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2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts About FAA/ASTAbout the Office of Commercial Space TransportationThe Federal Aviation Administration’s Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST) licensesand regulates U.S. commercial space launch and reentry activity, as well as the operation of non-federallaunch and reentry sites, as authorized by Executive Order 12465 and Title 49 United States Code, SubtitleIX, Chapter 701 (formerly the Commercial Space Launch Act). FAA/AST’s mission is to ensure public healthand safety and the safety of property while protecting the national security and foreign policy interests of theUnited States during commercial launch and reentry operations. In addition, FAA/AST is directed to encourage,facilitate, and promote commercial space launches and reentries. Additional information concerningcommercial space transportation can be found on FAA/AST’s web site at http://ast.faa.gov.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportationi

About FAA/AST2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsNOTICEUse of trade names or names of manufacturers in this document does not constitute an official endorsement of suchproducts or manufacturers, either expressed or implied, by the Federal Aviation Administration.iiFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts AcronymsList of AcronymsAADC – Alaska Aerospace DevelopmentCorporation, Anchorage, AlaskaACES – Air Collection and Enrichment SystemAFB – Air Force BaseAFRL – Air Force Research Laboratory, EdwardsAir Force Base, CaliforniaAPO – Announcement of Partnership OpportunitiesAST – Office of Commercial Space TransportationC/NOFS – Communication/Navigation OutageForecasting SystemCAIB – Columbia Accident Investigation BoardCALVEIN – California Launch Vehicle InitiativeCCAFS – Cape Canaveral Air Force Station,FloridaCEV – Crew Exploration VehicleCRV – Crew Rescue VehicleCSIA – Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark, BurnsFlat, OklahomaCSULB – California State University, Long BeachCTV – Crew Transfer VehicleDARPA – Defense Advanced Research ProjectsAgencyDART – Demonstration of AutonomousRendezvous TechnologyDoD – U.S. Department of DefenseEAFB – Edwards Air Force Base, Edwards,CaliforniaEELV – Evolved Expendable Launch VehicleEIS – Environmental Impact StatementELV – Expendable Launch VehicleERV – Expendable Rocket VehicleFAA – Federal Aviation AdministrationFALCON – Force Application and Launch fromCONUSFSA – Florida Space AuthorityGEO – Geosynchronous Earth OrbitGPS/INS – Global Positioning System/InertialNavigation SystemGSC – Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, HuntingtonBeach, CaliforniaGTO – Geosynchronous Transfer OrbitHTPB – Hydroxyl Terminated PolybutadieneHX – Hydrocarbon XHYSR – Hybrid Sounding RocketICBM – Intercontinental Ballistic MissileIOS – Interorbital Systems, Mojave, CaliforniaIPD – Integrated Powerhead DemonstratorIPF – Integrated Processing FacilityISS – International Space StationISTP – Integrated Space Transportation PlanJSC – Johnson Space Center, Houston, TexasKSC – Kennedy Space Center, FloridaLAP – Launch Assist PlatformLC – Launch ComplexLEO – Low Earth OrbitFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportationv

Acronyms2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsLOX – Liquid OxygenRSTS – Range Safety and Telemetry SystemMARS – Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, WallopsIsland, VirginiaMAV – Mojave Aerospace Ventures, Mojave,CaliforniaMDA – Missile Defense AgencyMEO – Medium Earth OrbitMIPCC – Mass Injected Pre-Compressor CoolingMPV – MIPCC-Powered VehicleMSFC – Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville,AlabamaMTA – Mojave Test Area, Mojave, CaliforniaNASA – National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministrationNCSS – National Coalition of Spaceport StatesNGLT – Next Generation Launch TechnologyNLV – Nanosat Launch VehicleNTPS – National Test Pilot SchoolORS – Operationally Responsive SpaceliftOSIDA – Oklahoma Space Industry DevelopmentAuthorityOSP – Orbital Space PlanePDR – Preliminary Design ReviewRTS – Reagan Test Site, Republic of the MarshallIslandsSBIR – Small Business Innovation ResearchSLC – Space Launch ComplexSLEP – Service Life Extension ProgramSLI – Space Launch InitiativeSLV – Small Launch VehicleSRS – Southwest Regional Spaceport, New MexicoSSI – Spaceport Systems International, L.P., VAFB,CaliforniaSSME – Space Shuttle Main EngineSSO – Sun-synchronous OrbitSTS – Space Transportation SystemUAV – Unmanned Aerial VehicleUSAF – U.S. Air ForceVAFB – Vandenberg Air Force Base, Lompoc,CaliforniaVCSFA – Virginia Commercial Space FlightAuthorityWFF – Wallops Flight Facility, Wallops Island,VirginiaWFNA – white fuming nitric acidQRLV – Quick Reaction Launch VehicleR&D – Research and DevelopmentRASCAL – Responsive Access, Small Cargo,Affordable LaunchRFI – Request for InformationRLV – Reusable Launch VehicleviFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts IntroductionIntroduction“Kitty Hawk, move over.” That’s how FAAAdministrator Marion Blakey described the historicflight of SpaceShipOne on October 4, 2004, thatlaunched a new commercial space industry thatmight someday rival that of the commercial airlinesindustry. 1 For commercial space transportation, 2004was a banner year in which this achievement wasjust one of the highlights.The U.S. Space Exploration Policy, datedJanuary 14, 2004, outlines the President’s Visionfor Space Exploration, establishing a national priorityto extend human presence in space. This planwould retire the Space Shuttle and develop a newvehicle that would carry astronauts into space.Starting with a return to the Moon by 2020, theeffort would continue with human exploration ofMars and other destinations. On December 21,2004, a new U.S. Space Transportation Policy,emphasizing the importance of maintaining robustU.S. space transportation infrastructure and capabilitiesin order to assure access to space was authorized.This policy states a U.S. government commitmentto encouraging and facilitating a viable U.S.commercial space transportation industry.Additionally, two important pieces of legislationwere signed into law. On November 30, the ASTIndemnification Bill, HR 5245 was signed into law(Public Law 108-428). The purpose of the bill is toexamine the liability risk-sharing regime between thegovernment and private sector for commercial spacetransportation. It also extends the current indemnificationregime through 2009. The Commercial SpaceLaunch Amendments Act of 2004, signed into lawon December 23 (Public Law 108-492), amendsFederal law concerning commercial space transportationto make such law applicable to spaceflightcrews and spaceflight participants.The private sector plays a prominent role inmanaging, developing, and funding commercial spacetransportation activities. Additionally, the federal governmentand several state governments substantiallycontribute to or provide leadership for many of thetechnologies and facilities needed to advance thisnascent industry. While the first privately developedreusable launch vehicles (RLVs) are suborbital, manyorganizations expect to eventually develop an orbitalRLV. Even though the Ansari X-Prize has alreadybeen claimed, other X-Prize competitors continuedeveloping their suborbital RLV concepts.This report reviews major events relatingto U.S. commercial space transportation in 2004.Current and planned U.S. commercial and commerciallyoriented activities are showcased. The FederalAviation Administration, Office of Commercial SpaceTransportation (FAA/AST), first published the U.S.Commercial Space Transportation Developments andConcepts: Vehicles, Technologies, and Spaceports in1998. That edition focused exclusively on RLVs. Inaddition to reviewing RLVs, this report addressesexpendable launch vehicles (ELVs), propulsion technologies,and launch and reentry sites – commonlyreferred to as spaceports. Space transportation programsand projects that will impact and support thedevelopment of commercial space activities andapplications are also reviewed.Always full of new developments, commercialspace transportation is a fast-paced, rapidlyevolving industry. Providing a well-rounded pictureof today’s space transportation industry requiresaddressing a broad range of topics. Information presentedin this document was compiled from directcommunications with academic, federal, civil, andcorporate organizations and open sources. Becausemany of the statements herein are forward looking,current information should be obtained by contactingthe relevant organizations.Space CompetitionsA number of competitions were born in 2004, pushingthe envelope of space innovation and exploration.The Ansari X Prize – a challenge to create a craftwithout government support to fly to the edge ofspace twice within two weeks – has provided theinspiration for other competitions to advance thecommercial space industry. The creators of the $10million Ansari X Prize created a new competitionbased on the X Prize model: the X Prize Cup. Thistime, however, several challenges are involved, andthe games will take place annually. The idea behindthis contest is to get the rest of the public involvedwith the newly emerging space industry.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 1

Introduction2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsAnother competition, America’s Space Prize,the brainchild of Robert Bigelow, can be consideredthe next step beyond the original Ansari X Prize.Bigelow’s challenge seeks vehicles that will go fartherbeyond the boundary of space and stay in orbit.Bigelow’s company, Bigelow Aerospace, plans touse the competition to find a spacecraft that willdock with its inflatable habitat modules that it plansto have orbiting the Earth in the future.With its announcement of the CentennialChallenges, the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration (NASA) has also jumped into theexcitement of the new commercial space era. Manyof NASA’s challenges will be geared toward spaceexploration in and beyond the orbit of Earth. Themain benefit of the Centennial Challenges hingeson the fact that NASA is seeking assistance fromthe commercial sector through these competitions.Expendable Launch Vehicle IndustryU.S. commercial launch activity increased fromrecent years. In 2004, FAA/AST licensed 9 orbitallaunches out of 15 total commercial orbital launchesworldwide. Lockheed Martin had six Atlas launches,including five commercial missions, and one Titan 4launch. Boeing launched seven Delta 2 rockets andone Delta 4 Heavy. Orbital Sciences launched onecommercial Taurus rocket. Also, Sea Launch performedthree commercial Zenit-3SL launches.As the market for commercial launches continuesto expand, so does the demand for inexpensive,innovative rockets. Therefore, a number of commercialELVs are under development to serve smallerpayloads. Small entrepreneurial companies focusingon specific market niches, such as small governmentpayloads, are primarily developing these ELVs.These companies are exploring various technologies,including new propellants and pressure-fed engines,which have the potential to reduce the cost of thesevehicles. A number of key developments for thesetypes of ELVs emerged in 2004, thus assisting thepursuit of private investment. Throughout 2004,design and development of reduced cost andincreased performance ELVs continued towardcompletion; some seeking to use such pioneeringtechnologies as hybrid propulsion systems. Some ofthese new technologies are slated for launch in 2005.Reusable Launch Vehicle IndustryThe appeal of RLVs rests in their ability not only tolaunch from but also to return to Earth for reuse –a quality desirable for various types of missions,including human trips to and from space. In addition,construction cost of an RLV could be amortizedover multiple launches, thus potentially reducingthe cost of access to space for government andcommercial users. With current advances in RLVtechnology and commercial RLV success, regularRLV space travel is closer to becoming a reality.Government and commercial developers havebeen striving for innovations that aid the developmentof low-cost, high-performance RLVs. ThoughRLV development has historically been hindered bya number of factors, 2004 proved favorable for thisendeavor, primarily because of the Ansari X Prizecompetition. Other non-governmental entities –non-Ansari X Prize contenders – have also beenresearching and developing RLVs for commercialuse. In September, SpaceDev signed an agreementwith the NASA Ames Research Center for technologycollaboration in designing a high-performance,commercial, manned suborbital vehicle. Also, theSpace Exploration Technologies Corporation(SpaceX) Falcon 1, a partially reusable launch vehicle,was placed on the SpaceX launch pad atVandenberg Air Force Base (VAFB), California,and it is currently undergoing final tests and awaitingfinal approval.One great accomplishment in RLV developmentin 2004 was Mojave Aerospace Ventures(MAV) winning the Ansari X Prize. On September29 and October 4, SpaceShipOne flew past theboundary of Earth and space to claim the $10-millionprize. Successful completion of the Ansari XPrize competition proved that private companiescan develop ways to travel to space without theextreme expense of government-funded programs.Another positive result is that interest in the futureof commercial space travel has greatly increased.Sir Richard Branson, founder of Virgin Airlines,teamed up with MAV to create his new visionarycompany, Virgin Galactic. This company willdevelop large ships capable of carrying spaceflightparticipants (passengers) to space.2 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts IntroductionEnabling TechnologiesEfforts to develop new propulsion technologies forlaunch vehicles, including ELVs and RLVs, continuedto expand. These efforts include governmentfundedresearch projects as well as engines andmotors being developed by companies for use intheir launch vehicles and for sale to other companies.A trend toward development of new liquid-propellantengines that use room-temperature propellantsinstead of cryogens or pressure-fed systems insteadof turbopumps has emerged. These engines are considerablyless complex and potentially less expensivethan engines that use turbopumps and cryogenic propellants.SpaceX’s Falcon 1 is to use both of its liquidengines, Merlin and Kestrel, to launch.Other innovative propulsion technologies indevelopment include hybrid propulsion and airbreathingengines. Hybrid propulsion combines thesolid fuel propellant of conventional rockets with liquidor gaseous oxidizers. Advantages of hybridpropulsion over solid rocket propulsion includeincreased thrust, throttle capability, and shut-off andrestart capabilities. SpaceShipOne made its historicflights using one such hybrid engine. The engine ranon basically nothing other than a mixture of laughinggas and rubber. Air-breathing engines work in a mannersimilar to conventional turbine jet engines, ignitinga compressed air and fuel mixture for thrust;however, the turbines are not needed. The air isalready compressed because of the supersonic speedsthese vehicles travel. In March, NASA’s X-43Abecame the world’s fastest air-breathing vehicle inhistory, reaching a speed of Mach 6.83.the primary developers and users of launch facilities,commercial launch activity now comprises asubstantial portion of federal launch site operations.A number of significant developments occurred atmajor U.S. launch sites in 2004, including thelicensing of a new launch site by FAA/AST. OnJune 17, 2004, FAA/AST awarded a launch siteoperator license to the East Kern Airport District tocover suborbital spaceflight activities at MojaveAirport.The commercial dimension of U.S. spaceactivity is evident not only in the number ofcommercially procured launches but also in thelist of non-federal launch sites supplementingfederally operated sites. FAA/AST has licensedthe operations of five spaceports in four U.S. states.These sites are available to serve commercial aswell as government payload owners. These spaceportoperators are also seeking new opportunities,such as payload processing and space researchfacility development. Organizations in several statessee the potential of spaceports to accommodatefuture launch vehicles, and they are actively workingto turn their spaceport visions into reality.Based on projections for increased launch rates andhistoric milestones in RLV activity reached in 2004,future spaceports may prosper from new businessesthat are ready to bloom.Bigelow Aerospace is developing commercialinflatable space modules, with technical assistancefrom the NASA Johnson Space Center (JSC), Texas.Such modules will offer improved living conditionsand ability to conduct experiments while in orbit.NASA hopes to use the Bigelow technology to placethe inflatable modules on the Moon or Mars.SpaceportsLaunch and reentry sites – often referred to as“spaceports” – may house launch pads and runwaysas well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuelsneeded to process launch vehicles and their payloadsbefore launch. While U.S. military and civilgovernment agencies were the original and still areFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 3

Significant 2004 Events2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSignificant 2004 EventsJanuary 10: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket successfullylaunches the Telstar 14/Estrela do Sul 1communications satellite from Odyssey platform,Pacific Ocean (154° West, 0° North).January 14: President Bush announces the nation’snew Space Exploration Initiative. The Presidentcommitted the United States to a long-term humanand robotic program to explore the solar system,starting with a return to the Moon that will ultimatelyenable future exploration of Mars and otherdestinations.February 5: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocketlaunches the AMC 10 communications satellite forSES Americom from CCAFS.March 13: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2A rocket,AC-202, launches the MBSAT satellite for Japan’sMobile Broadcasting Corporation from CCAFS.March 27: Reaching the speed of Mach 6.83, theX-43A flies into history and the Guinness Book ofWorld Records for the world’s fastest free-flying,air-breathing aircraft.April 1: SpaceShipOne receives the first RLVlicense ever issued from the FAA/AST.April 8: The first licensed launch for SpaceShipOnetakes place after the White Knight carrier aircrafttakes off from Mojave Airport, California, launchingthe private spaceship in the air and returning toland at the airport.April 16: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocketlaunches the Japanese Superbird 6 communicationssatellite from CCAFS.April 23: XCOR Aerospace receives its first RLVlicense from FAA/AST for the Sphinx vehicle.May 4: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket launchesthe DirecTV 7S direct-to-home TV broadcastingsatellite from Odyssey platform, Pacific Ocean(154° West, 0° North).May 13: The second FAA/AST-licensed launch ofSpaceShipOne occurs. The Tier One Programachieves an altitude of approximately 64 kilometers(40 miles), setting the world record for the highestaltitude reached by a piloted, non-governmentspace program. SpaceShipOne flight 14P was thethird powered flight of this RLV.May 17: An Orbital Sciences Corporation TaurusXL rocket launches the ROCSAT 2 remote sensingsatellite for the Republic of China’s National SpaceProgram Office from VAFB.May 20: Lockheed Martin’s Atlas 2AS rocketlaunches the AMC 11 communications satellite forSES Americom from CCAFS.June 15: NASA holds workshop for its CentennialChallenges, a set of competitions to propel technologyand increase interest in order to further thefield of space exploration.June 17: FAA/AST issues a license for the firstinland launch site to Mojave Airport to conductsuborbital launch activities.June 21: Mike Melvill pilots SpaceShipOne to 100kilometers (62 miles) above the Earth, marking thehistoric first non-governmental manned rocketflight to suborbital space. Associate Administratorfor Commercial Space Transportation, Patricia G.Smith, awards Melvill the first U.S. Department ofTransportation/FAA Commercial Astronaut Wings.June 28: A Sea Launch Zenit 3SL rocket launchesthe Telstar 18 communications satellite from Odysseyplatform, Pacific Ocean (154° West, 0° North).August 31: Lockheed Martin’s final Atlas 2ASrocket launches a classified payload for the U.S.National Reconnaissance Office.September 16: A team of aerospace companiesled by Microcosm, Inc., of El Segundo, California,announces winning a Phase 2 award from theDefense Advanced Research Projects Agency(DARPA) for the development of a small launchvehicle.4 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Significant 2004 EventsSeptember 17: ZERO-G, the first and only FAAapprovedprovider of weightless flight, announcesthat it flew its first research customer, TethersUnlimited, an aerospace company based in Seattle,Washington, on a modified Boeing 727-200.September 20: SpaceDev signs an agreement withNASA Ames Research Center for technology collaborationin designing a high-performance, commercial,manned suborbital vehicle capable of carrying3-5 people to an altitude of approximately160 kilometers (100 miles).September 26: DARPA and U.S. Air Force(USAF) award approximately $42 million in developmentcontracts for research and design of a rapidlaunch capability.September 27: Sir Richard Branson, VirginAtlantic Airways founder, in agreement with ScaledComposites founder Burt Rutan and Microsoft cofounderPaul G. Allen, announces a plan for a newcommercial spaceflight company called VirginGalactic.September 29: SpaceShipOne, piloted by MikeMelvill, flew past the boundary of space for the firstattempt at claiming the $10 million Ansari X Prize.October 1: NASA puts out a call for the aerospaceindustry to provide more launch services for satellites,cargo – even astronauts.October 1: Rocketplane Limited, Inc., andIncredible Adventures join forces in a marketingagreement in order to start taking reservations forRocketplane’s suborbital spaceflight experience,scheduled to start launching in 2007.October 4: Brian Binnie pilots SpaceShipOne to112 kilometers (69 miles), winning the $10 millionAnsari X Prize and smashing the 108-kilometer(67-mile) altitude record set by the X-15 airplanein the 1960s. FAA Administrator, Marion Blakey,awards Binnie DOT/FAA Commercial AstronautWings.November 5: NASA releases two Requestsfor Information (RFI) and an Announcement ofPartnership Opportunities (APO) for its CentennialChallenges, a series of prize competitions.November 15: NASA holds Centennial ChallengesDay to discuss the two RFIs and the APO it releasedon November 5, 2004.November 17: X-43A breaks its March 27, 2004,record by reaching approximately Mach 9.7 duringits second flight.November 30: AST indemnification bill, HR 5245was signed into law (Public Law 108-428). Thepurpose of the bill is to examine the liability risksharing regime between the government and privatesector for commercial space transportation.December 8: SpaceTEC, the national center ofexcellence for aerospace technician training, entersinto partnerships with two key federal agencies –the FAA and U.S. Department of Labor. Theseagreements underscore the importance of SpaceTEC’smission to train the next generation of space industryworkers.December 17: Lockheed Martin successfullylaunches an Atlas 5, carrying an AMC-16 payload,from CCAFS.December 21: Boeing Launch Services conducts atest launch of the first Delta 4 Heavy launch vehicle,from CCAFS. The launch was only partially successfulsince there was an early cut-off of the mainengine leaving the test payload in a lower-thanintendedorbit.December 23: Commercial Space LaunchAmendments Act of 2004 signed into law (PublicLaw 108-492; 118 Stat. 3974; 10 pages). AmendsFederal law concerning commercial space transportationto make such law applicable to spaceflightcrews and spaceflight participants.October 8: SpaceDev is awarded approximately$1.5 million to proceed with Phase 2 of an Air ForceResearch Laboratory (AFRL) contract to continueits hybrid rocket small launch vehicle project.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 5

Space Competitions2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSpace CompetitionsPrizes have long been used to inspire innovationsand advances in aviation. Examples include theOrteig Prize claimed by Charles Lindbergh for crossingthe Atlantic in 1927. Today, this proud traditioncontinues in the commercial space transportationarena. In 2004, the $10-million Ansari X Prizewas awarded to MAV – an outgrowth of ScaledComposites, LLC, – led by Burt Rutan. In partbecause of the success of this prize, founders ofnew challenges decided to further the call for nongovernmentalspace innovation, and new prizecompetitions were created. These competitionsinclude the X Prize Cup, America’s Space Prize,and NASA’s Centennial Challenges.X Prize CupBefore the competition for the Ansari X Prizeended, the founders of the challenge decided toestablish the X Prize Cup. This annual 5-day eventis geared toward bringing forth new concepts andtechnologies which will enable development ofcommercial human spaceflight. A yearly set ofcompetitions will also enable the public to learnabout advancements in spaceflight technology.People will have chance to speak with the famousaviation and aerospace pioneers who are working toreduce the high cost and increase the safety andviability of commercial human space travel withinthis generation’s lifetime. Teams from all over theworld will compete in five categories to win theoverall cup. 2 These categories are as follows: fastestturnaround time between the first launch and secondlanding, maximum number of passengers perlaunch, total number of passengers during the competition,maximum altitude, and fastest flight time. 3The first competition – mainly an exhibitionary kickoffevent – is scheduled for the summer of 2005 atWhite Sands Missile Range, New Mexico. In 2006,the Southwest Regional Spaceport (SRS) in NewMexico will be the official site for the full event.America’s Space PrizeRobert Bigelow, founder of Bigelow Aerospace,proposed his own competition: America’s SpacePrize. This prize challenges developers and engineersto design a craft capable of ferrying passengers intoorbital flight. According to the rules, Americancompetitors will have to build a spacecraft capableof taking a crew of no fewer than five people to analtitude of 400 kilometers (240 miles) and completetwo orbits of the Earth at that altitude. Then, theyhave to repeat that accomplishment within 60 days.The first flight need not carry any extra passengers,but the second is required to carry a full crew. 4Furthermore, the vehicles will have to be able todock with Bigelow’s inflatable modules. BigelowAerospace plans to have a full-scale model orbitingEarth by 2008 at the earliest. The competition deadlineis slated for January 10, 2010. The proposedpurse for the competition is $50 million, fundedfully by Bigelow Aerospace.Centennial ChallengesYet another idea for space technology advancementhas been proposed by NASA. The CentennialChallenges is based on creating several competitionsthat will further the exploration of space. Whilelaunch vehicles may not be a large part of initial prizecompetitions, future prize proposals may includemissions with launch vehicles as funding becomesavailable. For now, some of the proposals involvinglaunch craft include orbital and suborbital humanspaceflight challenges and suborbital scientific payloadflight challenges. NASA held a workshop inJune to gather proposals for competitions to includein the Centennial Challenges. Following up, twoRFIs and one Partnership Opportunity werereleased on November 5. Additionally both topicswere discussed on Centennial Challenges Day,November 15. Final confirmation of which challengeswill be sponsored and the rules governingthese efforts are forthcoming.6 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch VehiclesExpendable Launch VehiclesThis survey of U.S. ELVs is divided into three sections.The first section reviews the ELVs currentlyavailable to serve a wide range of commercial andgovernment payloads. The second section reviews anumber of proposed commercial ELVs under studyor development that will primarily serve small commercialpayloads at prices that are potentially muchlower than available today. The final sectionreviews suborbital sounding rockets manufacturedand operated by U.S. companies.Current ExpendableLaunch Vehicle SystemsTable 1 lists the ELV systems available in the UnitedStates today. Two ELVs, the Minotaur and Titan 4B,are restricted to government payloads, and Boeing iscurrently marketing the Delta 4 only to governmentcustomers. Once the final two Titan 4 vehicles arelaunched, all large U.S. government payloads will belaunched on Atlas 5 or Delta 4 variants. Atlas 5, Delta2, Pegasus, and Taurus vehicles are available for bothcommercial and U.S. government launches, and theZenit 3SL is available only to commercial customers.The two newest members of the U.S. launcher supply,the Atlas 5 and Delta 4 evolved expendablelaunch vehicles (EELV), debuted in 2002. Because ofa new national vision to undertake manned missionsto the Moon and eventually Mars, NASA may requirevehicles that exceed the capabilities of the Atlas 5 andDelta 4 EELVs in order to launch CEVs and accomplishother missions. To date, however, plans for suchvehicles have not been announced.Atlas 5 – Lockheed Martin CorporationThe Atlas launch vehicle family traces its roots tothe development of the Atlas IntercontinentalBallistic Missile (ICBM) in the 1950s. Today, theAtlas family is in transition. Older versions of thevehicle (Atlas 2A, Atlas 2AS, Atlas 3A, and Atlas3B) are being retired to make way for the Atlas 5.Lockheed Martin retired its Atlas 2 launch vehiclein 2004 and plans to retire the Atlas 3 in 2005.The last Atlas 2AS launched in 2004 (givingthe Atlas 2AS family the remarkable record of 63successful launches without a failure). 5 One Atlas 3Avehicle also launched in 2004, and the last Atlas 3vehicle is scheduled to fly in early 2005.The maiden flight of theAtlas 5 took place on August 21,2002, when an Atlas 5 401 vehiclesuccessfully launched theEutelsat Hot Bird 6 spacecraftfrom CCAFS. The Atlas 5 is nowLockheed Martin’s sole commerciallaunch vehicle for the foreseeablefuture. The Atlas 5 familyof launch vehicles is based ona common first stage design –known as the Common CoreBooster – and uses the NPOEnergomash RD-180 engineintroduced on the Atlas 3. The Atlas 5 launchstretched version of the Centaurupper stage, introduced on the Atlas 3B, is also usedon single- and dual-engine versions of the Atlas 5.The Atlas 5 also marks a significant departurein launch preparations compared to previous Atlasversions. The Atlas 5 program uses a “clean pad”concept at Launch Complex (LC) 41 at CCAFS.The launch vehicle is prepared for launch “off pad”vertically in the Vertical Integration Facility nearthe pad. Hours before a launch, the fully-preparedvehicle is moved to the pad. The Atlas 5 will beoperational from LC-3E at VAFB in mid-2005, andwill be standardized to the operating processes atLC-41 except for the use of the more traditional“stack on pad” concept from the heritage launchvehicle programs.The Atlas 5 is available in the 400 and 500series and accommodates 4-meter (13.1 foot) and5-meter (16.4-foot) fairings and up to five strap-onsolid rocket motors. The Atlas 400 series can placepayloads between 4,950 and 7,640 kilograms (10,910and 16,843 pounds) into geosynchronous transferorbit (GTO). The Atlas 500 series can place payloadsbetween 3,970 and 8,670 kilograms (8,750 and19,120 pounds) into GTO. Lockheed Martin is currentlyfinalizing its design of the Atlas 5 Heavy LiftVehicle with a target initial operational capability inlate 2006. One commercial Atlas 5 launch took placeon December 17, 2004, and at least one commercialAtlas launch is scheduled for 2005.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 7

Expendable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsTable 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch VehiclesSmallMediumVehicle Minotaur Pegasus XL Taurus XL Delta 2 Titan 2Company Orbital Sciences Orbital Sciences Orbital Sciences Boeing Lockheed MartinFirst Launch 2000 1990 1994 1990 1988*Stages 4 343 2PayloadPerformance(LEO)640 kg(1,410 lbs.)440 kg(970 lbs.)1,360 kg(3,000 lbs.)5,100 kg(11,245 lbs.)N/APayloadPerformance(LEO polar)340 kg(750 lbs.)(SSO)190 kg(420 lbs.)(SSO)N/A3,895 kg(8,590 lbs.)1,905 kg(4,200 lbs.)PayloadPerformance(GTO)N/AN/A430 kg(950 lbs.)1,870 kg(4,120 lbs.)N/ALaunch SitesVAFBVAFB, Wallops,CCAFSVAFBCCAFS, VAFBVAFB* First launch of refurbished Titan 2 ICBM. Titan 2 was also used for Gemini program launches, 1964-1966.Delta 2 launchDelta 2 – The Boeing CompanyThe Delta family of launch vehiclestraces its heritage to the Thormissile program of the 1950s. Likethe Atlas program, the Delta familyis undergoing a transitionprompted by the introduction ofthe Delta 4 vehicles developedunder the EELV program. 6The Delta 2 uses a liquidoxygen(LOX)/kerosene first stageand a nitrogen tetraoxide and hydrazine secondstage. An optional solid-propellant upper stage isavailable. The Delta 2 also uses between three andnine strap-on solid rocket motors, depending on theperformance required. A “heavy” version of theDelta 2 entered service on August 25, 2003, withthe launch of NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescopespacecraft. This vehicle uses the larger graphiteepoxymotor 46 strap-on boosters developed for thenow-defunct Delta 3. Although small payloadcapacity has limited its usefulness for commercialGTO payloads, the Delta 2 is expected to remain in8 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch VehiclesTable 1: Currently Available Expendable Launch VehiclesIntermediateHeavyVehicle Delta 4 Atlas 5** Delta 4 Heavy Titan 4B Zenit 3SLCompany Boeing Lockheed Martin Boeing Lockheed Martin Sea LaunchFirst Launch 2002 2002 2004 1997 1999StagesPayloadPerformance(LEO)PayloadPerformance(LEO polar)PayloadPerformance(GTO)2 2 228,870 kg(19,555 lbs.)(Delta 4M)13,330 kg(29,390 lbs.)(Delta 4M+ (5,4))6,870 kg(15,150 lbs.)(Delta 4 M)10,400 kg(22,930 lbs.)(Delta 4 M+ (5,4))3,930 kg(8,665 lbs.)(Delta 4 M)6,410 kg(14,130 lbs.)(Delta 4M+ (5,4))12,500 kg(27,560 lbs.)(Atlas 5-400)20,520 kg(45,240 lbs.)(Atlas 5-500)N/A4,950 kg(10,910 lbs.)(Atlas 5-400)8,670 kg(19,110 lbs.)(Atlas 5-500)23,260 kg(51,280 lbs.)20,800 kg(45,860 lbs.)12,370 kg(27,270 lbs.)21,680 kg(47,800 lbs.)17,600 kg(38,800 lbs.)5,760 kg(12,700 lbs.)(GEO)3N/AN/A6,000 kg(13,230 lbs.)Launch SitesCCAFS, VAFBCCAFSCCAFS, VAFBCCAFS, VAFBPacific Ocean** Atlas 5 launches from VAFB are scheduled to begin in 2005.service through 2010, primarily launching militaryand civil government payloads. Seven governmentDelta 2 launches occurred in 2004; eight areplanned for 2005.Delta 4 – The Boeing CompanyThe Delta 4 family of launch vehicles has a commonbooster core first stage that uses the first new largeliquid rocket engine developed in the United Statessince the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) wasdeveloped in the 1970s. This engine, the RocketdyneRS-68, is based on the J-2 engine used on the secondstage of the Saturn 5 launch vehicleand technology from the SSME.However, the RS-68 is larger andsimpler than the SSME. Dependingon customer needs, two or foursolid-fuel strap-on boosters, twotypes of upper stages, and threepayload fairings can supplement theRS-68 engine. This vehicle will belaunched from VAFB and CCAFS.The first Delta 4 launch took place Delta 4 launchon November 20, 2002, successfullylofting the Eutelsat W5 spacecraft from CCAFS. 7Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 9

Expendable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsA distinctive design feature of the Delta 4 isits use of horizontal integration. The vehicle isassembled, tested, and prepared for launch horizontally,away from the launch pad. When integration iscomplete, the vehicle is moved to the pad, raised,and launched in a relatively short period. In additionto making the launch vehicle easier to work on bykeeping it closer to the ground, this integrationmethod greatly reduces time spent occupying thelaunch pad. Boeing expects to reduce pad time fromDelta 2’s 24 days to a period of about a week for theDelta 4. Because availability of launch pads acts asa factor limiting launch rates, Boeing’s integrationprocess contributes to the economic advantages thatare a major part of the EELV program’s goals.Boeing offers five versions of the Delta 4 toaddress a broad range of payload mass classes.These include four medium versions, each with onecommon booster core, and one heavy-lift versionthat uses three parallel common booster core stages.Three of these versions, the Delta 4 Medium-Plusvehicles, were originally optimized for commercialuse. The Medium and Heavy versions are largelyintended for government use. Payload capacities tolow Earth orbit (LEO) range from 8,120 kilograms(17,905 pounds) for the Medium to 23,040 kilograms(50,800 pounds) for the Heavy. GTO capacitiesrange from 4,210 to 13,130 kilograms (9,285 to28,950 pounds). The Delta 4 has also replaced theDelta 3. The first Delta 4 Heavy was launched onDecember 21, 2004. It was the only Delta 4 variantlaunched last year. Seven Delta 4 launches areplanned for 2005, including one Delta 4 Heavy.Minotaur – Orbital Sciences CorporationThe Orbital/Suborbital ProgramSpace Launch Vehicle, also knownas Minotaur, was developed byOrbital Sciences Corporationunder contract to the USAF tolaunch small government payloads.This booster uses a combinationof rocket motors fromdecommissioned Minuteman 2ICBMs and upper stages fromMinotaur launchOrbital’s Pegasus launch vehicle.The Minotaur’s first two stages are Minuteman 2M-55A1 and SR-19 motors. The upper two stagesare Orion 50 XL and Orion 38 motors from thePegasus XL. All four stages use solid propellants.Orbital Sciences will also operate the Minotaur 4,which uses stages from former U.S. Peacekeepermissiles. Minotaur 4 can deliver a 1,750-kilogram(3,860-pound) payload to LEO.In its January 26, 2000, debut, the Minotaursuccessfully launched the FalconSat and JAWSATsatellites from VAFB. This vehicle’s only otherlaunch occurred on July 19, 2000, when it launchedan AFRL MightySat 2.1 spacecraft from VAFB. NoMinotaur launches occurred in 2004; however, upto three missions are scheduled for 2005.Pegasus – Orbital Sciences CorporationPegasus is an airlaunchedELV used toplace small payloadsinto a variety of lowEarth orbits. Developedby Orbital SciencesPegasus in flightCorporation in the late1980s, Pegasus became the first commercial airlaunchedsystem. The Pegasus booster has threesolid propellant stages and an optional hydrazinemonopropellant upper stage.The booster is carried aloft under OrbitalSciences’ “Stargazer” L-1011 carrier aircraft to analtitude of 11,900 meters (39,000 feet), where it isreleased. (Early Pegasus launches used a B-52 aircraftleased from NASA.) The booster drops for 5seconds before igniting its first stage motor andbeginning ascent to orbit. The original Pegasusbooster entered service in 1990. Orbital Sciencescreated a new version of the Pegasus, the PegasusXL, with stretched first and second stages toenhance the payload capacity of the booster. Whilethe first Pegasus XL launch was in 1994, the firstsuccessful Pegasus XL flight did not occur until1996. The original, or standard, version of thePegasus was retired in 2000, and only the PegasusXL is used today. The air-launched nature of thePegasus permits launches from a number of differentfacilities, depending on the orbital requirementsof the payload. Pegasus launches have been stagedfrom seven sites to date: Edwards Air Force Base(EAFB) and VAFB, California; CCAFS andKennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida; NASAWFF, Virginia; Kwajalein Missile Range, MarshallIslands; and Gando AFB, Canary Islands.10 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch VehiclesNASA certified Pegasus to carry the highestvalue satellites (Category Three Certification)because of its excellent demonstrated reliabilityrecord. Pegasus has launched its last 21 missions successfully.No Pegasus XL vehicles flew in 2004. TwoPegasus XL missions are scheduled for 2005, carryingthe Demonstration of Autonomous RendezvousTechnology (DART) 8 flight demonstrator vehicle forNASA and the Communication/Navigation OutageForecasting System (C/NOFS), 9 a USAF payloadwhose launch will be licensed by FAA/AST.Taurus – Orbital Sciences CorporationTaurus launchThe Taurus ELV is a groundlaunchedvehicle based on the airlaunchedPegasus. Orbital SciencesCorporation developed the Taurusunder the sponsorship of DARPAto develop a standard launch vehicleto be set up quickly in newlocations to launch small satellitesthat are too large for the PegasusXL. The Taurus uses the threestages of a Pegasus XL, withoutwings or stabilizers, stacked atop aCastor 120 solid rocket motor thatserves as the Taurus’ first stage. 10The Taurus successfully completed six ofseven launch attempts since entering service in1994. A commercial Taurus XL derived from theXL version of Pegasus successfully launchedTaiwan’s ROCSAT -2 spacecraft in 2004.Titan 4 – Lockheed Martin CorporationThe Titan 4 program dates backto 1985, when the USAF commissionedMartin Marietta (nowLockheed Martin) to develop anupgraded version of the existingTitan 34D ELV that could launchSpace Shuttle-class payloads asan alternative to the Shuttle. TheTitan 4A was based on the TitanTitan 4 launch34D, but it featured stretchedfirst and second stages, twomore powerful solid rocket motors, and a largerpayload fairing. The Titan 4A was used between1989 and 1998. The Titan 4B, introduced in 1997,was the most powerful ELV used in the UnitedStates for many years until the inaugural flight ofthe Delta 4 Heavy. Titan 4A used upgraded solidrocket motors that increase the payload capacity ofthe vehicle by 25 percent. The Titan 4B is used solelyfor U.S. military payloads, with the exception of theOctober 1997 launch of NASA’s Cassini mission.Titan 4B is being phased out in favor of the heavyDelta 4 and Atlas 5 variants. One Titan 4B launchoccurred in 2004, and the final two Titan 4B missionsare scheduled for 2005.Zenit 3SL – Sea Launch Company, LLCThe Zenit 3SL is a Ukrainian-Russian launch vehicle operatedby Sea Launch, a multinationaljoint venture led by The BoeingCompany. Ukrainian companiesSDO Yuzhnoye and POYuzhmash provide the first twostages. A single engine, usingLOX/kerosene propellants, powerseach stage. These stages areZenit 3SL launchthe same as those used on theZenit 2 launch vehicle. A Russian company, RSCEnergia, provides the third stage, a Block DM-SLupper stage, which also uses LOX/kerosene propellants.Boeing provides the payload fairing, interfaces,and operations management. Boeing LaunchServices, Inc., manages marketing and sales.The Zenit 3SL is launched from the Odysseymobile launch platform, which travels from its homeport in Long Beach, California, to a position on theEquator in the Pacific Ocean for each mission.Launch operations are remotely controlled from aseparate vessel, the Sea Launch Commander. WhileSea Launch conducts commercial launches with alicense from the FAA/AST, the multinational natureof the system prevents it from carrying U.S. governmentpayloads. Sea Launch completed three launchesin 2004 and has six scheduled for 2005.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 11

Expendable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsELV Development EffortsA number of efforts by established corporations andstartups are currently in progress to develop newELVs. The majority of these designs focus on thesmall payload sector of the launch market, with thegoal of placing payloads as small as a few hundredpounds into LEO. A limited market currently existsfor such launches, so the success of these vehiclesmay rely on the ability to reduce launch costsenough to enable new markets.Aquarius – Space Systems/LoralVehicle: AquariusDeveloper: Space Systems/LoralFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 1Payload performance: 1,000 kg (2,205 lbs.) to LEOLaunch sites: To be determined, water launch followingfloat-off from a bargeSpace Systems/Loral of Palo Alto, California, hasproposed Aquarius, a low-cost launch vehicledesigned to carry small, inexpensive payloads intoLEO. This vehicle is primarily intended to launchinto orbit bulk products, such as water, fuel, andother consumables, that are inexpensive to replace.As currently designed, Aquarius will be a singlestagevehicle 43 meters (141 feet) high and 4 meters(13.1 feet) in diameter and powered by a singleengine using liquid hydrogen and oxygen propellants.The vehicle is floated in the ocean beforelaunch to minimize launch infrastructure and will beable to place a 1,000-kilogram (2,205-pound) payloadinto a 200-kilometer (125-mile), 52-degreeorbit. Located in the base of the vehicle, the payloadwill be extracted by an orbiting space tug for transferto its ultimate destination. After payload extraction iscompleted, the vehicle will deorbit and be destroyed.Aquarius mission profileSpace Systems/Loral studied Aquariusunder a $110,000 grantawarded by the state ofCalifornia in April 2001and delivered a finalreport in June 2002.Space Systems/Loralteamed with Microcosm,Inc., of El Segundo,AquariusCalifornia, and WilsonComposite Technologies of Folsom, California, forthe study. Funding of $1 million was provided in thefiscal year 2004 Defense Appropriations Act to developa prototype of the low-cost engine for the vehicle.The engine would provide 1.8 million newtons(400,000 pounds) of thrust, using liquid hydrogenand oxygen as propellants. 11 For engine development,Space Systems/Loral partnered with Aerojet, aGenCorp Company based in Sacramento, California,and Microcosm. This program is expected to proceedunder the auspices of the AFRL. Space Systems/Loralhas submitted a proposal for development of thelarge lightweight liquid hydrogen tank required forthis vehicle, which is currently being considered forfederal funding.Eaglet andEagleEagle S-series –E’Prime Aerospace CorporationVehicle: Eaglet/EagleDeveloper: E’Prime AerospaceFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 2Payload performance: 580 kg (1,280 lbs.) to LEO(Eaglet); 1,360 kg (3,000 lbs.) to LEO (Eagle)Launch sites: KSC, WFF, CCAFS, KodiakE’Prime Aerospace of Titusville,Florida, is developing a family oflaunch vehicles, called the Eagle S-series, based on the LGM-118APeacekeeper ICBM design. Like thePeacekeeper, this vehicle will beejected from a ground-based silo,using a compressed gas system. Atan altitude of 61 meters (200 feet),the vehicle’s engines will ignite.The smallest vehicle, the Eaglet,could launch 580 kilograms (1,280pounds) into LEO. A somewhat12 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch Vehicleslarger version, the Eagle, could put 1,360 kilograms(3,000 pounds) into LEO. Both vehicles will usesolid propellant lower stages and liquid propellantupper stages. E’Prime has also proposed largervehicles, designated S-1 through S-7, with the abilityto place considerably larger payloads into LEOand to add a geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO)capability. The Eagle S-series concept dates back to1987 when the company signed a commercializationagreement with the USAF to use Peacekeepertechnology for commercial launch vehicles.E’Prime signed an agreement with NASA inFebruary 2001 that gives the company use of availableproperty and services on a non-interferencebasis. 12 For equatorial orbits, the company plans tolaunch the Eaglet and Eagle, and the company’sentire canister launch program from facilities atNASA KSC that the company has yet to construct.Plans to launch from Virginia Space Flight Centerfor equatorial orbits and from the Kodiak LaunchComplex for polar orbits are also under consideration.Falcon SLV – Lockheed MartinVehicle: Falcon SLVDeveloper: Lockheed MartinFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 2Payload performance: To be determinedLaunch sites: To be determinedLockheed Martin was awardedone of four DARPA ForceApplication and Launch fromCONUS (FALCON) contracts todevelop concepts for a low-costlaunch vehicle. DARPA isexpected to award a contract noFalconlater than 2007 to develop a conceptthrough flight tests. Lockheed Martin’s FalconSLV approach uses an all-hybrid propulsionapproach and a mobile launch system.Nanosat Launch Vehicle –Garvey Spacecraft CorporationVehicle: NLVDeveloper: Garvey Spacecraft CorporationFirst launch: 2007Number of stages: 2Payload performance: 10 kg (22 lbs.) to LEOLaunch sites: Mobile (or Multiple)Garvey Spacecraft Corporation(GSC), based in Huntington Beach,California, is a small research anddevelopment (R&D) company,focusing on the development ofadvanced space technologies andlaunch vehicle systems. As part ofthe California Launch VehicleInitiative (CALVEIN), GSC andCalifornia State University, LongNLV Beach (CSULB), are jointly conductingpreliminary R&D tasks toestablish the foundation for development of a twostage,liquid propellant Nanosat Launch Vehicle(NLV). Capable of delivering 10 kilograms (22pounds) to a 250-kilometer (155-mile) polar orbit,the NLV will provide low-cost, dedicated launchservices to universities and other research organizationsthat traditionally depend on secondary payloadopportunities to access space. As part of thisinitiative, GSC and CSULB are pursuing advancedaerospike engine technology for use on the NLVfirst stage. 13 Their current work builds upon thefirst-ever powered liquid propellant aerospike flightthat the team conducted using several of itsLOX/ethanol Prospector research vehicles. GSC’smost visible accomplishments include the first-everflight of a composite LOX tank (conducted in partnershipwith Microcosm, Inc.), the first-ever poweredflights of a liquid-propellant aerospike engine,and the launch and 100-percent recovery of severalprototype reusable test vehicles.Efforts during 2004 focused on refining thebasic vehicle design while also maturing assembly,integration, check-out, and launch operation plansand coordinating with the user community to optimizethe payload accommodations. CSULB studentshave developed a full-scale NLV mockup andhave assembled the initial flight test vehicle for theNLV first stage. In December 2004, GSC conductedFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 13

Expendable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Conceptsthe initial flight test with a full-scale “FlightDevelopment Unit” of the first stage at the MojaveTest Area (MTA), with a successful recovery. 14Eagle SLV – Microcosm, Inc.Vehicle: Eagle SLVDeveloper: Microcosm, Inc.First launch: Early 2007Number of stages: 3Payload performance: 670 kg (1,470 lbs.) to LEO, 330kg (720 lbs.) to SSOLaunch sites: VAFB, WFF, and CCAFSMicrocosm, Inc. of ElSegundo, California, isdeveloping the Scorpiusfamily of ELVs. Severalprototypes are under considerationor in testing, andtwo suborbital test models,SR-S and SR-XM-1, flewsuccessfully from WhiteEagle SLVSands Missile Range, NewMexico, in 1999 and 2001, respectively. EventuallyMicrocosm plans to market up to eight Scorpius variants:two suborbital vehicles, the SR-S and SR-Mlaunchers; three light-lift orbital vehicles, the SpriteMini-Lift, the Eagle SLV, and the Liberty Light-Liftlaunchers; one intermediate-lift orbital vehicle, theAntares Intermediate-Lift launcher; one medium-liftvehicle, the Exodus Medium-Lift launcher; and oneheavy-lift vehicle, the Space Freighter. Despite thewide range in their sizes and lift capacities, eachScorpius variant is based on a scaleable modulardesign featuring simple LOX/Jet-A pressure-fedmotors without turbopumps and low-cost avionicsequipped with GPS/INS (global positioning system/inertial navigation system). The orbital variants arethree stages and feature thick fuel tanks for addeddurability during flight.The Scorpius system is designed simply inorder to maximize the cost savings and quick launchpad turnaround times sought by government-sponsoredresponsive space initiatives. As a first step, thetest launches of the suborbital SR-S and SR-XM-1vehicles demonstrated Scorpius’ ability to be readyfor flight within 8 hours of arrival at the launch pad,using a crew of under 15. When marketed, the SR-Svehicle is advertised as able to loft 200 kilograms(440 pounds) suborbitally. The SR-M would loft1,089 kilograms (2,400 pounds) suborbitally.The Sprite Mini-Lift vehicle is projected to loftup to 318 kilograms (700 pounds) to LEO. EagleSLV would loft up to 667 kilograms (1,470 pounds)to LEO. The Liberty Light Lift vehicle would loft upto 1,270 kilograms (2,800 pounds) to LEO.Microcosm’s intermediate-, medium-, andheavy-lift Scorpius variants will be able deploypayloads to LEO and GTO. The Antares Intermediate-Lift vehicle will be able to deploy up to 2,676 kilograms(5,900 pounds) to LEO and up to 885 kilograms(1,950 pounds) to GTO. The Exodus Medium-Liftvehicle would deploy up to 6,713 kilograms(14,800 pounds) to LEO and up to 2327 kilograms(5,130 pounds) to GTO. Specifications for theheavy-lift Space Freighter are not yet available.Of the Scorpius variants, the Sprite Mini-Liftand Eagle SLV are furthest along in development.Microcosm currently plans test flights for one orboth of those vehicles in the third quarter of 2007.QuickReach – AirLaunch, LLCVehicle: QuickReachDeveloper: AirLaunch, LLCFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)Payload performance: 454 kg (1,000 lbs.) to LEOLaunch sites: To be determinedAirLaunch, LLC, and its teamof contractors is one of fourrecipients of the DARPAFALCON contracts to developconcepts for a low-costlaunch vehicle. QuickReachuses two liquid-fueled stagesand deploys from the cargobay of a C-17 or Antonov-124QuickReachaircraft. DARPA is expectedto select a contractor no later than 2007 to furtherdevelop their concept and to conduct flight tests.14 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch VehiclesSLC-1 – Space Launch CorporationVehicle: SLC-1Developer: Space Launch CorporationFirst launch: 2008Number of stages: 3 (including the launch aircraft)Payload performance: 150 kg (330 lbs.) to LEOLaunch sites: To be determinedThe Space Launch Corporation of Irvine, California,is in the initial development stages of its SLC-1launch system. The SLC-1 will use a small expendablebooster, consisting of multiple, custom-builtstages based on existing technology. The boosterwill be deployed from a turbojet-powered aircraftand be able to place payloads of up to 150 kilograms(330 pounds) into a 500-kilometer (311-mile) orbitinclined at 28.5 degrees. 15 The company is targetingmicrosatellites and other small payloads that wouldotherwise be launched as secondary payloads onlarger vehicles.The Space Launch Corporation was alsoselected as the sole prime contractor for DARPA’sResponsive Access, Small Cargo, Affordable Launch(RASCAL) program in March 2003. RASCAL is anew tactical launch system that will provide the U.S.military with the ability to launch time critical spacebasedassets within hours of detection of an emergingthreat. Under the DARPA RASCAL program, SpaceLaunch expects to achieve mission recurring costs ofless than $10,000 per kilogram.In November 2004, the Space LaunchCorporation announced successful completion ofthe second phase of the DARPA RASCAL program.The goal of Phase 2 was to advance the design of theRASCAL system concept and mitigate the technicalrisks identified in Phase 1. The RASCAL systemconsists of two major elements; the MIPCC-PoweredVehicle (MPV), a new aircraft employing massinjection pre-compressor cooled turbojet engine technology,and a multi-stage expendable rocket vehicle(ERV). Phase 2 ended with a successful system preliminarydesign review (PDR). Phase 3 of the RAS-CAL program, scheduled to begin in the first quarterof 2005, will culminate in the fabrication and integrationof a prototype RASCAL system and twoflight demonstrations where a small payload will belaunched into LEO. The first RASCAL demonstrationlaunch is expected to take place in 2008. 16Zenit 3SLB – Sea Launch Company, LLC, andSpace International ServicesVehicle: Zenit 3SLBDeveloper: Space International ServicesFirst launch: 2006Number of stages: 2 (Zenit 2SLB), 3 (Zenit 3SLB)Payload performance: 2,000 to 3,500 kg (4,410 to7,718 lbs.) to GTOLaunch sites: BaikonurThe Sea Launch Board of Directorsvoted on September 30, 2003, tooffer launch services from BaikonurCosmodrome in Kazakhstan, inaddition to its sea-based launches atthe Equator. The new offering, LandLaunch, is based on the collaborationof Sea Launch Company and SpaceInternational Services, of Russia, tomeet the launch needs of commercialcustomers with medium weightZenit 3SLBsatellites. The Land Launch systemuses a version of the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket,the Zenit-3SLB, to lift commercial satellites in the2,000 to 3,500-kilogram (4,410 to 7,718-pound)range to GTO and heavier payloads to inclined orlower orbits. The three stages on the Zenit-3SLBare the same as those on the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL,with the only significant difference between twobeing the fairing. 17 A two-stage configuration of thesame rocket, the Zenit-2SLB, is also available forlaunching heavy payloads, or groups of payloads, toLEO. Payloads and vehicles will be processed andlaunched from existing Zenit facilities at theBaikonur launch site. Initial launch capability isslated for 2006. Expanding on its Sea Launch marketingefforts, Boeing Launch Services, Inc., managesmarketing and sales for this new offering.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 15

Expendable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSounding RocketsIn addition to orbital launch vehicles, a number ofsuborbital ELVs, or sounding rockets, are in usetoday. These vehicles, which use solid propellants,support a variety of applications, including astronomicalobservations, atmospheric research, andmicrogravity experiments.Black Brant – Bristol Aerospace Limited(a Magellan Aerospace Company)Black BrantlaunchOver 800 Black Brant rocketshave been launched since 1962,when manufacture of the vehiclebegan. Versions of the BlackBrant can carry payloads rangingfrom 70 to 850 kilograms (154 to1,874 pounds) to altitudes from150 to more than 1,500 kilometers(93 to 932 miles), and can provideup to 20 minutes of microgravitytime during a flight. The BlackBrant and Nihka motors used on some Black Brantversions are manufactured in Canada by BristolAerospace Limited (a Magellan AerospaceCompany). The Nike, Talos, and Taurus motorsused on other Black Brant versions are built in theUnited States. These vehicles are integrated by thelaunch operator. In the United States, NASA hasbeen a frequent user of Black Brant vehicles.The smallest version of the Black Brant familyis the single-stage Black Brant 5, which is 533centimeters (210 inches) long and 43.8 centimeters(17.24 inches) in diameter. The rocket produces anaverage thrust of 75,731 newtons (17,025 poundsforce).The Black Brant 5 motor is used as the secondor third stage in larger, multi-stage versions ofthe Black Brant. The most powerful, Black Brant12, is a four-stage vehicle that uses the Black Brant5 motor as its third stage. This vehicle can launch a113-kilogram (249-pound) payload to an altitude ofat least 1,400 kilometers (870 miles), or a 454-kilogram(1,001-pound) payload to an altitude of atleast 400 kilometers (249 miles).Oriole – DTI AssociatesSPACEHAB’s Astrotech SpaceOperations developed the Oriolesounding rocket in the late 1990sto provide launch services forcommercial and scientific payloads.Oriole was both the first privatelydeveloped sounding rocket in theUnited States and the first newU.S. sounding rocket in 25 years.Oriole The Oriole is a single-stage vehiclewith a graphite-epoxy motor manufacturedby Alliant Missile Products Company ofRocket Center, West Virginia. It is 396 centimeters(156 inches) long, 56 centimeters (22 inches) indiameter, and generates an average thrust of 92,100newtons (20,700 pounds-force). The vehicle providespayloads with 6 to 9 minutes of microgravityduring flight. Additionally, it can be combined withother motors to create two-stage sounding rockets(with the Oriole serving as the second stage).On July 7, 2000, the first Oriole launch tookplace from NASA WFF. The launch used a two-stageconfiguration, with the Oriole serving as the secondstage and a Terrier Mk 12 motor serving as the firststage. The Oriole sounding rocket reached a peakaltitude of 385.6 kilometers (229 miles) 315 secondsafter launch during the 10-minute test flight.In July 2001, SPACEHAB’s AstrotechSpace Operations sold the Oriole program to DTIAssociates of Arlington, Virginia, which integratesthe vehicle and offers it commercially.Terrier-Orion – DTI AssociatesThe Terrier-Orion is a two-stage,spin-stabilized sounding rocket. Ituses a Terrier Mk 12 Mod 1 enginefor its first stage and an improvedOrion motor for its second stage. TheTerrier Mk Mod 1 is a surplus U.S.Navy missile motor; Orion is a surplusU.S. Army missile motor. TheTerrier-Orion is 10.7 meters (35.1Terrier-Orionfeet) long. The Terrier stage is 46centimeters (18 inches) in diameter, and the Orionis 36 centimeters (14 inches) in diameter. TheTerrier-Orion can loft payloads weighing up to 290kilograms (639 pounds) to altitudes up to 190 kilometers(118 miles).16 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Expendable Launch VehiclesA more powerful version of the Terrier-Orionrocket uses the Terrier Mk 70 motor as its first stage.This version was used for two FAA/AST-licensedsuborbital launches performed by Astrotech SpaceOperations/DTI at the Woomera InstrumentedRange in Australia in 2001 and 2002. The secondflight, in July 2002, successfully flew the HyShotscramjet engine experiment.DTI Associates of Arlington, Virginia, nowmarkets and offers integration services for the Terrier-Orion after purchasing all intellectual property rightsto the rocket from SPACEHAB in July 2001.Hybrid Sounding Rocket Program –Lockheed Martin-MichoudLockheed Martin-Michoud isdeveloping a hybrid soundingrocket (HYSR) program withNASA Marshall Space FlightCenter (MSFC). A Space ActAgreement between NASAMSFC and Lockheed Martin-Michoud Operations enabledcollaboration on this new technology.Development groundHYSR testing (hardware qualification)occurred at NASA Stennis SpaceCenter between 2000 and 2001. This testing concludedwith a successful demonstration flight of a prototypesounding rocket from NASA WFF in December2002. The flight demonstration vehicle was a 17.4-meter (57-foot) long sounding rocket using liquidoxygen and solid fuel, a rubberized compound knownas hydroxyl terminated polybutadiene (HTPB). Therocket generated 27,216 kilograms (60,000 pounds)of thrust during a burn time of 31 seconds, andreached an altitude of approximately 43 miles.Norwegian Sounding Rocket Program –Lockheed Martin-MichoudLockheed Martin-Michoud is also engaged in thePantera Program, which provides a laser enabled inflighttargeting system for Norway’s air force. Thesingle-stage rocket will be built by the Norwegiancompany Nammo Raufoss AS, but the design, engineeringschematics, and vehicle assembly plan willbe provided by Lockheed Martin-Michoud. Thehybrid rocket will use liquid oxygen and rubberizedHTPB as fuel. It will have a 3,175-kilogram (7,000-pound) thrust and a burn time of 30 to 35 seconds.Its peak altitude is expected to be between 55 and75 kilometers (34 and 57 miles). Lockheed Martin-Michoud obtained an International Traffic in ArmsRegulations (ITAR) Manufacturing License Agreementfrom the U.S. Government to gain approval forthe 17-month design and handoff project. The soundingrocket is expected to launch from Norway’sAndoya Rocket Range in 2005. 18In 2004, there was further testing of the HYSRmotors at NASA Stennis Space Center. The testsdemonstrated the structural integrity of LockheedMartin-Michoud’s fuel-grain design and are facilitatingdevelopment of advanced state-of-the-arthybrid rocket motors.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 17

Reusable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsReusable Launch VehiclesThis section describes active and emerging RLVprograms in the United States. Emphasis is placedon vehicles being developed by private companieswithout the assistance of the government. Many ofthese companies are developing space hardware forthe first time. Government RLV programs are alsoincluded to provide context, particularly since theSpace Shuttle is considered a first-generation RLVand is a precursor of what may become a long lineof government next-generation systems. Experiencesgained by operating the Space Shuttle for more than20 years have helped solve, as well as highlight,crucial problems related to the design of efficientRLV systems. The first section addresses commercialRLV projects underway or in development. Adiscussion of government RLV development effortscomprises the balance of this section.Commercial RLV Development EffortsBlack Armadillo – Armadillo AerospaceVehicle: Black ArmadilloDeveloper: Armadillo AerospaceFirst launch: 2005Number of stages: 1Payload performance: 24,900 kg (54,890 lbs.) to LEOPossible launch sites: White Sands, New MexicoTargeted markets: Public space transportation andother emerging marketsArmadillo Aerospace continues development of itsvehicle, Black Armadillo, which was previouslyplanned as the company’s Ansari X Prize entrant.Armadillo Aerospace plans to continue pursuingsuborbital passenger flights and microgravity research.The vehicle will consist of an autonomously guidedsingle stage powered by a single engine fueledby a bi-modal monopropellant hydrogen peroxide/methanol mixture and will use guide vanes for thethrust-vectored attitude control system (ACS). Thevehicle is approximately 1.83 meters (6 feet) indiameter, 9.14 meters (30 feet) in height, and 771kilograms (1,700 pounds) dry weight. Recovery isby way of a fully autonomous powered landing.In 2004, Armadillo conducted numerous enginetests and flight tests. One test on August 8 resulted inthe loss of the test vehicle. Much of the rest of 2004was focused on rebuilding and testing hardware. Thecompany switched from a 90 percent hydrogen peroxidefuel to a mixed monopropellant design becauseof lack of availability of the original fuel. The switchhas introduced delays in the program.Sea Star – Interorbital SystemsVehicle: Sea Star MSLVDeveloper: Interorbital SystemsFirst launch: 2005Number of stages: 3Payload performance: 45 kg (100 lbs.) to LEO,(21°, 402 km (250 mi)), 29 kg (65 lbs.) to polar orbitLaunch sites: Pacific Ocean near California andKingdom of TongaInterorbital Systems (IOS) of Mojave, California, isdeveloping the Sea Star MSLV microsatellite launchvehicle for microsatellite payloads and as a testbedfor its larger Neptune orbital launch vehicle. Thesevehicles are constructed for design simplicity. SeaStar MSLV consists of three stages. Each stage hasone hypergolic engine, burning white fuming nitricacid (WFNA) and a proprietary fuel formulationthat IOS calls Hydrocarbon X (HX). The first twostages each have four gimbaled low-thrust rocketsfor steering, and stage 3 is spin-stabilized. The rocketbody is constructed of aluminum and compositematerials. Sea Star does not require land-basedlaunch infrastructure. Taking advantage of designelements derived from submarine-launched ballisticmissiles, this vehicle will float in sea water andlaunch directly from the ocean. IOS plans to launchSea Star MSLV near California or in waters near theKingdom of Tonga.IOS aims to be the first company to launch asatellite into orbit using a vehicle developed totallywith private financing. This launch is slated for 2005.18 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch VehiclesNeptune – Interorbital SystemsVehicle: NeptuneDeveloper: Interorbital SystemsFirst launch: 2006Number of stages: 3Payload performance: 4,082 kg (9,000 lbs.) to LEO(21°, 402 km (250 mi), 2,898 kg (6,390 lbs.), SSO(644 km (400 mi), 1,224 kg (2,700 lbs.) GTO, 816 kg(1,800 lbs.) lunar orbitLaunch sites: Pacific Ocean near California andKingdom of TongaIOS’ Neptune will support a numberof human spaceflight and other payloadlaunch missions. In November2004, IOS entered as a competitor forAmerica’s Space Prize, the $50-millioncontest sponsored by BigelowAerospace for a privately developedlaunch of a piloted vehicle to orbit.Neptune will be powered by two highthrustbipropellant liquid rocketengines. Like Sea Star, Neptune isdesigned to launch from the sea usingNeptunea two-stage booster and an orbitalstage. Its first two booster stages will each use asingle hypergolic engine, burning WFNA and HX,with four steering rockets per stage. The orbitalstage will use a single cryogenic LOX/HX engine.The booster stages are designed to be water-recoverablewith a parachute landing and reusable. Theorbital stage and crew capsule will allow for stayson orbit of up to 7 days. Fuel tanks of the orbitalstage can be outfitted for habitation and may evenserve as future modules for an orbiting space hotel.The crew capsule can be reused after a parachutelanding. The crew compartment includes an aftescape and service module to pull passengers awayfrom the vehicle and to a safe landing in the eventof vehicle failure.K-1 – Kistler Aerospace CorporationVehicle: K-1Developer: Kistler Aerospace CorporationFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 2Payload performance: 5,700 kg (12,500 lbs.) to LEO;3,200 kg (7,000 lbs.) to ISS and 900 kg (2,000 lbs.)from ISS; 1,570 kg (3,460 lbs.) to GTO, 900-1,400 kg(2,000-3,000 lbs.) to interplanetary targetsPlanned launch sites: Woomera, Australia; U.S. launchsite under evaluationTargeted markets: Deployment of payloads to LEO,MEO, and GTO; interplanetary orbits (with K-1 ActiveDispenser); ISS cargo re-supply and return missions.Kistler Aerospace Corporation hasbeen developing the fully reusableK-1 for launches of government andcommercial payloads to orbit. Thefirst vehicle is 75 percent complete.The K-1 design was developed inthe mid-1990s as a two-stage-toorbit(TSTO) vehicle with a payloadcapacity of approximately 5,700kilograms (12,500 pounds) to LEO.The K-1 will be able to launch multiplesmall payloads and conductK-1technology demonstrations on dedicatedLEO missions or as secondary payloads.Kistler has completed a conceptual designfor an Active Dispenser that will deploy payloads tomedium Earth orbits (MEO), GTO, and interplanetarytrajectories. The Active Dispenser will expandthe K-1’s capability beyond LEO (approximately1,570 kilograms (3,462 pounds) to GTO or 900 to1,400 kilograms (2,000 to 3,000 pounds) to interplanetarytargets). The K-1’s inherent reusabilityenables it to provide cargo re-supply and returnservices for the International Space Station (ISS),delivering approximately 3,200 kilograms (7,000pounds) up-mass and recovering a minimum of 900kilograms (2,000 pounds) down-mass to the launchsite. The K-1 will launch vertically like a conventionalELV, but it will use a unique combination ofparachutesand air bags to recover its two stages. Designed tooperate with a small complement of ground personnel,this vehicle will be transported to the launch site anderected with a mobile transporter. The K-1 will measureapproximately 37 meters (121 feet) in height and havea launch mass of 382,300 kilograms (843,000 pounds).Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 19

Reusable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsThe K-1 employs off-the-shelf technology and Rocketplane XP – Rocketplane Limited, Inc.components in its design. The first stage, known asthe Launch Assist Platform (LAP), is powered by Vehicle: Rocketplane XPthree LOX/kerosene GenCorp Aerojet AJ26Developer: Rocketplane Limited, Inc.engines. These engines are U.S. modifications of First launch: 2007the fully developed, extensively tested core of the Number of stages: 1NK-33/NK-43 engines. These engines were originallydesigned for the Soviet lunar program in the (62.5 miles)Payload performance: 408 kg (900 lbs.) to 100 km1960s and subsequently placed in storage for overPlanned launch sites: Oklahoma Spaceport (primary)two decades. After launch, the LAP separates from and KSC (alternate)the second stage and restarts its center engine to put Targeted markets: Suborbital space tourism, microgravityresearch, small satellite deploymentthe stage on a return trajectory to a landing areanear the launch site. The LAP deploys parachutesand descends to the landing area where air bags aredeployed to cushion its landing. The second stage,or orbital vehicle, continues into LEO where itreleases its payload. A single Aerojet AJ26-60engine powers the orbital vehicle. Following payloadseparation, the orbital vehicle continues onRocketplane XPRocketplane Limited is developing the Rocketplaneorbit for approximately 24 hours. Then, aXP, a scaled-down version of its original PathfinderLOX/ethanol Orbital Maneuvering System performsa deorbit burn. Lastly, the orbital vehiclevehicle concept. The Rocketplane XP is a four-seatfighter-sized vehicle powered by two jet enginesends its ballistic reentry profile by deploying parachutesand air bags in a manner similar to the LAP.and one pressure-fed LOX/kerosene rocket engine,enabling it to reach altitudes of 107 kilometers (66miles). In 2004, Rocketplane Limited signed a marketingagreement with Incredible Adventures to sellKistler expects to operate the K-1 from twolaunch sites: Woomera, Australia, and a U.S. domesticlaunch site. Kistler Woomera Pty., Ltd., a whollysuborbital tourist flights. The company is currentlytaking reservations for Rocketplane flights andowned subsidiary of Kistler Aerospace Corporation,hopes to make its first tourist flight in 2007.will operate the K-1 from Woomera. Kistlerreceived authorization from the Australian governmentto begin construction of launch facilities atThe spaceflight experience as currently envisionedincludes 5 days of training and team socialWoomera in April 1998 and held a groundbreakingevents, with the spaceflight on the sixth day. Inceremony at the site several months later. Theaddition to space tourism flights, the company islaunch pad design is complete, and Kistler will conductits initial K-1 flights and commercial opera-pursuing other markets, including microgravityresearch and military applications, including smalltions from Woomera. In 1998, Kistler signed ansatellite deployment.agreement with the Nevada Test Site Development20Corporation to permit Kistler to occupy a segmentof the U.S. Department of Energy’s Nevada TestSite for its launch operations. The FAA/AST environmentalreview process was completed for theKistler project in 2002. In addition, Kistler continuesto explore potential U.S. launch and landingsites (subject to regulatory approval), such as atCCAFS, VAFB, and EAFB. In 2003, Kistler filed toreorganize under Chapter 11 of the U.S. BankruptcyCode, and it is in the final stages of the reorganizationprocess. Kistler plans to emerge from Chapter11 and restart the K-1 program in 2005. 1920 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch VehiclesSpaceShipOne – Scaled Composites, LLCVehicle: SpaceShipOneDeveloper: Scaled CompositesFirst launch: 2003Number of stages: 1Payload performance: 3 people to 100 km (62.5 miles)Planned launch sites: Mojave AirportTargeted markets: Research and development, spacetourismScaled Composites, the winnerof the ground-breakingAnsari X Prize, and the teamthat made the first historic,non-governmental mannedrocketflight to suborbitalspace, unveiled its vehicle onSpaceShipOneApril 18, 2003. SpaceShipOneis a three-person vehicle designed to be air-launchedat an altitude of 15,240 meters (50,000 feet) from acarrier aircraft, called White Knight. On April 1, 2004,FAA/AST issued the first commercial RLV missionspecificlaunch license (LRLS 04-067) to Scaled.Including the September 29 and October 4 Ansari XPrize-winning flights, SpaceShipOne successfullycompleted five licensed flights in 2004.On September 27, 2004, Sir Richard Bransonof the Virgin Group announced Virgin Galactic, aspace tourism company, will use the technologydeveloped in the creation of SpaceShipOne to carrypaying passengers into space. Virgin Galactic expectsto launch its first flight around 2007, with full commercialservice by the end of the decade.The spaceflight experience as currently envisionedwill last approximately 6 days, includingpreflight training, social events, dinners with astronautsand guest speakers, and luxury accommodations.Flight into suborbital space will allow customersto experience the acceleration of a rocketflight, to feel weightlessness, and to see the Earthfrom space. In addition, 7-UP TM , the official beverageof the Ansari X Prize, announced plans to offerconsumers the first free ticket into space aboard aVirgin Galactic craft. 21Falcon 1 – Space ExplorationTechnologies CorporationVehicle: Falcon 1Developer: Space Exploration Technologies CorporationFirst launch: 2005Number of stages: 2Payload performance: 670 kg (1,477 lbs.) to LEOPlanned launch sites: VAFB, CCAFS, Marshall IslandsTargeted markets: Commerical small satellitesSpace Exploration TechnologiesCorporation (SpaceX) of El Segundo,California, is developing the partiallyreusable Falcon 1 launch vehicle, whichcan place up to 670 kilograms (1,477pounds) into LEO. The first stage ofFalcon 1this vehicle is designed to be recoveredfrom the ocean after a parachute landing, refurbished,and reused.Falcon’s first launch is scheduled for 2005from VAFB to loft the TacSat-1 data communicationssatellite for DoD. Up to two other launches ofFalcon 1 are planned for 2005 from a launch site atthe Marshall Islands in the Pacific Ocean. SpaceXanticipates two to three launches annually, eventuallyramping up to five or six flights a year. SpaceXis privately developing the entire two-stage vehiclefrom the ground up, including the engines, cryogenictank structure, and guidance system. TheSpaceX-developed first stage engine, known asMerlin, uses pump-driven LOX/kerosene. The secondstage engine, called Kestrel, uses a pressure-fedLOX/kerosene system.In September 2004, SpaceX was one of fourcompanies to receive a contract from DARPA andthe USAF to demonstrate low-cost, highly responsivelaunch technology. Under this contract,SpaceX is to demonstrate the ability to reduce onpadprocessing time by 50 percent compared to thestandard Falcon 1 launcher.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 21

Reusable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsFalcon 5 – Space Exploration TechnologiesCorporationVehicle: Falcon 5Developer: Space Exploration Technologies CorporationFirst launch: Mid-2006Number of stages: 2Payload performance: Up to 6,020 kg (13,274 lbs.) toLEOPlanned launch sites: VAFB, CCAFS, Marshall Islands.(Agreements are also in place to determine feasibilityfrom Alaska and Virginia.)Targeted markets: GEO communications satellites;interplanetary missionsThe Falcon 5 vehicle is based on much of the sametechnology developed for Falcon 1. The largerFalcon 5 uses five SpaceX-developed Merlinengines in the first stage with an engine-out capabilityto enhance reliability. The second stage will useone Merlin engine, instead of two Kestrel engines aspreviously planned. The first Falcon 5 launch isexpected in mid 2006 from VAFB. For subsequentFalcon 5 flights, SpaceX is developing the Merlin 2engine that is expected to enable greater lift capacity,up to 6,020 kilograms (13,274 pounds) to LEO.seconds of microgravity, while not exceeding 4.5 gduring any phase of flight. Six pressure-fed LOX/kerosene engines for use on both ascent and landingpower the vehicle. TGV’s design is intended toenable high reusability, require minimal groundsupport, and allow the vehicle to return to flightwithin a few hours of landing. Flight testing of theMichelle-B is slated to begin in 2007. 22Xerus – XCOR AerospaceVehicle: XerusDeveloper: XCOR AerospaceFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 1Payload performance: 10 kg (22 lbs.) to LEOPossible launch sites: Mojave AirportTargeted market: Suborbital space tourism, microgravityresearch, microsatellite launchMichelle-B – TGV Rockets, Inc.Vehicle: Michelle-BDeveloper: TGVFirst launch: To be determinedNumber of stages: 1Payload performance: 1,000 kg (2,200 lbs.) to 100 km(62.5 miles)Planned launch sites: Oklahoma Spaceport and otherpossible sitesTargeted markets: Microgravity research, suborbitalspace tourismTGV Rockets, Incorporated(TGV), is developingMichelle-B, a fully reusable,piloted suborbital vehicledesigned to carry up to 1,000kilograms (2,205 pounds) toan altitude of 100 kilometersMichelle-B(62 miles). This vehicle uses avertical take-off and landingdesign, with a drag shield to assist in decelerationduring landing. Michelle-B will provide up to 200XCOR Aerospace: Xerus vehicle conceptIn April 2004, XCOR Aerospace received a licensefrom FAA/AST to perform flights from MojaveAirport in Mojave, California. These flights of theSphinx demonstration vehicle are designed to flywithin the Earth’s atmosphere. For suborbital flight,XCOR is developing Xerus to conduct a variety ofsuborbital missions including microgravity research,suborbital tourism, and even the launch of very smallsatellites into orbit. Xerus is expected to have theability to launch a 10-kilogram (22-pound) payloadto LEO. XCOR is not currently disclosing its scheduleor certain design details of the Xerus, exceptthat it will take-off and land from a conventionalrunway without a booster stage or carrier vehicle.Xerus will be powered by XCOR’s own liquidrocket engines.22 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Reusable Launch VehiclesGovernment RLV Development EffortsThroughout the 1980s and 1990s, both NASA andthe U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) conductedseveral joint and independent programs to produceexperimental RLVs. These vehicles were intendedto improve reliability, minimize operating costs, anddemonstrate “aircraft-like” operations. None of theseconcepts, however, resulted in a fully operationalvehicle.In 2002, both NASA and the militaryreevaluated their RLV efforts. NASA implementeda revised Integrated Space Transportation Plan(ISTP) to better coordinate its space transportationefforts with its ISS, science, and research needs.The revised ISTP continued to support the SpaceShuttle with a Service Life Extension Program(SLEP), and it restructured the Space LaunchInitiative (SLI) to accommodate the developmentinitially of an ISS CRV (crew rescue vehicle), andthen the development of a CTV (crew transfervehicle) called the Orbital Space Plane (OSP). Therestructured SLI also has a component called theNext Generation Launch Technology (NGLT) tocontinue development of next generation and subsequentgenerations of launch vehicle technology.On January 14, 2004, President George W.Bush announced a new vision to retire the SpaceShuttle and develop a new vehicle capable of carryingastronauts to the ISS and explore space beyondLEO. After the announcement of the new Vision forSpace Exploration in January 2004, NASA shutdown both the OSP and NGLT programs as it shiftedresources to Project Constellation, an effort todevelop a new CEV and related mission architectures.The SLEP is now focused on near-termShuttle upgrades given NASA’s plan to retire theSpace Shuttle fleet in 2010.In November 2004, the U.S. Congress authorizedfull funding of NASA’s $16.2 billion budgetfor fiscal year 2005 that NASA needed in order toreturn the Shuttle to flight and get the CEV developmentoff to a good start.Space ShuttleVehicles: Discovery, Atlantis, and EndeavourDeveloper: Rockwell International (now Boeing). Fleet ismanaged, operated, and maintained on the ground byUnited Space Alliance, a joint venture between Boeingand Lockheed MartinFirst launch: April 12, 1981Number of stages: 1.5Payload performance: 24,900 kg (54,890 lbs.) to LEOLaunch site: KSCMarkets served: Non-commercial payloads and ISS accessSpace ShuttleConsisting of an expendable externaltank, two reusable solid rocketboosters, and a reusable Orbiter,NASA’s STS (Space TransportationSystem), commonly referred to asthe Space Shuttle, has conducted113 launches from its introductionin 1981 through the final flight ofthe Columbia in 2003.The three remaining orbiters – Discovery,Atlantis, and Endeavour – have been groundedsince the Columbia accident. The Space Shuttle isthe only means available today for completingassembly of the ISS. Intending to use the Shuttleuntil 2010, NASA is committed to investing in theSpace Shuttle fleet to maintain safety and reliabilityand extend orbiter service life until its responsibilitiesconstructing the ISS are complete. NASA’s SLEPwill support and maintain the Shuttles and associatedinfrastructure through the remainder of the Shuttleprogram. NASA will consider factors includingsafety, reliability, supportability, performance, andcost reduction in prioritizing improvement projects.The Space Shuttle’s day-to-day operations havebeen managed by United Space Alliance, a Boeing-Lockheed Martin joint venture, since 1996. NASAexercised two extension options to the contract andUnited Space Alliance is now supported through theend of fiscal year 2006. NASA is working on developinga new operations contract for fiscal year 2007through the end of the Shuttle program.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 23

Reusable Launch Vehicles2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsRASCAL(SSO) and heavier payloads into equatorial orbits.The RASCAL vehicle will be able to take off within1 hour of a launch command and refly again within24 hours at a cost of no more than $10,000 perkilogram per flight.MPV deploying ERVERV first stage ignitionDARPA started work in 2002 on a project to createa low-cost, partially-reusable launch vehicle forsmall payloads. The project was seen as a potentialsolution to the U.S. military’s need for operationallyresponsive spacelift (ORS). This ORS requirementwas expressed in a USAF mission need statementin 2001. The RASCAL program seeks to develop atwo-stage air launch system that can place payloadsweighing up to 100 kilograms (221 pounds) into LEO.The RASCAL first stage will be an air-breathing jetaircraft that flies to an altitude of at least 55 kilometers(34 miles). The aircraft will then deploy anexpendable rocket to place the payload into orbit.The vehicle will be able to put at least 50 kilograms(110 pounds) into any inclination, including 75kilograms (165 pounds) into Sun-synchronous orbitTo achieve these performance goals, RASCALwill use an engine technology called Mass InjectedPre-Compressor Cooling (MIPCC) on its aircraftstage. A MIPCC engine is a conventional turbojetwith an additional stage that injects a coolant, suchas water or liquid oxygen, into the engine inlet.Six competitors were awarded Phase 1contracts in April of 2002. The teams were led byColeman Research Corp., Northrop Grumman Corp.,Pioneer Rocketplane Corp., Space Launch Corp.,Space Access LLC, and Delta Velocity. In 2003,DARPA selected Space Launch Corporation as theonly RASCAL Phase 2 award winner. Ansari X Prizewinner Scaled Composites is on the Space LaunchCorporation team and is designing the RASCAL airframe.Phase 2 was an 18-month design phase thatadvanced the RASCAL system to preliminary designlevel and validated system design feasibility that wascompleted in 2004. Phase 3 will serve as the detaileddesign, construction, test, and demonstration launchphase of the RASCAL program. Flight tests arescheduled to begin in 2006 with final system demonstrations– including the launch of two orbital payloads– in 2008.Typical RASCAL mission profile24 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts In-Space TechnologyIn-Space TechnologyCrew Exploration Vehicle (CEV)On January 14, 2004, President George W. Bushannounced a new Vision for Space Exploration.Dubbed Project Constellation, this vision calls forretiring the Space Shuttle, developing a new vehiclecapable of carrying astronauts to the ISS, andexploring space beyond LEO. Initially, the UnitedStates will return the Space Shuttle to flight inaccordance with the recommendations of the CAIB(Columbia Accident Investigation Board) to completeits work on the ISS by 2010. Then, the Shuttlewill be retired. The CEV is envisioned as a modularspace transportation system that will be able tocarry crews beyond LEO, such as to the Moon orother destinations. Plans call for completing thefirst test flight of a CEV by 2008 and carryinghuman crews by 2014. The CEV will transportastronauts and scientists to the ISS after the Shuttleis retired. Following a series of robotic missions,extended manned missions to the Moon could beginas early as 2015. Knowledge gained throughextended visits to the Moon will be used to developtechnology for human missions beyond the Moon,beginning with Mars. The plans are expected tocost $12 billion over the first 5 years. The majorityof the funding would be derived from reallocationswithin the existing NASA budget. Using the adviceof a new President’s Commission on theImplementation of the U.S. Space ExplorationPolicy, NASA will review existing spaceflight andexploration programs and develop a plan for longtermimplementation of the President’s vision. InNovember 2004, the U.S. Congress authorized fullfunding of the $16.2 billion budget that NASAneeded to return the Shuttle to flight and get theCEV development off to a good start.In September 2004, NASA awarded studycontracts to the following eight firms. These firmsincluded large, established aerospace companies aswell as small, entrepreneurial companies.Andrews Space & Technology, Inc.The Boeing CompanyDraper Laboratories·Lockheed Martin CorporationNorthrop Grumman CorporationOrbital Sciences Corporation·Schafer CorporationTransformational Space Corporation, LLC(t/Space)Several companies are building upon technologydeveloped under previous NASA programs, suchas SLI, OSP, and NGLT. Some designs are expectedto fly on Atlas 5 or Delta 4 vehicles. Proposals forthe test vehicle are expected to be submitted in2005. To what extent components of the CEV willbe reusable is unclear. That determination willdepend on the individual design concepts.CEVFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 25

Enabling Technologies2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsEnabling TechnologiesSeveral efforts are underway to develop enablingtechnologies for expendable and reusable launchvehicles. These efforts include government researchprojects as well as engines and motors developedby companies for their launch vehicles and sale toother companies. Many of these companies areattempting to build considerably less complex andpotentially less expensive rocket engines. Somedesigns use room-temperature propellants instead ofcryogenics. Others use pressure-fed engines insteadof turbopumps. Such enabling technologies ashybrid rocket motors, propulsion systems, liquidengines, propellant production, demonstrators, andhypersonic aircraft are described in this section.Hybrid Rocket Motors – SpaceDev, Inc.SpaceDev hybridpropulsion systemIn 1998, SpaceDev, Inc., ofPoway, California, acquiredexclusive rights to the intellectualproperty of the AmericanRocket Company, which haddeveloped hybrid rocket motorsystems in the 1980s. SpaceDevis currently developing a seriesof small hybrid motors, usingHTPB rubber or polymethylmethacrylate (Plexiglas) as solid fuel and storablenitrous oxide as a gaseous oxidizer. SpaceDev completedtests in August 2001 of a small hybrid rocketmotor that is designed for use in the company’sManeuver and Transfer Vehicle, an upper stage thatcan move small spacecraft, such as secondary payloadson larger launch vehicles, from GTO, LEO orGEO. In May 2002, the AFRL awarded SpaceDeva contract to develop a hybrid propulsion moduleto deploy small payloads from the Space Shuttle.In September 2003, Scaled Composites announcedthat it had selected SpaceDev for propulsion supportfor its SpaceShipOne project. In a series of flightsin late 2004, Space Dev’s hybrid rocket motor poweredSpaceShipOne to suborbital space twice in 2weeks, thus propelling it to win the Ansari X Prize.In October 2004, SpaceDev was awarded about$1.5 million to proceed with Phase 2 of its SmallBusiness Innovation Research contract from theAFRL to continue its hybrid rocket motor-basedsmall launch vehicle project. 23Hybrid Propulsion Systems – LockheedMartin-MichoudHybrid motors of the 1.1 million-newton (250,000pounds-force) thrust class are being studied forpossible use on current and future launch vehicles.Funding for the hybrid team came from the DoDTechnology Reinvestment Program, NASA monetaryand in-kind support, and contributions of industryteam members. 24In Nov. 2003, Lockheed Martin-MichoudOperations was awarded a 6-month study contractfrom DARPA as part of the USAF FALCON programto assess hybrid propulsion applications for a responsivesmall launch vehicle. This study concluded inMay 2004. In September 2004, FALCON competitorsbegan a 10-month design phase to be followedby a down-select to possibly two competitors, anda winning design to be selected in 2007. LockheedMartin-Michoud’s all-hybrid two-stage vehicle willdeliver a payload up to 454 kilograms (1,000-pounds)to LEO and, if selected, will establish hybrid propulsionas a viable space launch booster technology. Thecore booster stage will generate approximately 1.4million newtons (320,000 pounds-force) of thrust andthe second stage approximately 133,333 newtons(30,000 pounds-force) of thrust to meet missionobjectives using a HTPB and LOX motor.Staged combustion hybrid technologies havebeen demonstrated on the ground by LockheedMartin-Michoud Operations in over 600 groundtests of small and large diameter motor firings at theNASA Stennis Space Center and MSFC. LockheedMartin-Michoud has six patents and more than$10 million of internal R&D invested to date.26 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling TechnologiesLiquid Engines – RS-84 –Rocketdyne Propulsion & PowerRS-84 liquidengineRocketdyne Propulsion & Power,a division of The Boeing Companyin Canoga Park, California, isdeveloping new technologies andengines for space launch vehicles.Rocketdyne is developing advancedhealth management systems, newmaterials, advanced processes, andnew components that enable rocketengines to be safer and more reliable.These technologies are being demonstrated ondevelopment engines, such as the IntegratedPowerhead Demonstrator engine with the USAFand NASA and on the new MB-XX upper stageengine to verify their characteristics.NASA refocused its 2003 efforts onto theVision for Space Exploration in 2004, halting workon the RS-84 to study and determine the type ofvehicle and propulsion required to return the U.S.to the Moon and prepare to go to Mars. Rocketdyneis evaluating various propulsion options to meet theVision for Space Exploration requirements and toenable significant improvements in current ELVs.Areas under consideration include the reliableSSME; the proven J-2S Saturn engines from theApollo era; a derivative of the Delta 4 launch vehicleengine, RS-68; RS-84 technology; and the MB-XX upper stage engine. 25The MB-XX is being demonstrated on fundingfrom Boeing and Mitsubishi Heavy Industriesfor potential application to the Vision for SpaceExploration launch vehicle or upgrades to today’sEELVs. Rocketdyne completed PDR on the RS-84rocket engine, the first reusable hydrocarbon stagedcombustionrocket engine. This engine is designedto produce 4,728,889 newtons (1,064,000 poundsforce)of thrust at sea level with a design life of100 missions.Rocketdyne successfully tested a key componentof the RS-84 engine. In the test, a subscalepreburner, achieved a chamber pressure in excess of46,884 kiloPascals (6,800 pounds per square inch),well beyond the levels seen in current domestic LOX/kerosene rocket engines. This preburner produceshigh-pressure, oxidizer-rich combustion gases tospin the oxidizer and fuel turbopumps of the engine.Aerospike Liquid Engine – GarveySpacecraft CorporationAerospikeengine staticfire testDuring the past year, GSC andCSULB conducted several notablesmall launch vehicle R&D activitiesthrough their partnership in theCalifornia Launch Vehicle EducationInitiative. Using a single-chamber,liquid propellant, annular aerospikeengine concept developed by CSULB,the GSC/CSULB team validated thebasic design and ignition sequencewith a successful static fire test at theReaction Research Society’s MTA inJune 2003. The team then mounted one of these4,444-newton (1,000-pounds-force) thrust LOX/ethanol ablative engines onto their Prospector 2vehicle and proceeded to conduct the first-everpowered liquid-propellant aerospike flight test at theMTA in September. In response to several issuesobserved during that flight, modifications were madeto the engine fabrication process. Another flight testwith the Prospector 4 vehicle followed in December.Performance was entirely nominal, resulting in completerecovery of the vehicle and key trajectory data.These CALVEIN flight tests represent the firststeps toward obtaining the critical empirical dataneeded to validate whether the predicted benefits ofsuch aerospike engines versus those equipped withstandard bell-shaped nozzles can be achieved. Thisgoal had been one of the primary objectives of theX-33 program, which featured the XRS-2200 linearaerospike engine.The CSULB students are now investigating anext generation aerospike engine design, featuringa more traditional multi-chamber design. This designwill enable the large expansion ratios required to fullyevaluate engine performance throughout the entireflight regime of an orbital launch vehicle.As part of an evaluation of fuels for the NLVthat could provide greater performance than theethanol used in the current CALVEIN research vehicles,the team has identified propylene as a promisingcandidate meriting further attention. Liquid oxygenand propylene have the potential to provide higherspecific impulse than the traditional LOX/RP-1propellant combination. Unlike another alternativehydrocarbon that has received extensive discussionFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 27

Enabling Technologies2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts(methane), propylene can achieve comparable densitiesto that of RP-1 when chilled to cryogenictemperatures. A widely available commoditybecause of its role as a feedstock in the plasticsindustry, propylene also has favorable characteristicswith respect to toxicity and environmental hazards.Some of the potential concerns about propylene,most notably its potential for polymerization,are only relevant for turbopump-fed regenerativeengines. Therefore, those concerns are not issuesfor the pressure-fed NLV stages that feature ablativeand radiative engine chambers.The GSC/CSULB conducted a series of staticfire tests at the MTA to identify logistics and handlingissues associated with propylene and to evaluate apreliminary engine design for the NLV second stage.Preliminary results confirm that the ignition sequenceis more susceptible to a hard start than liquid oxygenand ethanol. For this initial phase of testing, thepropylene has been at ambient temperatures. A roundof follow-on testing will evaluate several differentignition sequences and engine performance withpropylene at cryogenic conditions. Upon successfulcompletion of that phase of research, the team plansto conduct a LOX and propylene flight test using amodified version of the Prospector-class vehicles. 26Liquid Engines – Microcosm, Inc.Microcosm’s liquidengineMicrocosm is developing afamily of liquid-propellantrocket engines for itsScorpius series of ELVsand other users (see theELV section for a descriptionof Scorpius). The companyhas built a pressurefed,ablatively cooled, 22,250-newton (5,000-poundsforce)thrust engine using liquid oxygen and jet fuelas propellants. This engine was successfully testedon the company’s SR-S and SRXM-1 soundingrockets launched in January 1999 and March 2001.The engine will also be used as the upper stageengine for the Sprite Mini-Lift orbital vehicle shouldthat vehicle move into final development. 27A larger version, an 89,000-newton (20,000-pounds-force) engine is in development. Thisengine will be used on the booster pods and sustainerstage of the Eagle SLV included in theDARPA and USAF FALCON Program.In addition, a new 356,000-newton (80,000-pounds-force) engine has started development underan AFRL Small Business Innovation Research,Phase 1, contract. Both the 89,000-newton (20,000-pounds-force) and 356,000-newton (80,000-poundsforce)engines are follow-on developments to thesuccessful 22,250-newton (5,000-pounds-force)engines. All are ablative chamber, LOX/Jet A propellantengines designed for very low-cost, robustdesign margins, moderate chamber pressures, highreliability, and expendable applications.Liquid Engines – Space ExplorationTechnologies CorporationSpaceX MerlinengineSpaceX of El Segundo, California,is developing two new liquid-propellantengines for use on itsFalcon launch vehicle. The firststage engine, known as Merlin, isa 320,300-newton (72,000-poundsforce)thrust engine that is turbopumpfed with a gas generatorcycle. The second stage engine,known as Kestrel, is a pressure-fedengine that produces a 31,400-newton (7,000 pounds-force)vacuum thrust. Both engines use LOX/kerosenepropellants. SpaceX began testing the Merlin inMarch 2003 and began testing the Kestrel in August2003. Flight qualification of both engines is scheduledfor completion by March 2005. 28Liquid Engines – XCOR AerospaceXCOR 5,000 poundthrustLOX/keroseneengineXCOR Aerospace, locatedin Mojave, California, specializesin developingengines and propulsionsystems for use on launchvehicles and spacecraft.The company has developedand extensively tested fiveliquid-propellant engines. XCOR’s largest enginecurrently in active development, designated XR4K5,is an 8,000-newton (1,800 pounds-force) enginethat is pump-fed, LOX/kerosene regenerativelycooled with fuel. This engine may be used to powerthe prototype Xerus vehicle for initial flight testing,but XCOR has not yet decided on this approach.28 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling TechnologiesThe XR4A3 is a fully operational 1,780-newton(400-pounds-force), pressure-fed, regenerativelycooled, liquid oxygen and alcohol engine. Foursuch engines have been built and, combined, havebeen run 558 times for over 6,434 seconds. Theseengines have also been flown on the EZ-Rocket, amodified Long-EZ aircraft fitted with two of theengines. The EZ-Rocket has completed 15 successfulflight tests since July 2001, including twoflights at the Experimental Aircraft Association’sAirVenture 2002 air show in Oshkosh, Wisconsin,in July 2002.XCOR has built three smaller engines. A 67-newton (15-pounds-force) engine, designatedXR2P1, using nitrous oxide and ethane as propellants,was initially built to test the design of proposedlarger engines. With a cumulative burn timeof 103 minutes, this engine has completed in excessof 1,189 runs. It continues to serve as a workhorseengine for a wide variety of experiments, crewtraining activities, and educational demonstrations.The XR2P1 has run on oxygen and nitrous oxideoxidizers, with propane, ethane, kerosene, turpentine,and a variety of alcohols. The XR3A2 700newton (160 pounds-force) was the first LOX/alcoholengine, accumulating 61 brief runs in the courseof injector concept development, which led to laterengines. The XCOR XR3B4 regeneratively cooledengine is capable of a 220-newton (50-poundsforce)thrust, using nitrous oxide and isopropylalcohol as propellants. This engine has completed216 runs with a cumulative burn time of more than812 seconds. XCOR designed this engine for use asa maneuvering thruster on spacecraft. 29Propellant Production – AndrewsSpace, Inc.Andrews Space, Inc., ofSeattle, Washington, has proposeda propulsion/propellantsystem to generate LOX propellantfrom the atmosphere.The Alchemist TM Air CollectionGryphon with orbiterand Enrichment System (ACES)takes high-pressure air from turbofan jet enginesflying at subsonic speeds and liquefies it by passingthe air through a series of heat exchangers cooledby liquid nitrogen, liquid hydrogen, or both. Then,using a fractional distillation process, liquid oxygenis separated into its constituent parts and stored inpropellant tanks for use by liquid hydrogen and LOXrocket engines. Alchemist TM ACES allows horizontaltake-off and landing launch vehicles to leave theground without oxidizer, dramatically reducing theirtake-off weight, increasing payload capability, orboth. The company has proposed Alchemist TM ACESin conjunction with its two-stage-to-orbit RLV design– known as Gryphon – as well as for use in otherhorizontal take-off launch vehicles. Andrews Spacecarried out initial studies of the Alchemist TM ACEStechnology using internal funds, then under a NASASBIR contract. Detailed feasibility studies and riskanalyses were carried out under a NASA SLI contract.Andrews also participated on an integrated,cooperative NASA/industry team for the NGLTprogram to study the Gryphon architecture as oneof several promising concepts. The NGLT studiesincluded additional Alchemist ACES design andconfiguration studies. 30In April 2002, XCOR acquired selected intellectualproperty assets of the former Rotary RocketCompany. These assets included a 22,250-newton(5,000-pounds-force) LOX/kerosene engine developedand tested by the company as well as hydrogenperoxide engine technology. XCOR has completeddevelopment of their fourth-generation igniterwith integral valves and is now developing compositeLOX tank technology with inherent materialscompatibility and superior structural effectiveness.A piston pump suitable for use with LOX/kerosene,alcohol, or both, fuels is currently under developmentand will be merged with the XR4K5 engine.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 29

Enabling Technologies2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsIntegrated PowerheadDemonstrator – NASAIPD test at NASAStennis Space CenterThe Integrated PowerheadDemonstrator (IPD) is ajoint venture betweenNASA and the IntegratedHigh Payoff RocketPropulsion Technologies program,managed for DoD bythe AFRL at EAFB. Thisproject is the first phase of a full-scale effort todevelop a flight-rated, full-flow, hydrogen-fueled,staged combustion rocket engine in the 1.1 millionnewton(250,000-pounds-force) thrust class. TheIPD will employ dual preburners that provide bothoxygen-rich and hydrogen-rich staged combustion.Such combustion is expected to keep engines coolduring flight, achieve high system efficiency, andreduce exhaust emissions. Boeing’s RocketdynePropulsion & Power is developing the liquid-hydrogenfuel turbopump and the demonstrator’s oxygenpump, main injector, and main combustion chamber.Aerojet Corporation of Sacramento, California,designed and tested the oxidizer preburner, whichinitiates the combustion process with oxygen-richsteam. Aerojet also is responsible for development ofthe demonstrator engine’s fuel preburner, designed tosupply the fuel turbopump’s turbine with hot, hydrogen-richsteam. Boeing-Rocketdyne will lead overallsystem integration once component-level developmentand testing are complete. Integrated testing ofIPD is ongoing at Stennis Space Center from late2004 through September 2005.Hyper-X Series Vehicles – NASAOn March 27, 2004, fourdecades of supersonic-combustionramjet propulsionresearch culminated in a successfulflight of the X-43AX-43A/Hyper Xhypersonic technologydemonstrator, the first time a scramjet-powered aircrafthad flown freely. On November 16, 2004, anidentical scramjet-powered X-43A repeated this feat.Chemical rocket systems combust a fuel andoxygen mixture to produce thrust. By carryingeverything needed for combustion, these enginescan operate in the vacuum of space. Conventionalturbojets also burn fuel and an oxidizer, but the oxidizercomes from the atmosphere. Without the needfor oxidizer tankage, these engines are lighter thanrockets but cannot operate in rarified air or a vacuum.For vehicles intended to conduct powered flightfrom the Earth’s surface up to space and back, suchas RLVs, an engine capable of operating throughoutchanging atmospheric conditions is the idealpropulsion solution.NASA’s Langley Research Center inHampton, Virginia, has managed the Hyper-X programto develop air-breathing rocket technologysince 1997. The vehicle is the result of collaborationbetween ATK-GASL, which built the airframeand engine, and Boeing Phantom Works, whichconstructed the thermal protection system.Other technology efforts have flown scramjetengines, but those engines were permanentlyaffixed to the carrier rockets. Supersonic combustionramjets, or scramjets, are air-breathing engineswith no moving parts, similar to ramjets. Unlikeramjets, however, scramjets only operate at supersonicspeeds. The gaseous hydrogen burningengines of the X-43A were enclosed in a 3.7-meter(12-foot) long airframe and propelled the vehicle atvelocities of approximately Mach 7 and Mach 10.The 3.7-meter (12-foot) long vehicle is acceleratedto Mach 7 (for the first two flights) or Mach 10 (forthe third flight) by the first stage of an OrbitalSciences Corporation Pegasus XL launch vehicle.Then, the X-43A separates from the booster forindependent flight at high speed. 31 The whole stackwas dropped from NASA’s B-52B carrier aircraft.During this year’s successful flights, theNASA B-52 aircraft released the vehicle at an altitudeof 12.2 kilometers (7.6 miles) to reduce theaerodynamic loads on the control surfaces of thebooster. The X-43A was boosted to a test flight altitudeof 29 kilometers (18 miles) by a modifiedPegasus XL rocket. Then, it separated for a 10-secondperiod of scramjet-powered flight. The flightachieved a speed of Mach 6.83.The Hyper-X program not only proved thematurity of scramjet technology but also recordedvaluable environmental data on hypersonic flight.During the second and final X-43A flight inNovember 2004, a speed of Mach 9.8 was reached.The resulting vehicle skin temperatures of 3,600degrees Fahrenheit were far above the melting point30 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Enabling Technologiesof conventional aircraft structures and required athermal protection system. Because existing windtunnels are incapable of generating Mach 10 airflow,the final X-43A flight provided a one-of-a-kindopportunity for research into this flight regime. TheX-43A proved that the United States can produceair-breathing vehicles capable of sustained activelycontrolled flight at hypersonic speeds.This program was originally intended to featuretwo additional vehicles. As envisioned, the X-43B would demonstrate an engine capable of operatingin several modes. The X-43B’s combined cycleengine would function as a normal turbojet at lowaltitudes and switch to scramjet mode at high altitudesand speeds. Planned X-43B flights were tooccur sometime in 2009 after the completion ofanother Hyper-X test vehicle, the X-43C. The X-43Cwas intended to demonstrate the operation of a solidhydrocarbon-burning scramjet engine at speedsbetween Mach 5 and 7 sometime in 2008. Both vehicleswere cancelled in March 2004 because of a shiftin NASA’s strategic goals following the announcementof the President’s Vision for Space Explorationin January of that year. However, because of the successof the X-43A , the U.S. Congress added $25million to the NASA 2005 budget to continue developmentof the X-43C research vehicle. Hypersonicvehicles promise to enable future RLV systems, suchas two-stage-to-orbit systems. In addition to servingas RLV propulsion, hypersonic engines may enableproduction of hypersonic munitions for the military.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 31

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSpaceportsLaunch and reentry sites – often referred to as“spaceports” – are the nation’s gateways to andfrom space. Although individual capabilities vary,these facilities may house launch pads and runwaysas well as the infrastructure, equipment, and fuelsneeded to process launch vehicles and their payloadsbefore launch. The first such facilities in theUnited States emerged in the 1940s when the federalgovernment began to build and operate space launchranges and bases to meet a variety of national needs.While U.S. military and civil governmentagencies were the original and still are the primaryusers and operators of these facilities, commercialpayload customers have become frequent users offederal spaceports as well. Federal facilities are notthe only portals to and from space. Indeed, the commercialdimension of U.S. space activity is evidentnot only in the numbers of commercially procuredlaunches but also in the presence of non-federallaunch sites supplementing federally operated sites.FAA/AST has licensed the operations of fivenon-federal launch sites. These spaceports haveserved both commercial and government payloadowners. Table 2 shows which states have non-federal,federal, and proposed spaceports.This section describes efforts to develop anational space transportation infrastructure plan.The non-federal and federal spaceports capable ofsupporting launch and landing activities that currentlyexist in the United States are also described.A subsection detailing state and private proposalsTable 2: Spaceport Summary by StateState Non-federal Federal ProposedAlabamaAlaskaCaliforniaFloridaKwajaleinNevadaNew MexicoOklahomaTexasUtahVirginiaWashingtonWisconsinfor future spaceports with launch and landing capabilitiesis included.National Coalition of Spaceport StatesIn 2004, the National Coalition of SpaceportStates (NCSS) worked with Federal agencies andCongressional leadership to begin identifying keyconsiderations and laying the groundwork for developinga national space transportation infrastructureplan. This plan is intended to identify all infrastructureelements necessary to support both the emergingprivate enterprise space transportation industryand the new national space exploration initiativeenacted by the President. The plan is intended toprovide a roadmap for establishing non-federalspace infrastructure assets, such as a network ofintermodal spaceports providing bureaucraticallyunfettered access to and from space. The plan willprovide recommendations for streamlining conceptto-operationdevelopment of space transportationinfrastructure from a regulatory standpoint. In additionto spaceport facility development, the plan isexpected to cover other considerations, such asspace traffic control, and federal R&D assistance tonon-federal and private sector space systems efforts.Non-federal Spaceportswith FAA/AST LicensesWhile the majority of licensed launch activity stilloccurs at U.S. federal ranges, much future launchand landing activity may originate from private orstate-operated spaceports. For a non-federal entityto operate a launch or landing site in the UnitedStates, it is necessary to obtain a license from thefederal government through FAA/AST. To date,FAA/AST has licensed the operations of five nonfederallaunch sites, all of which are described inthis subsection. Four of these are co-located withfederal launch sites, including the CaliforniaSpaceport at VAFB, Florida Space Authority (FSA)at Cape Canaveral, Florida, MARS (originally theVirginia Space Flight Center) at WFF, Virginia,Mojave Airport at Mojave, California, and KodiakLaunch Complex at Narrow Cape on KodiakIsland, Alaska. The first orbital launch from anFAA/AST-licensed site occurred on January 6,1998, when a Lockheed Martin Athena 2, carryingNASA’s Lunar Prospector spacecraft, successfully32 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts SpaceportsU.S. Spaceport Locationslifted off from FSA’s LC-46. Table 3 summarizesthe characteristics of FAA/AST licensed spaceports.California SpaceportCalifornia SpaceportOn September 19, 1996, the California Spaceportbecame the first Commercial Spaceport licensed byFAA/AST. In June 2001, FAA/AST renewed thespaceport’s license for another five years. TheCalifornia Spaceport offers commercial launch andpayload processing services and is operated andmanaged by SSI, a limited partnership of ITTFederal Service Corporation. Co-located at VAFB onthe central California coast, SSI signed a 25-yearlease in 1995 for 0.44 square kilometers (0.17 squaremiles) of land. Located at latitude 34º North, theCalifornia Spaceport can support a variety of missionprofiles to low-polar-orbit inclinations, with possiblelaunch azimuths ranging from 220 degrees to 165degrees.Initial construction at the California Spaceport,Commercial Launch Facility began in 1995 and wascompleted in 1999. The design concept is based ona “building block” approach. Power and communicationscabling was routed underground to providea launch pad with the flexibility to accommodate avariety of launch systems. Additional work wascompleted in 2004 to build a rolling access gantry tosupport Minuteman and future Peacekeeper spacebooster derivatives. Although the facility is configuredto support solid propellant vehicles, plans arein place to equip the launch facility with supportsystems/commodities required by liquid-fueledboosters. The current SLC-8 configuration consistsFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 33

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSpaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development StatusCaliforniaSpaceportKodiak LaunchComplexSpaceport ownedby Florida SpaceAuthorityLompoc,CaliforniaKodiak Island,AlaskaCapeCanaveral,FloridaMid-Atlantic Wallops Island,Regional Spaceport VirginiaMojave AirportMojave,CaliforniaTable 3: Licensed Non-federal Spaceports: Infrastructure and StatusSpaceport SystemsInternationalAlaska AerospaceDevelopmentCorporationFlorida SpaceAuthorityExisting launch pads, runways,payload processing facilities,telemetry and tracking equipment.Launch control center, payloadprocessing facility, and integrationand processing facility. Limitedrange support infrastructure (usesmobile equipment).One launch complex, including apad and a remote control center; asmall payload preparation facility;and an RLV support facility.Virginia Commercial Two orbital launch pads, payloadSpace Flight Authority processing and integration facilityvehicle storage and assemblybuildings, on-site and downrangetelemetry and tracking, and payloadrecovery capability.East Kern AirportAir control tower, runway, rotor teststand, engineering facilities, highbay building.Work completed in 2004 to build a rolling accessgantry to support Minuteman and futurePeacekeeper space booster derivatives.Construction of the launch control center,payload processing facility, and integration andprocessing facility was completed in 2000.Has invested over $500 million to upgradelaunch sites, build an RLV support complexadjacent to the Shuttle landing facilities, anddevelop a new space operations supportcomplex.Currently completing $6.6 million in launch rangeimprovements. Invested $1.3 million to designand build a new Mobile Service Structure.Construction of a $4 million logistics andprocessing facility at NASA Wallops underway.MARS is adding a new mobile Liquid FuelingFacility capable of supporting a wide range ofliquid-fueled and hybrid rockets.FAA/AST approved site license. ScaledComposites’ SS1 has launched from this site forthe Ansari X Prize competition.of the following infrastructure: pad deck, supportequipment building, launch equipment vault, launchduct, launch stand, access tower, communicationsequipment, and Integrated Processing Facility (IPF)launch control room as well as the required WesternRange interfaces needed to support a launch. Thefinal SLC-8 configuration awaits future customerrequirements. When fully developed, the SLC-8Launch Facility will accommodate a wide varietyof launch vehicles, including the Minuteman-basedMinotaur and Castor 120-based vehicles, such asAthena and Taurus.Originally, the focus of the CaliforniaSpaceport’s payload processing services was on therefurbishment of the Shuttle Payload PreparationRoom. Located near SLC-6, this large clean roomfacility was originally designed to process threeSpace Shuttle payloads simultaneously. It is nowleased and operated by the California Spaceport asthe IPF. Today, payload-processing activities occuron a regular basis. The IPF has supported boosterprocessing, upper stage processing, encapsulationand commercial, civil, and USAF satellite processingand their associated administrative activities.The IPF can handle all customer payload processingneeds. This includes Delta 2, Delta 4, and Atlas5 class payloads as well as smaller USAF and commercialpayloads as required.The spaceport has received limited financialsupport from the state in the form of grants. In2000, it received about $180,000 to upgrade theeast breech load doors in the IPF transfer tower.The modification was completed in March 2001.The new transfer tower can accommodate 18-meter(60-foot) payloads. This will enable SSI to processand encapsulate satellites in support of the EELVprogram. In May 2001, SSI received approximately$167,000 to upgrade the satellite command andtelemetry systems. The state of California has alsoprovided some support for California Spaceportbusiness. In 2001, legislation was passed to removethe “sunset” clause on tax exemptions for commercialsatellites and boosters launched from VAFB,including California Spaceport.The California Spaceport provides payloadprocessing and orbital launch support services forcommercial, civil, and government users. TheCalifornia Spaceport provided payload-processingservices for NASA satellites including Landsat 7(1996); TIMED/Jason (2001); and Aqua (2002).The California Spaceport’s first polar launch wasJAWSAT, a joint project of the Air Force Academyand Weber State University, on a Minotaur spacelaunch vehicle in July 2000. To date, the site haslaunched two Minotaur launch vehicles. In 2002,SSI won a 10-year USAF satellite-processing con-34 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportstract for Delta 4 class 4- and 5-meter (13- and16-foot) payloads. This contract complements an existing10-year NASA payload-processing contract forDelta 2 class 3-meter (10-foot) payloads. SSI isworking with several launch providers for NationalMissile Defense support.The National Reconnaissance Office has contractedwith SSI to provide space vehicle processinguntil 2011. This includes Delta 4 and Atlas 5EELV-class payload processing support for multiplemissions to be launched from VAFB. NASA andcommercial Delta-class payloads are also processedat the IPF for launch on the Delta 2 and launchedfrom SLC-2W on VAFB. In 2003 through 2004, theCalifornia Spaceport continued improvements tothe IPF and supported USAF Pathfinders, includingthe EELV 5 M Pathfinder. In 2004, SSI was awardedthree new Minotaur launches for 2005 and a newIndefinite Delivery/Indefinite Quantity contract tosupport future Minotaur task orders. 32Kodiak Launch ComplexKodiak Launch ComplexIn 1991, the Alaska state legislature created theAlaska Aerospace Development Corporation(AADC) as a public company to develop aerospace-relatedeconomic, technical, and educationalopportunities for the state of Alaska. In 2000, theAADC completed the $40-million, 2-year constructionof the Kodiak Launch Complex at NarrowCape on Kodiak Island, Alaska. The first licensedlaunch site not co-located with a federal facility,Kodiak Launch Complex was also the first newU.S. launch site built since the 1960s. Owned bythe state of Alaska and operated by the AADC, theKodiak Launch Complex received funding from theUSAF, U.S. Army, NASA, the state of Alaska, andprivate firms. The launch complex is located on a12.4-square kilometer (4.8-square mile) site about419 kilometers (260 miles) south of Anchorage and40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of the city ofKodiak. The launch site itself encompasses a nearly5-kilometer (3-mile) area around Launch Pad 1.Kodiak facilities currently include the LaunchControl Center; the Payload Processing Facility,which includes a class-100,000 clean room, an airlock,and a processing bay; the Integration andProcessing Facility/Spacecraft Assemblies TransferFacility; and the Launch Pad and Service Structure.These facilities allow the transfer of vehicles andpayloads from processing to launch without exposureto the outside environment. This capabilityprotects both the vehicles and the people workingon them from exterior conditions, and allows allweatherlaunch operations. The Kodiak LaunchComplex Range Safety and Telemetry System(RSTS) was delivered in September 2003. TheRSTS consists of two fully redundant systems: onefor on-site, the other for off-axis. Each part of theRSTS consists of two 5.4-meter (17.7-foot) disheswith eight telemetry links featuring commanddestruct capabilities. The Kodiak RSTS number 1system will be located on a newly constructedmulti-elevation antenna field that also supports customer-uniqueinstrumentation.The AADC is also supporting development ofground station facilities near Fairbanks, Alaska, incooperation with several commercial remote-sensingcompanies. The high-latitude location makesthe Fairbanks site favorable for polar-orbiting satellites,which typically pass above Fairbanks severaltimes daily.Located at latitude 57º North, Kodiak providesa wide launch azimuth and unobstructed downrangeflight path. Kodiak’s markets are military launches,government and commercial telecommunications,remote sensing, and space science payloads weighingup to 990 kilograms (2,200 pounds). These payloadscan be delivered into LEO, polar, and Molniyaelliptical orbits. Kodiak is designed to launch Castor120-based vehicles, including the Athena 1 and 2,and has been used on a number of occasions tolaunch military suborbital rockets.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 35

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsKodiak has conducted seven launches to date.The first launch from Kodiak was a suborbital vehicle,atmospheric interceptor technology 1, built byOrbital Sciences for the USAF in November 1998.A second launch followed in September 1999. InMarch 2001, a Quick Reaction Launch Vehicle(QRLV) was launched from the Kodiak LaunchComplex. A joint NASA-Lockheed MartinAstronautics mission on an Athena 1 was the firstorbital launch from Kodiak, taking place onSeptember 29, 2001. In November 2001, a StrategicTarget System vehicle was launched. However,because of a launch anomaly, the vehicle wasdestroyed. In April 2002, Orbital Sciences launcheda second QRLV for the USAF.Most recently, on December 14, 2004, MDAlaunched the first of several rockets from Kodiak totest the U.S. missile defense system. This followedthe 2003 signing of a 5-year contract betweenMDA and AADC to provide launch support servicesfor multiple launches in connection with tests ofthe nation’s missile defense system. The secondlaunch under this contract is scheduled to take placein the spring of 2005.Mid-Atlantic Regional SpaceportMid-Atlantic Regional SpaceportMARS 33 traces its beginnings to the Center forCommercial Space Infrastructure, created in 1992at Virginia’s Old Dominion University to establishcommercial space research and operations facilitiesin the state. The Center for Commercial SpaceInfrastructure worked with WFF to develop commerciallaunch infrastructure at Wallops. In 1995, theorganization became the Virginia Commercial SpaceFlight Authority (VCSFA), a political subdivision ofthe Commonwealth of Virginia, focused on promotinggrowth of aerospace business while developing acommercial launch capability in Virginia.On December 19, 1997, FAA/AST issuedVCSFA a launch site operator’s license for theMARS. This license was renewed in December2002 for another 5 years. The MARS is designed toprovide “one-stop shopping” for space launch facilitiesand services for commercial, government, scientific,and academic users. In 1997, VCSFA signedwith NASA a Reimbursement Space Act Agreementto use the Wallops center’s facilities in support ofcommercial launches. This 30-year agreement allowsVCSFA access to NASA’s payload integration,launch operations, and monitoring facilities on anon-interference, cost reimbursement basis. NASAand MARS personnel work together to providelaunch services, providing little, if any, distinctionin the areas of responsibility for each.VCSFA has a partnership agreement withDynSpace Corporation, a Computer Sciences Corp.company, of Reston, Virginia, to operate the spaceport.Funded by a contract with the state and throughany spaceport revenues, DynSpace operates theMARS for the VCSFA. The state maintains ownershipof the spaceport’s assets. MARS is located atWFF under a long-term use agreement for realestate on which the Goddard Space Flight Centerhas made real property improvements. The VCSFAreceives the majority of its funding from operations.The remainder of its support comes from the state.VCSFA owns two launch pads at Wallops.Launch pad 0-B, its first launch pad, was designedas a “universal launch pad,” capable of supporting avariety of small and medium ELVs with gross liftoffweights of up to 225,000 kilograms (496,000 pounds)that can place up to 4,500 kilograms (9,900 pounds)into LEO. Phase 1 construction of launch pad 0-B,including a 1,750-square-meter (18,830-square-foot)pad made of reinforced concrete, above-ground flamedeflector, and launch mount, took place betweenMarch and December 1998. In 2003, MARS committedto the design and construction of a new 113-foot Mobile Service Structure. The new $1.3 millionMobile Service Structure offers complete vehicleenclosure, flexible access, and can be readily modifiedto support specific vehicle operations. The sitealso includes a complete command, control, andcommunications interface with the launch range.36 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts SpaceportsA USAF OSP Minotaur mission is currently scheduledfor this site.In March 2000, MARS acquired a second padat WWF, launch pad 0-A. EER Systems ofSeabrook, Maryland, built this site in 1994 for itsConestoga launch vehicle. The Conestoga made onelaunch from launch pad 0-A in October 1995 butfailed to place the METEOR microgravity payloadinto orbit. MARS started refurbishing launch pad 0-A and its 25-meter (82-foot) service tower in June2000. Launch pad 0-A will support launches ofsmall ELVs with gross liftoff weights of up to90,000 kilograms (198,000 pounds) and that arecapable of placing up to 1,350 kilograms (3,000pounds) into LEO. Completion of the refurbishingproject is pending future business opportunities.From its location on the Atlantic coast, MARS canaccommodate a wide range of orbital inclinationsand launch azimuths. Optimal orbital inclinationsaccessible from the site are between 38° and 60°;other inclinations, including SSO, can be reachedthrough in-flight maneuvers. Launch pad 0-A cansupport a number of small solid-propellant boosters,including the Athena 1, Minotaur, and Taurus.Launch pad 0-B can support larger vehicles, includingthe Athena 2. MARS also has an interest in supportingfuture RLVs, possibly using its launch padsor three runways at WFF.MARS also provides an extensive array ofservices including the provision of supplies andconsumables to support launch operations, facilityscheduling, maintenance, inspection to ensure timelyand safe ground processing and launch operations,and coordination with NASA on behalf of itscustomers. Construction of Service Gantry LaunchPad 0B has been completed. MARS is in theprocess of constructing a $4 million logistics andprocessing facility at WFF, capable of handlingpayloads of up to 5,700 kilograms (12,600 pounds).The facility, which includes high bay and cleanroom environments, is currently in construction. Inconjunction with WFF, MARS is adding a newmobile Liquid Fueling Facility capable of supportinga wide range of liquid-fueled and hybrid rockets.Construction of the LFF is in the final integrationand test phase. 34Mojave AirportMojave AirportMojave Airport in Mojave, California, became thefirst inland launch site licensed by the FAA on June17, 2004, allowing Mojave Airport to support suborbitallaunches of RLVs. The East Kern County,California, government established the MojaveAirport in 1935. The original facility was equippedwith taxiways and basic support infrastructure forgeneral aviation. A short time after its inception, theMojave Airport became a Marine Auxiliary AirStation. The largest general aviation airport in KernCounty, Mojave Airport is owned and operated bythe East Kern Airport District, which is a specialdistrict with an elected Board of Directors and aGeneral Manager. The airport serves as a CivilianFlight Test Center, the location of the National TestPilot School (NTPS), and a base for modifyingmajor military jets and civilian aircraft. The NTPSoperates various aircraft, including high-performancejets, single- and twin-engine propeller airplanes, andhelicopters. Numerous large air carrier jet aircraft arestored and maintained at the Mojave Airport.The Mojave Airport consists of three runwayswith associated taxiways and other support facilities,Runway 12-30, Runway 8-26, and Runway 4-22. Runway 12-30 is 2,896 meters (9,502 feet) longand is the primary runway for large air carrier jetand high-performance civilian and military jet aircraft.Runway 8-26 is 2,149 meters (7,050 feet)long and is primarily used by general aviation jetand propeller aircraft. Runway 4-22 is 1,202 meters(3,943 feet) long and is used by smaller generalaviation propeller aircraft and helicopters.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 37

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsMajor facilities at the Mojave Airport includethe terminal and industrial area, hangars, offices,maintenance shop, and fuel services facilities. Rocketengine test stands are located in the northern portionof the airport. Aircraft parking capacity includes 600tie downs and 60 T-hangars. The Mojave Airport alsoincludes aircraft storage and a reconditioning facilityand is home to several industrial operations, such asBAE Systems, Fiberset, Scaled Composites, AVTEL,XCOR Aerospace, Orbital Sciences Corporation, IOS,and General Electric. Mojave Airport consists of severaltest stands, an air traffic control tower, a rockettest stand, some engineering facilities, and a high baybuilding.Spaceport Operated byFlorida Space AuthorityIn the last 2 years, XCOR Aerospace performedflight tests at this facility, including multiple successfultests with the EZ-Rocket. XCOR Aerospace hadthree Rocketplane test flights up to 3,657 meters(12,000 feet) in 2002. In addition, rocket enginesof up to 133,000 newtons (30,000 pounds-force)of thrust were tested at the site in 2002 and 2003.On the 100th anniversary of the WrightBrothers’ first powered flight, December 17, 2003,Scaled Composites, LLC, flew SpaceShipOne fromMojave Airport, breaking the speed of sound in thefirst manned supersonic flight by an aircraft developedprivately by a small company. On June 21,2004, Scaled Composites flew its SpaceShipOnesuborbital vehicle from the Mojave Airport, reaching100 kilometers (62 miles) and becoming the firstprivate, manned rocket to reach space. SpaceShipOnethen flew from Mojave, past the boundary of space,fully loaded to meet the Ansari X-Prize qualifications,on September 29 and again on October 4.Brian Binnie piloted SpaceShipOne to 112 kilometers(69 miles), winning the $10 million Ansari XPrize and smashing the 107,960-meter (354,200-foot)altitude record set by the X-15 airplane in the 1960s.SpaceShipOne rockets into historyLaunch Compex-46 at the Cape Canaveral SpaceportEstablished by the state of Florida as the SpaceportFlorida Authority in 1989, FSA, renamed as such inJanuary 2002, is empowered like an airport authorityto serve the launch industry and is responsible forstatewide space-related economic and academicdevelopment. The FSA owns and operates spacetransportation-related facilities on approximately0.29 square kilometers (0.11 square miles) of land atCCAFS, which is owned by the USAF. FAA/ASTfirst issued the state organization a license for spaceportoperations on May 22, 1997, and renewed thelicense in 2002 for another 5 years.Under an arrangement between the federalgovernment and FSA, underused facilities atCCAFS have been conveyed to FSA for improvementand use by commercial entities on a dual-use,non-interference basis with USAF programs. FSAefforts have concentrated on the CCAFS LC-46, anold Trident missile launch site. The LC-46 has beenmodified to accommodate small commercial launchvehicles, as well as U.S. Navy Trident missiles. Thephilosophy guiding the development of LC-46 wasto build a public transportation infrastructure forseveral competing launch systems rather than tailora facility for a single launch system. As a result,38 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts SpaceportsLC-46 can accommodate the Athena 1 and Athena2. In the future, LC-46 could accommodate vehiclescarrying payloads in excess of 1,800 kilograms(4,000 pounds) to LEO.Currently, LC-46 is configured for Castor 120or similar solid-motor-based vehicles. The infrastructurecan support launch vehicles with a maximumheight of 36 meters (120 feet) and diametersranging from 1 to 3 meters (3 to 10 feet). AnAthena 2, carrying the NASA Lunar Prospector,was the first vehicle launched into orbit from thespaceport in January 1998. This was followed bylaunch of the ROCSAT satellite in January of 1999.Thus far, FSA has invested over $500 millionin new space industry development. FSA hasupgraded LC-46, built an RLV support complex(adjacent to the Shuttle landing site on KSCgrounds), and developed a new space operationssupport complex. Additionally, FSA financed $292million for Atlas 5 launch facilities at CCAFS LC-41, financed and constructed the $24 million Delta4 Horizontal Integration Facility for Boeing at LC-37, and provided financing for a Titan 4 storage andprocessing facility. SpaceX plans to use FSA’s LC-46 for operations on the east coast.As part of an overall effort to expand use ofthe Cape for R&D and educational activities, FSAobtained a 5-year license from the Air Force to useLC-47. The complex was upgraded to support a significantnumber of suborbital and small LEOlaunches carrying academic payloads for researchand training purposes.FSA published a Space Transportation MasterPlan for the state of Florida in November 2002,detailing the status of intermodal, transportationrelatedfunctions and assets on and near the CapeCanaveral Spaceport. Based on the SpaceTransportation Master Plan, FSA developed a Five-Year Work Program in cooperation with theNASA/KSC and USAF 45th Space Wing to identifytransportation-related improvements needed atthe spaceport and its intermodal connections to thesurrounding community. The plan was submitted inMay 2004 to the Brevard Metropolitan PlanningOrganization (MPO) for inclusion in the county’sTransportation Improvement Program. TheAuthority identified as its highest off-site priorityan additional lane on the existing I-95 exit ramp(Eastbound) to State Road 407 from improvedspaceport ingress and egress of space cargoes.In collaboration with NASA and the state,FSA is helping develop the International SpaceResearch Park on about 320 acres at NASA/KSC.The recently completed Space Life Sciences Lab, a$26 million state-of-the-art research facilityfinanced by the state of Florida, serves as a magnetfacility for the research park. The next phase ofconstruction will address the enabling infrastructurefor further development, such as roads, water,sewer and storm drainage. Ground breaking isexpected in 2005.Federal SpaceportsSince the first licensed commercial orbital launch in1989, the federal ranges have continually supportedcommercial launch activity. The importance ofcommercial launches is evident in the changes takingplace at federal launch sites. Launch pads havebeen developed with commercial, federal, and stategovernment support at the two major federal sitesfor U.S. orbital launches for the latest generation ofthe Delta and Atlas launch vehicles, including theEELVs. Cape Canaveral Spaceport (consisting ofCCAFS and NASA KSC) hosts pads for Delta 4and Atlas 5. VAFB currently accommodates theDelta 4 and a pad is under construction to accommodatethe Atlas 5.Recognizing that the ranges are aging, theU.S. government is engaged in range modernization.This effort includes the ongoing RangeStandardization and Automation program, a keyeffort to modernize and upgrade the Eastern Rangeat CCAFS and portions of the Western Range atVAFB. The USAF, Department of Commerce, andFAA signed a Memorandum of Agreement inJanuary 2002 that established a process for collectingcommercial sector range support and modernizationrequirements, communicating them to theUSAF, and considering them in the existing USAFrequirements process. Table 4 summarizes the characteristicsof federal spaceports.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 39

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsCape Canaveral Spaceportand Missile Center. The Eastern Space and MissileCenter became part of Air Force Space Commandin October 1990 when the Air Force transferredspace and launch responsibilities from Air ForceSystems Command to Air Force Space Command.Today, CCAFS encompasses six active launchcomplexes for Delta, Atlas, Titan, and soundingrocket launch vehicles. Plans are currently in workto deactivate two of those launch complexes (LC 40for Titan 4 and LC 36 for Atlas 2/3) in 2005.Cape Canaveral SpaceportThe Cape Canaveral Spaceport is geographicallycomprised of the USAF CCAFS and NASA KSC inFlorida.The 45th Space Wing, headquartered at nearbyPatrick AFB, conducts launch operations andprovides range support for military, civil, and commerciallaunches. The 45th Space Wing is the hostorganization for Patrick AFB, CCAFS, Antigua AirStation, Ascension Auxiliary Air Field, and manymission partners. The Wing is part of Air ForceSpace Command at Peterson AFB, Colorado, andreports to the 14th Air Force at VAFB.The Wing manages the Eastern Range, provideslaunch and tracking facilities, safety procedures andtest data to a wide variety of users. It also manageslaunch operations for DoD space programs. Usersinclude the USAF, Navy, NASA, and various privateindustry contractors.The Eastern Range is used to gather and processdata on a variety of East Coast launches and deliverit to range users. To accomplish this task, the rangeconsists of a series of tracking stations located atCCAFS, Antigua Air Station, and Ascension AuxiliaryAir Field. The range also uses the Jonathan Dickinsonand the Malabar Tracking Annexes on the Floridamainland. These stations may be augmented with afleet of advanced range instrumentation aircraft aswell as a site located in Argentia, Newfoundland.Major events at the Eastern Range in 2004 includedthe 50th launch of a GPS satellite, and the lastAtlas launch from LC 36A on August 31. Runwayimprovements at CCAFS are continuing with a $4.5million renovation. In June, the 8th Annual CapeCanaveral Spaceport Symposium was held to discussrecent developments and the future of commercialspace transportation.Edwards Air Force BaseWith its mission partners, the Wing processesa variety of satellites and launches them on Atlas,Delta, and Titan ELVs. The Wing also provides supportfor the Space Shuttle program and U.S. Navysubmarine ballistic missile testing.The 45th Space Wing was established Nov.12, 1991. Its origins date back to 1950 with theArmy and Air Force’s establishment of the JointLong Range Proving Ground. A year later, the AirForce assumed full control of the new facility, designatingit the Air Force Missile Test Center. In1964, it was renamed the Air Force Eastern TestRange, and in 1979 it became the Eastern SpaceEdwards Air Force BaseLocated in California, EAFB is the home of morethan 250 first flights and about 290 world records.It was the original landing site for the SpaceShuttle. The first two Shuttle flights landed onRogers Dry Lake, a natural hard-pack riverbed40 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportsmeasuring about 114 square kilometers (44 squaremiles). Unfortunately, the normally dry lakebed wasflooded in 1982, rendering the site unavailable forthe third Shuttle landing. (The Space Shuttle landedat White Sands, New Mexico instead.) Today, NASAprefers to use KSC as the primary landing site forthe Space Shuttle and uses EAFB as a back-up site.Today EAFB is DoD’s premier flight test center,leading in unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), electronicwarfare, and directed energy test capabilities.Within the last 5 years, EAFB has been thehome of more than 10 experimental projects, amongthem the X-33 airplane. Before its cancellation, theX-33 airplane was to use EAFB as a test site. InDecember 1998, NASA completed construction ofa launch site at EAFB. The site consisted of an X-33-specifc launch pad, a control center to be used forlaunch monitoring and mission control, and a movablehangar where the vehicle was to be housed andserviced in a horizontal position. The site wasequipped with hydrogen and nitrogen gas tanks, aswell as liquid hydrogen and oxygen tanks capableof holding more than 1.1 million liters (291,000gallons) of cryogenic materials.Today Edwards is the home of the F/A-22Raptor, the X-43 Hyper-X, the X-45 JUCAS, aUAV, and the Airborne Laser system. 35The federal government is investing severalmillion dollars to refurbish and modernize two largescalerocket test stands at the AFRL’s EdwardsResearch Site. One is a component test stand andthe other is an engine test stand. Plans are alsobeing developed to continue refurbishing additionalrocket stands in the future for purposes of rockettesting.EAFB, along with NASA’s co-located, premieraeronautical flight research facility, DrydenFlight Research Center, hosts other NASA reusableX-vehicle demonstration programs. In 2001, NASAused a Pegasus XL launch vehicle to conduct a droptest of the X-43A demonstrator. NASA used a helicopterto conduct seven successful X-40A flighttests during 2001. In 2004, NASA transferred theX-37 program to DARPA, which is expected toconduct drop tests in 2005.Spaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development StatusCape Canaveral,RLV and ELV spaceport is operational.FloridaCape CanaveralSpaceport(CCAFS/KSC)Edwards AFBEdwards,CaliforniaUSAF, NASA, FSA Telemetry and tracking facilities, jet andShuttle capable runways, launch pads,hangar, vertical processing facilities,and assembly building.USAFTable 4: Federal Spaceports Infrastructure and StatusTelemetry and tracking facilities, jet and Site is operational.Shuttle capable runways, Delta 4 launchpad, operations control center, movablehangar, fuel tanks, and water tower.Reagan Test SiteVandenberg AFBWallops FlightFacilityKwajalein Island,Republic of theMarshall IslandsLompoc,CaliforniaWallops Island,VirginiaU.S. ArmyUSAFNASATelemetry and tracking facilities,runway, control center.Launch pads, vehicle assembly andprocessing buildings, payloadprocessing facilities, telemetry andtracking facilities, control centerengineering, user office space, Shuttlecapablerunways.Site is operational.VAFB has started negotiations with severalcommercial companies. Existing infrastructureis operational. Upgrades may or may not berequired depending on vehicle requirements.Telemetry and tracking facilities, heavy Wallops Flight Facility has not supported anyjet and Shuttle-capable runway, launch orbital flights since the failure of the Conestogapads, vehicle assembly and processing in 1995. NASA is committed to maintaining thebuildings, payload processing facilities, existing infrastructure.range control center, blockhouses, largeaircraft hangars, and user office space.White SandsMissile RangeWhite Sands,New MexicoU.S. ArmyTelemetry and tracking facilities, runwayengine and propulsion testing facilities.NASA flight test center is operational. RLVspecificupgrades will probably be required.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 41

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsReagan Test SiteReagan Test Site – Omelek Island,possible launch home of SpaceXLocated in Kwajalein Island, part of the Republicof the Marshall Islands, the U.S. Army’s ReaganTest Site (RTS) is within the DoD Major Range andTest Facility Base. The advantages of RTS includeits strategic geographical location, unique instrumentation,and capability to support ballistic missiletesting and space operations. With nearly 40 yearsof successful support, RTS provides a vital role inthe research, development, test and evaluation effortof America’s missile defense and space programs. 36RTS will be working will be working with SpaceX,Orbital Sciences, and the Missile Defense Agency(MDA). Orbital Sciences will be launching a Pegasusrocket with the USAF C/NOFS payload in 2005.Vandenberg Air Force BaseIn 1941, the U.S. Army activated this site inLompoc, California, as Camp Cook. In 1957, CampCook was transferred to the Air Force, becoming thenation’s first space and ballistic missile operationsand training base. In 1958, it was renamed VAFB inhonor of General Hoyt S. Vandenberg, the Air Force’ssecond Chief of Staff. VAFB is currently the headquartersof the 30th Space Wing and the Air ForceSpace Command organization responsible for allDoD space and missile activities for the West Coast.All U.S. satellites destined for near-polar orbit launchfrom the Western Range at VAFB. The 30th SpaceWing, Range Operations Control Center, providesflight safety, weather, scheduling, and instrumentationcontrol, along with target designation information andtracking data to and from inter- and intra-range sensorsin real or near-real-time for missile and spacelaunch support. Range tracking capabilities extendover the Pacific Ocean as far west as the MarshallIslands, with boundaries to the north as far as Alaskaand as far south as Central America.VAFB infrastructure used for space launchesincludes a 4,500-meter (15,000-foot) runway, boatdock, launch facilities, payload processing facilities,tracking radar, optical tracking and telemetry facilities,and control centers. The 401-square-kilometer(155-square-mile) base also houses 53 governmentorganizations and 49 contractor companies in 1,843buildings. VAFB hosts a variety of federal agenciesand attracts commercial aerospace companies andactivities, including the California Spaceport effort.The 30th Space Wing supports West Coast launchactivities for the USAF, DoD, NASA, and variousprivate industry contractors. For the development oflaunch infrastructure for the EELV Program, VAFBhas partnered with Boeing and Lockheed Martin.Boeing has renovated Space Launch Complex(SLC)-6 from a Space Shuttle launch pad into anoperational facility for Delta 4. Construction atSLC-6 has included enlarging the existing mobileservice tower and completing the construction of theWest Coast Horizontal Integration Facility, where theDelta 4 is assembled. March 2005 is the schedulefor the first Delta 4 launch from Vandenberg.Lockheed Martin is renovating SLC-3E froman Atlas 2 launch pad into an operational facilityfor Atlas 5. The upgrades started in January 2004,which include adding 9 meters (30 feet) to theexisting 61-meter (200-foot) mobile service towerto accommodate the larger rocket and replacing thecrane capable of lifting 20 tons with a crane thatVandenberg Air Force Base42 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportscan lift 60 tons. The first Atlas 5 launch fromVandenberg is planned for the Spring of 2006, andwill deploy a classified payload for the NationalReconnaissance Office (NRO).Wallops Flight FacilityVAFB is also upgrading its range instrumentationand control centers to support the space launchindustry. Scheduled for completion by 2010, theseupgrades will automate the Western Range and provideupdated services to the customer.Current launch vehicles using VAFB includeDelta 2, Titan 4, Taurus, Minotaur, and Pegasus XLfamilies. NASA operates SLC-2, from which BoeingDelta 2 vehicles are launched. Orbital Sciences’Taurus is launched from 576-E. Pegasus XL vehiclesare processed at Orbital Sciences’ facility at VAFBthen flown to various worldwide launch areas.Minotaur is launched from the California Spaceportand has plans for three launches in the next twoyears. A new commercial launch vehicle, Falcon,being developed by SpaceX, plans to launch fromVAFB in 2005.The final Titan 2 launch from VAFB took placein October 2003. Under a $3 million Air Force contract,Lockheed Martin has “safed” and deactivatedSLC-4 West, which served as the launch pad forTitan 2 since 1988. SLC-4 East, which hosts theTitan 4, will see its final launch in June 2005 afterwhich it will also be safed. The Air Force will overseeefforts to dismantle the mobile service andumbilical towers for both launch vehicles startingin 2005. Also, the last Peacekeeper launch is scheduledfor May 2005, after which the Peacekeeperprogram will be deactivated at 30th Space Wing.At this time, VAFB has active partnershipswith seven private commercial space organizationsin which VAFB provides launch property and launchservices. The private companies use the governmentfacilities to conduct payload and booster processingwork. VAFB houses three commercially-ownedfacilities/complexes: Boeing’s Horizontal IntegrationFacility, Spaceport Systems International’s (SSI)California Spaceport and Payload Processing Facility,and Astrotech’s Payload Processing Facility. 37Wallops Flight FacilityThe National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,the predecessor of NASA, established an aeronauticaland rocket test range at Wallops Island, Virginia,in 1945. Since then, over 15,000 rocket launcheshave taken place from the site, which is currentlyoperated by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center,Greenbelt, Maryland. The first orbital launch occurredin 1960, when a Scout launch vehicle deployedExplorer 9 to study atmospheric density. There havebeen 29 orbital flight attempts from Wallops. Theretired Scout made its last orbital launch from WFFin 1985. Since then, WFF has supported the launchof the failed launch of the Conestoga 1620 in 1995,and six Pegasus missions, the most recent in 1999.In April 1996, the Air Force designated Wallopsas a launch site for converted Minuteman 2 missilesunder the Orbital/Suborbital Program (along withKodiak Launch Complex and the CaliforniaSpaceport). The Near-Field Infra-Red Experimentis scheduled for launch from Wallops in 2006, andother Minotaur and Peacekeeper missions are underconsideration.In addition to orbital missions, NASA/Wallopssupports the launch of approximately 20 suborbitalmissions per year for NASA, other governmentagencies, and commercial users. In particular,Wallops provides frequent support to the Navy’sSurface Combat Systems Center, a NASA/Wallopstenant. Wallops also maintains a fully capable mobilelaunch range that enables missions to be conductedat other than established launch ranges. In additionto suborbital science campaigns, the Wallops MobileFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 43

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsRange was used to support the launch of Pegasusfrom the Canary Islands in 1997 and the first orbitallaunch (Athena I) from Kodiak, Alaska in 2001. Inaddition to rocket launches, the Wallops ResearchRange provides support for numerous other types ofmissions including flights of UAVs, drones, missiles,aircraft tests, and downrange tracking support forlaunches from KSC and CCAFS.The Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport(MARS) is co-located at WFF as a tenant and theorganizations collaborate on certain projects tojointly provide mission services, particularly focusingon small commercial ELVs. Jointly, WFF andMARS offer two orbital and numerous suborbitallaunchers, a range control center, three blockhouses,numerous payload and vehicle preparation facilities,and a full suite of tracking and data systems.In support of its research and program managementresponsibilities, Wallops also contains numerousscience facilities, a research airport, and flight hardwarefabrication and test facilities.In March 2002, approximately $10 million inlaunch range modernization and upgrade projectswere initiated, involving range clearance radars,vehicle-tracking systems, launch data acquisitionand management systems, and range control centerinterfaces. A new 1,115 square-meter (12,000 squarefoot)payload processing and integration facility aswell as a mobile liquid fueling system for small- tomid-sized vehicles are also under development. 38White Sands Missile RangeSituated 26 kilometers (16 miles) northeast of LasCruces, New Mexico, White Sands Missile Range,which includes the NASA White Sands Flight TestCenter, covers 8,100 square kilometers (3,127 squaremiles). It is operated by the U.S. Army and is usedmainly for launching sounding rockets. White Sandsalso supports MDA flight testing and is used as atest center for rocket engines and experimentalspacecraft. Facilities at White Sands include sevenengine test stands and precision cleaning facilitiesincluding a class-100 clean room for spacecraft parts.Starting in 2003, all test operations wererun out of the new J.W. Cox Range Control Center.This $28-million facility was designed to meet currentand future mission requirements with the latestnetworking, computing, and communications foreffective interaction between test operations andcustomers.White Sands is also the Space Shuttle’s tertiarylanding site after KSC and EAFB. This landingsite consists of two 11-kilometer (6.8-mile) long,gypsum-sand runways.As of May 11, 2004, Governor of New MexicoBill Richardson announced to the press that theX Prize Cup competition will be held at WhiteSands starting in 2005. 39White Sands Missile RangeProposed Non-federal SpaceportsSeveral states plan to develop spaceports offering avariety of launch and landing services. Two commoncharacteristics of many of the proposed spaceportsare inland geography – a contrast to thecoastal location of all but one present-day U.S.spaceports – and interest in hosting RLV operations.Table 5 describes specific efforts to establishnon-federal spaceports, which are in various stagesof development.Gulf Coast Regional SpaceportThe Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport DevelopmentCorporation has proposed constructing a spaceportin Brazoria County, Texas, 80 kilometers (50 miles)south of Houston. The Corporation has identifiedundeveloped land currently used for agriculture as apotential site and is working with the private ownerof the land to acquire or lease the property.Local governments invested nearly $300,000 inthe project between 1999 and 2001, primarily for siteselection work. In February 2002, the state approvedthe Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport board’s access to44 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportsthe first installment of $500,000 in state grantmoney. The initial $150,000 paid contractor fees foran in-depth safety analysis of the site based on theuse of different types of launch systems. The draftdevelopment plan has greatly assisted in determiningwhat infrastructure is necessary. The AmateurSpaceflight Association launched a 3.7-meter (12-foot) long amateur rocket from this site on May 3,2003. Work with Brazoria County CommissionersCourt for on site improvements will create a smallsuborbital capability in early 2005. 40 The web site forthe spaceport is www.gulfcoastspaceport.org.Oklahoma SpaceportNevada Test SiteOklahoma SpaceportMap of Nevada Test SiteThe Nevada Test Site, located 100 kilometers (62miles) northwest of Las Vegas, is a remote, highlysecure facility covered by restricted airspace. KistlerAerospace Corporation selected it as a spaceport forthe K-1 RLV in addition to its Woomera, Australia,facility to increase scheduling flexibility and widenthe range of launch azimuths available to customers.Although it does not have any launch infrastructure,the Nevada Test Site has existing basic infrastructure,such as a paved runway, water, roads, and power thatcan be used to support launch and landing activities.The Nevada Test Site DevelopmentCorporation obtained an economic development usepermit in 1997 from the U.S. Department of Energy.Shortly thereafter, the Corporation issued a sub-permitallowing Kistler to operate a launch and recoveryoperation at the Nevada Test Site. The web site ofthe test site is http://www.nv.doe.gov/nts/default.htm.The state of Oklahoma is developing a broaderspace industrial base and a launch site. In 1999, theOklahoma state legislature created the OklahomaSpace Industry Development Authority (OSIDA).Directed by seven governor-appointed board members,OSIDA promotes the development of spaceportfacilities and space exploration, education, andrelated industries in Oklahoma. Currently, the stateof Oklahoma provides operating costs for OSIDA,but the organization expects to be financially independentin less than 5 years. In 2000, the Oklahomastate legislature passed an economic incentive lawoffering tax credits, tax exemptions, and accelerateddepreciation rates for commercial spaceport-relatedactivities. In 2002, OSIDA, through a third partyagreement with the FAA, awarded a contract toSRS Technologies and C.H. Guernsey to prepare anenvironmental impact statement (EIS). The analysis,expected to continue through June 2005, is acritical step toward receiving a launch site operatorlicense from FAA/AST.Clinton-Sherman Industrial Airpark (CSIA),located at Burns Flat, is the preferred site for afuture launch site in Oklahoma. Existing infrastructureincludes a 4,100-meter (13,500-foot) runway,large maintenance and repair hangars, utilities, railspur, and 12.4 square kilometers (4.8 square miles)of open land. The city of Clinton has agreed to conveyownership of the CSIA to OSIDA upon issuanceof a launch site operator license from FAA/AST. TheFAA Southwest Region has reviewed and approvedthe transfer upon completion of the EIS and othercontingencies. The launch activities proposed willnot greatly impact the continued use of the CSIAFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 45

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsSpaceport Location Owner/Operator Launch Infrastructure Development StatusGulf Coast BrazoriaRegional Spaceport County, TexasNevada Test SiteOklahomaSpaceportSouth TexasSpaceportNye County,NevadaWashitaCounty,OklahomaWillacy County,TexasSouthwest Upham, NewRegional Spaceport MexicoSpaceport Alabama BaldwinCounty,AlabamaSpaceportWashingtonUtah SpaceportWest TexasSpaceportWisconsinSpaceportGrant CountyInternationalAirport,WashingtonWah WahValley, UtahPecos County,TexasSheboygan,WisconsinTable 5: Proposed Non-federal Spaceports: Infrastructure and StatusTo be determined No infrastructure at this time. The Gulf Coast Regional SpaceportDevelopment Corporation has proposedconstructing a spaceport in Brazoria County,Texas, 80 kilometers (50 miles) south ofHouston.Department ofEnergy/Nevada TestSite DevelopmentCorporationOklahoma SpaceIndustry DevelopmentAuthorityNo launch infrastructure at this time.Power and basic facilities available.Kistler was issued a sub-permit allowing it tooperate a launch and recovery operation.Nevada Test Site Development Corporation isactively promoting the site as a spaceport forboth RLVs and conventional launchers.4,115-meter (13,500-foot) runway, a The Clinton-Sherman AFB at Burns Flat was5,200-square-meter (56,000-squarefoot)manufacturing facility, a 2,7850- conducting a safety study of the proposed sitedesignated as the future spaceport. OSIDA issquare-meter (30,000-square-foot) and operations. An environmental impact studymaintenance and painting hangar, is underway.and 435 square kilometers (168square miles) of land available forfurther construction.To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The final Texas Spaceport site has not beenselected. Three sites are being considered atthis time. Suborbital rockets have beenlaunched near the proposed site.New Mexico Office forSpaceCommercializationNo infrastructure at this time.Plans for this site include a spaceport centralcontrol facility, an airfield, a maintenance andintegration facility, a launch and recoverycomplex, a flight operations control center, anda cryogenic plant. Environmental and businessdevelopment studies conducted.To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The master plan phase 1 has been completed.Phase 2 is expected to be completed byOctober 2005. While no land has been acquiredfor Spaceport Alabama, a green field site isunder consideration in Baldwin County, acrossthe bay from the city of Mobile.Port of Moses LakeUtah SpaceportAuthority4,100-meter (13,452-foot) mainrunway and a 3,200-meter (10,500-foot) crosswind runway.No infrastructure at this time.The site is certified as an emergency-landingsite for the Space Shuttle. No additionalinfrastructure has been planned for this site.Plans for the proposed Utah Spaceport includea central administrative control facility, anairfield, maintenance and integration facilitiesfor payloads and spacecraft, launch pads, aflight operation control center, and a propellantstorage facility. State funding for developmenthas not been provided since 2001.To be determined No infrastructure at this time. The Pecos County/West Texas SpaceportDevelopment Corporation, established in mid-2001, has proposed the development of aspaceport 29 kilometers (18 miles) southwest ofFort Stockton, Texas. Spaceport infrastructurewill include a launch site with a 4,570- meter(15,000-foot) safety radius, an adjacentrecovery zone 4,570 meters (15,000 feet) indiameter, and payload integration and launchcontrol facilities.Owner: City ofSheboygan; Operator:Rockets for SchoolsA vertical pad for suborbitallaunches in addition to portablelaunch facilities, such as missioncontrol.Plans for developing additional launchinfrastructure are ongoing and include creationof a development plan that includes support fororbital RLV operations.46 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportsas an active airport for USAF training and for generalaviation. Oklahoma Spaceport will providelaunch and support services for horizontally launchedRLVs and may become operational in late 2005 orearly 2006.Oklahoma offers several incentives, valuedat over $128 million over 10 years, to attract spacecompanies. For example, a jobs program providesquarterly cash payments of up to 5 percent of newtaxable payroll directly to qualifying companies forup to 10 years. Organizations also may qualify forother state tax credits, tax refunds, tax exemptions,and training incentives. Rocketplane Limited andTGV Rockets, Inc. have located in Oklahoma fortheir launch vehicle developments. As the first corporationthat meets specific qualifying criteria,including equity capitalization of $10 million andcreation of at least 100 Oklahoma jobs, RocketplaneLimited has qualified for a $15-million, state-providedtax credit.generate awareness and encourage state funding ofthe South Texas Spaceport.To date, no infrastructure has been built.Initial planning will focus on the infrastructureneeded to support activities of launch operatorswith current development programs.Recently, Texas Spacelines, Incorporated,entered into negotiations with the Willacy CountyDevelopment Corporation for Spaceport Facilitiesfor the establishment of a permanent launch site inSouth Texas. 41 Willacy County is currently applyingfor a state grant for the Spaceport building next toPort Mansfield. It will include two launch pads anda building (all utilities such as water, sewer road toand from project). 42Southwest Regional SpaceportBesides state funding, NASA issued $241,000to OSIDA for space-related educational grants to beused throughout the state. OSIDA has signedMemoranda of Understanding with several companiesfor use of the Burns Flat site.South Texas SpaceportWillacy County Development Corporation was createdin 2001 to manage the spaceport site evaluationand other technical and administrative elementsof the project under a Texas Aerospace Commissiongrant. In February 2002, the Texas AerospaceCommission awarded a $500,000 contract to theSouth Texas Spaceport.The proposed spaceport site is a 40-squarekilometer(15.4-square-mile) undeveloped portionof Willacy County adjacent to the Laguna Madreand Gulf of Mexico approximately 150 kilometers(93 miles) south of Corpus Christi and 65 kilometers(40 miles) north of Brownsville. The site initiallymay support the suborbital and small orbitallaunch systems currently in service or being developedfor service in the near future, with a long termfocus on RLVs.In 2003, a 68-kilogram (150-pound) soundingrocket and a 3.4-meter (11-foot) Super Loki suborbitalrocket were launched near the site in efforts toSouthwest Regional SpaceportThe state of New Mexico continues to make progressin the development of the Southwest RegionalSpaceport (SRS). In May 2004, New Mexico wonits bid to host the X Prize Cup competition, a futureinternational exhibition created by the X PrizeFoundation. The SRS is being developed for use byprivate companies and government organizationsconducting space activities and operations. The proposedsite of the spaceport is a 70-square-kilometer(27-square-mile) parcel of open land in the southcentral part of the state at approximately 1,430 meters(4,700 feet) above sea level. The spaceport conceptis to support all classes of RLVs serving suborbitaltrajectories as well as equatorial, polar, and ISS orbitsand to provide support services for payload integration,launch, and landing. The facility will accommodatevertical and horizontal launches and landingsas well as air and balloon launches. In addition, thisFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 47

Spaceports2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Conceptsfacility will include multiple launch complexes, arunway, an aviation complex, a payload assemblycomplex, other support facilities, and, eventually acryogenic fuel plant. The SRS is supported by thestate through the New Mexico Office for SpaceCommercialization, part of the New MexicoEconomic Development Department.In 2001, the state legislature approved $1.5million for fiscal years 2002 through 2004 for spaceportdevelopment, including environmental studiesand land acquisition. In 2004, the state appropriated$10.5 million for infrastructure development, planning,analysis, and operations. The money wasreceived July 1, 2004.New Mexico provided several other incentivesfor the spaceport, including gross receipt deductions,industrial revenue bonds, and investment and jobtraining credits. In 2002, the state of New Mexicoand the U.S. Army White Sands Missile Rangesigned a Memorandum of Agreement supporting thedevelopment of the SRS. This agreement enables thespaceport to share resources and integrate launchscheduling and operations with the U.S. Army testrange. In 2003, New Mexico performed a comprehensiveanalysis of the advantages of launchingfrom high altitudes for vertical launch vehicles. 43Spaceport AlabamaProposed as a next generation spaceport, SpaceportAlabama will be a full-service departure and returnfacility supporting orbital and suborbital space accessvehicles. Spaceport Alabama is in the planning phaseunder direction of the Spaceport Alabama ProgramOffice at Jacksonville State University in Alabama.The Spaceport Alabama master planning Phase 1 isnow complete, and Phase 2 has commenced. Phase 2is expected to be completed by October 2005. Uponcompletion of the Spaceport Alabama master plan,which is expected to be by the end of 2006, a proposalwill be presented to the Alabama Commission onAerospace Science and Industry and the AlabamaLegislature for formal adoption. 44 Under the currentplan, the Alabama Legislature would establish theSpaceport Alabama Authority, which would overseedevelopment of Spaceport Alabama. While no landhas been acquired for Spaceport Alabama, a greenfield site is under consideration in Baldwin County,across the bay from the city of Mobile. This site isseen as ideal for supporting government and commercialcustomers operating next-generation reusableflight vehicles that are designed for access to LEO,MEO, and GEO.Under the current spaceport development plan,a spaceport facility could become operational within10 years, depending on market demand. This plancalls for the establishment of a “total spaceport enterprise”concept, consisting of a departure and returnfacility, processing and support facilities, and fullsupport infrastructure. An R&D park, a commercepark, supporting community infrastructure, intermodalconnectivity, and other services and infrastructurenecessary for providing a “turn key” capability insupport of space commerce, R&D, national security,science and related services are also included in thisplan. Given that the site currently under considerationis adjacent to the Gulf of Mexico, Spaceport Alabamawould service primarily RLVs; however, some suborbitalELVs involving scientific and academicmissions could be supported.Spaceport WashingtonSpaceport WashingtonSpaceport Washington, a public/private partnership,has identified Grant County International Airport incentral Washington, 280 kilometers (174 miles) eastof Seattle, as the site of a future spaceport. The airport(formerly Larson AFB and now owned andoperated by the Port of Moses Lake) is used primarilyas a testing and training facility. SpaceportWashington proposes to use Grant CountyInternational Airport for horizontal and verticaltake-offs and horizontal landings of all classes ofRLVs. This airport has a 4,100-meter (13,452-foot)main runway and a 3,200-meter (10,500-foot)crosswind runway, and is certified as an emergency48 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Spaceportslanding site for the Space Shuttle. No additionalinfrastructure has been planned for the site. 45West Texas SpaceportThe Pecos County/West Texas SpaceportDevelopment Corporation, established in mid-2001,has proposed the development of a spaceport 29kilometers (18 miles) southwest of Fort Stockton,Texas. Spaceport infrastructure will include alaunch site with a 4,570-meter (15,000-foot) safetyradius, an adjacent recovery zone 4,570 meters(15,000 feet) in diameter, and payload integrationand launch control facilities.A joint project with the school district hasmade a state-of-the-art technology center availablefor Pecos County Aerospace Development Centerusers. The Technology Center has multiple monitors,high-speed Internet service, and full multiplexingcapability. Video can be streamed from theGreasewood or Hudgins sites to the TechnologyCenter to accommodate dignitaries and other officialsin air-conditioned comfort. The PecosCounty/West Texas Spaceport DevelopmentCorporation has access to optical tracking videocapability that can record the vehicle’s flight up totens of thousands of feet (depending upon the vehicle’ssize) regardless of its speed. 46In February 2002, the Texas AerospaceCommission awarded a $500,000 contract to theWest Texas Spaceport. In June 2002, the USAFapproved the site for various test launch projects.JP Aerospace began launching small suborbitalrockets from the site in October 2002. TheUniversity of Houston Division of ResearchAgency awarded the Pecos County/West TexasSpaceport Development Corporation $80,000 for2003.In 2005 members of the USAF SpaceBattlelab will conduct a Phase 1 demonstrationflight of the V-Airship, a Near Space ManeuveringVehicle, at the new Pecos County/West TexasSpaceport in Fort Stockton, Texas. 47Other projects are being pursued by the PecosCounty/West Texas Spaceport DevelopmentCorporation. These projects include the BlackskyDART program, intended to characterize the performanceof an innovative aerospike nozzle on asolid rocket motor. Texas A&M University’s seniorlevel student aerospace engineering program givesstudents the opportunity to build and fly anadvanced design rocket. In addition, the TexasPartnership for Aerospace Education project supportsmiddle and high school students to sendexperiments fitted inside ping pong balls on balloonsto the edge of space. 48Wisconsin SpaceportOn August 29, 2000, the Wisconsin Department ofTransportation officially approved creation of theWisconsin Spaceport, located on Lake Michigan inSheboygan, Wisconsin. The city of Sheboyganowns the spaceport, which strives to support spaceresearch and education through suborbital launchesfor student projects.Suborbital sounding rocket launches to altitudesof up to 55 kilometers (34 miles) have beenconducted at the site. Additionally, Rockets forSchools, a student program founded in Wisconsinby Space Explorers, Inc., and developed by theAerospace States Association, has conducted suborbitallaunches at Spaceport Sheboygan since itsinception in 1995. Each year, hundreds of studentsfrom Wisconsin, Illinois, Iowa, and Michigan participatein these launches. Rockets for Schools is afirmly established, high-quality program of theGreat Lakes Spaceport Education Foundation.The spaceport’s existing infrastructureincludes a vertical pad for suborbital launches inaddition to portable launch facilities, such as missioncontrol, which are erected and disassembledas needed. The pier, which the city leased fromthe U.S. Army Corps of Engineers for spaceportlaunches and citizens’ enjoyment (i.e. walking andfishing), was widened and strengthened in 2004.Additionally, some structures were removed to clearspace for the construction of a proposed missioncontrol and education center.Plans for developing additional launch infrastructureare ongoing. Future projects include addingorbital launch capabilities for RLVs. Spaceportdevelopers are in the process of creating a developmentplan. Although no action was taken in 2004,draft legislation for the creation of a spaceportauthority is under review by the Wisconsin Senate.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 49

Endnotes2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsEndnotes1 FAA Intercom, “Launch Opens Skies to CommercialSpace Transportation,” October 2004.2 “The X Prize Cup,” Arstechnica,(http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20041005-4274.html), accessed 29 October 2004.3 “The X Prize Cup,” Arstechnica,(http://arstechnica.com/news.ars/post/20041005-4274.html), accessed 29 October 2004.4 Leonard, David, “Exclusive: Rules Set for $50 Million‘America’s Space Prize’,” Space News,(http://www.space.com/spacenews/businessmonday_bigelow_041108.html), accessed 8 November 2004.5 International Launch Services press release. “ILS andAtlas Successfully Launch Payload for NRO: Atlas IIseries legacy is 100% success,” 31 August 2004.6 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July2004.7 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July2004.8 NASA Fact Sheet (FS-2004-08-113-MSFC), “DARTDemonstrator To Test Future Autonomous RendezvousTechnologies in Orbit,” September 2004,(http://www11.msfc.nasa.gov/NEWSROOM/background/facts/dart.pdf)accessed 17 January 2005.9 Science Vehicles Directorate, Air Force ResearchLaboratory, Communication/Naviation OutageForecasting System (C/NOFS) Science Plan (1/17/2005version), AFRL/VS-TR-2003-1501,(http://www.pitot.org/cnofs/cnofs-sc-plan-04-04-03.doc)accessed 17 January 2005.10 Communication with Orbital Sciences Corporation, 19July 2004.11 Communication with Space Systems/Loral, 19 July 2004.12 Communication with E’ Prime Aerospace Corporation,20 July 2004.13 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 26July 2004.14 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 10December 2004.15 Communication with Space Launch Corporation, 20 July2004.16 Space Launch Corporation press release. “The SpaceLaunch Corporation Successfully Completes Phase 2 ofthe RASCAL Program,”(http://www.spacelaunch.com/news_2004_004.asp)accessed January 14, 2005.17 Communication with The Boeing Company, 20 July2004.18 Communication with Lockheed Martin-Michoud, 27 July2004.19 Communication with Kistler Aerospace Corporation, 6January 2005.20 Communication with Rocketplane Limited, Inc., 11January 2005.21 7-Up press release. “7 UP®, the Official Beverage of theANSARI X PRIZE, Offers Consumers the First FreeTicket into Space®” 4 October 2004.22 Communication with TGV, 12 January 2005.23 “SpaceDev Awarded $1.5M Phase 2 Small LaunchVehicle Contract,” SpaceDaily,(http://www.spacedaily.com/news/rocketscience-04ze.html), accessed 8 October 2004.24 Communication with Lockheed Martin-Michoud, 27 July2004.25 Communication with Rocketdyne Propulsion & Power,30 July 2004.26 Communication with Garvey Spacecraft Corporation, 15October 2004.27 Communication with Microcosm, Inc., 1 October 2004.28 Communication with Space Exploration TechnologiesCorporation, 12 January 2005.29 Communication with XCOR Aerospace, 21 July 2004.30 Communication with Andrews Space & Technologies,Inc., 23 July 2004.31 Communication with NASA Headquarters, 5 November2004.32 Communication with California Spaceport, 27 September2004.33 Communication with Spaceport Manager, Mid-AtlanticRegional Spaceport, N-134 NASA/GSFC/WFF, 2 July2004.34 Communication with Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport,29 September 2004.35 Communication with Edwards Air Force Base, 10September 2004.36 Reagan Test Site, “A World Class Range,”(http://www.smdc.army.mil/RTS.html), accessed 9December 2004.37 Communication with Vandenberg Air Force Base, 4October 2004.38 Communications with Chief, Policy & BusinessRelations Office, NASA/GSFC/Wallops Flight Facility,19 September 2004.39 Las Cruces Sun-News “New Mexico Aims to BeLocation for Aerospace Competition,” 10 March 2004.40 Communication with Gulf Coast Regional Spaceport, 24September 2004.41 South Texas Spaceport News September 2004, TexasSpacelines Inc., (http://home.att.net/~txspacelines/wsb/html/view.cgi-home.html-.html),accessed9 September 2004.42 Communication with County Judge Simon Salinas, 20September 2004.50 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Endnotes43 Communication with Southwest Regional Spaceport, 20September 2004.44 Communication with Aerospace Development Center, 23September 2004.45 Communications with Business Development Manager,Aerospace & Marine Industry Programs InternationalTrade Division, 9 September 2004.46 Pecos County Aerospace Development Center TechnicalDescription, accessed 30 September 2004.47 Peterson Space Battlelab To Demonstrate Near SpaceManeuvering Vehicle, SpaceDaily, (http://www.spacedaily.com/news/rocketscience-04f.html),accessed 9September 2004.48 Miller, Dennie, “Pecos County enters space age withtesting facilities,” The Desert Mountain Times,(http://www.dmtimes.net/blog/Business/_archives/2004/2/26/23095.html), 26 February 2004.Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 51

Photo Credits2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and ConceptsPhoto CreditsPage 7Atlas 5 launch, courtesy of Lockheed MartinCorporationPage 8Delta 2 launch, courtesy of The Boeing CompanyPage 9Delta 4 launch, courtesy of The Boeing CompanyPage 10Minotaur launch, courtesy of Orbital SciencesCorporationPegasus in flight, courtesy of Orbital SciencesCorporationPage 11Taurus launch, courtesy of Orbital SciencesCorporationTitan 4 launch, courtesy of Lockheed MartinCorporationZenit 3SL launch, courtesy of Sea LaunchCompany, LLCPage 12Aquarius mission profile, courtesy of SpaceSystems/LoralAquarius vehicle illustration, courtesy of SpaceSystems/LoralEaglet and Eagle, courtesy of E’Prime AerospaceCorporationPage 13FALCON, courtesy of Lockheed MartinCorporationNLV, courtesy of Garvey Spacecraft CorporationPage 14Eagle SLV, courtesy of Microcosm, Inc.QuickReach, courtesy of AirLaunch, LLCPage 15Zenit 3SLB, courtesy of Sea Launch Company,LLC and Space International ServicesPage 16Black Brandt launch, courtesy of BristolAerospace LimitedOriole, courtesy of DTI AssociatesTerrier-Orion, courtesy of DTI AssociatesPage 17HYSR, courtesy of Lockheed Martin CorporationPage 19Neptune, courtesy of Interorbital SystemsK-1, courtesy of Kistler Aerospace CorporationPage 20Rocketplane XP, courtesy of Rocketplane Limited,Inc.Page 21SpaceShipOne, courtesy of Scaled Composites,LLCFalcon 1, courtesy of Space ExplorationTechnologies CorporationPage 22Michelle-B, courtesy of TGV Rockets, Inc.Xerus vehicle concept, courtesy of XCORAerospacePage 23Space Shuttle, courtesy of NASAPage 24MPV deploying ERV, courtesy of Space LaunchCorporationERV first stage ignition, courtesy of SpaceLaunch CorporationTypical RASCAL mission profile, courtesy ofSpace Launch CorporationPage 25CEV, courtesy of The Boeing CompanyPage 26SpaceDev hybrid propulsion system, courtesy ofSpaceDev, Inc.Page 27RS-84 liquid engine, courtesy of RocketDynePropulsion & PowerAerospike engine static fire test, courtesy ofGarvey Spacecraft CorporationPage 28Microcosm’s liquid engine, courtesy ofMicrocosm, Inc.SpaceX Merlin engine, courtesy of SpaceExploration Technologies CorporationXCOR 5,000 pound-thrust LOX/kerosene engine,courtesy of XCOR Aerospace52 Federal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation

2005 U.S. Commercial Space Transportation Developments and Concepts Photo CreditsPage 29Gryphon with orbiter, courtesy of Andrews Space& Technology, Inc.Page 30IPD test at NASA’s Stennis Space Center, courtesyof NASAX-43A/Hyper X, courtesy of NASAPage 33California Spaceport, courtesy of SpaceportSystems InternationalPage 35Kodiak Launch Complex, courtesy of the AlaskaAerospace Development CenterPage 36Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, courtesy of theVirginia Commercial Spaceflight AuthorityPage 37Mojave Airport, courtesy of the East Kern AirportDistrictPage 38SpaceShipOne, courtesy of Scaled CompositesLLCLaunch Complex-46, courtesy of the FloridaSpaceport AuthorityPage 40Cape Canaveral Spaceport, courtesy of NASAEdwards Air Force Base, courtesy of NASAPage 42Reagan Test Site - Omelek Island, possiblelaunch home of SpaceX, courtesy of DoDVandenberg Air Force Base, courtesy of USAFPage 43Wallops Flight Facility, courtesy of NASAPage 44White Sands Missile Range, courtesy of NASAPage 45Map of Nevada Test Site, courtesy of the NevadaTest Site Development CorporationOklahoma Spaceport, courtesy of the OklahomaSpace Industry Development AuthorityPage 47Southwest Regional Spaceport, courtesy of thestate of New MexicoPage 48Spaceport Washington, courtesy of Grant CountyInternational AirportFederal Aviation Administration/Office of Commercial Space Transportation 53