Dubai. A dedicated authoritywas set up to develop an enabling infrastructure fora variety of transportation modalities and activitieson communications. Award-winning awarenesscampaigns such as “Why drive, when you can ridethe metro?” encourage citizens to make changesin their transportation choices. In Kenya, a policymix for reducing plastic bag use includes a banon certain bags and a levy on others to create arecycling system. The policy mix can be furtherstrengthened by including communication policiesfor consumer information on alternative carrierbags and opportunities for recycling. However, inpractice, policies are often developed in isolation.Coherent frameworks ensuring the linkages betweendifferent types of instruments need to be developed.This requires cross-sectoral cooperation betweenministries and stakeholders to establish effectivepolicies along the life cycle.4 Provide enabling policy frameworks to encouragebusiness investments on SCP: More appropriateincentives that allow businesses to succeed whenthey invest in sustainable business practices needto be created. Such incentives exist, for example,in the form of loans and financial assistance for theimplementation of wastewater treatment and wasterecovery in Turkey. SMEs have a crucial role to playin fostering SCP, but often face more challengesthan larger companies in making this shift. TheInternational Social and Environmental Accreditationand Labelling (ISEAL) Alliance’s Code of Good212

taking action togetherPractice for Assessing the Impacts of Standards,for example, aims at making sure that small-scaleenterprises can afford to enter into certificationprogrammes and, hence, better access markets.Supporting the shift to SCP patterns by SMEs alsorequires targeted government policies that levelthe playing field using a clear policy frameworkthat includes regulations and financial incentives.Technical and financial assistance may also berequired for transferring technology conducive tomoving toward SCP patterns. In The Global Outlookon SCP Policies, we see an example of cooperationbetween governments, development agencies,a producer of solar energy technology and aninvestment fund for converting a propane-based fruitdrying system to a solar one in Guatemala. Suchcross-sectoral cooperation is particularly importantin developing countries, which often rely on externalfunds to acquire and apply more resource-efficientand sustainable technologies. Cooperation withbusiness and industry on the design of enablingpolicies can also help to harness market forcesto drive the shift to SCP, for example, throughsustainable procurement and incentives for longterminvestment.5 Adopt and apply alternative measures of progressbeyond GDP: The reliance on growing consumptionand production levels as an indicator of economicsuccess at the national, enterprise and individuallevels fails to reflect the imperative of sustainabledevelopment. Multidimensional measurements suchas the Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment’s Better Life Index, which includessocial, environmental and economic indicators,and the Multidimensional Poverty Index can providealternatives. Tools such as environmental footprints,social life cycle and life-cycle sustainabilityassessments can help construct indices, stimulateresearch on sustainable living and crucially guidethe design of policies and actions needed topromote the shift to SCP. Clear methodologies tomeasure and disclose ecological footprints need tobe provided or elaborated in collaboration with thescientific and business communities, thus helping toraise the bar through benchmarking and identifyingleverage points. For example, the Carbon Disclosureproject provides information on greenhouse gasemissions data to over 551 institutional investors.While much information on environmental impactsof economic activity is becoming available, moresustainable businesses, such as those based onrenewable energy technology, often do not attractenough investment. The Investor Network onClimate Risk, for example, works with governmentpolicymakers to increase financing for low-carbonenergy technologies. Encouraging the use ofmetrics and the application of environmental, socialand governance criteria could play a much moreimportant role in investment decision-making inthe future, leading to the adoption of technologies,management practices and product developmentthat promote SCP.6 Give more emphasis to the demand side topromote sustainable lifestyles: The Global Outlook onSCP Policies found that policies aimed at changingconsumption behaviour in a sustainable directionare less common and generally more poorlyimplemented than supply-side policies for SCP.However, behavioural change and social innovationare as crucial as technological innovation andeconomic policy instruments aiming to stimulatesustainable production. On the policy side, thereis a need to understand how consumer behaviouris changing, identify tools and policy mixes thatare most effective in directing that change towardsustainable consumption, and counteract theimportant and pervasive rebound effect.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies provides anillustration for the need for more demand sidepolicies on waste management. Waste is oneof the major challenges of urbanization in WestAsia. The Emirates Environmental Group’s WasteManagement Programme collects paper, cans,glass and plastic from businesses and schools forrecycling. While its focus is on promoting a circulareconomy, accompanying policies are needed to curbconsumption. Academia and CSOs have createda range of supporting education and awarenessprogrammes to demonstrate the need and solutionsfor locally and <strong>global</strong>ly sustainable lifestylesusing play stories, printed materials for youth andeducators and virtual information tools. To movebeyond choice editing and toward making sustainableproducts the default choice in the market place, wemust partner with businesses to reward sustainableconsumption. Academia and CSOs, in cooperationwith governments and the private section, requirecontinuous support to develop innovative approachesand help disseminate them.7 Enhance responsible marketing and mediathrough policies and campaigns: Marketing andmedia are powerful channels to influence consumerchoices. There is an urgent need to work with theseindustries and tools, in order to encourage peopleto move toward more sustainable behaviours inaddition or in coordination with public and civilsociety information campaigns. SCP programmesand projects such as those in Brazil (recycling forenergy credits), Ghana (instructions for eco-efficientdriving), Japan (information on Eco Mark), SouthAfrica (public relations activities on an energyDemand Side Management programme) and Kuwait(short messaging services for water and electricityconservation) can be scaled up with the cooperationof marketing and mass media.213

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIES8 Draw on and further develop partnershipsamong all actors and regions: Partnerships withbusiness, governments and other stakeholdershave proven practical in inspiring innovation andallowing for the exchange of experience. Examplesof such partnerships include the United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agency’s partnerships innine thematic areas, including affordable housingand transportation, the European Food Roundtableand the international SEED initiative supportingsmall-scale and locally driven entrepreneurship thatintegrates social and environmental benefits intobusiness models. Successful partnerships will needto be scaled up to have broader impact, and newactors, such as financial institutions, will need to bebrought in. Enhancing information and knowledgesharingwould also facilitate cooperation by buildingsynergies and partnerships.The Way ForwardAs we look forward to the 2012 United NationsConference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20),it is clear that enhancing existing policies,expanding capacity-building activities and sharingexperiences in promoting SCP patterns around theworld, are required. The establishment of a 10-Year Framework of Programmes on SCP (10YFP)-responding to the JPOI and, as elaborated at the19th Session of the Commission on SustainableDevelopment- could make a crucial contribution inthis regard.The Global Outlook on SCP Policies is onestep forward in gathering information on SCPpolicies supporting the transition to sustainabledevelopment. Building on this effort, as well as onthe work achieved by the Marrakech Process onSCP, UNEP will continue to collect good initiativesand practices on SCP. This will be done in closecooperation with all stakeholders and UN agencies,with the objective of sharing information andexperience among all regions and all actors. Inthe future, these efforts could contribute to theestablishment of a more structured and dynamic<strong>global</strong> clearinghouse on SCP, facilitating exchangeof information, knowledge on effective policies,and disseminating capacity-building tools. Sucha clearinghouse could play an important role infacilitating dialogue and encouraging cooperationand partnerships that are needed to inspire andaccelerate the shift towards SCP patterns.We continue to welcome contributions at: http://web2.unep.fr/<strong>global</strong><strong>outlook</strong>/Login.aspx214

taking action togetherGlossaryBenchmarkingByproductsCarbon Footprint (CF)Capacity BuildingCarrying Capacity ofEcosystemsChoice Editing /Choice InfluencingCleaner ProductionCO 2 EquivalentConsumer ProtectionA process by which a company or organisation compares its products and methods with thoseof the most successful in its field, in order to judge its own performance, or that of othercompanies of the same type.Output other than the principal product(s) of an industrial process. Byproducts have low valuein comparison with the principal product(s) and may be discarded or sold either in their originalstate, or after further processing.The total set of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an organisation, event or product.For simplicity of reporting, it is often expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, or itsequivalent of other GHGs, emitted.Means by which skills, experience, technical and management capacity are developed within anorganisational structure, often through the provision of technical assistance, short/long-termtraining, and specialist inputs. The process may involve the development of human, materialand financial resources.Capacity of an ecosystem to support healthy organisms while maintaining its productivity,adaptability and capability for renewal. Carrying capacity is a quantitative concept: key factorsfor human populations include numbers and density, affluence and technology. Concerns focuson depletion rates of renewable and non-renewable resources and the build up of hazardouswastes in the environment.Choice editing is the term used to describe instances where governments and/or businessesinfluence the choices made by consumers. For example, a decision by a government to removeall non-energy efficient light bulbs removes the choice for consumers to buy light bulbs that arenot energy efficient.The continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy to processes,goods, and services to increase overall efficiency, and reduce risks to humans and theenvironment. Cleaner Production can be applied to the processes used in any industry, to goodsthemselves, and to various services provided in society.The concentration of CO 2 that would cause the same amount of radiative forcing as the givenmixture of CO 2 and other greenhouse gases. Carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 eq) provide auniversal standard of measurement against which the impacts of releasing (or avoiding therelease of) different greenhouse gases can be evaluated.This refers to mechanisms (legal, quasi-legal, moral and institutional) to protect consumers orusers in their transactions with producers (e.g. safeguards against unfair contract terms) and intheir use of goods or services (e.g. product safety standards).The UN guidelines on consumer protection (1999) “recognise that consumers, particularlyin developing countries, often face imbalances in economic terms, educational levelsand bargaining power”; and that they “should have the right of access to non-hazardousproducts, as well as the right to promote just, equitable and sustainable economic and socialdevelopment and environmental protection.”The guidelines also state that governments’ role is crucial to maintain adequate infrastructureto develop, implement and monitor consumer protection policies. Special care should be takento ensure that measures for consumer protection are implemented for the benefit of all sectorsof the population, particularly the rural population and people living in poverty.In applying any procedures or regulations for consumer protection, due regard should be givento ensuring that they do not become barriers to international trade and that they are consistentwith international trade obligations.Corporate Socialand EnvironmentalResponsibility (CSER)A values-based way of conducting business in a manner that advances sustainabledevelopment, seeking positive impact between business operations and society, aware of theclose interrelation between business and society as well as of (companies, like citizens, havingbasic rights and duties wherever they operate.215

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESDecoupling EconomicGrowth fromEnvironmentalDegradationDecoupling refers to the relationship between (1) economic variables, such as Gross DomesticProduct (GDP) or the Human Development Index (HDI), and (2) environmental variables, such asresource use or environmental indicators. There is a distinction between decoupling economicgrowth from resource use and from environmental impacts.– Impact decoupling refers to reducing the relationship between economic growth andenvironmental impacts such as climate change, biodiversity loss and degradation ofhuman health.There is also a distinction between absolute and relative decoupling.– In relative decoupling, the growth rate of the environmentally relevant parameter is less thanthe economic parameter, but is still positive.– In absolute decoupling, the growth rate of the environmental parameter is zero or negative.Demand SideManagement (DSM)Eco-efficiencyEcodesignEcosystem ServicesImplementation of policies or measures that serve to reduce or otherwise influence the demand(by users or consumers) instead of supply.Eco-efficiency is a management philosophy that encourages business to search forenvironmental improvements that yield parallel economic benefits. It focuses on businessopportunities and allows companies to become more environmentally responsible and moreprofitable. It is a key business contribution to sustainable societies. Eco-efficiency is achievedby the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy human needs and bringquality of life, while progressively reducing ecological impacts and resource intensity throughoutthe life-cycle to a level at least in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity.Ecodesign aims at reducing the environmental impact of products (including energyconsumption) throughout their entire life cycle.Ecological processes or functions that have value or benefits to individuals or society.These include:– Provisioning services – the products obtained from ecosystems, including, for example,genetic resources, food and fibre, and freshwater.– Regulating services – the benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes,including, for example, the regulation of climate, water and some human diseases.– Cultural services – the non-material benefits people obtain from ecosystems throughspiritual enrichment, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experience, including, for example,knowledge systems, social relations and aesthetic values.– Supporting services – the services necessary for the production of all other ecosystemservices, including, for example, biomass production, production of atmospheric oxygen, soilformation and retention, nutrient cycling, water cycling and provision of habitat.EmissionsTrading (ET)Energy EfficiencyEnvironmental Labellingand CertificationA market-based approach to achieving environmental objectives that allows those reducinggreenhouse gas emissions below what is required, to use or trade the excess reductions tooffset emissions at another source inside or outside the country. In general, trading can occurat the intra-company, domestic and international levels.Energy Efficiency (EE) encompasses all changes that result in a reduction in the energy usedfor a given energy service (heating, lighting...) or level of activity. This reduction in energyconsumption is not necessarily associated with technical changes, since it can also resultfrom a better organisation and management or improved economic efficiency in the sector (e.g.overall gains of productivity).Voluntary procedure of ensuring that a product (refers to both goods and services, includingtheir production processes) meets certain specified criteria.– Environmental label – claim that indicates the environmental aspects of a good or service.– Ecolabel is awarded by an impartial third-party in relation to certain products that meetenvironmental leadership criteria based on life cycle considerations.– Certification is awarded to those products that comply absolutely with a set of baselinestandards.Extended ProducerResponsibilityExtended Producer Responsibility means that the producers take responsibility for theirproducts from cradle to grave, and therefore, should develop products that have improvedperformance throughout all stages of the product life cycle.At each stage of the life cycle, opportunities for improved performance exist.216

taking action togetherExternalitiesGreenwashingIndicators for SCPIntegrated ProductPoliciesInternalisation ofEnvironmental andSocial CostsLow CarbonTechnologiesPlanetary BoundariesPrecautionary ApproachProduct StandardsRebound EffectReduce – Reuse –Recycle (3Rs)Byproducts of activities that affect the well-being of people or damage the environment, wherethose impacts are not reflected in market prices. The costs (or benefits) associated withexternalities do not enter standard cost accounting schemes.Greenwashing is the act of misleading consumers regarding the environmental practices of acompany or the environmental benefits of a product or service. Companies are notably accusedof greenwashing when they spend more time and money claiming to be “green” throughadvertising and marketing than actually implementing business practices that minimise theirenvironmental impact.Indicators are an important tool for measuring change and for focusing attention on keypriorities. The primary focus of SCP indicators is on measuring progress towards moresustainable patterns of production and consumption. Recognising that what goes unmeasuredis often ignored, indicators are an important tool both for indicating progress – or the lack ofit – towards the specific objectives of a particular programme, and for prompting appropriateresponse strategies. In the context of SCP, indicators can also indicate whether a society’sconsumption and production patterns are bringing about more socially equitable andenvironmentally sustainable development.Integrated product policies is an approach that begins by asking how the environmentalperformance of products can be improved most cost-effectively. It is founded on theconsideration of the impacts of products throughout their life-cycle, from the natural resourcesfrom which they come, through their use and marketing, to their eventual disposal as waste. Itis also a relatively new approach to environmental policy.Internalisation of external costs aims to provide producers, manufacturers and consumerswith correct signals as to the true scarcity of resources, including environmental resources, sothat private production and consumption decisions are more in line with the social costs andbenefits. Internalisation can increase competitiveness in at least three ways: first, by increasingresource efficiency and/or reducing resource use; second, by limiting waste and pollution andthereby lowering abatement costs; and third, by reducing resource depletion and thereby relatedenvironmental costs. It is important in this respect though to harness the synergies betweencompany interests in enhancing resource efficiency and government interests in allocativeefficiency, resource conservation and improvement in environmental quality.Existing and emerging industrial technologies, which aim to deliver low or zero carbon emissionswhen fully developed and implemented.Planetary boundaries define the safe operating space for humanity planet’s biophysicalsubsystems or processes. Nine such processes correspond to planetary boundaries: climatechange; rate of biodiversity loss (terrestrial and marine); interference with the nitrogen andphosphorus cycles; stratospheric ozone depletion; ocean acidification; <strong>global</strong> freshwater use;change in land use; chemical pollution; and atmospheric aerosol loading.Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty shallnot be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent environmentaldegradation.A product standard sets out specific characteristics of a product, such as its size, shape,design, functions and performance, or the way it is labelled or packaged before it is put onsale. In certain cases, the way a product is produced can affect these characteristics, and itmay then prove more appropriate to draft technical regulations and standards in terms of aproduct’s process and production methods rather than its characteristics per se.The increase in consumption that occurs as a side-effect of the introduction of a more ecoefficienttechnology which leads to lower cost of products, hence increased demand.The 3R Initiative aims to promote the “3 Rs” (reduce, reuse andrecycle) <strong>global</strong>ly so as to build asound-material-cycle society through the effective use of resources and materials. Agreed uponat the G8 Sea Island Summit in June 2004, it was formally launched at a ministerial meeting inJapan in the spring of 2005.Reducing means choosing to use things with care to reduce the amount of waste generated.Reusing involves the repeated use of items or parts of items which still have usable aspects.Recycling means the use of waste itself as resources. Waste minimisation can be achieved inan efficient way by focusing primarily on the first of the 3Rs, “reduce,” followed by “reuse” andthen “recycle”.217

GLOBAL OUTLOOK ON SCP POLICIESRenewable EnergyResource EfficiencyTechnology TransferWater FootprintEnergy sources that are, within a short time frame relative to the earth’s natural cycles,sustainable, and include non-carbon technologies such as solar energy, hydropower, and wind,as well as carbon-neutral technologies such as biomass.Resource efficiency is about ensuring that natural resources are produced, processed, andconsumed in a more sustainable way, reducing the environmental impact from the consumptionand production of products over their full life cycles. By producing more wellbeing with lessmaterial consumption, resource efficiency enhances the means to meet human needs whilerespecting the ecological carrying capacity of the earth.Technology transfer is the flow of knowledge, techniques, experience, and innovation amongdifferent stakeholders through assistance, investment, licensing, trade or training. It comprisesthe process of learning to understand, utilise, and replicate the technology, including thecapacity to choose it, adapt it to local conditions, and integrate it with indigenous technologies.The water footprint is a measure of the impacts of the direct and indirect water consumptionassociated with all activities in a product’s life cycle. This is especially relevant for waterintensiveprocesses and at locations where water scarcity is a serious problem.Source: United Nations Environment Programme (2010). ABC of SCP. Clarifying Concepts on Sustainable Consumption andProduction. Available from http://www.unep.fr/scp/marrakech/pdf/ABC%20of%20SCP%20-%20Clarifying%20Concepts%20on%20SCP.pdf218

taking action togetherNotes219

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About the UNEP Division of Technology,Industry and EconomicsSet up in 1975, three years after UNEP was created, the Division of Technology,Economics (DTIE) provides solutions to policy-makers and helps change thebusiness environment by offering platforms for dialogue and co-operation,innovative policy options, pilot projects and creative market mechanisms.DTIE plays a leading role in three of the six UNEP strategic priorities: climatechange, harmful substances and hazardous waste, resource efficiency.DTIE is also actively contributing to the Green Economy Initiative launchedby UNEP in 2008. This aims to shift national and world economies on to anew path, in which jobs and output growth are driven by increased investmentin green sectors, and by a switch of consumers’ preferences towardsenvironmentally friendly goods and services.Moreover, DTIE is responsible for fulfilling UNEP’s mandate as animplementing agency for the Montreal Protocol Multilateral Fundand plays an executing role for a number of UNEP projects financed by theGlobal Environment Facility.The Office of the Director, located in Paris, coordinates activities through:> The International Environmental Technology Centre – IETC (Osaka), which implementsintegrated waste, water and disaster management programmes, focusing in particular on Asia.> Sustainable Consumption and Production (Paris), which promotes sustainable consumptionand production patterns as a contribution to human development through <strong>global</strong> markets.> Chemicals (Geneva), which catalyses <strong>global</strong> actions to bring about the sound managementof chemicals and the improvement of chemical safety worldwide.> Energy (Paris and Nairobi), which fosters energy and transport policies for sustainabledevelopment and encourages investment in renewable energy and energy efficiency.> OzonAction (Paris), which supports the phase-out of ozone depleting substances indeveloping countries and countries with economies in transition to ensure implementationof the Montreal Protocol.> Economics and Trade (Geneva), which helps countries to integrate environmentalconsiderations into economic and trade policies, and works with the finance sector toincorporate sustainable development policies. This branch is also charged with producinggreen economy reports.DTIE works with many partners (other UN agencies andprogrammes, international organizations, governments, nongovernmentalorganizations, business, industry, the media andthe public) to raise awareness, improve the transfer of knowledgeand information, foster technological cooperation and implementinternational conventions and agreements.For more information,www.unep.org/dtie

The Global Outlook on SustainableConsumption and Production (SCP)Policies, developed by the UnitedNations Environment Programme(UNEP) with the financial support ofthe European Commission, provides anon-exhaustive review of governmentpolicies and business and civilsociety initiatives to shift towardsSCP patterns. Broad in scope andworldwide in coverage, this GlobalOutlook includes a wide number of SCPpolicies and initiatives, illustrated by56 case studies ranging from <strong>global</strong>multilateral agreements and regionalstrategies to specific policies andinitiatives being implemented in allregions. It also reviews policy toolssuch as regulatory, economic, voluntaryand information-based instrumentswhile examining key economic sectorsincluding energy, transport and food,and integrated approaches suchas waste management. This reportprovides inspiring information aboutaction and progress in promotingSCP. It highlights best practices andoffers recommendations to scaleup and replicate these importantefforts around the world. The GlobalOutlook on SCP Policies will contributeto the dialogue and analysis in thepreparations for Rio+20.United Nations United Environment Nations Environment Programme ProgrammeP.O. Box 30552 P.O. Box Nairobi, 30552 00100 Nairobi, Kenya 00100 KenyaTel: (254 20) Tel: 7621234 (254 20) 7621234Fax: (254 Fax: 20) 7623927 (254 20) 7623927E-mail: uneppub@unep.orgE-mail: uneppub@unep.orgweb: www.unep.org web: www.unep.orgFor more information, contact:UNEP DTIESustainable Consumption andProduction Branch15 rue de Milan75441 Paris Cedex 09FranceTel: +33 1 44 37 14 50Fax: +33 1 44 37 14 74Email: unep.tie@unep.orgwww.unep.fr/scp/Valuesand LifestylesDisposalConsumption& UseEnablingPolicy FrameworkReduce Re-use& RecycleProductDesignLife CyclePerspectiveDistribution &MarketingNaturalResource Use& ExtractionManufacturingTechnologicaland Social InnovationMarket ForcesISBN: 978-92-807-3250-4DTI/1498/PA