The Arts of Byzantium: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v ...
The Arts of Byzantium: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v ...
The Arts of Byzantium: The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, v ...
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<strong>The</strong> <strong><strong>Art</strong>s</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong>Helen C. EvansMelanie HolcombRobert HallmanTHE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> ®www.jstor.org
Director's Note<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> is justifiablyproud <strong>of</strong> its exceptional holdings <strong>of</strong>Byzantine and early medieval art, whichconstitute the preeminent collection inthe United States and one <strong>of</strong> the world'soutstanding assemblages <strong>of</strong> this material.In recognition <strong>of</strong> the importance <strong>of</strong> theseholdings, we decided several years agothat a new, greatly enhanced space wasnecessary for their proper exhibition.<strong>The</strong> results <strong>of</strong> our efforts, the Mary andMichael Jaharis Galleries for Byzantine<strong>Art</strong>, opened in November 2000. <strong>The</strong>installation-in restored and redesignedBeaux <strong><strong>Art</strong>s</strong> spaces, part <strong>of</strong> Richard MorrisHunt's architectural plan <strong>of</strong> 1902-includes an intimate, "cryptlike" galleryunder the Grand Staircase, featuring thegreat brick arches and sloping walls thatsupport the massive granite steps risingabove. This area, now housing worksfrom Byzantine Egypt, has been inaccessibleto the public since it was built.Adjoining it on the north is a galleryprimarily devoted to secular art <strong>of</strong> theByzantine and early medieval worlds;and on the south is a gallery for liturgicalart <strong>of</strong> the Byzantine church and Middleto Late Byzantine secular art. <strong>The</strong> galleriesare the first phase <strong>of</strong> an extensive projectthat will eventually encompass everyaspect <strong>of</strong> the holdings <strong>of</strong> medieval art.<strong>The</strong> reinstallation was organized byPeter Barnet, the Michel David-Weillcurator in charge; Helen C. Evans, curator;and Melanie Holcomb, assistant curator,in the Department <strong>of</strong> Medieval <strong>Art</strong> and<strong>The</strong> Cloisters. <strong>The</strong> selection <strong>of</strong> objectsand the texts for this publication, presentinga brief survey <strong>of</strong> the riches <strong>of</strong> thenew galleries, are by Helen C. Evans,with Melanie Holcomb and RobertHallman, research associate.Of course, our plans for these magnificentgalleries would never havebeen realized if it had not been for theextraordinary generosity <strong>of</strong> Mary andMichael Jaharis, whose deep love <strong>of</strong>and dedication to Byzantine art andculture made them possible.Philippe de Montebello, DirectorThis publication was made possible through thegenerosity <strong>of</strong> the Lila Acheson Wallace Fund for<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> established bythe c<strong>of</strong>ounder <strong>of</strong> Reader's Digest.<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong>.Spring 2001. Volume LVIII, Number 4 (ISSN0026-1521). Published quarterly. Copyright ?by <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>. Periodicalspostage paid at New York, N.Y., and AdditionalMailing Offices. <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong><strong>Art</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> is provided as a benefit to <strong>Museum</strong>members and is available by subscription.Subscriptions $25.00 a year. Single copies$8.95. Four weeks' notice required for change<strong>of</strong> address. POSTMASTER: Send addresschanges to Membership Department, <strong>The</strong><strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>, 1000 FifthAvenue, New York, N.Y. 10028-0198. Backissues available on micr<strong>of</strong>ilm from UniversityMicr<strong>of</strong>ilms, 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor,Mich. 48106. Volumes I-XXXVII (1905-42)available as clothbound reprint set or as indi-vidual yearly volumes from Ayer CompanyPublishers Inc., 50 Northwestern Drive #10,Salem, N.H. 03079, or from the <strong>Museum</strong>,Box 700, Middle Village, N.Y. 1137.9.General Manager <strong>of</strong> Publications: John P. O'NeillEditor in Chief <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Bulletin</strong>: Joan HoltEditor <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Bulletin</strong>: Jennifer BernsteinFor this issue: Jane Bobko with Ellyn AllisonProduction: Peter AntonyDesign: Bruce CampbellPhotography by Joseph Coscia Jr., Anna-MarieKellen, and Juan Trujillo <strong>of</strong> the PhotographStudio <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>Front cover: Christ on the Cross, with the Virginand Saint John, detail <strong>of</strong> a box reliquary (see p. 39).Back cover: Personification <strong>of</strong> Ktisis (or Foundation),detail <strong>of</strong> a floor mosaic (see p. 17)Unless otherwise noted, all texts are byHelen C. Evans.<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong>is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve, and extend access to<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Art</strong> <strong>Bulletin</strong> ®www.jstor.org
<strong>The</strong> "cryptlike" space under the Grand Staircase, part <strong>of</strong> the Mary and Michael Jaharis Galleries for Byzantine <strong>Art</strong>3
<strong>The</strong> <strong><strong>Art</strong>s</strong> <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong><strong>The</strong> empire called <strong>Byzantium</strong> lastedmore than 1,100 years-from the found-ing <strong>of</strong> its capital, Constantinople (modernIstanbul, Turkey), in 330 to the conquest<strong>of</strong> the city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453.<strong>The</strong> image that many have <strong>of</strong> it todaycomes from William Butler Yeats's poem"Sailing to <strong>Byzantium</strong>" (1928): It is aworld filled with objects <strong>of</strong> "hammeredgold and gold enamelling/To keep adrowsy Emperor awake;/Or [to be] setupon a golden bough to sing/To lordsand ladies <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong>/Of what is past,or passing, or to come." <strong>The</strong> citizens <strong>of</strong>this <strong>Byzantium</strong> are either "sages standingin God's holy fire/As in the gold mosaic<strong>of</strong> a wall" or-according to anotherpopular conception-plotters consumedby complex and disorienting-that is,byzantine-intrigues. <strong>The</strong> splendid worksin the <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>'s installation<strong>of</strong> Byzantine art in the Mary and MichaelJaharis Galleries demonstrate, however,that the great empire was not a frozensociety but a diverse and vital state. <strong>The</strong>seartworks <strong>of</strong>fer us a pr<strong>of</strong>ound, nuancedunderstanding <strong>of</strong> the Byzantines' appreciation<strong>of</strong> beauty, faith, and power.<strong>The</strong> Empire's First Golden Age<strong>The</strong> first golden age <strong>of</strong> the ByzantineEmpire, known as the Early Byzantineperiod, extended from the founding <strong>of</strong>Constantinople into the 700s. <strong>The</strong>emperor Constantine the Great (r. 306-37) selected Byzantion, an ancient Greekcity on the Bosporus, to be the site <strong>of</strong>the new capital <strong>of</strong> the Roman Empire inPortrait <strong>of</strong> Gennadios, detail <strong>of</strong> gold-glass medallion (see p. 9)4
324. In 330 he transferred the senate andthe imperial court from Rome to the formerByzantion, a larger city he namedConstantinople (the polis-or city-<strong>of</strong>Constantine). <strong>The</strong>re, at the juncture <strong>of</strong>Europe and Asia, where the overlandtrade routes <strong>of</strong> the East met the searoutes <strong>of</strong> the Mediterranean, the emperorbelieved that he could best protect thevaluable Roman provinces in Egypt, theHoly Land, Syria, and the Balkans fromthe empire's powerful ancient enemy tothe east, the Persians.Constantine was the first Christianruler <strong>of</strong> the Roman Empire. At the Battle<strong>of</strong> the Milvian Bridge in 312 he haddefeated Maxentius (r. 306-12) for solecontrol <strong>of</strong> the empire; Constantine's soldiersare said to have painted the Chi-Rho,or monogram <strong>of</strong> Christ, on their shieldsafter he beheld a vision that the newfaith would lead him to victory. In 313he acknowledged the divine assistancehe had received and made Christianity alegal religion in the empire. Under hisrule numerous major churches werebuilt at sites sacred to Christians, includingthe church <strong>of</strong> the Holy Sepulchre inJerusalem (raised at the spot where Christis believed to have been crucified) andSaint Peter's in Rome, constructed over thecemetery, outside the city walls, wherethe apostle is said to have been buried.Although Christianity was only one <strong>of</strong> thecreeds that flourished in the culturallyand religiously diverse Byzantine state,a Christian church, Hagia Sophia (HolyWisdom), was erected in the heart <strong>of</strong>Constantinople, between the imperialpalace and the senate. Slowly and withsome resistance the gods <strong>of</strong> antiquity werereplaced by the Christian God. Duringhis brief reign, from 361 to 363, theemperor Julian the Apostate attempted torestore the ancient Roman order, includ-ing the gods <strong>of</strong> the classical world. ByPersonification <strong>of</strong> Spring, detail <strong>of</strong> tunic decoration (see p. 25)the late 300s, however, Christianity wasthe <strong>of</strong>ficial religion <strong>of</strong> the state. Moreand more objects richly decorated withChristian imagery were created, for bothecclesiastical and domestic use.Even as Christianity triumphed,<strong>Byzantium</strong>'s educated elite continued torely upon Roman law and Greek andRoman culture to maintain a highlyorganized state centered on its majorcities and supported by the wealth anddense population <strong>of</strong> the eastern territories.Emperors updated the old Romancodes in Latin, which was still the <strong>of</strong>ficiallanguage <strong>of</strong> government. <strong>The</strong>rewas a resurgence <strong>of</strong> Greek culture, especiallyin literature and in the visual arts.Schools taught classical Greek texts, suchas Homer's Iliad, and important Byzantinewriters, like the sixth-century historianProcopius (act. 550s), modeled theirworks on classical ones.In the mid-500s the emperor Justinian I(r. 527-65), the greatest <strong>of</strong> the earlyrulers <strong>of</strong> the empire, regained many <strong>of</strong>the old Roman lands in the West.Ravenna, not Rome, now served as thewestern capital <strong>of</strong> the empire. Traderoutes extended from western Europe toChina. <strong>The</strong> artistic traditions <strong>of</strong> theByzantine state flourished throughout theempire, including in its southernmostprovince, Egypt.Part <strong>of</strong> the classical world sinceits conquest by Alexander the Great(r. 336-323 B.C.), Egypt was a source <strong>of</strong>vast wealth for the Byzantines. It providedmuch <strong>of</strong> the grain that fed theempire's cities. <strong>The</strong> finest linen, madefrom flax, was woven in Egypt, and the5
<strong>The</strong> Virgin, medallion from an icon frame (see p. 45)most precious porphyry (purple marble)was quarried there. Alexandria, at themouth <strong>of</strong> the Nile, became a Christiandiocese in 382. (According to tradition,the city's first bishop had been the evan-gelist Mark [act. before A.D. 70].) <strong>The</strong> citywas one <strong>of</strong> the five major centers<strong>of</strong> the church (the others were Rome,Constantinople, Antioch, and Jerusalem).Egypt, where men like Saint Anthonythe Great (ca. 251 -356) went into thedesert to live ascetic lives in contemplation<strong>of</strong> the divine, was also the source<strong>of</strong> Christian monasticism. <strong>The</strong> EgyptianbornPachomios (ca. 290-346) wroterules for communal living, once othersbegan to follow holy men into the desert.In 451 internal theological debates at theCouncil <strong>of</strong> Chalcedon led the Egyptianchurch to separate from the church <strong>of</strong>Constantinople. Ultimately the Egyptianchurch came to be called the Copticchurch, as it still is today. (<strong>The</strong> term"Coptic" was introduced by Egypt'sArab conquerors in the mid-seventhcentury; it is derived from a mispronunciation<strong>of</strong> Aigyptos, the ancient Greekword for "Egypt." Indeed, "<strong>Byzantium</strong>"was coined by the German humanistHieronymous Wolf [1518-1580] todistinguish the Roman state ruled fromByzantion-Constantinople from theempire when it was ruled from Rome.)<strong>The</strong> Early Byzantine World and thePeoples on Its BordersAs early as the 1 60s Roman armiesunder Marcus Aurelius (r. 161 -80) hadclashed with Germanic tribes on theempire's western border, in what is todayRomania. In the third century the Franksliving along the Rhine and the Gothssettled near the Danube began regularlyto attack the Romans. <strong>The</strong> tribal peoplesnonetheless also served as mercenariesin the Roman and Byzantine armies. In395 the Roman/Byzantine Empire wasdivided into eastern and western halvesruled by Arcadius (r. 395-408) andHonorius (r. 395-423), respectively, thesons <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>odosius I (r. 379-95), theemperor who declared Christianity thestate religion. <strong>The</strong> border peoples beganto establish their own kingdoms in thewestern provinces, and many received<strong>of</strong>ficial recognition from Constantinople.<strong>The</strong>ir arts combined Roman and Byzantineelements with Bronze Age andCeltic influences.<strong>The</strong> peoples on the western bordersbegan to convert to Christianity, thoughnot always to the church <strong>of</strong> Rome andConstantinople. In 345 the Goths adoptedArianism, a teaching that had originatedin Alexandria and that in 325 had beencondemned as heretical by a council <strong>of</strong>the church. Arians, who included severalByzantine emperors, were opposed tothe <strong>of</strong>ficial church position that Christwas the equal <strong>of</strong> God the Father, holdinginstead that he was created by God theFather. When the Anglo-Saxons settledEngland in the 430s, they created tworeligious spheres: the Anglo-Saxons inthe west became Christians, while thosein the east remained pagans. Under KingClovis (r. 481 -511), the Franks convertedto Christianity about 496. By the 700s theincreasing numbers <strong>of</strong> Christian peoplesin the West-descended from Germanictribes such as the Franks (France), Langobards(Italy), Visigoths (Spain), Anglo-Saxons (England), Vikings (Scandinavia),and others-were growing more andmore distant from <strong>Byzantium</strong> andestablishing separate alliances with thechurch in Rome. In 800 Charlemagne(king 768-814) had himself crownedimperator Romanorum (emperor <strong>of</strong>the Romans) by Pope Leo III (in <strong>of</strong>fice6
795-816) in Rome. In 812 the Byzantinecourt recognized Charlemagne asbasileus (king) <strong>of</strong> only the Franks.As independent states developed onthe western borders <strong>of</strong> the empire,attacks by both old and new enemiescontinued on its eastern borders. <strong>The</strong>Persians had long threatened the easternempire. By the fifth century they controlledthe Christian lands <strong>of</strong> Armeniaand Georgia and attempted by force toconvert the inhabitants to Zoroastrianism,the Persian state religion. In 626 thePersians joined with the nomadic Avarsto besiege Constantinople by land andsea, but the capital was saved by its massivedouble-walled fortifications and bythe imperial navy, which broke the seablockade. Farther south the Persianssuccessfully swept to the Mediterranean,occupying the Holy Land and Egypt from61 8 to 629. In the 640s, after havingbriefly regained the bulk <strong>of</strong> that territoryfrom the Persians, <strong>Byzantium</strong> permanentlylost most <strong>of</strong> its southern territories,from Roman Syria to northern Africa, tothe rising power in the East, the Arabarmies fighting in the name <strong>of</strong> a newreligion, Islam.Within the empire the IconoclasticControversy-an intense debate over therole <strong>of</strong> images in religious devotionsdeeplydivided the population. In 726the Byzantine emperor Leo III (r. 71 7-41) forbade the use <strong>of</strong> icons.emperor continued to reign as Christ'srepresentative on earth. Greek becamethe dominant <strong>of</strong>ficial language; classicalscholarship remained the basis <strong>of</strong> theeducational system.As <strong>Byzantium</strong> entered a new diplomaticera, it developed regular contactwith the Islamic caliphates, Christiansliving in Islamic states, and Westernrulers. During this period <strong>Byzantium</strong>'ssphere <strong>of</strong> influence embraced KievanRus' (a state that took in parts <strong>of</strong> modernUkraine, Belarus, and western Russia),Bulgaria, Georgia, Armenia, Syria, theHoly Land, Egypt, Cyprus, NormanSicily, and southern Italy. <strong>The</strong> multiethnicculture <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong> not only influencedthe arts <strong>of</strong> other nations but also absorbedfor its own use elements from the LatinWest and the Islamic Near East.In the east some <strong>of</strong> the territory lostto the Arabs was regained, throughboth diplomatic and military efforts.Under the emperor Basil II (r. 976-1025)<strong>The</strong> Empire's Second Golden AgeIn 843 those in favor <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> religiousimages finally prevailed. Icons inall media, from ivory and gems to paintand mosaics, appeared everywhere.A concurrent revival in the economyhelped to create a second golden age,the Middle Byzantine period (843-1261), which ended with the Crusades.As in earlier centuries, the state played adual role as the voice <strong>of</strong> Christian ortho-doxy and as a political superpower. <strong>The</strong> Soldiers, detail <strong>of</strong> Christ Bearing the Cross (see p. 65)7
the second golden age <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong>reached its zenith; the empire's territoriesincluded much <strong>of</strong> Armenia in the eastand Bulgaria to the northeast. In 1071,however, the Byzantine forces wererouted at the Battle <strong>of</strong> Mantzikert, on theempire's eastern border. This defeatmarked the beginning <strong>of</strong> the empire'sfinal loss <strong>of</strong> its eastern territories toIslam, a process that took centuries.<strong>The</strong> empire was more successful inextending its influence northward, to theSlavs, through missionaries sent fromConstantinople. Saints Constantinethe Philosopher (also known as Cyril;ca. 827-869) and Methodius (ca. 815-885), who undertook the first translations<strong>of</strong> numerous liturgical texts into OldChurch Slavonic, were the most importantamong these emissaries. <strong>Byzantium</strong>'sproselytizing efforts bore fruit in 988,when the powerful state <strong>of</strong> Kievan Rus'recognized Christianity as its <strong>of</strong>ficial religion,under the aegis <strong>of</strong> the church inConstantinople.Western states continued to haveambivalent relations with <strong>Byzantium</strong>. In962 Otto I (r. 936-62) was crownedimperator in Rome. <strong>The</strong> Byzantines recognizedhim only as basileus <strong>of</strong> theFranks yet sent the Byzantine princess<strong>The</strong>ophano to be the wife <strong>of</strong> Otto II(r. 973-83). Religious tensions betweenConstantinople and Rome becameincreasingly complex. In 1054 a papaldelegation from Rome argued violentlywith the patriarch <strong>of</strong> Constantinopleover doctrine; so irreconcilable weretheir differences that they pronouncedanathemas upon each other. This wasthe beginning <strong>of</strong> the Great Schism thatto this day divides the Eastern andWestern churches.In 1095 Pope Urban II (in <strong>of</strong>fice1088-99) responded favorably, however,to a request from the Byzantine emperorAlexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118) foraid against the Muslim occupiers <strong>of</strong>Jerusalem. Latin-speaking knights fromwestern Europe came east to try toregain the Holy Land. (<strong>The</strong> First Crusade,in 1099, ended in the recapture <strong>of</strong> Jerusalem.)<strong>The</strong> Crusades greatly increasedthe interaction between Byzantine andWesterner, and a circuit <strong>of</strong> smallCrusader states was established alongthe Mediterranean coast, includingfortresses at sites <strong>of</strong> strategic importance,such as Montfort and Krac desChevaliers (in modern Israel and Syria,respectively). Relations betweenCrusader and Byzantine forces deteriorated,though. During the FourthCrusade in 1204 the Western knightsbegan to occupy Byzantine territories,and ultimately they took Constantinople.<strong>The</strong> Latin Empire established therelasted until 1261.<strong>The</strong> Crusader presence altered theshape <strong>of</strong> the Byzantine world. Throughalliances with the West, kingdoms likeArmenian Cilicia gained independence.Small Byzantine successor states werefounded atTrebizond, Nicaea, and Epiros.Many Westerners remained in Byzantinelands, adopting elements <strong>of</strong> Byzantine cultureand patronizing Byzantine arts; otherstook Byzantine works and learninghome with them, where they influencedWestern culture. Some <strong>of</strong> the mostprized Byzantine artistic treasures andmost famous <strong>of</strong> Constantinople'sChristian relics were brought to westernEurope. Among them was the Crown<strong>of</strong> Thorns, which was sold by the lastLatin king <strong>of</strong> Constantinople, Baldwin II(r. 1240-61), to his cousin Louis IX(r. 1226-70) <strong>of</strong> France. (Louis built thechurch <strong>of</strong> Sainte-Chapelle in Paris tohouse the crown.)<strong>The</strong> Final Flowering <strong>of</strong> the ByzantineWorldIn 1261 Michael VIII Palaiologos (r. 1259-82), a Byzantine nobleman descendedfrom three imperial families, retookConstantinople and established thedynasty that ruled the empire during itslast centuries. In this era the arts flourishedin spite <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> military andfinancial crises that reduced both theempire's territory and its prestige. Internalpower struggles, controversies overaccepting Rome's terms for repairing theGreat Schism, and encroachment onByzantine territory, especially by theMongols and later the Ottoman Turks,diminished the authority <strong>of</strong> the centralizedstate. Nevertheless, writers, artists,and architects working in urban centerssuch as Mistra, <strong>The</strong>ssalonike, Constantinople,and Trebizond continued toenrich Byzantine culture.<strong>The</strong> church remained the chief repository<strong>of</strong> art and intellectual endeavor, andit was through the Orthodox church thatByzantine art and culture lived on in theempire's former territories and in Russia,decades after the Ottoman conquest <strong>of</strong>Constantinople in 1453. Moscow sawitself as the heir to Constantinople; asthe Orthodox monk Fil<strong>of</strong>ey <strong>of</strong> Pskov(1465-1542) proclaimed in 1511: "Hearme, pious Czar [Vasily III (r. 1505-33)].All Christian kingdoms have convergedin thine alone. Two Romes have fallen, athird stands, a fourth there shall not be."Icon painters from Crete produced imagesfor both the Orthodox and the Latinchurch. Byzantine scholars and scholarshiptraveled as far west as the courts <strong>of</strong>Italy, France, and Flanders. Long after theempire ended, Byzantine art and cultureset a standard for luxury, beauty, andlearning that inspired its successors,West and East.8
THE EMPIRE'S FIRST GOLDEN AGEMedallion with Portrait <strong>of</strong> GennadiosGold glassRomanMade 250-300, probably in Alexandria,EgyptDiam. 15/8 in. (4.1 cm)Fletcher Fund, 1926 (26.258)This exquisite portrait head shows ayouth from Alexandria, the cosmopolitanEgyptian city that had been founded byAlexander the Great (r. 336-323 B.C.) in331 B.C. <strong>The</strong> medallion was probably aprize for the winner <strong>of</strong> a musical contest:the inscription in Greek-the culturallanguage <strong>of</strong> the city-identifies the youthas "Gennadios, most skilled in music."<strong>The</strong> masterfully naturalistic image, drawnwith a fine point on gold leaf, was appliedto the upper surface <strong>of</strong> a dark blue glassdisk. A second, clear disk was then placedon top <strong>of</strong> the first, to seal the image. <strong>The</strong>beveled edges <strong>of</strong> the disks suggest thatthe medallion was meant to be mountedand worn as a pendant.<strong>The</strong> medallion dates from a time whenthe Roman Empire was increasinglyaware <strong>of</strong> the need to better protect suchwealthy eastern provinces as Egypt.Gennadios's city, the major port at themouth <strong>of</strong> the Nile, would becomethe third-largest city in the ByzantineEmpire, after Constantinople and Rome.Under Byzantine rule it would alsocontinue to be the great intellectualcenter it had been under the Greeksand Romans.Box with Sleeping ErosSilverRoman or Byzantine, said to have beenfound in Tartus, SyriaMade 300sW. 93/4 in. (24.8 cm)Fletcher Fund, 1947 (47.100.33)This silver box was probably meant fordomestic use, possibly as part <strong>of</strong> a lady'stoilet. It attests to the continuing popularityin the eastern provinces <strong>of</strong> the empireevenas Christianity increased in importance-<strong>of</strong>images drawn from the cults<strong>of</strong> the classical world. Worked in highrelief, the oval box displays on its lid acharming sleeping Eros, the classicalgod <strong>of</strong> love; he reclines on a lion's skin,with his bow in hand. <strong>The</strong> sides <strong>of</strong> thebox are decorated with playful puttiholding garlands with bulls' heads, anancient symbol <strong>of</strong> fertility, at each end.<strong>The</strong>se motifs are related to the cult <strong>of</strong>Dionysos, god <strong>of</strong> wine, and they persistedin the Byzantine world into the MiddleByzantine era (843-1261). <strong>The</strong> imagesmay have had a cultic significance for theowners <strong>of</strong> the objects they adorned.9
Sarcophagus with a Greek PhysicianMarble; missing the lid and the lower-rightfront edgeRoman, from near OstiaCarved early 300sL. 847/8 in. (215.6 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Mrs. Joseph Brummer and ErnestBrummer, in memory <strong>of</strong> Joseph Brummer,1948 (48.76.1)<strong>The</strong> owner <strong>of</strong> this sarcophagus selectedits central image to ensure that his learningand skills would be recognized foreternity. A sitting man carefully studyinga scroll is depicted in the pose that inthe classical world denoted educatedmen or philosophers. <strong>The</strong> contents <strong>of</strong> thechest before him-a basin for bleedingpatients and more scrolls-identify thefigure as a physician, perhaps a teacher <strong>of</strong>medicine. On top <strong>of</strong> the chest is an openmedical kit; the incised depictions <strong>of</strong> thesurgeon's tools are still faintly visible.Although the sarcophagus was foundnear Ostia, the port city <strong>of</strong> Rome, thefigure's style <strong>of</strong> dress and the use <strong>of</strong>Greek for the inscription suggest thatthe owner was one <strong>of</strong> the many Greekdoctors practicing in the region. Ratherthan naming the owner, the inscriptioncurses the person who might reuse thesarcophagus: "If anyone shall dare to buryanother person along with this one,he shall pay to the treasury three timestwo thousand [the unit <strong>of</strong> currency]. Thisis what he shall pay to [the city <strong>of</strong>] Portus[Ostia], but he himself will endure theeternal punishment <strong>of</strong> the violator<strong>of</strong> graves."During the 300s Christians adopted thephilosopher's pose to depict the learnedmen <strong>of</strong> their faith, including Christ, theapostles, and leading figures <strong>of</strong> thechurch. <strong>The</strong> undulating motifs, or strigils,on each side <strong>of</strong> the central sarcophagusimage were inspired by the tools used byathletes in the gymnasiums to scrape oiland sand from their bodies; strigils, too,would appear in Christian art.10
Fragmentary Base <strong>of</strong> a Bowl withJewish SymbolsGold glassRoman, probably from RomeMade 300-350Max. w. 3Y/2 in. (8.9 cm)Rogers Fund, 1918 (1 8.145.1a, b)This rare example <strong>of</strong> gold glass decoratedwith Jewish symbols retains only aportion <strong>of</strong> its Latin inscription, whichtranslates: "Drink with blessing in preparation...."<strong>The</strong> images in the top registerwould have been meaningful to Jewishcommunities throughout the empire.Still nearly whole, the upper portion<strong>of</strong> the glass displays an open Torah arkwith a gabled ro<strong>of</strong> and six scrolls on itsshelves. At each side <strong>of</strong> the ark are aseven-branched menorah and other ritualimplements: to the right, a sh<strong>of</strong>ar (ram'shorn) and an unidentified roundel; tothe left, a scroll and the remnants <strong>of</strong> anetrog (citron). While such decoration isusual on Jewish objects <strong>of</strong> this period,the images in the lower register are lesscommon. Judging by other examples<strong>of</strong> Jewish gold glass, the lower registerdepicted a banquet scene-a fish seton a tripod table before the cushionedcouch on which the diner would recline.All that survives is a portion <strong>of</strong> the fishon the tabletop and the cushion <strong>of</strong> thecouch. Together these images are believedto have symbolized the owner's hope<strong>of</strong> salvation through the redemption <strong>of</strong>his or her people.To make such glass, gold leaf wascut in the form <strong>of</strong> the design, thenplaced on top <strong>of</strong> one piece <strong>of</strong> glass andcovered with another to seal it. Goldglassmedallions, originally the bases <strong>of</strong>bowls, are found in the tombs <strong>of</strong> people<strong>of</strong> all religions from the early 300s. Mosthave been discovered in Rome and arethought to have been pressed as markersinto the mortar <strong>of</strong> newly sealed tombs.11
Bowl with Saints Peter and PaulTerracotta with green glazeRoman or Byzantine, found in a catacombon the Via Appia, RomeMade about 350Diam. 51/2 in. (14 cm)Fletcher Fund, 1952 (52.25.1)On the exterior are four regularly spacedChristograms, formed from the first letters<strong>of</strong> Christ's name in Greek: chi (X)and rho (P). <strong>The</strong>y are framed in martyrs'wreaths signifying his sacrifice for thesins <strong>of</strong> mankind. Christograms are amongthe earliest images <strong>of</strong> the Christianfaith. According to legend, in 312Constantine's soldiers painted the Chi-Rho on their shields before defeatingthe army <strong>of</strong> Maxentius at the Battle <strong>of</strong>the Milvian Bridge and thus winningcontrol <strong>of</strong> the Roman Empire.Inside the bowl Peter and Paul areshown seated, facing each other in animateddiscussion (see detail). <strong>The</strong> twosaints are <strong>of</strong>ten depicted on works madein Rome; both were especially importantto that city, as they were said to havebeen martyred there. Numerous goldglassmedallions with representations <strong>of</strong>them have been discovered in Christiantombs in Roman catacombs. This bowlwas found on one <strong>of</strong> the city's majorroads, the Via Appia, where many tombs<strong>of</strong> the affluent were located.12Saints Peter and Paul, detail <strong>of</strong> inside <strong>of</strong> bowl
Detail <strong>of</strong> Sarcophagus with Scenesfrom the Lives <strong>of</strong> Saint Peter andChristMarble; missing the lid; upper portion <strong>of</strong>the scenes <strong>of</strong> the life <strong>of</strong> Christ restoredabout 1906-7Roman, from Villa Felice (formerlyCarpegna), Rome, and Burrwood,Cold Spring Harbor, New YorkCarved early 300s, in RomeGift <strong>of</strong> Josef and Marsy Mittlemann, 1991(1991.366)<strong>The</strong> sarcophagus was carved about thetime Christianity was recognized as alegal faith in the Roman Empire. It wasbrought to the United States at thebeginning <strong>of</strong> the twentieth century andinstalled at Burrwood, the WalterJennings estate in Cold Spring Harbor,New York, before it was given to the<strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>.Both ends and one side <strong>of</strong> the sarcophagusare decorated-the side withscenes from the lives <strong>of</strong> Saint Peter andChrist. Representations <strong>of</strong> Saint Peter'sArrest in Rome (center) and <strong>of</strong> the Miracle<strong>of</strong> Saint Peter Drawing Water from a Rockin His Jail Cell (left) are carved in powerful,deep relief at the left end <strong>of</strong> the side.<strong>The</strong>y are among the earliest extant imagesdepicting Peter's special relationshipwith Rome.When the sarcophagus was publishedin 1879, the lower legs were all that survived<strong>of</strong> the scenes from the life <strong>of</strong> Christon the right. Misidentification <strong>of</strong> the figuresled to inaccurate restoration <strong>of</strong> theupper portion <strong>of</strong> the four scenes: the Entryinto Jerusalem (right), the Cure <strong>of</strong> the ManBorn Blind, the Multiplication <strong>of</strong> theLoaves, and the Raising <strong>of</strong> Lazarus. <strong>The</strong>soldier to Peter's right and the heavilybearded Christ (an image not found infourth-century art) entering Jerusalem onan ass are part <strong>of</strong> the restoration. <strong>The</strong> coltand the hooves <strong>of</strong> the ass are original. (Seebelow: Christ is at the right; Peter is thethird and seventh figure from the right.)Roughly carved in very low relief onthe ends <strong>of</strong> the sarcophagus are two OldTestament scenes: the Three Hebrews inthe Fiery Furnace (the early church consideredtheir story a foretelling <strong>of</strong> mankind'ssalvation through Christ) and Adam andEve after the Fall, by the Tree <strong>of</strong> Knowledge(theirs was the sin that Christ redeemed).<strong>The</strong> Three Hebrews may also reflect theearly church fathers' frequent description<strong>of</strong> Rome as a new Babylon.13
Head <strong>of</strong> Emperor Constans(r. 337-50)MarbleByzantineCarved about 337-40H. 101/4 in. (26 cm)Rogers Fund, 1967 (67.107)<strong>The</strong> first Christian Roman emperor,Constantine, had four sons. This classicallystyled head probably representsConstans, the youngest. <strong>The</strong> head, meantfor a statue, is crowned with a pearlbordereddiadem <strong>of</strong> the type worn byConstantine's family.A devout Christian, Constans becameruler <strong>of</strong> part <strong>of</strong> the western empireincludingItaly, Africa, and much <strong>of</strong>Greece-in 337, at about age seventeen;he took command <strong>of</strong> the remainder <strong>of</strong>the western half <strong>of</strong> the empire in 340.He defeated the Franks and was the lastemperor to visit Britain. In 350, beforehe was thirty, Constans was killed by theusurper Magnentius (r. 350-53). Bythe end <strong>of</strong> the fourth century most <strong>of</strong> thewestern empire was no longer underthe control <strong>of</strong> Constantinople.14
Two Panels <strong>of</strong> a Diptych Announcingthe Consulship <strong>of</strong> JustinianIvoryByzantineMade 521, in ConstantinopleEach: 133/4 x 53/4 in. (35 x 14.5 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(1 7.190.52, .53)<strong>The</strong>se handsome ivory panels announcethe election <strong>of</strong> Justinian as consul andwere presented by him to a member <strong>of</strong> thesenate. <strong>The</strong> rank <strong>of</strong> consul was oncethe highest in the Roman state, and in thesixth century it was still an importanthonorific. Justinian I (r. 527-65) laterbecame the greatest emperor <strong>of</strong> the EarlyByzantine period.Eight elegantly carved lions' headssurrounded by acanthus leaves, at thecorners <strong>of</strong> the panels, focus attentionon inscriptions written in Latin, the <strong>of</strong>ficiallanguage <strong>of</strong> the empire in the earlyperiod. <strong>The</strong> inscriptions across the top<strong>of</strong> the two panels give the donor's nameand titles: "Flavius Petrus SabbatiusJustinianus, noble, <strong>of</strong>ficer, and chief <strong>of</strong>the cavalry and commander in chief<strong>of</strong> the infantry and consul entering his<strong>of</strong>fice at the proper time." Those in thecentral medallions read: "<strong>The</strong>se gifts,slight indeed in value but rich in honors,I as consul <strong>of</strong>fer to my senators." <strong>The</strong>small crosses at the top and bottom <strong>of</strong>the medallions are the only indication<strong>of</strong> the donor's religion. Once hingedtogether, with the names <strong>of</strong> the otherconsuls inscribed in wax on the interior,the panels probably served as an invitationto the great public games that newconsuls hosted in Constantinople's hippodrome.Earlier consular diptychs, alsomade <strong>of</strong> ivory, <strong>of</strong>ten displayed eventsfrom the games, including animal fightsand gladiatorial contests.15
Steelyard Weight with Bust <strong>of</strong> aByzantine Empress and a HookCopper-alloy weight filled with lead; brasshookByzantineCast 400-450H. 91/8 in. (23.2 cm); wt. 5.04 lb. (2.29 kg)Purchase, Rogers Fund, Bequest <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>odoreM. Davis, by exchange, and Gifts <strong>of</strong> GeorgeBlumenthal, J. Pierpont Morgan, Mrs. Lucy W.Drexel, and Mrs. Robert J. Levy, by exchange,1980 (1980.416a, b)Steelyard weights used to measure heavygoods like grain were <strong>of</strong>ten shaped asbusts <strong>of</strong> empresses. <strong>The</strong> sober imagesmay have been meant to enhance theweights' authority as accurate measures,or they may have served as reminders tothe public <strong>of</strong> the government's duty tomaintain taxis, or order and harmony inthe universe-in part by ensuring thelegitimacy <strong>of</strong> commercial contractsinvolving weights and measures. Thisunusually detailed bust represents aranking member <strong>of</strong> the Byzantine court,whose elaborate jewelry attests to thewealth <strong>of</strong> the state. Her dress anddemeanor suggest that she is an empress<strong>of</strong> the <strong>The</strong>odosian dynasty, which ruledbetween 379 and 450.Fragment <strong>of</strong> a Floor Mosaic with aPersonification <strong>of</strong> KtisisMarble and glassByzantineMade 500-550; modern restorationOverall 533/8 x 33 in. (135.6 x 83.8 cm)Harris Brisbane Dick and Fletcher Funds,1998 (1998.69)Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, andDodge and Rogers Funds, 1999 (1999.99)<strong>The</strong> bust <strong>of</strong> a richly bejeweled womanstares from this fragment <strong>of</strong> a floormosaic that was once part <strong>of</strong> a largepublic building. <strong>The</strong> partially restoredGreek inscription near her head identifiesher as Ktisis, the personification <strong>of</strong>the act <strong>of</strong> generous donation or foundation.To emphasize her role as donor,she holds the measuring tool for theRoman foot. On her right a man extendsa cornucopia toward her as if <strong>of</strong>fering agift; the Greek word for "good" is nearhis head. Originally a similar figure probablyappeared to her left, and an inscriptionby his head would have completedthe legend "Good wishes."<strong>The</strong> classical tradition <strong>of</strong> personifyingabstract ideals continued during theChristian Era in many places around theMediterranean basin, including Antioch(modern Antakya, Turkey), Cyprus, andNorth Africa. <strong>The</strong> carefully arranged andsized marble and glass tesserae formingthis floor fragment are typical <strong>of</strong> theexceptional mosaics created throughoutthe Byzantine world in the 500s.<strong>The</strong> <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> acquiredthe two figures independently. <strong>The</strong>ywere restored in accordance with anold photograph <strong>of</strong> the mosaic in a dealer'sstoreroom, showing the figures in theiroriginal arrangement before beingseparated for sale.16
Lintel FragmentLimestoneByzantineMade about 400-550, probably in Syria20 x 191/2 in. (49.5 x 17.8 cm)Purchase, Anonymous Gift, 1969 (69.15)<strong>The</strong> deeply undercut patterns on thisarchitectural fragment resemble the decorationon lintels from church doorframesin Asia Minor, particularly in thenorthern regions <strong>of</strong> Roman Syria. <strong>The</strong>equal-armed cross in the medallion atthe center represents the Greek letterchi (X); the vertical arm <strong>of</strong> the crossends in the letter rho (P). Together theyconstitute a variant <strong>of</strong> the Christogram(see p. 12). <strong>The</strong> Chi-Rho is found whereverChristianity reached, from Gaul inwestern Europe to Egypt in the south.<strong>The</strong> alpha (A) and omega (w) flankingthe cross-the first and last letters in theGreek alphabet-were also symbolswidely used by the early church. <strong>The</strong>yrefer to a vision beheld by John theEvangelist on the Aegean island <strong>of</strong> Patmos,where he had been exiled by the Romans.In a letter to the seven churches <strong>of</strong> AsiaMinor, John described the message fromGod that was communicated to him byan angel: "I am Alpha and Omega, thebeginning and the ending, saith the Lord,which is, and which was, and which isto come, the Almighty" (Revelation 1:8).20
<strong>The</strong> Antioch ChaliceSilver cup set in a footed silver-gilt shellByzantine, from Roman Syria, possiblyAntioch or Kaper KoraonMade about 500-550H. 71/2 in. (19 cm)<strong>The</strong> Cloisters Collection, 1950 (50.4)This vessel is one <strong>of</strong> a group <strong>of</strong> massive,elegantly worked silver objects called theAntioch Treasure, which testifies to thegenerous support <strong>of</strong>fered to the earlychurch by Christian communities. When itwas discovered in 1910, the treasure wasbelieved to have belonged to a church inAntioch, a wealthy Roman city on theeastern shore <strong>of</strong> the Mediterranean. SaintsPeter and Paul were among the earliest followers<strong>of</strong> Christ to preach in the city, whereit is said, the disciples were first calledChristians (Acts <strong>of</strong> the Apostles 11:26).Antioch, along with Rome, Constantinople,Jerusalem, and Alexandria, was one <strong>of</strong>the five great cities that led the earlychurch. More recently, however, it hasbeen argued that the treasure was part <strong>of</strong>a larger group <strong>of</strong> silver objects from thechurch <strong>of</strong> Saint Sergios in Kaper Koraon(modern Kurin, Syria), a small town underthe ecclesiastical control <strong>of</strong> the church<strong>of</strong> Antioch.<strong>The</strong> silver cup inside the shell wasonce identified as that used by Christ atthe Last Supper (Matthew 26:27-29)-theso-called Holy Grail. <strong>The</strong> elaborate vinescrolls that form the container for the cupencircle figures seated in the classicalphilosopher's pose, as well as birds andanimals. Two <strong>of</strong> the figures may be representations<strong>of</strong> Christ (see detail). <strong>The</strong> AntiochChalice may not be a chalice at all, however.In outline it is identical to the standinglamps typically used in churchesduring the first half <strong>of</strong> the sixth century.Detail <strong>of</strong> Antioch ChaliceI
Plaques with Saints Peter and PaulSilverByzantine, from Roman Syria, possiblyAntioch or Kaper KoraonMade about 550-600; shown before thelatest restoration10Y4 x 81/2 in. (27.3 x 21.6 cm) (.1);105/8 x 81/2 in. (27 x 21.6 cm) (.2)Fletcher Fund, 1950 (50.5.1, .2)<strong>The</strong> plaques, which are part <strong>of</strong> the AntiochTreasure (see the Antioch Chalice onp. 21), depict two <strong>of</strong> the most importantoriginal followers <strong>of</strong> Christ. <strong>The</strong> image<strong>of</strong> Saint Peter established by the earlychurch was <strong>of</strong> a man with a round face,short hair, and a beard. Here (aboveleft) he holds a cross and gestures as ifpreaching. At his waist are the keys tothe kingdom <strong>of</strong> heaven given to him byChrist (Matthew 16:19). <strong>The</strong> early churchrepresented Saint Paul as a man with along face, receding hairline, and pointedbeard. Here (above right) he holds abook-an appropriate symbol forthe author <strong>of</strong> much <strong>of</strong> the New Testament.Both men stand under arches flankedby peacocks. <strong>The</strong> early church <strong>of</strong>tendescribed heaven in architectural terms;thus, arches are <strong>of</strong>ten considered representations<strong>of</strong> paradise. <strong>The</strong>se two plaquesmay have framed an image <strong>of</strong> Christ,composing a tripartite icon forcontemplation or veneration.Ivory Pyxis Depicting Women at theTomb <strong>of</strong> ChristByzantineMade 500s, in the eastern MediterraneanH. 4 in. (10.2 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7 (1 7.190.57)<strong>The</strong> Gospel <strong>of</strong> Luke (24:1-10) describesa group <strong>of</strong> women-including the VirginMary, Mary Magdalen, and Mary, mother<strong>of</strong> James-at the empty tomb <strong>of</strong> the risenChrist. <strong>The</strong> decoration on the back <strong>of</strong>this pyxis shows three women standingwith their hands outstretched, in theorant (praying) posture used in the earlychurch. Here, on the front, two Marysswing censers as they approach a domedbuilding, where tied-back curtains revealan altar. In the early church the altarcame to be understood as a symbol <strong>of</strong>Christ's tomb. On the altar is the Gospelbook, Christ's word. Above it is a hanginglamp. Narrative scenes such as thismade the words <strong>of</strong> the Gospels visiblefor the devout, and they established traditionsfor the depiction <strong>of</strong> events in thelife <strong>of</strong> Christ that influenced subsequentChristian art.This finely carved pyxis was workedfrom a cross section <strong>of</strong> an elephant'stusk. Such containers may have beenused to carry the bread <strong>of</strong> the Eucharistto those too ill or too elderly toattend church.22
Flask with Adoration <strong>of</strong> the MagiSilver and silver giltByzantineMade 500sH. 123/ in. (31.5 cm)Purchase, Frederick C. Hewitt Fund, byexchange; Rogers Fund and SchimmelFoundation Inc. Gift; Gifts <strong>of</strong> J. PierpontMorgan, Mr. and Mrs. Marc B. Rojtman,Mr. and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller Jr., Lucy W.Drexel, and Anonymous, by exchange;Bequests <strong>of</strong> Mary Stillman Harkness, GeorgeBlumenthal, Gwynne M. Andrews, andMichael Dreicer, by exchange; <strong>The</strong>odore M.Davis Collection, Bequest <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>odore M.Davis, by exchange; Rogers Fund, byexchange; and <strong>The</strong> Cloisters Collection, byexchange, 1984 (1984.196)Some early depictions <strong>of</strong> events from thelife <strong>of</strong> Christ include details that wereomitted from later standard representations<strong>of</strong> the scenes. <strong>The</strong> images on thisflask, which may have been used by aChristian community in the East, includeexamples <strong>of</strong> such unusual iconography.At the left the Christ Child is sittingupright in his mother's lap. Above theChrist Child is the star that, according tothe Gospel <strong>of</strong> Matthew (2:1-12), led thethree wise men to Christ. <strong>The</strong> archangelGabriel is shown dramatically stridingforward to present the three Magi (notshown in this illustration) to the ChristChild. Only in the Armenian InfancyGospel, a popular early text elaboratingthe Gospels' descriptions <strong>of</strong> Christ'syoung life, is Gabriel described as thewise men's guide. At the base <strong>of</strong> the flaskare phoenixes, whose legendary rebirthfrom the ashes may have been meant tosymbolize the salvation <strong>of</strong>fered byChrist's birth.23
Arch with Running Vines, Leaves, andFruitLimestoneByzantine, said to be from the Monastery <strong>of</strong>Apa Apollo, Bawit, EgyptCarved 500-600Max. w. (with capitals): 92 in. (231 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Edward S. Harkness, 1929(29.9.2a-v)Two Capitals with Grape-Leaf-and-Vine PatternLimestoneByzantine, said to be from the Monastery <strong>of</strong>Apa Jeremias, Saqqara, EgyptCarved 500-700H. 221/2 in. (57.2 cm) (.66); 22 in. (55.9 cm)(.76)Rogers Fund, 1909-10 (10.1 75.66, .76)By the sixth century elaborate monasticcomplexes had developed at many sitesin Egypt, including Bawit, in central Egypt,and Saqqara, near Memphis. By the timethe elements <strong>of</strong> this arch were carved,these monasteries had become part <strong>of</strong> theCoptic church, the Egyptian Christianchurch that had begun to separate fromthe church <strong>of</strong> Constantinople and Romeafter the Council <strong>of</strong> Chalcedon in 451.<strong>The</strong>se carvings were probably originallypainted in vibrant colors similar tothose found on textiles (see pp. 25-27).While the motifs have roots in classicalantiquity, the carvers no longer sought tomake visible the logic <strong>of</strong> the architecture.Instead, the carvings form a veilover the stone that denies its solidity andmass-a style popular throughout theByzantine world in the sixth century.(<strong>The</strong> most elaborate works <strong>of</strong> this typeare in the great church <strong>of</strong> Hagia Sophiain Istanbul [Constantinople].) With theArab conquest <strong>of</strong> Egypt, carvers <strong>of</strong>elements like these entered the service<strong>of</strong> the new rulers and influenced thedevelopment <strong>of</strong> Islamic art.24
Tunic Decoration: Square with aPersonification <strong>of</strong> SpringTapestry weave in multicolored woolByzantine, said to have been excavated atPanopolis (modern AkhmIm, Egypt)Woven 300-50091/4 x 97/8 in. (23.5 x 25 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> George F. Baker, 1890 (90.5.848)Panopolis, an important weaving centerduring the pharaonic period, continuedunder Byzantine rule to be a significantsite <strong>of</strong> textile production. <strong>The</strong> decorationon many Byzantine-era works fromthe town is based on motifs popular inthe Greek and Roman world. Personifications<strong>of</strong> the seasons, for instance, arefound on domestic art <strong>of</strong> all types.This brightly colored square may havebeen one <strong>of</strong> a set <strong>of</strong> four panels representingthe seasons that decorated atunic or, possibly, a domestic textile. <strong>The</strong>flowers suggest that the woman symbolizesspring. Her elaborate jewelry is atoken <strong>of</strong> the good fortune and prosperitythat such personifications were thoughtto bring to their owners. <strong>The</strong> carefulmodeling <strong>of</strong> the face, particularly <strong>of</strong>the eyes, is encountered in images inother media, including mosaics. Traces<strong>of</strong> similar vivid colors are found onarchitectural sculpture.in the Victoria and Albert <strong>Museum</strong>,London.) <strong>The</strong> complete work may havebeen a wall hanging or a curtain.Although Egypt was a major center <strong>of</strong>textile production, exceptional fabricswere widely imported. This example isthought to have been woven near Constantinopleand is representative <strong>of</strong> theluxury goods available to the elite inthe southernmost province <strong>of</strong> the empire.Fragment <strong>of</strong> a Large Hanging withBird and BasketTapestry weave in multicolored woolByzantine, excavated in EgyptWoven 300-400, probably in Herakleia(modern Anatolia, Turkey)251/4 x 193/4 in. (64 x 50 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> George F. Baker, 1890 (90.5.153)<strong>The</strong> intricately woven depiction <strong>of</strong> a birdperched on a twig by a basket <strong>of</strong> grapesis almost painterly. This fragment waspart <strong>of</strong> a large, richly colored textile meantfor domestic use. (Another fragment is25
Hanging with Heads <strong>of</strong> a DionysianGroupTapestry weave in multicolored woolByzantine, said to have been excavated atAntinoopolis (Antinoe; modern SheikhIbada, Egypt)Woven about 500401/4 x 621/4 in. (102 x 158 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Edward S. Harkness, 1931 (31.9.3)Even as Christianity became more firmlyestablished in the empire, images <strong>of</strong>older gods remained popular. Thirteen <strong>of</strong>the fifteen exquisitely woven medallionson this large wall hanging are at leastpartially preserved. <strong>The</strong>y are encircled byivy, a symbol <strong>of</strong> Dionysos, the ancientgod <strong>of</strong> wine, and contain busts <strong>of</strong> participantsin the Dionysian revelries.Among the horned satyrs and beautifulnymphs and maenads are Herakles(top row, second from left) and Silenus,Dionysos's bald tutor (bottom row, secondfrom right). <strong>The</strong> rich jewelry wornby several <strong>of</strong> the figures is similar to thatin the <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>'s jewelryhoard said to be from either Lycopolis(modern Assiut) or nearby Antino6polis,in Egypt (see the pectoral and braceletson p. 19).Tunic with Dionysos and DionysianMotifsPlain-weave linen with designs worked inlinen and purple wool in tapestry weaveByzantine, said to be from Panopolis(modern Akhmim, Egypt)Woven 400-50072 x 53 in. (183 x 135 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Edward S. Harkness, 1926 (26.9.8)Tunics, usually worn in layers, were thestandard dress in the Mediterraneanworld. Most that survive were found ingraves in the dry sands <strong>of</strong> Egypt, as wasthis one. <strong>The</strong> outer tunics <strong>of</strong> the elite<strong>of</strong>ficials,nobles, well-to-do citizens-werelong and elaborately decorated, withlong sleeves. <strong>The</strong> garments were ornamentedwith woven bands (clavi), squares,or medallions-decoration not merelyfor its own sake but also as amuletic protectionfor the wearer. Purple was closelyassociated with imperial power, and itsuse for the patterns here suggests that thetunic was made for a leading citizen <strong>of</strong>Byzantine Egypt.<strong>The</strong> tunic's richly woven bands andsquares are filled with images <strong>of</strong> thefollowers <strong>of</strong> Dionysos celebrating hisrevelries. Dionysos himself appears inthe squares at the shoulders. <strong>The</strong> godlong remained popular in Panopolis.26
About the time this tunic was woven,Nonnos <strong>of</strong> Panopolis (act. early fifthcentury) wrote a long epic poem, theDionysiaka, on Dionysos's conquest <strong>of</strong>India, a frequent subject in Egypt, whereanother conqueror, Alexander the Great(r. 336-323 B.C.), had ruled and wasburied. It is unclear if the continuinginterest in Dionysian themes had anyreligious significance. (Nonnos, forinstance, is thought to have also writtena verse paraphrase <strong>of</strong> the Gospel <strong>of</strong> John.)sBollard with a FishermanBronzeByzantineMade 400-450, probably found on theItalian peninsulaH. 7 in. (17.8 cm)Edith Perry Chapman Fund, 1963 (63.206)This young fisherman wears a shorttunic cinched at the waist, an unadornedversion-suited to farmers, servants, andseamen-<strong>of</strong> the more elaborate garmentfrom Byzantine Egypt shown at the left.With a net cast over his shoulder and atiller in his left hand, he stands before aweighted bollard-a post around whichsmall boats were tied to a wharf. <strong>The</strong>cleat used to secure the mooring line isformed by two loops in the shape <strong>of</strong>fingers protruding from the bollard.Perhaps from a dock in the Italian portcity <strong>of</strong> Ostia, this charming figure exemplifiesthe small-scale decorative yetutilitarian statues found throughout theByzantine Empire.MH27
Plaque with an ErosBone, with traces <strong>of</strong> red and blue paintByzantineCarved 300-500, probably in Egypt31/2 x 23/8 in. (8.9 x 6 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Mr. and Mrs. Charles D. Kelekian,1978 (1978.431)Rogers Fund, 1978 (1978.432.1,2)delightfully plump eros is one <strong>of</strong> themany classical subjects that remainedpopular as Roman Egypt becameByzantine Egypt, and as the paganism<strong>of</strong> antiquity yielded to Christianity.Fragments with Personifications <strong>of</strong>Victory and the NileIvoryByzantineCarved 500s, probably in EgyptL. (Nile) 21/2 in. (6.4 cm); I. (Nike) 41/8 in.(10.5 cm)<strong>The</strong> Cloisters Collection, 1971 (1971.49.1, .2)It is possible that these fragments are froman ivory celebrating the annual flooding<strong>of</strong> the Nile River. <strong>The</strong> figure who appearsto fly, bearing a wreath, is a Nike, orpersonification <strong>of</strong> victory. (Images likethis one, which are common in classicalart, may have been the models for depictions<strong>of</strong> angels in Christian art.) <strong>The</strong>small, childlike figures surrounding theNike are erotes, who in Egypt symbolizedthe number <strong>of</strong> feet the river neededto rise each year to ensure fertility and agood harvest. Erotes also appear besidethe superbly carved, longhaired old manwho personifies the Nile. <strong>The</strong> delicaterefinement <strong>of</strong> his face is echoed in thepersonification <strong>of</strong> the river found onthe surviving floor mosaics <strong>of</strong> theGreat Palace <strong>of</strong> the imperial court inConstantinople (now in the Mosaic<strong>Museum</strong>, Istanbul).Polycandelon with CrossesCopper alloyByzantineMade 500-600Diam. 101/2 in. (26.5 cm)Promised Gift <strong>of</strong> Miriam N. RosenOil-filled glass vessels were hung fromthe round openings in this flat, circularIvory and bone plaques were used todecorate small caskets and furniture,such as couches and chests. Manyplaques were incised, while others werecarved in relief. Carvings <strong>of</strong> both typesfrequently appeared on the same object.Images incised on plaques <strong>of</strong>ten featuredraised ridges outlining portions <strong>of</strong>the design, as is the case here. <strong>The</strong> interior<strong>of</strong> each section thus delineated wasfilled with colored wax, so that theplaques resembled the richly coloredtextiles and painted stone sculptures thatwere also produced in Egypt about thistime (see pp. 24-27). Traces <strong>of</strong> red andblue paint on the eros's cloak hint at theoriginal vibrancy <strong>of</strong> this plaque, whenbright colors framed and enhancedthe creamy whiteness <strong>of</strong> his body. <strong>The</strong>28
ILamp Handle with Griffin's HeadCopper alloyByzantineMade 500-700H. 67/8 in. (1 7.6 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Max Falk, 1987 (1987.441)Standing lamps were widely used in theByzantine world and were <strong>of</strong>ten decoratedwith Greek and Roman motifs. <strong>The</strong>griffin, a mythical beast long associatedwith light and protection from evil, wassacred to the god Apollo. Its ferocious~1~~~ !^~ ~form ~ combined the body <strong>of</strong> a lion withthe wings and curved beak <strong>of</strong> a bird <strong>of</strong>prey. Christians adopted the griffin as asymbol both <strong>of</strong> protection and <strong>of</strong> royalstatus, and at times marked images <strong>of</strong>- ; b _ s s _ ~griffins with Christograms. <strong>The</strong> strongpr<strong>of</strong>ile <strong>of</strong> this griffin and its piercing gazegive it an air <strong>of</strong> authority and rank. <strong>The</strong>I7^^^^^^^^^^^Ul^!^^^^rVi^^^^^^^fmfS_ ^^^massive size <strong>of</strong> the handle suggests thatit was fastened to a large standing lamp,-.^^^^^^^^* ^^^^^B^possibly TBone meant for a public buildingor a palace.hanging lamp, or polycandelon. Suchlamps cast beautiful shadows, magnifyingthe designs <strong>of</strong> their disks on walls andfloors. <strong>The</strong> shadows from this lamp,which is decorated with crosses radiatingfrom the center, would have emphasizedits Christian symbolism. Enormoushanging lamps may have been used tolight the great church <strong>of</strong> Hagia Sophiain Constantinople, which the poet andcourtier Paul the Silentiary (act. sixthcentury) described in 563: "Thus iseverything clothed in beauty... nowords are sufficient to describe the illuminationin the evening: you might saythat some nocturnal sun filled themajestic church with light."29
THE EARLY BYZANTINE WORLD AND THE PEOPLES ON ITS BORDERS<strong>The</strong> Vermand TreasureProvincial Roman, found in Vermand,FranceMade about 400Three Mounts for Spear ShaftsSilver gilt inlaid with nielloL. 11/8 in. (3 cm) (.143); 33/4 in. (9.4 cm)(.144); 43/4 in. (12.2 cm) (.145)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.192.143-.145)<strong>The</strong> Rhine and Danube Rivers definedthe borders <strong>of</strong> the Roman Empire inwestern Europe. <strong>The</strong>y separated the citizens<strong>of</strong> Rome from the many peopleswho inhabited Germania, as the Romanscalled the vast area beyond the frontiers.By the fourth century many Germanictribesmen-whom the Romans referredto as barbarians-had been enticed bymoney and gifts to serve as mercenarysoldiers within the empire. This group<strong>of</strong> objects-a set <strong>of</strong> three mounts forspear shafts-was found in the grave <strong>of</strong>a barbarian warrior stationed in theRoman province <strong>of</strong> Gaul, where morethan 75,000 soldiers safeguarded theRhine border.Although the grave had been lootedbefore its discovery by archaeologists in1885, it remains unsurpassed amongbarbarian-warrior graves in the numberand quality <strong>of</strong> objects it held. Among thegoods were an ax, spears, a sword, and ashield (the boss and handle <strong>of</strong> the shieldare also in the <strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>).<strong>The</strong> exceptional craftsmanship and richdesign <strong>of</strong> the spear-shaft ornaments suggestthat they belonged to a high-rankingmilitary leader. <strong>The</strong> pieces are intricatelycast with scrolls, rosettes, and fantasticanimals. <strong>The</strong>ir surfaces are gilded, withvivid patterns created by niello inlays.<strong>The</strong> six-pointed interlaced star prominenton one mount was not a Jewish symbolat this time; it appears as a decorativemotif in both Roman and Germanic art.MH30
BuckleGold, with garnetsByzantine, found in Komarom, HungaryMade 400-500, probably in ConstantinopleL. 13/8 in. (3.5 cm)Purchase, Rogers Fund, Alastair B. Martin,Norbert Schimmel Foundation Inc., andLevy Hermanos Foundation Inc. Gifts, andfunds from various donors, 1986 (1986.341)This buckle was discovered near theDanube River, east <strong>of</strong> Budapest, alongsidesilver-gilt-and-garnet sheath fittingsfrom a battle dagger and sword (now inthe British <strong>Museum</strong>, London). <strong>The</strong> buckleand the sheath fittings were probablypart <strong>of</strong> the grave goods <strong>of</strong> a Germanictribal leader, but the rich combination <strong>of</strong>gold and garnets and the buckle's fineworkmanship suggest that it was madeby a jeweler in Constantinople. Byzantineemperors frequently gave tribalchieftains from outlying regions opulentpieces <strong>of</strong> jewelry or weapon fittings assigns <strong>of</strong> friendship and alliance (or assmall bribes). Using money <strong>of</strong>ten obtainedfrom the Byzantines, Germanic leadersalso commissioned pieces from workshopsin Constantinople, displaying themas symbols <strong>of</strong> their wealth and links withthe powerful civilization in <strong>Byzantium</strong>. Itis thus probable that this buckle traveledfar from its maker before being buriedwith its owner.MHCrossbow BroochGoldLate Roman or Early ByzantineMade about 430L. 45/8 in. (11.9 cm)Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1995(1995.97)<strong>The</strong> crossbow brooch, used to securean <strong>of</strong>ficial's cloak, was <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong>feredas a political and diplomatic gift byByzantine emperors. This particularlysumptuous example, like some others <strong>of</strong>its type, may have been presented to aGermanic king. Of exceptional lengthand weight (78.4 grams), the elaborateclasp <strong>of</strong>fers a superb example <strong>of</strong> theopenwork technique mastered by Byzantinejewelry makers: tiny perforationspunched into gold sheet form an intricatedesign. Embedded in the lacy pattern <strong>of</strong>stylized vine scrolls is a Latin cross, anallusion to the empire's power based onits faith. <strong>The</strong> tip <strong>of</strong> the cross, enclosedwithin a circle, forms a Christogram. <strong>The</strong>Greek letters alpha and omega, symbolizingthe all-encompassing nature <strong>of</strong>God (see p. 20), are suspended fromthe arms <strong>of</strong> the cross.While most ancient brooches employeda simple catch plate to fasten the pin,this piece required the wearer to unscrewthe onion-shaped terminal on the right inorder to release it. <strong>The</strong> novelty and relativecomplexity <strong>of</strong> the screw mechanismno doubt enhanced the value <strong>of</strong> thisexquisite imperial gift.MH31
<strong>The</strong> Vrap TreasureGold, silver, and silver with partial gildingAvar or Byzantine, found in Vrap (moderneastern Albania)Made 600s-700sL. (longest belt fitting): 5 in. (12.7 cm);h. (ewer): 91/8 in. (23.2 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.1673, .1678, .1679, .1683, .1686,.1697, .1704, .1705, .1 707, .1708, .1 710,.1711a, .1712a)<strong>The</strong> ensemble <strong>of</strong> objects on these twopages, found together in Vrap, attests tothe wealth <strong>of</strong> the Avars, a nomadic tribe<strong>of</strong> mounted warriors who inhabited theEurasian steppes. From the sixth to theeighth century, the Avars maintained acomplex relationship with the ByzantineEmpire, at times protecting the empire'sborders, at times raiding the very landsthey had agreed to defend. Tribute paymentsfrom <strong>Byzantium</strong> as well as warbooty provided the Avars with enormousamounts <strong>of</strong> gold and silver. Avar goldsmithscreated works <strong>of</strong> exceptionallyhigh quality and were counted amongthe tribe's ruling class.<strong>The</strong> treasure contains an array <strong>of</strong> beltfittings, some richly decorated (seeabove), some unfinished or defectivelycast. It also includes several vessels: aewer with an inscription in Greek ("<strong>The</strong>voice <strong>of</strong> the Lord is upon the waters"[Psalms 29:3]); a sixth-century Byzantinebucket used for drawing water; and simplegoblets (see opposite). A more elaborategoblet is decorated with personifications<strong>of</strong> four ecclesiastical centers inthe Byzantine world-Cyprus, Rome,Alexandria, and Constantinople (for thelast, see detail).Why these varied objects were broughttogether remains a mystery. Some scholarshave suggested that the objects werepart <strong>of</strong> a treasure belonging to an Avarchief; others have speculated that theywere the property <strong>of</strong> an Avar craftsman.Although some have attributed the vesselsto a provincial Byzantine artist, it ismore likely that most <strong>of</strong> them were createdin emulation <strong>of</strong> Byzantine worksadmired from afar.MH32
Personification <strong>of</strong> Constantinople, detail <strong>of</strong> a goblet33
Plate with Presentation <strong>of</strong> David toSaulPlate with Battle <strong>of</strong> David and GoliathSilver, cast, hammered, engraved, punched,and chasedByzantine, found in 1902 at Karavas, CyprusMade 629-30, in ConstantinopleDiam. 101/2 in. (26.7 cm); 191/2 in. (49.4 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.397, .396)A set <strong>of</strong> nine beautifully worked silverplates was among an impressive hoard <strong>of</strong>gold and silver objects found at Karavas,a small town near Lambousa (ancientLapithos), on Cyprus's northern shore.(<strong>The</strong> plates are now divided between the<strong>Metropolitan</strong> <strong>Museum</strong> and the Cyprus<strong>Museum</strong>, Nicosia.) Cyprus was an importanttrading center in the eastern Mediterraneanduring the Early Byzantine era.<strong>The</strong> treasure may have been buried by awealthy person or family in the mid-600s, as Arabs invaded the island and theEarly Byzantine period came to an end.<strong>The</strong> decoration on the plates illustratesevents early in the life <strong>of</strong> the OldTestament king David-up to his slaying<strong>of</strong> Goliath and his marriage to Michal,daughter <strong>of</strong> King Saul. <strong>The</strong> plates aregrouped by size: there are four smallplates, four medium-size plates, and onegreat plate (opposite and detail p. 36).On the medium-size plates events fromDavid's life are presented before anarcaded lintel, an architectural form thatwas <strong>of</strong>ten used in Byzantine art in depictions<strong>of</strong> the imperial court. <strong>The</strong> symmetry<strong>of</strong> the design is also typical <strong>of</strong> Byzantineimperial art, suggesting the taxis, orharmony and order, that the emperorwas supposed to provide for his people.Above, David is presented to King Saul,as described in 1 Samuel 17:32-34. Hestands bravely before the seated ruler,asserting his willingness to battle thegiant Goliath.<strong>The</strong> David plates, with their naturalisticallyrendered figures, fall within theclassical tradition <strong>of</strong> elegantly wroughtsilver for domestic use. Elaborate dishesdisplayed at banquets in the ByzantineEmpire were usually decorated withclassical subjects. <strong>The</strong> David plates may34
,. . i"I, IPIOW-11.19-0.....
David Battling Goliath, detail <strong>of</strong> the large platebe the earliest surviving examples <strong>of</strong> theuse <strong>of</strong> biblical scenes on display plates.Illustrated on page 35 is the largestand most important <strong>of</strong> the David plates.At banquets the eight smaller plates mayhave been arranged around it-in thebiblical order <strong>of</strong> the events depicted onthem-to form a Christogram.<strong>The</strong> story, from 1 Samuel 17:41-51, istold in three registers. At the top Davidconfronts Goliath before a personification<strong>of</strong> the brook from which he gatheredthe stones for his sling. In the middlehe battles Goliath with his sling (above);the fluttering ends <strong>of</strong> his tunic andmantle emphasize his lack <strong>of</strong> armor.While the heavily armed Goliath seemsassured <strong>of</strong> victory, the startled poses <strong>of</strong>his comrades at the far right herald adifferent fate. At the bottom Davidbeheads the fallen Goliath.In 628-29 the Byzantine emperorHeraclius (r. 610-41) defeated the Persiangeneral Razatis in single-handed combat,ending a long and costly war and regainingJerusalem, Egypt, and other Byzantineterritory. <strong>The</strong> contemporary Frankishchronicler Fredegarius wrote thatHeraclius "advanced to the fray like asecond David." <strong>The</strong> backs <strong>of</strong> the nineDavid plates are marked with silver stampsdating from 613 to 629/30, duringHeraclius's reign. Thus the plates mayrefer to his victory over the Persians.36
Girdle with Coins and MedallionsGoldByzantine, found in 1902 at Karavas, CyprusMade about 583; reassembled after discoveryL. 26/8 in. (67.5 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.147)Purchase, Morgan Guaranty Trust Company<strong>of</strong> New York, Stephen K. Scher and Mrs.Maxime L. Hermanos Gifts, Rogers Fund,and funds from various donors, 1991(1991.136)This incomplete, massive gold girdle waspart <strong>of</strong> the treasure that contained theDavid plates (see pp. 34-36). It may havebeen worn as an insignia <strong>of</strong> <strong>of</strong>fice, whichsuggests that the owner <strong>of</strong> the hoard wasclosely connected with the imperialcourt in Constantinople.<strong>The</strong> four medallions depicting theemperor Maurice Tiberius (r. 582-602)probably were minted for him to presentas gifts to high <strong>of</strong>ficials and nobles whenhe assumed the <strong>of</strong>fice <strong>of</strong> consul in 583.On the front is a bust <strong>of</strong> him; he is inimperial dress and holds the mappa, orwhite handkerchief, with which a newconsul opened the games that he wasrequired to stage for the populace <strong>of</strong>Constantinople. On the back <strong>of</strong> the medallionsthe emperor is shown in militarydress, standing in a chariot drawn byfour horses. He holds a globe surmountedby a small Nike <strong>of</strong>fering acrown <strong>of</strong> victory. To his side is a Christogram,symbolizing the religion <strong>of</strong> theByzantine state.<strong>The</strong> girdle also contains thirteencoins, including one from the reign <strong>of</strong><strong>The</strong>odosius II and four from the briefjoint rule in 527 <strong>of</strong> Justin I (r. 518-27)and Justinian I. Old coins were frequentlyused for jewelry, since underlater rulers their historic value and theirworth in gold <strong>of</strong>ten exceeded their worthas currency. All the coins and medallionsare stamped CONOB, an abbreviation forConstantinopolis obryzum (pure gold <strong>of</strong>Constantinople), indicating that theywere minted in the capital.37
<strong>The</strong> Attarouthi TreasureSilver and silver gilt with copper linersByzantine, from northern SyriaMade 500-650H. (chalices): 67/8-93/4 in. (17.5-24.9 cm)Purchase, Rogers Fund, and Henry J. andDrue E. Heinz Foundation, NorbertSchimmel, and Lila Acheson Wallace Gifts,1986 (1986.3.1-.15)<strong>The</strong>se well-wrought liturgical vesselsbelonged to a Christian church in theaffluent merchant town <strong>of</strong> Attarouthi, inSyria, while the region was still part <strong>of</strong>the Byzantine Empire. <strong>Byzantium</strong> lost thearea in the early seventh century, first tothe Persians and then to Muslim Arabarmies. <strong>The</strong> works were probably buriedin haste as the Byzantine army retreated.Inscriptions in Greek on the objectsindicate that many <strong>of</strong> them were donatedeither to Attarouthi's major church,dedicated to Saint Stephen, or to asmaller church, dedicated to Saint John(probably Saint John the Forerunner, whoin the Western church is called John theBaptist). In the inscriptions donors alsorequested salvation for themselves or forloved ones, thus preserving the names <strong>of</strong>several citizens <strong>of</strong> the town: Anastasia;Diodoros; Eudoxia; John, deacon <strong>of</strong> SaintStephen; Ertha and Stephen, children <strong>of</strong>Kyriakos; Kerykos, son <strong>of</strong> Michaelios;and Martyrios.<strong>The</strong> chalices, censers, and strainerwere employed in the Divine Liturgy, orEucharist service, in which Christians takewine and bread in commemoration <strong>of</strong>Christ's sacrifice and death. <strong>The</strong> chalices,with their tall foot and large cup, are typicalfor the early church, and their generoussize suggests that a large community<strong>of</strong> Christians resided near Attarouthiprior to the rise <strong>of</strong> Islam. As wine waspoured into the chalices, the strainerwas used to remove impurities.<strong>The</strong> censers, which retain their copperliners, held hot coals and incense. One<strong>of</strong> a deacon's duties was to swing thecensers, releasing the perfume <strong>of</strong> theincense to honor the Gospel, the altar,and the objects used in the service.<strong>The</strong> dove is unique among the vesselsand may be the earliest surviving representation<strong>of</strong> the Holy Spirit.Among the figures decorating theworks are the Virgin, with her handsraised in the orant pose <strong>of</strong> the earlychurch; Saint Stephen, one <strong>of</strong> the firstseven deacons <strong>of</strong> the Christian churchand its first martyr; archangels; andanunusual feature-military saints inarmor (those slaying dragons may bethe first known depictions <strong>of</strong> SaintGeorge). Stars and crosses on several <strong>of</strong>the chalices may represent, respectively,the star <strong>of</strong> Bethlehem that announcedChrist's birth and the cross on whichhe died.38
Box Reliquary <strong>of</strong> the True CrossSilver gilt, gold, cloisonne enamel, andnielloByzantineMade about 800, in Constantinople4 x 27/8 in. (10.2 x 7.4 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.715a, b)<strong>The</strong> cross upon which Christ was crucifiedis said to have been discovered inthe early fourth century by Saint Helena,mother <strong>of</strong> Constantine the Great. Duringthe Byzantine period small fragments <strong>of</strong>the True Cross were distributed as giftsand housed in precious containers wherethey could be venerated by the faithful.Relics <strong>of</strong> the True Cross were one <strong>of</strong> themost important diplomatic gifts <strong>of</strong>feredby the Byzantine court.This small, finely made cloisonneenamelbox is one <strong>of</strong> the earliest examples<strong>of</strong> a staurotheke, or reliquary made tocontain a fragment <strong>of</strong> the True Cross.On the front <strong>of</strong> the lid Christ is shownalive on the cross, wearing the colobium(long tunic, usually sleeveless or short-sleeved) popular in Early Byzantinedepictions <strong>of</strong> the Crucifixion. He isflanked by the mourning figures <strong>of</strong> theVirgin and Saint John. On the back <strong>of</strong>the lid, worked in niello, are depictions<strong>of</strong> the Annunciation to the Virgin, theNativity, the Crucifixion, and theAnastasis, or Harrowing <strong>of</strong> Hell. (<strong>The</strong>Anastasis, showing Christ reaching forwardto draw Adam and Eve out <strong>of</strong> purgatory,was an image that evolved inConstantinople about 800.) Togetherthe images promise eternal life formankind through Christ's birth and sacrificeon the cross. <strong>The</strong> lid slides backto reveal five compartments, arrangedin the shape <strong>of</strong> a cross, for housingthe relic.39
THE EMPIRE'S SECOND GOLDEN AGEfigures] who serve as models, and . . .pay these images the tribute <strong>of</strong> salutationand respectful veneration." In 843, withthe <strong>of</strong>ficial restoration <strong>of</strong> the use <strong>of</strong> icons,this description <strong>of</strong> the proper decoration<strong>of</strong> churches was rapidly realized.This head <strong>of</strong> Christ may have beenpart <strong>of</strong> a scene that decorated the upperwalls <strong>of</strong> a church. <strong>The</strong> words <strong>of</strong> Photios(ca. b. 810, d. after 893), onetime patriarch<strong>of</strong> Constantinople, may be borrowedto characterize Christ's expression. In thelate 800s Photios wrote, describing theChurch <strong>of</strong> the Virgin <strong>of</strong> the Pharos, inConstantinople: "Painted in color mosaiccubes [is] a manlike figure bearing thetraits <strong>of</strong> Christ. You might say He is over-seeing the earth and devising its orderlyarrangement and government, so accuratelyhas the painter been inspired torepresent, though only in forms andcolors, the Creator's care for us."Mosaic Head <strong>of</strong> ChristGlassByzantineMade 1100-120011 3/8 x 81/4 in. (28.9 x 20.9 cm)Lent by Mary and Michael JaharisIn 787 the Second Council <strong>of</strong> Nicaeadecreed that churches and housesshould be filled, and all manner <strong>of</strong>objects decorated, with images <strong>of</strong> God,Christ, the Virgin, the Holy Spirit, andrevered angels and holy men. <strong>The</strong> councilreasoned that the more frequentlythese images-whether painted or inmosaic or other materials-were seen,the more did those who viewed them"remember and long for those [holy40
Processional CrossSilver with gilding and silver-gilt medallionsByzantineMade about 1000-1050235/8 x 173/4 in. (60 x 45.1 cm)Rogers Fund, 1993 (1993.163)Elaborately decorated crosses werewidely used during the Middle Byzantineera in religious, military, and imperialprocessions. This exceptionally handsomecross is ornamented on both sideswith medallions that include inscriptionsin Greek, identifying the holy figuresdepicted. <strong>The</strong> central medallion on thefront shows a bust <strong>of</strong> Christ. He isflanked on the crossarm by the Virginand John the Baptist, both <strong>of</strong> whom raisetheir hands in supplication to him onbehalf <strong>of</strong> mankind. (Representations <strong>of</strong>Christ between Mary and John werepopular during the Middle Byzantineera. This standard composition is calledthe Deesis.) Above is the archangelMichael, and below, the archangelGabriel. <strong>The</strong>y are dressed in the robes<strong>of</strong> the Byzantine court.In the central medallion on the plainback is Saint Thalelaios, a physicianmartyred in the late third century, whocarries the symbols <strong>of</strong> his pr<strong>of</strong>ession: amedical case and a lancet. At the ends <strong>of</strong>the crossarm are the popular Byzantinesaints Nicholas and John Chrysostom.<strong>The</strong> archangels Uriel and Raphaelappear above and below, respectively.On the base is an inscription in Greek:"Supplication [gift] <strong>of</strong> Leo, Bishop."A homily attributed to Saint JohnChrysostom describes the cross as a"power for those who are ill" and "thepurification <strong>of</strong> sickness." Thus this crossmay have been an <strong>of</strong>fering connected toan illness. Or it may have been meantfor a specific site dedicated to SaintThalelaios. Thalelaios is one <strong>of</strong> the saintsnamed in the ceremony for the purification<strong>of</strong> water, and the cross may havebeen used in that rite.41
Base for a CrossCopper alloyByzantineMade about 1000-1100, probably inConstantinople or Asia MinorH. 101/2 in. (26.7 cm)Purchase, Max Falk, Alastair B. Martin,Stephen Scher, and William Kelly SimpsonGifts, in honor <strong>of</strong> William D. Wixom, 1993(1993.165)Base for a CrossCopper alloyByzantineMade about 1000-1100, probably inConstantinople or Asia MinorH. 41/2 in. (11.4 cm)Fletcher Fund, 1962 (62.10.8)<strong>The</strong>se bases may have held processionalcrosses that were carried into andthrough churches, towns, and cities.<strong>The</strong>y represent in miniature the churchtype most popular during the MiddleByzantine centuries: a square buildingtopped at the center by a dome. <strong>The</strong>interior <strong>of</strong> the structure was designed tosuggest an equal-armed cross.<strong>The</strong> church was the center <strong>of</strong> publicreligious life. Often a bust <strong>of</strong> Christlooked down on the congregation fromthe dome. Mosaics (see p. 40) and frescoescovered the upper walls; marblerevetments lined the lower walls. Suchluxurious furnishings made the church asymbol <strong>of</strong> paradise.42
Decorative PanelMarbleByzantine, possibly from ConstantinopleCarved 900-1 10027 x 311/2 in. (68.6 x 80 cm)Fletcher Fund, 1947 (47.100.47)Marble panels <strong>of</strong> this kind were employedthroughout the Byzantine world to definethe interior spaces <strong>of</strong> churches. <strong>The</strong>ywere commonly used to form the base <strong>of</strong>the templon, or barrier, that screened thealtar and apse from the nave, where thecongregation assembled. <strong>The</strong>y were alsocombined to make low walls for thegalleries around the nave or to framewindows; <strong>of</strong>ten the patterns were carvedso as to allow the slabs to be mountedhorizontally or vertically. Such panelswere widely exported and are frequentlyfound in Italian churches, especially inthe area <strong>of</strong> Venice. Many Byzantinedesigns were copied outside the empire,at times on marble that had beenimported from Constantinople.43
Tip <strong>of</strong> a PointerGold, enameled in the cloisonne techniqueByzantineMade about 1080-1150, in ConstantinopleH. 1 in. (2.5 cm)Purchase, Louis V. Bell Fund and Henry G.Keasbey Bequest, 1997 (1997.235)<strong>The</strong> Byzantine court delighted in colorand intricate design. <strong>The</strong> complex patternsand the red, blue, white, and translucentgreen enamels on this tiny masterpiecesuggest that it was produced in an imperialworkshop (only a small group <strong>of</strong> sur-viving enamels can be thus attributed).This tip may have been made for a pointerused during public readings <strong>of</strong> texts,probably religious ones. Indeed, the tip'smotifs and colors echo the decorativepatterns in illuminated manuscripts <strong>of</strong>the period.<strong>The</strong> artist employed the cloisonneenameling technique. Compartments areoutlined on the metal surface with thinbands (cloisons) <strong>of</strong> gold or silver, thenfilled with colored glass paste and firedat a high temperature, so that the meltingglass forms a solid surface. <strong>The</strong> process<strong>of</strong>ten requires several firings before thefinal polishing.44Medallions from an Icon FrameGold, enameled in the cloisonne techniqueByzantine, from the Djumati Monastery(modern Republic <strong>of</strong> Georgia)Made about 1100, in ConstantinopleDiam. (each): 31/4 in. (8.3 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7(17.190.670-.678)<strong>The</strong>se nine medallions with Greekinscriptions identifying the images areamong the finest examples <strong>of</strong> the enameler'sart. <strong>The</strong>y are from a group <strong>of</strong> twelveenameled portraits that once decoratedthe frame <strong>of</strong> an icon <strong>of</strong> the archangelGabriel. Across the top <strong>of</strong> the framethree <strong>of</strong> the medallions formed a Deesiscomposition-Christ flanked by theVirgin and John the Baptist. In descendingorder on the sides were the busts <strong>of</strong>the apostles Peter and Paul (left), thenthose <strong>of</strong> the four evangelists (only themedallions depicting Matthew, Luke,and John survive, right). Across the basewere the portraits <strong>of</strong> Saints George,Demetrios (now in the Musee du Louvre,Paris), and <strong>The</strong>odore (now in the GeorgianState <strong>Art</strong> <strong>Museum</strong>, T'bilisi). Peter andPaul still have the attributes found on theAntioch Treasure plaques that bear theirimages (see p. 22). Both Paul and theevangelists hold handsomely boundmanuscripts <strong>of</strong> their writings. SaintGeorge, in courtly dress, holds a smallcross, symbolic <strong>of</strong> his martyrdom.<strong>The</strong> Byzantine emperor Michael VIIDoukas (r. 1071-78) was married toMaria <strong>of</strong> Alania, daughter <strong>of</strong> the Georgianking Bagratc IV. <strong>The</strong>se medallions mayhave been sent as a gift from the Byzantineto the Georgian court in connectionwith the imperial marriage, and theymay have helped to inspire the production<strong>of</strong> cloisonne-enamel medallionsin Georgia.
?OSL. W-,,
Double-Sided Pendant Icon with theVirgin and Christ PantokratorGold, enameled in the cloisonne techniqueByzantineMade about 1080-1120, in Constantinople11/4x 1 in. (3.3 x 2.4 cm)Purchase, Lila Acheson Wallace Gift, 1994(1994.403)Icon with the CrucifixionIvoryByzantineCarved mid-900s, probably inConstantinople5 x 31/2 in. (12.7 x 8.9 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7 (1 7.190.44)This icon, meant for personal devotions,was once the central panel <strong>of</strong> a triptych;the two lost wings closed to cover it. <strong>The</strong>exquisitely carved figures are raised s<strong>of</strong>ar from the background that they arealmost three-dimensional. <strong>The</strong> crucifiedChrist, his body slumped in death, isflanked by the Virgin and Saint John theEvangelist, who stand in mourning posestypical <strong>of</strong> Byzantine art. Below Christ'sfeet a group <strong>of</strong> Roman soldiers draws lotsfor Christ's cloak (the event is identifiedby an inscription in Greek). Beneaththem is a unique image described inan inscription as "the cross implanted inthe stomach <strong>of</strong> Hades." <strong>The</strong> inclusion<strong>of</strong> Hades is a visual affirmation <strong>of</strong>the Christian belief that through hissuffering on the cross, Christ won avictory over death.This tiny icon was meant to be wornaround its owner's neck and to be usedfor personal devotions. It is a tour deforce <strong>of</strong> enameling, for the Byzantineartisan has, with exceptional skill,worked both sides <strong>of</strong> a single gold sheet.Inscriptions, in Greek, identify the figuresas "Mother <strong>of</strong> God" and "Christ, King <strong>of</strong>Glory." <strong>The</strong> Virgin, on one side, lifts herarms and looks, as if through the pendant,toward Christ on the other side. Christ,shown as the Pantokrator (Ruler <strong>of</strong> All),turns his eyes to the right, seemingly look-ing back at his mother. She is set amongthe greens and blues <strong>of</strong> the earth, whilehe appears in a field <strong>of</strong> gold-a miniatureversion <strong>of</strong> his depiction in the domes <strong>of</strong>Middle Byzantine churches.46
Revetments from an Icon <strong>of</strong> the VirginGold, enameled in the cloisonne techniqueByzantineMade about 1100, in ConstantinopleHalo fragments: 5/4 x 11/2 in. (13.3 x 3.8 cm),51/4 x 17/8 in. (13.3 x 4.8 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.644-.648)<strong>The</strong>se intricately worked cloisonneenamelpanels once covered an icon thatdepicted the Virgin turning to the sidewith her hands raised in supplication.<strong>The</strong> same image appears in miniature onthe double-sided pendant icon (opposite).<strong>The</strong> type is called the Hagiosoritissa, orVirgin <strong>of</strong> the Holy Soros, after the reliquarychest (soros) in Constantinople inwhich the Virgin's mantel was kept.(This relic was used to invoke her aidas protectress <strong>of</strong> the city.)Two <strong>of</strong> the panels are from the Virgin'shalo; three are from the background thatcovered the icon. On the upper-left panelis an abbreviated inscription in Greekfor "Mother <strong>of</strong> God"; to the left <strong>of</strong> thepanel was a small image <strong>of</strong> Christ inheaven, to whom the Virgin directed herprayers. <strong>The</strong> two lower panels definethe slope <strong>of</strong> her shoulders, with a smallcutout at the lower left for her upraisedhands. Another portion <strong>of</strong> the frame isin the Musee du Louvre, Paris; othersections are in the Georgian State <strong>Art</strong><strong>Museum</strong>, T'bilisi.47
Icon with the KoimesisIvoryByzantineCarved late 900s, probably inConstantinople71/8 x 57/8 in. (18.7 x 14.9 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7(17.190.132)One <strong>of</strong> the most important new imagesto develop with the triumph <strong>of</strong> icons wasthe Koimesis, or Death <strong>of</strong> the Virgin,which is first found in Byzantine art inthe 900s. This image became one <strong>of</strong> themost popular in the Middle and LateByzantine world. It <strong>of</strong>ten appeared overthe doors <strong>of</strong> churches, to be contemplatedby the faithful as they left the service.Here, the Virgin is shown lying on apallet for the dead. Christ stands behindher, holding up her soul (which takes theshape <strong>of</strong> an infant) and <strong>of</strong>fering it toangels who will transport it to heaven.<strong>The</strong> apostles, led by Saint Paul at her feetand Saint Peter behind her head, standwitness. Holes in the ivory suggest thatit was used to decorate the cover <strong>of</strong> abook, probably in the Latin West, wherethe practice was popular (see p. 61).48
Three Panels from a Casket withScenes from the Story <strong>of</strong> JoshuaIvoryByzantineCarved about 900-1000, probably inConstantinopleH. 25/8 in. (6.6 cm) (a); 2 in. (5 cm) (b);23/8 in. (6 cm) (c)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 191 7(17.190.137a-c)<strong>The</strong>se three panels and their ornamentalborders were once part <strong>of</strong> a casket illustratedwith the Old Testament story <strong>of</strong>Joshua's conquest <strong>of</strong> the Promised Land.Each panel is delicately carved in amanner reminiscent <strong>of</strong> manuscriptilluminations, and each scene is identifiedby an inscription in Greek. <strong>The</strong> firstpanel, designed to fit around a lock plate,shows the conquest <strong>of</strong> the city <strong>of</strong> Ai;inscribed on the narrow frame are thewords "And Joshua stretched out the spearthat he had in his hand toward the city....And the ambush arose quickly . .. andslew the men <strong>of</strong> Ai" (Joshua 8:18-21).<strong>The</strong> second panel shows the captive king<strong>of</strong> Ai, first bowed in submission beforeJoshua and then hanged on a forked stakeat the far right <strong>of</strong> the scene. <strong>The</strong> inscriptionalludes to Joshua 8:23, 29: "Andthe king <strong>of</strong> Ai they . . . brought him toJoshua ... [and] he hanged on a treeuntil eventide." On the third panel emissariesfrom the Gibeonites approachJoshua. <strong>The</strong> inscription is adapted fromJoshua 9, "<strong>The</strong> Gibeonites Displaying<strong>The</strong>ir Torn Clothes." Joshua's story was<strong>of</strong>ten invoked in the Middle Byzantineperiod, when the Byzantines frequentlyidentified themselves with God's ChosenPeople and likened their own militaryvictories and defeats to those <strong>of</strong> the Jewsmany centuries earlier.<strong>The</strong> portrait heads in pr<strong>of</strong>ile on theborders may refer to antique coins.Traces <strong>of</strong> paint indicate that this workoriginally may have been as colorful asthe illuminated manuscripts <strong>of</strong> the period.49
Icon with Saint DemetriosIvoryByzantineCarved about 950-100073/4 x 43/4 in. (19.6 x 12.2 cm)<strong>The</strong> Cloisters Collection, 1970 (1970.324.3)Standing erect, a spear in his hand anda shield at his side, Saint Demetrios isshown ready to protect the Christianfaithful. <strong>The</strong> name <strong>of</strong> the popularByzantine military saint is inscribed intwo parts in Greek. Martyred in<strong>The</strong>ssalonike, the second most importantcity <strong>of</strong> the empire in the early centuries<strong>of</strong> the church, he has long been thepatron saint <strong>of</strong> that metropolis. Images <strong>of</strong>saints in military dress are rare in EarlyByzantine art (they appear on the chalices<strong>of</strong> the Attarouthi Treasure, on p. 38) buttypical <strong>of</strong> the Middle Byzantine period.<strong>The</strong> cleft in the base <strong>of</strong> the frame mayhave supported a standard for carryingthe image in processions or into battle.<strong>The</strong> holes drilled through the back indicatethat it may have been used in theLatin West as a cover for a book (seepp. 48, 61).50
?;I t D:(/"4--, . - I - I I ,Casket with the Deesis, Archangels,and the Twelve ApostlesIvory, with later copper-alloy-gilt mountsByzantineCarved about 950-1 000, probably inConstantinople7%/4 x 37/t in. (18.4 x 9.8 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.238)This small casket is a rare example <strong>of</strong> awork carved from solid panels <strong>of</strong> ivory,a most valuable material. On the lid,within a central medallion flanked byfour others, Christ appears enthroned inmajesty. In the upper two medallionsare the Virgin and John the Baptist, eachidentified by an inscription in Greek;together with the image <strong>of</strong> Christ, theyform the popular Middle ByzantineDeesis composition. Two unidentifiedarchangels, the guardians <strong>of</strong> heaven,appear in the lower medallions, indicatingthat the figures depicted are in paradise.<strong>The</strong> same group appears on thefront <strong>of</strong> the silver-gilt processional crossillustrated on page 41 . Vine-scroll patternssimilar to manuscript motifs frame thewhole panel, and roundels with apostlesand evangelists, each identified in acarefully carved Greek inscription, decoratethe sides <strong>of</strong> the casket. Saints Paul,Peter, James, and Andrew are shown onthe front; Philip and Thomas, on the rightside; Bartholomew and Simon, on theleft; and John, Mark, Luke, and Matthewon the back. At one time the casket wascovered with paint applied so thicklythat it obscured the inscriptions. Recently,<strong>Museum</strong> conservators removed all thecolor after they exposed sections <strong>of</strong>the front and lid in their originalunpainted state beneath a late-medievalbut not original lock plate.51
Two Panels from a Casket with theStory <strong>of</strong> Adam and EveIvoryByzantineCarved about 900-1100, probably inConstantinopleL. 3 Y in. (9.5 cm) (.138); 378 in. (9.8 cm)(.139)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1 91 7(17.190.138, .139)<strong>The</strong>se finely carved, thin ivory panelswere once attached to the wooden core<strong>of</strong> a casket decorated with scenes fromthe lives <strong>of</strong> Adam and Eve. Both panelsshow the couple, who are identified byinscriptions in Greek, laboring after theirfall and expulsion from paradise. At leftAdam and Eve are seen harvesting grain.She wears a long tunic; he, a short one.At right Eve works a bellows as Adamhammers a metal object on his forge.Two surviving Byzantine caskets that alsoillustrate the story <strong>of</strong> Adam and Eveinclude, among similar scenes <strong>of</strong> griefand toil, the personification <strong>of</strong> Ploutos(Wealth), a figure meant to remind theperson who stores jewels or money in thecasket that prosperity is a gift from Godand that God favors those who repenttheir sins.RH1Psri:%'*.-i.A . 7V.w9/i',H-"alIA.S'.i ' a .... ,,,?,!,1, 71. - -t" K/ JI i . a.~.&52
Casket with Warriors and DancersBone panelsByzantineCarved about 1000-1100, probably inConstantinople; copper-gilt metalworkadded 1400s, probably in ItalyL. 11/8 in. (28.8 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.239)Bone-paneled caskets used at home bythe well-to-do were <strong>of</strong>ten decorated withclassical subjects, for the learning, literature,and images <strong>of</strong> ancient Greece andRome remained alive and vibrant in theEast throughout the Byzantine period.<strong>The</strong> erotes that dance and wage mockbattles on the sides <strong>of</strong> this casket andtame a female panther on the lid recallimagery associated with the ancient cult<strong>of</strong> the god Dionysos (see pp. 9, 26-27).<strong>The</strong> enthusiasm for classical learning inthe Middle Byzantine era and the effortto reconcile it with Christian theologywere effectively described by the writerand teacher John Mauropous in theeleventh century:If perchance you wish to exempt certainpagans from punishment, my Christ,May you spare for my sake Plato andPlutarch,For both were very close to your laws inboth teaching and way <strong>of</strong> life.Even if they were unaware that you as Godreign over all,In this matter only your charity is needed,Through which you are willing to save allmen while asking nothing in return.In the aftermath <strong>of</strong> the Fourth Crusade,when caskets like this reached theLatin West, they were <strong>of</strong>ten used inchurches as containers for the relics<strong>of</strong> Christian saints.53
Temple Pendant and StickGold, enameled in the cloisonne techniqueByzantineMade about 1080-1150, in ConstantinopleH. (pendant with loop): 17/8 in. (4.9 cm);h. (stick): 2 in. (5.1 cm)Rogers Fund, 1990 (1990.235a, b)Ring <strong>of</strong> loannis (John)Gold and nielloByzantineMade 900-1000Diam. 1 in. (2.4 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Guy and Valerie Tempest Megargee,1992 (1992.239)<strong>The</strong> incised, stylized vine scrolls on thesides <strong>of</strong> this ring and the letters on theface are filled with niello, which heightensthe contrast with the gold ground.<strong>The</strong> Greek inscription begins "Lord,help [your] servant loannis, imperialspatharios...." What follows cannot bereadily understood. Spatharios (Sword-Bearer) was a title originally reserved formembers <strong>of</strong> the imperial bodyguard. Bythe Middle Byzantine period, however,it had become an honorific indicatinglittle more than the respectable status<strong>of</strong> loannis, the owner <strong>of</strong> the ring. Hemay have used the massive jewel as asignet ring.RHSignet Ring <strong>of</strong> Michael ZorianosGoldByzantineMade about 1300Diam. 7/8 in. (2.3 cm)Rogers Fund, 1918 (18.145.42)Styles in the rings worn by the aristocraticmen <strong>of</strong> Byzantine society changedslowly. This handsome, heavy goldexample, which closely resembles thetenth-century ring at left, is inscribed inGreek, "Seal <strong>of</strong> Michael Zorianos."About the year 1300 a certain MichaelZorianos was principal <strong>of</strong>ficer <strong>of</strong> theDespotate <strong>of</strong> Epiros (in central Greece),one <strong>of</strong> several Byzantine states that aroseduring the Latin control <strong>of</strong> Constantinople.He was also one <strong>of</strong> the founders <strong>of</strong> theChurch <strong>of</strong> the Taxiarchai in the town <strong>of</strong>Mokista. This ring may have belonged tohim and have been used to seal <strong>of</strong>ficialdocuments.RHTemple pendants were worn by members<strong>of</strong> the Byzantine aristocracy. Probablyattached by a loop to the hair or to aheaddress, they dangled near the templeor the cheek. This intricately workedpendant, which features the head <strong>of</strong> aman within a medallion on the front andcomplex patterns on the reverse, mayhave been made in an imperial workshop.Its colors and designs are similar tothose on a pointer in the <strong>Metropolitan</strong><strong>Museum</strong>'s collection (see p. 44). <strong>The</strong>hollow interior <strong>of</strong> the pendant probablyheld a perfumed piece <strong>of</strong> cloth.*-|||Llsp:l17A:e tOS| tH HI V54
<strong>The</strong> stick would have been used toguide the cloth in or out <strong>of</strong> the pendant.Fragments <strong>of</strong> the metal strips, or cloisons,that outlined the patterns remain on thestick; the now-empty cells were oncefilled with vividly colored powderedglass and fired to make this miniaturecloisonne masterpiece.Cameo <strong>of</strong> the Virgin and ChildAgateByzantineCarved about 1050-1 100, probably inConstantinople; gold setting made about1800 by Adrien Jean Maximillian Vachettein ParisH. (cameo without frame): 1 /8 in. (4.1 cm)Lent by John C. WeberWealthy Byzantines who wore templependants may also have worn or carriedmasterfully carved cameos like this one.<strong>The</strong> miniature icon displays the Virginwith her arms upraised in the orant pose.Barely visible on her breast is a medallion<strong>of</strong> the youthful Christ Emmanuel, whorepresents the preexistent word <strong>of</strong> God.Such images, which became popular inthe eleventh century, are <strong>of</strong>ten called theVirgin Blachernitissa, after a famous icon<strong>of</strong> the type thought to have been housedin the Blachernai Monastery in Constanti-nople. <strong>The</strong> exquisite carving <strong>of</strong> the agateand the careful arrangement <strong>of</strong> thedesign to take advantage <strong>of</strong> the colors <strong>of</strong>the stone demonstrate why the demandfor Byzantine hard-stone carvings persistedlong after the empire was overthrown.<strong>The</strong> elegant gold setting, craftedabout 1800 by Adrien Jean MaximillianVachette, a leading goldsmith <strong>of</strong> his day,testifies to the appeal <strong>of</strong> such Byzantineluxury goods in Napoleonic France.55
Temple Pendants (Kolty)Most in gold or electrum with cloisonneenamel; one in silver with nielloKievan Rus'; most found in 1842 in or nearthe Desiatynna (Dormition) Church and in1906 near Mykhailivs'kyi Zolotoverkhyi(Saint Michael <strong>of</strong> the Golden Domes), Kiev,UkraineMade 1000-1200, in KievMax. h. 23/8 in. (6 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(1917.190.670,.680, .684, .699, .700,.702-.704, .707-.709)When Kievan Rus', a powerful new stateto the north <strong>of</strong> the Byzantine Empire,accepted Christianity as its <strong>of</strong>ficial religionin 988, the aristocracy also adoptedthe manners and dress <strong>of</strong> the Byzantine56court. Local artists soon produced theirown versions <strong>of</strong> Constantinopolitanfashions. <strong>The</strong>se temple pendants <strong>of</strong> preciousmetals worked in cloisonneenamel or niello are local variants <strong>of</strong>more intricately detailed works made forthe Byzantine court (see p. 54). In onepair busts <strong>of</strong> saints appear silhouettedagainst a gold ground. In others confrontedbirds-and one pair <strong>of</strong> birdlikesirens, each with a feathered tail-flankmotifs that may represent the tree <strong>of</strong> eternallife. One set retains traces <strong>of</strong> thestrands <strong>of</strong> pearls that may have originallyencircled most <strong>of</strong> these ornaments. Onthe pair worked in silver and niello,griffins from classical mythology appearin forms that may be related to the arts<strong>of</strong> the Vikings who founded Kiev. As in<strong>Byzantium</strong>, temple pendants may havebeen worn next to the face by both themen and the women <strong>of</strong> Rus'. <strong>The</strong> worksshown here were perhaps buried by theirowners when the Mongol armies underBatu Khan sacked Kiev in 1240.
Bowl with FishTerracotta, white slip, and transparent glazeByzantineI? *~~~~~ :*~~~~~~~~~ .Made 1 OOos-1200sDiam. 101/8 in. (25.7 cm), :,* X-"''tiy^ :,..' '?^'^^Gift<strong>of</strong> Christopher C. Grisanti and Suzanne P.';- i/' . (" :, *. lineFawbush, 2000 (2000.322)''. \:'/-f 'il:Fish were a popular food in <strong>Byzantium</strong>,and large specimens were <strong>of</strong>ten <strong>of</strong>fered/Jr.'~~ ''~ ~~ ,j~~~~~ -as important gifts. Using the sgraffitotechnique, a potter with a sure hand%,' ,I~' - /^^^//incised this/slyly smiling fish swimming:', ;t.(.*^'^ ========== ..'among the reeds into the white slip cov-Bo"wl with^ Bird . <strong>of</strong> Prey ,*thatering the interior <strong>of</strong> the bowl. He thenT/et, wt sl p: , applied a transparent glaze over his sketchbut did not bother to glaze the exterior~"^^~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ^<strong>of</strong> the dish. <strong>The</strong> inventive economy <strong>of</strong>'^N|^' ,~ ?*'~-:-: ~..;.:~line and sense <strong>of</strong> humor found in thisdrawing rarely appear in Byzantine art;when they do, it is usually, as here, onhumble pottery.Bowl with Bird <strong>of</strong> Preythat the dowry <strong>of</strong> the hero's wife includes"twelve snowy hawks from Abasgia [inTerracotta, white slip, and transparent glaze moe e orga twe , fales anmodern Georgia], twelve falconers, andByzantineMade 1 OOOs-1 200sthe same number <strong>of</strong> falcons."Diam. 9%5/ in. (24.4 cm)Anonymous Gift, 1984 (1984.302)Craftsmen <strong>of</strong> the Middle Byzantineperiod produced not only elegant goodsce .... ..for the elite but also inexpensive earthenwarefor household use or export. Thissimple bowl covered with white slip,into which the pattern was scraped orincised in a technique called sgraffito,has the s<strong>of</strong>t sheen <strong>of</strong> bone and ivorycarvings. <strong>The</strong> well-executed bird with ahooked beak may be a falcon trained forhunting, a popular pastime <strong>of</strong> the elite.Constantine Manasses, a writer wholived from about 1130 to 1187, describedhunters carrying falcons tied to the back<strong>of</strong> either hand. <strong>The</strong>y would release thestraps when the moment came for the birdsto fly up and seek their prey. <strong>The</strong> MiddleByzantine epic poem Digenis Akritis,about a Byzantine-Arab border lord, says?'.'..57
THE FINAL FLOWERING OF THE BYZANTINE WORLD<strong>The</strong> elegant articulation <strong>of</strong> the bust onthis beautifully carved capital is evidence<strong>of</strong> the artistic revival in Constantinopleafter its restoration to Byzantine rule in1261. <strong>The</strong> archangel Michael, who isidentified by an inscription in Greek,wears a jeweled tunic and a diadem andholds both an orb and a staff. <strong>The</strong>se elements<strong>of</strong> dress and attributes <strong>of</strong> authorityreflect the long-established connectionbetween archangels, who are theguardians <strong>of</strong> heaven, and the Byzantineemperor, Christ's representative on earth.This image may have been part <strong>of</strong> thedecoration <strong>of</strong> the upper section <strong>of</strong> a tombbuilt into a niche. It is said to have beenfound near the ruins <strong>of</strong> the Monastery <strong>of</strong>the Virgin Peribleptos (All-Seeing), establishedin the early eleventh century bythe Byzantine emperor Romanos IIIArgyros (r. 1028-34), who was buriedthere. In the Late Byzantine period thesite remained important, and the imperialcourt visited its church annually forthe Feast <strong>of</strong> the Presentation <strong>of</strong> the ChristChild in the Temple, one <strong>of</strong> the TwelveGreat Feasts (Dodekaorton) <strong>of</strong> theOrthodox Church (see p. 66).Panel with a GriffinCapital with Bust <strong>of</strong> the ArchangelMichaelMarbleByzantine, from Constantinople; possiblyfrom the Monastery <strong>of</strong> the Virgin Peribleptos,now the Sulu Manastir Mosque, IstanbulMade about 1250-1300, in ConstantinopleH. 9:Y4 in. (24.7 cm)Purchase, Gifts <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan,George Blumenthal, and Messrs. Duveen58Brothers, by exchange; Bequests <strong>of</strong> GeorgeBlumenthal and Anne D. Thompson, <strong>The</strong>Collection <strong>of</strong> Michael Dreicer, Bequest <strong>of</strong>Michael Dreicer, and <strong>The</strong>odore M. DavisCollection, Bequest <strong>of</strong> <strong>The</strong>odore M. Davis,by exchange; Rogers Fund and Mr. and Mrs.Maxime L. Hermanos Gift, 1983 (1983.167)MarbleByzantine, possibly from Greece or theBalkansCarved 1250-1300231/2 x 201/2 in. (59.5 x 51.5 cm)Purchase, Rogers Fund and Jeannette andJonathan Rosen Gift, 2000 (2000.81)A number <strong>of</strong> images that originated inthe classical world remained popularthroughout the history <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong>.For example, griffins were accepted as
Christian symbols in the first centuries <strong>of</strong>the Byzantine era (see p. 29). <strong>The</strong>y <strong>of</strong>tencontinued their traditional role as protectors<strong>of</strong> the dead. As time went on, thesemythical creatures were increasinglyassociated with royalty. Byzantine artistsfrequently portrayed Alexander the Greatin a griffin-drawn chariot, surveying hisvast realm from the air. Derived from thelate-third-century Alexander Romance,that image <strong>of</strong> the great ruler has beenfound as far west as England and onworks made for the Muslim states locatedon the Byzantine Empire's eastern andsouthern borders.<strong>The</strong> elaborate overall patterning <strong>of</strong>this marble panel and the arrangement<strong>of</strong> the griffin within a medallion arereminiscent <strong>of</strong> designs on silks made forboth Byzantine and Muslim patrons. <strong>The</strong>small crosses on the borders confirm thatthe work was intended for Christian use.Griffins like this one are found on LateByzantine tombs, where they may havehad the dual function <strong>of</strong> announcingthe royal status <strong>of</strong> the dead and <strong>of</strong>feringthem protection.59
in which he drew this connection, whileemphasizing the superiority <strong>of</strong> theChristian heroes: "I painted the champions[the two <strong>The</strong>odores] armed, so thatSatan, humbled, may turn his back andmay not assault us boldly. 'Not evenHerakles,' they say, 'is a match for two."'Carved in reverse, the <strong>Museum</strong>'sintaglio may have been used for sealingdocuments. A less carefully carved inscriptionin Greek on the back <strong>of</strong> the gemcalls upon Christ to help the anonymousowner <strong>of</strong> this miniature icon.RHCameo with Christ EmmanuelSteatiteByzantineCarved about 1200-1400H. 1 /8 in. (2.9 cm)Purchase, William Kelly Simpson Gift, 1987(1987.23)Steatite, a s<strong>of</strong>t stone that can be rubbedto achieve a fine patina, eventuallybecame even more popular than ivory asa medium for carved icons. An inscriptionin Greek, "Jesus Christ, Emmanuel,"beside the halo <strong>of</strong> this steatite image <strong>of</strong>the young Christ identifies him as a symbol<strong>of</strong> the Logos, or the preexistent word<strong>of</strong> God. Typically, his halo contains threearms, representing the cross upon whichhe was crucified. By contrast with thecrisp folds at the neck <strong>of</strong> his tunic andthe tooled ornament on the crossarms,Christ's facial features are deeply worn,probably the result <strong>of</strong> repeated touchingor kissing <strong>of</strong> the holy image by theicon's owners.<strong>The</strong> name Manuel, a shortened version<strong>of</strong> Emmanuel, was a popular choice forByzantine men. <strong>The</strong> emperor Manuel IKomnenos (r. 1143-80) drew attention tohis name's association with Christ byincluding an image <strong>of</strong> Christ Emmanuelon many <strong>of</strong> the coins minted duringhis reign.RH60Intaglio with Saint <strong>The</strong>odore TeronSlaying a Multiheaded DragonAgateByzantineCarved about 1300 or laterH. 13/8 in. (3.4 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Nanette B. Kelekian, in memory <strong>of</strong>Charles Dikran and Beatrice Kelekian, 1999(1999.325.227)<strong>The</strong>odore Teron (the Recruit) was one <strong>of</strong>the most popular military saints in theLate Byzantine era. Like his counterpartSaint George, he is well known for hav-ing killed a dragon. On this remarkable,minutely detailed intaglio, the incisedcarving depicts the event in a style thatreflects the revival <strong>of</strong> classical culture in<strong>Byzantium</strong> during the fourteenth and fifteenthcenturies. In contrast with earlier,more formal and static depictions <strong>of</strong>saints killing dragons, as on the Attarouthichalices (see p. 38), <strong>The</strong>odore leans dramaticallyforward on widespread legs tothrust his spear into the fearsome beast.This depiction may deliberately refer tothe battle between the classical heroHerakles and the hydra, also a mythicalmultiheaded monster. <strong>The</strong> Byzantinecourt poet Manuel Philes (ca. 1275-ca. 1345) prepared an inscription foran icon <strong>of</strong> Saint <strong>The</strong>odore Teron andSaint <strong>The</strong>odore Stratelates (the General)Book Cover(?) with Byzantine Icon <strong>of</strong>the CrucifixionSilver gilt on wood backing, inset with ivoryicon, sapphire, glass, and crystalIcon carved about 1000, in Constantinople;setting made before 1085, at the Monastery<strong>of</strong> Santa Cruz de la Ser6s, Jaca, SpainH. (setting): 101/2 in. (26 cm); h. (icon): 53/8 in.(13.7 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917(17.190.134)Byzantine ivory carvings have long beenprized in the West. This icon <strong>of</strong> theCrucifixion was carved in the empire,probably as the central panel <strong>of</strong> a triptychmeant for personal devotions. Itdisplays a conventional Byzantinearrangement <strong>of</strong> the scene, with the Virginand John the Evangelist flanking thecrucified Christ and gesturing in recognition<strong>of</strong> his sacrifice. <strong>The</strong> Savior's eyesare closed in death. Beside his head arethe busts <strong>of</strong> two angels, who also gesturetoward Christ, and a rayed sun andcrescent moon.Later in the century the panel wasbrought to the Benedictine monastery <strong>of</strong>
4,IlSanta Cruz de la Ser6s, said to havebeen founded by Queen Felicia (d. 1085),wife <strong>of</strong> Sancho V (r. 1076-94), king <strong>of</strong>Aragon and Navarre. <strong>The</strong>re the icon wasconverted into the central panel <strong>of</strong> aplaque that may have been the cover fora book (Byzantine ivory icons werewidely used as book covers in the West)or as part <strong>of</strong> a votive work, possibly areliquary. On the right side <strong>of</strong> theplaque is a small Islamic sapphiresealstone with four <strong>of</strong> the ninety-nineBeautiful Names <strong>of</strong> Allah inscribedon it.61
Incipit Page <strong>of</strong> the Gospel <strong>of</strong> John,from an Armenian GospelsAttributed to the illuminator Sargis; scribeunknownPigments and gold on vellumMade about 1300-1310, at the Monastery<strong>of</strong> Noravank', Siwnik', Greater Armenia12112 x 9/4 in. (31.7 x 23.6 cm)Rogers Fund, 1938 (38.171.2)Even as Turkish and Mongol rulers weretaking over the territories controlled by<strong>Byzantium</strong> and neighboring Christianstates, the empire's cultural and artistictraditions continued to influence theChristian communities within those borderlands.<strong>The</strong> Armenian peoples on theeastern frontier <strong>of</strong> the empire had recognizedChristianity as their state religionin the early fourth century. While theArmenian church remained independent,many Armenians chose to become importantcitizens <strong>of</strong> the empire, serving asmilitary leaders and even as emperors.Others continued to fight for independencefrom all overlords. In the fifthcentury, when much <strong>of</strong> Armenia wasoccupied by the Persians, an Armenianalphabet had been developed for thetranslation <strong>of</strong> religious texts. Here, onthe incipit (opening) page <strong>of</strong> the FourthNew Testament Gospel, images <strong>of</strong> birdshave been arranged to form theArmenian letters.This single leaf, originally part <strong>of</strong> acomplete Gospels, was probably illuminatedby the artist Sargis, who worked atthe Monastery <strong>of</strong> Noravank' in GreaterArmenia. At that time the region wasoccupied by the Mongols, whose armiesin the thirteenth century had swept as farwest as Hungary. <strong>The</strong> format <strong>of</strong> the pageis based on the Byzantine manuscripttradition, as are the floral patterns in thedecoration. Unlike most illuminators <strong>of</strong><strong>Byzantium</strong>, however, Sargis chose as hisprimary decoration the four symbols <strong>of</strong>the evangelists. Each one appears in thecapital letter that stands at the beginning<strong>of</strong> the first word-the angel for Matthew,the lion for Mark, the ox for Luke, andthe eagle for John. <strong>The</strong> symbols arerepeated in the headpiece, the panel <strong>of</strong>dense ornamentation suspended over thetext: on top angels flank a bust <strong>of</strong> Christin heaven framed by a pair <strong>of</strong> peacocks;within its borders two pairs <strong>of</strong> confrontedlions and oxen flank a pair <strong>of</strong> eagles.62
Page with the Ascension <strong>of</strong> Christ,from an Ethiopian GospelsPigments on vellumPainted in the early 1400s, in the Lake Tanaregion161/2 X 111 in. (41.9 x 28.6 cm)Rogers Fund, 1998 (1998.66)In the Middle and Late Byzantine periodsthe influence <strong>of</strong> Byzantine art persistedfar to the empire's south, even thoughthe area had come under Islamic controlin the seventh century. Axum, a kingdomin northern Ethiopia, had become aChristian state in the fourth century. Inthe sixth century the Axumites hadassisted the Byzantine emperor Justin I(r. 518-27) in his efforts to control thetrade routes to the East through the RedSea, and at that time Greek texts weretranslated into Geez, the classicallanguage <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia.In this fifteenth-century manuscriptwritten in Geez, the depiction <strong>of</strong> theAscension <strong>of</strong> Christ is inspired bythe Byzantine tradition. Christ is beingcarried to heaven in a mandorla as hismother and the apostles stand witnessbeneath him. He is borne up, however,not by angels, as in Byzantine depictions<strong>of</strong> the scene, but by the four symbols <strong>of</strong>the evangelists. <strong>The</strong>se may also have beenintended to remind the viewer <strong>of</strong> theapocalyptic beasts <strong>of</strong> Ezekiel's vision inthe Old Testament, which is the source <strong>of</strong>the evangelists' symbols (Ezekiel 1:4-14).<strong>The</strong> image is one <strong>of</strong> a series <strong>of</strong> illuminationsin a Gospels produced in the LakeTana region <strong>of</strong> Ethiopia, which becamean important monastic site beginning inthe thirteenth century.63
models by Italian artists for works suchas this one. It has been attributed toBerlinghiero, one <strong>of</strong> the first painters towork in the Byzantine-influenced Italianstyle later called the maniera greca(Greek manner). This image <strong>of</strong> the Virginand Child, in which the mother draws theviewer's eye to her son by the gesture <strong>of</strong>a hand, is modeled on a Byzantine icontype called the Hodegetria (after theHodegon Monastery in Constantinople,where the original icon was first kept).<strong>The</strong> viewer is led to recognize by thegently pointing fingers that Christ isthe way to salvation. <strong>The</strong> Virgin's deeplyfurrowed brow indicates an awareness<strong>of</strong> her son's future sacrifice and death.According to legend, this image was firstpainted from life by Saint Luke. It wasthe most widely copied icon type for theVirgin in the Byzantine world.During the Latin occupation <strong>of</strong> thecapital the original icon, which directlyor indirectly inspired Berlinghiero's work,was transferred from the Hodegon tothe Pantokrator Monastery, then under thecontrol <strong>of</strong> the Venetians. In 1261, whenthe emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos(r. 1259-82) regained Constantinople, heentered the city walking behind the icon.It is said to have been cut into four partsand destroyed when the city fell to theOttoman Turks in 1453.Virgin and ChildAttributed to Berlinghiero (act. by 1228,d. by 1236)Tempera on wood, gold groundPainted about 1230, in Italy315 x 21 /8 in. (80.3 x 53.6 cm)Gift <strong>of</strong> Irma N. Straus, 1960 (60.173)64In the thirteenth century the Crusaderrule <strong>of</strong> Constantinople, burgeoning commercialtrade, and the growing activity inthe East <strong>of</strong> the new Western mendicantreligious orders, the Franciscans andDominicans, led to an increasing awareness<strong>of</strong> Byzantine art in Italy. Icon typespopular in the empire were used asChrist Bearing the CrossNicolaosTzafouris (act. by 1489, d. 1500)Oil and tempera on wood, gold groundPainted about 1489-1500, in Crete271/4 x 2112 in. (69.2 x 54.6 cm)Bashford Dean Memorial Collection, Fundsfrom various donors, 1929 (29.158.746)After the conquest <strong>of</strong> Constantinople bythe Ottoman Turks in 1453, much <strong>of</strong> thecoastal territory <strong>of</strong> the empire, including
certain islands, was annexed by theItalian merchant states. This occurrencefostered the interaction <strong>of</strong> Western andByzantine artistic traditions. Crete, whichcame under Venetian control in 1204,developed a style <strong>of</strong> icon paintingintended to appeal to both Orthodox andLatin patrons. Nicolaos Tzafouris wasone <strong>of</strong> many Cretan artists working inthe city <strong>of</strong> Candia (modern Iraklion)immediately after the fall <strong>of</strong> Constantinople.He wrote "Nicolaus Zafuripainted it" in large letters, in Latin,across the bottom <strong>of</strong> this image and perhapsalso "[Christ] Being Dragged tothe Cross," which is inscribed above thescene in Greek. <strong>The</strong> use <strong>of</strong> Greek forthe title implied that the image wouldfollow the Byzantine iconographicformula, with Christ shown beside thecross, being carried to Golgotha by Simon<strong>of</strong> Cyrene, as described in Matthew27:32, Mark 15:21, and Luke 23:26.Instead, the icon follows the Westerntradition that shows Christ bearing thecross himself, as stated in John 19:1 7.Since Tzafouris produced works forexport as well as for local use, it is possiblethat this painting was destined forthe Italian market.65
<strong>The</strong> Presentation in the TempleTempera on wood, gold groundByzantinePainted 1400-1500171/2 x 16% in. (44.5 x 42.2 cm)Bequest <strong>of</strong> Lizzie P. Bliss, 1931 (31.67.8)<strong>The</strong> delicately attenuated style <strong>of</strong> thisicon would long remain influential.<strong>The</strong> event depicted is identified by aGreek inscription as "the Purification."Painted during the century in which theByzantine Empire fell, the icon showsthe Virgin calmly presenting the ChristChild to Simeon for the customary rite <strong>of</strong>purification in the temple at Jerusalem.Like Simeon, the prophet Anna, whostands between Mary and Joseph, recognizesthe infant's divinity, as is indicatedby the Greek text on the scroll in herhand: "This child created heaven andearth." On February 2 this importantoccasion in the early life <strong>of</strong> Christ iscelebrated as one <strong>of</strong> the Twelve GreatFeasts (Dodekaorton) <strong>of</strong> the OrthodoxChurch.Icons painted on wood have remainedthe principal objects <strong>of</strong> religious devotionfor Orthodox Christians both withinthe former borders <strong>of</strong> <strong>Byzantium</strong> andwherever the cultural descendants <strong>of</strong> theByzantines have settled. Painted iconsare used for personal devotions, fordisplay in churches on feast days, andto decorate the iconostasis (partition)developed during the Middle and LateByzantine periods to separate the congregationin the nave <strong>of</strong> the church fromthe sacred altar in the apse.66
ChronologyEarly Byzantine Period, 330-843Middle Byzantine Period, 843-1261Late Byzantine Period, 1261-1453313early 300s330410ca. 496532-37633-47726795800843Emperor Constantinethe Great issues theEdict <strong>of</strong> Milan, allowingChristians toworship freely withinthe empireArmenian, Georgian,and Ethiopian peoplesconvert to ChristianityEmperor Constantinethe Great transfers thecapital from Rome toConstantinopleSack <strong>of</strong> Rome by theVisigothsConversion <strong>of</strong> Clovis,king <strong>of</strong> the Franks, toChristianityJustinian I erectsthe great church <strong>of</strong>Hagia Sophia inConstantinopleIslamic armies conquerthe southern territories<strong>of</strong> the empire-Syria,the Holy Land, Egypt,and JordanByzantine emperorLeo III forbids the creationand veneration<strong>of</strong> iconsFirst recorded Vikingraids on Scotland andIrelandCharlemagne iscrowned emperor andaugustus (a title) byPope Leo III in RomeRestoration <strong>of</strong> theveneration <strong>of</strong> icons is9729881018-25105410711099120412611453-61Marriage in Rome <strong>of</strong>Otto II and Byzantineprincess <strong>The</strong>ophanoUnder Prince VladimirKievan Rus' adoptsChristianity as its<strong>of</strong>ficial religionUnder Emperor Basil IIByzantine Empirereaches peak <strong>of</strong> itssecond floweringStart <strong>of</strong> the GreatSchism: the patriarch<strong>of</strong> Constantinople andthe pope <strong>of</strong> Romeexcommunicate eachotherBattle <strong>of</strong> Mantzikert:eastern territories <strong>of</strong> theempire are lost toIslamic forcesFirst Crusade establishesthe Latin kingdom<strong>of</strong> JerusalemFourth Crusade capturesConstantinopleand establishes theLatin Empire. Byzantinesuccessor states arise inNicaea, Epiros, andTrebizondByzantine Empireregains Constantinopleunder Michael VIIIPalaiologosConstantinople and theremaining imperiallands fall to theOttoman Turksproclaimed67
AcknowledgmentsThis publication is dedicated to thememory <strong>of</strong> Margaret English Frazer(1940-1999), for many years the<strong>Museum</strong>'s specialist in Byzantine artas a curator in the Department <strong>of</strong>Medieval <strong>Art</strong> and <strong>The</strong> Cloisters.Special thanks must be <strong>of</strong>fered to PeterBarnet, Michel David-Weill curator incharge <strong>of</strong> the Department <strong>of</strong> Medieval<strong>Art</strong> and <strong>The</strong> Cloisters, who brought greatsupport and enthusiasm to the development<strong>of</strong> the Mary and Michael JaharisGalleries, the first step in his plannedreinstallation <strong>of</strong> all the medieval galleries.I am indebted to many people for theirassistance in the research for the newgalleries, which served as a basis for this<strong>Bulletin</strong>. William D. Wixom, former head<strong>of</strong> the department, and Katharine R.Brown, the <strong>Museum</strong>'s former specialistin early medieval art, made importantcontributions early on in the project.Jennifer L. Ball, Sarah Brooks, HopeCullinan, Maria Fragopoulou, LyleHumphrey, Daphne Kostopoulos, PatriciaLurati, Judy Ofek, Daniel Perrier,Aranzazu M. Sarasola, Vega Solana, andTarra Zynda were fellows, interns, andvolunteers who also aided the project.Pr<strong>of</strong>essors <strong>The</strong>lma K. Thomas, AngelaC. Hero, and Henry Maguire are colleaguesoutside <strong>of</strong> the <strong>Museum</strong> whoprovided valuable assistance. Withinthe department Barbara D. Boehmand Charles T. Little, curators; ChristineBrennan, collections information coordinator;Robert <strong>The</strong>o Margelony, assistant foradministration; and Thomas C. Vinton,principal departmental technician, mustbe thanked for their advice and efforts.I am deeply grateful to other <strong>Museum</strong>colleagues, particularly the talentedmembers <strong>of</strong> our conservation and designdepartments, for their unstinting effortsin the successful completion <strong>of</strong> the newgalleries.HCE68
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