LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: - Health Policy Initiative

HEALTH POLICYINITIATIVELIVELIHOOD OPTIONSFOR GIRLS:A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERSNOVEMBER 2009This publication was produced for review by the U.S.Agency for International Development (USAID). It was prepared byDeborah Caro of Cultural Practice, LLC for the Health Policy Initiative,Task Order 1.

The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S.Agency for InternationalDevelopment or the U.S. Government.The USAID | Health Policy Initiative,Task Order 1, is funded by the U.S.Agency for International Development underContract No. GPO-I-01-05-00040-00, beginning September 30, 2005. HIV-related activities of the initiative are supportedby the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief.Task Order 1 is implemented by Futures Group, in collaboration withthe Centre for Development and Population Activities (CEDPA),White Ribbon Alliance for Safe Motherhood (WRA),Futures Institute, and Religions for Peace.Suggested Citation: Caro, D. 2009. Livelihood Options for Girls:A Guide for Program Managers.Washington, DC: USAID | HealthPolicy Initiative,Task Order 1.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThe author would like to thank the following colleagues who gave their time to review this document at various stages in itsdevelopment: Lisa An, Gretchen Bachman, Diana Prieto, and Sara Wilhemsen of USAID/Washington; Myra Betron, KenMorrison, Terri Lukas, and Brenda Rakama of the USAID | Health Policy Initiative, Task Order 1 in Washington, DC; BoipeloSeitlhamo and Moses Poloko of the Health Policy Initiative in Botswana; Jane Brown and Carol Underwood of the Johns HopkinsUniversity Center for Communication Programs; Todd Koppenhaver, Dalene van der Westhuizen, and Sangita Patel of USAID/Namibia; Joan LaRosa, Prisca Tembo, and Dorothy Tlagae of the U.S. Embassy, Botswana; and Pankaja Panda of the Centers forDisease Control and Prevention/President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief, Botswana. A warm thank you also goes to ReneeLiebenberg of USAID/Namibia and Tebogo Lefatshe of the Health Policy Initiative/Botswana for their in-country support. Inaddition, the author thanks the following people for their time and help during consultation meetings on the guide:Namibia:Godfrey Tubaundule, Muhammed Lemar, and EurydiceRodrick, Academy for Educational Development (AED)­Namibian Ministry of EducationElizabeth Burleigh, AED/C-ChangeHenry Platt and Nicolette Bessinger, Church Alliance forOrphansCatherine Walker, Community Skills Development CenterJoseph Luchenta, Project HopeLiza Escultura, KAYEC TrustBotswana:Joanna Kirton, Salvation Army Psycho-Social Support InitiativeMrs. Kebitseope and Mrs Kwape, Botswana Christian AIDSPrevention ProgramTryphina Majuta and Boitshepo Nyathi, Youth HealthOrganizationMompoloki Moatlhodi, Bagele Mahama, and KennieRalekgobo, Botswana Department of Social ServicesT.C. Zulu, Ministry of EducationKaren Romano, Project Concern InternationalDorcas Taukobong, Kushatha Mosienyane, andSegolme L. Ramthlhwa, Research Triangle InstituteLilian Setimela, AEDPhenya Gaothobogwe, NkaikelaFinally, special thanks go to Rajashree Panicker for doing the original research on the adolescent livelihood programs and toAditi Krishna for her patience and assistance in researching and organizing the information in the guide.LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS| i

TABLE OF CONTENTSExecutive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ivAbbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vGender Terms And Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viIntroduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1Background on Programs for Adolescent Girls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2Tailoring Programs to Specific Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5Program Options: Rural . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6#1 Ages 10–14, Married, Out of School, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6#2 Ages 15–19, Married, Out of School, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7#3 Ages 10–14, Unmarried, In school, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8#4 Ages 15–19, Unmarried, In school, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9#5 Ages 10–19, Unmarried, Out of School, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10#6 Ages 10–19, Unmarried, Out of School, Employed in Rural Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Program Options: Urban . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12#7 Ages 10–14, Unmarried, In school, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12#8 Ages 15–19, Unmarried, In school, Not Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13#9 Ages 15–19, Unmarried, In school, Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14#10 Ages 10–19, Unmarried, Out of School, Employed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Appendix A: Programming Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS| iii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARYPurpose: The purpose of this guide is to strengthen the capacity of HIV/AIDS program managers to design interventions thatreduce adolescents’ vulnerability to HIV by offering viable and effective livelihood options to supplant high-risk behaviorsmotivated by economic insecurity. It is designed to help PEPFAR (President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief) teams encouragethe development of tailored interventions that combine economic empowerment components with other activities to prevent HIVinfection among the target population.Overview and Description: The guide reflects lessons learned from a literature review the USAID | Health Policy Initiative, TaskOrder 1 conducted last year. The review revealed a variety of gender-related factors that contribute to the economic and socialvulnerabilities of different subpopulations of adolescents and put them at increased risk of HIV infection. Although many programsrespond to the needs of different groups of adolescents, there is no single source of information on the factors contributing toadolescents’ increased HIV risk or to livelihood programs designed to address adolescents’ economic vulnerabilities.Following a presentation of gender terms and definitions, this guide describes what is known about economic vulnerability and HIVrisk for adolescent girls, as well as gaps in our current knowledge. It then presents a menu of programming options that addressthe particular constraints faced by varying subpopulations of adolescent girls within the context of gender-based constraints andeconomic vulnerability. For example, the programmatic responses needed by young married girls may be quite different from thoseneeded by rural, married out-of-school girls or urban girls who are unmarried and in school. Similarly, young, urban out-of-schoolgirls who work as domestic servants may face constraints different from those of young girls in rural areas who also are out of schoolbut provide domestic labor in their own homes. All of these groups face different gender-based constraints and opportunities.This guide explains how to match appropriate program elements to the diverse needs and vulnerabilities that put different groups ofadolescents at heightened risk of HIV transmission. A series of one- to two-page briefs summarize potential gender-based constraintsand opportunities faced by different subpopulations of adolescents, depending on their residence; age; and school, marital, andemployment status. The briefs also include livelihood strategies that appropriately respond to the identified constraints andopportunities. Information on actual programs that have either been documented or evaluated is included in the summaries.A fuller description of the programs, along with the advantages and limitations indicated in the literature, appears in a matrix inAppendix A. The matrix builds on the programming guide by presenting livelihood options in more detail, identifying key elementsof success or best practices, and raising cautionary considerations for program implementers. It also presents examples of specificprograms and their evaluated outcomes, where available.The Health Policy Initiative also has developed a more detailed tool—Identifying Appropriate Livelihood Options for AdolescentGirls: A Program Design Tool (Caro, 2009)—that enables the organizations that implement programs to conduct a genderassessment to identify and understand the specific gender-based constraints and opportunities faced by the adolescents with whomthey work. This tool will help them identify the most effective programmatic interventions in addressing adolescents’ specificneeds and interests.iv |LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

ABBREVIATIONSAED Academy for Educational Development OECD Organization for Economic Co-operationAIDS acquired immune deficiency syndromeand DevelopmentASCRA accumulating savings and credit associationPEPFAR President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS ReliefCCTconditional cash transferPROGRESA Programa de Educación, Salud, yAlimentaciónCMES Centre for Mass Education in ScienceRADAR Rural AIDS and Development ActionDFID Department for International DevelopmentResearch (Program)(United Kingdom)ROSCA rotating savings and credit associationDISHA Development Initiative SupportingHealth AdolescentsSEWA Self-Employed Women’s AssociationHIVhuman immunodeficiency virusSRHsexual and reproductive healthICRW International Center for Research onTRYTap and Reposition Youth (Program)Women UNAIDS Joint United Nations ProgramIFPRI International Food Policy Research Instituteon HIV/AIDSIPPFInternational Planned ParenthoodUNFPA United Nations Population FundFederation UNICEF United Nations Children’s FundMFI microfinance institution VSLA village savings and loan associationMYSA Mathare Youth Sports Association WID (USAID) Women in Development (Office)LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS| v

GENDER TERMS AND DEFINITIONSSex refers to the biological differences between females and males. Sex differences are concerned with female and male physiology.Gender refers to the economic, social, political, and cultural attributes, constraints, and opportunities associated with beingwomen (girls) and men (boys). The social definitions of what it means to be a woman, a girl, a man, or a boy vary among culturesand change over time. Gender is a sociocultural expression of particular characteristics and roles associated with certain groups ofpeople with reference to their sex and sexuality (OECD, 1998).Gender-based constraints are gender relations (in different dimensions 1 ) that inhibit men’s or women’s behavior, knowledge,attitudes, and access to resources or opportunities of any type.Gender-based opportunities are gender relations (in different dimensions) that facilitate men’s or women’s behavior,knowledge, attitudes, and access to resources or opportunities of any type.1The term “Dimension” replaces the term “Domain,” which appeared previously in the Gender Analysis Framework used in the IGWG training modules. Anadaptation of the gender analysis framework used “Dimension” instead of “Domain,” as reviewers of the publication found it to be a more user-friendly andunderstandable term (Rubin et al., 2009).vi |LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

INTRODUCTIONFor a long time, adolescents were treated as a fairlyhomogeneous group without distinguishing how their specificsociocultural (e.g., age, gender, religion, marital status, residence,and school attendance) and economic (employment, ownershipof assets, and educational attainment) context affects theircapacity to access and use HIV prevention information to makedecisions and negotiate power within relationships. In addition,recent attention to some of these questions has generatedincreasing evidence that adolescent girls have very differentlivelihood concerns, depending on the socioeconomic andcultural factors that shape the contexts in which they live. Newresearch also demonstrates that these social and economic factorsgreatly affect the types of sexual and reproductive decisions thatadolescents make, which in turn affect their risk of acquiringHIV (Bruce and Joyce, 2006; Lukas, 2008; Urdang, 2007).Data on the effectiveness of livelihood 2 interventions and theirlinks to and impact on HIV prevention for adolescent girlsages 10–19 are limited. Thus, HIV program managers seekingto implement economic strengthening programs as a means ofpreventing HIV transmission have little guidance on how tostructure and direct such programs for girls in this age group.In designing effective programs, HIV program managers mustaddress the following questions:To better address these questions in the context of thePresident’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief (PEPFAR)programming, the USAID | Health Policy Initiative, TaskOrder 1 produced a set of three tools to help PEPFARMissions design appropriate economic strengthening andHIV prevention programs for the different needs of particularsubgroups of adolescent girls ages 10–19. First, the projectcompleted a literature review titled Reducing Adolescent Girls’Vulnerability to HIV Infection: Examining Microfinance andSustainable Livelihood Approaches (Lukas, 2008). The reviewprovides a summary of published and unpublished literatureon microfinance programs and their contribution to reducingadolescent girls’ susceptibility to HIV infection. Second, theproject drafted this program document, Livelihood Options forGirls: A Guide for Program Managers, to assist PEPFAR programmanagers with selecting and designing a general framework forappropriate livelihood programs for girls. Finally, the projectprepared a tool titled Identifying Appropriate Livelihood Optionsfor Adolescent Girls: A Program Design Tool (Caro, 2009) to helpHIV program managers conduct more in-depth designing,monitoring, and evaluating activities that reduce adolescentgirls’ economic vulnerabilities, which contribute to their risk ofacquiring HIV.• What are the elements of an effective economicstrengthening program that help to mitigate economic Objectivesvulnerability and prevent HIV infection/transmission for This guide assists users with the selection of livelihoodadolescent girls (e.g., effective elements of risk reduction), programs for adolescent girls. It profiles livelihood programand how can the impact of the intervention risk reduction options that, according to evaluations and other findings in thebe measured?literature, are most appropriate for 10 common demographic• What are the links between economic strengthening profiles of adolescent girls. The guide also highlights elementsactivities and HIV prevention activities?of success and best practices, cautionary considerations for• What are the best practices in this area?implementers, and examples of real programs and theirevaluated outcomes, where available.• What are the objectives, approaches, and characteristics ofexisting economic strengthening programs for vulnerablegirls and/or their families?Audience and Intended Users• Are any programs attempting to define and/or measure risk The guide is intended for use by donors and organizations thatreduction?implement HIV prevention programs for adolescents and are• How are these programs defining vulnerability among their interested in addressing socioeconomic factors that contributetarget audiences?to adolescent girls’ increased risk of HIV infection or HIVtransmission. The guide can also be used to design other related• What are the strengths and weaknesses of current economic programs within the larger context of reproductive and sexualstrengthening programs for vulnerable girls, given these health, such as pregnancy prevention programs. Donors maybest practices, and what recommendations do we have for use it to help determine the populations with which they willstrengthening these programs?work and programmatic implications. They also may use it• Given the effectiveness of current programs (and potential to define indicators for tracking the impact of their programseffectiveness if best practices are employed), whaton reducing economic vulnerability of adolescent girls and onrecommendations do we have for expanding programming? gender equality.2The term “livelihood” comprises the capabilities, assets—both material and social resources—and activities required for a means of living (Carney, 1998). The terms“adolescent girls” and “girls” are used interchangeably in this document. In both cases, unless otherwise specified, they refer to girls ages 10–19.LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 1

BACKGROUND ON PROGRAMSFOR ADOLESCENT GIRLSProgram implementers will find the guide useful for expandingtheir knowledge of the populations with which they work.It will help them to better understand the socioeconomicconstraints that adolescent girls face in accessing and usingHIV prevention information. In addition, it will assist themin integrating elements from livelihood programs into HIVprevention programs/activities to overcome constraints thatcan contribute to girls’ economic vulnerabilities and risk ofacquiring HIV.may be an incentive for unmarried girls to abstain from orprotect themselves in sexual relations, married adolescentsoften are under extreme pressure to become pregnant,which can be a disincentive for their partners to initiate oraccept the use of condoms. Girls also may not show interestin family planning at this stage for the same reasons. Inaddition, young married adolescent girls tend to be moreisolated, less likely to be in school, and have older malepartners than their unmarried peers. These situationsall present additional risk factors for HIV transmission,especially in contexts where married men have multiplepartners before and after marriage.What We Know about EconomicVulnerability and HIV Risk forAdolescent Girls 3• Absence from school: While there has been a focus on girls inrelationships with older men (so-called “Sugar Daddies”)Recent trends demonstrate particularly high HIV transmission for financial support for school fees and supplies, researchrates among young women. In sub-Saharan Africa, 75 percent demonstrates that adolescent girls, either out of school orof young HIV-positive people are women and girls (UNAIDS, in a grade below their peers in age, are at much greater risk2003). This trend highlights the importance of focusing of HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases because ofHIV prevention efforts on adolescent girls ages 10–19. There their precarious economic position. Those at particular riskare many factors that contribute to adolescent girls’ greaterare girls who no longer live with their families because theysusceptibility to HIV transmission, including their age andhave been orphaned or because of economic pressures tosex. There also is growing evidence of a link between somefind employment (Bruce and Joyce, 2006). Girls who stayadolescent girls’ economic vulnerability and their HIV risk, even in school through their adolescence tend to have sex laterthough economic independence does not guarantee control over than those out of school.one’s reproductive health and sexuality (Urdang, 2007).• Social isolation: Social networks (i.e., social capital) provideWhile the literature is still quite limited on the link between the basis for social support and access to resources. Severaleconomic security and sexual and reproductive healthfactors limit adolescents’ access to economic opportunities.decisionmaking, it is increasingly apparent that the connection Many, especially the poorest youth, have weak socialis complex and that addressing only economic vulnerability will networks, especially if they are orphaned or living awaynot necessarily address all of the multiple factors that contribute from their families. Social isolation is a particular problemto adolescent girls’ increased risk of HIV transmission (Urdang, for girls who migrate to urban centers to work as domestic2007). The sociocultural and economic factors contributing laborers. A study in South Africa documented a linkboth to their economic insecurity and heightened risk ofbetween poverty, gender, orphan status, the exchange ofacquiring HIV are largely framed by inequitable gendergifts or money, and sexual coercion (Bruce and Joyce,relations. Unequal relations of power based on gender in2006). Wealthier girls have broader social networks thancombination with other bases of social exclusion—such as age, girls who are poor and must rely on livelihood strategiesethnicity, religion, race, and poverty—limit adolescent girls’ that put them at greater risk for HIV, such as earlycapacity to access information and make informed decisions marriage, relationships with older men, migration for work,about their sexuality and reproduction. Their lack of control and living apart from their parents.over decisions and resources is manifested in situations that put• Migration: A study conducted in Ethiopia found that girlsgirls at increased risk of HIV, such as the following:in domestic services were often victims of exploitation,• Early marriage: According to Bruce (2006), “Married abuse, and isolation (Erulkar et al., 2004). Fewer thanadolescent girls are the majority of sexually active girls20 percent of the girls studied (n=676) reported having a15–19 in the developing world—including many of the place to sleep; 16 percent said that they had someone fromcountries with mature HIV epidemics.” Married girls whom they could ask for money when needed; and only 13have more frequent and more unprotected sex than dopercent had a place in the neighborhood where they couldunmarried adolescent girls. While pregnancy prevention associate with other girls their age (Bruce and Joyce, 2006).3For a fuller discussion of these issues, see the Health Policy Initiative report, Reducing Adolescent Girls’ Vulnerability to HIV Infection: Examining Microfinance andSustainable Livelihood Approaches (Lukas, 2008).2 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

• Pressure to support or contribute support to the household: It also is difficult to tease out purely transactional dimensionsAdolescence is a period noted for little access to financial of social relations. 4 There is a question of whether all sexand material resources yet high demand for such resources outside of marriage is transactional—that is, if there is andue to peer influence and pressure (Kaufman and Stavrou, exchange of sex for money or gifts, whether sex in marriage2004). Poor and orphaned girls are under particular also is transactional, and whether a woman’s basis for economicpressure to generate resources for their families as well as support depends on her being available and willing to have sextheir own needs. The exchange of gifts for sex may be one with her partner whenever he wishes. These questions are notstrategy employed by girls to meet their economic needs. clearly established. The real issue is not whether gifts or moneyWhile the exchange of gifts may be part of any romantic are exchanged for sex, but whether the exchange is within therelationship that includes sex, when there is a greatcontext of balanced vs. unequal power between the partnersdifference in age between the sex partners, the exchange is involved in the exchange. A better understanding of thelikely to include coercion and pronounced gender-based meaning of gift giving is needed (Kaufman and Stavrou, 2004;power imbalances (Bruce and Joyce, 2006). Many of the Poulin, 2007; Hawkins et al., 2005).livelihood strategies open to girls with little education,Another problem is the difficulty of ascertaining howsuch as domestic work, commercial sex work, and workwidespread high-risk behavioral practices are among teensin unregulated sweat shops, put them at risk of economicbased on what they say, as opposed to direct observation.exploitation, sexual coercion, and HIV.Trying to establish the extent of their involvement in high-• Attitudes of adults toward adolescent girls: Adults in positions risk relationships from their reports is a challenge to allof power to hire, lend money, or give other types ofwho work with this age group. There is some evidence that,productive resources to adolescents may patronize or be despite concerns about “Sugar Daddy” relationships for girls,reluctant to employ youth because of their age or lack of they are not as common as sometimes believed and certainlyskills or experience—therefore discriminating against them are not the principal explanation for young women’s highin the workplace, marketplace, and financial institutions. rates of HIV infection. The percentage of young womenages 15–24 exchanging sex for money is relatively low. ThePOLICY Project (Chatterji et al., 2004) analyzed data fromKnowledge Gaps RegardingDemographic and Health Surveys of 12 countries in Africa andEconomic Vulnerability and HIVestimated that the prevalence of females ages 15–24 who hadRisk for Adolescent Girlsexchanged sex for money in the previous 12 months rangedAlthough the evidence of the link between economicfrom just over 4 percent in Niger to almost 39 percent invulnerability of adolescent girls and HIV risk is compelling, Zambia. Taken as a percentage of all sexually active women,there are few studies of livelihood programs for adolescents however, prevalence ranged from 1.6 percent in Niger to 11conclusively demonstrating that addressing adolescentpercent in Zambia. Based on Luke (2005), Poulin (2007)economic vulnerability reduces their HIV risk. The few existing reports that only about 4 percent of all sexual relationshipsevaluations of programs reveal mixed results. Therefore, there is in a sample in Kisumu, Kenya, qualified as Sugar Daddya need to more rigorously monitor and evaluate the economic, relationships.gender, and HIV prevention impact of livelihood interventions There also are gaps in information on particular groups offor girls ages 10–19. (Appendix A presents some recent research adolescent girls in the literature. There are few studies on theand evaluation findings for the programs.)following:Another important area for further investigation is to test • Adolescent girls in rural areas [with Poulin (2007), and thesome of the commonly held assumptions about reasons for the IMAGE study (Hargreaves et al., 2002) as the exceptions].associations between economic vulnerability and heightened Yet, in some of the countries where girls experience theHIV risk in teenage girls. For instance, economic motivation greatest risk, the vast majority live in rural areas.for engaging in high-risk practices, particularly the exchange• Young married adolescent girls or programs that focus onof sex for gifts or money, may not be the sole or principalthem; yet, they have the highest risk of contracting HIV.motivation for girls forming relationships with older men. Theyalso may seek protection, companionship, and adult guidancewhen it is missing from their lives.4Save the Children’s (volition) continuum suggests that some young women engage in these relationships for emotional reasons. Although not a majority, someyoung women in the study by Longfield et al. (2004) identified the desire for mature partners, surrogate parents, emotional fulfillment, and supportive mentorsas reasons for participating in cross-generational relationships. These types of relationships are not often highlighted in literature. Instead, we tend to homogenizerelationships as purely transactional or abusive, and they therefore become demonized. However, not all cross-generational relationships fit neatly into thesecategories (Weissman et al., 2006).LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 3

TAILORING PROGRAMS TO SPECIFIC GROUPSThe evaluation of DISHA concluded that the key elements of This section includes brief summaries of the principal gendersuccessfulintegrated livelihood programming for adolescent based constraints and opportunities facing 10 differentgirls are (Kanesathasan et al., 2008)demographic profiles (varying by age, residence, educationalstatus, and marital status) of adolescent girls and suggestions• Ensuring that the local context offers sufficient economic for programmatic responses. The first six profiles provideopportunities to support youth in their new livelihood constraints, opportunities, and suggested programmaticendeavors;responses for girls in rural areas; the last four are for urban• Managing the expectations of youth participants and their girls. Once the user matches a program’s demographic profileparents regarding realistic outcomes from participation, to the targeted population, the summary offers a set ofespecially when economic opportunities are limited; illustrative gender-based constraints and opportunities thatthe target group may face. The gender-based constraints and• Soliciting input for the design and implementation of theopportunities included in each summary have been identifiedactivity from the participating girls, which increases theiras influencing adolescent girl’s vulnerability to HIV, basedoverall interest and engagement; andon a literature review. Subsequently, the guide offers a list of• Conducting an analysis of the financial sector prior to livelihood program options that may help girls to overcomeinitiating activities to identify any barriers that may exist, the constraints or take advantage of opportunities, therebysuch as restrictions on youth younger than 18 opening strengthening their economic position and helping them tosavings accounts or taking out loans.make more informed decisions about how to reduce theirrisk of acquiring HIV. Specific examples of evaluated orTo gain the support of the larger community for youthdocumented programs are listed at the end of each summary.activities, the ICRW report recommendsThe user must decide which constraints to address; upon which• Engaging adult men, who often are the primary opportunities to capitalize; and ultimately, which programs candecisionmakers regarding their daughters’ lives;realistically be implemented, based on organizational capacity.• Strengthening women’s capacity—especially participants’ To further assist the user in selecting and developing a program,mothers—for taking a more active role in changing social a more comprehensive description of the livelihood programs,norms in support of livelihood options for their daughters. as well as their advantages and limitations as indicated in theThe ICRW report found that adult women often did not literature, appears in a matrix in Appendix A. The matrix buildssee themselves as agents of change because of their own on the programming guide by presenting livelihood optionslimited decisionmaking power; andin more detail, identifying key elements of success or best• Using existing social networks and organizations to increase practices, raising some cautionary considerations for programadult participation and support.implementers, and providing examples of real programs andtheir evaluated outcomes, where available.The key elements of successful integrated livelihoodprogramming are at the heart of this program guide, which isintended to help program managers match livelihood optionsto the needs of their participants, the context in which theylive, and other elements of their existing or planned programs.LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 5

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL1Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–14 Marital Status: MarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Rural Employed: Noand numeracy, and financial literacy) in conjunctionIllustrative Gender-based Constraints with HIV prevention and access to family planning/reproductive health for young women so as to delay the• Access to resources is through the husband or husband’sneed to turn to marriage as an economic support strategyfamily; there is little or no independent access to food, shelter, and productive or financial resources.2. To increase married girls’ access to and control over • Little or no access to education (formal or informal).resources and expand social support networks• Limited mobility outside of the home constrains access to • Married girls clubsservices and financial opportunities (this varies by location • Savings clubsbut generally is the case in comparison with unmarriedpeers).Illustrative Documented Programs• Increased vulnerability to gender-based violence, which(evaluated or in written form)further limits independent decisionmaking, mobility, control over resources, and access to health information.Girls clubs • Limited decisionmaking power within the household and • PATH is working closely with several churches incommunity.Rachuonyo, Kenya, to establish married girls clubs to • Social isolation from peers, especially those who are notprovide girls venues for receiving information, advice, married, and possibly from the natal family.and social support. The clubs, managed by a local faith-based organization, include livelihood and mentoring• Little discretionary time due to responsibilities for householdopportunities with adult married women and the periodicchores and childcare; girls have little control over their time.assembly of larger extended family groups, including• Pressure to have children limits ability to engage inhusbands and in-laws.livelihood activities outside of the home.• Berhane Hewan (Light for Eve) in rural Ethiopia providesfunctional literacy, life skills, livelihoods skills, andIllustrative Gender-basedreproductive health education and health services for girlsOpportunitiesages 10–19. For more information, see Erulkar et.al, 2004and Population Council’s website for the project:• Many retain strong ties with older female relatives (e.g., http://www.popcouncil.org/projects/TA_EthiopiaBerhane.html.aunts, grandmothers), even when moving away to live withhusband/husband’s family; these women have the potential Programs to prevent early marriage where girls are at riskto mentor and provide information if engaged through • DISHA, in Bihar and Jharkhand, India, aimed to delay programs with younger married girls.marriage by improving skills and capacity through peer • Maternal health services may be viewed as legitimate for education, youth groups, and livelihoods training. Themarried adolescent girls and may serve as appropriateproject also engaged community support for increasingsettings for programs, particularly where mobility is adolescent girls’ access to SRH education and services. Theconstrained.project established youth-friendly SRH service delivery and access and strengthened technical and implementationLivelihood Program Optionscapacity of participating nongovernmental organizations.After two years, it increased the average age of marriage from1. To delay marriage at an early age15.9 years at baseline to almost 18. Information is availablefrom ICRW. (See Kanesathasan et al., 2008. Information• Conditional cash transfer programs to encourage families also is available at http://www.icrw.org/docs/2008/DISHA.pdf.)to keep girls in school and delay marriage• Constructive involvement of adult men and women to support livelihood options (education, literacy 6 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL2Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 15–19 Marital Status: MarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Rural Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Access is through the husband or husband’s family; thereis little or no independent access to food, shelter, andproductive or financial resources.• Little or no access to education (formal or informal).• Limited mobility outside of the home constrains access toservices and financial opportunities (this varies by locationbut generally is the case in comparison with unmarried peers).• Increased vulnerability to gender-based violence, whichfurther limits independent decisionmaking, mobility, controlover resources, and access to health information.• Limited decisionmaking power within household andcommunity.• Social isolation from peers, especially those who are notmarried, and possibly from the natal family.• Little discretionary time due to responsibilities for householdchores and childcare.reproductive health for young women so as to delay theneed to turn to marriage as an economic support strategy2. To increase married girls’ access to and control overresources and expand social support networks• Married girls clubs• Microcredit (when a close female relative also is involvedto serve as a mentor)• Agriculture or agribusiness paired with literacy and numeracy training linked to market opportunities• Savings clubsIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Microcredit programs• The IMAGE Project is a collaboration between theRural AIDS and Development Action Research Program(RADAR) and the Small Enterprise Foundation in SouthAfrica to strengthen women’s capacity to make decisions andnegotiate more effectively in sexual relationships for HIVprevention. IMAGE addresses gender-based violence andIllustrative Gender-basedHIV through microfinance and community mobilizationOpportunitiesagainst gender-based violence. Married and unmarried• Many retain strong ties with older female relatives (e.g., adolescent girls participated; although, married adolescentsaunts, grandmothers), even when moving away to live with were not the exclusive target audience. Information ishusband/husband’s family; these women have the potential available through RADAR at http://web.bu.edu/av/iaen/to mentor and provide information if engaged through research-library-1/docs/13435/Pronyk_et_al.pdf.programs with younger married girls.Girls clubs • Maternal health services may be viewed as legitimate for • PATH is working closely with several churches inmarried adolescent girls and may serve as appropriateRachuonyo, Kenya, to establish married girls clubs tosettings for programs, particularly where mobility isprovide girls venues for receiving information, advice,constrained.and social support. The clubs, managed by a local faithbasedorganization, include livelihood and mentoringopportunities with adult married women and the periodicLivelihood Program Optionsassembly of larger extended family groups, including1. To delay marriage at an early age husbands and in-laws.• Conditional cash transfer programs to encourage families • Berhane Hewan (Light for Eve) in rural Ethiopiato keep girls in school and delay marriageprovides functional literacy, life skills, livelihoods skills,• Constructive involvement of adult men and womenand reproductive health education and health servicesto support livelihood options (education, vocationalfor girls ages 10–19. Information is available from thetraining, and business skills development) in conjunction Population Council at http://www.popcouncil.org/projects/with HIV prevention and access to family planning/TA_EthiopiaBerhane.html.LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 7

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL3Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–14 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: In School Residence: Rural Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints(As compared to adolescent boys and married adolescentgirls of similar ages in rural areas)• Girls generally start school later than boys and drop out earlier.• Parents’ concerns about school safety (at school and travelingto and from school), household labor demands, and pressurefrom the family to marry are factors that cause girls to leaveschool early.• Gender-based violence at school negatively affects girls’school attendance and their capacity to learn when in school.• When resources are scarce, families may favor boys’ schoolattendance over girls.• Cost of school fees, transportation, and supplies and distanceto school often are more severe constraints for girls going toschool than boys.Illustrative Gender-basedOpportunities• Girls who attend school have the opportunity to buildstronger peer networks than girls who drop out early.• Girls in school are easier to reach programmatically withhealth education and livelihood-strengthening activities.• Once in school, there is a greater opportunity to influenceparents to keep girls in school longer to delay marriage at ayoung age or early employment.• In-school adolescent girls are less at risk of HIV than theirunmarried and married peers who are out of school.Livelihood Program OptionsPrograms to increase girls’ knowledge of reproductive health• Kenya UNICEF (conditions include immunizing infants,regular growth monitoring, and Vitamin A supplementationfor children ages 1–5; school attendance for children ages 6–17; and girls’ attendance at awareness sessions onreproductive health and HIV).Programs to encourage girls to stay in school• Mexico’s PROGRESA/Oportunidades program targetedyouth ages 7–18 and focused on females by offering largereducational grants to girls, particularly those in secondaryschool. By increasing continuation rates from primary tosecondary school, PROGRESA increased the enrollmentof girls entering secondary school by 20 percent (Skoufias,2005).• The Suubi (Hope) Project in Uganda transfers cash into asavings account to pay for secondary school education. Theproject makes a 2 to 1 match of any savings deposited by anadolescent’s caregiver (AED, 2008).• The USAID/Economic Growth and Trade/Women inDevelopment’s (WID) Safe Schools Program (Ethiopia,Ghana, Malawi, and Jamaica) worked to create safeenvironments for girls and boys that promote gender-equitable relationships and reduce school-related gender-based violence to improve educational outcomes and reducenegative health outcomes.1. To encourage parents to keep girls in school and delaymarriage at an early age• Conditional cash transfer programs to encourage familiesto keep girls in school and delay marriage• Constructive involvement of adult men and womento support livelihood options (education, vocationaltraining, and business skills development) in conjunctionwith HIV prevention and access to family planning/reproductive health for young women so as to delay theneed to turn to marriage as an economic support strategy• Scholarships and stipends for transportation and school fees2. To increase girls’ access to and control over resourcesand expand social support networks• Girls clubs• Agriculture or agribusiness training paired with literacyand numeracy training linked to market opportunities• Savings clubs3. To make schools safer and more supportive places for girls• Involve parents, teachers, and community leaders in (1)developing ways to increase girls’ safe passage betweenhome and school; (2) providing vigilance for the safety,equality of opportunity, and respect for girls and boys atschool; and (3) recognizing the value to the communities,families, and girls of keeping girls in school.Illustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)8 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL4Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 15–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: In School Residence: Rural Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints(As compared to adolescent boys and married adolescentgirls of similar ages in rural and urban areas)• Little or no direct control over assets.• Beliefs that run counter to keeping girls in school in lateradolescence increase drop-out rates of girls.• Pressures on older adolescent girls to marry, assumeresponsibility for household tasks or agricultural work, andseek employment in urban areas are factors that negativelyaffect girls’ ability to attend and finish secondary school.• Gender-based violence negatively affects girls’ schoolattendance and learning.• Higher school fees and costs of supplies and transport forsecondary schools (often located further from girls’ homesthan primary schools) discourage families from making thedecision to support older adolescents’ continued schoolattendance.2. To ensure more secure post-school employment• Vocational trainingIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Programs to keep girls in school• PROGRESA/Oportunidades targeted youth ages 7–18 andfocused on females by offering larger educational grants togirls, particularly those in secondary school. By increasingcontinuation rates from primary to secondary school, PROGRESA increased the enrollment of girls entering secondary school by 20 percent (Skoufias, 2005).• Camfed supports, mentors, and pays for girls in Ghana,Tanzania, Zambia, and Zimbabwe to stay in school throughthe secondary level or attend vocational training. Girlsbecome part of the Cama alumni network after completingthe program (Camfed International, 2006).Business skills, savings, and loansIllustrative Gender-based• The Suubi (Hope) Project in Uganda transfers cash into asavings account to pay for secondary school education. TheOpportunitiesproject makes a 2 to 1 match of any savings deposited by an• Girls who remain in school delay marriage and pregnancy adolescent’s caregiver (AED, 2008).and are less likely to engage in employment that puts them • Grameen Bank (Bangladesh) provides loans for school feesat greater risk of HIV transmission.of clients’ children. Fifty percent of funds are earmarked for• Girls in school can more easily access livelihood programs, girls, and the remaining 50 percent are distributed to boysincluding vocational training, financial literacy, and business and girls according to merit. Scholarships are given annuallyskills development. (“Scholarship Program,” 2009).Livelihood Program Options1. To keep girls in school• Girls clubs• Financial literacy• Microcredit (when a close female relative also is involvedto serve as a mentor)• Agriculture or agribusiness paired with literacy andnumeracy training linked to market opportunities• Savings clubs• Conditional cash transfer/scholarship programs• The Tap and Reposition Youth (TRY) program in Kenya wasdesigned to reduce adolescents’ vulnerability to adverse socialand reproductive health outcomes, such as HIV infection,by providing livelihood options. It provides loans, depositservices, and basic business skills to out-of-school, very pooryouth (ages 15–19). The majority of the participants areolder than 20 years old, however (Erulkar et al., 2006).• BRAC and the Centre for Mass Education in Science(CMES) in Bangladesh provide livelihood skills training,business start-up credit, and loans for youth ages 12–19(BRAC, 2008).LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 9

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL5Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Rural Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Little or no direct control over assets.• Non-formal education and vocational skills training• Business skills trainingIllustrative Documented Programs• Beliefs that run counter to sending girls to school increasedrop-out rates of girls.(evaluated or in written form)• The likelihood of marrying young affects girls’ ability toattend and finish secondary school.Programs to keep girls in school• Little or no independent decisionmaking and isolation from• The Safe Schools and EQUATE programs financed byinformation and peers.the USAID WID Office developed incentives to keepgirls in school, including making schools safer and using• Limited remunerated employment opportunities in rural multisectoral approaches to HIV/AIDS in schools, such asareas for girls.nutrition and health education and skills building.• Time constraints due to responsibilities for domestic labor inBusiness skills, savings, and loansnatal or other households.• There are many rotating credit programs throughoutthe world; although, usually they are not sponsoredIllustrative Gender-basedby development projects but are formed by groups ofOpportunitiesadults informally. For adolescents, youth programs withan educational focus may introduce these programs as• If economic constraints deter families from sendinga complementary component to financial literacy, sexdaughters to school, the reverse may be true—financialeducation, or vocational training as a way of teaching moneycompensation for girls’ labor may encourage them to sendmanagement skills.girls to school.• Rural savings clubs for girls often are connected to• Opportunities for employment in rural areas may encouragemicrocredit programs for older women or older adolescentsfamilies to postpone marriage for daughters.(e.g., IMAGE in South Africa, TRY in Kenya).Livelihood Program Options• Kishori Abhijan, a UNICEF pilot intervention inBangladesh, provided life skills and livelihood training for1. To increase their access to resources and social support girls in 14 villages. Implemented by BRAC and CMES,the program involved enhancing self-esteem and leadership• Savings clubs (e.g., rotating credit programs) and financialskills, as well as education related to gender roles andliteracy trainingdiscrimination, health and nutrition, and legislation and• Peer support groups and safe meeting placeslegal rights, particularly early marriage and girls’ and • Mentoring relationships with older female relatives to women’s rights. Livelihoods training included various learn market and agricultural skills (where opportunities specific vocational skills, such as poultry care, handicrafts,for agribusiness or commerce exist) sewing, photography, and teacher training (Amin, 2007).2. To encourage school attendance • Population Council, University of KwaZulu Natal, andTulane University’s Operational Research in KwaZulu Natal• Conditional cash transfers and scholarships for books,provided safe spaces for youth to gather and extended socialtransportation, and feesnetworks by linking youth to community mentors to reduce• Programs that focus on addressing non-economicsocial isolation and build positive social relationships withconstraints to school attendance, such as gender-based adults. There was also a financial management componentviolence; separate facilities for girls where culturallythat taught participants how to budget, save, plan theirappropriate; and separate dormitories/bathroomsfutures, and identify safe and appropriate income-generating3. To delay marriage activities. They also participated in sessions on HIV/AIDS• Girls clubs to learn literacy, numeracy, and vocational skillsawareness (Hallman et al., 2007).10 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

PROGRAM OPTIONS: RURAL#6Demographic ProfileSex: Female Age: 10–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Rural Employed: Yes, in rural areaIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Little or no direct control over assets, even though employed.• Beliefs that run counter to sending girls to school.• Little or no independent decisionmaking and isolation frominformation and peers.• Time constraints due to responsibilities for domestic laborand employment.• Girls’ workplaces may be unsafe, as may travel to andfrom work.• Employment may be seasonal and insecure.• Restrictions on girls’ mobility may limit employmentopportunities.3. To delay marriage• Girls clubs to learn literacy, numeracy, andvocational skills• Non-formal education and vocational skills training• Business skills trainingIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Business skills, savings, and loans• There are many rotating credit programs throughoutthe world, although usually they are not sponsoredby development projects but are formed by groups ofadults informally. For adolescents, youth programs withan educational focus may introduce these programs asIllustrative Gender-baseda complementary component to financial literacy, sexOpportunitieseducation, or vocational training as a way of teaching money• If girls are working because of their families’ economicmanagement skills.constraints, offsetting the need for girls’ income may• Rural savings clubs for girls often are connected toencourage them to keep girls in school.microcredit programs for older women or older adolescents• Opportunities for employment in rural areas may encourage (e.g., IMAGE in South Africa, TRY in Kenya).a girl’s family to postpone her marriage.• Kishori Abhijan, a UNICEF pilot intervention in• Opportunities for rural employment or income generation Bangladesh, provided life skills and livelihood training foralso may lessen the pressure for girls to migrate to urban girls in 14 villages. Implemented by BRAC and CMES,areas, where employment may put them at greater risk.the program involved enhancing self-esteem and leadershipskills, as well as education related to gender roles anddiscrimination, health and nutrition, and legislation andLivelihood Program Optionslegal rights, particularly early marriage and girls’ and1. To increase their access to resources and social support women’s rights. Livelihoods training included various• Savings clubs (e.g., rotating credit programs) and financial specific vocational skills, such as poultry care, handicrafts,literacy training sewing, photography, and teacher training (Amin, 2007).• Peer support groups and safe meeting places• Population Council, University of KwaZulu Natal, and• Mentoring relationships with older female relatives to Tulane University’s Operational Research in KwaZulu Natallearn market and agricultural skills (where opportunities provided safe spaces for youth to gather and extended socialfor agribusiness or commerce exist)networks by linking youth to community mentors to reducesocial isolation and build positive social relationships with2. To encourage school attendanceadults. There was also a financial management component• Conditional cash transfers and scholarships for books, that taught participants how to budget, save, plan theirtransportation, and feesfutures, and identify safe and appropriate income-generating• Programs that focus on addressing non-economicactivities. They also participated in sessions on HIV/AIDSconstraints to school attendance, such as gender-based awareness (Hallman et al., 2007).violence, separate facilities for girls where culturallyappropriate, and separate dormitories/bathroomsLIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 11

PROGRAM OPTIONS: URBAN7Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–14 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: In School Residence: Urban Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Little or no direct control over assets.• Beliefs that run counter to sending girls to school.• If the motivation for forming relationships with older menis for social support, alternatives must look beyond financialsupport to building social capital, seeking out other types ofmentors, etc.• Girls with limited social capital and support systems aremore vulnerable to seeking support through relationshipswith older men.• Girls may not be allowed or able to stay after school becauseof domestic responsibilities at home.Illustrative Gender-basedOpportunities2. To keep girls in school• Conditional cash transfer programs for girls at risk ofdropping out or being removed by parents• Scholarships for school supplies and fees• Transportation stipends• For girls already in school, the challenge is to keep themenrolled and provide support so they do not engage in highriskbehaviors in exchange for economic support.• If the primary motivation for relationships with older men isto pay school fees, the challenge is to find alternative sources school (AED, 2008).of financing.Scholarship programsIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Programs to encourage girls to stay in school• The Safe Schools and EQUATE programs financed by theUSAID WID Office developed incentives to keep girls inschool—from making schools safer to using multisectoralapproaches to HIV/AIDS in schools, including nutritionand health education and skills building.Conditional cash transfer programs• The Suubi (Hope) Project in Uganda transfers cash into asavings account to keep girls in secondary school. It makesa 2 to 1 match of any savings deposited by the girls. TheKenya UNICEF Program transfers funds to families whoimmunize their children and keep all children ages 5–17 in• Grameen Bank provides loans to clients for their children’sLivelihood Program Optionsschool fees and supplies. Most other scholarship programsare principally aimed at keeping rural girls in school [i.e., the1. To mitigate dependency on relationships with muchU.K. Department for International Development (DFID)older menprogram in Bangladesh, World Bank Punjab Program, and• In-school or after-school life skills planningPeruvian Government Juntos Program]. Rural programs that• In-school or after-school savings clubs and financialkeep girls in school can mitigate the push to seek urbanliteracytraining based employment at a young age (Bari, 2005).• In-school or after-school peer support groups and safe meeting places• In-school or after-school vocational training and mentoring12 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

PROGRAM OPTIONS: URBAN8Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 15–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: In School Residence: Urban Employed: NoIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Little or no direct control over assets.• Beliefs that run counter to sending girls to school.• If the motivation for forming relationships with older menis for social support, the alternatives must look beyondfinancial support to building social capital, seeking out othertypes of mentors, etc.• Girls with limited social capital and support systemsare more vulnerable to seeking out support throughrelationships with older men.Illustrative Gender-basedOpportunities• For girls already in school, the challenge is to keep themenrolled and provide support so they do not engage in highriskbehaviors in exchange for economic support.• If the primary motivation for relationships with older men isto pay school fees, the challenge is to find alternative sourcesof financing.Livelihood Program Options3. To ensure more secure post-school employment• After-school vocational training and mentoringIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Programs to encourage girls to stay in school• The Safe Schools and EQUATE programs financed by theUSAID WID Office developed incentives to keep girls inschool—from making schools safer to using multisectoralapproaches to HIV/AIDS in schools, including nutritionand health education and skills building.Conditional cash transfer programs• The Suubi (Hope) Project in Uganda transfers cash into asavings account to keep girls in secondary school. It makesa 2 to 1 match of any savings deposited by the girls (AED,2008). The Kenya UNICEF Program transfers funds tofamilies who immunize their children and keep all childrenages 5–17 in school.Scholarship programs• Grameen Bank provides loans to clients for their children’sschool fees and supplies. Most other scholarship programsare principally aimed at keeping rural girls in school (i.e.,the DFID program in Bangladesh, World Bank Punjab1. To mitigate dependency on relationships with much Program, and Peruvian Government Juntos Program). Ruralolder menprograms that keep girls in school can mitigate the push to• After-school life skills planning• Savings clubs and financial literacy training• Employment services• Business skills training• Microcredit (when a close female relative also is involvedto serve as a mentor)• Peer support groups and safe meeting places• Apprenticeship programs2. To keep girls in school• Scholarships for school supplies and fees• Transportation stipendsseek urban-based employment at a young age.Business skills, savings, and loans• Other programs that allow for asset accumulation aredifferent kinds of savings programs, such as rotating creditprograms or fixed or mobile deposit services for streetworkers and other adolescents (TRY in Kenya, Safe-Savein Bangladesh, Butterflies in India); savings clubs for girlsoften are connected to microcredit programs for olderwomen or older adolescents (e.g., IMAGE in South Africa,TRY in Kenya).LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 13

PROGRAM OPTIONS: URBAN9Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 15–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: In School Residence: Urban Employed: YesIllustrative Gender-based Constraints• Little or no direct control over assets even when employed.• Beliefs that run counter to sending girls to school beyond acertain age.• Parents cannot or do not provide support.• The employment situation is unsafe or exploitative.• If the motivation for forming relationships with older menis for social support, the alternatives must look beyondfinancial support to building social capital, seeking out othertypes of mentors, etc.• Girls with limited social capital and support systems aremore vulnerable to seeking support through relationshipswith older men.• Girls’ time commitments at home, work, and school limittheir participation in additional activities outside of schoolhours.Illustrative Gender-basedOpportunities• For girls already in school, the challenge is to keep themenrolled and provide support so they do not engage in highriskbehaviors in exchange for economic support.• If the primary motivation for relationships with older men isto pay school fees, the challenge is to find alternative sourcesof financing.• These girls have some access to income.• Livelihood activities can be incorporated into the girl’sschool day.Livelihood Program Options1. To mitigate dependency on relationships with mucholder men• In-school life skills planning• Savings clubs and financial literacy training• Employment services• Business skills training• Microcredit (when a close female relative also is involved to serve as a mentor)• Peer support groups and safe meeting places• Vocational training2. To keep girls in school• Scholarships for school supplies and fees• Transportation stipends3. To ensure more secure post-school employment• After-school vocational training and mentoringIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Programs to encourage girls to stay in school• The Safe Schools and EQUATE programs financed by theUSAID WID Office developed incentives to keep girls inschool—from making schools safer to using multisectoralapproaches to HIV/AIDS in schools, including nutritionand health education and skills building.Scholarship programs• Grameen Bank provides loans to clients for their children’sschool fees and supplies. Most other scholarship programsare principally aimed at keeping rural girls in school (i.e.,the DFID program in Bangladesh, World Bank PunjabProgram, and Peruvian Government Juntos Program). Ruralprograms that keep girls in school can mitigate the push toseek urban-based employment at a young age.Business skills, savings, and loans• Other programs that allow for asset accumulation aredifferent kinds of savings programs, such as rotating creditprograms or fixed or mobile deposit services for streetworkers and other adolescents (TRY in Kenya, Safe-Savein Bangladesh; Butterflies in India); savings clubs for girlsoften are connected to microcredit programs for olderwomen or older adolescents (e.g., IMAGE in South Africa,TRY in Kenya).14 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

PROGRAM OPTIONS: URBAN10Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Urban Employed: YesIllustrative Gender-based Constraints(As compared to adolescent boys and married adolescentgirls of similar ages in rural and urban areas)• Little access to assets, either independently or throughtheir families, keeps girls out of school. (Although they areworking, they may not have control over their income.)• Laws may limit adolescents’ capacity to open savingsaccounts or access other banking services under age 18; thisrestricts their ability to save earnings in a safe place.• Little or no access to financial services because hours ofoperation conflict with work hours or the institutions areinaccessible (restrictions on girls’ mobility may furtherrestrict access).• Poor literacy and vocational skills confine them to high-riskand poorly paid jobs.• Limited social capital or relationships with peers hampertheir capacity to access information and social support.• Girls’ workplaces, especially in the case of domestic serviceand street work, may be particularly unsafe and isolating.• Girls may be living apart from parents and family, withlittle contact with them or anyone outside of their place ofemployment.Illustrative Gender-basedOpportunities• Employment may generate some funds that are directlycontrolled by girls and may be saved and invested in education, job training, or a business.• Some places of employment may offer girls a chance toassociate with peers and serve as a meeting place after work for programs to support vocational training, savings, and financial literacy (e.g., assembly plants and factories, processing plants, and markets).Livelihood Program Options• Financial literacy• Safe spaces for girls to meet in groups for training,capacity building, and social support• Incentives for parents and employers to allow girls,especially those working in domestic labor (in own homeor as employees), to associate with their peers and otheradult mentors• Life skills planning2. To support participation in school or other livelihoodprograms• Conditional cash transfer programs for families ofyounger girls (ages 10–14) to encourage families to sendgirls to school, and in-kind or monetary scholarshipsfor older girls (ages 15–19) to encourage them to go tovocational training, apprenticeships, or literacy training• Stipends for transportation to attend school or livelihoodprograms3. To ensure more secure post-school employment• Literacy and vocational training to improve jobopportunities• Business development skills (ages 15 and above)• Alternative employment and mentoring programs• Co-location of legal, health, and financial services toenhance access• Outreach to employers to employ adolescents or offervocational training leading to employment• Enforcement or advocacy for employment laws thatprotect domestic workers• 24-hour hotlines staffed by trained personnel who canextract girls from abusive employment situationsIllustrative Documented Programs(evaluated or in written form)Conditional cash transfer programs1. To mitigate dependency on relationships with much • The Suubi (Hope) Project in Uganda transfers cash into aolder men or abuse by employerssavings account to keep girls in secondary school. It makes• Alternatives savings clubs or mobile deposit programs to a 2 to 1 match of any savings deposited by the girls. Kenyahelp employed girls accumulate assetsUNICEF Program transfers funds to families who immunize• Asset building programstheir children and keep all children ages 5–17 in school.LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS | 15

PROGRAM OPTIONS: URBAN10Demographic Profile# Sex: Female Age: 10–19 Marital Status: UnmarriedEducation: Out of School Residence: Urban Employed: YescontinuedScholarship programs• Grameen Bank provides loans to clients for their children’sschool fees and supplies. Most other scholarship programsare principally aimed at keeping rural girls in school (i.e.,the DFID program in Bangladesh, World Bank PunjabProgram, and Peruvian Government Juntos Program). Ruralprograms that keep girls in school can mitigate the push toseek urban-based employment at a young age.Vocational programs with stipends• SHAZ! in Zimbabwe combines HIV/AIDS, reproductivehealth, and life skills training with vocational training.Girls receive a stipend to attend training and during theirinternship/apprentice period. CMES/BRAC in Bangladeshprovide livelihood skills training, business start-up credit,and loans for youth ages 12–19 who have gone throughtraining. The American Refugee Committee provided grantsto local artisans to hire former child combatants (mostlyboys, but this also may be a model that could be adapted forgirls under other circumstances) for a year of training. Uponcompletion, apprentices were either hired by their mentorsor given a loan to begin their own businesses.Asset endowments• BRAC has a special investment program for the ultra poor.The program provides productive assets and stipends tostart businesses. This has not been adapted for adolescentsbut might be a way to capitalize new businesses for olderadolescents.Business skills, savings, and loans• Other programs that allow for asset accumulation aresavings programs, such as rotating credit programs or fixedor mobile deposit services for street workers and otheradolescents (TRY in Kenya, Safe-Save in Bangladesh,Butterflies in India); savings clubs for girls often areconnected to microcredit programs for older women or olderadolescents (e.g., IMAGE in South Africa, TRY in Kenya).For girls in domestic service• The Biruh Tesfa (Bright Future) program is designed toprotect the rights of girls in domestic service by reducingtheir social isolation and providing them with healthinformation, including HIV prevention, and services toaddress sexual exploitation and abuse. Biruh Tesfa promotessingle-sex and age-specific safe spaces for out-of-school girlsages 10–19. It is a joint effort of the Ethiopia Ministry ofYouth and Sports, the Population Council, the Addis AbabaYouth and Sport Commission, the Bahir Dar Youth andSport Office, and local administrations in low-income andslum areas of Addis Ababa and Bahir Dar.16 | LIVELIHOOD OPTIONS FOR GIRLS: A GUIDE FOR PROGRAM MANAGERS

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Description Participant Socioeconomic 2 Sample Programs and Evaluations ofElements of Success Cautionsof Program Profile Brief Description 3 Actual ProgramsAsset TransfersConditional Cash • Target the neediest • Some studies show that • Youth ages 10–19 at • The Kenya UNICEF • Programs that keep girlsTransfers (CCTs)— households. lump sum payments can risk of dropping out program conditions include in school have been shownmonetary grants to poor lead to investments in of school—especially immunizing infants; regular• Link conditionalities toto be particularly effectivefamilies in exchange for productive assets; others secondary school—because growth monitoring, anddesired outcomes forat delaying marriage anddemonstrable actions that show that a large pay-out of economic pressures to Vitamin A supplementationadolescents (e.g., stayingpreventing pregnancy;benefit children, such as may not benefit the child. generate income for the of children ages 1–5; schoolin school, attendancethere is evidence thatregular school attendance household. attendance for childrenat vocational and life skills • Some cash transfer programsin-school adolescent girlsor basic preventative ages 6–17; and attendingtraining, etc.).have led communitiesare less at risk of HIVhealthcare. awareness sessions onto hide their capacity tothan their unmarried and• Give adolescents some reproductive health and• Unconditional Cashfunction independently ofmarried peers who are outcontrol over funds (e.g., HIV for adolescents.Transfers—same asoutside resources.of school.money for transport to andabove but without• The Mexican Governmentfrom school, books, school • Avoid conditional cash• A study of a cash transferconditionality.Program PROGRESA/supplies, etc.). transfer programs whenprogram in Brazil showedOportunidades similarlythe supply of services andthat while these programs• Provide incentives forallocated cash paymentsimplementation capacity aredid not significantlygraduation and future-to poor rural families whoinsufficient.decrease child labor, theyoriented investments.participated in healthdid have a positive effect• Avoid providing benefits toand nutritional services• For effective monitoring,on school attendancefamilies that already receiveand education and keptcollect baseline informationtheir children in school.(Cardoso and Souza,before payments are made.assistance through otherPROGRESA/ Oportunidades2003).projects or agencies.targeted youth ages 7–18 • A study of cash transfer• Monitor regularly beginning and focused on females by programs in Hondurasimmediately after the offering larger educational concluded that externallydistribution to get accurate grants to them, particularly financed programs thatinformation on its use. those in secondary school. enforce human capital-• Assess the impact on localBy increasing continuation related co-responsibilitiesrates from primaryeconomic dynamics (intra­for just a few years shouldto secondary school,and inter-household) beforenot expect to induce majorPROGRESA increased theproviding cash resources,long-term behavioralenrollment of girls enteringwith particular focus onchanges (Moore, 2008).secondary school by 20%whether adolescents have (Skoufias, 2005).some discretionary controlover the resources.• The Suubi (Hope) Project inUganda transfers cash intoa savings account to pay forsecondary school education.The project makes a 2 to 1match of any savingsdeposited by an adolescent’scaregiver (AED, 2008).1Columns one through three are adapted from “USAID Field Brief No. 3: Economic Strengthening for Vulnerable Children,” developed by AED and Save the Children under the Leader with Associates mechanism(Cooperative Agreement No. EEM-A-00-06-00001-00).2“Socioeconomic” refers to social and economic identifiers such as age, sex, gender, ethnicity, race, education, residential locality, and class.3Almost all projects cited here are linked or multisectoral projects that combine some dimension of economic/livelihood strengthening with HIV/AIDS/reproductive health education, life skills training, and17 | gender/girls’ empowerment.

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsAsset Transfers (continued)Scholarship Programs forGirls—differ slightly fromCCT programs in that thescholarship is provided tooffset school fees, books,and related educationalcost for girls who otherwisewould not attend school.Some of these programs aresimilar to CCTs, as theyspecifically transfer funds tothe girl’s family to offset theloss of her labor in additionto paying for educationalcosts.• Similar to CCT programs(see above).• Similar to CCT programs(see above).• Scholarship programsmay not provide sufficienteconomic incentivesdirectly to adolescents ifthe adolescents are not alsogiven some direct controlover a part of the resourcesfor costs not usuallyincluded, such as pocketmoney, transport money,and even clothing, whichprevent really poor childrenfrom attending school,even if their direct schoolfees are paid.• For families, whereadolescents either provideincome or substitutelabor for adults who workoutside of the household,scholarships might have tobe combined with someoffset payment to the familyto compensate for the lostwages or labor of the youthattending school.• Particularly for girls ages10–19, with an emphasison girls of this age in ruralareas; and girls 12–19 inurban areas who are unlikelyeither to finish elementaryschool or go on to secondaryschool.• These programs are usuallyfor unmarried girls. It wouldbe worthwhile to push theenvelope by trying to seeif direct compensation fortheir labor to married girls’husbands or in-laws mightprovide incentives to allowthem to attend school.• Camfed supports, mentors,and pays for girls inTanzania, Ghana, Zambia,and Zimbabwe to stayin school through thesecondary level or attendvocational training. Girlsbecome part of the Camaalumni network aftercompleting the program(Camfed International,2006).• Grameen Bank (Bangladesh)provides loans for schoolfees of clients’ children.Fifty percent of funds areearmarked for girls andthe remaining 50% aredistributed to boys andgirls according to merit.Scholarships are givenannually (“ScholarshipProgram,” 2009).• Through the Juntos programin Peru, women must signa four-year agreement tomaintain 85% attendancefor their children in returnfor conditional cashtransfers (Jones et al., 2007).• The Bangladesh FemaleSecondary School StipendProgram provides girlswith scholarships andoffers financial incentivesfor at least 85% schoolattendance, remainingunmarried until at leastage 18, and passing exams(DFID, 2006).• In regions where theJuntos program hasbeen implemented,there has been a markedincrease in schoolattendance, change inparents’ attitudes towardeducation, and increasedinvolvement of parentsin children’s education(Jones, 2007).• The Bangladesh FemaleStipend Programhas increased schoolattendance by 12percentage points in ruralareas (DFID, 2006).• Scholarships and cashtransfers must beaccompanied by effortsthat make schools safefor girls. For moreinformation on safeschools, see the USAIDSafe Schools Program,which includes programassessments in Malawi,Ethiopia, Ghana, andJamaica (USAID, 2003).Also see UNICEF, 2004.18 |

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsAsset Transfers (continued)In-kind NonmonetaryGrants or Asset Transfers• When tied to clearconditionality, such asattendance in vocationaltraining programs, school,or meeting regularly witha mentor.• When also paired withsavings programs toprovide working capitalto complement theproductive asset.• When accompanied bycounseling or mentorship.• Link types of assets andtraining to market demand.• Involve adolescents inidentifying opportunitiesand doing market research.• Avoid promoting anddistributing capital assets fortypes of businesses alreadyoperating in a saturatedmarket.• Avoid gender-basedsegmentation ofopportunities, and wherethis is the choice of theadolescents themselves,engage them in reflectionon gender stereotypes, theircauses, and consequences.• Adolescent boys and girls,ages 14–24. Appropriate inrural and urban contexts,and for married andunmarried youth.• SHAZ! in Zimbabwe, theSHAZ project combinesHIV/AIDS, reproductivehealth, and gender andrelations education withlife skills and vocationaleducation for girls 16–19.Throughout the process,the participants aresupported by an adultrelative who serves as amentor. Once participantsfinish the vocationaltraining part of theprogram, they receive agrant of an asset to start abusiness or for equipmentneeded for a job. Outcomesare evaluated 6 months and1 year after receiving theirin-kind grants (Bruce andHallman, 2008).• BRAC’s Special InvestmentProgram for the UltraPoor component involvesasset transfer and stipendsupport to the ultra poor.Members receive assetsto begin an incomegeneratingactivity, such aspoultry rearing, livestock,agriculture, horticulturenursery, and non-farmactivities. They also receivea monthly subsistenceallowance as temporarysupport (BRAC, 2008).• Both programs emphasizethe importance ofcounseling, monitoring,and social support.19 |

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents2Type and Description Participant Socioeconomic Sample Programs and Evaluations ofElements of Success Cautions3of Program Profile Brief Description Actual ProgramsAsset Growth and Protection1Rotating Savings andCredit Associations(ROSCAs)—groups thatcollect monthly deposits,which are pooled and givento one person in the groupto use each month on arotating basis. There is noaccumulation of value orinterest paid. The advantagefor the participants is thatit is a way to access a largesum of money at one time.• Accumulating Savingsand Credit Associations(ASCRAs)—if the fundof a ROSCA is notdistributed regularlybut accumulates, it iscalled an ASCRA. Themembers save collectively.The capital is “invested”in loans to one or moremembers of the ASCRA.As they redeem the loanand pay interest, theavailable capital grows sothat more new loans canbe given to the members.• These savings groups allowthe participation of peoplewho do not fit standardmicrofinance, such as youth,as a means of building assetsfor the future, coveringperiodic expenses, andweathering economicshocks.• Ensure that the cycle ofsavings and lending inASCRAs is time-bound(usually between 6 and 12months). At the end of thisperiod, the accumulatedsavings, interest earnings,and income should bereturned to members tomaximize transparency andaccountability.• Allow each group to makeits own decisions as part ofits formation, including howgroup members will saveand lend out funds; meetingfrequency; and otherbylaws. Financial servicesmust match the needs andcapacity of the community.• Verify that groups operatesimple and transparentsystems—managed by asmall elected committee—with all activities carried outin front of members.• A key concept of a ROSCA/ASCRA is strong socialcohesion and mutualtrust. Groups must beself-selected, not externallyconvened.• Groups of youth need adultsupport only.• Loans to ROSCA/ASCRA structures fromoutside the group weakencohesion, with the qualityof repayment declining asparticipants no longer seethe funds as their own. 4• Facilitators should bemotivated to developstrong, independent, highfunctioninggroups that canmanage their own decisionsand transactions.• Unmarried and married,in-school and out of school,rural and urban boys andgirls, 15 years and older.• Group or individualsavings and deposit servicesdescribed below areprobably more appropriatein urban areas, where thereare formal banks, than eitherROSCAs or Village Savingsand Loan Associations,which function where thereare no formal financialservices available. There are,however, many examples ofurban ROSCAs.• There are many throughoutthe world; although, theseusually are not sponsoredby development projectsbut rather are formedinformally by groupsof adults. In the case ofadolescents, youth programswith an educational focusmay introduce them as acomplementary componentto financial literacy, sexeducation, or vocationaltraining as a way of teachingmoney management skills.• Worth Model (EastAfrica)—women pool theirsavings as a prerequisite totaking out a loan.• ROSCAs may not bethe ideal mechanism foraccumulating funds foreducational expenses;almost all memberswill need funds at thesame time. They may bemore useful for makingcapital investments or forpaying for non-formaleducational courses thatare not on a strict academicschedule. They also maybe useful for coveringadolescents’ personal itemsthat otherwise might besought through gifts intheir romantic/sexualrelationships.• Married girls who havelittle access to assets wouldbenefit if a ROSCA waspart of a program thatalso supported investmentin productive assets.The social dimension ofthe ROSCAs is also anadvantage for extendingsocial networks (seeexamples under the SocialCapital Formation tablebelow).20 |4If loans are made to ASCRAs, they should be to the group rather than to individuals.

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsAsset Growth and Protection (continued)Village Savings and • Similar to ASCRA programs • Similar to ASCRA programs • Rural married and urbanLoan Associations(VSLAs)—also calledAccumulating Savings andLoan Associations—are selfselectedand self-managedgroups of rural villagerswho pool their savings, setterms of operation, and lendout their savings to earninterest on them and createa source of credit. At theend of a specified period,the accumulated fundsare redistributed amongthe group in proportionto their contributions.Unlike externally financedmicrofinance programs,all interest remains in thecommunity and benefits thegroup members.(See above). (See above). unmarried out-of-schoolemployed adolescents, 15years old and older, whocan generate some fundsfor savings but do not haveaccess to formal banks ormicrofinance programs.Deposit Services and • Promote accounts with • Trying to convince formal • Youth living on the street • The TRY program in • Some microfinanceOther Group andchildren and allow them to financial institutions to or in slums, children Kenya provides loans and institutions (MFIs), suchIndividual Savingsparticipate in deposits. open an account in the whose parents are affected deposit services for youth, as the Self-EmployedPrograms• Provide incentives to savechild’s name only. (An adult by HIV/AIDS, and other along with basic business Women’s Associationand regular reports on themust be involved to create youth who want a safe place management and life skills (SEWA) in India, aregrowth of savings balances.a “contractual relationship” to put their savings. training as a condition for encouraging girls asHowever, the incentiveswith the institution.) accessing loans (Erulkar et young as 10 years old toshould not be such that • Requiring significant fees oral., 2006).accompany their mothershouseholds divert needed bank charges that erode theto programs with the idea• SafeSave (Bangladesh)resources for day-to-day savings balance faster than itof teaching them financialprovides deposit serviceslife to the savings account can accumulate.literacy before they save orfor street children andat the expense of the child’stake out loans. There are• To prevent mismanagement supervised loans for youthwelfare.indications that pairingor abuse, account holders older than 14 years old. financial literacy with a• Add education or financial should be linked directly to savings program increasesliteracy to the savings formal deposit mechanisms adolescents’ commitmentpromotion to build that ensure transaction to savings, particularlyconfidence and motivate transparency. if goal setting is part of21 |households to save forchildren’s needs.the savings educationcurriculum (Kalyanwala,2006).

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsAsset Growth and Protection (continued)Deposit Services andOther Group andIndividual SavingsPrograms (continued)• Help youth to set one ormore savings goals so thatguardians and children canwork toward a tangibleoutcome.• Use institutions that thecaregiver and child trustto protect their deposits.Likewise, build capacity andconfidence on the side offormal financial institutionsto work with low-incomeand young populations.• Pair safe deposit sites withsafe havens for youth.• Avoid setting arbitrarysavings goals foradolescents; allow themto set their own goals butensure that they followthrough.• If savings programs arebased on opening upindividual savings accounts,note that, in manycountries, those youthunder 18 years old are notallowed to open accountsindependently.• Padakhp Manabik UnnayaKendra (Bangladesh)provides savings andclosely supervised loans forstreet children. Padakhptargets youth ages 11–18,who are organized intopeer groups of 15–20individuals. It includesweekly meetings todiscuss social problems,reproductive health, HIV/AIDS, personal hygiene,and savings and creditmanagement; counselingsessions on social andpsychological issues;livelihood training; and acredit and savings program(Bari, 2005).• Butterflies (India) providessavings and loans for streetchildren. The savingsprogram is supplementedwith healthcare andeducation, alternativeeducation, and counseling.Youth also are encouragedto participate in a youthcouncil (Butterflies, 2004).22 |

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsIncome Growth, including Human Capital FormationMicrocredit withObligatory and VoluntarySavings—include grouploans; individual loans; andcompulsory and voluntarysavings.23 |• Individual loans are moreflexible in adjusting tothe frequent life-cyclechanges of youth, but onlyif the adolescent has anestablished business.• Microcredit programs thatfocus on older women alsomay be effective at reducingthe vulnerability of youngwomen and adolescentgirls, particularly if theyinclude a specific focus onHIV and gender in theeducational curriculum.Women, as cultural andsocial gatekeepers incommunities, are likely totransmit information totheir children.• Reasons that adolescentclients may be perceived asmore high-risk borrowersare that they have highermobility, less businessexperience, and a greaterpropensity to spend theirloans nonproductively.• In many countries, youthless than 18 years oldcannot enter into a legallybinding contract andtherefore are barred fromparticipating in somemicrofinance programs.• Some MFIs forbid familymembers to participatein the same microfinancegroup, thus preventingadolescent children of MFIparticipants from joining.• Some MFIs may limityouth to smaller loans thanadults or require an adultguarantor.• Make sure that theeconomic instability of acountry does not presentadditional barriers to new,and especially young,budding entrepreneurs.• Older married andunmarried young adults.The majority of youthfulmicrofinance borrowers areages 21–35. Those between18 and 20 represent 5% ofMFI borrowers. In Africa,65% of youth participantsare young women. Thiscompares with 74% inLatin America and theCaribbean, 19% in MiddleEast and North Africa, and25% in Eastern Europe andCentral Asia.• The IMAGE Project (ruralSouth Africa) was designedspecifically to examine theinterrelationships amonggender, HIV prevention,and microcredit. Thepremise of IMAGE was thatolder women who were theinitial direct participantsin the project would exertmore direct influence overthe sexual behavior oftheir adolescent childrenif they had more access toresources and information.The Small EnterpriseFoundation provided loansthrough a village banking/solidarity group model towomen clients only. Theprogram also developed agender and HIV preventioncurriculum called Sistersfor Life, consisting of 10one-hour training sessions.The first phase focuses onwomen only; the secondphase focused on youthand men at first but foundthat younger adolescentsin particular were moreinterested in savings asa safe place to put theirearnings and allowing themto withdraw them at will(Urdang, 2007).• The evaluation ofIMAGE revealed a 55%reduction in the risk ofintimate partner violenceamong participants butdid not demonstrate areduction in HIV riskfor adolescents. Therewas an indirect effect onparticipants’ children whoremained in school, asHIV risk was considerablyless among in-schooladolescents.• Preliminary evaluationresults of pilot effortsindicated that deviatingconsiderably frommicrocredit best practicesto accommodateadolescents’ uniquecircumstances does notimprove outcomes. Thereare some accommodationsthat might make sense,such as giving them alonger lead time to geta business established;providing an initialgrant rather than a loan(often paying on a loanis dependent on havingincome from anothersource, as a business takessome time to begin togenerate income); startingwith financial educationand business skills trainingbefore making loans;and restricting loans toadolescents who have asupportive mentor whocan provide businessadvice.

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsIncome Growth, including Human Capital Formation (continued)Microcredit withObligatory and VoluntarySavings—include grouploans; individual loans; andcompulsory and voluntarysavings (continued).• Camfed’s vocational trainingis often a prerequisite foradolescents prior to takingout a loan.• The TRY program inKenya is designed to reduceadolescents’ vulnerabilityto adverse social andreproductive healthoutcomes, such as HIVinfection, by providinglivelihood options. Itprovides loans, depositservices, and basic businessskills to out-of-school, verypoor youth (15–19 yearsold). The majority of theparticipants, however, areolder than 20 (Erulkar etal., 2006).• BRAC and CMES(Bangladesh) providelivelihood skills training,business start-up credit, andloans for youth ages 12–19who have gone throughtraining.• The evaluation revealedthat accumulating savingswas of much more interest,especially to youngergirls. The self-help groupsformed as part of TRYprovided a significantamount of social supportto the participants—manyof whom said that it wastheir only source of socialcontact and support.The evaluation showedmixed results in terms ofHIV prevention and didnot measure changes inempowerment, such aschanges in decisionmakingabout reproduction andsexuality, finances, selfesteem,confidence, oragency. (Erulkar et al.,2006).24 |

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsIncome Growth, including Human Capital Formation (continued)Microcredit withObligatory and VoluntarySavings—include grouploans; individual loans; andcompulsory and voluntarysavings (continued).• A collaboration between ayouth training organization,Mali Enjineu, and an MFI,Kato Jiginew in Mali,produced mixed results.They combined savings,credit, and education for aselect group of adolescents,who were mostly childrenof Kato Jiginew clients. Theadolescents responded wellto the savings componentbut were unable to meet thepayment requirements ofthe short-term loans and therequired frequent meetings.They needed more time toget their businesses up andrunning. Most of the youthparticipants had to rely onfamily members to repaytheir loans (Nagarajan,2005).Vocational/Skills Trainingand Counseling—includestraining adolescents invocational skills and smallbusiness management skills.25 |• Identifying a viable marketfor a skill or trade beforetraining begins. Extensivemarket research is neededto understand clearly howa skill can be linked toincome-earning potential,the barriers to entry,and how the project willovercome these.• Selecting individuals withinterest or experience inmanaging a business (e.g.,who know how to price,market effectively, etc.).• Complementing skillstraining with other neededinputs, such as credit,business services, etc.• Ensure that training islinked to the realities ofthe labor market—thatis, availability of jobs andentry requirements.• Flooding the market withthe same skill (e.g., training20 tailors for a small towndoes not work).• Requiring written businessplans, financial statements,or formal record-keepingsystems if they areinappropriate for thebusiness and participant.It is more important thatthe entrepreneur be able todevelop a viable businessstrategy based on the skills• Urban girls and boys ages15–24. These types ofprograms are less availablein rural areas, unlessoffered by an MFI or otherorganization workingin such an area, wherethey are more likely to beassociated with agriculturaldevelopment and creditprograms. Youth oftenare not a specific focus ofagricultural developmentprograms.• SHAZ! in Zimbabwewas designed to test thehypothesis that increasingthe economic power ofout-of-school girls ages16–19, in connectionwith life skills and sexualand reproductive healtheducation, will enhancetheir decisionmakingabout sexual relationsand increase their abilityto protect themselvesfrom HIV.• In some instances, girlswith increased assets foundthemselves at increased riskof exploitation by oldermen, who now saw themas sources of income inaddition to sex.• After three years ofimplementation of KishoriAbhijan, 2,500 girls wereinterviewed for a followupsurvey. The programsignificantly increased selfemploymentand part-timeemployment opportunitiesfor participating girls ofall ages. All participantsdemonstrated increasedknowledge about health,

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsIncome Growth, including Human Capital Formation (continued)Vocational/Skills Trainingand Counseling—includestraining adolescents invocational skills and smallbusiness management skills(continued).• Tracking performanceof graduates and use ofskills after training. Thiscan improve the qualityof programs in the futureif adjustments are madebased on graduate feedbackand also allows for betterimpact assessment of theskills intervention.• Employing high-qualityfacilitators or instructorsfor training and ensuringthat needed materials areavailable for demonstration,practice, and modelingexcellence.• Linking trainees with theprivate sector for futureemployment opportunities.developed, often usingextensive market researchto develop an idea of howthe business will operateviably, as well as its marketpotential.• Establishing largevocational training centerswithout clear career pathsfor the graduates. Theseschools are expensive toopen and maintain and willnot serve the attendees ifthey are unable to establishviable businesses or securejobs from the trainingreceived.• Providing all training andinputs for free. Requiringcost recovery or costsharing (in cash or in-kind)by participants generallyleads to better applicationand use of the learning.It also improves projectsustainability.• Kishori Abhijan,a UNICEF pilotintervention inBangladesh, providedlife skills and livelihoodtraining for girls in 14villages. Implementedby BRAC and CMES,the program involvedenhancing self-esteem andleadership skills, as well aseducation related to genderroles and discrimination,health and nutrition, andlegislation and legal rights,particularly early marriageand girls’ and women’srights. Livelihood trainingincluded various specificvocational skills, such aspoultry care, handicrafts,sewing, photography, andteacher training (Amin,2007).family planning, nutrition,and the causes of disease.They enjoyed greatermobility, as measured byreported activities. Overall,the program evaluationsuggests that futureprograms to delay marriageshould focus on youngeradolescents (ages 12–14)in the poorest familiesand districts of ruralBangladesh (Amin, 2007).Financial Literacy—personal, household,and/or business financialmanagement; personal taxand pay slip education.26 |• Should be linked to apractical intervention, suchas savings, grants, or creditprograms, even if that linkis sequential.• Goal setting and planningare important dimensionsto include in financialeducation.• Ensure that training ispractical and not overlyabstract.• Girls and boys ages 10–19, • The Population Council,single and married, young University of KwaZulumarried and unmarried Natal, and Tulane women and men ages University’s Operational20–24, in school and out Research in KwaZuluof school, urban and rural Natal provided safe spacesfor youth to gather andextended social networksby linking youth tocommunity mentors toreduce social isolationand build positive socialrelationships with adults.There was also a financialmanagement componentthat taught participants• Preliminary findings fromPop Council research:• Participants had higherrates of talking aboutfinancial decisionmakingand savings thannonparticipants.• Young womenparticipants reportedincreased autonomy infinancial decisions aboutspending.• Voluntary HIV testingincreased.

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsIncome Growth, including Human Capital Formation (continued)Financial Literacy—personal, household,and/or business financialmanagement; personaltax and pay slip education(continued).Social Capital Formationhow to budget, save, plantheir futures, and identifysafe and appropriateincome-generatingactivities. Finally, theyalso participated in sessionson HIV/AIDS awareness.• Parents of participantssaid that their children’sparticipation alsoimproved their ownmanagement of money.• Participants, more thannonparticipants, wereaware of and open tomass media messagesabout HIV/AIDS.• Condom use went up by16% among participants,while it declined by 11%among nonparticipants.Mentoring Programs—include matching youngpeople up with caring adultsthrough apprenticeships,internships, job shadowing,counseling, networking, andsupportive companionship.The programs listed underthis section are aimed atreducing social isolation ofyouth, especially those thatare poor and from HIV/AIDS-affected families.Social networks are keyto accessing and beingsuccessful at livelihoodactivities. Many of thelivelihood strengtheningmechanisms listed aboverely on strong socialnetworks. Pairing youthwith adult mentors is oneway to build and strengthentheir social networks, andto make adults more ableto provide youth with thenecessary social support.27 |• Mentorship from closerelatives or guardiansappears to be more effectivein supporting economicactivities of youth thanmentorship from unrelatedpersons.• Mentors should have skillsin business, health, socialwork, or communitydevelopment.• Aunts and other closerelatives may be moreeffective in transmittinginformation to girlsabout HIV prevention,reproductive health, andsexuality than their mothers(finding from TRY).• A credit officer cannot alsoassume the role of mentorto a borrower.• Mentorship should notsubstitute for or replaceyouth leadership. Both areimportant.• Community mentors, or“Aunties,” may work betterfor younger adolescentsthan older ones, who mightconsider themselves oldenough to make their owndecisions (finding of SAVEMalawi).• Youth ages 10–19.• SHAZ! in Zimbabwecombines HIV/AIDSand reproductive healthand gender and relationseducation with life skillsand vocational educationfor girls ages 16–19.Throughout the process,participants are supportedby an adult relative, whoserves as a mentor. Onceparticipants finish thevocational training part ofthe program, they receivethe grant of an asset to starta business or for equipmentneeded for a job (Bruce andHallman, 2008).• SEWA in India isencouraging girls asyoung as 10 years old toaccompany their mothersto programs, with the ideaof teaching them financialliteracy before they save ortake out loans.• There are indications thatpairing financial literacywith a savings programincreases adolescents’commitment to savings,particularly if goal settingis part of the savingseducation curriculum(Kalyanwala et al., 2006).

APPENDIX A: PROGRAMMING MATRIXProgramming Framework for Livelihood Program and Economic Strengthening Options for Adolescents 1Type and Descriptionof ProgramElements of SuccessCautionsParticipant SocioeconomicProfile2Sample Programs and3Brief DescriptionEvaluations ofActual ProgramsSocial Capital Formation (continued)Peer Education• Include a focus on genderequality as part of HIVprevention education andlife skills training.• Be aware that youth oftenare highly mobile andmay not be present for theduration of interventions.• Boys and girls ages 15–24.• There are indications thatpairing financial literacywith a savings programincreases adolescents’commitment to savings,particularly if goal settingis part of the savingseducation curriculum(Kalyanwala et al., 2006).Sports and YouthClubs—including churchbasedyouth groups; buildsocial networks throughparticipation in sports.• Involve vulnerable girlsin mapping exercises toidentify who is beingreached.• Creating a safe space forall participants may meanfocusing on the mostvulnerable groups’ needsand constraints.• Identify what adolescentsof different ages andcircumstances perceive astheir needs by involvingthem in participatoryactivities, such associodramas, dialogue, andinterviews.• Find ways to reachadolescents (i.e., findvulnerable spaces, suchas through contact withemployers of domesticworkers, husbands ofadolescent girls, pimps/brokers of sex workers, andolder boyfriends).• Create safe havens andgirls-only spaces and offera variety of livelihoodoptions.• Avoid creating programsthat are inaccessible to girls,who may be constrainedin their mobility dueto gender and culturalnorms or conditions ofemployment.• Avoid programmingactivities when youth haveconflicting obligations.• Boys and girls ages 10–24.These programs tend to beattended by boys more thangirls.• The Mathare Youth SportsAssociation (MYSA) is alarge-scale, communitybased,co-ed organizationbased in the urban slums ofNairobi, Kenya. For morethan two decades, MYSAhas offered programsfor civic engagement,environmental activism,and its predominantactivity, sports (Brady,2006).• The Ishraq programin Egypt challengestraditional conceptsof gender-appropriatebehavior by incorporatingsports and recreationalactivities with literacy, lifeskillstraining, and healthawareness (Brady, 2006).• These programs tend tobe heavily dominated byboys. Girls, particularlythe most vulnerable, havevery weak social networks.More girls-only sportsprograms might encouragegreater participationby girls. A study byUNICEF presented inDar es Salaam in June2006 revealed that youthgroups and peer educationprograms in Ethiopiaand South Africa rarelywere attended by themost vulnerable girls.In Ethiopia, attendeesrepresented only 7.2%of the total attendingprograms. Fewer than1% were girls employedin domestic service, andfewer than 0.5% were girlsages 10–14 living apartfrom their parents, eventhough in Addis, 37% ofgirls of that age group liveapart from their parents.There were no programsin rural areas.28 |

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