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Journal of Applied Sciences 2(3), 2009OZEAN JOURNAL ofAPPLIED SCIENCEA PEER REVIEVED INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Volume 2, Issue 2, June 2009ONLINE ISSN 1943-2542 PRINTED ISSN: 1943-2429---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Effect of Method and Rate of Fertilizer Application under Drip Irrigation on Yieldand Nutrient Uptake by TomatoShaymaa I. Shedeed*, Sahar M. Zaghloul, A. A. YassenDeterministic Approach to Path Optimization ProblemAykut Kentli*, Ali Fuat AlkayaSome studies on the effect of ascorbic acid and _ – tocopherol on the growth andsome chemical composition of Hibiscus rosa sineses L. at NubariaEl-Quesni Fatma E.M., Abd El-Aziz, Nahed, G. and Magda M. KandilSome Studies on the Effect of Putrescine, Ascorbic Acid and Thiamine onGrowth, Flowering and Some Chemical Constituents of Gladiolus Plants atNubariaG. Abdel Aziz Nahed, S. Taha Lobna and M. M. Ibrahim SoadCassava Marketing: Option for Sustainable Agricultural Development in NigeriaYisa Akanfe AwoyinkaEffect of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava Production Efficiency in Oyo State -NigeriaYisa Akanfe AwoyinkaCardiorespiratory Responses of Tennis Players to Backward Slope Walking onDifferential Treadmill GradientsElvis I. Agbonlahor1*, Elias O. Agwubike2, Grace O. Ikhioya3, Isoken I. Osagiede4, Loveth N. Agbonlahor5How to Make GIS a Common Educational Tool in Schools: Potentials and Implicationsof the GIS for Teachers Book for Geography Education in TurkeyAli Demirci1 and Ahmet Karaburun2Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Quality Characterization of Water andMussels from Yesilirmak River and Estuary - Central Black SeaYuksel Orhana and Sibel Y. KomurcuThe Relativistic Acceleration Relations Based on Force TransformationMd. Haider Ali Biswas and Timi Fahria Haque

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationEffect of Method and Rate of Fertilizer Application under Drip Irrigation on Yieldand Nutrient Uptake by TomatoShaymaa I. Shedeed * , Sahar M. Zaghloul, A. A. YassenPlant Nutrition Department, National Research Center Cairo, Egypt* E-mail: shaymaa_shedeed@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Drip irrigation is a highly efficient method of water application, which is also ideally suited forcontrolling the placement and supply rate of water-soluble fertilizers. Fertigation allows precise timingand uniform distribution of applied nutrients to meet the crop nutrient demand with ensures substantialsaving in fertilizer usage. Proper fertigation management requires the knowledge of fertigation rate andnutrient uptake by the crop to ensure maximum crop productivity. In this study the effect of method andrate of fertilizer application under drip irrigation system were evaluated on growth, yield and nutrientuptake by tomato grown on sandy soil. Drip irrigation recorded significantly higher total dry matterproduction (3.60 t/ha) and leaf area index (LAI) (3.15) over furrow irrigation (2.86 t/ha and 2.27),respectively. Higher level of fertigation was found significantly concerning growth parameter and totalfruit yields. Fertigation at 100% NPK recorded significantly higher total dry matter (4.85 t/ha) and LAI(3.65) respectively, over drip irrigation. The fruit yield of tomato was 28% higher in drip irrigation (43.87t/ha) over furrow irrigation (34.38 t/ha). Fertigation with 100% NPK water-soluble fertilizers increasedtomato fruit yield significantly (58.76 t/ha) over furrow irrigated control, drip irrigation, 50% fertigation(48.18 t/ha) and 75% NPK fertigation (54.16 t/ha). Similarly, fertigation treatments recorded significantlyhigher number of fruits and main fruit weight per plant compared to drip and furrow irrigation. Uptake ofNPK, recovery and fertilizer use efficiency was higher, on an average across fertigation rates over furrowand drip irrigation. Even distribution of nutrients in fertigation treatments improved fertilizer use efficiencyand resulted in lesser leaching of NO 3 - -N and K to deeper soil layers. Fertigation of P at any rate alsoresulted in more available P compared to soil applied treatment. The NO 3 - -N in lower soil layer wasmarginally affected in 75% and 100% NPK fertigation rates while NO 3 - -N was appreciably higher infurrow and drip irrigation treatments with soil applied fertilizers.Keywords: Tomato, Drip irrigation, Fertigation, Nutrient distribution, NPK uptake______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONDrip irrigation proved to efficiently provide irrigation water and nutrients to the roots of plants, whilemaintaining high yield production. Modern drip irrigation has arguably become the world's most valuedinnovation in agriculture since the invention of the impact sprinkler, which replaced flood irrigation. This isbecause high water application efficiencies are often possible with drip irrigation, since there is reducedsurface evaporation, less surface runoff, as well as minimal deep percolation. Moreover, a drip irrigationsystem can easily be used for fertigation, through which crop nutrient requirements can be met accurately(Or and Coelho, 1996). Because of the way the water is applied in a drip system, traditional surfaceapplications of timed-release fertilizer are sometimes ineffective, so drip systems often mix liquid fertilizerwith the irrigation water.Fertilizers should be applied in a form that becomes available in synchrony with crop demand formaximum utilization of nutrients from fertilizers (Boyhan et al., 2001). Tomato responds well to additional139

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009fertilizer applied and it is reported to be a heavy feeder of NPK (Hebbar, et al., 2004). Drip irrigation is aneffective way to supply water to tomato plants (Hochmuth, 1994) and usually fertigation improves fertilizeruse efficiency by the plants, affecting tomato yields (Locascio et al., 1989; Dangler and Locascio, 1990).Deficiency of N, P and K is a major production constraint in sandy soils, which have inherent constraintslike P fixation, rapid hydraulic conductivity, faster infiltration rate, leaching of basic cations and low CEC.Thus, the cultivated crop in this soil requires large quantity of nutrients to support its growth and yield.Considering the soil and crop constraints, fertilizers should be applied in synchrony with crop demand insmaller quantities during the growing season. In the present-day context, agriculture is challenged tomanage water and nutrients such that production benefits are maximized, while adverse environmentaleffects are minimized. The right combination of water and nutrients is a prerequisite for higher yields andgood quality production. The method of fertilizer application is also important in improving the useefficiency of nutrients. Fertigation enables adequate supplies of water and nutrients with precise timing anduniform distribution to meet the crop nutrient demand (Patel and Rajput, 2000; Narda and Chawla, 2002).Further, fertigation ensures substantial saving in fertilizer usage and reduces leaching losses (Mmolawa andOr, 2000). Similar to frequent application of water, optimum split applications of fertilizer improves qualityand quantity of crop yield than the conventional practice, and Hebbar et al. (2004) observed higher tomatoyield through fertigation than banded and furrow irrigation or banded and then trickle irrigated. Earlierstudies in tomato demonstrated a yield increase of 16% with drip irrigation over furrow method when 60%of the N and K fertilizers were injected than when all were applied pre-plant (Locascio et al., 1997) andimproved nutrient movement of soil P and K in root zone with drip fertigation (Hebbar, et al., 2004).Yield responses to the time of N and K application, either preplant only or preplant with fertigation, weredependent upon soil type. Less yield response resulted with fertigated N on heavier soils, compared to thelighter fine sands. Earlier research supported this finding, (Locascio et al., 1989) who found that yieldsaveraged over two years on fine sands resulted in increased late season extra large and large fruit yieldswith 60% drip applied N and K compared to yield response with all preplant applied N and K. Researchersnoted that drip-applied nutrients extended the season of large fruit harvest by maintaining plant nutrientconcentrations late in the season.However, proper fertigation management also requires the knowledge of soil fertility status and nutrientuptake by the crop. Monitoring soil and plant nutrient status is an essential safeguard to ensure maximumcrop productivity. Soil properties, crop characteristics and growing conditions affect the nutrient uptake(Mmolawa and Or, 2000). Few studies reported the effect of drip fertigation on crop yields and nutrientuptake patterns. Hence, it is relate to explore the impact of drip fertigation on soil fertility status andnutrient uptake by tomato to optimize fertilizer use. With this background, the present study was conductedto examine the effect of methods of fertilizer application involving the source and fertigation rate offertilizers on yield, quality and nutrient uptake by tomato plant in a sandy soil.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe study was conducted in the experimental site of National Research Center located at Nubaria regionwest of Nile Delta of Egypt during the late summer season (August - December) 2008. The weather waswarm and rainfall of 24 mm was received during respective cropping season which, considered ineffectiverainfall. The soil of the experimental site was sandy in texture, very low in organic carbon (0.12%) with analkaline pH (8.38). The available NPK were 18, 4 and 32 mg/kg soil, respectively before the initiation ofexperiment. The field capacity values for 0-30 and 30-60 cm depths were 12.5 and 13.8% respectively, andthe permanent wilting point for the corresponding depths were 5.4 and 6.2% respectively. Twenty-eightday-oldseedlings of tomato Castle rock were transplanted in double rows to the main field on 15 August2008, with the spacing of 150 cm between the rows and 40 cm between the plants in a row. The experimentwas laid out in a randomized complete block design having five treatments replicated three times in 4.5m ×12m plot and included: control, normal fertilizers applied to soil with furrow irrigation, normal fertilizersapplied to soil with drip irrigation, ½ soil - ½ fertigation, ¼ soil - ¾ fertigation and 100% NPK fertigationas water soluble fertilizers applied through drip fertigation. The level of fertilizer adopted in the study forall the treatments was 200 kg N/ha, 75 kg P/ha and 150 kg K/ha. The normal fertilizers used in the140

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009experiment were urea, single super phosphate and potassium sulphate, whereas, ammonium nitrates,phosphoric acid (85%) and potassium sulphate formed the source of water soluble fertilizers in fertigationtreatments. Soil applied treatments received entire P and K at transplanting and N in two equal splits that is,at transplanting and one month later after transplanting. The fertilizers were incorporated into the soil at adepth of 10 cm, while water soluble fertilizers fertilizer was injected in weekly intervals through the in-linedrippers through venture injector device. The actual crop water requirement was estimated by multiplyingreference evapotranspiration with crop coefficient (ETc = ETo × K C ) for different months based on cropgrowth stages using the model suggested by Penman-Monteith’s formula (Allen et al., 1998). Irrigation todrip treatments was given every alternate day, whereas for furrow treatment irrigation was given at 6 daysinterval cumulating the previous 6 days evaporation. Observations on growth, yield parameter and yieldwere recorded. To study moisture and nutrient movement in the soil, samples were collected at 0-25 and25-50-cm depth intervals in tomato root zone directly beneath water source using tube auger from theexperimental area. Soil moisture content was determined gravimetrically. Samples were air dried groundand sieved through a 2 mm screen and analyzed for available NO 3 - -N, P and K using standard proceduresdescried by (Jackson, 1973). Whole plant samples were collected and oven-dried (65 o C), ground to passthrough 0.5 mm sieve and analyzed for nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were determined according tothe method described by Cottenie (1980). Fertilizer-use efficiency (FUE) was worked out as a factor oftotal economic yield from all harvests by quantity of fertilizer applied and expressed as kg yield/kg NPK.Seasonal crop NPK uptake was derived from the whole-plant sample data obtained at 90 days aftertransplanting. Uptake of NPK was calculated as the product of the crop biomass (dry weight) and the NPKconcentrations in plant material from which the uptake per hectare was derived based on plant population.(FUE) was worked out as a factor of total economic yield from all harvests by quantity of fertilizer appliedand expressed as kg yield/kg NPK. Post harvest NPK recovery was calculated as: (Nt - No / F) × 100,where Nt equals the total aboveground crop nutrient uptake under treatment, No equals nutrient total uptakeunder control and F equals applied fertilizer. Data were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) usingthe general linear model (GLM) procedure of SAS software package (SAS Institute, 1996). Means werecompared by least significant difference test (LSD) at P=0.05.Growth ParametersRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONAll drip and fertigation treatments promoted tomato growth as indicated by superior plant height over soilapplied furrow-irrigated control (Table 1). Shoot length was significantly superior in all the drip andfertigation treatments over soil applied furrow-irrigated control. The total dry matter production at finalharvest was significantly higher in drip irrigation (3.60 t/ha) over furrow irrigation control (2.86 t/ha).Further, significantly higher dry weight was observed with fertigation treatments over drip irrigation.However, the total dry weight at final harvest did not differ significantly among 50% (4.17 t/ha) and 75%(4.48 t/ha) fertigation rates while the maximum dry matter production was obtained with 100% fertigation(4.86 t/ha). The variation in the dry matter production due to different treatments can be attributed to theleaf area production.Table 1. Growth parameters in tomato plants as affected by fertilizer method and fertigation rateTreatmentsPlant height(cm)LAI80 daysFruit dwt / haTotal dwt / haFurrow 54.4 2.27 1.72 2.86Drip irrigation 62.7 3.15 2.19 3.60½ soil ½ Fertigation 64.8 3.24 2.41 4.17¼ soil ¾ Fertigation 66.5 3.29 2.72 4.48100 % Fertigation 69.3 3.65 2.94 4.85LSD (P = 0.05) 4.75 0.25 0.28 0.36141

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Leaf area index (LAI) is the measure of source size and significantly higher leaf area index was recordedwith drip irrigation (3.15) over furrow irrigated control (2.27). In addition, 100% fertigation rate (3.65) wassignificantly higher over drip irrigation, 50% (3.24) and 75% (3.29) fertigation. Higher LAI with dripirrigation than furrow irrigation has been reported by Chawla and Narda (2000) and contributed for morechlorophyll concentration and better tomato yield (Hebbar, et al., 2004). Fertigation treatments may haveprovided NPK at consistent levels throughout the plant growth period. Generally young plants need loweramounts of nutrients because their absolute growth rates (mg dry matter produced per unit time) are low.Similarly, the injection of nutrients directly around plant-root system with drip fertigation became quiteuseful as there was no leaching loss and the optimum soil moisture which was prevailing resulted in abetter utilization of applied nutrients.Tomato YieldDrip irrigation with soil applied fertilizers (43.87 t/ha) recorded significantly higher yield over furrowirrigation with soil applied fertilizers (34.38 t/ha) which attained to 28% yield increase over control (Table2). This yield increase resulted from higher number of fruits per plant and fruit yield per plant in dripirrigation over furrow irrigation. The better performance under drip was attributed to maintenance offavorable soil water conditions in the root zone, which in turn helped the plants to utilize water andnutrients more efficiently from the wetted area (Ibrahim, 1992; Lara, et al., 1996; Singh et al., 2002). Thesuperior yield advantage displayed in drip irrigation over furrow irrigation is fairly expanded by theapplication of fertilizers through drip irrigation water; fertigation treatments resulted in higher fruit yieldand yield parameters over drip irrigation.Table 2. Yield and yield components of tomato as affected by fertilizer method and fertigation rateTreatmentsNumber of fruitsper plantMean fruitweight (g)Fruit yield(kg / plant)Total fruit yield(t / ha)Furrow 12.4 86 1.07 34.38Drip irrigation 14.5 103 1.37 43.87½ soil ½ Fertigation 15.3 109 1.51 48.18¼ soil ¾ Fertigation 15.6 113 1.69 54.16100 % Fertigation 16.8 117 1.84 58.76LSD (P = 0.05) 1.6 9 0.14 4.15Total fruit yield was significantly higher in 75 and 100% NPK fertigation (54.16 and 58.76 t/ha),respectively than 50% fertigation rate, which accounted to 12% and 22% yield increase, respectively.However, the soil of the experimental site was very low in available NPK besides; the high relative yieldpotential of tomato variety (Castel rock) was expected to respond well at higher fertigation rate. Because ofthese reasons, the yield was significantly lower with 50% and 75% fertigation than 100% fertigation rate.Increase in fruit yield per plant could be related to significantly higher number of fruits per plant in dripirrigation (14.5) over furrow irrigation (12.4) and in 100% NPK fertigation (16.8) over drip irrigation.Mean fruit weight and fruit yield per plant was also significantly higher in 100% fertigation rate (117 g and1.84 kg/plant) compared to control (86 g and 1.07 kg/plant) and drip irrigation (103 g and 1.37 kg/plant),respectively. Fertigation rate with 100% NPK water soluble fertilizers resulted also in increased late seasonextra large and large fruit yields compared to yield response with soil applied NPK. Drip applied nutrientsextended the season of large fruit harvest by maintaining plant nutrient concentrations late in the season.Similar results have been obtained by Aramini et al., (1995) who reported that when percentages offertigated N and K were increased above 75%, yields increased in sandy loam soil.The normal fertilizer however, generally tends to cause uneven distribution of fertilizers in the root zone.Alternatively, all of the soluble N, P and K fertilizer can be applied via fertigation through drip system, toobtain proper distribution in soil. This is the evidence for the longer activity in fertigation where nutrientswere applied through 12 split doses to match the nutrients uptake by the crop. This enhanced the currentphotosynthesis for developing fruit leading to the development of fruit to marketable size and producing142

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009more number of fruits per plant and fruit weight in fertigation treatments compared to soil applicationtreatments. Similar results of improved yield and quality of tomato have been reported by Lara, et al.,(1996) and Locascio, et al., 1997).Uptake of NPK and RecoveryTotal uptake and recovery of NPK by tomato plants was significantly affected by both fertilizer method andrates of fertigation (Table 3). Drip irrigation recorded greater NPK uptake and recovery over furrowirrigation in control treatment. This result is normal and reflects that less soil nutrients and in turn recoveryis taken up under furrow irrigation in sandy soil. Further, frequent supply of nutrients with irrigation waterin fertigation treatments significantly increased NPK uptake and recovery over drip irrigation. The appliedNPK in soluble form in fertigation treatments may have been distributed better through root zone of tomatothan soil applied treatments, and producing more available amounts for plant uptake. Uptake of NPK andrecovery was highest under 100% fertigation rate over the all other fertigation rates.The higher uptake was the result of significantly higher dry matter production at 90 days after transplanting.In addition, it seems that the availability of nutrients evenly with frequent fertigation was the responsiblefor the improvement of nutrient uptake and recovery in the root zone coupled with reduced loss of nutrientsprimarily because of less leaching under higher fertigation rates. Similar results of increased uptake withfertigation have been reported earlier by Vasane et al. (1996).Table 3. Nutrients uptake, recovery and fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) in tomato as affected by fertilizermethod and fertigation rateTreatments Uptake - kg / ha Recovery (%) FUEkg yield/kg NPKN P K N P KFurrow 76 7 46 38 9 31 81Drip irrigation 103 11 65 52 15 44 103½ soil ½ Fertigation 116 13 76 58 17 51 114¼ soil ¾ Fertigation 134 15 85 67 20 57 127100 % Fertigation 148 18 97 74 24 65 138Similarly, fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) was significantly superior in all the drip irrigation treatmentswhere either soil applied fertilizer or fertigation was over furrow irrigation treatment (81 kg yield/kg NPK).This was due to better availability of moisture and nutrients throughout the growth stages in drip andfertigation system leading to better uptake of nutrients and production of tomato fruits. FUE wassignificantly higher in 100% fertigation (138) compared to drip irrigation (103), 50% fertigation (114) and75% NPK fertigation (127 kg yield/kg NPK).Water Distribution in SoilThe percentage of water available for tomato uptake before irrigation ranged from 46% in upper 0-15 cmlayer to 57% in 45-60 cm depth in furrow irrigation, whereas for drip irrigation treatments, thecorresponding values were 93% and 74% (Table 4). In drip irrigation, however, the depletion of availablesoil moisture from same soil depth was quite low as very frequent applications of irrigation water (2-dayinterval) created an adequate environment in soil plant system and helped for proper growth of the plantscompared to (6-day interval) in furrow irrigation.Further, the surface wetted area under drip line is almost covered by the vegetative growth of the cropwhere evaporation components can be relatively retarded. The water quantity used was not equal for all thetreatments; furrow irrigation required (590 mm) while the corresponding values for drip irrigationtreatments required (450 mm) for the entire season. This shows the higher efficiency of drip irrigationsystem in saving water compared to furrow irrigation. This shows the more favorable moisture regime indrip irrigation compared to furrow irrigation; the soil moisture during the season was well distributed and143

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009plants did not suffer from moisture stress for a longer period. As a result, drip irrigation recordedsignificantly higher water use efficiency (WUE), (95 kg yield/mm) over furrow irrigation, (58 kgyield/mm), which accented to 64% efficiency increase. Other researchers have also reported higher yieldsand water use efficiency for tomato and other crops under drip irrigation (Rhoads, et al., 1996;Singandhupe, et al., 2003).Table 4. Moisture content (%) in different soil layers at the end of a drying cycle and water use efficiency(WUE) in furrow and drip irrigationTreatments Soil depth - cm WUE0 - 15 15 - 30 30 -45 45 - 60 Kg yield/mmFurrow (cont.) 7.8 (46) 8.2 (52) 8.6 (59) 9.6 (57) 58Drip irrigation 10.4 (93) 9.5 (76) 9.3 (72) 10.8 (74) 95Figures in parenthesis are the percentage of available soil moisture.Nutrient Movement in SoilFertigation maintained higher concentration of NO 3 - -N around roots of tomato at a depth of 0-25 cm soillayer particularly with 75% (240 mg/kg soil) and 100% fertigation rates (280 mg/kg soil), compared toentirely soil applied treatments in furrow (54 mg/kg soil) and drip irrigation (75 mg/kg soil), where most ofNO 3 - -N moved to deeper soil layer (25-50 cm) (Fig. 1). On the other hand, higher NO 3 - -N was recorded atthe end of irrigation at 25-50 cm soil layer, in drip and furrow irrigation, which indicates a potentialleaching risk.4000-25 25-50 cm deptha4000-25 25-50 cm depthbE x tr. N O 3 - -N m g/k g s oil300200100E x t r. N O 3 - -N m g / k g s o il3002001000Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPK0Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPKFig. 1. Concentration of nitrate in soil as affected by method of fertilizer application and fertigation rate atend of two successive fertigation (a) and irrigation cycles (b).Santos, et al, (1997) pointed out that NO 3 - -N fate and transport is strongly dependent on the soil watercontent and its movement. Water mass flow is the major factor responsible for NO 3 - -N movement in thesoil and it can diffuse fast enough with adjacent moving water to deeper soil layers. These results suggestedthat the fertigation process might improve distribution of NO 3 - -N in the root zone as also reported by Li, etal., (2003; 2004) who found that NO 3 - -N ion is very mobile in the soil and fertigation treatments maintainedhigh concentration of NO 3 - -N at shallow depth.The mobility of phosphate ion in soils is of primary importance in plant nutrition. Available P content atsurface soil layer (0-25 cm) was at a higher level (19-28 mg/kg soil) except in soil-applied treatments (8-10mg/kg soil) (Fig. 2). The accumulation of available P at 25-50 cm was tended to be higher in fertigationtreatments (8-15 mg kg/soil) because of frequent and complete solubility of phosphoric acid compared tosoil application in furrow and drip irrigation (3 mg/kg soil). The level of available P did not significantlychanged at the end of the next irrigation cycle in soil applied treatments in furrow or drip irrigation.144

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Phosphate transport in soil applied treatments was too slow for the average rate of root growth into the soil,since P fertilizers are prone to fixation at the point of application. Most of the applied P may be turned tonon-soluble form in a short time after its application, and the observed concentrations build up in the uppersoil layer could affect root growth and create unfavorable conditions for P uptake. This suggests higherresponse to P fertigation compared to soil application in traditional method. Research has shown that themobility of P can be increased when they are applied via fertigation (Vasane, et al., 1996; Badr and Shafei,2002).400-25 25-50 cm deptha400-25 25-50 cm depthba v ia la b le P m g / k g s o il302010a v ia la b le P m g /k g s o il3020100Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPK0Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPKFig. 2. Concentration of P in soil as affected by method of fertilizer application and fertigation rate at endof two successive fertigation (a) and irrigation cycles (b)Accumulation of K concentration was considerable; in soil applied treatments, the availability of K waslower at 0-25-cm depth interval and the reverse was true at 25-50 cm depth interval where entire Kfertilizer was two times soil applied, indicating potential leaching risk (Fig. 3). In furrow treatment K waslower at (25-50 cm) (95 mg/kg soil) and drip irrigation (112 mg/kg soil). The leaching aspect under twotimessoil application followed by irrigation can be related to the study of Singh, et al., (2002). On the otherhand, fertigation with water soluble fertilizers registered higher available K concentration (194-272 kg/soil)than furrow or drip irrigation, even at the end of irrigation cycle (172-247 mg kg/soil).4000-25 25-50 cm deptha4000-25 25-50 cm depthbA v a ila b le K m g / k g s o il300200100A v a ila b le K m g / k g s o il3002001000Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPK0Furrow Drip Irrig. 50% NPK 75% NPK 100% NPKFig. 3. Concentration of K in soil as affected by method of fertilizer application and fertigation rate at endof two successive fertigation (a) and irrigation cycles (b)In this sandy soil with low CEC and K fixation, potassium ions move along with water and thus, it will beprudent to apply K fertilizers through drip irrigation in more splits to achieve maximum nutrient useefficiency (Hanson, et al., 2006; Rivera et al., 2006). This suggests that split application of K fertilizersthrough drip would be a better option for tomato than soil application. It can be observed that the dripfertigation has the potential to minimize leaching loss and to improve the available K status in the root zone145

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009for efficient use by the crop. However, drip fertigation helped in alleviating the problem of K deficiency inthis sandy soil. Finally, frequent supplementation of nutrients with irrigation water increased theavailability of N, P and K in the root zone and which in turn influenced the yield and quality of tomato.REFERENCESAllen, R.G., Pereira, L.S., Raes, D. and Smith, M., (1998). Crop evapotranspiration. Guidelines forcomputing crop water requirements. FAO Irrigation and Drainage. Paper No. 56, FAO, Rome, Italy, p.300.Aramini, G., Catania, F., Colloca, L., Oppedisano, R. and Paone, R. (1995). Fertilizer trial on tomatoes forfresh consumption. Colture-Protette 24 (5), 83–86.Badr, M.A. and Shafei, A.M. (2002). Effect of acidified water on nutrients availability and plant growth insandy soil under drip irrigation system. Egypt. J. Appl. Sci., 17 (11): 718-734.Boyhan, G., Granberry, Darbie and Kelley, Terry (2001). Onion production guide, Bulletin 1198. Collegeof Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, University of Georgia, p. 56.Chawla, J.K. and Narda, N.K. (2000). Growth parameters of trickle fertigated potato. Indian J. Agric. Sci.70 (11): 747-752.Cottenie, A. 1980. Soil and plant testing as a basis of fertilizer recommendation. F.A.O. Soil Bull., 3812.Dangler, J.M., and Locascio, S. (1990). Yield of trickle-irrigated tomatoes as affected by time of N and Kapplication. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 115: 585-589.Hanson, B.R., Simunek, J. and Hopmans, J.W. (2006). Evaluation of urea–ammonium–nitrate fertigationwith drip irrigation using numerical modeling. Agricultural Water Management, 86: 102-113.Hebbar, S.S., Ramachandrappa, B.K., Nanjappa, H.V. and Prabhakar, M. (2004). Studies on NPK dripfertigation in field grown tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.). Europ. J. Agronomy, 21: 117-127.Hochmuth, G. J. (1994). Plant petiole sap-testing guide for vegetable crops. Fla. Coop. Ext. Serv. Circ.1144.Ibrahim, A. (1992). Fertilization and irrigation management for tomato production under arid conditions.Egyptian J. Soil Sci. 32 (1), 81–96.Jackson, M.L. (1973). Soil chemical analysis. Prentice-Hall India Privet Limited New Delhi.Lara, D., Adjanohoun, A. and Ruiz, J. (1996). Response of tomatoes sown in the non-optimal season tofertigation on a compacted red ferralitic soil. Cultivar Tropicales 17 (1): 8-9.Li, J, Zhang, J. and Ren, L. (2003). Water and nitrogen distribution as affected by fertigation of ammoniumnitrate from a point source. Irrig. Sci., 22: 19-30.Li, J., Zhang, J. and Rao, M. (2004). Wetting patterns and nitrogen distributions as affected by fertigationstrategies from a surface point source. Agricultural Water Management, 67: 89-104Locascio, S. J., G. Hochmuth, Rhoads, F.M., Olson, S.M., Smajstrla, A.G. and Hanlon, E.A. (1997).Nitrogen and potassium application scheduling effects on drip-irrigated tomato yield and leaf tissueanalysis. Hortscience. 32: 230-235.Locascio, S.J., Olson, S.M. and Rhoads, F.M. (1989). Water quantity and time of N and K application fortrickle-irrigated tomatoes. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci., 114: 265-268.Mmolawa, K. and Or, D. (2000). Water and solute dynamics under a drip-irrigated crop: experiments andanalytical model. Trans. ASAE 43 (6): 1597-1608.Narda, N.K. and Chawla, J.K. (2002). A simple nitrate sub-model for trickle fertigated potatoes. Irrig.Drain. 51: 361-371.Or, D. and Coelho, F.E. (1996). Soil water dynamics under drip irrigation: transient flow and uptakemodels. Trans. ASAE 39 (6): 2017-2025.Patel, N. and Rajput, T.B.S. (2000). Effect of fertigation on growth and yield of onion. In: Micro Irrigation,CBIP publication no. 282: 451-454.Rhoads, F.M., Olson, S.M., Hochmuth, G.J. and Hanlon, E.A. (1996). Yield and petiole-sap nitrate levelsof tomato with N rates applied preplant or fertigated. Soil Crop Sci. Soc. Fla. Proc. 55:9-12.Rivera, R.N., Duarte, S.N., DE Miranda, J.H. and Botrel, T.A. (2006). Potassium modeling dynamics in thesoil under drip irrigation: model validation. Eng. Agríc., Jaboticabal, 26 (2): 388-394.Santos, D.V., Sousa, P.L. and Smith, R.E. (1997). Model simulation of water and nitrate movement in alevel-basin under fertigation treatments. Agricultural Water Manage, 32: 293-306.146

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009SAS Institute, (1996). SAS/STAT User’s Guide, Version 6, 12 th ed. SAS Institute, Inc. Cary, NorthCarolina. 846 pp.Singandhupe, R.B., Rao, G.G., Patil, N.G. and Brahmanand, P.S. (2003). Fertigation studies and irrigationscheduling in drip irrigation system in tomato crop (Lycopersicon esculentum L.) Europ. J. Agron., 19:327-340.Singh, A.K, Chakraborty, D., Mishra, B. and Singh, D.K. (2002). Nitrogen and potassium dynamics infertigation system. 17th WCSS, 14-21 August 2002, Thailand.Vasane, S.R., Bhoi, P.G., Patil, A.S. and Tumbare, A.D. (1996). Effect of liquid fertilizer through dripirrigation on yield and NPK uptake of tomato. J. Maharashtra Agric. Univ. 21 (3): 488-489.147

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationDeterministic Approach to Path Optimization ProblemAykut Kentli*, Ali Fuat AlkayaMarmara University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul, Turkey*E-mail: akentli@eng.marmara.edu.tr______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: By the automation of manufacturing, production of a good becomes a bunch of steps andsequences like; bolt sequencing, cutting, drilling and welding process steps. Most of these sequencing typeengineering problems can be modeled as traveling salesman problems (TSP), which is widely known inoperation research area. Even though much kind of methods and algorithms are developed for TSP, a fewof them are applied to engineering problems. This study aims to use a deterministic approach (record-torecordtravel algorithm) to solve TSP modeled engineering problems. Bolt sequencing and drilling pathproblems are chosen from literature as test problems. Results show performance of the proposed algorithmKeywords: Path Optimization, TSP, Deterministic Approach, Record-to-Record Travel______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONEngineering problems can be modeled using computer simulation. Determining optimal solutions usingsuch models can be very difficult, due to the large number of process sequences and associated parametersettings that exist. This has forced researchers to develop heuristic strategies to address such optimizationproblems (bolt assembly sequencing, drilling sequences).Bolt assembly sequencing is one of the earliest problems considered as TSP problem in manufacturingengineering. Assembly planning requires some knowledge and reasoning method to generate assemblysequences. The heuristics used typically depend upon the assembly and the type of operation that isinvolved. Huang et.al. (1997) has used GA to solve two sample bolt assembly problems. Sinanoglu et.al.(2005) has introduced a new strategy using NN. Ben-Arieh and Kramer (1994) developed a two-stagemethodology to consistently generate all feasible assembly sequences in consideration of the variouscombinations of subassembly operations.Drilling is the new engineering problem that researchers have formulated as TSP on mainly this decade.Due to the point-to-point tool movement in drilling, a considerable amount of the processing time is spenton moving the table from one location to another. So, drilling path optimization can save machining time.Despite the importance of drilling path optimization, few researchers worked on this problem in theliterature. First, Kolahan and Liang (1996) have formulated the problem as TSP and worked on applyingTabu search algorithm to solve the problem and then, they extended their research to a more complex case(Parker et.al., 2000). El-Midany et.al. (2007) have considered the application to EDM drilling. Ghaiebi andSolimanpur (2007) have used ant colony algorithm. Krishnaiyer and Cheraghi (2006) used same algorithmand they proposed a web base system. Zhu (2006) has used particle swarm algorithm and then, Zhu andZhang (2007) has extended the research and applied to new sample problems. Onwubolu and Clerc (2004)have proposed a usage of Particle Swarm algorithm. Sigl and Mayer (2005) has considered CNC drilling149

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009route and used Evolutionary algorithm with 2-Opt heuristic. Qudeiri et.al. (2007) have used GA to generatenew optimum NC code.This study introduces new applications of a deterministic approach for different process design optimizationproblems, called record-to-record travel with local exchange moves (RRTLEM) algorithm (Li et.al., 2007).Computational results are reported. RRTLEM algorithm provide a deterministic approach to such problems(bolt assembly sequencing, drilling sequences). Hereafter the paper is organized as follows. Section 2describes the problems of interest. Section 3 presents the used methodology. Section 4 provides the results.Section 5 includes conclusions and scope for future works.METHODOLOGYRRTLEM is a local search heuristic. In TSP variants, for a local search a general method is to applyexchanges of edges or nodes (Croes (1958), Waters (1987)). For exchanging two nodes, we considered twoalternatives; we can either insert a node into a different place on the route, called 1-0 Exchange move, or wecan exchange two nodes, called 1-1 Exchange. Exchanging two edges is called 2-Opt move.RRTLEM is a hybrid of record-to-record travel (RRT) and local search moves. RRT is a deterministicvariant of Simulated Annealing (SA), developed by Dueck (1993) and it is shown that the quality of thecomputational results obtained so far by RRT is better than SA (Figure 1). RRT starts by a generated initialsolution, s. Record is defined as the cost of best solution (bs) observed so far. Deviation is defined as apredefined percentage of Record. It is deterministic because, a neighbor solution s’ replaces currentsolution only if its cost is less than Record+Deviation.Figure 1. Record-to-record Travel AlgorithmThe core of RRTLEM consists of simple iterative statements (Figure 2). How RRT concept is embedded inlocal search moves is given in Figures 3-5 in detail.150

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Figure 2. RRT with Local Exchange Moves (RRTLEM)Figure 3. 1-0 Exchange Move with RRTFigure 4. 1-1 Exchange Move with RRTIn 1-0 Exchange move with RRT, 1-1 Exchange move with RRT and 2-Opt Exchange move with RRT asthe initial solution, we use the solution given Convex-Hull constructive heuristic and Or-Opt improvementheuristic (Or (1976), Stewart (1977)). During the search process, current solution (cs) is the route fromwhich new solutions (s’) are obtained and best solution (bs) is the route whose cost is the best among thesolutions created. Cost of solution s, f(s), denotes the total route cost using the sequence stored in s. When151

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009uphill moves are allowed for a local search move, cs can be assigned a new solution whose cost is worsethan cost of cs but better than cost of bs plus dev. dev is a predefined percentage (rate) of the cost of bs, andwhenever a new bs is found, dev is also updated. Uphill moves create the opportunity for cs to escape fromtrapping local minima. After executing iterative statements, starting from the bs, we apply each local searchmove once more. The idea is inspired from the study (Li et.al., 2007), but important modifications are addedthat will improve the performance. Note that in our algorithm, there are two parameters that must be finetuned in order to obtain best performance. These are the number of iterations, noi, and percentage value,rate, that is used to calculate the deviation.Figure 5. 2-opt Move with RRTNeighbor list (NL) is an important topic that should be explained. During local searches, it is more rationalto try exchanges between nodes or edges that are away from each other at most a reasonable amount ofdistance. For example, for exchanging two nodes, it is not necessary to exchange the node at the most leftand the node at the most right. To avoid from these unprofitable moves, we build neighbor lists for eachnode.CASE STUDIESThis section explains the test problems. These problems are selected among literature studies. Thecomplexity of the problem is considered as a criterion in choosing problems. Each following case hasdifferent size in path length and number of nodes. Chosen problems are 10 bolt assembly problem, 14 holedrilling problem and 442 point PCB drilling problem.10 Bolt AssemblyThis problem is chosen as a benchmark problem because Huang et.al. (1997) have also solved this problemby using GA. In the case, a metal plate with have 10 bolts at locations shown in Figure 6 is considered.Bolts are to be inserted into the pre-drilled holes. The objective is to minimize the movement while passingover and inserting a bolt into each hole.152

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Figure 6. Metal plate with ten holes.14 hole drillingThis case is also chosen as a test case in literature (Zhu (2006), Zhu and Zhang (2007)). Figure 7 shows thepart and hole locations. Locations of 14 holes are scattered according to previous case.18.0010.00 80.0016.5014.2521431327.4111.007R15.008435°35°70.0050.0018.006911.001232.32111R1.50512.6616.501010.00 80.00100.00Figure 7. 14 hole-part drawingPCB442PCB drilling is one of the mostly used benchmark problems in TSP. They could be found in TSP Library(TSPLIB, 2009). There are over a hundred benchmark data with their best solutions obtained up to now.PCB442 is chosen in this study as a benchmark problem (Figure 8).153

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Figure 8. A solution of PCB442 (Schneider et.al., 1996)RESULTSAs we pointed out in the previous sections, the heuristic is tested on three different type engineeringproblems. In this section, we summarize the results and compare our findings with studies in literature.10 Bolt AssemblyCost of obtained bolt assembly path (shown in Figure 9) is 93.25. On the other hand, Arora et.al has found74.6274. It should be mentioned that assembly path is accepted open in their setup. Thus, distance betweennode 1 and 2 is omitted. But, robot arm or worker hand should come back to first point to assemble newproduct. So, this distance should be added to total cost. Total cost becomes 94.6274.14 hole drillingFigure 9. Solution for bolt assemblyDrilling sequence for the work-piece (shown in Figure 10) is obtained as 290.40. This path cost is smallerthan many results in literature (shown in Table 1).154

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Figure 10. Solution for hole drilling.Table 1. Comparison of our findings with literature and optimum.PROBLEMCOSTOur Approach Literature Best FoundBolt 93.25 94.6274 (Huang et.al., 1997) 93.25Drilling 290.40 291 (Zhu (2006), Zhu and Zhang (2007) 280PCB442 52327.81 55609.48 (Murakoshi and Sato, 2007) 50778PCB442Cost of drilling path for PCB442 is obtained as 52327.81 (Figure 11). There are a lot of studies on thisproblem, so exact optimum path (cost is 50778) is already obtained. But our, approach gives an approximatesolution in an acceptable execution time.Figure 11. Solution for PCB442155

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009As a result, deterministic approaches give an acceptable solution to engineering problems (as shown inTable 1), especially for smaller scale problems. It could be easily concluded that using artificial intelligenceis not unique solution for every case. Our approach is giving results with 3% percent deviation from exactoptimum in worst cases and most of time; it is giving better results than the other approaches.CONCLUSIONThis study has showed that deterministic approaches are giving accurate solutions as much as evolutionaryalgorithms and hybrid approaches for sequence type engineering problems. Furthermore, algorithm does notneed to test for different times to validate its efficiency due they always find the same solution. It isbelieved that usefulness of the deterministic approach will be easily understood if application to differentkind problems is accomplished. It is also recommended as a further study to work on the adjustment of theRRTLEM parameters to get much more accurate results for large scale problems.REFERENCESBen-Arieh D. and Kramer B. (1994). Computer-aided process planning for assembly: generation ofassembly operations sequence. International Journal of Production Research, 32 (3), 643-656.Croes G. (1958). A Method for Solving Traveling-Salesman Problems. Operations Research, 6, 791-812.Dueck G. (1993). New optimization heuristics: the great deluge algorithm and the record-to-record travel.Journal of Computational Physics, 104, 86-92.EL-Midany T.T., Kohail A.M., Tawfik H. (2007). A Proposed Algorithm for Optimizing the Toolpoint Pathof the Small-Hole EDM-Drilling. Proceedings of Geometric Modeling and Imaging, 25-32.Ghaiebi H. and Solimanpur M. (2007). An ant algorithm for optimization of hole-making operations.Computers and Industrial Engineering, 52 (2), 308-319.Huang M., Hsieh C., Arora J.S. (1997). A genetic algorithm for sequencing type problems in engineeringdesign. International Journal for Numerical Methods in Engineering, 40, 3105-3115.Kolahan F. and Liang M. (1996). A tabu search approach to optimization of drilling operations. Computersand IndustrialEngineering, 31 (1-2), 371-374.Krishnaiyer K. and Cheraghi S.H. (2006). Ant algorithms: web-based implementation and applications tomanufacturing system problems. International Journal of Computer Integrated Manufacturing, 19 (3),264 – 277.Li F., Golden B., Wasil E. (2007). A record-to-record travel algorithm for solving the heterogeneous fleetvehicle routing problem. Computers and Operation Research, 34 (9), 2734-2742.Murakoshi K. and Sato Y. (2007). Reducing topological defects in self-organizing maps using multiplescale neighbourhood functions. Biosystems, 90 (1), 101-104.Onwubolu G.C. and Clerc M. (2004). Optimal path for automated drilling operations by a new heuristicapproach using particle swarm optimization. International Journal of Production Research, 42 (3),473-491.Or I. (1976). Travelling Salesman Type Combinatorial Problems and Their Relation to the Logistics ofBlood Banking. Thesis (PhD). Northwestern University.Parker S., Kolahan F., Liang M. (2000). Optimization of hole-making operations: a tabu-search approach.International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 40 (12), 1735-1753.Qudeiri J.A., Yamamoto H., Ramli R. (2007). Optimization of operation sequence in CNC machine toolsusing genetic algorithm. Journal of Advanced Mechanical Design, Systems, and Manufacturing, 1 (2),272–282.Schneider J., Froschhammer C., Morgenstern I., Husslein T., Singer J.M. (1996). Searching for backbones -an efficient parallel algorithm for the traveling salesman problem. Computer Physics Communications,96 (2), 173-188.Sigl S. and Mayer H.A. (2005). Hybrid Evolutionary Approaches to CNC Drill Route Optimization.Proceedings of Computational Intelligence for Modeling, Control and Automation, 1, 905-910.Sinanoglu C. and Börklü H.R. (2005). An assembly sequence-planning system for mechanical parts usingneural network. Assembly Automation, 25, 38-52.Stewart W.R. (1977). A computationally efficient heuristic for the travelling salesman problem.Proceedings of the 13 th Annual Meeting of Southeastern TIMS, Myrtle Beach, SC, USA, 75–83.156

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009TSPLIB, Accessed 13 March 2009: http://www.iwr.uni-heidelberg.de/groups/comopt/ software/TSPLIB95/.Waters C.D.J. (1987). A Solution Procedure for the Vehicle-Scheduling Problem Based on Iterative RouteImprovement. The Journal of the Operational Research Society, 38 (9), 833-839.Zhu G.-Y. (2006). Drilling Path Optimization Based on Swarm Intelligent Algorithm. Proceedings of IEEEInternational Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics, 193-196.Zhu G.-Y. and Zhang W.-B. (2007). Drilling path optimization by the particle swarm optimizationalgorithm with global convergence characteristics. International Journal of Production Research, 46(8), 2299-2311.157

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationSome studies on the effect of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on the growth andsome chemical composition of Hibiscus rosa sineses L. at NubariaEl-Quesni Fatma E.M., Abd El-Aziz, Nahed, G. and Magda M. KandilDept. of Ornamental Plants and Woody trees, National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt___________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: A pot experiment was carried out during 2007 and 2008 seasons at Research andProduction Station of National Research Centre ,Nubaria, Cairo, Egypt. The aim of this work to studythe effect of foliar spray of ascorbic acid (0, 50 and 100 ppm) and α – tocopherol (0, 50 and 100 ppm)and their interaction on vegetative growth and some chemical composition of Hibiscus rosa sineses L.plant. Most criteria on vegetative growth expressed as plant height, number of branches andleaves/plant, stem diameter, leaf area, fresh and dry weight of plant organs were significantly affectedby application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol separately or collectively promoted all the aforementioned characters in this study. Chemical constituents i.e. chl (a), chl (b), carotenoids, solublesugars, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents were increased compared with untreated plants.The highest recorded data were obtained in plants treated with ascorbic acid 100 ppm + α –tocopherol 100 ppm and ascorbic acid 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm. Foliar application of thetwo factors under study separately or collectively on Hibiscus rosa sineses L. plant significantlyincreased number of flowers/plant, as well as fresh and dry weights of flowers as compared withcontrol plants.Keywords: Hibiscus rosa sineses L., ascorbic acid (Asc.), α – tocopherol (α – Toco.)___________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONHibiscus rosa sineses is a large genus of about 200 to 220 species of flowering plants in the familyMalvaceae. The genus includes both annual and perennial herbaceous plants and woody shrubs andsmall trees. Hibiscus shrubs is a native of China and Indian, and other areas with similar climate. It hasbeen cultivated as an ornamental trees, many species are grown for their showy flowers or used aslandscape shrubs. White Hibiscus is considered to have medicinal uses i.e. antispasmodic, a-perienty,emollient, refrigerant, astringent, soothes irritated tissues and relaxes spasms, .etc, the flowers are usedin the treatment of carbunches, mumps, fever and sores (Chopra, 1986).An evergreen shrubs growing to 2.5 m, it is in leaf all the year, the leaves are alternate, simple ovate tolancealates, often with toothed margin, the flowers are large , trumpet shaped with five or more petal,ranging from white to pink, red, purple or yellow and from 4 to 15 cm broad. The bark of Hibiscuscontains strong fibers. They can be obtained by letting the stripped bark sit in the sea in order to let theorganic material, the native of southern India uses the red Hibiscus for hair care purposes. The extractof the red flowers and leaves can be used on hair to tackle her fall. A simple application involvessoaking the leaves and flowers in water and using a wet grinder to make a thick paste, and used as anatural shampoo, Chittendon (1992).Vitamins could be considered a bio-regulator compounds which relatively in low concentrationsexerted a profound influences upon plant growth regulating factors that influence many physiologicalprocesses, such as synthesis of enzymes, act as co-enzymes (Hathout, 1995) and added to protect plantfrom harmful effects of higher temperature and positively increase their metabolic processes. Youssefand Talaat (2003) found that growth and number of flowers of rosemary plants increased by applicationof Asc.acid. Blokhina et al (2003) stated that ascorbic acid is the most abundant antioxidant whichprotect cell, ascorbic acid is currently considered to be a regulator on plant growth and development159

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009owing to their effects on cell division and differentiation and added that ascorbic acid is involved in awide range of important function as antioxidant defense, photo-protection and regulation ofphotosynthesis processes and growth. Ascorbic acid increased carbohydrates and total nitrogen percent,Tarraf, et al (1999). Talaat (2003) on sweet pepper detected that foliar application of ascorbic acidincreased (N, P, and K) content of leaves.Tocopherols are a group of compounds synthesized only by photosynthetic organisms. The bestcharacterized and probably most important function of tocopherols is to act as recyclable chain reactionterminators of polyunsaturated fatty acid, free radicals generated by lipids oxidation. In plants,tocopherols are believed to protect chloroplast membranes from photooxidation and help to provide anoptimal environment for the photosynthetic machinery (Munne-Bosch and Algere, 2002), and addedthat tocopherols accumulations also occurs is response to variety of a biotic stresses including highlight, drought, salt and cold and may provide on additional line of protection from oxidative damage.El-Bassiouny et al (2005) reported that foliar spray with α – tocopherol on faba bean plants inducedincrements in growth parameters , yield components, chlorophyll a, b and carotenoids content. The aimof the present work is to enhancing vegetative growth and flowering of Hibiscus rose sinensis L. byfoliar application with ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol, beside their effects on chemical constituents atNubaria.MATERIALS AND METHODSThe present investigation was carried out at Nubaria National Research Centre (Research andProduction Station, Nubaria), Cairo, Egypt during two successive seasons of 2007 and 2008. Itintended to find out the individual and combined effects of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α –tocopherol on growth and chemical composition of Hibiscus rosa sinensis L. On second week ofFebruary 2007 and 2008 seasons, vegetative uniform cuttings (20-25 cm length) were taken fromHibiscus rosa sinensis plants, cuttings were treated for one minute with 1000 mg/litre indole butric acidbefore planting to enhance rooting. Rooted cuttings were planted in black plastic pots 10 cm indiameter (one plant/pot) and grown in shaded greenhouse, media formulated by combination of peatmoss and sandy soil (1:1, v/v) with pH 5.5 to 6.5 and humidity about 60 - 80 %. The seedlings weretransplanted in the second week of April 2007 and 2008 seasons, in plastic pots 30 cm in diameterfilled with 10 kg of peatmoss and sandy soil (1:1, v/v). each pot was fertilized twice with 1.5 gmnitrogen as ammonium nitrate (33.5 %N) and 1.0 gm potassium sulphate (48.5 % K 2 O). the fertilizerwere applied at 30 and 60 days after transplanting. Phosphorus as calcium superphosphate (15.5 %P 2 O 5 ) was mixed with media before transplanting at a rate of 3.0 gm/pot. Thirty days later, transplantswere sprayed with different concentrations of ascorbic acid (0, 50 and 100 ppm) and α – tocopherol (0,50 and 100 ppm), interaction treatments of the different concentrations of the two factors had been alsocarried out, in addition to the untreated plants (control), which were sprayed with tap water. Foliarapplications of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol were carried out two times of 30 days intervals,starting at mid May at both seasons.The experiments were sit in a completely randomized design (CRD) with three replicates, two factors;ascorbic acid (0, 50 and 100 ppm) and α – tocopherol (0, 50 and 100 ppm) concentrations and theirinteractions. Other agricultural processes were performed according to normal practices. The followingdata were recorded on 15 November 2007 and 2008 seasons, plant height cm, number of branches,leaves and flower/plant, stem diameter mm, leaf area cm 2 , fresh and dry weights gm/plant of plantorgans. Photosynthetic pigments; including chlorophyll (a; b) and carotenoids (at the vegetative andflowering stages) were determined exactly, 0.1 gm of fresh leaves of Hibiscus rosa sinensis plant usingthe spectrophotometric method developed by Metzzner et al (1965), soluble sugars content weredetermined in the methanolic exctract by using the phenol-sulphoric method according to Dubois et al(1966). Nitrogen was determined by Chapman and Pratt (1961), while phosphorus determination wascarried out colormetrically according to King (1951). Potassium was determined photometrically byflame photometer method as described by Brown and Lilland (1946). Data obtained were subjected tostandard analysis of variance procedure. The values of LSD were obtained whenever F values weresignificantly at 5% levels as reported by Snedcor and Cochran (1980).160

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONEffect of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on vegetative growth:Data presented in Table (1 and 2) elucidate that foliar spray of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol ongrowth parameters of Hibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants, increased significantly most criteria ofvegetative growth expressed plant height, number of branches and leaves/plant, stem diameter, leafarea, fresh weight of shoots and roots. Application of 100 ppm ascorbic acid and 100 ppm α –tocopherol separately increased fresh weight of shoots and roots by 46.02, 26.15, 39.91 and 36.65 %,respectively than the corresponding values of the control plants. These results are in accordance withthose obtained by Gamal El-Din (2005) who reported that foliar application of ascorbic acid increasedplant growth of sunflower plants. Tarraf et al (1999) mentioned that ascorbate has been implicated inthe regulation of cell division of lemon grass. Shaded et al (1990) assumed that the effect of ascorbicacid on plant growth may be due to substantial role ascorbic acid in many metabolic and physiologicalprocesses.Results in Tables 1 and 2 show that α – tocopherol of 50 ppm and 100 ppm application significantlyincreased all tested morphological parameters, the highest values were obtained at 100 ppm applicationcompared with those obtained by low level and untreated plants. Similar results were obtained by El-Basiouny (2005) who reported that foliar spray with α – tocopherol on faba bean plants inducedincrements in growth parameters and yield components.As regarding the interaction treatments, foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol, the datashow that significantly increased all growth parameters under study. The highest values of growthparameters were obtained by Asc. acid 100 ppm + α – Toco. 100 ppm followed by Asc. acid 50 ppm +α – Toco. 100 ppm followed by ascorbic acid 50 ppm + α – Toco. 50 ppm and Asc. acid 50 ppm + α –Toco. 100 ppm, as compared with control plants. Data emphasized that the interaction effects weresignificantly affected by all growth parameters i.e. plant height, number of branches, consequentlyfresh and dry weight of shoots and roots.On flowering growth:Data in Table (3) reveal that foliar application of Asc. acid and α – Toco. treatments separately orcollectively on Hibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants significantly increased number of flowers/plant, freshand dry weight of flowers gm/plant compared with untreated plants. Hence only through theinteraction of ascorbic acid can play an important role in the regulation of cell division, differentiationand enhancement of leaf expansion (Noctar and Foyer, 1998), in addition to α – tocopherol are a groupof compounds synthesized only by photosynthetic organisms, in plants treated with α – tocopherol arebelieved to protect chloroplast membranes from photooxidation and help to provide on optimalenvironment for photosynthetic machinery. Munne-Bosch and Alegre (2002). The highest increases innumber of flowers and fresh weight were found in plants treated with Asc. 100 ppm + α – Toco. 100ppm followed by Asc. 50 ppm + α – Toco. 100 ppm, followed by Asc.50 ppm + α – Toco. 50 ppm andAsc. 100 ppm + α – Toco. 100 ppm, it significantly increased by 129.27, 117.46, 105.82 and 88.00 %for number of flowers, than the corresponding values of control plants, the fresh weight of flowersincreased by 105.26, 94.63, 81.57 and 66.44 % , than the corresponding values of the control plants.On chemical constituents:Data presented in Tables 4 and 5 show that foliar application of Asc. acid and α – Toco. separately tohibiscus plants significantly increased chl (a), chl (b) content, total carotenoids through the two stagesof growth under study and increased total soluble sugars through flowering stage at the two seasons,compared with control plants. These results are in agreement with those reported by Smirnoff (1996)on the function and metabolism of ascorbic acid. Blokhina et al (2003) stated that ascorbic acid has awide range of important functions as antioxidant defense, photoprotection and regulation ofphotosynthesis. In addition sprayed α – Toco. to faba bean plants increased chlorophyll a, chlorophyll band carotenoids contents, El-Bassiouny et al (2005). Concerning the effect of interaction between Asc.acid and α – Toco., all the interaction of used treatments increased significantly photosyntheticpigments chlorophyll (a and b), carotenoids and total soluble sugars in the leaves of Hibiscus rosasinenses L. plants.Minerals ion content:As regarding to Table (5) that foliar application of Asc. acid and α – Toco. on Hibiscus rosa sinenses161

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009L. separately or collectively mostly increased the percentage of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, ascompared with control plants, the highest values of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were obtainedfrom Asc. acid 100 ppm + α – Toco. 100 ppm, followed by Asc. acid 50 ppm + α – Toco. 100 ppm,and Asc. acid 50 ppm + α – Toco. 50 ppm. Concerning the effect of ascorbic acid application on Nconcentration, it was increased by using Asc. at 100 ppm on wheat plant, the increment in Nconcentration could be explained by Talaat (1995) who found that the accumulation of nitrate by asc.foliar application may be due to the positive effect of asc. on root growth which consequently increasednitrate absorption.As regard the effect of asc. foliar application on P concentration, it was more effective in increasing Pconcentration in leaves of hibiscus, these results in agreement with those obtained by Hanafy Ahmed etal (1995) on wheat. The increase in P concentration by asc. acid concentration might be increaseorganic acids content excreted from roots into the soil and consequently increase the solubility of mostnutrients which may utilized by plants.From the abovementioned results, it could be concluded that foliar application of the aforementionedcombined treatments might be play an important role in many metabolic and physiological processes,through affecting the metabolism of photosynthesis process which led to increase in total soluble sugarcontent which influences and promoted all vegetative growth and number of flowers as indication forfoliage and flower quality.Table (1): Effect of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on the growth parameters ofHibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants (average of the two seasons).TreatmentsPlantheight cmNumber ofbranch/plantEffect of Asc. acidNumber ofleaves/plantStemdiametermmLeafareacm 2Control 51.22 9.11 144.44 1.43 35.88Asc.acid 50 ppm 72.23 13.00 172.67 1.64 46.27Asc.acid 100 ppm 72.78 13.44 180.33 1.66 47.67LSD at 5% level 1.75 0.77 5.64 0.06 1.56Effect of α – tocopherolControl 58.92 10.22 159.11 1.46 39.59α – tocopherol 50 ppm 67.33 12.11 163.56 1.55 43.87α – tocopherol 100 ppm 69.98 13.22 174.78 1.71 46.36LSD at 5% level 1.75 0.77 5.64 0.06 1.56Effect of interactionControl 42.67 7.67 130.67 1.35 29.77Asc.acid 50 ppm 65.10 11.00 165.00 1.50 42.23Asc.acid 100 ppm 69.00 12.00 181.67 1.53 46.77α – tocopherol 50 ppm 54.00 9.33 144.33 1.45 38.60α – tocopherol 100 ppm 57.00 10.33 158.33 1.48 39.27Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol50 ppm75.70 14.67 175.00 1.63 47.50Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol100 ppm75.90 13.33 178.00 1.78 49.07Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol50 ppm72.30 12.33 171.33 1.57 45.50Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol100 ppm77.03 16.00 188.00 1.86 50.73LSD at 5% level 3.03 1.33 9.77 0.10 2.70162

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (2): Effect of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on fresh and dry weight of different plant organs of Hibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants(average of the two seasons).F.W ofF.W ofF.W of D.W of D.W ofTreatmentsF.W of stemF.W of rootsleavesshootsleaves stem shootsEffect of Asc. acidControl 71.29 60.52 131.81 33.82 19.40 18.94 38.34 12.41Asc.acid 50 ppm 101.29 82.04 183.33 46.96 29.08 27.20 56.28 18.66Asc.acid 100 ppm 106.90 85.58 192.48 47.32 30.56 28.57 59.13 18.71LSD at 5% level 2.90 2.77 1.59 1.27 1.24 0.79Effect of α – tocopherolControl 82.98 68.02 151.00 36.86 23.02 21.56 44.58 14.03α – tocopherol 50 ppm 92.96 73.17 166.13 40.61 26.30 23.67 49.97 15.93α – tocopherol 100 ppm 103.54 86.96 190.50 50.37 29.71 29.29 59.00 19.81LSD at 5% level 2.90 2.77 1.59 1.27 1.24 0.79Effect of interactionControl 64.83 56.70 121.53 28.50 17.43 17.30 34.73 10.90Asc.acid 50 ppm 86.23 72.70 158.93 41.00 24.07 23.17 47.24 15.33Asc.acid 100 ppm 97.87 74.67 172.54 41.07 27.57 24.20 51.77 15.87α – tocopherol 50 ppm 70.83 61.53 133.36 35.87 19.23 19.23 38.46 12.70α – tocopherol 100 ppm 78.20 63.33 141.53 37.10 21.53 20.30 41.83 13.63Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 106.07 82.40 188.47 43.10 30.60 27.60 58.20 18.63Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 111.57 91.03 202.60 55.27 32.57 30.83 63.40 22.00Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 101.96 75.56 177.52 42.86 29.06 24.76 53.82 16.46Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 120.87 106.50 227.37 58.03 35.03 36.73 71.76 23.80LSD at 5% level 5.03 4.79 2.76 2.21 2.15 1.36D.W ofroots163

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (3): Effect of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on flower characters at theflowering stage of Hibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants (average of the two seasons).TreatmentsNumber offlowers/plantFresh weight offlowers gmDry weight offlowers gmEffect of ascorbic acidControl 6.89 34.94 3.59Asc.acid 50 ppm 10.67 51.47 7.36Asc.acid 100 ppm 11.56 53.79 7.44LSD at 5% level 0.56 1.43 0.28Effect of α – tocopherolControl 8.22 39.60 5.16α – tocopherol 50 ppm 9.67 47.18 6.19α – tocopherol 100 ppm 11.22 53.42 7.40LSD at 5% level 0.56 1.43 0.28Effect of interactionControl 5.67 30.40 3.28Asc.acid 50 ppm 8.00 40.03 5.94Asc.acid 100 ppm 11.00 48.37 6.26α – tocopherol 50 ppm 6.67 35.73 4.06α – tocopherol 100 ppm 8.33 38.70 4.51Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 11.67 55.20 7.69Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 12.33 59.17 8.46Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 10.66 50.60 6.83Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 13.00 62.40 9.23LSD at 5% level 0.97 2.47 0.48164

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (4): Effect of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on photosynthetic pigments of Hibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants at the two stages of growth (averageof the two seasons).Vegetative stagesAt flowering stagesChl a Chl b Chl a+b Carotenoids Chl a Chl b Chl a+b CarotenoidsEffect of ascorbic acidControl 1.02 0.28 1.30 0.23 0.30 0.17 0.47 0.10Asc.acid 50 ppm 1.12 0.48 1.60 0.23 0.57 0.24 0.81 0.18Asc.acid 100 ppm 1.11 0.44 1.55 0.29 0.51 0.22 0.73 0.18LSD at 5% level 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01Effect of α – tocopherolControl 1.05 0.35 1.40 0.22 0.35 0.20 0.55 0.13α – tocopherol 50 ppm 1.08 0.40 1.48 0.25 0.46 0.20 0.66 0.14α – tocopherol 100 ppm 1.11 0.46 1.57 0.28 0.56 0.24 0.80 0.19LSD at 5% level 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01Effect of interactionControl 1.00 0.23 1.23 0.19 0.25 0.16 0.41 0.08Asc.acid 50 ppm 1.10 0.44 1.54 0.22 0.54 0.24 0.69 0.13Asc.acid 100 ppm 1.06 0.37 1.43 0.25 0.37 0.19 0.56 0.17α – tocopherol 50 ppm 1.02 0.28 1.30 0.23 0.30 0.17 0.47 0.10α – tocopherol 100 ppm 1.04 0.33 1.37 0.27 0.35 0.18 0.53 0.14Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 1.14 0.53 1.67 0.21 0.59 0.23 0.82 0.18Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 1.12 0.48 1.60 0.27 0.67 0.27 0.94 0.23Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 1.08 0.40 1.48 0.31 0.48 0.21 0.69 0.15Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 1.17 0.56 1.73 0.30 0.67 0.26 0.93 0.20LSD at 5% level 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02165

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (5): Effect of foliar application of ascorbic acid and α – tocopherol on chemical composition ofHibiscus rosa sinenses L. plants at flowering stage (average of the two seasons).SolublesugarN P K%Effect of ascorbic acidControl 3.93 2.60 0.23 3.84Asc.acid 50 ppm 5.56 3.59 0.36 4.37Asc.acid 100 ppm 7.86 3.31 0.33 4.41LSD at 5% level 0.22 0.06 0.02 0.05Effect of α – tocopherolControl 4.61 2.91 0.29 3.98α – tocopherol 50 ppm 5.96 3.09 0.30 4.24α – tocopherol 100 ppm 6.79 3.51 0.33 4.40LSD at 5% level 0.22 0.06 0.02 0.05Effect of interactionControl 3.60 2.37 0.21 3.43Asc.acid 50 ppm 4.60 3.42 0.34 4.28Asc.acid 100 ppm 5.62 2.94 0.32 4.24α – tocopherol 50 ppm 3.90 2.80 0.26 3.96α – tocopherol 100 ppm 4.29 2.64 0.23 4.13Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 5.19 3.67 0.36 4.51Asc. 50 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 6.90 3.69 0.38 4.32Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 50 ppm 8.79 2.80 0.28 4.26Asc. 100 ppm + α – tocopherol 100 ppm 9.18 4.20 0.39 4.75LSD at 5% level 0.38 0.10 0.03 0.08REFERENCESBlokhina, O., E. Virolainen and K.V. Fagerstedt (2003). Antioxidant, oxidative damage and oxygendeprivations stress. A Review Ann. Bot., 91: 179-194.Brown, J.D. and O. Lilleland, (1946). Rapid determination of potassium and sodium in plant materialand soil extracts by flame photometry. Proc.Amer.Hort.Sci., 48: 341-346.Chapman, H.D. and P.F. Pratt (1961). Methods of Analysis for Soil, Plants and Waters. Univ.California, Div. Agric. Sci. Berkely, USA, pp: 445.Chittendon, F. (1992). RHS Dictionary of plants plus supplement, 1956. Oxford University Press.1951, comprehensive listing of species and how to grow them. Somewhat outdated, it has beenreplaces in 1992 by a new dictionary.Chopra, R.N., S.L; Nayar and I.C. Chopra (1986). Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plant. Council ofScientific and Industerial Research, New DelhiDubios, M., K.A. Gilles, J.K. Hamilton, P.A. Rebers and F. Smith (1956). A colorimetric fordetermination of sugar and related substances. Anal. Chem., 28: 350-356.El-Bassiouny, H.M.S.; M.E. Gobarah and A.A. Ramadan (2005). Effect of antioxidants on growth,yield, savism causative agents in seeds of Vicia faba L. plants grown under reclaimed sandysoils. J. Agr. Pakistan.Gamal El-Din, K.M. (2005). Physiological studies on the effect of some vitamins on growth and oilcontent in sunflower plant. Egypt . J. Appl. Sci. 20: 560-571.Hanafy Ahmed, A.H.; N.F. Kheir, E.A. Abdel-Latif and M.A. Amin (1995). Effect of NPK fertilizersand foliar application of some chemical on the growth, yield and chemical composition of fababean and wheat. Egypt. J. Appl. Sci., 10(7): 652-676.Hathout, T.A. (1995). Diverse effects of uniconazole and nicotinamid on germination, growth,endogenous hormones and some enzymatic activity of peas. Egypt. J. of Physiol. Sci., 19:77-95.King, E.J. (1951). Microanalysis in Medical Biochemistry 4 th E'dn. J. and Ehar Chill. L., London.Metzzner, H., H. Rava and H. Senger (1965). Unter suchungen zur synchronis iebekiety pigmentsmangel von chlrella. Planta, 65: 186-190.166

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Munne-Bosch, S. and L. Alegre (2002). The function of tocopherol and tocotrienols in plants. Crit Rev.plant Sci., 21:31-57.Munne-Bosch, S. and L. Alegre (2002). Interplay between ascorbic acid and lipophilic antioxidantdefences in chloroplasts of water stress Arbidopsis plants. FEBS Lett 524: 145-148.Noctor, G. and C.H. Foyer (1998). Ascorbate and glutathione: keeping active oxygen under control.Annu. Rev. Plant Physiol., 49: 249-279.Shaddad, L.M.A., A.F. Radi, A.M. Abdel-Rahman and M.M. Azooz (1990). Response of seeds oflupinus termis and Vicia faba to interactive effect of salinity and ascorbic acid on pyridoxines.Plant and Soil, 122: 177-187.Smiranoff, N. (1996). The function and metabolism of ascorbic acid in plants. Ann. Bot, 78:661-669.Snedecor, G.W. and W.G. Cochran. 1980. Statistical Method. 7 th Edn. Iowa State Univ. Press., USA.Talaat, N.B. (1995). Physiological studies on reducing the accumulation of nitrate in some vegetableplants. M.Sc. Thesis, Agric. Bot. Dept., Fac. Agric., Cairo Univ.Talaat, N.B. (2003). Physiological studies on the effect of salinity, ascorbic and putrescine of sweetpepper plant. Ph.D. Thesis, Fac. Agric., Cairo Univ.., Egypt.Tarraf, S.A., K.G. El-Din and L.K. Balbaa (1999). The response of vegetative growth, essential oil oflemongrass (Cymbopom citrates Hort.) to foliar application of ascorbic acid, nicotenamid andsome micronutrients. ArabUniv. J.Agric. Sci. 7: 247- 259.Youssef, A.A. and I.M. Talaat (2003). Physiological response of rosemary plants to some vitamins.Egypt.Pharm. J.1: 81-9167

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009I ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationSome Studies on the Effect of Putrescine, Ascorbic Acid and Thiamine onGrowth, Flowering and Some Chemical Constituents of Gladiolus Plants atNubariaG. Abdel Aziz Nahed, S. Taha Lobna and M. M. Ibrahim SoadDepartment of Ornamental Plant and Woody Trees,National Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt__________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Two field experiments were carried out at Research and Production Station, Nubaria ofNational Research Centre, Dokki, Cairo, Egypt, during 2006 and 2007 seasons, to study the effect ofapplication of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine each of them (50, 100, and 200 ppm) onvegetative growth, flowering and some chemical constituents of Gladiolus grandflorum L. plants.Promising results were obtained by application of putrescine at 200 ppm followed by ascorbic acid andThiamine at 100 ppm on vegetative growth. While on flowering parameters, the best results wereobtained by application of putrescine and ascorbic acid at 200 ppm followed by thiamine at 100 ppm.The highest recorded data were obtained in plants treated with putrescine 200 ppm on chemicalconstituents, (chl a, b, carotenoids, soluble sugars, total phenols, total indols, N, P and K). ascorbicacid at 200 ppm showed a stimulatory effect on all chemical constituents except photosyntheticpigments which increased when plants treated with 100 ppm. Increasing concentration of thiaminefrom 50 to 200 ppm caused increased soluble sugars, total phenols and total indols.Keywords: putrescine (Put.), Ascorbic acid (Asc.), Thiamine (Thia.), Polyamines (PAs.), Plant growth,Flowering, Cormes, chemical constituents, Gladiolus grandflorum L. plants___________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONBulbs and corms belonging to the Liliaceae, Iridaceae and Amarylliding major flower crops grown incountries. They are also sources of pharmaceuticals and food flavourings. Gladiolus is amonocotyledonous floral crop which is considered one of the most important flowering bulbs grown inEgypt. Gladiolus belongs to Iridaceae family. It has decorative spike which carries numerous flowers,with many colours. The flowers can be available the year around. It is originated in the Mediterraneanarea and in the south Africa (Wilfert, 1992).Polyamines (PAs) namely putrescine (Put), spermine (Spm) and spermidine (Spd) in different plantdevelopmental process (Martin-Tanguy, 2001). They modulate several growth and developmentalprocesses viz., cell division, differentiation, flowering fruit ripening, embryogenesis, senescence andrhizogenesis (Kakkar et al, 2000). In all these, PAs have been ascribed various roles such as that of anew class of plant growth regulators, hormonel second messengers and as one of the reserves of carbonand nitrogen at least in cultured tissues (Slocum and Flores, 1991). Polyamines are biologically activecompounds envolved in various physiological processes. They are cationic molecules, positivelycharged under intracellular pH, which are essential for plant growth and differentiation, related to agingand senescence, and usually involved in plant responses to stress (Friedman et al., 1989). They regulategrowth, probably by binding to negatively charged macromolecules (Messiaen et al., 1997).Ascorbic acid is synthesized in the higher plants and affects plant growth and development, it isproduct of D-glucose metabolism which affects some nutritional cycles activity in higher plants andplay an important role in the electron transport system (El-Kobisy et al., 2005). Ascorbic acid (vitamine169

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009C) is known as a growth regulating factor which influences many biological processes, Price (1966).Robinson (1973) reported that Asc. acid acts as a co-enzymatic reactions by which carbohydrates,proteins are metabolized and involved in photosynthesis and respiration processes. Bolkhina et al.(2003) stated that Asc. acid is the most abundant antioxidant which protects plant cells, Asc. acid iscurrently considered to be a regulator on cell division and differentiation and added that Asc. acid isinvolved in a wide range of important functions as antioxidant defense, photoprotection and regulationof photosynthesis and growth.Talaat (2003) on sweet pepper detected that foliar application of Asc. acid increased the content ofmacronutrients (N, P and K). Farahat et al. (2007) reported that pronounced increases in vegetativegrowth and chemical constituents of Cupressus sempervirens L. plants by foliar application of Asc.acid.Vitamins could be considered as bio-regulators compounds which in little concentrations exerted aprofound influence upon plant growth. In general, the energy meta-bolic pathway could be affected byone or another of these substances (Robinson, 1973). Thiamine (vitamin B1) could serve as coenzymein decarboxylation of a-keto acids, such as pyruvic acid and keto-glutamic acid which has itsimportance in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats (Bidwell, 1979). Thiamine is an importantcofactor for the transketolation reactions of the pentose phosphate cycle, which provides pentosephosphate for nucleotide synthesis and for the reduced NADP required or various synthetic pathways(Kawasaki, 1992). Youssef and Talaat (2003) reported that pronounced increases in vegetative growthand chemical constituents of rosemary plants by foliar application of thiamine. The aim of this workwas to study the effect of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine on growth, flowering and somechemical constituents of Gladiolus grandflorum L. plants.MATERIALS AND METHODSThis study was carried out in National Research Centre (Research and Production Station, Nubaria)during two successive seasons of 2006/2007. It intended to find out the individual and combined effectsof foliar application of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine on growth, flowers, production of cormsand chemical constituents of Gladiolus L. plants.Corms of Gladiolus were obtained from ornamental plant research, Ministry of Agricultural, Egypt, thecorms were planted on the first week of December during the two successive seasons 2006 and 2007;in rows 50 cm apart, 10 cm between and 15 cm in depth. The experimental plot (1 X 1.5 m) contained15 corms, and all agricultural practices were followed in this experiment as usual.Plants were sprayed twice with freshly prepared solutions of putrescine at (50, 100 and 200 ppm),ascorbic acid at (50, 100 and 200 ppm) and Thiamione at (50, 100 and 200 ppm), in addition to theuntreated plants (control). Foliar application of putrescine, ascorbic acid and Thiamine were carriedout two times of 30 days intervals, starting at the first week of February at both seasons. The plantsreceived the normal fertilization of this plant. The experiment was sit up in a Completely RandomizedDesign (CRD) with three replicates.During the flowering period of each season, the following data were recorded: plant height (cm),number of leaves/plant, fresh and dry weight of leaves/plant (g), spike length (cm), number of florets/spike, number of cormlets, fresh and dry weight of florets (g) and fresh and dry weights of cormlets(g). Total soluble sugars were determined in the methnolic extract by using the phenol – sulphoricmethod according to Dubois et al., (1966), photosynthesis pigments including Chlorophyll (a and b) aswell as carotenoids content were determined in fresh leaves as mg/g fresh weight according to theprocedure achieved by Saric et al., (1967). The total indoles were determined in the methanolic extract,using P-dimethyl amino benzaldhyde test "Erlic's reagent" according to the Larsen et al., (1962) andmodified by Salim et al., (1978). Total soluble phenols were determined colourimetrically by usingFolin Ciocaltea reagent A.O.A.C. (1985). Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium were determinedaccording to the method described by Cottenie et al., (1982). The data were statistically analyzed usingLSD test according to Steel and Torrie (1980).On growth parameters:RESULTS AND DISCUSSION170

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Data presented in Table (1) show that foliar application of Put. significantly increased plant height,number of leaves/plant, fresh and dry weight of leaves/plant treated with 200 ppm compared withuntreated plants in both seasons. The increments effect on fresh and dry weight of leaves by 180.8%and 207.8%, respectively over control plants. The positive effect of polyamines (PAs.) on growththrought enhancing cell division and expansion (Cohen 1998). These findings are in accordance withYoussef et al., (2004) who reported that foliar application of diamine putrescine to matthiola plantssignificantly promoted plant height, number of leaves/plant, fresh and dry weight of leaves/plant in thevegetative growth stage, especially at 250 mg/l treatment. Also, Iman et al., (2005) studied onperiwinkle plants pointed out that application of Put. at 10 -3 M significantly promoted growth atsuccessive developmental stages. Mahgoub et al., (2006) found that foliar application of Put.at 200ppm to Dianthus caryophllus plants significantly increased growth parameters. Spraying gladiolusplants with different concentration of Asc. 50, 100 and 200 ppm stimulated growth parameters. Datapresented in Table (1) show that the highest increase in plant height, number of leaves, fresh and dryweight of leaves were found in plants treated with 100 ppm Asc.compared with control and otherconcentrations in the two seasons.The increments effect on fresh and dry weight of leaves by 55.7 and 62.5%, respectively comparedwith control in the two seasons. The results herein agree with the finding of Karima (2005) onsunflower plant found that application of Asc.at 6o ppm led to significant increase in plant height,number of leaves, fresh and dry weight of leaves.Table (1): Effect of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine on vegetative growth of gladiolus plants(Mean of the two seasons)TreatmentsPlant Height(cm)No. of LeavesF.W of Leaves(g)D.W of Leaves(g)Control 56.30 7.00 8.50 1.28Put. 50 ppm 78.50 11.00 14.62 2.35Put. 100 ppm 87.00 11.33 19.92 3.33Put. 200 ppm 90.57 13.33 23.87 3.94Asc. 50 ppm 67.50 8.67 10.80 1.71Asc. 100 ppm 68.67 10.33 13.24 2.08Asc. 200 ppm 68.40 9.00 10.98 1.80Thia. 50 ppm 72.67 10.00 15.38 2.41Thia. 100 ppm 75.60 12.00 18.40 2.94Thia. 200 ppm 74.33 8.33 11.97 1.86LSD 5% 3.80 1.45 2.61 0.56Putrescine (Put.), Ascorbic acid (Asc.), Thiamine (Thia)Exogenous application of Asc.increased reproduction of other plant species as Balbaa (2002) onTagetes minuta L., Talaat (2003) on sweet pepper plant, Youssef and Talaat ( 2003) on rosemaryplants, Abdel –Aziz et al (2006) on Khaya senegalensis and Abdel Aziz et al., (2007) on syngoniumplants. Smiroff (1996) mentioned that ascorbat has been implicated in regulation of cell division. Inthis concentration, the author pointed out that cell wall ascorbate and cell wall localized ascorbateoxidase has been implicated in control of growth, high ascorbate oxidase activity is associated withrapidly expanding cells. The present data emphasized that application of thiamine significantlyincreased growth parameters (Table 1). The highest values of results were obtained in plants treatedwith 100 ppm thiamine. The increments effect on fresh and dry weight of leaves by 116.4 % and 129.6%, respectively compared with control plants in the two seasons. Thiamine is a necessary ingredient forthe biosynthesis of the coenzyme thiamine pyrophosphate; in this latter form it plays an important role171

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009in carbohydrate metabolism. It is an essential nutrient for both plants and animals. In plants, it issynthesized in the leaves and is transported to the roots where it controls growth (Kawasaki, 1992).The results are characteristically accompanied by El-Fawakhry and El-Tayeb (2003) onchrysanthemum, Youssef et al., (2004) on datura plants and Mona and Talaat (2005) on rose geranium.2- On cormlets and florets:-Data presented in Table (2) show that the application of Put., at 200 ppm had a promotive effect oncormlets and florets caracters of gladiolus plants, i.e. (number of cormlets, fresh and dry weight ofcormlets, spike length, number of florets, fresh as well as dry weight of florets and floret).Mahgoub et al., (2006) hypothesized that foliar application of Put.at 200 ppm to Dianthus caryophyllusplants significantly increased number of flower/plant, fresh and dry weight of flowers. Youssef et al., (2004) on Datura innoxia stated that application of phenylalanine at 100 ppm + putrescine at 100 ppmsignificant parameters in all growth parameters at flowering stage.Table (2) show that, all cormlets and florets growth criteria were pronouncedly increased as a result ofapplied Asc. treatments. Application of Asc. at 200 ppm gave the highest weight of cormlets, spikelength, number of florets as well as fresh and dry weight of florets and floret. The increments were(110.5%, 119.1%, 139.8%, 35.4%, 93.4%, 100.7%, 129.2%, 34.7 % and 37.8%) respectively comparedwith control plants in the two seasons.Regarding the effect of thiamine, it was found that the best results in cormlets and florets parameterswere obtained by using 100 ppm. Our results are compatable with those obtained by Wahba et al.,(2002) on Antholyza acthipoica L. , and El-Fawakhry and El-Tayeb (2002) on chrysanthemum, theyfound that foliar application of amino acids led to the increment of flowering parameters and found thatamino acids produced a high quality of inflorescences.On chemical constituents:-The data recorded in Table (3) and Fig.(1) show that foliar application of Put.at 200 ppm was the besttreatment compared with other treatments, followed by Asc. and Thia. at 100 ppm on gladiolus plantssignificantly increased chlorophyll a, b, a+b and carotenoids in both seasons. Data also emphasized thattotal soluble suagr content Fig. (2) significantly increased when plants were treated with Put., Asc. andThia at 200 ppm.172

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (2): Production of gladiolus cormlets and florets affected by putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine (Mean of the two seasons).TreatmentsNo. ofcormletsF.W ofcormlets(g)D.W ofcormletsSpike length(cm)No. of floretsF.W offloretsD.W offlorets(g)F.W of floretD.W of floretControl 6.33 11.50 1.03 20.70 5.00 16.43 2.05 2.56 0.37Put. 50 ppm 14.33 28.03 2.59 35.00 11.33 31.88 4.25 3.11 0.45Put. 100 ppm 17.00 26.68 2.53 38.10 12.00 31.87 4.42 3.42 0.50Put. 200 ppm 22.00 30.86 2.89 42.50 14.33 33.50 4.77 3.66 0.55Asc. 50 ppm 11.00 17.15 1.57 21.63 7.33 22.78 3.36 2.90 0.42Asc. 100 ppm 12.67 20.45 1.82 25.00 8.67 26.85 3.91 3.21 0.46Asc. 200 ppm 13.33 25.20 2.47 28.03 9.67 32.98 4.72 3.45 0.51Thia. 50 ppm 7.67 13.58 1.25 22.67 6.33 19.55 2.69 2.79 0.39Thia. 100 ppm 8.67 18.95 1.73 27.13 7.66 22.32 3.15 3.40 0.47Thia. 200 ppm 8.33 15.53 1.46 24.43 6.33 22.08 3.11 3.10 0.41LSD 5% 2.15 2.88 0.33 3.71 2.11 2.54 0.49 0.23 0.03Putrescine (Put.), Ascorbic acid (Asc.), Thiamine (Thia)173

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009mg/1001.4001.2001.0000.8000.6000.4000.2000.000Chl. A Chl. BChl. A +B CarotenoidsControl 50 100 200 50 100 200 50 100 200Put. Asc. ThiaTreatmentsFig.(1): Effect of Put., Asc. and Thia on photosynthesis pigments of gladiolus plantsTable (3): Effect of foliar application of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine on photosynthetic pigmentsand soluble sugars (mg/g) of gladiolus plants (Mean of the two seasons)TreatmentsCholorophylls (mg/g F.W)Carotenoidschl a chl b a+b mg/g F.WSolublesugarsControl 0.618 0.301 0.919 0.607 2.00Put. 50 ppm 0.642 0.340 0.982 0.739 3.00Put. 100 ppm 0.826 0.425 1.251 1.045 5.00Put. 200 ppm 0.850 0.474 1.324 1.083 5.80Asc. 50 ppm 0.702 0.315 1.017 0.714 2.90Asc. 100 ppm 0.792 0.418 1.210 0.954 4.10Asc. 200 ppm 0.733 0.397 1.130 0.925 4.60Thia. 50 ppm 0.665 0.332 0.997 0.611 2.40Thia. 100 ppm 0.714 0.374 1.088 0.834 3.30Thia. 200 ppm 0.680 0.328 1.008 0.782 3.70LSD 5% 0.018 0.006 0.008 0.005 0.51Putrescine (Put.), Ascorbic acid (Asc.), Thiamine (Thia)The increments were (190.0%, 130.0 and 85.0%) respectively compared with untreated plants in the twoseasons. Moreover, it has been proposed that Polyamines may retard senescence either by inhibitingethylene production (Suttle, 1981) or by stabilizing nucleic acid and cell membrane against enzymaticdegradation and solute loafpage (Mansour and Mutawa, 1999). In addition, Rowland et al., (1988) foundthat Pas.are also part of the overall metabolism of nitrogens compounds. PAs.(i.e. putrescine, spermine andspermidine) are low molecular weight polycations, which are involved in the regulation of growth andstress, propably by binding to negatively charged macromolecules (Messiaen et al. , 1997). Exogenousapplication of Put.to several plant species have been shown to retard chlorophyll loss and senescence (Leeet al. , 1997) and protect plants against environamental stress (Mo and Pua, 2002). Ma et al., (1996)suggest that the effect of PAs. in inhibiting chlorophyll degradation may be related to the inhibition ofperoxidase activity.174

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009In the present work the results obtained from application of Put. are in agreement with the results by El-Bassiuony and Bekheta (2001) as they obtained increases in the total carbohydrates content in wheat plantstreated with Put. These increments in total carbohydrates contents may be attributed to increase inphotosynthetic process efficiency, which led to increase net assimilation of leaf CO 2 which is known as thebasic unit of carbohydrate. The present data are in agreement with the finding of Youssef and Talaat (2003)on rosemary plants, Abdel Aziz et al., (2006) on Khya senegalensis plants, Abdel Aziz et al., (2007) onSyngonium podyphyllum L. plants, and Farahat et al., (2007) on Cupressus sempetrirens L. they found thatfoliar application of Asc. caused an increase in photosynthetic pigments and total soluble sugars content.Blokhina et al., (2003) stated that Asc.has a wide range of important functions as antioxidant defense,photoprotection, regulation of photosynthesis and growth. In this manner, Smironoff (1996) reported thatascorbic acid has a central role in photosynthesis, as high content ration in chloroplast would imply.Hassanein (2003) on Foeniculum vulgarre L. plants and Abou-Dahab and Abdel-Aziz (2006) onPhilodendrom erubescens plants, they reported that foliar application of amino acids caused an increase inphotosynthetic pigments content. The accumulation of photosynthetic pigments as a result of these nitrogencompounds may be due to the important role of nitrogen in the biosynthesis of chlorophyll molecules,(Meyer et al., 1968). These results could be explained by the finding obtained by Youssef and Talaat(2003) who found that application of Thia. significantly increased toal carbohydrates % of rosemary plants.The promotive effect of the amino acids on the total carbohydrates contents may be due to their importantrole on the biosynthesis of chlorophyll molecules which in turn affected chlorophyll content.In this concern, Devlin (1969) stated that there is agreement that succinyl CoA (Kerbs cycle intermediate)and the amino acid glycine, initiate the biosynthetic pathway leading to chlorophyll formation. Regardingthe effect of Put., Asc.and Thia., foliar application on total indole and total phenole content, it was to benoticed from the results in Table (4) and Fig. (2) in both seasons, increasing Put., Asci. andThia.concentration from 50 to 200 ppm increased total indole and total phenole contents. The incrementsof total indole with foliar spray of Put., Asc. and Tia. at 200 ppm were (94.9%, 77.8% and 58.3%),respectively in both seasons compared with untreated plants. The results are characteristically accompaniedby Reda and Gamal El-Din (2005) on chamomile, Farahat et al (2007) on cupressus sempervirens L., HebatAllah (2008) on fenugreek plant and Karima and Abdel- Wahed (2005) on chamomile.mg/100 g F. Wt. or mg/g706050403020100Indols (mg/100 g F. Wt. ) Phenols (mg/100 g F. Wt. ) Sulabole sugar (mg/g)Control 50 100 200 50 100 200 50 100 200Put. Asc. ThiaTreatmentsFig. (2): Effect of Put., Asc. and Thia. on total indoles, phenols and soluble sugars ofgladiolus plants.As regards the effect of Put., Asc.and Thia.foliar application on macronutrients (N, P and K), it is to befrom the results in Table (4) and Fig.(3), Put.and Asc.at 200 ppm followed by Thia. at 100 ppm gave thehighest values in most cases as compared with untreated plants in both seasons. Hanafy-Ahmed et al.,(2002) deduced that PAs., with special regard to Put., enhanced the uptake and accumulation of N elementto be involved in different biological processes leading to the formation of protective compounds such asamino acids, against salt stress condition. Hewitt (1963) stated that P is the important constituent of nuclicacids, phospholipids, co-enzyme, NAD, NADP and as a constituent of ATP. Therefore, this increment in Pconcentration in gladiolus leaves could explain the positive effect of Put. on plant growth and productivity.175

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table (4): Effect of foliar application of putrescine, ascorbic acid and thiamine on indoles, phenolescontents and macronutrients % of gladiolus plants (Mean of the two seasons)TreatmentsIndoles Fenoles Macronutrients %(mg/100 g F.W) N P KControl 29.13 17.70 0.72 0.15 0.24Put. 50 ppm 36.53 24.70 1.37 0.18 0.27Put. 100 ppm 53.90 28.00 1.42 0.20 0.33Put. 200 ppm 56.80 32.80 1.50 0.24 0.35Asc. 50 ppm 34.90 21.20 1.20 0.19 0.26Asc. 100 ppm 48.80 26.80 1.31 0.19 0.30Asc. 200 ppm 51.80 27.90 1.40 0.22 0.35Thia. 50 ppm 34.30 21.10 1.12 0.19 0.28Thia. 100 ppm 43.00 25.50 1.71 0.23 0.34Thia. 200 ppm 46.10 26.60 1.29 0.20 0.32LSD 5% 2.30 0.91 0.03 0.05 0.02Putrescine (Put.), Ascorbic acid (Asc.), Thiamine (Thia)%1.601.401.201.000.800.600.400.200.00N % P % K %Control 50 100 200 50 100 200 50 100 200Put. Asc. ThiaTreatmentsFig. (3): Effect of Put., Asc. and Thia. on macronutrients of gladiolus plants.A direct relationship between total PAs. and K and inverse relationship between PAs. and Na as well asbetween K and Na were reported by Hanafy-Ahmed et al., (2002). Salama (1999) recorded that PAs. asspray application increased some nutrients elements particularly K, which was found to serve a vital role inphotosynthesis by directly increase growth and photosynthetic pigments, and hence CO 2 assimilation.Shawky (2003) reported that the increments in minerals uptake (N, P and K) by PAs. treatment, thepromotive effect of PAs.treatment on plant growth productivity as well as on plant chemical compositionmay due to their effect on many metabolic and physiological processes. Youssef (2007) noticed that PAs.have possibly increased activities of metabolic processes in plant. Accordingly, physiological performanceof such plants was improved, as manifested by increased efficiency of roots in absorbing macronutrientsfrom the soil.176

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Concerning the effect of Asc. application on N percentage, it was increased by using Asc.at 200 ppm ongladiolus plants, the increment in N percentage could be explained by Talaat (1995) who found thataccumulation of nitrate by Asc.foliar application may be due to the positive effect of Asc. on root growthwhich consequently increased nitrate absorption. The increase in P percentage by Asc. treatments may beattributed to the postulation of Hanafy-Ahmed et al., (1995) who mentioned that foliar spray withAsc.might increase the organic acids excreted from the roots into the soil and consequently increase thesolubility of most nutrients which release slowly into the rhizosphere zone where it may be utilized by theplants. Hiatt and Lowe (1967) mentioned that electrostatic binding of inorganic ions by organic ions suchas organic acid is undoubtedly involved in the process of K ions accumulation.These results are in agreement with those obtained by Youssef and Talaat (2003) who reported that foliarapplication of Thia. increased the total nitrogen %, total phosphorus % and total potassium % on rosemaryplants. These increments led to quantitative changes in amino acids and specific proteins which actedpositively in cell division and cell elongation (Bekheta and Mahgoub, 2005) on carnation plants. Davis(1982) clarify that amino acids as organic nitrogenous compounds are the building blocks in synthesis ofproteins which formed by a process in which ribosome catalyze the polyerzation of amino acids.REFERENCESA.O.A.C., 1985. Official of Analysis of The Association of Agriculture Chemist. 13 th Ed. BenjaminFranklin Station, Washigton , D.C., B.O. Box 450.Abd El-Aziz, Nahed, G., A.M. Azza, Mazher and E.El-Habba, 2006. Effect of foliar spraying with ascorbicacid on growth and chemical constituents of Khya senegalensis grown under salt condition.American-Eurasian J.Agric.&Environ.Sci., 1(3): 207-214.Abd El-Aziz, Nahed, G., E.M. Fatma El-Quesni and M.M. Farahat, 2007. Response of vegetative growthand some chemical constituents of Syngonium podophyllum L. to foliar application of thiamine,ascorbic acid and kinetin at Nubaria. World J.Agric.Sci., 3(3): 301-305.Abo-Dahab, T.A.M. and G. Nahed, Abdel-Aziz, 2006. Physiological effect of diphenylamine andtryptophan on the growth and chemical constituents of Philedendron erubescene plants. World, J.of Agric Sci., 2(1): 75-81.Ahmed, Hebat Allah, A.H., 2008. Amelioration of salinity effect in fenugreek plant by polyamines. M.Sc.Thesis Fac.of Sci. Al-Azhar Univ.Balbaa, L.K., 2002. Physiological effect of ascorbic acid and kinetin on growth and chemical constituentsof Tagets minuta L. Egypt. J. Appl. Sci.,17: 249-267.Bekheta, M.A. and M.H. Mahgoub , 2005. Application of Kinetin and phenylalanine to improve floweringcharacters, vase life of cut flowers as well as vegetative growth and biochemical constituents ofcarnation plants. Egypt. J. Appl. Sci.,20(6A): 234-246.Bidwell, R.G.S., 1979. plant Physiology, 2 nd Ed., 236-238, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. New York.Blokhina, O.; E. Virolainen and K.V. Fagerstedt, 2003. Antioxidant, oxidative damage and oxygendeprivations stress. A Review Ann. Bot., 91:179-194.Cohen, S.S., 1998. A guide to the polyamines. Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford.Cottenie, A., M.Verloo, L. Kiekens, G. Velghe and R. Camerlynck. 1982. Chemical Analysis of Plant andSoil. Laboratory of Analytical and Agrochemistry. Sate Univ. Ghent, Belguim, pp:100-129.Davies, D.D., 1982. Physiological aspects of protein turn over. Encycl. Plant Physiol. New Series, 14 A(Nucleic acids and proteins: structure biochemistry and physiology of proteins). 190-288., Ed.Boulter, D. and Partheir, B. Spring Verlag. Berlin, Heidelberg and New York.Devlin, R.M., 1969. Plant Physiology. 2 nd Ed.p. 164, S. Muthiah at Tamil and Printers and Traders Pvt.Ltd, Madra, India.Dubois, M.; F. Smith, K.A.G. Gilles, J.K. Hamilton and P.A. Robers , 1966. Colorimetric method fordetermination of sugars and related substances. Anal. Chem., 28: 350-356.El-Bassiony, H.M. and M.A. Bekheta, 2001. Role of putrescine on growth regulation of stomatal aperture,ionic contents and yield by two wheat cultivars under salinity stress. E.J. Physiol. Sci., 2-3: 235-258.El-Fawakhry, F.M. and H.F. El-Tayeb, 2003. Effect of some amino acids and vitamins on chrysanthenumproduction. J.Agric. Res.Alex.Univ., 8(4): 755-766.El-Kobisy, D.S., K.A. Kady, R.A. Medani and R.A. Agamy, 2005. Response of pea plant (Pisum sativumL.) to treatment with ascorbic acid. Egypt.J.Appl.Sci., 20:36-50.Farahat, M.M.; M.M. Soud Ibrahim, S.L. Lobna, Taha and E.M. Fatma El-Quesni, 2007. Response ofvegetative growth and some chemical constituents of Cupressus sempervirens L. to foliarapplication of ascorbic acid and zinc at Nubaria. World J. of Agric.Sci., 3(3):282-288.177

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Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Shawky, Neveen, B.T., 2003. Physiological studies on the effect of salinity, ascorbic acid and putrescine onsweet pepper plant. Ph.D. Thesis, Fac.Agric., Cairo Univ., Egypt.Slocum, R.D. and H.E. Flores, 1991. Biochemistry and physiology of polyamines in plants. CRC Pres,Boca Raton, p. 264.Smirnoff, N. , 1996. The function and metabolism of ascorbic acid in plants. Annals, Bot., 78:661-669.Steel, R.G.D. and J.H. Torrie, 1980. Principles and Procedures of Statistics. Second Edition, M.C. Graw-Hillbook Co. Inc., New York, Toronto, London.Suttle, J.C., 1981. Effect of polyamines on ethylens production. Phytochemistry, 20, 1477.Talaat, N.B., 1995. Physiological studies on reducing the accumulation of nitrate in some vegetable plants.M.Sc. Thesis, Agric. Bot. Dept., Fac. Agric. Cairo Univ, Egypt.Talaat, N.B., 2003. Physiological studies on the effect of salinity, ascorbic acid and putrescine of sweetpepper plant. Ph.D. Thesis , Fac. Agric., Cairo Univ., Egypt.Wahba, H.E; M.M. Safaa, G.E. Attoa and A.A. Farahat , 2002. Response of Antholyza acthipoica L. tofoliar spray with some amino acids and mineral nutrition with sulphur. Annals of Agric.Sci. CairoUniv., 47(3): 929-944.Wilfret, G.J. 1992. Gladiolus, In: Introduction to Floriculture. (R.A. Larson ed.), pp.114 – 157. AcademicPress, New York.Youssef, A.A.; R.A. El-Mergawi and M.S.A. Abd El-Wahed, 2004. Effect of putrescine and phenylalanineon growth and alkaloid production of some Datura species. J.Agric.Sci. Mansoura univ., 29: 4037-4053.Youssef, A.A. and Iman, M. Talaat, 2003. Physiological response of rosemary plants to some vitamins.Egypt.Pharm.J., 1:81-93.Youssef, A.A., Mona H. Mahgoub and Iman, M. Talaat, 2004. Physiological and biochemical aspects ofMatthiola incana L. plants under the effect of putrescine and Kinetin treatments. Egypt. J.App.Sci.,19(9B).Youssef, E.A.E., 2007. Increasing drought tolerance of gladiolus plants through application of some growthregulators. M.Sc. Thesis, Fac. Agric., Zaggazig Univ., Egypt.179

Ozean Journal of Applied ScienceISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationOzean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Cassava Marketing: Option for Sustainable Agricultural Development in NigeriaYisa Akanfe AwoyinkaGraduate Student, Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, NigeriaE-Mail: ykprogress@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Recognizing Nigeria’s tremendous agricultural potentials, Nigerian government now accepted theview that the country should resolved unequivocally to make agriculture the mainstay of the economy. Thestudy, therefore investigated effectiveness of cassava marketing policy and its contribution to agriculturesector development in Nigeria. While the policy design have potential contributions to agriculturaldevelopment in Nigeria, the policy framework failed to incorporate strategies for combating perennialconstraints to effective and efficient cassava marketing in Nigeria. Therefore, sustainable policy issues andoptions for cassava marketing require different strategies for both domestic and international markets anddifferent strategies for minimizing the problems confronting cassava marketing in Nigeria.Keywords: Cassava marketing policy analysis, Agricultural development_______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONRecognizing Nigeria’s tremendous Agricultural potentials, the government has in accepted the view that thecountry should resolve most unequivocally to make agriculture the mainstay of the economy. Agriculturaldevelopment means among other things increasing agricultural productivity to generate substantial surpluses.The issues of surpluses lead to the issue of marketing. Production of surpluses should occur simultaneouslywith adequate processing, storage and distribution if the surpluses are not to waste. In other words, surpluseswithout appropriate processing may bring about significantly increased post-harvest regime losses, which canenormously reduce expected productivity and income in the agricultural sector (RUSEP 2002).Nigeria is currently the largest cassava producer in the world with estimated annual production of about 40million metric tones. About 90% of this is however, consumed as food. The country is yet to fully harness thesocio-economic potentials of cassava that would translate to higher ranking of cassava next to petroleum asmajor contributor to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). The presidential initiative on cassava has set inmotion the process of achieving on annual basis 5 billion dollars (US $5.0 billion) from export of cassava inthe next 3-5 years. This plan also involve building of the domestic productive capacity to efficiently,profitable and sustainable satisfy the new market demand with the quality and quantity required to realize theobjective. One of the strategies put in place to realize this noble objective is the establishment of 6-farmgateprimary processing centers. However, lack of funds to procure essential processing machinery andequipment, which will create increase demand for cassava product, has been a problem (Presidential Initiativeon Cassava Reports 2003)Evidence has shown that cassava production has been increased from 1999 to date. (FMARD 2004),however, post harvest system such as processing, packaging, marketing storage distribution andtransportation have constrained sustainable cassava production in recent times (RUSEP 2000). This hasresulted into substantial losses, which complicate food insecurity status in terms of available calorie dietaryconsumption. Studies have shown that efficient marketing system stimulates agricultural production(Awoyinka and Ikpi 2005: Adesope et al, 2005). However, marketing of food in Nigeria has beencharacterized with a lot of deficiencies (Adekanye, 1970 and Abdullahi 1983). These deficiencies haveconstrained sustainable agricultural development in one way or the other. In Nigeria, several policy studies175

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009(Mayong et al., 2003; Presidential Initiative on Cassava, 2003) have been commissioned to identify potentialcontributions of agricultural marketing policy to agricultural development, these studies, however, failed toincorporate strategies for combating perennial constraints to effective and efficient food marketing in Nigeria.Since sustainable food policy issues and options require different strategies for both domestic andinternational markets and different strategies for minimizing the problems confronting cassava marketing, itis important to identify strategies for minimizing constraints to food at the different levels, as well asincorporation of these strategies into food marketing policy framework. This study, therefore, investigatedeffectiveness of cassava marketing policy and its contribution to agriculture sector development in Nigeria, inparticular, the policy design and its potential contributions to agricultural development in Nigeria. Theremaining part of this study is organized into six more sections: Section II reviews potential of cassavamarketing to economic development of Nigeria, while Section III discusses the agricultural marketingreforms. Section IV presents an assessment of presidential initiative on cassava marketing in Nigeria, whileSection V identifies and itemizes problems associated with agricultural marketing in Nigeria. Section VIpresents policy issues and options for sustainable cassava marketing, while Section VII concludes the studywith relevant policy recommendations for future food marketing policy framework.Section II: Potential of Cassava Marketing In Economic Development of NigeriaThe Potentials of Cassava marketing to agricultural and overall economic development are immense(RUSEP, 2000). These include:- Guaranteed supply of farm products to the firms may stimulate expansion in farm productionactivities;- Value addition to primary commodities through domestic processing is given a dynamicrationale on the basis of the Prebisch-Singer thesis that postulates a structural Tendency for thenet barter terms of trade to deteriorate relatives to manufacturers.- Processing activities that are initially labour intensive can in the long term conform to thedynamic comparative advantage of most developed nations, smallholder fanners will escapefrom the syndrome of producing low value and poor quality products.- Diversification in terms of the products, technology as well as the size firms in the cassava subsectors.- It may lead to increased prices of cassava tuber due to local utilization of cassava, which ceterisparibus increases income of the farmers.- Value addition to cassava may lead to export-oriented industrialization through chain upgrading.- Improved post-harvest systems with strong linkages between crop producers and end users notonly generate added value but also create employment opportunities in rural areas, therebycontributing to economic growth and poverty reduction.- Employment generation in all spheres of cassava marketing. The indirect advantage ofrewardable employment in farming activities is the reduction in rural urban migration.- Development of entrepreneurship in order to create a vacuum for individual creativity andinnovations that can accelerate sustainable industrial growth.- Generate a vacuum for wealth creation and improvement in socioeconomic welfare of thecitizenry.- Contributing to economic and social development through the reduction of inefficienciesincluding friction between trading partners, wasted effort by producers and others and foodwaste, thereby leadings to more efficient production and marketing of existing and new foodproducts.While the above mentioned contributions are appreciated, it suffices to note that the expected contributionshave not been met after Six years of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava Production and Marketing in Nigeria.The reasons adduced to this ugly trend include, among others, fluctuating market price, which distortedexpected marketing margins, insufficient processing firms, low consumer taste to emerging cassava products(Cassava flour, and cake) and low comparative advantage of Nigeria’s cassava products at the internationalmarkets. These findings revealed that the targets of agricultural marketing reforms were not met after Sixyears of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava Production and Marketing in Nigeria.176

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Agricultural Marketing ReformsAgricultural Development has been constrained by marketing of commodities (Olatunbosun and Olayide,1974) especially staple food (Adekanye, 1973, Adesope et al, 2006). To this effect Government put upmarketing reforms in order to encourage the development of agriculture sector. The elements of themarketing reforms are as follows:- Trade liberalization measures which include abolition of commodity marketing boards abolitionof many import levis, reduction of some excise and export duties and reduction of the number ofprohibited import items;- Export promotion of non-oil goods including agricultural commodities. This includes allowingexporters to keep all their foreign exchange, earnings in domiciliary account from which theycould freely draw for their foreign exchange translation.- Also export financing by commercial banks was facilitated through discounting facilities of theCentral Bank of Nigeria.- Abolition of import substitution reform. These involve the selective use of import regulations torestrict or ban the importation of many types of food and industrial raw materials so as toencourage their local production.- Establishment of three commodity marketing companies; which includes AgriculturalCommodities marketing Company (ACDMC), Tree Crops Development and MarketingCompany (TCDMC) and Livestock and Fishery Development and Marketing Company(LFDMC). The ACDMC has mandate for developing and marketing of maize, rice, sorghum,kenaf, groundnut, cotton sesame seed, roots and tubers. The TCDMC has mandate fordevelopment and marketing of cocoa, oil-palm, rubber, cashew, coffee, mangoes, dates timberand gum Arabic; while the LFDM has mandate for cattle, sheep goats, poultry piggery, fish andfishery, aquatic and marine products.- Establishment of Commodity Exchange Company (CEC) to transact business in commodityexchange in similar manner to the stock exchange.- Reinvigoration of the storage systems with emphasis on small-scale storage of commodities.These are however, large-scale strategic gain reserve across the country.- Promotion of Agricultural Export through the Export Processing Zone (EPZs)These above mentioned measures to reform agricultural marketing sub-sector are laudable, however, most ofthe targets in agricultural marketing reform have not been met due to policy inconsistency and reversal.Policy instability is a major constraint to sustainable agricultural development in Nigeria (Idachaba, 2000).Among various agricultural policies in Nigeria (Table 1), agricultural production for domestic marketingranked first, while foreign investment in agriculture was rated last. This implies that the most agriculturalproducts are produced for local markets. Most agricultural marketing policies were also rated low. Thus,desired rate of agricultural development without favourable marketing policies can not be achieved. This isalso peculiar to cassava marketing in Nigeria (Adesope et al., 2005).Table 1: The Place of Marketing Policy in Nigeria’s Agricultural PolicyPolicies On Rank PositionAgricultural input supply to farmers 2.83 4Agricultural input demand by farmers 2.19 2Foreign Investment in Agriculture 8.83 20Domestic Investment in Agriculture 4.00 5Commercialization of Agriculture 6.17 14Agricultural Production for domestic market 1.83 1Agricultural Production for export market 5.33 8Agricultural Commodity storage 7.17 18Agricultural Commodity processing 6.17 15Agricultural Commodity transport distribution and information 6.5(1) 16177

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Domestic Agricultural commodity trade 2.67 3Agricultural commodity export 5.83 11Agricultural commodity utilization 5.5 9Agricultural research & technology development 4.33 7Agricultural technology adoption 4.00 6Food Security 5.50 9Poverty Reduction 5.83 11Closing Gender gap 6.00 13Vulnerable groups 6.67 17Sustainable /environmental management 7.50 19Source Mayong et al 2003Assessment of Presidential Initiative on Cassava:Presidential initiative on cassava was designed to mobilize Nigerians to fully and profitably tap the potentialsof cassava, which hitherto had remained largely unharnessed. The initiative was also designed to encourageforeign exchange earnings, through the export of cassava end products such as cassava pellets, cassava chipsand cassava starch; to develop domestic industries that were involved in production of value added productssuch as ethanol, glucose syrup and adhesives to encourage rural industrialization and rural job creation thatwould engender enhanced rural income and reduce rural urban migration. Marketing Issues in Cassavainitiative include, building domestic capacity to efficiently profitably and sustainable satisfy the new marketdemand with quality cassava required to realize the income target; carrying out massive intervention in thearea of prevention of post harvest loses in order to take care of the large volume of excess productionexpected; vigorously embarking on cassava processing both on farm and create a wide range of diversifiedcassava products that can enter emerging cassava market; promoting local industrial utilization of cassavaproducts; promoting export to meeting the target earning of US$5.0 billion; creating marketing linkage toindustries and promoting cooperative development.The implementations strategies involve for the marketing component of the initiatives include,encouragement of stakeholders to form Cooperative Associations for production, processing and marketing;domiciliation of funds at the Nigeria Agricultural Cooperative and Rural Development bank (NACRDB)Bank of Industry (BO) and Nigeria Export and Import Bank (NEXIM) for on-lending to farmers and otherstakeholders for production processing and marketing; importation of relevant prototype machines andequipment for processing and packing; pursuit of market development through trade missions, publicity andadvertisement exhibitions and trade fairs.The performance evaluation of marketing component of cassava initiative, include, establishment of cassavaprocessing centers in each Local Government Authority (LGA) of the cassava producing states andfabrication and production of processing equipment for the establishment of six processing centers have beencompleted.In terms of processing development, there is an upsurge in private sector investment in the small and mediumscale agro processing plants. The programme has also led to the emergence of small equipment developmentand fabrication industries for the processing of cassava. Also, a better collaboration now exists between themainstream fabricators (e.g NOVA Technology) and Institutional fabricators e.g National Center forAgricultural Mechanization, Ilorin (NCAM). Substantial numbers of locally fabricated machines have beensold in Nigeria and the West African sub-region.Other contributions of cassava initiatives include positive influence on employment creation, incomegenerating capacity and food security of Nigeria house holds. This was reflected by the substantial increasein private sector investment in the cassava downstream activities. For instance, Ekha Agro Farms is nowinvesting over N2.4 billion in Glucose Syrup plant along Lagos/Ibadan Expressway. The farm is alsocollaborating with over 3,000 cassava out-growers in order to guarantee the source of raw materials. Othernew areas of investment that were propelled by the new presidential initiative on cassava include investment178

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009In flour and confectionary Industry. Available evidence at the Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi(FIIRO), International Institute of Tropical Agricultural (IITA), Federal Ministry of Agriculture and RuralDevelopment (FMA&RD) indicate that cassava flour can be incorporated into wheat to produce quality snackfoods like bread, biscuit and cakes. Government has legislation for the inclusion of 10% cassava flour (with90% wheat flour) in the production of bread and other confectionery; there is a huge market for cassava flourfor bakery and confectionery. The Nigerian Yeast and Alcohol Manufacturing Company (N1Y AMCO) wasable to produce ethanol from cassava from 1995 to 2000. It recorded a yield of 380 to 410 litres of ethanolper tonne of cassava starch. The plant however, folded up because of mismanagement and lack of financialsupport. Currently, little fuel grade ethanol is being produced in Nigeria current annual national demand forethanol is put at 90 million litters as shown by Table 2.Table 2: Current Ethanol Demand In NigeriaIndustryAnnual Consumption (million litres)Liquor blending 40.4Plastics 12.9Petrol-Chemical 78Cosmetics 6.9Paints 3.6Brewing/Bottling 17Other 5.2Total 90Source: Obasanjo Reforms Cassava Initiatives, 2006:The Ethanol Monitoring Group had proposed a five-year development schedule to produce 350 million litresof ethanol by year 2010. Table 3 showed its demand for dry cassava chips and fresh cassava roots whichstood at 1.4 million tones and 5.6 million tonnes respectively.S/NTable 3: Cassava Utilization for Ethanol: A Five Year Development SchemeCassavaRequirement(million tonnes)LandRequirementMillion haEthanolProductionMillion litresExpectedincomeUS($) millionDry Chips Fresh RootsR1 0.6 2.4 0.03 150 60R2 0.8 3.2 0.04 200 80R3 1.0 4.0 0.05 250 100R4 1.2 4.8 0.06 300 120R5 1.4 5.6 0.07 350 140Source: Obasanjo reforms Cassava Initiative 2006.The trend in price received by producers and income generated from cassava is presented in Tables and 4.Table 4 indicates the pattern of movement in nominal and real prices of cassava while table 5 indicates thepattern of movement in income generated from cassava over the years. In nominal terms, growth in pricesreceived by cassava fanners per tome of cassava over the years declined from 54.36% in 2001 to 5.10% in2003, it stagnated in 2004, increased to 3.44% in 2005. However, in real terms, prices received by farmershad decreased consistently from 29.88% in 2001 to 0.83% in 2004. High inflation rates that resulted fromnaira devaluation may partly contribute to the declining trend in the real prices of cassava over the years. It isimportant to note that the increase in nominal prices of cassava from 2003 to 2005 may be an incentive fornew investment in cassava production and this could partly contribute to increase in output during the period.179

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Table 4: Prices Received by Cassava Farmers (Naira per tonnes)Nominal Growth rare % Real Growth rate %2000 14317 3992001 22100 5436 518 29882002 20180 869 4.19 -19112003 19150 510 349 -16772004 19150 0 346 -0.832005 19810 3442000 - 2005 19118 880Source: National Bureau of Statistics Abuja 2005.On the basis of the trend in prices, the output of cassava, income realized by cassava producers over the yearswas estimated and presented in Table 5. Growth in nominal income declined from 54.64% in 2001 to 4.63%in 2003. From the 2003 level, it increased to 16% in 2004 declined again to 2.30% in 2005. In real termsgrowth in producer income declined consistently from 30.11% in 2001 to 16.35% in 2003. In 2004 there wasa recovery in the growth of income when the income recorded 15.04% growth. The recovery in growth ofincome realized from cassava in 2004 can be attributed to tremendous growth in output of cassava (16%) inthe same year. It is noteworthy that in 2004, growth in nominal price stagnated while that has engenderedcassava declined marginally. Thus cassava initiative has engendered higher income that resulted fromincreased output supply of the crop in 2004.Table 5: Prices Received by Cassava Farmers (Naira per Tonnes)Nominal Growth rare % Real Growth rate %2000 458287.17 1 127.672001 708702.80 54.64 166.05 30.112002 660874.82 6.75 137.17 -17.392003 630283.95 4.63 114.74 -16.352004 731127.85 16.00 132.00 15.042005 714308.98 2.302000 - 2005 650597.60 11.39Source: Underlying Data obtained from Federal Ministry of Agriculture and National Bureau of StatisticsProblems Associated with Agricultural Marketing in NigeriaAgricultural marketing efficiency has been bedeviled by both external and internal market related factors(ECA, 1970, Adekanye, 1977). These factors are also peculiar to cassava marketing in Nigeria (FMARD2004). Agricultural markets are poorly developed and had remained so far many years. The markets mayhave served the economy well in the past but currently inadequate in the face of growing demand for productsdue to population growth and changing dietary demand patterns. The inadequacy of transport services in ruralNigeria is palpable. Rural feeder roads are either absent or in very poor conditions. The entire ruralcommunities rely mainly in human transport and the high cost of human portage apart from being too slowresults in high costs marketing high consumer prices and low producer prices.Agricultural marketing information is scarce in Nigeria because the required data are not available and thoseavailable are not well managed to generate the required information to support decision making by theproducers, consumers, government officials and other market participants. There are no official or organizedways of transmitting price information in Nigerian’s agricultural markets; therefore there is no mechanism forcoordinating production activities of the millions of farmers with the demand of millions of individual,corporate and institutional consumers. The paucity of data and information also limit forecasting planningfarm management and marketing practices. Another problem associated with the poor marketing foragricultural produce in Nigeria is the existence of an inefficient and inadequate storage system. As a180

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009consequence there is a substantial waste at the farm level and the poor storage system also contributes toprice fluctuations in the agricultural markets whereby produce prices are low during harvest time’s adverselyaffecting farmer incomes. At times the price fluctuations are magnified by speculative activities in the face ofscarcity of market information all in favour of marketers only further aggravating the poor economic positionof farmers. A related problem to the prevailing poor storage system is the low level of processing ofagricultural produce in Nigeria. In view of the low level of food processing in Nigeria for example the use ofthis activity in increasing effective supply of food as well as solve some nutritional problems of humanbeings is not possible. Also the limited nature of raw agricultural produce processing limits how thispotentially flourishing agribusiness can contribute t enhancing the economics value of food, improvingfanners income by providing additional outlets for their produce, particularly in the harvest seasons whenprices tend to he low, generating employment, enhancing the storage of food and other produce, and reducingdependence on imported processed food and other agro-industrial products. In addition to problemsassociated with inadequacy of processing facilities for food and other agricultural produce in Nigeria, there isa such as irradiation and freeze dying to reduce rotting in particular and spoilage in general and therebyincreasing effective agricultural supplies in the country.Another economic problem associated with agricultural marketing in Nigeria has to do with the absence ofstandardization of products in the market place. Standardized system of grading and measurement, whichenhances marketing efficiency, is not a feature of agricultural markets in Nigeria. Grades are determinedarbitrarily by sizes, colour or smell. Measures come in various types of metal and plastic bowls, dishes, tinsbasket and calabashes. Most of the measures are susceptible to manipulation to change volume, in an attemptto take the advantage of buyers. This is why quantities vary within markets, across markets and from time inthe market place. The use of weighing scales is limited which explains why prices are determined by hagglingbetween sellers and buyers. In addition, sorting and packaging activities are not carried out further reducingthe ability of using a sound marketing system to boost farmers’ income and ensure adequate protection ofconsumers in the country.Agricultural produce supply and price instabilities characterized the Nigerian agricultural markets. By thenature of agricultural production in Nigeria and the limitation imposed by the marketing problemshighlighted previously, farmers in Nigeria generally adjust current productions according to prevailing pricesin the immediate past period or season. When the price of commodity is lower than expected in a particularseason due to period to over supply into the market, farmers will cut back on production and supply less intothe market the next period. This subsequent short supply in the next time leads to supply and price gyrationswhich follow a cobweb-like pattern which may be explosive depending on how elastic the supply side of thecommodity market is. In summary agricultural marketing problems that relates to cassava marketing inNigeria includes:- Poor market information system- Low market demand of value-added products by the consumers- Limited purchasing power of consumers- Stiff competition between the firms, in terms of location, quality of food and prices- Increasing costs of marketing functions irregular power supply which push the firm to source ofalternative (generator) and this increases transaction cost.Policy Issues and Option for Sustainable Cassava Marketing in NigeriaIn order to enhance sustainable cassava marketing for sustainable agricultural and economic development, thefollowing policy issues are relevant for policy design and framework for policy analysis in food marketing inNigeria:- The right policy environment and target incentives for private investment in the cassavamarketing sub-sector must be created, as well as foster effective linkages with industry toachieve maximum value-added and processing for export;- Involve NGOs and the opinion leaders in cassava marketing by building capacity of potentialmarketer is equally important;181

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009- Promote integrated rural development involving agricultural and non-agricultural activitiesthrough the provision of physical infrastructures such as feeder roads, rural water supply andrural communications. Adequately capitalize the NACRD to provide soft agricultural credit andrural finance to the marketers is imperatives; and- Promote joint venture, private sector managed multi-commodity development and marketingcompanies to guarantee remunerative prices for formers, stabilize consumers’ prices and providealternative markets for farm produce through a buyer of last resort is constantly needed forsustainable cassava marketing in Nigeria.CONCLUSIONThe improvement in marketing has been widely recognized as one of the most effective ways for increasingthe productivity of agriculture. It can help the farmer in many ways. It can promote the development of newand more secure markets for his products. It can reduce the costs of exchange services, storage andtransportation, thereby reducing the gap between farm and consumer prices to the mutual advantage of theparties. As far as marketers are concerned the basic problems of marketing are a reflection of the scale, ofproduction external economies and general marketing environment. One area where direct impact can bemade by training is the encouragement of domestic food processing, a move which would reduce on-the-farmwastage and enable the farmer utilize for the market many farm and bush resources now ignored. Althoughmuch is already known of the exciting possibilities of local produce, application now does not reach muchbeyond school domestic science classes and the occasional spectacular public demonstrations by GovernmentAgencies. And this is not one of the skills usually available among the extension staff.Considerable scope also lies in the establishment and operation of collective storage and marketing facilitiesthrough co-operative. This would not only enable farmers to take advantage of improved technology possibleat the larger collective bargaining position in the market vis-a-vis the professional traders. Agriculturalmarketing co-operatives have been established mainly for the export trade where they operate as licensedbuying agents of the commodity boards. The more complex problem of domestic marketing requires furtherstudy before management prescription can be made.On the other hand, the extension approach can make very useful contribution to marketing. The disseminationof regular, accurate and detailed market information by the extension services will be of immense help to thefarmer in planning his marketing. But the extension staffs first have to be trained in the whole field of thescientific collection and assessment of agricultural data.It is also necessary to make government institutions more professional in their market-oriented functions. Inparticular the commodity boards, the development corporations, and the food production and marketingcompanies needs staff with professional training in agricultural economics and marketing, if they are to becreatively involved in stimulating increased agricultural output and more efficient marketing. The higheragricultural training institutions should develop the necessary competence to offer this.REFERENCESAbdullahi (1983): The role of Agriculture in reversing the present economics crisis in Nigeria, A publiclecture organized by Nigerian Institute of Social and Economic Research (NISER) delivered at University ofCalabar, 25 November, 1983Adekanye, T. O. (1970): The markets for food stuffs in Western Nigeria, Journal of African Studies, No. 3(1): 71-76Adekanye, T. O. (1975): A rice grading scheme for Nigeria, Quarterly Journal of Administration, Vol IX (3):172-185.Adekanye, T. O. (1977): Market Structure for Food: Problems and Prospects for Rural Development inNigeria, Paper presented at the conference in rural development, University of Science and Technology,Ghana, April, 1977Adesope, A. A. A.; Awoniyi, O. A. and Y. A. Awoyinka (2006): Social Capital and Mango Marketing in OyoState, Nigeria, Proceedings of Annual Conference of Horticultural Society of Nigeria, HORTSON, 2008182

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Adesope, A. A. A.; Awoyinka Y. A. and D. A. Babalola (2005): Analysis of Marketing Margins andEfficiency of Group Marketing in Osun State, Nigeria ACTASATECH Journal, Vol.Awoyinka, Y. A and A. E. Ikpi (2004): Economics of Farm Income and Technical Efficiency of Resources inJigawa State Industrial Sugar Cane Project, Journal of Economics and Rural Development, Vol. 14 (2):1-20Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (FMARD, 2004): Annual ReportIdachaba, F. S. (2000): Workable and Desirable Agricultural Policies for Nigeria in the First Decade of the21 st Century, the First in the Series of Departmental Lectures on Topical Issues in Nigeria Agriculture,Department of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan.Mayong, V, M. N.; A. E. Ikpi; J.K Olayemi; S. A. Yusuf; B.T.Omonona; V. O. OKoruwa and F. S. Idachaba(2003): Agriculture in Nigeria: Identifying opportunities for increased commercialization andinvestment. Research Report Commissioned by USAID/IITA/UINational Bureau of Statistics Abuja (2005): Annual Report.Obasanjo reforms Cassava Initiative 2006.Olatunbosun, D. and S. O. Olayide (1974): Effects of the Nigerian CommodityMarketing Board System on the Output and Income of Primary Producers, Nigerian Institute of Social andEconomic Research (NISER) publication, pp 1-46.Presidential Initiatives on Cassava (2003): Downloaded fromhttp://www.mistowa.org/files/CAFSTON/Presidential%20Initiative%20-%20FDA.pdf.Rural Sector Enhancement Programme (RUSEP, 2002): Proceedings of National Stakeholders Workshop onRural Development, IITA Publication, Ibadan, Nigeriia.183

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationEffect of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava Production Efficiency in Oyo State -NigeriaYisa Akanfe AwoyinkaDepartment of Agricultural Economics, University of Ibadan, NigeriaE-Mail: ykprogress@yahoo.com______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The study examined the effect of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava (PIC) on productivity of cassavaand technical efficiency in Oyo State, Nigeria. A stratified random sampling was used to collect primary datafrom 290 farmers under PIC (RTEP and ADP) and non-PIC farmers; and data analyzed with stochastic frontierfunction model. Farmers under PIC are young, educated, belong to food crop organization and have access toextension services on cassava production. There is significant difference in output of cassava harvested betweenPIC farmers and non-PIC farmers, with farmers under PIC having more than double of harvested cassava tuberper unit of land than non-PIC farmers. Farmers under PIC are more technically efficient than non-PIC farmers,which confirm that PIC programme positively enhances cassava productivity and technical efficiency. Thus,sustainable food security programme requires programme intervention for efficient service delivery to the targetgroup with sensible institutional and capacity building._______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONNigeria is currently the largest cassava producer in the world with estimated annual production of about 40million metric tones. About 90% of this is however, consumed as food. The country is yet to fully harness thesocio-economic potentials of cassava that would translate to higher ranking of cassava next to petroleum asmajor contributor to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Having realized that the contribution of the agriculturesector had significantly dropped from being a major foreign exchange earner and resource reservoir to thepresent status of low supply deficits in both food and industrial crops, President Obasanjo in 1999 convenedseveral stakeholders’ fora on Cassava, Rice, Vegetable Oil Development Programme (VODEP) and Tree Crops.This led to the inauguration of various committees under the chairmanship of the Honourable Minister ofAgriculture and Rural Development, Malam Adamu, Bello that developed the blueprint for the implementationof the “Presidential Initiatives on Cassava, Rice, VODEP and Tree Crops. The blueprints were subsequentlyapproved by the Federal Executive Council (FEC) with the recommendation that the take-off funds be madeavailable for project implementation. In the Presidential Initiative on Cassava (PIC) strategies was set in motionto achieve, on annual basis, 5 billion dollars (US $5.0 billion) from export of cassava in the next 3-5 years. Thisplan also involve building of the domestic productive capacity to efficiently, profitable and sustainable satisfythe new market demand with the quality and quantity required to realize the objective (Presidential Initiative onCassava Reports, 2003)Following this effort, cassava production has been on the increase from 1999 to date (FMARD 2004), however,majority of the staple crops farmers have not been mainstreamed into Presidential Initiatives on Cassavaprogramme, on account of failure of previous and similar food security programmes of Nigerian Government.To avert this situation, the Presidential Initiatives on Cassava (PIC) was developed workable strategies for theimplementation of Cassava Production Project. Among the strategies are production of 9.2 million bundles ofbreeder stock by the year 2007 by the National Root Crops Research Institute (NRCRI), Umudike; productionof 73.2 million bundles of foundation stock by the Root and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP); productionof 250.0 million bundles of certified stock by the year 2007 by the State Agricultural Development Programme185

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009(ADPs). The ADPs established multiplication centres to enable farmers have access to improve Cassavavarieties. In 2004, the targets were reviewed as follows: production of Breeder Stock (BS) by the National RootCrops Research Institute (NRCRI) Umudike; production of 72,000 bundles of Foundation Stock (FS) by theRoot and Tuber Expansion Programme (RTEP); production of 576,000 bundles of Certified Stock (CS) bystates’ Agricultural Development Projects (ADP). The modest achievements recorded since 2004 are as follows:27.5ha foundation stocks planted by RTEP to produce 11,000 cassava bundles and provision of plantingmaterials to Ekha Agro Farms for the take-off of the planting of its 6,000 ha farm by RTEP.Sequel to this achievement, farmers in Oyo State have adopted cassava planting materials from RTEP and ADPand produced cassava for both domestic and industrial markets (OYSADEP, 2006). The effect of thisPresidential Initiative Cassava (PIC) on technical efficiency in cassava production is a subject of debate frompolicy makers, crop farmers and stakeholders in food crop programme/policy intervention. Several studies inNigeria (Amaza and Olayemi, 1999, Awoyinka and Ikpi, 2004, Awoyemi, 2004) on food crop production andtechnical efficiency have been carried out. These studies however, have not examined productivity differentialbetween farmers under food crop programme intervention (PIC) and non-PIC farmers. Such study onproductivity differential is needed, in order to evaluate success or otherwise of government programmes inagriculture sector. While previous study (Jagger and Pender, 2003) have revealed the importance of programmeintervention on adoption of technology, this study have not linked the impact of programme intervention ontechnical efficiency in food crop production. This study expand frontier of technical efficiency measurement bymodeling programme intervention (PIC) as a variable in the efficiency model of the stochastic frontierproduction function. Other studies elsewhere have examined the role of socioeconomic variables, in particulareducation on agricultural productivity and technical efficiency. A number of them have shown that farmers’education has important effect on agricultural production (Kibaara, 2005; Seyoum et al., 1998; Xu and Jeffery,1998; Bravo-Ureta and Evenson, 1994). These studies did not include programme intervention (PIC) as animportant variable that contributes to technical efficiency in crop production, the gap which this study filled.Furthermore, this study also examined efficiency differential among farming households on PresidentialInitiates Cassava (PIC) Programme (RTEP and ADP Presidential Initiatives on Cassava (PIC) and those outsidethe PIC programme. The Root and Tuber Expansion Project (RTEP) was formulated between 1995 and 1997 toconsolidate the gains made under the cassava Multiplication Project (CMP) of ADP in order to enhance nationalfood self sufficiency and improve rural household food security and income of poor farmers within the southernand middle belt states of the country. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) is an integrated approachwhich came into being as a result of the failure of special crop programmes to achieve rural development andfood security objectives of government in Oyo State, Nigeria. Both programmes are designed to increaseproductivity in cassava sub-sector, as well as enhancing farmers’ income from agriculture.The remaining part of this study is organized into six more sections. Section II presents the theoreticalframework and review of relevant literatures for the study, while Section III discusses methodological approachfor the study. Section IV presents results and discussion, while Section V concludes the study with policyimplication of findings.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK/LITERATURE REVIEWThe framework for the study is developed from interplay of the theory of agricultural production, agriculturalprogramme intervention (Presidential Initiatives on Cassava) and technical efficiency in agriculturalproductivity. A production function is the technical relationship between inputs and outputs; that is, a functionthat summarizes the process of conversion of factors into a particular commodity. It shows the maximumamount of the good that can be produced using alternative combinations of the various inputs. Pioneeringstudies that looked at the efficiency of farms are those by Koopman (1951) and Farrell (1957). The relevance ofefficiency in increasing agricultural production has been widely recognized and variously investigated byresearchers such as Bravo-Ureta, (1993); Ashok et al., (1995); Seyoum, (1998); Abay, Miran and Gunden,(2004); Chavas, Petrie and Roth, (2005).The concept of efficiency can be said to deal with the relative performance of the processes used in thetransformation of inputs into outputs. Economic theory’s discussion of efficiency distinguishes it into two types;allocative efficiency and technical efficiency. Farrell (1957) one of the pioneers of efficiency studies186

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009distinguished the two types of efficiency through the use of the frontier production function (Xu and Jeffrey,1998). Technical efficiency is defined by the duo as the ability to produce a given level of output with aminimum quantity of inputs under certain technology. Allocative efficiency refers to the ability of choosingoptimal input levels for given factor prices. The total efficiency otherwise called economic efficiency is theproduct of technical and allocative efficiency. The degree to which technical and allocative efficiency areachieved is referred to as production efficiency.Farm efficiency measurement is very important both in developed and developing agriculture. Its role inincreasing agricultural output is widely recognized by researchers and policy makers, for example, Bravo-Uretaand Evenson (1994). There are three distinct approaches to farm efficiency measurement, while some are basedon costs called cost frontier approach others are based on profit and production function approaches. Numerousmethods have been developed for the empirical measurement of frontier functions and the potential deviationsfrom such functions. These methods can be categorized according to the specification of the frontier –parametric or non-parametric; the way the frontier is computed, through programming or statistical procedures,and the way deviation from the frontier are interpreted, that is as inefficiency or a mixture of inefficiency andstatistical noise.According to Forsund et al.,1980 and Amara et al., 1998, a probabilistic production frontier which was put upby Aigner and Chu in 1968, was by used Timmer (1971) took the problem of outlier into account; this wasestimated with mathematical programming technique. A similar frontier production function called deterministicstochastic frontier function was later suggested by Amara et al., (1998) may be estimated using MaximumLikelihood Estimation (MLE) procedures or any other econometric technique. The deterministic approach asargued by Forsund et al., (1980) ignores the fact that farms’ performance can be affected by factors such as badweather, poor performance of machinery or breakdown of input supply which are all beyond the farmer’scontrol (Amara et al., 1998). This indicates that deviations from the efficiency frontier may be of two origins:inefficiency in input-use or random-variations in the frontier across different farms. On the other hand accordingto Kibaara (2005) and Thiam et al., (2001) the stochastic approach allows for statistical noise. Xu and Jeffrey(1998) said, given the alternative empirical tools available, the choice as to the ‘best method’ to use is still notclear. This they said may be because whichever method is adopted gives the same result. Even then, very littlework has been carried out in this area (i.e. assessing the sensitivity of efficiency measures to choice of method(Xu and Jeffrey 1998). Bravo-Ureta and Rieger (1990) compared the results of deterministic (i.e. bothprogramming and econometric analyses) and stochastic parametric efficiency models for a sample of UnitedStates (US) dairy farms. The estimates from each approach were different quantitatively. The estimates wereranked for each of the farms using the different models; the results obtained were quite similar. This accordingto Xu and Jeffrey (1998) suggests that choice between alternative models approach look arbitrary. Accordingly,there has been no consensus among researchers about the best method for estimating efficiency.A study by Battese and Coelli (1995) on paddy rice farms in Aurepalle India used panel data for 10 years andconcluded that older farmers were less efficient than the younger ones. Farmers with more years of schoolingwere also found to be more efficient, but this declined over time; this is expected as farmers grow older theenergy to do the tedious farm activities tend to decrease with age. Battese et al., (1996) used a single stagestochastic frontier model to estimate technical efficiency in the production process of wheat farmers in the fourdistricts of Pakistan, the result obtained ranged between 57 and 79 percent. According to them the older farmershad smaller technical inefficiencies as expected. Seyoum et al., (1998) in measuring technical efficiency ofmaize farmers in Eastern Ethiopia for farmers within and outside the Sasa-kawa Global 2000 project used atranslog stochastic production function and a Cobb-Douglas production function. One of their conclusions isthat younger farmers are more technically efficient than the older farmers; also farmers with more years ofschooling tend to be more efficient. Those who received more extension information tended to reduce technicalin-efficiency the more. The mean technical efficiency of farmers within the SG 2000 project was estimated to be0.94 while farmers outside the project had 0.79.From the review literature, MLE of stochastic frontier production function model is a strong analytical tool formeasurement of technical efficiency in agricultural production, because it allows joint estimation of Cobb-Douglas function and efficiency model. This study adopted MLE approach for the estimation of StochasticFrontier Production Function Model, in order to examine the impact of Presidential Initiative on Cassava (PIC)on cassava production efficiency among farming households in Oyo State, Nigeria. Except for the study of187

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Seyoum et al., that examined technical efficiency with respect to farmers under programme intervention, nostudy in Nigeria, has been conducted to examine the effect of programmes intervention on technical efficiency.The study adds to volume of literatures on efficiency study by modeling programme intervention variable intothe efficiency model.METHODOLOGYThe study was carried out in Ido Local Government Area of Oyo State where beneficiaries of RTEP and ADPare concentrated. This study area was also chosen because pilot phase of Presidential Initiative on Cassava (PIC)was very successful. The Root and Tuber Expansion Project (RTEP) was formulated between 1995 and 1997 toconsolidate the gains made under the Cassava Multiplication Project (CMP)in order to enhance national foodself sufficiency and improve rural household food security and income of poor farmers within the southern andmiddle belt states of the country. Agricultural Development Projects (ADPs) is an integrated approach whichcame into being as a result of the failure of special crop programmes to achieve rural development, and foodsecurity objectives. These two special programme have been reported as rural transformation programme in OyoState (OYSADEP, 2006).A stratified random sampling was used to select the farmers that are under Presidential Initiatives on Cassava(RTEP and ADP) and non-PIC farmers. This sampling method was chosen in order to examine the impact ofprogramme intervention variable on cassava productivity and technical efficiency differential between PICfarmers and non-PIC farmers. Primary data for the study was collected (in the year, 2008) in 3 villages (Ido,Omu Adio and Apata) in Ido Local government Area. This area was chosen because of presence of programmes.In this local government, there are farmers on Cassava Presidential Initiatives and those outside the initiatives.Based on the population of the farmers for both group, a total of 290 (120 non PIC, 90 ADP-PCI and 80 RTEP-PCI respectively) farmers (proportionate to size) were selected for the study.Analytical modelThe stochastic frontier production function model adopted for the study is specified as follow:Y = f ( β ) +eiX ie ………………………………………………. 1i= Vi −U); . …………………………………………………... 2(iWhere Y is output of the farmer 1, Xi is input, β is a vector of parameters to be estimated (including theefficiency parameter). The disturbance term e iconsist of two components V i and U i.. Where V i ˜ N (O, σ 2 v ) andU i is a one-sided error term. The two errors V i and U i are assumed to be independently distributed. The term Viis the symmetric component and permits random variation of the production function across farms; while it alsocaptures factors outside the control of the farmer. A one-sided component (U i ≥ 0) reflects technical efficiencyrelative to the stochastic frontier. If U i = 0, production lies on the stochastic frontier, while if U i > 0, productionlies below the frontier and is inefficient.The error term is assumed to follow one of three possible distributions (Bauer, 1990)i) half-normal as U ~ /N (0, σ u 2 )ii) exponential as Exp (µu, σ u 2 )iii) truncated normal at zero N~ (µu, σ u 2 )It follows σ 2 = σ v2+ σ u2σ = [σ v2+ σ u2] ½Following Jondrow et al. (1982), the Technical Efficiency (TE) of the individual farmer is calculated as theexpected values of V i conditional on Єij = V i -U i ; that is :188

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Euiεi⎡ λσ σ f ( ε⎤i)u v= ⎢ σ εiλ− ⎥σ ⎢1−F(ε λ σ ⎥⎣iσ ⎦…………………………………….3Where E is the expectation of the farm operator, F* and ƒ * are the values of the standard normal density anddistribution functions respectively. Measures of technical efficiency (TE), Technical efficiency is thencalculated as:TE = exp( −Eε ; i =1………………………………………………………..4u iiSo that 0 ≤ TE ≤ 1.The empirical model of the stochastic production frontier is specified as.In Qj = β0 + β 1 In FA j + β 2 In HL j + β 3 In FL j + β 4 In SC j + β 5 In FT j + e i……………5Efficiency component is specified as:Ui = + α 0 + α 1 In ED j + α 2 In EX j + α 3 CB j + α 4 AE j + α 5 InAG j + α 6 PC j …………… ………6Where,Q = Total output of cassava tubers (kg)FA = Size of farm land cultivated (ha)HL = Hired labour (man days)FL = Family labour (man days)SC = Quantity of planting material (kg)FT = Quantity of Fertilizer (kg)ED = Years of schoolingEX = Experience in yearsCB = Membership of association (Membership =1, non-membership = 0)AE = Farmers’ access to extension service (1 for access; 0 otherwise)AG: Farmers’ age in years.PC = Programme intervention variable (1, for beneficiaries of Presidential Cassava Initiatives, 0 otherwise)In = Natural logarithmα 0 and β 0 = Constant termsα i and β j = parameters of production function and inefficiency model to be estimated.The equation 5 and 6 was estimated by Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) with the use of “FrontierVersion 4.1” (Coelli, 1994)RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSocioeconomic and Institutional Characteristics of Cassava FarmersThe results of socio-economic characteristic of cassava farmers show that RTEP-PIC (85%) and ADP-PIC(72%) are young with average age of 38 and 41 years respectively. Non-PIC farmers are old (73%) with averageage of 65 years. In all categories of cassava farmers in the study area, male gender group dominates. RTEP-PICand ADP-PIC farmers have an average household size of 6 and 8 members respectively. These households’members are children and dependants. Non-PIC farmers, have an average household’s size of 14 members.Average years of farming experience of RTEP-PIC, ADP-PIC and non-PIC farmers are 8 and 10 and 28respectively. Majority of RTEP-PIC (74%) and ADP-PIC (69%) received formal education (primary, secondaryand tertiary), while majority of non-PIC farmers (85%) do not have formal education. Most RTEP-PIC (66%)and ADP-PIC (72%) farmers in the study area are members of Community-Based Organization (CBO)especially Food Crop Farming Organization. This is not the case for non-PIC farmers, who, though belong to189

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009CBO (Community Development and Religious) but not agricultural or food crop organization. This implies thatfarmers under PIC are those that are members of Food Crop Farming Organization. RTEP-PIC (90%) and ADP-PIC (82%) have access to extension service on cassava production, and the services are in form capacitybuilding on farm management, input use and marketing of cassava. Fewer Non-PIC farmers (12%) have accessto extension services on cassava production activities.Inputs used in Cassava ProductionThe result of inputs used in cassava production is presented in table 1 below. Major inputs used in cassavaproduction are size of farm, inorganic fertilizer, family and hired labour and planting material. On average,RTEP-PIC cultivated more farm size for cassava production than ADP-RTEP. Both groups of farmers can beregarded as medium scale cassava producers cultivating above the minimum thresholds of five hectares. Non-PIC farmers are small scale cassava producers with average farm size of less than one hectare. Man-days offamily labour utilized for cassava production was highest for RTEP-PIC farmers and lowest for non-PICfarmers. All categories of farmers used hire labour at a very low level. Quantity of planting material (stemcuttings) per unit of size of farm land was highest for RTEP-PIC and lowest for non-PIC farmers. This impliesthat RTEP-PIC farmers have more planting density than other farmers. This is expected to lead to more yield.On average, quantity of fertilizer of used in cassava production was highest for RTEP-farmers and lowest fornon-PIC farmers. This is expected because farmers under the PIC are guaranteed fertilizer supply and alsoreceived training from extension services on timely and appropriate application of fertilizer to cassava plant.Farming households used hired labour more than family labour. Average quantity of cassava output harvestedby farmers presented in table 1 shows that RTEP-PIC farmers have more output per hectare, which is more thandouble of harvested output of non-PIC. The result of t-test of difference in means (table 2) shows that there is asignificant difference between output of cassava harvested between RTEP-PIC and non PIC farmers, and ADP-PIC and non-PIC farmers. In contrast, there is no significant difference between harvested output of cassavabetween RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers.Effects of Presidential Initiatives on Cassava on Technical Efficiency FarmersThe result of Maximum Likelihood Estimates (MLE) of the parameters of the stochastic frontier productionfunction model is presented in table 3 below. The model is estimated for non PIC farmers, RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and pooled data that capture the effect of PIC on cassava productivity and technical efficiency. Theestimated sigma-signed (σ 2 ) in table 3 is significantly different from zero at the 1-percent level. This indicates agood fit and the correctness of the specified distributional assumptions of the composite error term. In addition,the magnitude of the variance ratio estimated is 0.68 for non PIC farmers, 0.97 for RTEP-PIC farmers, 0.91ADP-PIC farmers and 0.88 for pooled sample (non-PIC and PIC farmers) suggesting that systematic influencesthat are unexplained by the stochastic frontier production function are the dominant sources of errors. Thismeans that 68-percent, 97-percent, 91-percent and 88-percent of the variation in output of cassava productionamong the non PIC farmers, RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and pooled data respectively is due to differencesin technical efficiency.The estimated coefficient of land is positive for non PIC farmers, RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and pooleddata, which conform to a priori expectation and significant (P≤ 0.01). The magnitude of the coefficient of landindicates that output of cassava is inelastic to changes in the size of cultivated land area. This result agrees withfindings of Amaza and Olayemi (1999), Coelli and Battese (1996). The elasticity of cassava output harvestedwith respect to family labour is negative and it is statistically significant (P≤ 0.01) for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PICfarmers. The reverse is the case for non-PIC and pooled sample farmers. This implies that RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers utilized less of man-days of family labour in cassava production. The negative production elasticitywith respect to family labour conforms to previous findings (Battese et al., 1996; Amaza and Olayemi 1999).The production elasticity with respect to hired labour is not statistically significant for all categories of farmers.The production elasticity of the quantity of planting material used in cassava production is positive andstatistically significant (P≤ 0.01) for all categories of farmers. The result in implies that output of cassava isinelastic to the quantity of planting materials. Cassava production elasticity with respect to inorganic fertilizer ispositive and statistically significant (P≤ 0.05) for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and not significant for non-190

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009PIC and pooled farmers. This result explains the role of agricultural programme intervention in service delivery,such that RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers are guaranteed fertilizer supply under the programme, while non-PIC farmers’ are subjected to vagaries of market distortions in sourcing fertilizer for cassava production.The sources of efficiency are examined by the use of δ-coefficients in table 2. The efficiency factors arespecified as those relating to socio-economic and institutional and programme intervention variables. From theresult in table 2, the coefficient of years of education of farmers estimated is positive and statistically significant(P≤ 0.05) for RTEP-PIC, ADP-PIC farmers and pooled sample farmers, and not significant for non-PIC farmers.The implication is that RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers have more years of formal schooling and tend to bemore technically efficient in cassava production than non-PIC farmers, presumably due to their enhanced abilityto acquire technical knowledge in the programme and, which makes them move close to the frontier output.This result agrees with findings of Battese et al., (1996); Coelli and Battese (1996) and Seyoum et al., (1998). Itis very plausible that the farmers with considerable years of education respond readily to the use of improvedtechnology in agriculture.The coefficient of farming experience variable estimated is positive and statistically significant (P≤ 0.05) for allcategories of farmers. This indicates that farming experience of the farmers contributes to technical efficiency incassava production irrespective of programme intervention. This result nullifies previous finding (Amaza andOlayemi, 1999) which found farming experience as a non-efficiency factor in food crop production Thecoefficient of membership of Community Based Organization (CBO) estimated is positive and statisticallysignificant (P≤ 0.01) for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and not significant for non-PIC farmers. This meansthat farmers’ membership of viable CBO is an important factor towards improving technical efficiency incassava production, and that farmers under RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC are those that belong to CBO. Thecoefficient of membership of access to extension services on cassava production estimated is positive andstatistically significant (P≤ 0.01) for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and not significant for non-PIC farmers.This means that access to extension agents for extension services on cassava production increases technicalefficiency for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers. The coefficient of farmers’ age estimated is negative andstatistically (P≤ 0.01) for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and positive for non-PIC and pooled samplefarmers. This indicates that RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC target youth farmers in order to solve unemploymentproblem in agricultural sector, and thus technical efficiency in cassava production increases with young growingfarmers. Reverse is the case for non-PIC farmers. The coefficient of programme intervention in cassavaproduction estimated for pooled sample (non-PIC and PIC farmers) is positive and statistically significant (P≤0.01). This implies that farmers under PIC (RTEP and APD) programmes are more technical efficient than non-PIC farmers. Thus, programme intervention in terms of service delivery, institutional, capacity building andcredit and market infrastructure supports under PIC has promising effect on cassava productivity and technicalefficiency.Resource - Use EfficiencyThe farm specific resource – use efficiency indices were estimated using equation (3). The mean technicalefficiency is 0.63, 0.83, 0.79 and 0.71 for non PIC farmers, RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and pooled samplerespectively. This implies that non PIC farmers, RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers and pooled sample (allcassava farmers) in the study area are technically efficient at 63%, 83%, 79% and 71% level respectively.RTEP-PIC farmers are the most technical efficient, while non-PIC farmers are the least technical efficient (table3). To give a better indication of the distribution of the individual efficiency, frequency distribution of farmspecific efficiency is presented in table 4. The minimum efficiency index observed among the RTEP-PIC andADP-PIC farmers are 0.18 and 0.16 respectively; while that of non-PIC farmers is 0.01. The maximumefficiency index observed for RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers are 0.98 and 0.89 respectively, while that ofnon-PIC farmers is 0.68. It therefore shows that the most efficient farmers in terms of resource use had index of0.98 and the least efficient ones had resource use efficiency of 0.01. Approximately, 80% and 70% of RTEP-PIC and ADP-PIC farmers have between 50% and 100% technical efficiency levels and according to Amara et.al., (1999), these farmers are technically efficient. For non-PIC farmers only 48% have between 50% and 100%technical efficiency levels. This implies that more than half of non-PIC farmers are technically inefficient. Itshould be noted that the estimated efficiencies are purely output oriented technical efficiencies derived as theratio of observed to maximum feasible output, conditional on technology and observed input usage.191

Ozean Journal of Applied Science 2(2), 2009Constraints faced by farmers in Cassava productionFarmers under PIC programme though are better than non-PIC in terms of productivity and technical efficiency;some lingering problems towards realizing full potential of the programme were reported by the farmers. Mostimportant problem that needs urgent attention for sustainable cassava production for domestic and industrial useand export market is guaranteed market. There is poor linkage between farmers and agro-processing firms,which was one of the most important focuses of the PIC programmes. Farmers under PIC programme sell mostof their product in the competitive market to consumers more than the agro-processors. Consequently, expectedearnings per hectare were not realized. Although, cooperative effort exists among the PIC farmers, this has nottranslated into political will for negotiating for farm input at subsidized rate. Non-PIC farmers in the study areabased their non-inclusion in the PIC programmes on membership of ruling political party, such that extensionservices to them on their current problems in cassava production was very poor.CONCLUSIONThis purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of Presidential Initiative on Cassava (PIC) on farmers’technical efficiency. A stochastic production frontier function was used to carry out the efficiency analysis. Thestudy found that PIC Programme shifted farmers’ capacity from subsistence level to medium scale productionlevel. The PIC programme was found to solve input supply and service delivery problems of farmers inagricultural production. The study also found that farmers under PIC harvested more than double per unit ofland of output of cassava of non-PIC farmers. Farmers under PIC are more technically efficient than non-PICfarmers with RTEP farmers being the most technically efficient group in terms of cassava production and thisconfirms the hypothesis that programme intervention has the capacity to succour farm production problemswhile accruing more income to farmers. Farmers under PIC are youth and educated, which implies that theprogramme apart from solving the raging poverty problem, it intends to solve mass youth unemployment. Giventhe noble achievement of the some constraints that can be-deviled sustainable cassava production identified bythe farmers requires urgent attention. Since production process is stimulated by processing and efficientmarketing component, the need for stakeholders in PIC Programme to design framework for efficient linkagebetween the farm production and agro-processing is pertinent. Sustainable agricultural development recognizesthe need for efficient linkage between agricultural production and processing. This will enhance technicalefficiency in cassava production for domestic and international market. Farm input subsidies is a catalyst tosustainable agricultural production, government programmes for sustainable cassava production in order torealize the objective of increasing non-oil earnings need to incorporate farm input subsidies to at least technicalefficient farmers. This will enhance cassava productivity and technical efficiency. Finally, sidelining farmersfrom benefiting in agricultural programmes on account of non-membership of political party is an indirect wayof creating rural unemployment, which is a macro problem that sensible government intends to solve. Thus,mainstreaming of opposition party members in the agricultural programme will add to productivity pool incassava production in the study area. In conclusion, programme intervention in terms of PIC programme is asuccessful tool for rural transformation and agricultural development as confirmed from the result of this study.ACKNOWLEDGEMENTThe author acknowledges the support of zonal extension officers, who assisted in data collection for this study.The author also expresses sincere appreciation to the management of OYSADEP, in particular, my friend andcollegue, Mr. Maruf Oyedele for providing technical information used in this study.REFERENCEAbay, C., Miran, B. and Gunden, C. 2004. An analysis of Input Use Efficiency in tobacco production withrespect to sustainability: The case study of Turkey, Journal of sustainable Agriculture Vol 24 (3) Pgs 123-126.Amara, N., Traore, N., Landry, R. and Romain, B. 1999. Technical Efficiency and farmers’ Attitudes towardTechnological Innovation; The case of the Potato Farmers in Quebec; Canadian Journal of AgriculturalEconomics 17 (21-42).192

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Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationCardiorespiratory Responses of Tennis Players to Backward Slope Walking onDifferential Treadmill GradientsElvis I. Agbonlahor 1 *, Elias O. Agwubike 2 , Grace O. Ikhioya 3 , Isoken I. Osagiede 4 , Loveth N. Agbonlahor 51 Faculty of Education, Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria2 Faculty of Education, University of Nigeria, Nigeria3 Faculty of Education, Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria4 Faculty of Education,Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria5 Faculty of Education, Ambrose Alli University, Nigeria*Email-elvisagbon@hahoo.com__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: A total of thirty (30) tennis players randomly drawn participated in the study. Four variables wereexamined to reveal the impact of backward slope walking of differential treadmill gradients on cardiorespiratory system of tennis players. Thus, the f-values of heart-rate, stroke-volume, cardiac-output and max-Vo 2 were 7.466, 6.0, 5.2, and 12.372 compared to a critical value of 3.4028 respectively. Therefore, Turkey’shonesty significant difference test was used as the post-hoc analysis to identify the source of the significantdifference. Thus, as a result of the follow-up verification, the Turkeys HSD- values for heart-rate (3.61*);Stroke-volume (3.7*, 62*); Cardiac-output (3.62*) and Max- Vo 2 (3.55*) compared to a critical value of 3.53respectively. It was discovered that there was a significant difference at 5 0 gradient compared to 10 0 and 0 0(5 0 > 10 0 > 0 0 ).It was therefore recommended that backward slope walking should be used as an alternatepattern of movement to improve cardio-vascular function and proprioception.Keywords: Cardiorespiratory, Backward slope walking,Differential treadmill gradients__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONCardiorespiratory responses, which culminate into fitness, often referred to as cardiovascular fitness, isgenerally considered to be the most important aspect of physical fitness. Therefore, regular cardiorespiratoryexercise promotes fitness and provides additional health and wellness benefits that extend well beyond reducingrisks for disease (Corbin, Welk, Corbin & Welk, 2004). It is on this basis that walking is fundamental to life andliving, and it is also a natural part of life. It involves shoulders and pelvis rotation in opposite directions whilethe trunk motion contributes significantly to this movement function (McArdle, Katch & Katch, 2000). Theystressed that during walking, there is a whole body movement involving the coordination of arms and legs, andthe upper and lower extremities, which contribute to the linear and angular momentum. Consequently, there isalso intra- subject variability during walking while the ground reaction and movement of centre of gravitycaused by body weight and its distribution during motion (Hoyt, Knapik, Lanza, Jones, & Stamb, 1994) haveimplications on walking.However, walking on sloped surfaces is a challenge in our daily environment that places unique demands on thecardiorespiratory system. It is on this premise that Bates, Morrrison, and Hamill (1986) sees backward slopewalking as an activity in which one always maintain contact with the ground or equipment as a means to acquire195

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009or maintain cardiovascular fitness and create or improve muscle balance while minimizing force related traumato the lower extremities.On the treadmill however, Agwuibike and Agbonlahor (2005) viewed backward slope walking as a means oftraining athletes and non-athletes for agility and quick reaction to adjust or change positions. They emphasizedthat in stepping back or backpedaling to catch a ball, strike a ball, or retrieve implements or dodge an incomingimplements, people gain more stability which is a pre-requisite to mobility. Cirpriani (1995) asserted thatbackward slope walking is used clinically for rehabilitation of the knee, joint for patients with Patellofemoralpain, anterior cruciate ligament injuries and osteoathritis.Furthermore, Hesse, Werner, Bardeleben and Barbeau (2001) observed that backward slope walking is used forambulation training for paraplegic patients, for neurological impaired patients, for non-ambulatory patients withcerebral palsy, for hemiparetic patients, for walking after stroke and for spinal cord injury. They remarked that ithas the capability to improve walking abilities in incomplete spinal cord injured patients and also has thepotential to improve the daily living activities and motor performance. Hesse, Konrad, and Vhienrock (1999)observed that backward slope walking on treadmill could serve as a training means that can providecardiovascular fitness in ambulatory hemiparetic patients after stoke by increasing the amount of blood pumpsat each stroke and the efficiency of the heart.There is therefore, ample evidence that cardiorespiratory system is functionally implicated during backwardslope walking, to this end, the cardiorespiratory and neuromuscular systems can be exercised extensively byincorporating backward slope walking as a means of static postural control on alternating legs as well as ameans for determining sports training modalities and daily routine activities. Thus, Agwubike and Agbonlahor(2007) asserted that backward slope walking among the exercise methods is used to adjust positions such as instepping back to head a ball, catch or strike a ball or to retrieve a served tennis ball, prevent injury arising froman imbalance in the muscles. Hence, the gradient of incline of backward slope walking on the treadmill can beestablished as the units of rise or vertical displacement per horizontal unit to acquire or maintaincardiorespiratory fitness and create or improve muscle balance.Therefore, the variables of cardiorespiratory responses to backward slope walking that were analyzed in thisstudy include heart-rate, stroke-volume, Cardiac-output, and Max-V0 2 in relation to changes in treadmillgradients of the selected tennis players (participants). Thus, the overall goal of this paper was to gain insight intothe cardio-control strategies by using backward slope walking to challenge the cardiorespiratory and neuromuscularsystem and by synthesizing an analysis of lower limb biomechanics during this task. The present studytherefore analyzed the cardiorespiratory responses of tennis players to backward slope walking in relation totreadmill gradients at 0 0 , 5 0 and 10 0 respectively, thus, aimed at discovering their elicited differential cardiorespiratorycapabilities to determine work load output.HYPOTHESESThe following hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level.1. There will be no significant difference in the heart rate of the participants in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.2. There will be no significant difference in the stroke-volume of the participants in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.3. There will be no significant difference in the cardiac-output of the participants in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.4. There will be no significant difference in the Max-Vo 2 of the participants in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.196

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009METHODResearch Design: The pre-test and post-test experimental design was use in this study to gain insight into thecardio control strategies by using backward slope walking to challenge the cardio-respiratory system in relationto changes in treadmill gradients at 0 0 , 5 0 and 10 0 respectively.Sample and Sampling Technique: The simple random sampling technique was used to select the participantsfor the experiment. Thus, the experiment was conducted based on selected thirty (30) tennis players in theGateway 2006 National Sports Festival, Ogun State, Nigeria. Participants have had no leg injuries during therecent yearsInstrumentationThe research instrument used in this study was experimentation. It was an adaptation of Flynn, Connery,Smutok, Zebakos, and Weisman, (1995) Protocols. Tests and systematic observations were the main proceduresfor collecting data on individuals (participant) performing backward slope waking on the treadmill. Thetreadmill speed was set at 5.0k/m and the gradients of the treadmill was at level 0 0 , upward 5 0 , and 10 0 ,respectively, as the experimental conditions progressed. Each test participant performed movements’ three (s)times, according to each gradient to reduce experimental error. Three movements were conducted in eachgradient, for ten (10) minutes each. The mean value of each result was recorded and used for data analysis.Method of Data AnalysisRegarding the statistical treatment, the one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to test the hypotheses.It was chosen because, it can reveal the difference between and within the groups. Thus, where, there was asignificant difference, Tukey’s honesty significant difference post-hoc test was used to identify the source of thesignificance between the gradients. The alpha level was set at 0.05.RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONThe results of the present study are presented in table 1-8:Hypothesis One: There will be no significant difference in the heart-rate of the participants in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.Table 1: One way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showing difference in the heart-rate between the threegradients in backward slope walking (unit: beat. Min -1 ).Source of Variance SS Df MS F-Cal F-CriticalAmong 8.2962 2 4.14817. 7.466* 3.4028Within 13.3333 24 0.5555Total 21.6295 26Gradients 0 0 5 0 10 0Heart-rate 86.6+ 8.6 88.2 +7.1 90.1+ 7.4F-value 7.466Tukey’s HSD 0.90 3.61* 2.701975 0 > 10 0 > 0 0*Significant P>0.05; N =30; Turkey’s HSD critical value = 3.53.

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine the significance of the difference in the heart-ratebetween the three gradients. The F-value of 7.466 was found to be statistically significant as it is greater than thetable-value of 3.4028 at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and 24 degrees of freedom. The hypothesis that therewould be no significant difference in the heart-rate of the participants in backward slope walking and thechanges in the three treadmill gradients was rejected. Thus, the implication is that there was a significantdifference in the heart-rate of the backward slope walking participants on the treadmill (P 10 0 >0 010 0 vs 0 0 2.70 3.53Df = (3,24); P< 0.05; * SignificantTurkey’s honesty significant difference test was used to determine the difference in variation in the heart-ratebetween the three treadmill gradients. Thus, the pairwise that brought about the variation was the 5 0 versus 10 0treadmill gradients (3.61) compared to a critical value of 3.53 at 0.05 level of significance. It implies that thetreatment of backward slope walking on treadmill at 5 0 gradient influenced the variation in the heart-rate of theparticipants. However, the impact of the treatment of backward slope walking on treadmill at 10 0 gradient washigh (2.70vs 3.53). Though not significantHypothesis Two: There will be no significant difference in the stroke volume of the participants in backwardslope walking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.Table 3: One-way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showing difference in the stroke-volume between the threetreadmill gradients in backward slope walking (unit: L.beat -1 )Source of Variance SS Df MS F-Cal F-CriticalAmong 4.2222 2 2.1111. 6.0* 3.4028Within 8.4444 24 0.3518Total 12.6666 26Gradients 0 0 5 0 10 0Stroke volume 110.3+ 10.2 115.5 +11.4 120.4+ 8.6F-value 7.466Tukey’s HSD 0.13 3.74* 3.62*5 0 > 10 0 > 0 0*Significant; P

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009As the computed f-value is greater than the tabular f-value (6.0 >3.4028) at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and24 degrees of freedom, the null hypothesis which stated that there would be no significant difference in thestroke volume of the participants in backward slope walking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients wasrejected. Thus, this shows that there was significant difference in the stroke-volume of the backward slopewalking participants in the three treadmill gradients (P 10 0 >0 010 0 vs 0 0 3.62* 3.53Df = (3,24); P< 0.05; *significantTukey’s honest significant difference test was used to determine the difference in the stroke-volume between thethree treadmill gradients in backward slope walking participants. Thus, the mean difference that resulted in thevariation were 3.74 and 3.62 compared to a critical value of 3.53 at 0.05 level of significance respectively. Thus,the pairwise that brought about the variation was 5 0 versus 10 0 and 10 0 versus 0 0 treadmill gradients. It thereforeimplies, that the treatment influenced the variation in the stroke volume responses of the participants inbackward slope walking at 5 0 and 10 0 treadmill gradients.Hypothesis three: There will be no significant difference in the cardiac output of the participant in backwardslope walking and the changes in the three treadmill gradient.Table 5: One- way Analysis of variance (ANOVA) showing difference in the cardiac output between the threetreadmill gradient in the backward slope walking (Unit: L.min -1 )Source of variation SS DF MS F-Cal F-CriticalAmong 3.8518 2 1.925926 5.2 3.402Within 8.8888 24 0.03037Total 2.7406 26Gradient 0 0 5 0 10 0199

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Cardiac Output 228.5+21.2 232.2+23.4 235.2+21.3F- Value 5.2Turkey’s HSD 0.39 3.62 3.235 0 >10 0 >0 0*Significant P>0.05; N =30; Tukey’s HSD critical value = 3.53.In table 5, the computed F-value is greater than the tabular F- value (5.2>3. 4028) at 0.05 level of significancewith 2 and 24 degrees of freedom. The null hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in thecardiac output of the participants in backward slope walking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients wasrejected. This shows that there was a significant difference in the cardiac output of the participants in relationthe three treadmill gradient in backward slope walking (10 0 >0 010 0 vs 0 0 3.23* 3.53Df = (3,24); P< 0.05; *significantTukey’s honesty significant difference test was used to determine the difference in variation in the cardiacoutput between the three treadmill gradients in backward slope walking participants. Thus, the pairwise thatbrought about the variation was the 5 0 vs 10 0 treadmill gradient (3.62) compared to a critical value at 3.53 at0.05 level of significance. It implies that the treatment at 5 0 influenced the variation in the cardiac output of theparticipants. However, the impact of backward slope walking was high in 10 0 gradient (3.235 vs 3.53), thoughnot significant.Hypothesis Four: There will be no significant difference in the Max-Vo 2 of the participant in backward slopewalking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients.Analysis of variation (ANOVA) was used to determine the significant of the difference in the Max-Vo 2 betweenthe three treadmill gradients in backward slope walking participants. The F-value of 12.372 was found to bestatistically significant as it is greater than the table-value of 3.4028 at 0.05 level of significance with 2 and 24degrees of freedom. The hypothesis that there would be no significant difference in the Max-Vo 2 of theparticipants in backward slope walking and the changes in the three treadmill gradients was rejected. Theimplication is that there was a significant difference in the Max-Vo 2 of the participants in backward slopewalking in the three treadmill gradients (P

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table 7: One-way Analysis of variation (ANOVA) showing difference in the Max-Vo 2 between the threetreadmill gradient in backward slope walking (Unit: L. Min –1 )Source of Variance SS Df MS F-Cal F-CriticalAmong 9.85185 2 4.92892. 12.372* 3.4028Within 9.55555 24 0.39614Total 19.40740 26Gradients 0 0 5 0 10 0Max-V0 2 220.4+ 16.1 225+18.4230.6+ 15.6F-value 12.372Turkey’s HSD 0.39 3.55* 3.165 0 > 10 0 > 0 0*Significant; P 10 0 >0 010 0 vs 0 0 3.16 3.53Df = (3,24); P< 0.05; *significantTukey’s honesty significant difference test was used to determine the significant difference in the Max-Vo 2between the three treadmill gradients in backward slope walking participants. The mean difference of 3.55 wasfound to be statistically significant, as it is greater than the table- value of 3.53 at 0.05 level of significance with3 and 24 degrees of freedom. Thus, the pairwise that brought about the variation was 5 0 versus 10 0 treadmillgradients. It implies that the treatment had influence on the participants Max-Vo 2 at 5 0 treadmill gradients.However; the impact at 10 0 treadmill gradient was high, though not significant.DISCUSSIONThe result of the present study provided the information required for deciding workload or fitness promotion,injury prevention, rehabilitation of injured athletes, as physical therapy modality and daily routine activities.Thus, mastery of this exercise may be helpful in providing cardiovascular function; providing musclo-skeletalfoundation; facilitating neuromuscular function in orders to facilitate balance and proprioception.201

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009The results of the study revealed that the four (4) hypotheses formulated and tested were rejected. Thus, that theprogression in gradient of the treadmill in backward slope walking had impact on the heart rate, stroke-volume,cardiac-output and Max-Vo 2 of the participants. Therefore, the results seem justified as it is in support ofSharkey (1997); Wasserman et ,al (1999); Flynn, et,al (1994); Bates, et,al (1986) submission that the primarysource of the variation is possibly due to a complex regulation and control system which modulates cardiacfunction through the autonomic nervous system as a result of the intensity/progress in gradients in backwardslope walking.CONCLUSIONThe results of the study revealed that the hypotheses relating to heart-rate, stroke-volume, cardiac-output andMax-Vo 2 of the participants in relation to backward slope walking were significant, depicting that the tennisplayer responses to these variables regarding backward slope walking on the three treadmill gradients differed.Thus, the Tukey’s honesty significant differences test was used to identify the source of the significantdifference between the three treadmill gradients. It is therefore concluded that backward slope walking shouldbe used as an alternate pattern of movement to enhance practice and training of skills used in specific sports thatimprove cardiovascular function and provide stronger musculo-skeletal foundation.RECOMMENDATIONSBased on the results of this study, the following recommendations were made:(1) Backward slope walking should be carried- out by tennis players and athletes in advancing practice andtraining.(2) Backward slope walking should be used as an alternate training regimen to improve cardiovascularfunction, help prevent injuries, provide stronger musculo-skeletal foundation and facilitatebalance and proprioception.(3) It should be carried by all and sundry/athletes for proper body balance, respiratory and cardiacactivities regulation.(4) It should be carried by all for normal physiological capacity of the individual, to meet up with thediverse body motions with minimum stress(5) Software developers should develop the software that can drive the treadmill motor belt in a backwardmovement pattern.REFERENCESAgwubike, E.O., & Agbonlahor, E.I (2005). Kinematic analysis of retrolocomotion of NNPC personnel ontreadmill of varying gradients, Journal of Health and Kinesioloyg 6(1), 14-27.Agwubike, E.O. & Agbonlahor, E.I (2007). Comparison of Biomechanical changes between pro-locomotion andRetro-locomotion by NNPC personnel on Treadmill, Journal of Kinetics and Health EducationPerspectives 10; 214-232Bates, B. T & McCaw, S. T. (1986). A comparison between forward and backward locomotion. Humanlocomotion iv, proceedings at the Biennial conference of the Canadian society for Biomechnanics,Montreal, Quebec, Canada: 307-308.Bates, B. T. Morrison, E & Hamill, J. (1986). Differences between forward and backward running. In M.Adrianand H.Deutsch (eds). Proceedings of the 1984 Olympic Scientific Congress, Eugene: Oregon University ofOregon microform publication: 127-135.Cirpriani, D. J (1995). Backward Walking at three levels of treadmill inclination: an electromyography andkinematics analysis. The Journal of Orthopeadic and Sports Physical Therapy. Sep; 22(3), 95-102.Devita, P. & Stribling, J. (1991). Lower extremity joint kinematics and energetic during backward running.Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 23, 602-60.Dufek, J. S. (2002). Exercise variability: A prescription for overuse injury prevention. Health and fitnessJournal 6(4) 18-23.202

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Flynn, T., Conney, S. m., Smutek, M.A. Zebakes, R,. J & Weismans, I.M. (1995). Patellofemoral joingcompressive force in forward nd backward running. The journal of Orthpaedic and Sports PhysicalTherapy 17, 108-112.Hesse, S., Konrad, M. & Vhienrock, D. (1999). Treadmill with partial body weight support versus floor walkingin hemiparetic subjects. Arch. Phys Med. Rehabil. 80:121-127.Hesse, S., Werner, C., Bardeleben, A., & Barbean, H. (2001). Body weight supported treadmill training afterstroke. Cure Atheroscler Rep. 3:287-294.McArdle, W.D., Katch, F.I., 7 Katch, V.L. (2000). Essential of Exerc. Physiology. Philadelphia: LippincottWilliams and Wilkings.Minetti, A. E. & Ardigo, L. P (2001). The transmission efficiency of backward walking at difference gradients.Pflinger Arch, jul. 442(4):542-546.Wessserman, K., Hansen, J.E. Sue, D.Y., Casaburi, R. & Whipp, B. (1999). Principles of exercise testing andinterpretation. Philadelphia Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.203

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationHow to Make GIS a Common Educational Tool in Schools: Potentials and Implicationsof the GIS for Teachers Book for Geography Education in TurkeyAli Demirci 1 and Ahmet Karaburun 21 Fatih University, Department of Geography, Istanbul, TurkeyE-mail: ademirci@fatih.edu.tr2 Fatih University, Department of Geography, Istanbul, TurkeyE-mail: akaraburun@fatih.edu.tr__________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: GIS has great potential for the teaching and learning of geography at secondary school level. Despitethis potential, however, the use of GIS is not widespread throughout the world today. There are many obstacleswhich prevent the effective use of GIS in schools. Although GIS has been incorporated into the Turkishsecondary school geography curriculum since 2005, Turkey has been struggling to make GIS a widely used toolin geography lessons. There are only a limited number of schools in the country where GIS is used in geographylessons. This prompted many academicians and institutions to develop strategies and materials to assistteachers in using GIS in geography lessons. This study describes a recent initiative taken jointly by FatihUniversity and ESRI-Turkey to help teachers in implementing GIS in their geography lessons, namely, thepreparation of a book entitled GIS for Teachers. By combining theory and practice, the book and softwarepackage provides teachers with data, GIS software, GIS-based exercises, methodology, and all other necessaryguidance for using GIS in their lessons. This study also discusses the potential and implications of GIS forTeachers for geography education in Turkey by outlining how the book was received by geography teachers andthe extent to which it contributed to the integration of GIS into secondary school geography lessons.Approximately six months have passed since the book was first promoted. Around 300 copies of the book with apromotional brochure were delivered to high schools and universities free of charge. So far 700 books havebeen purchased. Although the book has received favourable attention from academicians and students in manydifferent disciplines, the number of geography teachers who obtained the book has been less than satisfactory.This result indicates that supplying geography teachers with GIS books, software, digital data, and educationalmaterials is not enough to make them use this technology in their lessons. Consequently, a number of otherthings need to be taken into consideration, such as encouraging and motivating teachers to utilise thistechnology in their lessons.Keyword: GIS, geography education, secondary school, book, teacher__________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONGIS is a set of integrated software programs designed to store, retrieve, manipulate, analyse and displaygeographical data-information concerning people, places and the environment (Fitzpatrick and Maguire 2000).The Geographic Information System (GIS) offers a wide range of services to educators in teaching and learningfor different subjects in schools. GIS has been long known and utilised in different disciplines, especially ingeography at the university level (Kemp et al. 1992). However, its recognition at the secondary schooleducational level only began in the 1990s (Goodchild and Kemp 1990). Many scientific studies have shown GISto be a useful educational tool helpful in creating an inquiry-based learning environment (White and Simms1993; Meyer et al. 1999; Lemberg and Stoltman 2001). This recognition led to the introduction of GIS insecondary school curriculums in such diverse programs as Geography, Science, Environmental and Social205

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Sciences, Biology and Mathematics, mainly in the USA, Canada and a number of European countries beginningin 1990 (Broda and Baxter 2003; Kerski 2003; Wigglesworth 2003; Bednarz 2004; Bednarz and Van der Schee2006).GIS has many advantages especially in geographic education because it enables versatile analysis connected togeographic data references. GIS and other related technologies such as GPS and remote sensing allowgeography educators and students to address a broad range of spatial questions in the classroom (Nellis 1994).The contribution of GIS to students’ spatial thinking skills in geography lessons has been widely studied (Lloyd2001; West, 2003; Patterson et al. 2003; Bednarz 2004; Johansson 2006).Despite the potential for GIS in secondary school geography education, its use is not widespread throughout theworld today. Since its inception in the early 1990s, GIS has diffused slowly into K-12 classrooms in the USA,one of the first countries to implement GIS in education (Bednarz 2004). GIS was used by less than 5 percent ofhigh schools in the USA in 2003 (Kerski 2003). Kerski reported that 54.9 percent of the schools that own GISsoftware were not using GIS for teaching. The level of use of GIS in secondary schools is approximately thesame in the UK (OFSTED 2004). Many other countries, such as France, Sweden, and Finland, which recentlyintroduced GIS into the secondary school curriculum, also found it difficult to incorporate GIS into geographyclassrooms (Johansson 2006). Only 8 percent or less of secondary schools in New Zealand used or had access toGIS software at the beginning of the new millennium (Olsen, 2002). The use of GIS is much better in Singapore.Yap et al. (2008) found that 43.8 percent of eighty-nine schools that responded a questionnaire had GISsoftware. Being one of the latest countries to incorporate GIS as a part of its secondary school geographycurriculum in 2005, Turkey has been struggling to make GIS a widely-used tool during geography lessons(Demirci 2008).In 2005 a new geography curriculum was introduced to secondary schools in Turkey. Before this curriculum,GIS was only discussed at a very rudimentary level in some textbooks. With the new curriculum, however, GISwas recommended 20 times as a tool for activity development (Demirci, 2008). This change in the curriculumdrew the attention of geography teachers to GIS and motivated them to learn more about GIS and its use in theirlessons. As indicated in a limited number of studies, many obstacles prevent teachers from utilizing GIS in theirgeography lessons in Turkey (Demirci, 2007, 2008, 2009). Demirci et al. (2007) stated that none of the 46geography teachers who responded to a survey from 36 high schools on ICT used GIS in their lessons in 2006.In 2007 Demirci (2008) further tested how a GIS-based exercise could be implemented in secondary schools by14 teachers given education in GIS along with the GIS software, digital data and other necessary documentationfor the exercise. The GIS-based exercise was successfully implemented by only two teachers out of the 14. Theremainder of the teachers could not complete the experiment due to a variety of reasons. Lack of understandingof the meaning of GIS, lack of training, lack of time and lack of hardware and software were among the reasonsbehind the failure of teachers. In 2008 Demirci (2009) conducted another study of 79 geography teachersworking at 55 different high schools from 33 provinces of Turkey in order to understand teachers’ knowledge of,skills in, and attitudes towards GIS. The study found that more than half of the teachers (66%) did not exactlyknow what GIS is and 82% of the teachers did not know how to use it in geography lessons. The same studyfound that only 13 teachers out of 79 indicated they had used GIS software before, while only 7 of these teacherssaid that they utilized GIS in geography lessons. Another significant result of the same study was the number ofschools in which a GIS software was available to teachers. The study found that none of the 55 high schools hadGIS software (Demirci, 2009).These indicators prove that there are a number of obstacles preventing the use of GIS in secondary schoolgeography lessons in Turkey. Lack of knowledge and skills about GIS and how it can be used as a tool forgeography lessons, lack of digital data and GIS software available to geography teachers, and lack of lessonsplans and instruction materials showing teachers how to incorporate GIS into the geography curriculum aresome of the main difficulties that Turkish geography teachers are facing today with GIS. These difficulties provethat the use of GIS in geography lessons in Turkey is not something that is easy to actualise and thus carefulconsideration and planning is required. To overcome these difficulties and to enable teachers to incorporate GISinto their geography lessons a book project was initiated in 2007 in Turkey with the support of ESRI and manyother national and international institutions. The project took almost a year to complete and the book, entitledGIS for Teachers was published in 2008. By combining theory and practice, the book and software packageprovides teachers with data, GIS software, GIS-based exercises, methodology, and all other necessary guidanceto use GIS in lessons.206

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009This present study describes the book project, including its aim, content, and outcomes along with its potentialsand implications for geography education in Turkey. The study also discusses how the book was received bygeography teachers and the extent to which it contributed to integration of GIS into secondary school geographylessons and suggests some steps to make integration faster and more efficient in the country.METHODOLOGYThis study introduces a GIS book designed entirely for geography teachers using GIS in the classroom insecondary schools in Turkey. Since it is mainly descriptive, no quantitative method was used in the study.However, the record of sales for the GIS for teachers book has been analysed in order to understand the interestof secondary school geography teachers in the book and the use of GIS in their lessons.Key incentives behind the book projectRESULTSThe diffusion of GIS into secondary school geography education started in the 2000s in Turkey. The first “GISfor Teachers” workshop was organised in 2004. Only 30 teachers from around the country participated in thisworkshop (Demirci, 2009). Until 2005, GIS was an unknown technology for the majority of geography teachers.When the new secondary school geography curriculum recommended the use of GIS for geography lessons,more teachers became interested and started learning about the technology (Demirci, 2009). The workshops inwhich geography teachers participated primarily focused on teaching about GIS rather than teaching with GIS.Teachers who participated in these workshops learned the basic tools of GIS but not the importance of GIS orhow to use it in their lessons. The amount of Turkish-language GIS software available was very limited until2007. Prior to this, most of the workshops used English-language GIS software and as a result teachers haddifficulties fully understanding the tools. The number of geography teachers that participated in GIS workshopsand seminars in Turkey between 2004 and 2007 was very small, not more than one or two hundred. For the mostpart they completed the workshops and seminars without being provided with any digital data or GIS software.This was a big obstacle for teachers because without software prepared in Turkish and digital data, how theycould improve their GIS skills so that they were able incorporate GIS into their lessons? The GIS workshops andseminars organised for geography teachers showed that while learning to use GIS software was a big challengefor geography teachers, learning how to use it in their geography lessons was an even bigger challenge. Teachersneeded to see some lesson plans, materials and good examples before they could use GIS successfully at theirlessons.The interest of teachers in learning more about GIS and how it can be used in lessons began to grow especiallyafter 2005. However, the educational materials prepared in Turkish were not produced at a pace sufficient tomeet the growing needs of teachers in this field. There were only a few Turkish books that described GIS, noneof which were written specifically for geography teachers. There was not even a single GIS book in the countrythat taught GIS and supplied readers with GIS software and digital data. These problems indicated the urgentneed for a GIS book for teachers that included everything that teachers needed to incorporate GIS into theirlessons. By focusing on the problems and challenges that teachers faced in learning and using GIS in theirlessons, the book project was initiated to meet the following needs of teachers in Turkey.1- Teachers do not know what GIS is and why it is used in different disciplines.2- Teachers do not know the importance of GIS for geography education and how they can utilize GIS asan educational tool in their lessons.3- Teachers do not have GIS software prepared in the Turkish language.4- Teachers do not know how to use a GIS software.5- Teachers do not have educational materials, including lesson plans, digital data, and GIS exercises, touse in GIS lessons.207

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009The content of the GIS for Teachers bookThe content of the book was chosen by focusing on the current needs of geography teachers wishing to use GISin geography lessons in Turkey. The book contains seven chapters, based on five main themes including theory,practice, GIS software, data, and educational materials for incorporating GIS into the current secondary schoolgeography curriculum (Figure 1).GISforTeachersTheory(knowledge aboutGIS)Practice(GIS skills- how touse GIS software)Software(obtaining GISsoftware inTurkish)Data(obtaining digitaldata to use at GIS)EducationalMaterials(GIS-basedexercises, lessonplans)Figure 1. The five main themes of the GIS for teachers bookTheory: Knowledge about GISThe concept of GIS was first mentioned in geography textbooks in Turkey in the 2000s. Until recently,geography teachers generally referred to GIS in their lessons without knowing exactly what it was or for whatpurposes it could be used. In order to use GIS in their lessons, teachers needed to have sufficient knowledgeabout GIS and how it can be used in different disciplines and, specifically, in geography education. The firstthree chapters of the book provide teachers with the necessary knowledge of GIS for these purposes (Table 1).The importance of GIS in the field of geography and in geography education in particular may sometimes bedifficult to understand for teachers when first introduced to GIS. Providing teachers with sufficient informationabout the place of GIS in the field of geography and in geography education by examples from around theworld, will motivate to learn more about teaching with GIS. This idea underpins the first chapter of the book. Inchapter one, prior to discussing GIS, the key concepts of geography, space and spatial analysis in geography aredescribed. These sections show teachers that geographers have previously used many different techniques tosolve spatial problems and the advent of GIS technology enabled geographers to analyse space more efficientlyand faster. After describing GIS and its importance, chapter one continues with the use of GIS in differentdisciplines. A small number of examples are given to illustrate how and why GIS is used in different fieldsincluding environmental studies, natural hazards, health, and urban planning.Introducing teachers to GIS software first, without describing the logic behind GIS, may prevent teachers fromunderstanding how to use a GIS software efficiently. The second chapter of the book, therefore, describes howGIS works. The varied abilities of GIS are described via examples from many different disciplines. Producing,inquiring, analysing, and displaying data with GIS are outlined through a set of examples in the same chapter(Table 1).The method used in incorporating GIS in geography education is of vital importance. A number of studiessuggest that choosing the wrong method may negatively affect student comprehension (Baker and White 2003;Bednarz 2004). According to Walsh (1992), the danger lies in allowing GIS to force the methodology and theanalysis without a full understanding of the basic problem being addressed, thereby changing the role of GISfrom a tool to a magic box. Meyer et al. (1999) addressed the same issue by indicating that learning thetechnology at the expense of learning spatial analysis was a danger and they highlighted the need for conscious208

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009focus on the goal of using GIS to learn how to “do geography”. In light of this, the third chapter of the bookinforms teachers of the importance of GIS and its contribution to geography education, the challenges teachersmay face incorporating GIS into the geography curriculum, and different methods of using GIS as a teachingtool in lessons. Detailed explanations of how to use GIS to produce educational materials such as maps, graphs,and tables are given in the same chapter. How to use GIS to conduct school projects is also explained in detailalong with a number of successful examples from different schools. Development and implementation of GISbasedexercises are given step-by-step in the same chapter to allow teachers to develop and implement similarexercises in their own schools (Table 1).Table 1. The list of contents in the first, second, and third chapters of the GIS for Teachers bookChapter &TitleChapter 1Geography, Space and theGeographic InformationSystemsChapter 2How does GIS work?What does GIS do?Chapter 3Teaching Geography with GISContents• Geography and space• Spatial analysis ingeography• What is GIS?• The advent anddevelopment of GIS• The importance of GIS• Why is GIS used indifferent disciplines?- GIS to producethematic maps- GIS to deal withenvironmentalproblems- GIS for disastermanagement- GIS in health- GIS for urban planning• How does GIS work?• How to produce digitaldata for GIS• How to create a databasefor GIS• What can be done withGIS?- Producing data in GIS- Inquiry in GIS- Analysis in GIS- Spatial Analysis- Buffers- Overlay analysis- Proximity analysis- Network analysis- Symbology in GIS• Why should GIS be used in geographyeducation?• What is geographic inquiry?• How did teaching with GIS start in geographyeducation?• Contributions of GIS to geography education• GIS in the new secondary school geographycurriculum• Potentials of GIS in higher education• Challenges facing the use of GIS in geographylessons• How should GIS be used in geography lessons- GIS in primary schools- GIS in secondary schools- Producing educational materials with GIS- Conducting projects with GIS- Implementing GIS-based exercisesPractice: GIS skills - how to use GIS softwareMany geographers think that GIS is a useful tool in geography lessons and it is necessary to maintain therelation and boundaries between GIS and geographic education in finding the right methodology (Lemberg andStoltman 2001; Kerski 2003; Bednarz 2004). However, some recent studies indicate that teachers should revertto the “How to teach about GIS” to a certain extent in order to benefit from GIS in their geography lessons(Johansson 2006; Shin 2006). According to Shin (2006), teachers and students had to learn how to use GISbefore they could move on to the instruction and the learning process. As seen in many GIS workshopsorganised for geography teachers in Turkey, without learning how to use a GIS software and its basic tools, it isimpossible for teachers to effectively use GIS in their lessons. For this reason, three different chapters arededicated to the use of GIS software.Chapters four, five, and six provide teachers with basic GIS skills such as adding, reviewing, inquiring, andanalysing data by using ArcView 9.2. The fourth chapter is for teachers who would like to use GIS fordisplaying data and for implementing GIS-based exercises in their lessons. The fifth and sixth chapters,however, are for teachers who would like to go further with GIS and use it in project-based learning. The mainobjective of these chapters is to provide teachers with adequate skills in using GIS with their students ondifferent projects that involve producing, storing, and analysing data.209

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table 2. The list of contents in the fourth, fifth, and sixth chapters of the GIS for teachers bookChapter &TitleContentsChapter 4Introduction to ArcView• General information about ArcView• How to install the software• Opening, saving, and closingArcMap documents• Main tools and their role• Adding, removing and displayingdata• Attribute table• Hyperlink• Measuring distance and area• Labelling• Graphics• Symbology• Map design and layoutChapter 5Data Production inArcView• Using ArcCatalogto create layers(point, line, andpolygon)• Digitizing• Using GPS data tocreate pointsChapter 6Inquiry and analysis in ArcView• Query- Select by attributes- Select by location• Analysis- Convert features to Raster- Surface analysis- Create TIN- Slope, aspect, hillshade- Viewshed, profile- 3D Analysis (ArcScene)- Interpolation- Creating buffers- Overlay analysis- Using Model Builder for analysisA unique method was used in the book to teach how to use ArcView 9.2 and its basic tools. Eighteenapplications were produced, along with different sets of digital data, on GIS software. In each section of chaptersfour, five and six, teachers are directed to open the related ArcMap document on the book’s DVD and to followthe applications themselves on the computer. The stages of each application are described in the chapters stepby-stepwith numbers so that teachers can follow the applications with ease (Figure 2).Figure 2. A view from the book describing how to follow an application step-by-step to learn symbology inArcView210

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Software and Digital DataTechnical factors such as the availability of hardware, software, and data were mentioned in many studies asmajor obstacles for the adoption of GIS in secondary school education (Lloyd, 2001). This obstacle becomeseven more serious in a country like Turkey where finding GIS software prepared in the Turkish language is a bigchallenge. Until 2007, there were only one or two GIS software packages available in Turkish. ArcView 9.2, anESRI product, became available to Turkish users with a Turkish menu in 2007. Obtaining digital data aboutTurkey was another problem for teachers. Once teachers learned about GIS, they wanted to improve their GISskills so that they could use their skills for teaching. However, using GIS in geography lessons requires datarelating to Turkey and such data was very difficult for geography teachers to source until 2007.GIS for Teachers provides teachers with GIS software and digital data. ESRI supports the book with a one yearfree licence to ArcView 9.2. ArcView 9.2 is provided to purchasers of the book in a DVD attached to the backcover. The software and its Turkish menu are described in the book. In addition to the data produced by ESRI, agreat number of different data sets are given to teachers in digital form on the DVD.Educational Materials: GIS-based exercises and lesson plansSimply obtaining and learning how to use GIS software and digital data does not mean that teachers will be ableto incorporate GIS into their geography lessons. Teachers are more likely to use GIS in their lessons if they havethe support of materials such as lesson plans, digital data, and GIS-based exercises. The GIS for Teachers bookprovides teachers not only with the requisite knowledge of GIS software and data, but also with nine GIS-basedexercises complete with the necessary digital data and documents for teachers and students.Table 3. The title of the GIS-based exercises which were developed with data and other necessary documents inthe bookNo Title of the GIS-based exercise1 Which parts of the world are the most active tectonically?2 Why do earthquakes occur frequently in Turkey?3 Where are temperature differences the least and the most on Earth?4 What relationship is there between the distribution of precipitation and vegetation cover in the world?5 Which province receives the highest and lowest amount of rainfall in Turkey?6 What are the most and least crowded cities and regions in the world?7 Which economic activity earns people the most in the world’s most populated country?8 Which Turkish province has the greatest population losses and gains due to migration?9 Why do countries need to unite under different institutions and organizations in the world?The topic for each exercise was chosen according to the new secondary school geography curriculum whichcame into practice in 2005 (Table 3). Each exercise was designed in three successive stages includingpreparation, implementation, and assessment. ArcView 9.2 was used as the GIS software in the exercises. A GISdatabase was created for each exercise. Some datasets were obtained from ESRI, while new datasets werecreated especially for exercises regarding Turkey. GIS-based exercises were based on three aspects:observations from data in different layers, answering questions by identifying different relationships andconducting basic spatial analysis operations.Details about how to implement each exercise are described in the last chapter of the book. These include thetopic, aim, and duration of the exercises, the standards aimed at, the necessary materials and a description of thepreparation, implementation, and assessment stages. Further, each exercise has an ArcMap document forincluding the necessary digital data, handouts for students, and pre- and post-exercise exams in PDF format onthe accompanying DVD. The steps of each exercise, the questions and how to create different spatial analysis toanswer these questions were described in detail in the handouts (Figure 4).GIS-based exercises were tested at a number of different high schools in order to understand whether they couldbe successfully implemented within the recommended time before they were put into the book. All exercises inthe book were able to be completed by all students who attempted the exercises by themselves in a computerlaboratory, although their scores on the post-exercise exam varied significantly (Figure 3).211

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Figure 3. Students studying on GIS-based exercises on computersFigure 4. Sample of a GIS for Teachers handout for the GIS-based exercisesCONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONSThe GIS for Teachers book was published in June 2008 with an accompanying DVD containing a one-yearlicence version of ArcView 9.2, with digital data, handouts and exams in PDF format. A webpage was designedto inform people about the book and how to obtain it. A brochure was also published and delivered to schools212

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009and universities to promote the book. A reasonable price was chosen for the book, US$22, so that teachers andstudents would be able to afford it. A few months after the release of the book, the price was reduced to aroundUS$15 to make purchasing easier, especially for teachers. Approximately six months have passed since the bookwas first promoted and around 300 copies of the book, with promotional brochure, were delivered to highschools and universities free of charge. To date 700 books have been purchased and the number of people whobecome aware of the book and would like to buy it increases daily. In a short amount of time the book receivedfavourable attention from academicians, teachers and civil servants working in different public sectors.The book also received a favourable attention from academicians and students studying in different departmentssuch as geography, geology, soil, forestry, geodesy and photogrammetry, urban planning, landscapeengineering, and mineral engineering. As it is still the only GIS book in Turkey including licensed software anddigital data, it is being used as a textbook for GIS courses in some university geography departments. Despite itsfavourable reception from geography teachers and university students studying in geography departments, thenumber of geography teachers who obtained the book is less than satisfactory. Since secondary geographyteachers were the main target group of the book, great efforts were made to reach both geography teachersworking at secondary schools and teacher candidates studying at geography departments. Around 300 bookshave been supplied to this target group up until present. While small, this number is nevertheless a good startconsidering the previous low level of GIS usage in Turkey. As yet, no data has been received about the extent towhich teachers have been utilising the book in their lessons.The first six months have indicated that merely supplying geography teachers with GIS books, software, digitaldata, and educational materials is not enough to make them use this technology in their lessons. As Lloyd (2001)noted, systematic issues that encourage or discourage innovation in education are among the obstaclespreventing the use of GIS in secondary school education. The main obstacles confronting the successfulincorporation of GIS in geography lessons in Turkey are lack of time for teachers to learn GIS, lack of time tolearn how to use GIS in the classroom, unwillingness of teachers to utilise GIS technology, and the difficultiesof using GIS software (Meyer et al. 1999; Kerski 2003; Bednarz 2004; Marsh et al. 2007).A number of strategies have been pursued to help teachers utilize the book so that they may be able toincorporate GIS into secondary school geography lessons in Turkey in a more effective and faster way. Thenumber of GIS workshops and seminars specifically organized for geography teachers is increasing in Turkey.Instead of sending a book to every school, GIS workshops and seminars have been organized to attract thosemore enthusiastic teachers who would like to use new technologies such as GIS in their lessons. As experiencedmany times, teachers become more willing to use GIS in lessons and more interested in the GIS for Teachersbook after attending GIS seminars and workshops. An example can be given from a geography seminarorganized for geography teachers working in public schools in the southern Turkish province of Antalya in2009. The seminar lasted two days and covered topics ranging from curriculum to new educational technologiesespecially GIS. When introduced to GIS and how to use it in lessons, the majority of the teachers becamewilling to use GIS in their own lessons and wanted to obtain a copy of the book. All the teachers whoparticipated the seminar were supplied with a book at the end of the seminar. New GIS workshops will beorganized in the near future to give teachers the opportunity not only to gain knowledge and skills in GIS butalso to allow them to make their own GIS-based exercises.It is extremely difficult to train all secondary school geography teachers in Turkey in GIS as they numberbetween 5 and 6 thousand. It is perhaps not even realistic to expect that all teachers would like to use GIS intheir lessons. However, even a small group of teachers successfully utilizing GIS in their lessons can set anexample that will hopefully motivate many more teachers to learn about GIS and use it in their classrooms. Thiscan only be achieved by establishing a GIS community among geography teachers. In order to help geographyteachers establish such a community, a new website will soon be lunched in Turkey. The main aim of thiswebsite is to provide teachers with a platform where they can share their experiences, lesson plans, projects,data, and news about teaching with GIS. Apart from workshops, seminars and the webpage, GIS projectcompetitions may be useful to motivate and encourage teachers to use GIS in their lessons.The GIS for Teachers book is not a magic tool that will remove all obstacles confronting the utilisation GIStechnology in secondary schools in Turkey. However, the book has met one of the most urgent needs in Turkeyby supplying geography teachers with sufficient knowledge, skills, software, data and exercises. Publishing thebook was a first step. Many more steps need to be taken before we will see the successful utilisation of GIS213

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Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Quality Characterization of Water andMussels from Yesilirmak River and Estuary - Central Black SeaYuksel Orhan a and Sibel Y. Komurcu ba Ondokuz Mayıs University, Environment Engineering Department, Samsun, Turkeyb General Director of Highway, Environmental Impact Assessment Department, Ankara, Turkey______________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: The pollution inputs have changed the Black Sea ecosystems beginning around 1960, andseriously threatened biodiversity and use of sea for fishing and recreation. This paper examines the caseswhich reflect different sources of river and sea pollution in central Black Sea region, the seriousness of thispollution and a possible solution to this problem. Assessment of seasonal changes in water quality is animportant aspect for evaluating temporal variations of river pollution due to natural or anthropogenicinputs from point and nonpoint sources. In this study, the river and estuary water quality data (physical,chemical and bacteriological) collected from April 2001 to March 2002 were analyzed. Results revealedseasonal variation in all of the parameters studied. The distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(PAH) was determined in water and mussels of the Yesilirmak River and estuary. The total concentrations ofPAH vary from 0.092 ng/l in estuary water to 4639 ng/g wet weight in mussel tissue.Keywords: Black Sea, mussel, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, water, Yesilirmak River.______________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONThe Black Sea region of Turkey is defined by the area within the administrative boundaries of the provincessituated along the Black Sea coast. The total area of the coastal zone of the Black Sea is 103,061 km 2 and thelittoral is approximately 1,700 km constituting 20% of the total Turkish littoral (Telli, 1991; GEF, 1996,1997). The Black Sea coastal zone of Turkey may be divided into three distinct zones according todifferences in geography, economic structure settlements patterns and transportation facilities: eastern BlackSea region (starting from the boundary of Georgia to the city of Ordu), the central Black Sea region(between the cities of Ordu and Sinop) and the western Black Sea region (from the city of Sinop to theMarmara region boundary) (Yücel, 2002).There are five types of river pollution sources in the central Black Sea region. The first sources are citiessituated on the coastal zone. The second source comes from domestic settlements within the catchmentsareas as untreated wastewater is disposed of directly into the rivers. However, since the rivers are long andhave a good aeration capacity a significant amount of the organic load is decomposed on the way to theBlack Sea. On the other hand, other components of domestic wastewater, such as metals and long chainorganics are not exposed to any significant decomposition. The agricultural activities and the resultantapplication of fertilizer and pesticides comprise the most important component of the pollutant load. Thethird source of river pollution comes from the industrial sector, as many industries are located along therivers. The fourth source comes from uncontrolled solid waste disposal. Almost all forms of solid wasterandomly disposed at the watershed of these rivers, either directly or indirectly through groundwater. Thisincreases the non-degradable organic load in the rivers, as well as the heavy metals and some inorganicmaterial such as chloride and sulphide. The fifth source of river pollution comes from pollutant in the air, asheavy emissions from industries near river catchments areas and thermal power plants are washed down andinto the rivers by rain (Ergun et al., 1993).The three most important rivers forming the watershed of the Black Sea in Turkey are the Kızılırmak,Yeşilırmak and Sakarya, which originate from the Middle Anatolian region. These rivers have significant217

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009water catchments areas beyond the borders of the Black Sea region (Orhan et al., 1998). The YeşilırmakRiver enters the Black Sea in Çarşamba and has a total length of 519 km, drainage area of 38,000 km 2 ,precipitation potential of 2.0×10 10 m 3 with average flow of 5.8×10 9 million m 3 /year. The importantsettlements within the catchments area of the Yeşilırmak River are Samsun, Amasya, Tokat and Çorum,from which Samsun represents one of the most concentrated locations for industries. The region’s economicstructure has traditionally been based on agriculture and fisheries. The Yeşilırmak River is important sourceof pollutants which enters the central Black Sea region (GEF 1994) (Table 1 and 2).Table 1. Comparison of annual loads of pollutants from different sources into Black Sea (GEF, 1994)Parameter Domestic sources Industrial sources Rivers Energy and transportationBOD 5 (tons) 24,247 6,119 18,000 NegligibleTSS (tons) 89,802 254,401 5,000.000 NegligibleTKN (tons) 4,490 475 14,510 NegligibleTotal P (tons) 1,796 1,112 1,708 NegligibleColiforms Very high High Negligible NegligibleHeavy metals Low Very high High HighTable 2. Loads of pollutants discharged into Black Sea by rivers in Turkey (GEF, 1994)Parameter (tons/year) Yeşilırmak Sakarya KızılırmakBOD 5 Not available 11,410 6,680NH 3 -N 2,960 2,580 1,560NO 2 -N 308 126 Not availableNO 3 -N 4,500 6,840 3,170Total N Not available 10,150 Not availableOrganic P 414 1,021 278K Not available 27,300 115,500COD Not available 120,000 Not availableThe appearance of persistent organic compounds in the aquatic medium of the Black Sea is associated withinflows from agricultural lands, industrial wastes and their transport in atmosphere (Mc Elroy, 1989). Verylow concentrations of persistent pollutants in water may produce harmful effects on the marine organismsand becoming distributed in the food chain (GEF, 1994; Cook and Pierce, 1983; Jackson, 1994, Maskaoui etal., 2002). About 111,000 tons of oil enters the Black Sea each year, from which 48% is transported by theDanube River and most of the remainder is introduced from land-based sources through inadequate wastetreatment and the poor handling of oil and oil products. Concentrations of polyaromatic hydrocarbons(PAH), a group of particularly toxic petroleum hydrocarbon compounds, are generally low. However, inview of the high levels of dissolved oil, measures to reduce its concentration in the Black Sea are considerednecessary.Aquatic organisms have long been known to accumulate significant quantities of contaminants in theirtissues. In the case of most hydrocarbons, uptake by biota appears in almost all cases to be passive, drivenby the physicochemical process of lipid-water partitioning. Aromatic account for a small portion of the totalhydrocarbons (4-9%) in petroleum; however, they are the most toxic components (Yücel et al., 2000).Mussels have been used in many parts of the world as bioindicator because of their wide geographicaldistribution, sessile behaviour, comparatively low P450 activities and their ability to sequester somelipophilic contaminants such as petroleum hydrocarbons, chlorinated pesticides and PAH (Fung, 2004).Mussels have been used worldwide for the rapid assessment of bioaccumulation for large number of218

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009pollutants and offer wide geographic distributions, data for comparison from many sources and the ability tointegrate chemical pollutants over long periods (Farrington et al., 1987).The aim of the study was to determine the aspects of water quality in the Yeşilırmak River and estuary. Theinvestigations were done quarterly from April 2001 to March 2002, with particular emphasis on thedetection of PAH residues in water and mussels. Physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters of waterwere also measured and integrated in a water quality index.Sampling locationsMATERIAL AND METHODSThe subsurface (0.5 m) water samples were collected from the river and estuary at 8 sampling stations, threestations in the estuary and five stations along the river (Figure 1), in the period from April 2001 to March2002. The river samples were collected in cross-section of the length of rivers. After two hours of sampling,the collected composite samples were divided in the sterile bottles which were prepared differently for eachtype of preservation for measurements of different parameters. The water samples were sent to thelaboratory and analyzed within 1 h. Samples of mussel Mytilus gallopravincialis, the common musselspecies in the Black Sea, were collected from the Yeşilırmak estuary. Mussels were collected by diver in thenatural beds of mussels inhabiting rocks along the shoreline and piers legs between surface and depth of 5m. Mussels with a shell size between 50-60 mm were selected. All foreign materials attached to the outersurface of the shell have been scraped with a clean plastic knife or glass. Each mussel was rinsed withdistilled water and then placed in a deep freezer which maintains a temperature below -20°C.Fig. 1. Black Sea Basin and Sampling StationsPhysical, chemical and bacteriological analyses of waterStandard methods for the examination of water and wastewater were used in all analyses (APHA, 1995).Temperature, pH and conductivity were determined in situ with field meters. Total suspended solids (SS)were determined by drying at 105°C (method 209C). Nitrate was determined by cadmium reduction method418C and nitrite by method 419. Phosphate concentration was determined by stannous chloride method 424E. Anionic surfactants were determined as methylene blue active substances (method 512B). Chemicaloxygen demand (COD) was measured by the closed reflux titrimetric method (508B), eliminating chlorideinterferences in salt water by addition of mercury sulphate in a 10:1 ratio (HgSO 4 :Cl). Biochemical oxygendemand (BOD 5 ) was determined by the dilution and incubation method 507. The productivity wasdetermined as biomass accumulation (method 1003D) and chlorophyll a spectropotometrically (method1002G). All materials used for chemical analyses were washed with acid solution and rinsed with distilledwater. Tridistilled water samples were processed for every analysis, as procedure blank. Total coliforms andfaecal coliforms were isolated in the EC broth (Biolife) and expressed as most probable number (MPN).Faecal streptococci were determined by membrane filtration on Slanetz Bartlay agar (Biolife) and expressedas colony forming units (CFU).219

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009PHA in waterThe aliquots of the sample (4 l) were filtered through pre-ashed GF/f filters under vacuum to obtaindissolved samples for PAH analysis. Water samples were extracted using the Soxhlet extraction andanalyzed by gas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID) (Chau and Afghan, 1982). Theanalysis was done according to the method that purposed Villeneuve (1999). For the analysis of PAHderivates in water samples, chrysene, benzo(a)pyrene, naphthalene and antracene were determined.A liquid-liquid extraction process was applied to 4 l of water sample with a total of 240 ml of hexane inthree steps. Before starting the extraction process, samples were spiked with internal and recovery standards.In separatory funnel method, 4 l sample was used for extraction. Half of the sample was poured intoseparatory funnel No. 1. A 50 ml hexane was added to the separatory funnel and the funnel was then shakenvigorously, held upright. This process was repeated for about five minutes after which the funnel was placedin a rack and the hexane phase allowed separating from water. The water phase was than drained into funnelNo. 2. Than a 50 ml of fresh hexane was added to funnel No. 2 and the extraction process repeated. Afterallowing the hexane phase to separate in funnel No. 2, the water was drained and discarded. The second halfof the sample was added to funnel No. 1 (which still contains the first 50 ml of hexane), shaken, allowed toseparate and the water phase drained into funnel No. 2 where it was shaken again, allowed to separate andthe water phase drained off and discarded. The 50 ml of hexane in funnel No. 1 was drained into thesampling bottle, which was rinsed, and the hexane transferred to funnel No. 2. To the combined extracts infunnel No. 2, a few grams of pre-cleaned anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 were added to break any emulsion and toremove excess water. Once the extract was chemically dried, it was drained into a clean, hexane rinsed, glassstoppered bottle, labelled and stored for analysis. The hexane extracts or blanks were reduced in volume toless than 5 ml by using a rotary evaporator.The water samples (2 l) were transferred into a seperatory funnel with 50 ml hexane and extracted and reextractedagain twice with 50 ml of hexane. Hexane extracts were concentrated to about 15 ml using arotary evaporator and they were evaporated to a few millilitres in a water bath (about 70°C). This extractevaporated to 1 ml was cleaned up using florisil chromatography column to separate classes of compoundsin different fractions as described below (Unep, 1995; Villeneuve, 1999). The fractions were analyzed bygas chromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The injector was set at 270°C and the ovenprogrammed from 60°C for 2 min up to 290°C with a range of 3°C/min (UNEP/FAO/IAEA/IOC, 1991,1992, 1993).PHA in musselsThe analysis of PHA was done according to the method that purposed Villeneuve (1989). A 10 g of freezedriedtissue were extracted with a Soxhlet extractor with 250 ml of methanol. Internal standards were addedto the sample in the extinction thimble before extraction starts. After the extraction was completed, 20 ml of2 M KOH were added to the flask and the extraction was continued for 2 h to saponify the lipids. Thecontent of the extraction flask was transferred into a separatory funnel with 30 ml of water (distilled andextracted with hexane) and extracted with 90 ml of hexane and reextracted again twice with 50 ml ofhexane. Then all hexane extracts were combined, filtered through glass wool and dried with anhydroussodium sulphate. In sample with 20 ml of hexane, the first fraction will contain the saturated aliphatic; thesecond fraction was obtained by eluting with 30 ml of a mixture of hexane and dichloromethane (90:10); thisfraction will contain the unsaturated and aromatic hydrocarbons. The fractions were analyzed by gaschromatography with flame ionization detection (GC-FID). The injector was set at 270°C, the detector at300°C and the oven programmed from 60°C for 2 min up to 290°C with a range of 3°C/min(UNEP/FAO/IAEA/IOC, 1991, 1992, 1993).Neutral-red method in musselsThe neutral-red analysis as a biomarker may be useful in providing a direct link to a hydrocarbon source(UNEP, 1995). Haemocytes were drawn from the posterior adductor muscle by use of a 2 ml syringe with a0.8×40 mm needle into a physiological saline solution. This is gassed for 10 min. The slides were stored inthe humidity chamber and were systematically removed and examined at 15, 30 and then 60 min intervals(Lowe and Fossato, 2000). The cells were then examined for both probe retention time and any structuralabnormalities exhibited by the organelles of interest. Neutral red was visualized using a light microscope.220

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Retention time of the probes was recorded by cell count of intact/leaking lysosomes and endomes.Difference between treatments was examined using a two-sample t-test on the mean retention times of the10 replicates per treatment group.Extractable organic matter (EOM) in musselsMussels collected seasonally (June and September and January and March 2002) were subjected to EOManalysis.Quality assuranceBlanks were included at a rate of one for every five samples and were treated in exactly the same manner asthe samples. Average recoveries of internal standards ranged from 56.15% to 88.12% for mussel samples,and 38.15% to 76.20% for water. All results were blank and recoveries corrected. Detection limit was basedon mean blank plus three times the standard deviation of replicate blank analysis. All analytical data weresubject to strict quality control. In addition, the errors involved in sampling were assessed by carrying outtriplicate sampling of water at the same site and the analysis of sample extracts. Results showed goodreproducibility of the sampling process.Statistical analysisThe values of the pollutants, obtained from triplicate samples, were analyzed using analysis of variance(StatSoft Inc.,). The determination of correlation between extractable organic matter (EOM) and PAH valueswhich was found from the mussels and waters was used in the linear regression analysis. Statisticaldifferences for the concentration changes among sampling periods were evaluated by Duncan multiplecomparison tests at the p

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009COD (mg/l) 18.60±13.7 18.06±10.0BOD 5 (mg/l) 10.22±14.3 8.16±14.30Productivity (mg C/m 2 /d) 285.7±45.1 319.5±36.6Chyloropyll a (µg/l) 0.82±0.2 0.81±0.15Total coliform (log MPN/100 ml) 2.19±325.50 2.38±141.80Faecal coliform (log MPN/100 ml) 1.89±63.90 2.10±127.70Faecal streptococci (log CFU/100ml)1.75±41.41 1.78±65.143.2. PAH in water and musselsThis study has provided important data on PAH levels in water and mussel of Yeşilırmak River and estuary.The PHA levels obtained in estuary samples of water and mussels were reported in Table 4. The total PAHconcentrations in water ranged 0.0346 µg/ml to 0.1783 µg/ml, with a mean concentration of 0.0920 µg/ml.Concentrations of PAH residues in water ranged from 0.0015 to 0.003 µg/ml for naphthalene, 0.0032 to0.055 µg/ml for anthracene, 0.0013 to 0.0061 µg/ml for chrysene and 0.0156 to 0.166 µg/ml forbenzo(a)pyrene. The levels of PHA obtained in water were comparable to those found in many other similarenvironments. A comparison of obtained results with other similar survey results for water samples is givenin Table 5.Table 4. Average concentration of parent PAH in water and musselsPAH compound Estuary (µg/ml) Mussel (µg/g ww)Naphthelene 0.0018 0.1430Anthracene 0.0140 1.820Chrysene 0.0033 0.076Benzo(a)pyrene 0.0729 2.600Total 0.0920 4.639The notably higher concentration of PAH (3.540-9.020 µg/g ww) was observed in mussels when comparedto water samples. The total PAH concentrations in mussels averaged 4.639 µg/g ww. Concentrations ofPAH residues in mussels ranged from 0.16 to 0.24 µg/g for naphthalene, 0.65 to 3.13 µg/g for anthracene,0.1 to 0.2 µg/g for chrysene and 0.047 to 6.42 µg/g for benzo(a)pyrene. The total PAH content in musselswas much greater in June and September relative to January and March. This may be related to differentfiltering rates of the bivalves according to the seasons and to a possible difference in PAH levels in watercolumn. The concentrations of PHA in mussels and water are poorly correlated. Below a thresholdconcentration of PHA in water, the PAH concentrations in mussels remain apparently constant, and if thesample PAH concentration is much greater the PAH concentration in mussels increases and can reach valuesup to more than 3500 ng/g ww. Baumard et al. (1998a) reported 103 ng/g dw of total PAH in the mussel M.edulis from the Arcachon Bay, while from the coast of the Spain and France Baumard et al. (1998b) reporteda range of 15.9-59.2 ng/g dw of PAH in the M. galloprovincialis. In the M. galloprovincialis fromcontaminated part of Adriatic Sea the concentrations of PAH varied from 49.2 to 134 ng/g ww (Bihari2007). The obtained concentrations of PHA in mussels from the central Black Sea coast are shown to besubstantially higher than those from pristine environments and are generally comparable to levelsencountered in the Mediterranean Sea. According to the criteria presented by the preceding authors andmussels from the populations that are highly polluted with PAH, mussels from Yeşilırmak River estuarywould be considered moderately contaminated by PHA. The levels of these substances were below actionlevels established by a regulatory administration in USA (USA-FDA, 1992).222

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table 5. Summary of total parent PAH concentration in water from various sites in the worldLocation Date ofsamplingRange (ng/l) Mean (ng/l) ReferencesAegean Sea, Eastern 1997 0.113 - 0.489 0.216 Maldonado et al.Mediterranean(1999)Chesapeake Bay, USA October 20 - 65.7 33.3±21.7 Gustafson and1993Dickhut (1997)Danube Estuary August 1995 0.183 - 0.214 0.198 - 0.022 Maldonado et al.(1999)Baltic Sea August 1995 0.300 - 0.594 0.526 Maldonade et al.(1999)Seawater aroundEngland and WalesSeine River andEstuary, FranceNorthern GreeceWestern Xiamen Sea,ChinaJiulong River Estuary,ChinaTonghui River,Beijing, ChinaJune 1993- < 1 - 24821 1002±3342 Law et al. (1997)July 1995October 4 - 36 20±13 Femandes et al. (1997)1993July-August 184 - 856 465±230 Manoli et al. (2000)1996July 1998 106 - 945 355±285 Zhou et al. (2000)June 1999 6960 - 26920 17050±5258 Maskaoi et al. (2002)April 2002 192.9 - 2651 762 - 777 Zhang et al. (2004)Minjiang River November 9890 - 474000 72400±124000 Zhang et al. (2004)Estuary, China 1999Yeşilırmak River April 2001- 0.0346 -0.1783 0.092±0.020 This studyEstuary, Turkey March 2002The PAH detected are obviously related to urban runoffs, sewage outfalls and wastewater discharges whichwere observed during sampling. The highest PAH concentrations in mussels were represented by class 1(carcinogenic) compound benzo(a)pyrene. The class 3 (non-carcinogenic) compounds, including anthraceneand naphthalene were contained lower levels. The lowest levels were obtained for of the class 2 (probablycarcinogenic) compounds, including chrysene. Benzo(a)pyrene has been observed to be the preferentiallyPHA residue in the mussels from the central Black Sea coast. Benzo(e)pyrene has been observed to bepreferentially accumulated relative to benzo(a)pyrene by mussels M. galloprovincialis sampled in theMediterranean Sea (Baumard et al., 1998). Moreover, while the concentrations of benzo(e)pyrene in musselwere correlated to a moderate level, benzo(a)pyrene concentrations were correlated to a much lower level.These compounds are characterized by comparable K ow values (Karcher, 1988) and by similarbioavailability, and mussels are thus exposed to the same extent to these compounds.223

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Temperature ( o C)3025201510514,816,618,321,422,819,714,311,38,05,47,010,4pH8,68,48,287,87,67,47,28,198,328,298,188,178,148,097,558,128,088,188,120Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (month)7Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Mounth)0,250,140,114 0,115Cond. (ms)0,200,150,100,050,080,060,080,120,1350,150,1350,1150,1450,160,170,14Nitrite (mg/L)0,120,10,080,060,040,020,0250,015 0,015 0,016 0,0180,0150,0360,030,0260,040,00Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar0Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)Time (Month)Nitrate (mg/L)1,61,41,210,80,60,41,230,480,60,435 0,4250,520,460,60,50,560,4250,685Productivity(mgC/m 2 /day)450400350300250200150100306,5288,5340,5262,5325,0312,5318,5252,5332,0283,0343,5266,00,2500Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)0Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)Phosporus(mg/L)3,532,521,510,9952,9050,670 0,6350,555 0,505Chlorophyl-a (mg/L)1,210,80,60,40,9300,755 0,7350,8950,9300,8650,7150,8450,9100,8850,7850,5050,50,225 0,220 0,2000,1300,225 0,2050,20Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)0Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)Detergent (mg/L)0,160,140,120,10,080,060,040,1220,0940,0540,0580,063 0,060,0790,0670,0550,0730,1050,063BOD5 (mg/L)403530252015103,482,8354,6753,9955,6755,255,1553,7655,875,92531,8531,850,0250Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Mounth)0Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)Fig. 2. Average concentrations of physicochemical and biological parameters in Sea water224

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009The difference of concentration of these two isomers in mussel tissues was related to a preferentialbiotransformation of benzo(a)pyrene, while benzo(e)pyrene was preferentially accumulated in the lipids.Several studies have described the induction of enzymatic systems involved in the depuration processes inmollusks such as mussels Mytilus sp. exposed to organic pollutants. In many studies, benzo(a)pyrene hasbeen shown to be carcinogenic in contrast to benzo(e)pyrene (Osborne and Crosby, 1987). Therefore, thegreater carcinogenicity of benzo(a)pyrene can be related to a preferential biotransformation of thiscompound and could explain the greater accumulation of benzo(e)pyrene relative to its structural isomer inmussel tissues.Neutral Red analysis in musselsThe capacity of cells to take up and retain neutral red after the exposure to a contaminant is used as ameasure of toxicant effect (Lowe, 1994). The reduced neutral red retention time is positively correlated withlevels of xenobiotics in tissue of mussels, proving its usefulness as an indirect indicator of environmentalquality (Castro 2004). The minimum and maximum lysosomal retention time in mussels was determined inJanuary and March 2002 and was found as 28.5 and 82.5 min, respectively (Figure 3). The lowest obtainedneutral red retention times (December - February) were comparable to those obtained in the mussels fromthe urban and industrial areas in Portugal (Castro 2004). The seasonal variability in the mussel neutral redretention time showed significant difference between summer and winter measurements. These differenceswere rather influenced by decrease in the levels of contaminants than seasonal variability.COD (mg/L)605040302017,85 18,7514,9511,95 11,05 10,6513,9017,3513,60 13,0047,1530,05FC ( MPN/100ml )3,532,521,511,6652,0142,422,174 2,2011,7691,6981,912 1,9121,7632,419100,50Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb MarTime (Month)0June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar AprTime (Month)FS(MPN/100 mL)32,521,511,6251,5111,3421,722,3161,6351,4911,9422,2782,0631,498TC (MPN/100 mL)3,532,521,511,9912,4922,3511,9772,5212,0642,2782,6092,1482,5222,1740,50,50June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr0June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar AprTime (Month)Time (Month)Fig.3. Average concentrations of physicochemical and biological parameters in Sea waterLinear regression and correlation of EOM and PAH concentrationsInterior standards as n-octadacene were used to determine the recovery during experiments. To determinethe quantity of chrysene, naphthalene, anthresene and benzo(a)pyrene, extraction results was injected to gaschromatography. From these results, the residence time and peak area was defined. The PAH standardconcentration, residence time, peak area and injected volume were shown in Table 6. The recoverypercentage in water and mussels samples was calculated. The efficiency of recovery from water and musselsamples during PAH analysis was changed found between 38.15 and 76.20% for water samples and 66.50and 88.12% for mussel samples. The efficiency of recovery from water and mussel samples during PAHanalysis was changed found between 38.15 and 76.20% for water samples and 66.50 and 88.12% for musselsamples.225

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Table 6. The residence time and peak area of PAH standards and interior standardsCompoundFractionSpecific time(min)Concentration(µg/ml)Peak area Injection volumen-octadecene F1 33.13 100 143955 1Naphthalene F2 23.68 40 51084 1Anthracene F2 49.61 40 114291 1Chrysene F2 32.82 2 12165 1Benzo(a)pyrene F2 53.21 40 10860 1The EOM in mussels ranged from 16.21 to 27.60 µg/g ww (Table 7). The obtained EOM in the samples ofmussels are comparable to 5 to 37 µg/g dw in the Black Sea along the northern Ukrainian coastline, butlower than 54 to 490 µg/g dw in the vicinity of Odessa, Danube coastline and Port of Sochi and 33 to 180µg/g dw in the vicinity of the Bosphorus (Oros 2006). In this study, in most of samples the PAH accountedfor a major part of the EOM (from 9 to 80%). The linear regression and correlation coefficients betweenEOM values and PAH concentrations are given in Figure 4. With the exception of only few samples, thetotal PAH concentrations was related to the concentrations of EOM (R 2 =0.78, n=25). The correlationcoefficients of PAH residues and EOM values of mussels changed between 0.275 and 0.770. The mostabundant PAH fraction benzo(a)pyrene was found in highest values in June and September, when the EOMvalues were also the highest.Table 7. Extractable organic matter (EOM) quantity in musselsSampling timeEOM (µg/g ww)June 2001 27.6September 2001 23.2January 2002 16.21March 2002 18.25Regarding hydrocarbon contamination, the European Environment Agency (1995) and Mee (1992) havehighlighted severe contamination (particularly by oil) in areas subject to riverside discharges, navigationroutes and ports. However, Wakeham (1996) and Maldonado et al. (1999) report only moderatecontamination by hydrocarbons. In this study, the absence of a correlation between total hydrocarbons andPAH (R 2 =0.041) indicates separate primary sources and/or differing transport processes for the two classesof compounds. Wakeham (1996) also report the same lack of correlation in offshore sample from the BlackSea. It is likely that combustion derived PAH will have aeolian components to their transport mechanismswhereas petrogenic PAH will be predominantly fluvial.226

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Naphthalene (µg/g)0,30,20,10y = -0,0094x + 0,3436r = 0,47610 15 20 25 30EOM (µg/g)Antracene(µg/g)43210y = -0,0663x + 3,2322r = 0,27510 15 20 25 30EOM (µg/g)Chrysene (µg/g)0,30,20,10y = -0,0144x + 0,3833r = 0,77010 15 20 25 30-0,1EOM (µg/g)Benzo[a]pyrene (µg/g)7,95,93,91,9-0,1y = 0,4329x - 6,5974r = 0,73310 15 20 25 30EOM (µg/g)Fig-4. Regression and Correlation between naphthlene, antracene, chrysene, benzo[a]pyrene and its EOMCONCLUSIONSThis study documented the analysis of PAH in water and mussels from Yeşilırmak River and estuary. Theresults showed that moderate levels of pollutants in water are associated with the lack of sewage systems.Most of the parameters varied seasonally. These data may be helpful in determining the actions necessary tominimize pollution sources, as well as the risks associated with pollution.The PHA concentrations in water were low when compared to the mussels, due principally to the very lowwater solubility of lipophilic PHA, which tends to accumulate in mussels. The total PAH concentrationsranged from 0.092 ng/l in estuary water to 4639 ng/g ww in mussels. The spatial distribution of thesepollutants implies major potential health risks, because they were found most frequently in places with highfishing activities. The levels of PHA were below action levels established by a regulatory administration.The mussels contained levels of PAH which reflected the levels of PHA found in their environments,confirming the mussel M. galloprovincialis as convent indicator of local pollution.REFERENCESAPHA, AWWA and WEF, Standard Methods for Examination of Water and Wastewater, 20 th edition.United Book Press, Baltimore, 1998.O.N. Ergun, Y. Orhan, H. Büyükgüngör, Marine Pollution by Municipal Wastewater of Samsun along theBlack Sea Shoreline, Turkey, Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the MediterraneanCoastal Environment , MEDCOAST 95, 1513-1521, October 24-27, 1995, Tarragona, SpainCook, R.H, Pierce, R.C., 1983. Polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons in the aquatic enviroment: formation,sources, fate ve effects on aquatic biota, National Research Councıl Of Canada.F. Telli, Seasonal changes in the levels of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH s ) and organochlorine pesticidesin Mytilus galloprovincialis along the Turkish coastal Black Sea. Middle East Technical University,The Institute of Marine Science, Ankara, 1991, pp. 114.Global environment facilities http://www.gefweb.org/.J.W. Farrington, B.W. Tripp, Gochim. Cosmochim. Acta. 1977, 41, 1627-1641.227

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009K. Maskaoui, J.L. Zhou, H.S. Hong, Z.L. Zhang, Environ. Pollut. 2002, 18, 109-122.L.D. Mee, Ambio 1992, 21, 278-286.N. Bihari, M. Fanfandel, V. Piskur, Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 2007, 51, 379-387.N.Y.O. Muyima, T.E. Cloete, Water SA 1995, 21, 239-244.Y. Orhan, G. Bakan, H. Büyükgüngör, The Effects of the Land-Based Pollutants on the Pollution of theBlack Sea, Turkey, International Symposium on MARINE POLLUTION, Extended Synopses, IAE-SM-354/28P, 280, Monaco, 5-9 October, 1995.A.Oros, 6th Framework Program, Sustainability of the Mediterranean and Black Sea environment, No515234. International Action for the Sustainability of the Mediterranean and Black Sea Environment ,2006.P. Baumard, H. Budzinski, P. Garrigues, Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 1998b, 17, 765-776.P. Baumard, H. Budzinski, Q. Mchin, P. Garrigues, T. Burgeot, J. Bellocq, Estuar. Coast. Shelf Sci. 1998a,47, 77-90.S. Yucel, Investigation of Pollution in Yeşilırmak River and at the coastal area and investigation of pollutioneffect on biological living. Master Thesis, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Samsun, Turkey, 2002.StatSoft Inc., Statistica (data analysis software system) Version 7.1. Tulsa, 2005.T.I. Jackson, T.L. Wade, T.J. Mcdonald, D.L. Wilkinson., J.M. Brooks., Environ. Pollut. 1994, 83, 291-298.UNEP, IOC and IAEA, Determination of petroleum hydrocarbons in samples. Reference Methods forMarine Pollution Studies 20, 1992.WPCRTA, Water Pollution Control Regulation of Turkish Authorities (Su Kirliligi Kontrol Yonetmeligi)No:19919, T.C. Resmi Gazete, 1989.Z. Zhang, J. Huang, G. Yu, H. Hong, Environ. Pollut. 2004, 130, 249-261.D.M. Lowe, R.K. Pipe, Aquat. Toxicol. 1994, 30, 357-65.M. Castro, M.M. Santos, N. M. Monteiro, N. Vieira, Mar. Environ. Res. 2004, 58, 741-745.228

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009ISSN 1943-2429© 2009 Ozean PublicationThe Relativistic Acceleration Relations Based on Force TransformationMd. Haider Ali Biswas and Timi Fahria HaqueMathematics Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, BangladeshE-mail: mhabiswas@yahoo.com, timifahria@gmail.com_________________________________________________________________________________________Abstract: Special theory of relativity describes the motion of particles moving at close to the speed of light.Einstein's theory is very well established as the correct description of motion of relativistic objects. In the theory ofspecial relativity, the Lorentz transformation replaces the Galilean transformation as the valid transformation lawbetween reference frames moving with respect to one another at constant velocity. Time dilation is one of the majorpredictions of special relativity. In special relativity, the time dilation effect is reciprocal. The relativity principleand the Lorentz force law enable us to cancel the Lorentz transformation and its time dilation from the main body ofspecial relativity theory. In this study the relativistic acceleration relations is derived using the relativistictransformation relations for force, velocity and mass.Keywords: special relativity, lorentz force law, lorentz transformation, time dilation_________________________________________________________________________________________INTRODUCTIONSpecial relativity is the physical theory of measurement in inertial frames of reference (Einstein, 1905). Itgeneralizes Galileo's principle of relativity that all uniform motion is relative, and that there is no absolute and welldefinedstate of rest (no privileged reference frames) from mechanics to all the laws of physics, including both thelaws of mechanics and of electrodynamics, whatever they may be (Rindler, 1977).Einstein described how he had arrived at the two fundamental postulates on which he based the special theory ofrelativity in his autobiographical notes which was published in November 1949. Under Galilean transformations weknow that the speed of light is not constant and the first postulate is the conclusion from Newtonian mechanics. Thesecond postulate is responsible to differentiate the classical theory and Einstein’s theory of relativity. Specialrelativity incorporates the principle that the speed of light is the same for all inertial observers regardless of the stateof motion of the source (Taylor and Wheeler, 1992).Thus for the constancy of velocity of light H. A. Lorentz introduced transformation equations relating theobservations of position and time made by two observers in two different inertial frames and are known as “LorentzTransformation Equations”. Einstein’s presented a derivation of Lorentz transformation which forms the basis of thespecial relativity theory and he reached the ideas of kinematics length contraction and time dilation by interpretingthe physical significance of Lorentz transformation equations.229

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Y Y ′u• PS S′OZ Z ′O′X , X ′Fig. 1. Two inertial frames S and S′ ; S′ is moving relative to S .ut − x2t′ =c,2u1−c2x′ =x − ut, y ′ = y , z ′ = z2u1−c2⎛ u ⎞t′ = γ ⎜dt− dx⎟, dx′ = γ ( dx − udt), d y′ = dy , d z = dz⎝ c ⎠d2Whereγ =1u1−c22′ (1)As it’s well known Einstein’s method (Einstein, 1905) in deriving the Lorentz transformation aimed to aninterpretation of the invariance of light speed which was not included in Galilean transformation. He considered theCartesian points in the frame S to be the same in the frame S′ providing that we maintain the constancy of lightspeed for the movement of this point in both frames. The Lorentz transformation and its kinematics effects played anessential role in special relativity theory formalism. This led directly to the demonstration of the essential role forLorentz transformation and its kinematics effects in deriving the relativistic dynamical quantities and in theinterpretation of relativistic phenomena. So many physicists are motivated to think that alternatives to specialrelativity theory and a new interpretation (Prokhovnik, et. al., 1993), or even a theory alternative to special relativitytheory may be needed (Wilhelm and Hadronic, 1996).Relativistic transformation relations for force, velocity and massIn this section we will derive the relativistic transformation relations for force, velocity and mass. Consider that Sand S′ are two systems; S′ is moving with velocity u along x-axis. Let m and m′ be the masses of a body in Sand S′ ; which are moving with velocities v and v′ in S and S′ respectively (Fig.1). Let( x,y,z,t)( x ′,y′, z′, t′)be co-ordinates of a moving point P in S and S′ ( vx, vy, vz) ( v ′x, v′y, v′z)are given byand.If F is a force on a body of mass m and velocity v , thenand230

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009dF = Rate of change of momentum = (mv)dtF = iF + jF + kF+This givesdmdt=xFFFxyzddtydm= v&x+ mv&xdtdm= v&y+ mv&ydtdm= v&z+ mv&zdt⎧⎪⎪⎨⎪⎪⎩2 2 2v vx+ vy+m0⎛ v⎜1−⎝ c2z22z, v = ivx+ jvykvz⎫⎪⎪ v⎬ = m2⎞ ⎪ c⎟⎪⎠ ⎭0dm dv dmv + m = v + mv&dt dt dt= (2).du 1dt⎛ v⎜1−⎝ c22⎞⎟⎠32( cm dvv2v ) dt2 −(3)= (4)= v . (5)Differentiating with respect to t,v v& = v v&+ v v&+ v v&xNow equation (4) becomesdmdtxm(v v&x=xy( c2y+ v v&+ v v&yy− v2z)zzz)Now equation (3) becomesm(vxv&x+ vyv&y+ vzv&z)Fx= ux+ mv&2 2x( c − v )m(vxv&x+ vyv&y+ vzv&z)Fy= uy+ mv&2 2y( c − v )m(vxv&x+ vyv&y+ vzv&z)Fz= uz+ mv&2 2z( c − v )(6)By Lorentz transformationdt′=dt⎛ u ⎞⎜1 − v2 x ⎟ ,⎝ c ⎠γ whereIn the system S′ ,γ =1⎛ u⎜1−⎝ c22⎞⎟⎠231

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009dFx= m′vdt′′ according to (2).=(x),⎡⎤⎢ ⎛ u ⎞m⎜1− v⎥2 x ⎟d ⎢ ⎝ c ⎠ ( vx− u)⎥ 1⎢. ⎥.dt2⎢ ⎛ u ⎞ ⎛ u ⎞⎜ ⎟⎥⎜⎛ u− −⎢⎜1−⎟ 1 vxγ 1 v222 ⎝ c ⎠⎥⎝ c⎣ ⎝ c ⎠⎦1 ⎡m(vxv&x+ vyv&y+ vzv&z)F ′x= ⎢+ mv&2 2x⎛ u ⎞ ⎣ ( c − v )⎜1− v2 x ⎟⎝ c ⎠Observed thatFx⎛ u ⎞⎜ ⎟(vyFy+ vzFz)2−⎝ c ⎠⎛ u ⎞⎜1− v2 x ⎟⎝ c ⎠⎡⎢(v v&m⎢⎞ ⎢⎜⎛ u1 − v2 x ⎟⎝ c ⎠⎢⎣+ v⎛v&y+ vzv&z) ⎜u⎝2 2( c − v )x⎞⎟⎠⎤⎥⎦[making use of (3), we obtain ]u− v2c1 ⎡dm⎤= ⎢ − +⎞ ⎣⎥⎦⎜⎛ [( vxu)mv&x]u dt1 − v2 x ⎟⎝ c ⎠⎞⎟⎠ u− ( v2c2x x yx=xv&x+ vyv&y+ vzv&z) v&x1⎜⎛ u1 − v2⎝ c⎡⎢⎞⎟⎣(c⎠v& + v v&+ v v&)( v − u)+ mv&= ( v2 2 x x y y z z xx= F ′x, by (7).xm− v )⎤⎥⎦⎤⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦(7)By virtue of (2), we have2⎛ u⎜1−2d d dt ⎝ cF ′y= m′v′y) = ( m′v′y). =dt′dt dt′⎛ u⎜1− v2⎝ c(yx⎟ ⎞⎠. F⎞⎟⎠Similarly,⎛ u⎜1−c2⎝F′z= Fz2u⎜⎛ 1 − v2⎝ c⎟ ⎞⎠⎞⎟⎠dx dyvx = vy= , vz=dt dtxdzdt, ;Now, using Lorentz transformation, we havedx′dy′v′ x= v′y= ,dt′dt′v′zdz′=dt′, (8)232

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009dx′v x=dt ′′ =dx − udt vx− u=u udt − dx 1− v2 2c cx,dy′v y=dt ′′ =uvy1−cu1−v2cx22,dz′v z=dt ′′ =uvz1−cu1−v2cx22mom =⎛ v⎜ −⎝2⎞12c⎟ ⎠12,mm′=⎛ ′⎜⎝o12v212 ⎟ ⎞−c ⎠(9)From (9)⎛ v′⎜1−m= ⎜ cm′⎜ v⎜ 1−⎝ c2222⎞12⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠2v′1 2 2 22 2 2∴ 1−= 1−( v′)22 x+ v′y+ v′z[ v = v′x+ v′y+ v′zc c2⎛ v ⎞ u⎜1− 12 ⎟⎛⎟⎜ −⎝ c ⎠⎝c=2⎛ u ⎞⎜1− v2 x ⎟⎝ c ⎠22⎟ ⎞⎠2′ ][using the law of composition of velocities]Taking square root,Now, we get⎛ v′⎜1−⎜ c⎜ v⎜ 1−⎝ c2222⎞12⎟⎟⎟⎟⎠=⎛ u⎜1−⎝ cu1−c22⎞⎟⎠12v2 xmm⎛ u⎜1−⎝ cu2c22⎞⎟⎠12′ = 1−vxor,⎛ um⎜1− v2⎝ cm′=2⎛ u ⎞⎜1−2⎟⎝ c ⎠x12⎟⎠⎞Therefore we obtain the relativistic transformation relations for force, velocity and mass as well as the relativisticfactor γ :233

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009F x′ = Fvx− uv′ x=u1− v2 xcxuFyv2−c⎜⎛ u1 − v2⎝ c⎛ um⎜1− v2⎝ cm′=2⎛ u ⎞⎜1−2⎟⎝ c ⎠yx, v′ y=x12⎟⎠⎞,⎞⎟⎠uFzv2 z−c⎜⎛ u1 − v2 x⎝ cvy⎜⎛ uγ 1 − v2⎝ c=x⎞⎟⎠1⎞⎟⎠⎛ u⎜1−⎝ c, F′y, v′ z=22⎞⎟⎠Fy=⎜⎛ uγ 1 − v2 x⎝ cvz⎜⎛ uγ 1 − v2⎝ cx⎞⎟⎠⎞⎟⎠, F′zFz=⎜⎛ uγ 1 − v2 x⎝ c⎞⎟⎠(10)(11)γ (12)The 3-vector relativistic acceleration relationsThe 3-vector relativistic acceleration in special relativity theory formalism is a consequence of Lorentztransformation and its time dilation. Hamdan and Baza derived the relativistic acceleration relations without timedilation (Hamdan and Baza, 2004). In this study we have derived the 3-vector relativistic acceleration relations usingforce transformation.Now, from (10), let us take the equation of z-componentFzF ′z=⎞⎜⎛ (13)uv1 − xγ ⎟2⎝ c ⎠Since the external electromagnetic force is equal to the rate of change in momentum with time in frame S and S′ ,then according to the relations describing the movement of a charged particle in an external electromagnetic field,d(m′v′)=dt′′ +′×i.e., q(E v B )′d(mv)dtq(E + v × B)= (14)It is possible to replace the Cartesian components of Lorentz force with their equivalent in relations (13).Hence, according to the definition of F we could writed(mv ) dmmadt dtavmvz2c= = + ma2v1−2czFz= = vz+∴F zzSimilarly,F ′ z=a′v′m′v′z 2c2v1−2c+ m′a′zzzdm dv= v +dv dtzma z(15.1)(15.2)234

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009Now, starting from equation (15.1) and adding at the same time, subtracting the termd(mvdtor,or,zd(mvdt⎛⎜)= m⎜⎜a⎜⎝zz+c⎡⎛⎢⎜)= m⎢⎜⎢⎜a⎢⎜⎣⎝zuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1+ccx2⎛⎜ −⎝2 1⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠uvzaxuvc+x2⎛⎜⎜m⎜⎜c⎝⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠+vzav uvzax−2⎛ v ⎞ 2 ⎛ uv⎜1− ⎟ c ⎜2 −2⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c2 1⎛⎜⎜ vz( a⎜⎜⎝xvx+ ayvy+ azv2⎛ v ⎞c⎜1− ⎟2⎝ c ⎠x⎞⎟⎟⎟⎞⎟ ⎟⎠⎠)−c2 21zuvzax⎛ uv⎜ −2⎝ cuvzax2 uvxc ( 1−)2c⎡⎛⎞⎢⎜⎟d(mvz) ⎢⎜uvzax⎟ vzax( vx− u)vzvy= m⎢⎜az++dt⎛ uv ⎞ ⎟+ ( +⎢⎜c2 ⎜1−x ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎟ ⎟2 ⎜ ⎟⎣⎝⎝ c ⎠⎜ −⎟⎜ −⎟⎠⎠⎛ ⎞a22 y2 uv −x v 2 vc 1 1 c 1222⎝ c ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎞⎛⎞⎤⎟⎜⎟2⎥uvyax⎟ vz⎟+⎜ uvzax⎟⎥2 ⎛ ⎞⎜ − 2⎟ ⎟⎝1 uv⎜a +2 z⎟⎥x2⎛ v ⎞2 ⎛ uv ⎞c⎜ ⎜ −xc⎟ ⎟⎥c ⎠⎜1− ⎟ c 122⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠⎥⎦1, we obtain⎛ uv ⎞ γ ⎜1− x2⎟⎝ c ⎠Now if we take equation (16) and multiplying, at the same time, dividing it byFz⎡ ⎛⎞⎢ ⎜⎟⎞ ⎢ ⎜⎟⎜⎛ uv − x 1uvzaxvzax( vx− u)γ 1 ⎟m⎢ ⎜a +2z⎝ ⎠ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎟+ +c uv⎢ ⎜ −x2 uv1 ⎟ ⎜ c ⎜1−xγ⎟ ⎟⎞ ⎛ ⎞2⎜⎛ 2 22 uv − x vc γ 1 ⎟⎣ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠=2x⎞⎤⎟⎥⎟⎥⎟⎞ ⎥⎟ ⎟⎥⎠⎠⎥⎦, then we have(16)⎛⎞⎜⎟2vzvy ⎜ uvyax⎟ vz⎜+⎟+⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜⎜⎟ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ −⎟⎠⎛ ⎞⎟ −−−⎠⎛ ⎞a2 y22 uv2 uv−x vx 2 uvxvc γ 1 1c 1222c γ 1 122⎝ c ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ c ⎝ c ⎠⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝z+cuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1cx2⎞⎤⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎥ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎠ ⎠⎦Now substituting the above result in equation (13), we obtain235

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009F⎡⎛⎞⎢⎜⎟⎛ uv ⎞ ⎢⎜⎟= ⎜ −x 1uvzaxvzax( vx− u)γ 1 ⎟m⎢⎜a +22 z⎝ ⎠⎛ ⎞ ⎟+ +3c2⎛ ⎞2 uv2uv⎢ ⎜1−x⎟ ⎜ c ⎜1−xγ⎟ ⎟2 2 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜2−x vc γ 1 ⎟⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠′ z2⎛⎞⎜⎟2vzvy ⎜ uvyax⎟vz⎜a +⎟+2 2y2⎛ ⎞22 2 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ⎞2 uv⎜⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜ −x v ⎟ ⎜ −x⎟⎜ −2 21 1⎟ c 1uv2 ⎜ −x vc γc γ 1 ⎟ ⎜1−⎟2222⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝+cuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1cx2⎞⎤⎟⎥⎟⎥⎞ ⎟⎥⎟ ⎟⎥⎠ ⎠⎦z(17)22⎡22v′1 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎧⎛ ⎞ ⎛⎢⎜−x 1 − ⎨ −2⎟ +2 u⎜ −⎟ + 2 u∴1−=1( v⎜2222 xu)vy1 v 12 z −2c ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ c ⎩⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c⎜1−x⎟2⎝ c ⎠⎞⎫⎤⎟⎬⎥⎠⎭⎥⎦[using equation (10)]1=⎛ uv⎜1−⎝ cx22⎞⎟⎠− 2uv u }]2 x+⎡ 2uv⎢1−⎢⎣cx2u v +c2 2x41 −2c⎧⎨⎩2 22 2 2⎛ u ⎞ u v( vx+ vy + vz) ⎜1− ⎟ +2 2⎜⎝c⎟⎠c2x1⎜⎛ uv1 − x2⎝ c⎞⎟⎠⎛ u⎜1−⎝ c⎞ v⎟⎛⎟⎜1−⎠⎝c= 2 22⎛ u⎜1−cv′ 222∴1−=⎝ ⎠⎝c22⎛ uv ⎞⎜1−x2⎝2⎞ v⎟⎛⎟⎜1−cc⎟⎠22⎟ ⎞⎠Multiplying, at the same time, dividing the last three terms in equation (17) by2⎞⎟⎠122 ⎛ uv ⎞ γ ⎜1− x⎟2⎝ c ⎠, we get(18)236

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009F2⎡⎛⎞⎛ ⎞⎢⎜⎟ −2 uv⎜ −xvzax( vxu)γ 1 ⎟2⎛ uv ⎞ ⎢⎜⎟= ⎜ −x 1uvzaxγ 1 ⎟m⎢⎜a +22 z⎝ ⎠⎛ ⎞ ⎟+⎝ c ⎠+5c2⎛ uv ⎞2 uv2⎢ ⎜1−x⎟ ⎜ c ⎜1−xγ⎟ ⎟2 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜2−x vc γ 1 ⎟⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠′ z22 uvx⎞vzvyγ⎜1⎟2⎝ c ⎠4 22 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛⎜1−x vc γ ⎟ ⎜12 −2⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c2⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎞⎜⎟⎠ ⎝y⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞−2 2 uv⎜ −x⎟ vzγ 1 ⎟uv2yax⎟+⎝ c+⎠⎟4⎛ ⎞22 uv⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜ −xc 1 ⎟2 4 uv2 ⎜1−x vc γ ⎟ ⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠2⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝z+cuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1cx2⎞⎤⎟⎥⎟⎥⎞ ⎟⎥⎟ ⎟⎥⎠ ⎠⎦⎡⎛⎢⎜⎞ ⎢⎜⎜⎛ uv = − x 1uvzaxγ 1 ⎟m⎢⎜a +22 z⎝ c ⎠ ⎛ ⎞2 ⎛2 uvuv⎢ ⎜1−x⎟ ⎜ c ⎜1−xγ2⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c2⎞⎜⎛ uv − − xvzax( vxu)1 ⎟2⎝ c+⎠5 222 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎜ −x u vc γ 1 ⎟ ⎜1− ⎟⎛⎟⎜122 −2⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎝c2 ⎛ uv ⎞⎜ −xvz1 ⎟2⎝ c+⎠4 22 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛⎜ −x uc γ 1 ⎟ ⎜12 −2⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c22⎞ v⎟⎛⎟⎜1−⎠⎝cUsing equation (18), equation (19) becomesF22⎛⎜+ ⎜a⎞ ⎜⎟ ⎜⎠ ⎝⎛⎜⎜⎞⎜a⎟ ⎜⎠ ⎝zy+c+c⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠uv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1⎛⎜ −⎝2 1yaxuvcuvzaxuvcx2x2⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠⎞⎤⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎥ ⎥⎥⎥ ⎠ ⎠⎦⎡⎢⎢⎢⎢⎣γ =1u1−c22⎤⎥⎥⎥⎥⎦Q (19)⎡⎛⎞⎢⎜⎟⎛ uv ⎞ ⎢⎜⎟= ⎜ −x 1uvzaxvzax( vx− u)γ 1 ⎟m⎢⎜a +22 z⎝ ⎠⎛ ⎞ ⎟+ +5c2⎛ ⎞2 uv2uv⎢ ⎜1−x⎟ ⎜ c ⎜1−xγ⎟ ⎟2 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ′ ⎞⎜ ⎟2−x vc γ 1⎢⎣⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠′ z2237

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009⎛⎞⎜⎟2vzvy ⎜ uvyax⎟vz⎜a +⎟+4 2y4⎛ ⎞22 4 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ′ ⎞2 uv⎜⎟ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ′ ⎞⎜ −x v⎟⎜ −x 2 41⎟⎜1−⎟ c 1uv2 ⎜ −x vc γc γ 1 ⎟⎜1−⎟2222⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝+cuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1cx2⎞⎤⎟⎥⎟⎥⎞ ⎟⎥⎟ ⎟⎥⎠ ⎠⎦z(20)Using equations (10)-(12), equation (20) becomes⎡⎢⎢ 1F ′ ′z= m⎢⎛ uv⎢γ⎜1−2⎢⎣⎝ c⎞⎟⎠⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝+c2 z2 x21uvzax⎛ uv⎜ −2⎝ cx⎞⎟⎟ v′′zaxvx⎞ ⎟+ +3 2⎟ ⎟2 3⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ′ ⎞⎜ −x vc γ 1 ⎟⎠ ⎠⎜1−⎟22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠v′′zvy2 22 2 ⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ ′⎜ −x vc γ 1 ⎟⎜1−22⎝ c ⎠ ⎝ c⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎞⎜⎟⎠ ⎝y+c2uvyax⎛ uv⎜1−2⎝ cx⎞⎟⎟v′z⎟+⎞⎟2 2⎟⎛ uv⎜ −xc γ 12⎠ ⎠ ⎝ c22⎞⎟⎠⎛ v′⎜1−⎝ c22⎞⎟⎠⎛⎜⎜⎜a⎜⎝+cuvzaxuv⎛⎜ −⎝2 1cx2⎞⎤⎟⎥⎟⎥⎞ ⎟⎥⎟ ⎟⎥⎠ ⎠⎦z(21)Comparing equation (21) with equation (15.2), we haveaxa′ x=33 ⎛ uv ⎞⎜1 −xγ ⎟2⎝ c ⎠, a′ y=⎛⎜1 ⎜ uvyax⎜a +2 y⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ 2 2⎜1− ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ −22⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝1 uvxγcccx⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠a′ z=⎛⎜1 ⎜ uvzax⎜a +2 z⎛ uv ⎞ ⎛ 2 2⎜1− ⎟ ⎜ ⎜ −22⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎝1 uvxγcccx⎞⎟⎟⎞ ⎟⎟ ⎟⎠ ⎠The same result can be derived from the y and x forces.(22)Conclusion238

Ozean Journal of Applied Sciences 2(2), 2009In this study the 3-vector relativistic acceleration relations are derived without Lorentz transformation and its timedilation based on force transformation. Therefore these transformation relations are derived using the forcetransformation and the Lorentz transformation and its role in special relativity (Hamdan, 2004) is canceled. So wehave reached a conclusion that the Lorentz transformation is not necessary in some cases and can easily be canceledto derive these transformation relations.REFERENCESEinstein, A. 1905. On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies. (English translation by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffery).Annalen der Physik, 17: 891.Golden, S. 2000. Non-kinematicity of the dilation of time relation of Einstein for time intervals. Naturforsch, Z.55a,563-569.Hamdan, N. 2003. Abandoning the Ideas of Length Contraction in and Time Dilation, Galilean Electrodynamics.Vol. 14, p. 83-88 .Hamdan, N. 2004. Abandoning the Ideas of Length Contraction in Relativistic Electrodynamics, GalileanElectrodynamics, Vol. 154, p. 71-75 .Hamdan, N. and Baza, S. 2004. Derivation of Relativistic Acceleration Relations without Time Dilation. Thegeneral science journal.Haque, T. F. 2009. Relativistic Acceleration Relations Based on Force Transformation and the Special RelativityTheory without the Constancy of the Speed of Light. M.Sc Thesis (not published), MathematicsDiscipline, Khulna University, Bangladesh.Harada, M and Sachs, M. 1998. Reinterpretation of the Fitzgerald-Lorentz contraction. Phys.Ess.11, 521-523.Jefimenko, O. D and Naturforsch, Z.1998. On the experimental proofs of relativistic length contraction and timedilation. Naturforsch, Z.53a, 977-982.Minkowski, H. and Weyl, H. 1952. The Principle of Relativity. Courier Dover Publications. p. 41. ISBN0486600815.Prakash, S. 2000. Relativistic Mechanics. Pragati Prakashan, Meerut, India. Tenth Edition. ISBN 81-7556-201-3.Prokhovnik, S. J., Lorentz, H. and Naturforsch, Z. 1993. The Physical Interpretation of Special Relativity. 48a, 925-931.Rindler, W. 1977. Essential relativity. Birkhanser, p.7.ISBN 354007970X.Taylor, E. F. and Wheeler, J. A. 1992. Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity. W. H. Freeman. ISBN0-7167-2327-1.Wilhelm, H.E. and Hadronic, J. 1996. Physical Problems of Einstein’s Relativity Theories. 19, pp. 1-39.239