An Operational Framework for Media and Peacebuilding - Montreal ...

INSTITUTE for MEDIA, POLICY and CIVIL SOCIETYAN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGRoss Howardfor IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, Vancouver, B.C.

INSTITUTE for MEDIA, POLICY and CIVIL SOCIETYAN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORKFOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGRoss Howardfor IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society, Vancouver, B.C.JANUARY 2002

National Library of Canada Cataloguing in Publication DataHoward, Ross, 1946–An operational framework on media andpeacebuilding1. Mass media and international relations.␣ 2. Mass mediaand war.␣ I. Institute for Media, Policy and Civil Society.␣II. Title.P96.I53H68 2002 070.4’49327172 C2002-910274-X© 2002 IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy and Civil SocietyAny reproduction, modification, publication, transmission, transfer, sale,distribution, display or exploitation of this information, in any form or byany means, or its storage in a retrieval system, whether in whole or inpart, without the express written permission of the individual copyrightholder is prohibited.Published in Canada by IMPACS910–207 West Hastings StVancouver, BC V6B 1H6Tel (604) 682-1930Fax (604) 682-4353E-mail: media@impacs.orgWeb site: www.impacs.orgMarch, 2002Design and production by Alaris Design

ContentsAcknowledgements.................................................................................................................................................................. ivIntroduction .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 1The Context .............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2A Proviso .................................................................................................................................................................................................... 2Background ............................................................................................................................................................................................. 2What is the Media? ........................................................................................................................................................................ 4What is Peacebuilding? .............................................................................................................................................................. 5Cost Consideration ........................................................................................................................................................................ 5A Caution .................................................................................................................................................................................................. 5Analyzing the Conflict Environment ........................................................................................... 6looking at Media Interventions ................................................................................................................ 9A Typology of Media Interventions .............................................................................................. 10Key Considerations..............................................................................................................................................................12Lessons Learned .......................................................................................................................................................................... 20For Donors .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 20For Implementers ......................................................................................................................................................................... 20General Lessons .............................................................................................................................................................................. 21Appendix A: Media Initiatives ...................................................................................................................... 22Appendix B: Initiatives.................................................................................................................................................. 25Appendix C: Resources .................................................................................................................................................. 26

IntroductionThe media is a double-edged sword. It can be a frightful weaponof violence when it propagates messages of intolerance ordisinformation that manipulate public sentiment. Radio MilleCollines in Rwanda is one of the most appalling contemporary examples.Using a blend of popular entertainment and proselytizing by announcers, thegovernment-supported broadcasts demonized one group of people and builtresentment and fear among the other group. The messages implanted andlegitimized the belief that genocide was an appropriate self-defence initiative,and hundreds of thousands of people were slaughtered in that country.But there is another aspect to the media. It can be an instrument ofconflict resolution, when the information it presents is reliable, respectshuman rights, and represents diverse views. It’s the kind of media thatupholds accountability and exposes malfeasance. It’s the kind of mediathat enables a society to make well-informed choices, which is the precursorof democratic governance. It is a media that reduces conflict and fostershuman security.This document identifies opportunities to strengthen the media as anelement of conflict reduction and peacebuilding. It is intended for donors,1

2 • AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGagencies and nongovernmental organizations,media practitioners, governments andothers, and conflict managers or peacekeepers.The fact is that media has becomeso pervasive and influential that anyonecurrently working in the field of conflictreduction must consider both edges of thesword. A project that launches withoutexamining the media environment, such asan indigenous media that is fomentinghatred, is more liable to fail. Similarly, anyeffort to resolve or prevent deadly conflictthat ignores the media as an opportunity initself is incomplete. This document offers aguide or framework for understanding howmedia-related interventions can be used in avariety of conflict conditions. The frameworkcan support planning, implementing orevaluating media initiatives to avoid risk andmisapplication of resources.The framework provides some commonindicators or consequences for the media inenvironments of pre-, overt and post-conflict.It presents a typology of interventionspotentially appropriate to the media conditionsthat exist in those stages of conflict, orin others. It provides indicators for assessingthose interventions. And the frameworkdraws operational lessons from mediarelatedprogramming and includes a matrixof exceptional examples of media peacebuildinginitiatives. A resources list is included.

The ContextJohn SylvesterA PROVISOThe material presented here can aid thinkingabout, and understanding of, media-relatedopportunities for peacebuilding. However,even the most rigorous framework is not atemplate for media initiatives. Every case ofmedia intervention is different. No mediapractice, nor any intervention strategy, islimited to a particular stage of conflict. Theuniqueness of every situation and the needfor flexibility and innovation that respectslocal interests and skills cannot be overemphasized.Without committed localinterests, peacebuilding interventions arelikely to fail.And it must be recognized that the media’sinfluence alone is insufficient to produce thechanges necessary for a society’s reconciliation,stability and security. Media initiativesmust work closely with other actors andinitiatives, must be timed appropriately, andmust demonstrate patience and longevity. Butequally, other initiatives such as emergencyrelief, democratic development, health andeducation can recognize that media initiativesfocused on conflict reduction inevitably benefitthem too. The potential for synergy is high.This framework is based upon a reviewof published sources, discussions withpractitioners in media and in peacebuilding,and interviews with, and contributions from,those working directly in the field. It shouldbe viewed as a work in progress – a learningtool that can be adapted as experiences andnew ideas are brought forward.BACKGROUNDThe significance of the media is obvious: itis often among the first elements of a societyto be disrupted in an overt conflict. Evenbeforehand, parties seek control of the mediain order to influence news and opinions intheir own interests. The resultant harm hasbeen repeatedly documented. The massmedia played a central role in pre-war Nazimolding of German popular opinion againstJewish people. More recently in the formerYugoslavia, Serbian media revived newsreelsof decades-old conflict and atrocities as partof a campaign of propaganda and hate mongeringdisguised as news, to motivate popularsentiment against Albanians and others.Less well documented is the reverse ofmedia harm. A reliable, diverse and independentnews media has an almost innatepotential for contributing to conflict3

4 • AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGresolution. It functions as a channel ofcommunication that counteracts misperceptions.It frames and analyzes the conflict,identifies the interests, defuses mistrust,provides safe emotional outlets, and more.As Robert Karl Manoff of New YorkUniversity’s Center for War, Peace and theNews Media points out, these are preciselysome of the elements that are involved in aconflict-resolution process.Some agencies and nongovernmentalorganizations interested in peacebuildinghave devoted efforts to encouraging areliable, diverse and free news media wherepossible in conflict-stressed environments.The most prevalent interventions havefocused on basic training for journalists, theprovision of technology and establishingbasic legal protections for journalists.Recently, new initiatives have focused onthe media as a means to communicateinformation specifically intended to fosterpublic sentiment favouring peaceful resolutionof conflict. The focus is on the effect of themedia in its widest possibilities rather thanthe mere presence of professional news mediaoutlets. The media thus becomes a facilitatorof positive social change rather than aprofessional, disinterested observer/reporter.Under no circumstances, however, is thepromotion of biased information or viewpointsmasquerading as journalism a validapproach.The examples of media and peacebuildingare growing but there is little documentationand analysis. And the field is highly dynamic.The potential for synergy between thecommunication skills of journalism and theproactive people-centred approach of conflictresolution is particularly exciting. The finaldimensions of media and peacebuilding willnot be mapped soon. This framework aimsto strengthen peacebuilders’ capacity to morequickly grasp the existing possibilities, and toencourage exploration of entirely new ones.WHAT IS THE MEDIA?Media here refers to the several mediums orchannels used in an organized fashion tocommunicate to groups of people.Newspapers, radio and television are wellknownexamples. The Internet and WorldWide Web are more recent additions.However, for the purposes of peacebuilding,media encompasses more than just the newsand information business so typical of thosechannels. Entertainment programs frommusic to soap operas are part of the media.So are other channels including street theatre,posters, traditional story-telling, and evencomic books, to name only some.The news media, or journalism, remainsin the forefront of peacebuilding initiativesbecause at its best, it is the safeguard ofdemocratic governance. At its best meansaccurate and balanced reporting which fairlyrepresents a diversity of views sufficient forthe public to make well-informed choices. Areliable and diverse media that can expressitself freely provides early warning ofpotential outbreaks of conflict. It serves as awatchdog over leaders and officials and holdsthem accountable. It monitors human rights.Its presence is essential to the functioning ofother civil society actors. In less optimalenvironments, the media can still fosterstability by providing essential informationabout humanitarian initiatives.This framework explores in detail manyof the specific indicators by which mediafreedom, diversity and reliability can bemeasured, and offers strategies forresponding. However, the key conditionsessential for a functioning free media can beboiled down to these: a state’s commitmentto Article 19 (the right to freedom ofexpression) of the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights; a constitutional and legalinfrastructure to protect free expression andprivacy rights; and, independent regulatorsof media rights and public responsibilities.

The Context • 5WHAT IS PEACEBUILDING?Peacebuilding means intensifying efforts toestablish lasting peace and to resolve conflictspeacefully in societies marked by conflict. Asthe Canadian Department of Foreign Affairsand the Canadian Peacebuilding CoordinatingCommittee have noted, in theirinsightful descriptions of peacebuilding, thefocus is on the political and socio-economiccontext of the conflict rather than themilitary or humanitarian aspects. Theoverarching goal of peacebuilding is toenhance the indigenous capacity of a societyto manage conflict without violence, as ameans to achieve human security. Always,however, external support for peacebuildingis an adjunct to local peacebuilding effortsand not a substitute for them.COST CONSIDERATIONSMedia-oriented peacebuilding interventionsare cost-effective, compared to the cost ofconflict. Current technology can put an entiredigital broadcasting studio in a suitcase. Onelaser-guided bomb can cost equal the amountof an entire year of sophisticated programmingto encourage conflict resolutionin a war-torn society. However, mediainterventions require intensive advanceresearch, sensitization to local conditions andpartners, and patience, which entails timeand expense. And experience has shown thatmedia projects must strive for longevityleading to sustainability to have lasting effect.Among the channels of communication,radio has the widest reach. Television can beexpensive but has a powerful effect uponthose who can receive it. The cost of otherchannels, such as newspapers or streettheatre or posters, varies widely. Their impactmay be a reflection of their innovative naturerather than their cost.A CAUTIONThe absence of a struggling media in acountry does not always mean there is animmediate opportunity for a media-relatedinitiative. Great caution and realism must beapplied to fully determine the controllingauthorities’ tolerance for an interventiondedicated to non-violent conflict resolution.Any state that suppresses a free media putsits commitment to justice, human rights andthe rule of law very much in doubt. Prolongeddiplomacy, confidence building and tradeoffsmay be necessary to gain and maintainapproval for any media-related peacebuildinginitiative in such an environment.5

Analyzing the Conflict EnvironmentEvery conflict and peacebuilding situationis different and thus requires a specificexamination, especially today when mostconflicts are internal, not international. Mostconflict has complicated roots and there israrely a single determinant. Ethnicity,religion, economic or resource scarcity, forexample, may be at play. A decision to considermedia-related initiatives needs to beinformed by a prior country and regionalconflict analysis. The analysis of conflict willinevitably produce indications of impactsupon media. For example, a pre-conflict climateof intolerance, human rights abuses andbiased state authority may be reflected insevere stereotyping, including gender typingin reporting, and in a self-censoring media.However, the media is more than a passiveindicator of conflict conditions, and theanalytical process should also seekopportunities for contributing to the media’spotential for positive influence in any conflictresolution process.Table 1 offers a number of indicators thatreflect some consequences of internal conflictupon the local or indigenous media in pre-,overt and post-conflict environments. Thetable reflects general experience, keeping inmind that all conflicts have uniquecharacteristics. Some conflicts do not fit anyone stage neatly. For example, long-term,low-intensity conflicts involving multipleactors can exhibit elements of all three stagesof conflict. Some warning signs overlap thesestages, as do the impacts on media. Otherconflicts, although internal by nature, haveinternational implications. These situationsinvite outside actors into the political arenafollowed by interested involvement byinternational media.6

Analyzing the Conflict Environment • 7TABLE 1. Stages of conflict and media impactsWarning SignsPre-conflictRising political tension, intensified central authority.Economic instability.Increasing economic or political disparity betweenidentity groups.Gender stereotyping intensifies.Weakening state and local authority.Increasing government corruption.Decline in civil society, rights infringements.Appearance of pro-peace/conflict prevention activists.Failing peace dialogue, negotiations.Abuse/distrust of electoral system.State or monopoly control of media outlets.Focused attack-journalism on opponents and moderates,signaling emergence of hate speech.Overt conflictOpen conflict: military attacks, killings, atrocities.Suspension of civil rights, associations.Widespread human rights abuse/atrocities.Collapse of civil society.Denial, disavowal of international covenants.Forced mobilization/conscription.Forced migration, displacement.Infrastructure destruction: material shortages, food,water, fuel, health care, electricity, batteries.Destruction of education system.Examples of Impacts on MediaIncreased media monopoly, censorship of journalism,suppression of external media sources.Decline in economic and editorial independence due toadvertising drop, cost increases. Poor remuneration ofjournalists causing widespread bribery. Decline ofprofessional standards.Polarization of media, identified with identity interests;reporting reflects exclusivity rather than inclusiveness.Stereotyping of others. Decline of diverse commentary.Harassment of non-conforming journalists.Women displaced from media prominence and coverageand media staff positions.Reduced access to information. Prejudiced regulation ofmedia. Bribery of journalists. Rise in crime reporting.Decline in investigative journalism. Equipment theft,damage, seizure.Absence of rights abuse reporting.Alternative, underground media take form.Sensationalized coverage, focus on violence. Absence ofconsensus-seeking reports.Decline in coverage and analysis of politics.Emergence of partisanship disguised as newsgathering.State/monopolist imposition of compliant mediamanagers, journalists.Facile manipulation of popular sentiments. Propagandadisguised as news emerges.Take-over of media outlets, suppression of independentnews media.Journalists at personal risk in crossfire.Suppression of human rights monitoring-reporting.Hate speech emerges.Media rights abrogated. Journalists unprotected by laws.Suppression of media associations.Independent reporting termed unpatriotic.Displacement, shortage of experienced media workers,increase of inexperienced journalists. Lack of diversityof reporters, sources.Loss of equipment, supplies, blocked travel, access tosources. Inability to report, distribute, broadcast.Inability of audience to receive media.Absence of training, professionalization. Decline ofliteracy, decline in readership of print media.

Looking at Media InterventionsJohn SylvesterThe traditional focus of media-relatedinitiatives has been on conventionaljournalism that supports the emergenceof good governance and democraticdevelopment, particularly in post-conflictenvironments. The focus is logical, sincetraditional journalism’s calling is to presentfacts and viewpoints that enable citizens tomake sense of their world and exercisechoices in their best interests.The newer category of media-relatedpeacebuilding goes beyond the traditionaldisengaged journalistic role. It is designed tohave an intended outcome: a reduction ofconflict among citizens. Rather than merelyinforming, material is selected for itspotential in transforming conflict, by shiftingattitudes of the parties involved in conflict,by providing essential information. Thisapproach also extends from traditionaljournalism media into avenues such aspopular music, soap operas and call-inshows, community radio and video projects,and street theatre, wall posters, or concerts.It can be highly effective, particularly inconflict-ridden areas where audiences aredesperately receptive to informationpresented in an entertaining form.Between these two categories lies a stageof media fusion. Journalists, mainly from theglobal northwest, have argued the ostensiblyimpartial role they play is incompatible withreporting which openly seeks conflictresolution or involves personal intervention.This position has discouraged synergisticrelationships among media practitioners andpeacebuilders. However, especially in manymodern conflict environments, it isincreasingly obvious that the professionalnorms of journalism do not trump fundamentalmoral obligations.It is also clear that all journalistsunconsciously reflect personal and culturalvalues in selecting their content (or framingtheir stories, as it is called). What is neededis recognition of the value of framing storiesfor the benefit of conflict resolution. Withthis recognition emerges a journalism that issensitized to conflict resolution techniques,and seeks to maximize understanding of theunderlying causes and possible solutions. Insome conflict environments, journalists seetheir role as more complex than simplycarriers of information, and they actively seekto facilitate the most important peacebuildingdialogues needed in their communities.9

A Typology of Media InterventionsJake LynchJust as specific impacts of conflict uponmedia are rarely unique to one stage ofconflict, media interventions also are notlimited to any one stage of conflict. Differentmedia interventions can overlap, operateside-by-side, or be combined depending uponcircumstances. Nonetheless, to establish acommon language for determining andcomparing intervention opportunities, somepatterns can be identified and described.Five types of media intervention aredescribed here. Examples of specific peacebuildinginitiatives falling within the fivecategories are given later in this framework(Table Two).Type One. One common interventioninvolves initiatives to overcome journalismseverely constrained by its lack ofprofessionalism, diversity, freedom andtechnology. This rudimentary journalismtraining addresses unskilled, inaccurate,conflict-obsessed, or highly partisan media.Often this media is, or was, controlled bythe state or special interests and it reflectsnarrow views or propaganda. A legalframework regulating and protecting themedia is likely lacking. The foremost toolfor peacebuilding here is training media inthe basics skills of journalism, such asimpartiality, accuracy and balance.Awareness of democratic practices, especiallyelection coverage, is essential. Technologytraining and equipment is also supplied; and,also included is the promotion of journalisticcodes and a basic legal infrastructure thatprotects journalists from intimidation.Type Two. A second type of mediaintervention provides more responsiblejournalism development beyond basic skills.Tools include developing investigative,explanatory and specialist reporting, andwell-informed analytical reporting. Initiativesinclude promoting and providing models fora full media infrastructure that includesimpartial regulators, media performancerequirements, access to information, presscouncils, and promulgation of standards todefine libel and slander as elements of mediaaccountability. Developing diverse, competitiveand sustainable media outlets, especiallythrough management training, is anothertool. The intention is to create a media thatserves society as a conflict resolution processand upholds democratic governance.Type Three. An emerging genre of mediaintervention is located between traditionaljournalism and more pro-active uses ofmedia. Journalists are encouraged toconsciously examine their role to recognize10

A Typology of Media Interventions • 11conflict resolution as part of that role. In thistransitional journalism development,journalists and media managers redefinewhom and what is newsworthy, to betterinform and encourage reconciliation.Sensitized media professionals may see theirrole as more than observers and carriers ofinformation and may seek to facilitate criticaldialogues within the community. Someprofessionals and theorists aptly call this typeof intervention peace journalism, reflectingthe dual nature of their work as journalistswith conflict resolution as one of theirrecognized values. Other sources ofjournalism media such as underground radiostations may be involved, often in hostileenvironments.Type Four. Distinct from conventionaljournalism is pro-active media-basedintervention, usually designed for a highlyspecific audience and purpose. It is often theproduct of an outside intervenor such as apeacekeeping force or a nongovernmentalorganization and is often deployed in aconflict or post-conflict environment. It canbe media intended to counter hatepropaganda, or programming to provideimmediately practical information such aselection and voting practices, refugeereunification, education or health advice.Type Five. Intended outcome programmingis specifically intent upon transformingattitudes, promoting reconciliation andreducing conflict. It is not conventionaljournalism. It is usually conducted bynongovernmental organizations. The contentis determined by its appropriateness tofostering peace. The programming anddelivery mechanisms can be innovativeadaptations of a popular culture such asradio and television soap operas and dramas,street theatre, wall posters, and more. Theinitiative and programming may be closelyallied with other actors and projects. Mediaworkers may play a role themselves asconciliators in the field.

Key ConsiderationsStages of conflict are often fluid withoverlapping characteristics and inconsistenttypes of media practices, whichchallenge easy prescription of the appropriatemedia-based peacebuilding initiative.Responding to the prevailing conflict stageand media environment will require carefulassessment of the conflict and any proposedintervention. Specific stages of conflict maybe open to, or require more than, one typeof media intervention.Appendices A and B each offer somespecific questions to be asked in conductingthese assessments. Underlying thosequestions are some general considerationsthat must be kept in mind:• Will the initiative affect individual orcollective abilities to identify andrespond to conflict resolutionopportunities?• Will the project help or hinder relationshipsbetween the state and civil society?• Will it include members of thecommunities affected by the conflict?• How will the beneficial results be madesustainable?The engagement of the people mostaffected, which in a media initiative includesboth media practitioners and audiences, mustbe established. Their input, often overlookedor minimized, is crucial. Intended outcomemedia can be particularly successful atattracting audiences but sustained successrequires audience feedback and interactionthat, in turn, shapes the message.The progress and outcome of mediainitiatives will likely require great adaptability,and an acceptance of incrementalrates of change. It may be difficult to applyconventional measurements of an initiative’ssuccess as it directly relates to reducing andpreventing violent conflict. In such a new andexpanding field, conventional measurabilityshould be kept in perspective and not stifleinnovation or unique, local approaches.Table Two presents a typology describingmedia-related initiatives and indicators. Itdoes not exclude the overlapping ofindicators and strategies from one type toanother. It should not be applied restrictively.For example, a Type Five intended outcomemedia project can possibly be applied in anenvironment lacking several of the Type Fiveindictors such as audience rating capabilities,or even the basic conditions of Type Onerudimentary journalism.John Sylvester12

Key Considerations • 13TABLE 2. Interventions and IndicatorsMedia Initiative Strategy IndicatorsType OneType TwoBasic training in standard ABC skills ofnewsgathering: accuracy, balance andcontext.Support for professional journalist associations,conduct codes. Partnership supportfor indigenous training facilities. Seminars,forums for local journalists on professionalism.Support for independent media protectionand regulation within legislation, regulations.Encouragement of diverse, independentmedia outlets.Provision of technical support and equipment,especially for essential facilities/newtechnology.Appraisal of membership of the media.Media monitoring.As in Type One stage plus advancedjournalism training, in investigations,economic reporting, information access,election coverage, gender and ethnicneutrality.Provide rationale, models for environment:legislation, courts, regulatory bodies.Support for introduction of media accountability– press councils, libel/slanderlegislation.Support for autonomous/commercialoperations.Support for wider distribution of local/regional news. Funding for relayed internationalbroadcasters.Extent of violations of privacy rights or libellaws if existent. Number of professionaljournalist associations.Presence of codes of professionalism, numberof training institutions.Presence of free speech and free medialegislation. Number of journalists imprisoned,harassed, intimidated, de-accredited, censored.Extent of content piracy and plagiarism.Extent of access to government information.Presence of independent reporting. Numberof independent media outlets, number ofprivately-owned outlets, number of alternativemedia outlets, number of media licencesgranted, refused. Percentage of indigenousversus foreign advertisers.Quality and reliability of production anddistribution and reach of diverse media.Number of internet connections, serviceproviders, printing presses, transmitters.Percentage of female and minority journalists,in management, in training courses.Content analysis.As in Type One stage plus number of specialistjournalists, commentators and analysts.Number of daily news reports on politics,military issues, legal proceedings, humanrights, gender. Content analysis: extent ofdemonizing, stereotyping, sensationalizing,violations of privacy rights.Media and public support for independentmedia enshrinement and regulation withinlegislation, regulations.Number of lawsuits for slander/libel.Disposition of complaints against media.Diversity within individual outlets’ staff.Evidence of differing editorial viewpoint,commentary, audience feedback.Number of financially autonomous outlets.Media monitoring for credibility, balance.

14 • AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGTABLE 2. Interventions and Indicators concludedMedia Initiative Strategy IndicatorsType ThreeType FourType FiveConflict resolution sensitizing and training.Support for enhanced investigative reporting.Seminars, forums for international media onindigenous situation.Seminars, forums for local media on mediacoverage and conflict.Fund/encourage international mediacoverage.Creation of humanitarian needs-based mediaoutlets. Meet needs of affected populationssuch as: emergency relief, relocation facilities,health advisories, warnings about landmines.Define relationship to peacekeeping force.Establish temporary media productions anddistribution facilities.Counter hate radio.Recruit local staff, local suppliers to buildeconomic engagement. Seminars, forums forlocal journalists on professionalism.Provide programming speaking directly toconflict issues, presenting new or alternativesources of information, issues and factorsbehind the conflict, shared effects of conflict,presentation of opposing views, discussion ofstereotypes, promotion of tolerance,reconciliation, democratization.Integration of local partners into programming.Development of local markets, local capacityfor programming.Develop diversified channels of communicationappropriate to local environment.Content analysis of conflict reporting: focuson violence versus reconciliation.Percentage of conflict reports, lurid crimereports, versus reports of humanitarianinformation, peaceful resolutions, positivemodels and interventions.Audience ratings.Qualitative studies feedback.Responsiveness of media outlets to publicrequests for programming, information.Audience ratings, reactions.Outcome assessment of issues or actionsfocused on.Surveys identifying individual and groupperception of others.Percentage change in multi-faction or multiethniccommunity dialogues, organizations,activities, in target group or across society.Percentage changes in audience attitudes andin comprehension of message.Extent of local partnership in decisionmakingand content programming. Ethnicand factional balance in staff and content.Extent of collaboration with governmentinstitutions, agencies, civil society andnongovernmental organizations.Number of outlets and channels conveyingconflict resolution messages.

Key Considerations • 15Table 3 presents examples of practicalmedia-oriented peacebuilding initiativesarranged by types of media initiative and bystages of conflict. Descriptions of eachproject are given below. These examplespartially reflect the considerable diversity ofinnovative approaches and individualprograms which were identified in the courseof preparing this framework. More areemerging every day.TABLE 3. Examples of peacebuilding initiativesPre-conflict Hot conflict Post-conflictTypes Oneand Two:conventionaljournalismdevelopmentType Three:transitional mediadevelopmentTypes Fourand Five:transformationalprogramming1. Philippine investigativejournalism.2. IREX: East Europeanrudimentary training.3. Open Society Institute:Central-East Europeantraining.4. Internews: Tajikistantraining10. Media Action International:conflict sensitization.11. Conflict and PeaceForum: roles analysis andsensitization.12. CECORE: roles analysis,training.20. Search for CommonGround: Macedonianchildren’s programming.13. Studio Ijambo, Burundi:conflict resolution, antihatemedia.14. South Asian EditorsForum: reconciliationsensitization.15. Role sensitization (see #4).21. Media Action International:Balkans humanitarian andnews programming.22. Search for CommonGround: Liberia reconciliationprogramming.23. Reporters Sans Frontieres:Rwanda anti-hate radio.24. War Child: Bosnianchildren’s reconciliation.25. BBC World Service:Afghanistan humanitarianprogramming.5. IMPACS Cambodiajournalists’ trainingproject.6. IREX: East Europeanprofessional training andinfrastructure.7. Balkans: lessons learned.8. Reseau Liberte:rudimentary-toresponsibletraining.9. OSCE Mission Kosovo:journalism regulationand training.16. Alliance for Peace,Philippines: training.17. Peace JournalismTraining, Indonesia:training, sensitization.18. Radio Blue Sky, Kosovo:humanitarian news,ethnicities’ dialogue.19. Internews Reporting forPeace, Indonesia:training, sensitization.26. UNTAC Radio: UNCambodian democracyprogramming.27. Internews: Rwanda trialscoverage for reconciliation.28. Media Peace Centre:South African peacebuildingmedia.29. Childrens’ advocacy –Tajikistan (see #4).

16 • AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDING1. The Philippine Centre for InvestigativeJournalism (www.pcij.org) is anindependent, not-for-profit media agencywhich produces and provides, at cost, indepthinvestigative reports to the local andnational media, and provides fellowshipsto reporters, which would otherwise not beavailable due to financial or politicalconstraints. Accuracy and balance areprimary concerns, to reduce opportunitiesfor suppression.2,6. IREX’s Promedia Program(www.promedia.org) combines training,technical assistance, equipment grants andother aid to independent media in tenCentral and Eastern European states to helpthem improve their performance againststate-sponsored media and compared toWestern media. The focus is on businessperformance, media law, professionalstandards and institutional support.3. Open Society Institute Network MediaProgram (www.osi.hu/nmp) is a not-forprofitconsultant, resource, liaison andpartner for Soros-sponsored mediaprograms and other media initiatives inCentral and Eastern Europe. The primaryfocus is assisting the establishment ofenvironments for development of free,independent accountable media, includingmedia legislation, media freedommonitoring, and professionalism ofjournalists and managers.4, 15, 29. Internews Central Asia(www.internews.org) works with localnongovernmental organizations in anenvironment of prolonged low-intensityconflict in the Ferghana Valley of Tajikistanto provide a media spectrum-wideprogram which includes basic journalismtraining, advocacy for a supportive mediainfrastructure, conflict-sensitizedjournalism, and intended outcome youthorientedradio programming.5. IMPACS Cambodia Journalists’ TrainingProject (www.impacs.org) since 1998has strengthened democracy in Cambodiaby assisting in the development of moreindependent, open and accountable radiojournalism in the highly subjective andfractious media environment there. Thetraining program focuses on radio, whichis the only country-wide news medium buthas no tradition of trained practitioners.7. A Bosnia-Herzogovina assistanceprogram launched in 1996 by internationalorganizations to rapidly create a diverseindependent media industry, to counterstate propaganda and to educate, enhancedemocracy and empower audiences. Itproduced an artificial donor-dependentindustry of poor journalistic skills that wasuncompetitive with popular ethnocentricgovernment outlets. Unrealistic timelines,a lack of localized “ownership” of theinitiatives, and unattractive programmingproduced modest or minimal contributionsto democratization.8. Reseau Liberte (reseauliberte@videotron.ca) is a Canadian programwhich provides media training from basicreporting to investigative and documentarywork, through advancing levels ofsophistication for repeat trainees. It hasdelivered programs in Kosovo, Vietnamand African countries.9. Department of Media Affairs, OSCEMission in Kosovo (www.osce.org/kosovo/media/index.htm). An internationalorganization assisting the creation ofconditions for free media in Kosovo andBosnia, it temporarily regulates and licenselocal media and with local advisors isdeveloping laws and standards for themedia. It also provides training, technicalassistance and inter-agency coordination.

Key Considerations • 1710. Media Action International’s(www.mediaction.org) Journalists inConflict Program sensitizes and trainsjournalists working in conflict areas tohumanitarian values and peacebuildingand conflict resolution perspectives.11. Conflict and Peace Journalism Forum(www.conflictandpeace.org) focuses on therole of the news media, both in conflictand in the active construction of peace,with an emphasis on sensitizing journaliststo a more accurate way of framing stories.12. The Centre for Conflict Resolution(www.cecore.org) in Uganda holdsworkshops for media outlets and membersto examine their roles in peacebuilding andto develop conflict resolution skills,including sensitizing reporters to Africantraditional mechanisms of dealing withpeace and reconciliation. A media andpeacebuilding skills training manual isunder development.13. Studio Ijambo (www.sfcg.org) wascreated by Search for Common Ground tospecifically counter a recurrence in Burundiof genocidal hate radio’s impact in Rwanda.The production studio uses teams of Hutuand Tutsi journalists to produce multiplelanguage programs fostering conciliationthrough public affairs and entertainmentprogramming for local stations’ use.14. South Asian Editors’ Forum(www.peaceinitiatives.org) has since 1998strengthened communication and raisedconfidence among formerly hostile seniormedia managers of the highly influentialindigenous local-language press in India,Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, and SriLanka, though meetings, journalistexchanges, and joint publications toreshape public opinion towards compatiblerelations.15. The Alliance for Peace Communications(cfmr@surfshop.net.ph) was created by adiversity of Philippine interests in 1998-1999, including former insurgents, allconcerned with media preoccupation withpeace breakdowns despite an emergingclimate of peace. Regional seminars andexchanges involving journalists identifiedtheir information gaps, the excessiveconflict coverage, and the need for contextand reconciliation coverage.16. The Peace Journalism Training projectin Indonesia (nick.mawdsley@britcoun.or.id)helped local journalists address mediaresponsibility in the 1999-2001 postmedia-suppression and democratic transitionperiod, using techniques pioneered byConflict and Peace Journalism Forumssuch as dealing frankly with the sources oftension, correcting misconcep-tions andsensitizing reporters to conflict resolutionpractices.17. Radio Blue Sky was established for theUnited Nations in Kosovo by FondationHirondelle (www.hirondelle.org) in 1999as an emergency source of informationprograms to specifically open dialogue anddemocratic debate in Albanian, Serb, andTurkish communities. In July 2000, itachieved localized sustainability as thesecond network of public servicebroadcaster RTK.18. Reporting for Peace is operated byInternews (www.internews.org) in conflictstressedregions of Indonesia to train localradio-print journalists to recognize theirability to encourage the peace process byincluding a focus on tolerance, defused conflictand reconciliation in balanced reporting.19. Nashe Maalo, by Search for CommonGround, (www.cpgonline.org) is a groundbreakingchildren’s television series aimed

18 • AN OPERATIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR MEDIA AND PEACEBUILDINGat reducing potential conflict among thehighly segmented communities and ethnocentricmedia in multi-cultural Macedonia.The entertaining series overcomesstereotypes and alters perceptions byoffering children insights into othercultures and modeling positive strategiesfor conflict coping. The series, launched in1999 and aired across the country, has hadmeasurable positive effect.20. Operation Spear was launchedby Media Action International(www.mediaction.org) to quickly producepreviously unavailable humanitarianinformation programs for refugees on stateradio in Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia,concurrent with NATO Alliance action inthe region. Freeplay (clockwork) radioswere distributed to refugee camps.21. Talking Drum Studio Liberia(www.sfcg.org) produces programs forlocal radio and newspaper outlets withthe primary goal of reducing politicaland ethnic violence by stressing peace,reconciliation and democratization. Since1997, it has gained a 90% name and 75%content recognition among Liberians forits interesting news and entertainmentprogramming, such as radio dramasillustrating social and problems witha view to finding solutions, and childproducedprograms aimed at formerchild combatants. A similar studio inSierra Leone was launched in 2001.22. Radio Agatashya was first establishedby Swiss journalists from Reporters SansFrontieres (www.rsf.fr), later operated byFondation Hirondelle, to counter thegenocidal incitements of Radio MilleCollines in Rwanda in 1994. For severalmonths after the genocide, it broadcasthumanitarian information andprogramming into Rwanda fromneighbouring Zaire designed to counterprejudices created by the hate radio. Beforeits demise due to funding and local conflictdifficulties, it had become widelyappreciated by residents as a reassuringsource of unbiased information.23. The international humanitarianorganization War Child (www.warchild.org),supported by the music industry andfocusing on children, established aPavarotti Music Centre, which uses musictherapy to establish communicationbetween former child combatants andenemies in Bosnia. The organization hasalso used modern technology to establishlinks and interactivity between Westernchildren and those in conflict-affectedcountries.24. BBC World Service’s (www.bbc.co.uk)radio drama entitled “New Home, NewLife” has been beamed into Afghanistansince 1996. Crafted by Afghan writers,producers and actors, the productionsimpart information on humanitarian andreconciliation themes through storylinesdealing with issues such as clean births,safe motherhood, children in conflict, mineawareness, and conflict resolution. It isestimated over half the country listens tothe short-wave broadcasts.25. UNTAC Radio was a United Nationsintervention to inform the people ofCambodia about the United NationsTransitional Authority and the introductionof free elections. It expanded frommodest broadcasting of basic primers onthe democratic process in 1992 to countrywideeducational, news, entertainment andpublic affairs radio programmingpromoting reconciliation. The highlypopular service went off the air, withouta successor, upon installation of ademocratic government in late 1993.

Key Considerations • 1926. Internews (www.internews.org) hasprovided regular English-language printnews coverage of the United NationsInternational Criminal Tribunal forRwanda since 1997, and more recentlysimilar proceedings in the Balkans. Thecoverage is intended to keep human rightson the global agenda, and to fosterreconciliation among victims, byrecognizing their suffering anddemonstrating that justice will prevail.27. The Media Peace Centre,(www.mediapeacecentre.org) established in1992 as the media arm of the multi-partybody administering South Africa’s PeaceAccord, produces media that facilitatesreconciliation, justice and peace-building.It has pioneered using journalists groundedin conflict resolution skills, and projectsusing media, including a national radiostation, video dialogues, and a 39-partthree-year television/radio series onAfrica’s challenges, to generate dialogueamong conflicting parties.

Lessons Learned1. FOR DONORS• Donors must avoid temptation toparachute in a project of their design,rather than funding the process ofworking with indigenously owned andoperated media sources on asustainable basis.• In emerging democracies, basicjournalism skills and diversity of outletsmay improve long before they are fullyindependent. International donors mustrecognize that local media operatorsmay labour under prolonged localconstraints and pressures to remainadvocates for one interest.• Donors should recognize that equipmentand skills development arejeopardized in the absence of initialunderwriting of basic requirementssuch as rent, electricity and staff wages.• Prolonged, intractable conflict environmentsrequire sustained, well-resourcedmedia intervention.• Donor funding should be linked toresponsible editorial content. Donorsshould demand gender nondiscriminatoryhiring at all levels.• Specific evaluations by conventionalanalysis can be difficult for mediaprojects. Attitudinal change may bethe best indicator, which is reflectedby qualitative indicators that requireextended measurement periods.• Donors should direct projects toemphasize diversity, and to work withvarious media outlets, to ensure theproject is not perceived as too linked toan individual media outlet that reflectspowerful authorities’ interests.2. FOR IMPLEMENTERS• Anticipated results should be definedwith the local people involved in aspecific project. They are the partnerswho must continue the work after theoriginal intervenors are gone. To do so,they must believe in the project.• It is essential to remain flexible.Trainers must have or adapt to theskills experience of the target group sothey can pass on the appropriate skills.• Except during hot conflict, internationaladvisors should not assumedirect management of media outlets.This is the job for locals.• Be prepared for prolonged periods ofdeveloping good relations with a localpartner. Extensive prior consultation isvital.• On-site training is much superior tounrelated training environments.Kenneth Conteh20

Lessons Learned • 21• The willingness of media managers toabsorb and implement the benefits oftraining of their workers is essential.This absorption of media benefitsshould be verified through monitoringof the media following the training.• Project coordination needs to includean exit strategy, preferably built on theself-sustainability of the project.• Message development should be carefullydone: satire can be dangerous.• Interventions should not focus onneeds, but rather focus on identifying,mobilizing, and strengtheningcommunity or local assets.3. GENERAL LESSONS• The faster that journalism codes ofconduct and the state’s mechanisms ofmedia regulation and protection are inplace, the sooner all interests canexperience the rights and obligations ofthe media. Reforming the legallegislativeenvironment has potentialfor long-lasting institutional change.• Media projects should be accompaniedby a monitoring system, to identifyproblems, refine goals and ensurecompliance with any media codes ofconduct. Monitoring results, particularlyof elections and election coverage,should be publicly available.• Nongovernmental organizationsshould, if appropriate, be able to showinvolvement in similar work in theirhome country, to avoid charges ofhypocrisy or condescension.• The willingness of othernongovernmental organizations tocooperate is a significant advantage.Coordination and information-sharingand appropriate distribution of servicesand equipment, is essential.• Language is an essential element. Teammembers should speak the languages usedby the conflicting members of society.• There needs to be a sense of ownershipof programming by the audience itself,in Types Four and Five initiatives. Themedia project must seek to offer whatthe audience wants.• It is crucial to make one’s project astransparent and accessible as possibleto avoid accusations of partisanship.• Reliance on peacekeeping forces orother organizations such as the UnitedNations should be made on a case-bycasebasis. There needs to be sufficientspace to maintain independence at alltimes.• Even in post-conflict environments, themedia will not be perceived as a neutralinterest by all major interests. A broadcoalition of support is essential.• Relations with local authorities need tobe carefully monitored: maintain arespectful if distant relationship inenvironments of hostile authorities. It isbetter to withdraw from a country andset up operations nearby than to bowto unfair or unprincipled demands oflocal authorities.• Poorly paid media workers, vulnerableto bribes and biased reporting, are amajor deterrent to free media.Adequate remuneration and respect forindependent journalism are essential toany project’s sustainability.• In certain situations, it is not possible tointervene, even if desired. Differenttypes of conflict require differentresponses. There is a need to differentiatebetween conflict and violence.

Appendix AMedia InitiativesQUESTIONS THAT WILL HELPDETERMINE THE CONTEXTOF A MEDIA PEACEBUILDINGINTERVENTION1. What is the current situation: conflict,pre- or post-conflict? (A conflictsituation will require more Type Four orFive interventions; pre- and post-conflictinterventions will require more long-termdevelopment program designs fromTypes One to Three.)Explanation: A conflict situation, or theimmediate aftermath of a conflict, willusually not be conducive to long-termdevelopment projects. Immediateobjectives – like elections or humanitarianassistance – usually have greaterpriority and oftentimes are more easilycomplemented by Types Four and Fivemedia inter-ventions. However, muchdepends on partner organizations.Regions hosting a larger internationalpresence can enjoy a number of differentprojects implemented simultaneously. Itis possible for a country to host TypesOne through Five media interventions atthe same time.2. What are the policies of the internationalcommunity? Peacekeeping mission?Does the issue only fall within regionalgeopolitical interests? Are regionalpeacekeepers deployed (sanctioned ornot sanctioned by UN)? Has a full sitecountry and region conflict assessmentbeen done? Are they or are they notaccompanied by official civilian missions?What diplomatic corps resides in thecountry? Have the international mediamobilized public support for assistance?Explanation: It is imperative to determinehow many other, and which,organizations are active in the region andwhether or not your country maintainsdiplomatic representation in the region.The lack of one usually signals anincrease level of risk in implementing anypeacebuilding intervention. Activities ofother organizations will also clarify whatpartnerships can be developed, whatactivities are already being conducted,and the level of international interest inthe region. This will all lend a betterunderstanding of the resources availablefor interventions.QUESTIONS TO ASK INDETERMINING THE TYPEOF MEDIA INITIATIVE3. What is the content of the media? (Youmay find that the government authoritiesallow only a single perception to bebroadcast; that the content of broadcastsor publication vary on locale/warlordswithin a single region; or that a varietyof opinions are made available to thepublic. You may also find that all newsis presented through a nationalized lens,or any other spin that incites furtherdivisions in that particular society.)How does the media define coverage?Explanation: Analysis of the content will22

Appendix BInitiativesKEY QUESTIONS FOR ALLPROJECT AND PROGRAMFORMULATION INITIATIVES• What is your mandate?• What is the current situation?• What are possible strategies?• What is your vision?• What are your objectives (immediate,medium-term and long-term)?• Having considered more, what is themost optimal strategy?• What resources are available to you?• What partnerships will you develop, doyou already have?• What are your inputs into the initiative?• What are your planned activities?• How will you monitor and evaluate theoutputs (objectives?)• What is your timeline?• What are the possible risks?25

Appendix CResourcesAvailable on the web (See Table 3 for examplesof other initiatives). For a more detailed list ofmedia and peacebuilding resources, pleaseseethe IMPACS website atwww.impacs.org/media/links.htmlArticle 19: London-based international NGOwhich champions media freedoms, monitorsabuses, provides research, training andsupport. http://www.article19.org.Carnegie Commission on Preventing DeadlyConflict. Final Report, chapters five andseven.See www.ccpdc.org/pubs/rept97/toc.htm.Centre for War, Peace and the News Media:Research, journalism monitoring andanalysis and specific media capacity-buildingprojects. See www.nyu.edu/cwpnm.Conciliation Resources: Research,publications, and resources on media andpeacebuilding; see African Media andConflict. See www.c-r.org.The Communications Initiative:Communications Interventions forSustainable Development – best singlesource of information on all aspects of allmedia potential in development, modestlyincludes peacebuilding specifically:exceptional, massive demonstration of theconstantly updateable power of websites toassemble and categorize. Seewww.comminit.com.Committee to Protect Journalists: A nonprofit,non-partisan organization dedicatedto the global defense of press freedom. Seewww.cpj.org.Creative Associates International Inc: ConflictPrevention, A Guide. Toolbox Section 24:Peace Media. See www.caii-dc.com.Department for International Development,Government of the United Kingdom:Working With the Media in Conflicts andOther Emergencies, a concise guide toappropriate media interventions for DFIDstaff, partners and agencies. Includesresources list. DFID CHAD Dept.,London, Tel 020-7917-0697.European Centre for Conflict Prevention:Research and projects. Seewww.euconflict.org.European Journalism Centre: Information ontraining activities and tools or journalists.See www.ejc.nl.Freedom Forum: Research, training andsupport for media freedom in emergingdemocracies.See www.freedomforum.org/international.Fondation Hirondelle: Media and peacebuildingprojects. See www.hirondelle.org.Forum on Early Warning and Early Response– FEWER: Created following internationalstudy conducted on Rwandan genocide in1994 that concluded there was ampleevidence about the conflict and impendingviolence but a lack of coordination andefforts to prevent it. Research conductedon conflict, international focus. Seewww.fewer.org26

Appendix C • 27IMPACS – Institute for Media, Policy andCivil Society: leading Canadian NGOexplorer of media’s potential in conflictreduction/civil society enhancement. Alsosee website directory of more than 100agencies, NGOs and funders focused onmedia as a peacebuilding instrument.See www.impacs.org.Institute for War and Peace Reporting:Reports and research on mediamonitoring, media conditions and electioncoverage. See www.iwpr.net.International Centre for Journalists: Providesjournalistic training, media managementand technical expertise. See www.icfj.org.Internews: Provides a media spectrum-wideof initiatives including basic journalismtraining, advocacy for a supportive mediainfrastructure, conflict-sensitized journalism,and intended outcome programming.See www.internews.org.IREX Promedia program: Journalism training,legal infrastructure, media assistance.See www.irex.org.Media Action International: Research, trainingand publications on the role of mediain conflict situations.See www.mediaaction.org.Operational Frameworks for Peacebuilding:A compendium of frameworks, strategiesand analytical tools for approachingpeacebuilding with focus on particularthemes such as gender equity, conflictaffectedchildren, media, education, orsmall arms reduction.See: http://www.adci-cida.gc.ca/peaceOSCE Representative on Freedom of theMedia: Monitors media freedom in OSCEmember states and provides early warningof abuses; provides research and supporton media freedoms.See: www.osce.org/fomThe Panos Institute: Research, training andsupport for journalism.See www.oneworld.org/panos.Soros Foundations Network: Media programprovides support and training for journalismdevelopment, especially in Eastern andSouthern Europe. See www.soros.org.Reporting the World: Site by journalists forthose with an interest on media andpeacebuilding. Includes directory ofpractitioners and journalists, seminarreports on conflict issues and a detailedroundtable report on “An EthnicalFramework for Reporting of Conflicts.”See www.reportingtheworld.org.Search for Common Ground: A leadingpractitioner of media and peacebuilding:innovative, exceptionally high quality,diverse capabilities; worldwide pioneers inimpact assessment. See www.sfcg.org.US AID’s Center for Democracy andGovernance: Technical Publications Series:The Role of the Media in Democracy:A Strategic Approach for Media SectorSupport. Oriented to US missions abroad,for use in post-conflict environments.Highly detailed. See www.usaid.gov/democracy/pdfs/pnace630.pdf.

INSTITUTE for MEDIA, POLICY and CIVIL SOCIETY910 / 207 W. HASTINGS STVANCOUVER CANADA V6B IH6TELEPHONE: 604 682~ 1953FACSIMILE: 604 682~ 4353EMAIL: media@impacs.orgWEBSITE:www.impacs.org