Maritime Machines Lesson Plans and Educator Resources - Lake ...

Maritime MachinesLesson Plans and Educator ResourcesBy Richard Isenberg, Ed.D.Lake Champlain Maritime MuseumThis document contains:Background Reading on Maritime MachinesLesson Plans:• Inclined Plane – Pull Weight• Inclined Plane – Uses• Levers – Seesaw• Levers – Balancing• Lever – Tools• Wedges• Wedges – Edged Tools• Pulleys – Pull Weight• Pulleys – Pull Distance• Pulleys – Uses• Gears• Gears – Measuring Gears• Gear – Uses• Screws• Screw - UsesFor More Educational Resources,visit our free online curriculum database:www.lcmm.orgCreated By:4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Maritime MachinesIntroductionWhy Travel By Water?Before the invention of mechanical engines in the 19th century,there were really only three kinds of power; falling water,wind, and muscle power. For most people this meantthat if you wanted to go somewhere you walked. And if youhad a load to move, you had to carry it somehow.This was all done by muscle power. Rollers or wagons couldmake it easier to pull or push your load. Using the musclepower of animals like horses, oxen and camels could makeit much easier for the people. But even if they used stronganimals to help them, it was impossible to move things thatwere too heavy. A long caravan of pack animals or wagonswas necessary to move things over the land. In addition,early roads were often very poor or dangerous to travel.However, moving things by water was much easier.The main reason moving things by water was easier was becausethey could float. When the water holds up most of theweight it is called “buoyancy”. Even though the strongestman can only carry a load of a few hundred pounds a shortdistance, anyone can push, pull or paddle a boat with a tonof cargo. So putting things on a boat make it easy to movearound wherever there is water. It is especially easy if youdon’t need muscle power at all and are able to flow with thefalling water of a river or use sails to be blown by the wind.By using boats and ships, it was easy to move large cargoeslong distances anywhere you could get by water. Even today,ships are still the easiest way to transport large cargoslong distances. Understanding boats and the maritime machinesthat make them work is interesting and fun.Simple MachinesFrom the earliest times, people have looked for ways tomake their work easier and more efficient. This has led tothe invention of innumerable machines and tools, from cuttingwith a sharp rock to blasting off in a spaceship. Despitethe complexity of many modern devices, most of thetools we use are combinations of a few “simple machines.”Whether used individually or together, having the right machinefor the job is usually the first step in getting any workdone.The same simple machines that are used on shore are alsoused on ships and boats. The tools used to build them, thecranes, wheels and ramps used to load them, the oars, sails,or engines to propel them are all applications of a few simplemachines.Inclined PlanesInclined planes are perhaps the simplest of simplema¬chines. They have no moving parts and appear in natureand man-made structures everywhere. They make liftingeasier.The simplest form of inclined plane is a ramp or graduallyrising road or trail. Instead of lifting a load straight up, wemove it gradually up a sloping surface. By lifting it a little ata time we gain mechanical advantage. The more gradual theslop the easier it is. However, as in all machines, if you gainmechanical advantage you lose something else, in this casedistance. To make an inclined plane very gradual it mustbe very long. At some point it will become too long. So aninclined plane must be long enough to give you mechanicaladvantage, but not so long that it doesn’t fit where youwant it.Ramps, stairs, and ladders are the most common kinds ofinclined planes on boats. You use a ramp to launch or pull aboat out of the water. The gangway to board or load a shipis also often a simple ramp. If you cut notches in the rampso that your feet can stand flat, you create a staircase. Astaircase can be much steeper than a ramp. You are able tolift yourself up the staircase easily because your feet are flaton each stair tread. A ladder can be even steeper, or straightup, but allows you to lift yourself one step at a time.Inclined planes can be combined with wheels or pulleys tomake work even easier. This may be as simple as rolling abarrel up a ramp, a conveyor belt, or having moving stepslike an escalator. Anything that must be lifted can be doneso more easily if we can do it gradually over the distance ofan inclined plane.LeversLevers are so common that we sometimes don’t even realizewe are using them. The easiest way to spot a lever is tolook for something long and straight, usually referred to asa “bar.” It may be very long, like the arm of a crane, or quiteshort, like the crank on a pencil sharpener. To be a lever thebar must rest on or turn around a “fulcrum.” This createsa simple machine when you apply effort to the bar on oneside of the fulcrum to produce force on the other side.A lever can either increase power or speed. It also changesthe direction of the force you apply. When you use ahammer to pull a nail, the handle of the hammer is longerthan the claw. The extra length produces “mechanical advantage”and you are able to pull the nail out of the wood.When you turn the hammer around to drive the nail intothe wood, the extra length of the handle makes the hammerhead move faster than your hand. This produces moreforce to drive the nail into the wood. The longer the lever,4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Maritime Machines Background Reading - Continued, p2 of 3the greater the power or speed it can produce. A crowbarhas more mechanical advantage than a hammer for pullingnails because it is longer. The tip of a fishing rod moves fasterthan the head of a tennis racket because it is longer. Ofcourse if a lever is too long it becomes too heavy to move.It is important to have the right size machine for the work itis designed to do.Wheels and cranks are special types of levers. The fulcrumis the axle around which the crank or spokes turn. Power isincreased because the diameter of the wheel is greater thanthe diameter of the axle. Speed on the outside of a wheelis greater because the turning circumference of the outsideof wheel is much greater than the turning circumference ofthe axle, even though they are turning at the same rate.Ships and boats depend upon levers to operate them. Manyof the tools used to build and repair boats have levers aspart of them. The handles of axes, hammers, chisels, anddrills are all levers. The rudder, tiller, hand spikes, yards andbooms are all levers that are needed to sail a ship. Evennautical instruments like clocks, compasses, and sextantshave large and small levers built into their works to make itpossible to navigate ships at sea.WedgesWedges are a special type of inclined plane. The advantageof an inclined plane is that a force can be applied over adistance. In a wedge, the force is applied in a very smallarea, or edge, at first and then spread over a larger area.In a simple splitting wedge, the cutting edge is easily driveninto a log. Then as the wedge is driven in further, the log isforced apart wider and wider. All cutting tools work like this.Wedges can be heavy and powerful or thin and sharp. Aheavy splitting maul has a broad head that forms a wideangle at the edge. A knife has a thinner blade that formsa very sharp angle at the edge. Generally, the smaller thisangle the sharper the blade.Choosing the right tool for the job is especially importantwith wedges. A chef may have a dozen different knives ofdifferent sizes for cutting different kinds of food. A carpentermay have several different axes for cutting different sizesof wood. You don’t want to try to cut a tomato with an axe.Each tool is designed to have the right amount of sharpnessand power to do the job it is intended for.The usefulness of a wedge is a combination of sharpnessand power. The sharper a tool is the easier it will cut. Theheavier a tool is the greater its power. A knife is sharperthan an axe, but you wouldn’t want to cut down a tree withit. The power of the axe will make the job go faster. Sometools have only one wedge, like a knife blade or chisel. However,saws have a whole row of wedges, teeth, working together.Even though each tooth only cuts off a small piece,the motion of the saw can quickly cut through the material.Wedges, cutting tools, and edged weapons are among theoldest and most important machines we use. They may bemade of stone, wood, bone, or metal. We find them everywherein our daily life and in every part of building and operatingboats.PulleysPulleys are an important part of a ship’s rigging. They arecalled running rigging because the ropes move to lift cargo,hoist yards, and trim sails.A pulley can change the direction of a force, apply effortfar away, or increase power. Pulleys are used to hoist sailsso that the work can be done safely far below on the deck.The crew can pull the ropes down to hoist the sail up. Ablock and tackle system can increase mechanical advantageto make the work easier.You can determine the mechanical advantage of a block andtackle in three ways. One way is to count the number ofropes that support the load. The more ropes, the less eachrope carries, so the less force is needed on the hauling line.Another way is to measure how much rope is needed to liftthe load. If there are two ropes supporting the load, eachrope holds half the weight. However, twice as much ropemust be pulled through the system to lift the load. The thirdway to determine mechanical advantage is to measure howmuch effort is needed to lift the weight of the load. If a 100pound load can be lifted with 20 pounds of effort, the systemmust have a mechanical advantage of 5.The more ropes there are in a pulley system the more problemsthere are with friction. When ropes rub together theyproduce friction, which reduces the efficiency of the system.Some of the effort must be used to overcome the frictionas well as lift the load. So pulley systems are de¬signedto reduce friction whenever possible.GearsGears are often hidden where they are not easily seen, likeinside the case of a watch or the transmission box of a car.In their simplest form gears are wheels with interlockingteeth around their edges. As one gear wheel is turned, theother gears it is connected to will turn as well. Like othersimple machines, gears can increase power, increase speed,or change the direction of a force.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Maritime Machines Background Reading - Continued, p3 of 3Gears that are designed to increase power have a smallgear wheel that turns a larger gear wheel. The small drivewheel must be turned many times to turn the large wheeljust once. Although the large gear is moving more slowly, itwill produce more power. The crank on a boat trailer winchmust be turned many times for its small gear to turn thelarge gear that slowly drags a boat out of the water.To increase speed, a large gear turns a small gear. Everytime the large gear turns once, the small gear will turn severaltimes. The wheel gears on a bicycle are smaller thanthe crank gear, so the wheel turns faster than the peddles.In a hand drill the crank is attached to a large gear that turnsa small gear attached to the bit. This causes the bit to spinfast enough to drill into the wood.A hand drill is also a good example of how the crank gearturns in one direction, but the bit gear turns perpendicularto it. Gears whose teeth interlock will turn in opposite directions.Gears can also be cut to turn at an angle. Changingthe direction of a force often makes it easier, or safer, for theperson who is applying the effort to operate the machine.On boats gears are often part of engines, drive trains, steeringmechanisms, winches, and instruments. However, theteeth of gears must fit precisely, can be affected by water,and sometimes jam. Because of these problems, traditionalvessels relied more on simpler and more reliable mechanismswhenever possible.ScrewsScrews are special kinds of inclined planes. To make a screwyou wrap an inclined plane around an axis. The easiest placeto see this is in a spiral staircase or circular ramps in a parkinggarage. Wrapping an inclined plane around doesn’t takeup as much space. However, most screws are quite small,like nuts and bolts or fasteners for holding wooden or metalpieces together. Screw fasteners are turned into a nut orpiece of wood slowly. Each twist draws the screw in deeper.A bolt or screw also holds very tight because there is somuch friction along the surface of the threads.Because they are inclined planes, screws can also be usedto move things, often in combination with other gears. Thescrew in a vise or clamp can be used to squeeze things together.A special screw called a worm gear may be used aspart of a winch or ship’s steering gear. Very tiny screws areused to adjust a compass or sextant for taking very accuratemeasurements.Perhaps the most interesting marine screw is a boat’s propeller.A propeller on a ship or airplane is designed to workin a fluid like water or air. The blades of the propeller areturned so that they push the fluid in one direction as theyturn. This pushing is called thrust. By thrusting the waterbehind a boat, it pushes itself forward through the water.If the propeller is turned backward, the boat is thrustin reverse. The development of engines and propellers inthe Nineteenth Century completely changed the way shipswere powered and propelled through the water.Experimenting with MachinesSimple machines are all around us and we use them everyday, often without realizing it. It is not hard to find themand we can often see their working parts. Understandingwhere they are and how they work is fun and interesting.The following activities will help you begin to explore thefascinating world of maritime machines.Lesson Plan Order• Inclined Plane – Pull Weight• Inclined Plane – Uses• Levers – Seesaw• Levers – Balancing• Lever – Tools• Wedges• Wedges – Edged Tools• Pulleys – Pull Weight• Pulleys – Pull Distance• Pulleys – Uses• Gears• Gears – Measuring Gears• Gear – Uses• Screws• Screw - Uses4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Inclined Plane – Pull WeightName of Corresponding Unit Plan: Inclined Plane - UsesGrade Level: 4-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:5 Students demonstrate their ability to REPRESENT DATA by displaying and labeling data for separate trials/observations.VT S:6 Students demonstrate their ability to ANALYZE DATA by interpreting patterns or trends in data.VT S:7 Students demonstrate their ability to EXPLAIN DATA by providing a reasonable explanation that accuratelyreflects data.VT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Mathematical AnalysisKey Idea 1: M1.1 Use algebraic and geometric representations to describe and compare data.Key Idea 2: M2.1 Use deductive reasoning to construct and evaluate conjectures and arguments.NY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionKey Idea 3: S3.1 Use various means of representing and organizing observationsContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will measure the affect different inclined planes have on lifting a Load.Description/Sequence:1. Remind students that whenever a machine decreases one thing, it must increase another.2. Demonstrate how to set up an inclined plane at different angles. Each time the Load should be raised thesame height; only the length and angle of the ramp will change. As the angle of the plane becomes moreacute, it will become longer.3. Use the spring scale to weigh the Load. Demonstrate how the pull weight should be read as the Load ismoving along the ramp.4. Review the worksheet with students and the data they will need to collect.5. In small groups or as a learning center, have students set up each inclined plane system measuring theheight and length of the plane.6. Students will measure the pull weight on the spring scale as they pull the Resistance up the ramp. Theyshould repeat the process several times and take the measurement that appears most constant.7. Students can calculate the Mechanical Advantage of the inclined plane by dividing the Resistance Weight4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Inclined Plane – Pull Weight - Continuedby the Effort Weight. Repeat for each inclined plane system.8. When everyone has completed the activity, discuss their findings. Guiding questions may include:• Which system had the highest/lowest mechanical advantage?• Did there seem to be a best angle for lifting?• What are the advantages and disadvantages of each ramp?• Is there a way to determine mechanical advantage without actually measuring the pull weight?9. Student data may vary, but should support the fact that Ideal Mechanical Advantage can be determinedby dividing the Effort Distance by the Resistance Distance. Generally, the more acute the ramp angle, thegreater the mechanical advantage. However, friction will make the Actual Mechanical Advantage a bit lessthan the Ideal Mechanical Advantage.Assessments Assessment can be informal based on participation and general understanding, or more formalin terms of accuracy of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources:Inclined Planes - Pull Weight WorksheetRigid ramps about 15 cm wide and 100 cm long, Resistance (block of wood, science weight, heavy toy car),spring scale, meter stick or tape measureSpecial Considerations: It is best to try and use easy numbers to calculate. A resistance weight of 1 kg is heftyenough to provide some resistance, but a nice round number for calculations.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateWeight of LoadResistance Distance(Lift)Effort Distance(Length of Ramp)Pull WeightMechanical Advantage(Load/Pull Weight)Which ramp had the greatest mechanical advantage?Which ramp had the least mechanical advantage?Can you state a rule about the angle of an inclined plane and its mechanical advantage?

Inclined Plane UsesName of Corresponding Unit Plan: Inclined PlanesGrade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:4 Students demonstrate their ability to CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS by recording relevant details of an objectand its surroundings when applicable.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will identify the uses of Inclined Planes in their environment. Students will recognizethat Inclined Planes make it easier to lift things.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in school or for homework.2. The teacher will discuss a variety of places where Inclined Planes are used.3. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.4. Have students work in groups or individually to identify Inclined Planes used in the school or at home5. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.6. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and develop a classlist of all the uses for inclined planes.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and task completion.Materials/Resources: Using Inclined Planes WorksheetSpecial Considerations: Some Inclined Planes are wedges. Accept these examples and use them as a segue tointroduce this special class of inclined planes.Extension: Stairs are perhaps the most interesting common inclined planes. Students might enjoy calculatinghow long a stair case would be if it were not broken up into flights. They might want to try something like theEmpire State Building.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateName of MachineWhere is the InclinedPlane?How does the Inclined PlaneHelp You?Was there an inclined plane you use every day? Which?Which inclined plane did you find most interesting? Why?

Levers - SeesawName of Corresponding Unit Plan:Grade Level: K-6VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 15-30 minutesLearning Goals: Students will discover that a lever can be balanced in a variety of ways. A longer lever requiresa smaller weight to balance a heavier weight on a shorter lever.Description/Sequence:1. Teacher will place students in a circle around a sturdy seesaw and discuss how a seesaw is a lever systemwith a fulcrum and lever arms. People provide the balancing weights for each end.2. Select two students of about the same size to sit on the seesaw. Observe what happens and discuss whyone side went down or the seesaw was balanced.3. Select two students of very different sizes to sit on the seesaw. Again discuss what happens.4. Add another one or two students to the seesaw seats and discuss what difference the additional weightmakes.5. Invite two students of very different size to sit on the seesaw. Have students predict what will happen andthen confirm their observations.6. Have the heavier student slowly move toward the fulcrum until the seesaw is balanced. Point out that theweights are different, but it can be balanced by shortening the lever arm distance of the heavier weight.7. Have several combinations of students take turns finding their balance point. Note the relative weights ofthe students and distances from the fulcrum of the seesaw.8. After everyone has had a turn, ask if students can generalize a rule about weights and distances needed tobalance the seesaw.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation.Materials/Resources: Sturdy seesaw with adjustable seating. If your school does not have a playground seesaw,or if your students feel too mature to use one, this activity may be done in the classroom with a sturdyplank (2x8x8 minimum) and a block to serve as a fulcrum.Special Considerations: Review safety precautions – always have the lighter person get off the seesaw first.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Levers - BalancingName of Corresponding Unit Plan: LeversGrade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals:Primary - Students will discover that a lever can be balanced in a variety of ways. A longer lever requires asmaller weight to balance a heavier weight on a shorter lever.Intermediate - Students will recognize the mathematical relationship between the length of the lever arm Xthe resistance weight.Description/Sequence:1. The teacher will describe the components of a lever system and how to set it up:• Lever arm• Fulcrum• Resistance weights2. The teacher will explain the data that is to be recorded on the data collection worksheet.3. Students will work in groups or individually to create a variety of balancing systems.4. Students will record on their data sheet the weights and distance from the fulcrum for each side of thelever system.5. After testing a variety of systems, students should answer the questions on the worksheet.6. When groups are finished, the teacher should lead a discussion about their findings. Guiding questionsmight include:• Did every system balance?• Were you able to balance a heavy weight with a lighter weight?• Were you able to balance a short lever arm with a long lever arm?• What is the relationship between the length of the lever arm and weight?• Is there a mathematical relationship between the length of the lever arms and weight in a balancingsystem?• What other combinations would create balancing lever systems?4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Levers - Balancing, ContinuedMaterials/Resources: Rigid rulers at least 30 cm long, a triangular or round fulcrum, a set of science weights ora collection of uniform objects (unifix cubes, sugar cubes, pennies, etc.) Gear Uses WorksheetSpecial Considerations: It can be difficult to get a lever to balance exactly; close is generally close enoughto make the point. Also levers should not swing too high from the desk top. A 30 cm wooden ruler balancedon a pencil is usually good. Be sure students read the measurement of the lever arm from the center of theweight. Older students should obtain data that will yield the formula: Weight 1 X Distance 1 = Weight 2 X Distance2. This is the basic formula for finding the mechanical advantage of any lever system.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateWeight 1 Weight 1 Distance Weight 2 Distance Weight 2Were there any combinations of weights you couldn’t get to balance?Do you notice any relationship between the weights and distances on each side of the fulcrum?

Inclined Plane - Lever ToolsName of Corresponding Unit Plan: LeversGrade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:5 Students demonstrate their ability to REPRESENT DATA by displaying and labeling data for separate trials/observations.VT S:6 Students demonstrate their ability to ANALYZE DATA by interpreting patterns or trends in data.VT S:7 Students demonstrate their ability to EXPLAIN DATA by poroviding a reasonable explanation that accuratelyreflects data.VT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Mathematical AnalysisKey Idea 1: M1.1 Use algebraic and geometric representations to describe and compare data.NY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionNY Standard 1: Engineering DesignKey Idea 1: T1.1 Initiate and carry out a thorough investigation of an unfamiliar situation and identify needsand opportunities for technological invention or innovation.Content Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will identify the uses of different tools, how the tools are used, the parts that dowork and the parts where effort is applied. Primary students will recognize that the length of the lever arm willeither increase power or speed. Intermediate students will measure the effort and resistance arms to calculatemechanical advantage.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in lab groups or as a learning center in the classroom.2. The teacher will present a variety of lever tools (crow bar, claw hammer, pliers, scissors, kitchen tongs,wrench, tire iron, etc.)3. As an example the teacher will demonstrate how to find the fulcrum of the tool, where the work is done,where the effort is applied.4. The teacher will point out that the effort and resistance distances are measured from the fulcrum to wherethe work is done or effort applied.5. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.6. Have students work in groups or individually to identify the parts of the tools, measure their parts, andrecord their data.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Inclined Plane - Lever Tools, Continued7. Intermediate students should calculate mechanical advantage using the formula: Effort distance / Resistancedistance.8. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.9. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and discuss howthe tools are well designed for their purpose.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understanding or more formal assessmentof accuracy of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources: Lever Tools Worksheet; A collection of lever toolsSpecial Considerations: Review safety precautions – be sure students understand and are able to handle toolssafely.Extension: Have students design a new tool that is an improvement on an existing tool for a particular job.Consider the quotation by Archimedes, “Give me a place to stand and a lever long enough and I will move theworld.” Have students discuss or describe in an essay what they think this means.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateName of Tool Effort Distance ResistanceDistanceMechanicalAdvantage(ED/RD)Which tool had the greatest mechanical advantage?Which tool is most powerful? Why?Is there a tool you think could be improved? How?Which tool did you find most interesting? Why?

WedgesName of Corresponding Unit Plan: Edged ToolsGrade Level: 2-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will examine the ways a wedge distributes a force over a distance. Intermediatestudents will measure the effort and resistance distances to determine the mechanical advantages of variouswedgesDescription/Sequence:1. The teacher should review how Inclined Planes make work easier by distributing a force over a distance.Demonstrate with a drawing or wedge model how a wedge is actually a portable inclined plane.2. Describe how a wedge applies a force first to a very small area (the cutting edge) and then gradually widensthe parting of the two surfaces it divides. Demonstrating with a log splitter, splitting maul, or thick chef’sknife can be effective.3. Show how the effort distance is the length of the triangle formed by the wedge and the Resistance distanceis the thickness of the triangle formed by the wedge.4. Have students observe a variety of edged tools.5. After examining different tools, discuss how each wedge is sized for the task it is intended for. Guidingquestions include:• Why are some wedges sharp and others more blunt?• How do you determine the size of a wedge tool?• How do less efficient wedges make up for low mechanical advantage in doing their intended job?Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understanding of main ideas.Materials/Resources A demonstration tool and object to split or cut. A collection of edged tools of differentsizes and purposes (e.g. different size knives, axe, maul, splitting wedge, plane, cheese slicer, potato peeler,nail)Special Considerations Care must be given to the use of edged tools. There should be no very sharp edges andstudents need to be properly supervised to avoid their careless use.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Edged ToolsName of Corresponding Unit Plan: WedgesGrade Level: K-8Content Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals:Students will identify the uses of different tools, how the tools are used, the parts that do work and the partswhere effort is applied. Primary students will identify if the wedge of the tool is sharp or dull. Intermediatestudents will measure the effort and resistance surfaces to calculate mechanical advantage.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in the lab groups or as a learning center in the classroom.2. The teacher will present a variety of edged tools (splitting wedge, maul, hatchet, various sized knives, lawnmower blade, scissors, etc.)3. As an example the teacher will demonstrate how to measure the length and thickness of the wedge formingthe cutting edge of the tool.4. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.5. Have students work in groups or individually to identify the parts of the tools, measure their parts, andrecord their data.6. Intermediate students should calculate mechanical advantage using the formula: Effort distance / Resistancedistance.7. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.8. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and discuss howthe tools are well designed for their purpose.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understand of key ideas or more formalassessment of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources: Worksheet; A collection of edged toolsSpecial Considerations: Review safety precautions – be sure there are no very sharp edges and that studentsunderstand and are able to handle tools safely.Extension: Have students design a new tool that is an improvement on an existing tool for a particular job.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateName of Tool Width of Wedge Thickness ofWedgeMechanicalAdvantage(Width/Thickness)Which tool had the greatest mechanical advantage?Which machine had the lowest mechanical advantage?Is sharpness the same as mechanical advantage in wedges? Why or why not?Which tool did you find most interesting? Why?

Pulley - Pull WeightName of Corresponding Unit Plan:Grade Level: 2-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:5 Students demonstrate their ability to REPRESENT DATA by displaying and labeling data for separate trials/observations.VT S:6 Students demonstrate their ability to ANALYZE DATA by interpreting patterns or trends in data.VT S:7 Students demonstrate their ability to EXPLAIN DATA by providing a reasonable explanation that accuratelyreflects data.VT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Mathematical AnalysisKey Idea 1: M1.1 Use algebraic and geometric representations to describe and compare data.Key Idea 2: M2.1 Use deductive reasoning to construct and evaluate conjectures and arguments.NY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionKey Idea 3: S3.1 Use various means of representing and organizing observationsContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will measure the pull weight needed to lift a resistance using a variety of pulley systems.Description/Sequence:1. The teacher should review that a machine makes a task easier by increasing power or increasing speed ofmotion. Mechanical advantage allows a person to exert a stronger force with less effort.2. Review the worksheet diagramming the different pulley systems to be tested and the data that should berecorded.3. In groups or as a learning center, have students rig each pulley system and measure the pull weight neededto lift the resistance.4. Have students calculate mechanical advantage by dividing the Resistance weight by the Effort weight.5. Have students answer the questions on the worksheet consolidating their findings and understanding.6. When everyone has had a chance to complete the activity, discuss their findings. Guiding questions mightinclude:• Which system had the highest/lowest mechanical advantage?• Did any of the systems have about the same mechanical advantage?• Did it make any difference whether you pull up or pull down?• Is there a way to determine mechanical advantage without actually measuring pull weight?4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Pulley - Pull Weight, Continued7. A way to determine mechanical advantage unique to pulley systems is to count the number of rope strandsthat support the weight of the resistance. The number of strands equals the mechanical advantage. Notethat this is affected by whether you are pulling up or pulling down, as a downward rope generally does notsupport the resistance weight.8. Students data may reflect differences between the pull distance and pull weight for the same pulley system.This reflects the difference between the Ideal (theoretical) Mechanical Advantage and the ActualMechanical Advantage. Friction is the difference. A more efficient machine reduces the effect of frictionand the IMA and AMA are nearly the same value.Assessments: Assessment can be informal based on participation and general understanding, or more formalin terms of accuracy of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources: Ring stands, clothes hooks, door frame, ceiling supports or some other overhead anchorto support pulleys, pulleys of various types, line appropriate for the size of the pulleys, clips or extra line to rigpulleys, resistance weight, meter stick or tape measureSpecial Considerations: Review safety precautions – students should be careful not to drop weights to hurtthemselves or damage the equipment or room. Larger pulleys are heavier and more expensive, but much moredurable and generally easier to rig.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateNumber ofSupportingRopesWeight of LoadPull WeightMechanicalAdvantage(Load/Pull)Which pulley system had the greatest mechanical advantage?How did the number of supporting ropes compare to the calculated mechanical advantage?

Pulleys - Pull DistanceName of Corresponding Unit Plan: PulleysGrade Level: 2-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will measure the length of rope needed to lift a resistance using a variety of pulleysystems.Description/Sequence:1. The teacher should review that a machine makes a task easier by increasing power or increasing speed ofmotion. Mechanical advantage allows a person to exert a stronger force with less effort.2. The teacher should remind students that whenever you decrease one thing (effort) you increase another(effort distance)3. Review the worksheet diagramming the different pulley systems to be tested and the data that should berecorded.4. In groups or as a learning center, have students rig each pulley system and measure the length of ropeneeded to pass through the system to raise the resistance one meter (adjust this distance to suit your workenvironment). Be sure they measure from a consistent reference point (floor for resistance, top pulley forthe effort distance)5. Have students calculate mechanical advantage by dividing the Effort Distance by the Resistance Distance.6. Have students answer the questions on the worksheet consolidating their findings and understanding.7. When everyone has had a chance to complete the activity, discuss their findings. Guiding questions mightinclude:• Which system had the highest/lowest mechanical advantage?• Did any of the systems have about the same mechanical advantage?• Did it make any difference whether you pull up or pull down?• Is there a way to determine mechanical advantage without actually measuring the rope?8. A way to determine mechanical advantage unique to pulley systems is to count the number of rope strandsthat support the weight of the resistance. The number of strands equals the mechanical advantage. Notethat this is affected by whether you are pulling up or pulling down, as a downward rope generally does notsupport the resistance weight.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Pulleys - Pull Distance, Continued9. Students data may reflect differences between the pull distance and pull weight for the same pulley system.This reflects the difference between the Ideal (theoretical) Mechanical Advantage and the ActualMechanical Advantage. Friction is the difference. A more efficient machine reduces the effect of frictionand the IMA and AMA are nearly the same value.Assessments: Assessment can be informal based on participation and general understanding, or more formalin terms of accuracy of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources: Ring stands, clothes hooks, ceiling supports or some other overhead anchor to supportpulleys, pulleys of various types, line appropriate for the size of the pulleys, clips or extra line to rig pulleys,resistance weight, meter stick or tape measureSpecial Considerations: Review safety precautions – students should be careful not to drop weights to hurtthemselves or damage the equipment or room. Larger pulleys are heavier and more expensive, but much moredurable and generally easier to rig.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateRig each of the pulley systems diagramed below. Lift the load the same distance for each system. Measure thelength of line you need to pull through the pulley system to lift the load. Calculate the mechanical advantageof each system by dividing the Effort Distance by the Resistance Distance.ResistanceDistanceEffortDistanceMechanicalAdvantageCan you state the relationship between effort distance and mechanical advantage?

Pulley UsesName of Corresponding Unit Plan:Grade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:4 Students demonstrate their ability to CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS by recording relevant details of an objectand its surroundings when applicable.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will identify the uses of pulleys in their environment. Students will recognize thatpulley increases power or changes the direction of a force.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in school or for homework.2. The teacher will discuss a variety of places where pulleys are used.3. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.4. Have students work in groups or individually to identify pulleys used in the school or at home5. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.6. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and develop a classlist of all the uses for pulleys.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understanding.Materials/Resources: WorksheetSpecial Considerations: Some students may realize that pulleys may use chain, belts, or other connectors besidesropes.Extension: Sailing ships used hundreds of pulleys in their rigging. Interested students could research the riggingof sailing ships.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateWhere is thePulley?What is it Used For?How Many WheelsDoes it Have?Which pulley was for the heaviest load?Which pulley was the smallest?Which pulley was the longest?Which pulley was the most interesting? Why?

GearsName of Corresponding Unit Plan: Gear UsesGrade Level: 2-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals:Students will understand how effort can be transferred between gears to increase power or speed.Description/Sequence:1. The teacher should ask how many students ride a bicycle. Ask if they have one or many gears. Ask studentsto describe when they use different gears and what changing gears does for them.2. Describe the parts of the demonstration bicycle. Point out that on a bicycle the force is applied to the pedalsto turn the wheels. The pedals are connected to the wheels by a chain that is driven by the gears.3. Beginning with a low gear, demonstrate that every time you turn the pedal once, the wheel will turn morethan once.4. Shift to a higher gear. Count the number of times the wheel turns for each pedal turn. Repeat this for eachof the gears.5. Point out that the gears on a bicycle are for either speed or power. We shift into a lower gear for morepower to go up a hill and a higher gear for more speed. Changing gears allows us to pedal the same in differentconditions.6. Ask students if they can think of other machines that have gears. Decide if the gears increase power orspeed.Materials/Resources: A bicycle turned upside down or on a bicycle stand.Special Considerations: Students may have more or less experience with bicycles. Another gear train can beused for the demonstration, but bicycles are probably the common exposure to gears that most children have.Extension: If students have many different kinds of bicycles you could ask them to analyze different gear trains.How are the bikes different? Why is each bike designed differently?4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Gears - MeasuringName of Corresponding Unit Plan: GearsGrade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:5 Students demonstrate their ability to REPRESENT DATA by displaying and labeling data for separate trials/observations.VT S:6 Students demonstrate their ability to ANALYZE DATA by interpreting patterns or trends in data.VT S:7 Students demonstrate their ability to EXPLAIN DATA by poroviding a reasonable explanation that accuratelyreflects data.VT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Mathematical AnalysisKey Idea 1: M1.1 Use algebraic and geometric representations to describe and compare data.NY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals:Students will identify the parts of different gear systems, measure their dimensions and calculate their mechanicaladvantage.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in lab groups or as a learning center in the classroom.2. The teacher will present a variety of geared tools and how they work. Determine if the purpose of thegears is to increase power or speed. Identify the Effort gear and the Resistance gear.3. As an example the teacher will demonstrate how find and count the geared teeth.4. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.5. Have students work in groups or individually to identify the parts of the gears, count the teeth on thegears, and record their data.6. Intermediate students should calculate mechanical advantage by using the formula:Resistance gear teeth / Effort gear teeth7. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.8. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and discuss howthe different gear systems are well designed for their purpose.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Gears - Measuring - ContinuedAssessments: Informal assessment based on participation and general understand of key ideas or more formalassessment of measurements and calculations.Materials/Resources: Worksheet; a collection of geared tools (can opener, egg beater, bicycle, fishing reel,etc.)Special Considerations: Machines that are intended to increase speed rather than power will have fractionalmechanical advantages. Be sure students have the appropriate mathematical skills to work with fractions.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateName of ToolEffort GearTeethResistanceGear TeethMechanicalAdvantage(ET/RT)Which tool had the greatest mechanical advantage?Which machine had the smallest mechanical advantage?Did most machines produce power or speed?Which tool did you find most interesting? Why?

Gear UsesName of Corresponding Unit Plan: GearsGrade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:4 Students demonstrate their ability to CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS by recording relevant details of an objectand its surroundings when applicable.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals:Students will identify the uses of Gears in their environment. Students will recognize that gears increase poweror speed.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in school or for homework2. The teacher will discuss a variety of places where gears are used.3. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.4. Have students work in groups or individually to identify Gears used in the school or at home5. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.6. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and develop a classlist of all the uses for inclined planes.Materials/Resources: WorksheetSpecial Considerations: Some gears work in protective housings (car transmission). It is not necessary to actuallysee the gears to include them.Extension Many children have Lego Technic sets. Invite students to build a kit or original design and share itwith the class.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateName of MachineWhat is the MachineUsed For?Do the gears increasepower or speed?Which machine seems to be the most complex? Why?Which machine did you find most interesting? Why?

Inclined Plane - ScrewName of Corresponding Unit Plan: Inclined Plane - Uses; Inclined Plane - Pull WeightGrade Level: 2-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:21 Students demonstrate their understanding of Force by investigating variables that change an object’sspeed, direction, or both, and identifying and describing the forces that cause the change in motion.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will recognize screws as inclined planes wrapped around an axis.Description/Sequence:1. The teacher should review that inclined planes achieve mechanical advantage by lifting a resistance over adistance.2. Cut out a paper triangle representing an inclined plane profile. A 1:10 ratio is good although it need not beexact. Calculate the mechanical advantage of the inclined plane using the formula Effort Distance/ResistanceDistance.3. Roll the paper triangle around a rod. Note that the hypotenuse of the triangle now forms a spiral up therod. Point out that the inclined plane has the same length and rise, but is now twisted into a spiral.4. Introduce the terms Circumference and Threads. Note that the calculation for mechanical advantage cannow be made using the circumference of the shaft as the effort distance and the distance between threadsas the resistance distance. The result is the Pitch of the screw.5. Show examples of actually screws of different sizes (wood screw, large bolt, threaded end of brook handle,scissor jack, etc.)6. Point out that the size of the screw is not important in determining mechanical advantage. The importantfactor is the pitch.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understanding.Materials/Resources: Paper triangle, collection of screws and bolts of different sizesSpecial Considerations: For larger groups it is helpful to draw a bold line along the hypotenuse of the papertriangle before it is rolled onto the rod.4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

Inclined Plane - Screw UsesName of Corresponding Unit Plan:Grade Level: K-8VT Grade ExpectationsVT S:4 Students demonstrate their ability to CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS by recording relevant details of an objectand its surroundings when applicable.NY StandardsNY Standard 1: Scientific InquiryKey Idea 1: Clarify ideas through reasoning, research, and discussionContent Areas: ScienceRecommended Length/Duration: 30-50 minutesLearning Goals: Students will identify the uses of screws in their environment.Description/Sequence:1. This activity can be done in school or for homework.2. The teacher will discuss a variety of places where screws are used.3. Review the worksheet and the data students are to record.4. Have students work in groups or individually to identify screws used in the school or at home5. Students should answer the questions on their data collection sheet.6. When all students have completed the activity, the teacher should review their findings and develop a classlist of all the uses for screws.Assessments Informal assessment based on participation and general understanding.Materials/Resources: WorksheetSpecial Considerations: NoneExtension: Propellers are a type of screw. Ask students to describe how a propeller provides force when pushingthrough a fluid (water or air).4472 Basin Harbor Road • Vergennes, VT 05491 • www.lcmm.org

NameDateWhere did you findthe screw?What does the screw do?Does the screwmove in use?Which was the largest screw you found?How many of the screws you found were fasteners?How many of the screws you found were turned regularly?What was the most unusual use of a screw that you found?