English Reference Book

RAF Individual Studies SchoolEnglishReference BookJuly 2005For Official Use Only

ISSCIndividualStaff Studies CourseENGLISH REFERENCE BOOKA reference book for students on the rules ofEnglish grammar and syntaxand on points of style© Crown Copyright 2005All rights reservedi

The Individual Studies School (RAF)Joint Services Command and Staff College, Watchfield, SN6 8TSEnglish Reference BookEdited by the English Language Consultant, ISSRedesigned and reset with revisions, January 2004Re-issued with minor amendments, July 2004, July 2005Printed and bound by The Joint Services Command and Staff Collegeii

PREFACEINTRODUCTION1. We offer this book as a reference on rules of grammar and syntax and on points ofstyle. Corrected exercises may refer students to specific pages or items in this book,thereby reducing the need for lengthy explanations in critiques. Errors will be annotated‘ER’, followed by the page number.2. We have attempted to give clear advice, but remember that the English language,like any living language, evolves and develops. What is rejected today may be acceptedin years to come; conversely, what is now admired may later meet with disapproval.3. We have not invented any rules of English, but have relied on the followingauthoritative sources:Fowler – Modern English UsageFowler and Fowler – The King’s EnglishGowers – The Complete Plain WordsPartridge – Concise Usage and AbusageRitter (Ed) – The Oxford Manual of StyleREFERENCES4. We refer many times to the Concise Oxford Dictionary (COD), which we recommendall students to buy.5. In addition you may find the following references useful:Roget – Thesaurus of English Words and PhrasesWeiner and Hawkins – The Oxford Guide to the English LanguageWeiner and Delahunty – The Oxford Guide to English UsageKingsley Amis – The King’s EnglishStrunk and White – The Elements of StylePRINTED AND DIGITAL VERSIONS6. This edition is available as a printed book and in digital form in portable documentformat (pdf) or as a web page (html). In the digital versions, hyperlinks are provided toaid navigation within the document. In particular, hyperlinks are provided from each entryin the Contents and the Index to the corresponding text. Hyperlinks to the Contents andto the Index are provided on the title page and in each chapter heading. Page referencesare uniform throughout the various versions.iii

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CONTENTSPREFACEIntroductionContentsFrequently used referencesThe English LanguageDefinitionsPART I – PARTS OF SPEECH AND SENTENCE CONSTRUCTIONiiivviiixxixiiiChapter 1 The Noun 1-1Types of noun 1-1Grammatical relationships with other words in a sentence 1-1Countable and uncountable 1-1Chapter 2 The Pronoun 2-1Personal, demonstrative, relative, interrogative, reflexive 2-1Antecedents 2-2Agreement 2-2Clarity 2-2Unrelated or misrelated 2-4Chapter 3 The Adjective and the Determiner 3-1Nouns used as adjectives 3-1Degrees of comparison 3-1Incorrect comparatives and superlatives 3-1Articles 3-2Demonstrative determiners 3-2Many – more – fewer – less 3-3Consistency with possessive determiners 3-3Chapter 4 The Verb 4-1Finite verbs 4-1Lack of finite verb 4-1Infinite verbsInfinitive 4-3Gerund 4-5Participle 4-7Transitive and intransitive 4-13Voice 4-13Misuse of passive voice 4-14Mood 4-15Auxiliary verbs 4-15Tenses 4-16Number 4-21Subject/verb agreement 4-25Singular expressions 4-27Expressions of quality 4-29Chapter 5 The Adverb 5-1Conjunctive and linking adverbs 5-1Misuse of adverb as coordinating conjunction 5-1Comparative and superlative 5-1Positioning of adverbs 5-3v

Chapter 6 The Preposition 6-1Use with particular verbs 6-1Misuse of prepositions 6-2Chapter 7 The Conjunction 7-1Coordinating conjunction 7-1Subordinating conjunction 7-1Chapter 8 The Interjection 8-1Chapter 9 Sentence Construction 9-1The phrase 9-1The clause 9-1The sentence 9-2Types of structural fault 9-3Examples of structural faults 9-3Complex structural fault 9-6Examples of complex structural faults 9-6Triple constructions 9-7Comparisons 9-8Chapter 10 Punctuation 10-1Full Stop 10-1Semicolon 10-1Semicolons in lists 10-5Colon 10-7Comma 10-10Commas in lists 10-10Commas with adjectives 10-12Introductory phrase or clause 10-12Parenthesis 10-13Comma to prevent misreading 10-16Joining clauses 10-18Describing and defining clauses 10-21Commas instead of colon 10-23Comma separates verb from subject, object or complement 10-25Comma sets off adverb or adjective 10-27Apostrophe 10-29Initial capitals 10-31Hyphen 10-34Other punctuation marks 10-37Punctuation between sentences 10-39Chapter 11 Reported Speech 11-1Minutes 11-1Verb Tenses 11-1Personal Pronouns 11-1Demonstrative Pronouns and Determiners 11-1Adverbs 11-1Adjectives 11-2Tone 11-2Checking 11-1Reported Speech Errors 11-2vi

Chapter 12 Spelling 12-1Chapter 13 Vocabulary 13-1Common errors 13-1Pairs of words often confused 13-5Word pair constructions 13-10PART II – STYLExvChapter 14 Tone 14-1Chapter 15 Verbs 15-1Split infinitives 15-1Subjunctive mood 15-1Chapter 16 Sentence Structure 16-1Sentence length 16-1Unity of paragraphs 16-2Using ‘and’ or ‘but’ to start main clauses 16-2Chapter 17 Punctuation 17-1Excessive use of commas 17-1Use of commas after introductory clauses or phrases 17-2Optional use of commas in compound sentences 17-3Chapter 18 Participles 18-1Use of participial phrase instead of subordinate clause 18-1Chapter 19 Adjectives and Adverbs 19-1Superfluous adjectives and adverbs 19-1Adjectival use of nouns and abbreviations 19-2Chapter 20 General 20-1Omission of definite article 20-1Tautology 20-2Journalese, slang and colloquialism 20-4Structural balance 20-5Use of metaphors 20-6Padding 20-8Omissions that mislead 20-9INDEXxviivii

FREQUENTLY USED REFERENCESER 2-2 Pronouns or determiners should be correctly related to antecedentsER 2-7 The forms of pronouns or determiners should be correctER 3-1 Comparative adjectives should be used correctlyER 3-2 Use an appropriate article with an abbreviationER 4-1 A sentence must have a finite verb; a subordinate clause cannot stand aloneER 4-3 Infinitival constructions should be correctly relatedER 4-5 Gerunds should be correctly relatedER 4-7 Participial constructions should be correctly relatedER 4-17 An appropriate verb tense should be usedER 4-19 Tenses of verbs in a sequence should be consistentER 4-21 A verb should agree in number with a collective noun subject; collective nounconcepts should be used with consistency in numberER 4-25 The subject and the verb in a sentence must agree in numberER 4-27 Some singular expressions require care in number (eg ‘neither … nor’)ER 5-1 An adverb should not be used in place of a coordinating conjunction;comparative adverbs should be used correctlyER 5-3 A misplaced adverb may lead to ambiguity or wrong meaningER 6-1 Omission or misuse of a preposition may lead to ambiguity or wrong meaningER 9-8 Comparisons should be complete; like should be compared with likeER 10-1 A semicolon should not be used when a colon would be appropriate; asemicolon should not be used where only a comma is neededER 10-11 Commas should be used consistently in listsER 10-12 Misuse of a comma between adjectives may lead to ambiguity or wrongmeaningER 10-13 Misuse or omission of parenthetical commas may lead to ambiguity or wrongmeaning; a semicolon should not replace a comma in appositionER 10-16 Omission of a comma may lead to misunderstanding or uncertaintyER 10-18 Two main clauses should not be joined by a comma aloneER 10-21 Misuse of a comma with an adjectival expression may lead to ambiguity orwrong meaningER 10-23 Use of a comma instead of a colon may create doubtER 10-25 A comma should not separate subject, object or complement from the verbER 10-29 Apostrophes should not be omitted or misusedER 10-31 Initial capital letters should be used appropriatelyER 10-34 Misuse or omission of hyphens may lead to ambiguity or wrong meaning;hyphens should be used appropriately with prefixes (eg ‘post-’)ER 10-37 Quotation marks (inverted commas) should be used correctlyER 10-39 Punctuation is needed between sentences, and should be suitableER 10-5 Semicolons may replace commas in a complex lists, but not in simple onesER 10-8 A colon should not separate 2 sentences; a colon should be preceded by amain clauseER 11-1 Appropriate adjustments to tenses and other words are needed in reportedspeechER 13-10 Misuse of word-pair constructions may lead to ambiguity or wrong meaningviii

ER 14-1ER 15-1ER 15-2ER 16-1ER 16-2ER 16-2ER 17-1ER 17-2ER 17-3ER 19-1ER 19-2ER 20-1ER 20-2ER 20-4ER 20-5ER 20-6ER 20-8Chapter 9STRstr(a)str(i)str(o)Use an appropriate toneAvoid splitting infinitives unnecessarilyUse the subjunctive mood appropriatelyAvoid long, convoluted sentencesEnsure the unity of paragraphsTake care when starting a sentence with and or butCommas should be used when necessary, but not excessivelyUse a comma after an introductory phrase or clauseUse commas appropriately in compound sentencesAvoid superfluous use of adjectives or adverbsEnsure appropriate use of nouns as adjectivesUse the definite article when it is requiredAvoid tautologyAvoid journalese, slang or colloquialismsStrive to achieve structural balanceAvoid mixed metaphorsAvoid verbosity and paddingA major structural problem may require a sentence to be rewrittenWords may need to be rearranged to achieve correct sentence structureWords may need to be removed to achieve correct sentence structureWords may need to be added to achieve correct sentence structureChapter 12sp Spell words consistently and correctlyChapter 13vocab Ensure that words chosen convey the intended meaning; do not split wordsthat should be joined or hyphenated and do not run together words thatshould be separateix

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGEI take it you already knowOf tough and bough and cough and dough.Others may stumble, but not you,On hiccough, thorough, laugh and through.Well done! And now you wish, perhaps,To learn of less familiar traps.Beware of heard, a dreadful word,That looks like beard and sounds like bird;And dead: it’s said like bed and not like bead.For goodness’ sake don’t call it deed.Watch out for meat and great and threat;They rhyme with suite and straight and debt.A moth is not a moth in mother,Nor both in bother, broth in brother;And here is not a match for there.Nor dear and fear for bear and pear.And then there’s dose and rose and lose –Just look them up – and goose and choose,And cork and work and cord and ward,And font and front and word and sword,And do and go and thwart and cart.Come, come, I’ve hardly made a start!A dreadful language? Man alive!I’d mastered it when I was five!Herbert Farjeonx

COD DEFINITIONS OF PARTS OF SPEECHChapters 1 to 8 of this reference book are arranged around the following syntacticalcategories, known as parts of speech:Noun. A word (other than a pronoun) used to identify any class of people, places,or things (common noun), or to name a particular one of these (proper noun).Pronoun. A word used instead of a noun and to indicate someone or somethingalready mentioned or known, eg I, she, this.Adjective. A word naming an attribute of a noun, such as sweet, red, or technical.Determiner. A modifying word that determines the kind of reference a noun or noungroup has, eg a, the, every.Verb. A word used to describe an action, state or occurrence, and forming the mainpart of the predicate of a sentence, such as hear, become, or happen.Adverb. A word or phrase that modifies the meaning of an adjective, verb, or otheradverb, or of a sentence (eg gently, very, fortunately).Preposition. A word governing, and usually preceding, a noun or pronoun andexpressing a relation to another word or element, as in ‘she arrived after dinner’ and‘what did you do it for?’.Conjunction. A word used to connect clauses or sentences or to coordinate wordsin the same clause (eg and, if).Interjection. An exclamation, especially as a part of speech (eg ah!, dear me!).xi

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PART I – PARTS OF SPEECH AND SENTENCECONSTRUCTIONxiii

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CHAPTER 1 – THE NOUN1. A noun names a person, place, thing, quality, state or action. There are 3 types ofnoun, common, proper and collective:a. Common Noun. There are 2 varieties of common noun:(1) Concrete Noun. A concrete noun denotes an object which can be seenor touched (eg man, weapon).(2) Abstract Noun. An abstract noun denotes things which cannot be seen,heard or touched, such as a quality, state or action (eg pride, morale, beauty,fear, bravery).b. Proper Noun. A proper noun is the particular name of a person, a place oranything that has a specific identify (eg Churchill, Birmingham, Whitehall, Araldite).A proper noun is always given an initial capital letter.c. Collective Noun. A collective noun denotes a group (eg flotilla, team,regiment). A collective noun is singular in form, but it can be grammatically eithersingular or plural, depending on the purpose it serves, eg:The committee was unanimous (acted as a group).The committee were arguing among themselves (as individuals).2. A noun can have various grammatical relationships with other words in a sentence:a. Subject. A noun is the subject of a verb when it is carrying out the action in asentence. To determine the subject, ask ‘who?’ or ‘what?’ before the verb; theanswer will reveal the subject (‘Henry raced pigeons’).b. Direct Object. A noun is the direct object of a verb when it is the person orthing receiving the action. To determine the object, ask ‘whom?’ or ‘what?’ after theverb; the answer will reveal the direct object (‘Henry raced pigeons’).c. Indirect Object. A noun is the indirect object of a verb when it is the person orthing for whom or to whom the action is performed. To determine the indirect object,ask ‘to whom?’ or ‘for whom?’ after the verb. The answer will reveal the indirectobject (‘He sent a telegram to his son.’ ‘He gave the ball a kick.’ ‘He bought apresent for his wife’).3. Countable and Uncountable Nouns. Some nouns refer to items that can becounted (eg medals, vehicles), while others refer to items of mass, which cannot becounted (eg sand, luck).1-1

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CHAPTER 2 – THE PRONOUN1. A pronoun is used to stand in place of a noun. Like a noun, it indicates a person,place or thing, but, unlike a noun, it does not name the person, place or thing. There are5 main types of pronoun.2. Personal. The personal pronoun is so called because it stands for the 3 persons,first (I, me, etc), second (you, yours, etc) and third (it, theirs, etc). The personal pronounindicates the person or thing carrying out the action, the person or thing to whom or towhich the action is carried out or an attribution or possession by someone or something:a. Subject: I, you, he, she, it, we, they (‘She serves in the dining room’).b. Object: me, you, him, her, it, us, them (‘The matron greeted her’).c. Possessive: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs (‘The pleasure was hers’).3. Demonstrative. The demonstrative pronoun points out a person or thing, ie this,that, these, those (‘Do not touch those’).4. Relative. The relative pronoun relates (or joins) one clause to another. Therelative pronoun is placed at the beginning of the second clause and refers to anantecedent, ie a noun or other word or structure acting as a noun, that appeared in thefirst clause. The relative pronoun itself acts as the subject or object in the second clause:He is the corporal (noun) who (subject) saluted the officer (object).He is the one (pronoun) whom (object) the officer (subject) saluted.5. Relative Pronouns Referring to Objects. Who and whom refer only to people;for inanimate objects or organizations use which or that. Which informs; that defines. Inan informing or commenting clause, which must be used, and that would be wrong:This car, which I drove last week, is now unserviceableIn a defining clause, either that or which may be used (and in informal usage the relativepronoun may be omitted):This is the car that I drove last week.6. Interrogative. The interrogative pronoun helps to ask a question:a. Subject: who? which? what? (‘Who is on duty tonight?’).b. Object: whom? which? what? (‘Whom did you select for the duty?’).c. Possessive: whose? of which? of what? (‘Whose is it?’).7. Reflexive. Reflexive pronouns are formed by adding ‘-self’ or ‘-selves’ to thepersonal pronouns: myself, ourselves, himself, themselves (‘We prepared ourselves forthe flight.’ ‘I washed myself’).2-1

8. Antecedents. A pronoun often requires an antecedent – an identifiable word orwords to which the pronoun refers and which could be substituted for the pronoun. So, inthe sentence ‘When the men saw the target they shot at it’, the pronoun ‘they’ clearlyrefers to ‘the men’ and the pronoun ‘it’ refers to ‘the target’. Consider who might be aboutto start a journey following the statement that ‘The MD told the PA that he had to leave atonce’; there are more than 2 answers. In the sentence ‘As soon as the men were paid,they spent it’ there is no antecedent. There is nothing to which ‘it’ can refer. The errorcan be rectified in either of 2 ways:a. Eliminate the pronoun, eg ‘As soon as the men were paid, they spent theirmoney.’b. Supply an antecedent, eg ‘As soon as the men got their pay, they spent it.’If we are told to ‘Take the radio out of the car and scrap it’, do we scrap the radio or thecar? Avoid such ambiguity by writing either ‘Scrap the radio from that car’ or ‘Scrap thatcar, but preserve the radio’. A non-possessive pronoun cannot rely on a possessive asits antecedent. Thus ‘Take that car’s radio out and scrap it’ would mean ‘Scrap the radiofrom that car’, and would not mean ‘Scrap the car, having taken out its radio.’9. Agreement. A pronoun, and similarly a possessive determiner (see Chapter 3),must agree in number, person and gender with its antecedent:You should replace a piece of equipment before it becomes obsolete.I finished my exercise, but she did not finish hers.Similarly, if ‘Britain’ is treated as feminine, eg ‘Britain and her allies’, then it would bewrong subsequently to refer to Britain as ‘it’, or British possessions as ‘its possessions’.Consistency must be maintained. The use of gender-specific pronouns (eg ‘he’ or ‘him’)where the reference should be to men or women equally, is a long-standing convention,but in certain contexts may need to be avoided. This may be done by recasting asentence in the plural, eliminating the pronoun, or writing ‘he or she’ instead of ‘he’.10. Clarity. Do not avoid using useful pronouns, provided it is clear to what noun,pronoun or idea they refer:He showed me his badge; it (ie the badge) was very smart.One should put on IPM clothing, proceed to a refuge and monitor radiation levels.This (ie the whole course of action) will ensure maximum safety.11. Problems with Demonstrative Pronouns. Avoid using a pronoun if uncertaintyresults:The revised policy required a new approach to active defence and a greater use ofnew technology. This meant that funds had to be reallocated. (Does ‘This’ refer tothe revised policy or to the greater use of technology?)2-2

‘The NATO chain of command is attached at Annex A to the brief.’2-3

12. Unrelated or Misrelated Pronouns.ErrorCorrection1 Typing would make your work lookbetter, if you could borrow one.Typing would make your work lookbetter, if you could borrow a typewriter.2 Although Ian is quite intelligent, he doesnot make best use of it.Although Ian is quite intelligent, he doesnot make best use of his intelligence.3 Use high-grade oil in your engine and itwill last longer.Your engine will last longer, if you usehigh-grade oil.Use high-grade oil in your engine andthe oil will last longer.4 The 3 powers who guaranteed itsterritorial integrity…The 3 powers who guaranteed theterritorial integrity of …5 AOC 101 Gp will provide 6 pilots and 6Hunter ac; each will be a QFI and eacharmed with Martel missiles.AOC 101 Gp will provide 6 pilots, each aQFI, and 6 Hunter ac, each armed withMartel missiles.6 The Warsaw Pact’s aim was to defendits homeland.The Warsaw Pact’s aim was to defendthe homelands of the Pact’s members.(An aim has no ‘homeland’)7 The Marvian Army is very efficient; theyare highly trained and extremelyresolute.The Marvian Army is very efficient; thesoldiers are highly trained and extremelyresolute.8 Food and ammunition are plentiful atpresent, but there is no guarantee that itwill continue to be so.Food and ammunition are plentiful atpresent, but there is no guarantee thatthey will continue to be so.9 Commanders will need up-to-dateknowledge of the position of enemyforces, if they are to be attacked beforethey can be brought to bear on friendlyforces.Commanders will need up-to-dateknowledge of the position of enemyforces, if those forces are to be attackedbefore they can be brought to bear onfriendly forces.10 These changes will affect the definitionof NATO’s strategic requirements as acritical element of its security policy.These changes will affect the definitionof NATO’s strategic requirements as acritical element of the Alliance’s securitypolicy.11 The Government can formulate adefence policy to support its overall aim.These are the maintenance of the UK’ssecurity and that of her remainingoverseas possessions.The Government can formulate adefence policy to support its overallaims. These are the maintenance of theUK’s security and that of her remainingoverseas possessions.2-4

ErrorCorrection12 One in 2 electors would vote liberaldemocrat, if they thought they couldform a government.One in 2 electors would vote liberaldemocrat, if he thought that party couldform a government.13 The way ahead is a stronger Europeanvoice and role within NATO, one that issupported by America, resulting ingreater understanding on both sides.The way ahead is a stronger Europeanvoice and role within NATO, anapproach that is supported by America,resulting in greater understanding onboth sides of the Atlantic.14 Britain relies for security on allianceswith her friends; it believes thatinterdependence is the only basis for itsnational security in the nuclear age.Britain relies for security on allianceswith her friends; she believes thatinterdependence is the only basis for hernational security in the nuclear age.(or … Britain … its …; it … its …)2-5

13. Form or Case of Pronoun.a. A pronoun can have different forms, or cases, according to whether it is used asthe subject or direct object of a sentence, eg I (subject) becomes me (object) andwho (subject) becomes whom (object).b. Use the subject form of a pronoun when it is the subject of a verb (‘You and Ican travel together’).c. Use the object form of a pronoun when it is the direct object of a verb (‘Manypeople collect them’).d. Use the object form of a pronoun after prepositions (‘after him’, ‘between us’,‘above them’, ‘between you and me’, ‘for whom’).e. When you use pronouns in pairs, or a pronoun and noun, use the same form asyou would use if the pronoun were used by itself (‘Thank you for inviting my wife andme’). You would not write ‘Thank you for inviting I’, so do not write ‘Thank you forinviting my wife and I’.f. The verb to be is not followed by a direct object but by a complement, whichoperates like a mathematical formula, eg ‘John is a vegetarian’ means ‘John = avegetarian’. A noun or pronoun that is a complement must be in the same form as ifit were the subject:It was they who called (not them).It was we who chose the right course of action (not us).2-6

14. Incorrect Form or Case of Pronoun.ErrorCorrection1 From the evidence available it was himwho gave away the secret.From the evidence available it was hewho gave away the secret.2 My wife and me are going to theReception.My wife and I are going to theReception.3 Who did you speak to last night? To whom did you speak last night?4 The invitation was sent to my wife and I. The invitation was sent to my wife andme.5 The girl who you were engaged to wasalso at the party.The girl to whom you were engaged wasalso at the party.6 The contractor allowed the use of theirsimulator.The contractor allowed the use of itssimulator7 The less exercise one takes, the lessfood you should eat.The less exercise one takes, the lessfood one should eat.8 History shows that in each successiveincomes policy, what was gained waslost when it was relaxed.History shows that everything gained insuccessive incomes policies was lostwhen the policies were relaxed.2-7

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CHAPTER 3 – THE ADJECTIVE AND THE DETERMINER1. Adjectives and Determiners. An adjective modifies, qualifies or describes a nounby naming an attribute of that noun (‘nuclear missile’, ‘annual inspection’, ‘red alert’). Anadjective may precede the noun, or may be used predicatively (‘A red book is lying on thetable.’ ‘The book lying on the table is red.’). A determiner (sometimes called a ‘limitingadjective’) precedes a noun and normally precedes any ordinary adjective (‘all jet aircraft’,‘an aircraft’, ‘this aircraft’, ‘few military aircraft’, ‘the seventh aircraft’); it limits the meaningof the noun in some way, by determining its reference to others in a class or group. Themost common determiners are the definite and indefinite articles (the and a or an).2. Nouns Used as Adjectives. In certain contexts it is acceptable to use a noun asan adjective (‘the coffee morning’, ‘the Mess Manager’, ‘the Army Central Band’).However, when a suitable adjective is available, it should be used rather than thepossessive form of the noun or the noun itself (‘Dutch naval power’ rather than ‘Holland’snaval power’ or ‘Holland naval power’).3. Inappropriate Adjectives. Beware of using inappropriate adjectives. Forexample, we cannot use the expression ‘a young age’; we should write of ‘a youngperson’ or ‘an early age’. Similarly, to refer to ‘a hot temperature’ is wrong; we should sayeither ‘a hot day’ or ‘a high temperature’ and ‘lower costs’ not ‘less costs’.4. Degrees of Comparison. Adjectives and determiners, like adverbs, may havedegrees of comparison: positive, comparative and superlative. A comparative is a wordused to compare or contrast 2 items and is usually formed by adding ‘-er’ to the adjective,or by combining it with the adverb more, or in some other, irregular, way, eg larger, better(irregular) and more tenacious (‘The cruiser was larger than the minesweeper’). Whensingling out one from 3 or more, use a superlative, usually formed by adding ‘-est’ to theadjective, or by combining it with the adverb most, eg biggest, best (irregular) and mostbeautiful (‘The aircraft carrier was the biggest vessel in the RN’).Positive Comparative Superlativebrave braver bravestbeautiful more beautiful most beautifulbad worse (irregular) worst (irregular)good better (irregular) best (irregular)little (determiner) less (irregular) least (irregular)little (adjective) littler littlest5. Incorrect Comparatives and Superlatives.ErrorCorrection1 Officer IC Golf is the better of the 3secondary duties I have been offered.Officer IC Golf is the best of the 3secondary duties I have been offered.2 Looking at your essay and mine, I thinkmine is best.Looking at your essay and mine, I thinkmine is better.3-1

ErrorCorrection3 There are 2 possible routes: thenorthern route requires no AAR, but thesouthern route would be the quickest.There are 2 possible routes: thenorthern route requires no AAR, but thesouthern route would be the quicker.4 I lent my best Mess Kit waistcoat toJones.I lent my better Mess Kit waistcoat toJones. (unless I have more than 2waistcoats)5 The number of additional personnelrequired should be as few as possible.The number of additional personnelrequired should be as low as possible.6 Innsmore Barracks could provide all theinfrastructure required by the SCC half amillion pounds cheaper than FarthamCamp.Innsmore Barracks could provide all theinfrastructure required by the SCC half amillion pounds more cheaply thanFartham Camp could.6. Articles. The definite article (the) and the indefinite article (a, an) precede manynouns:a. An is used before an open vowel or a silent h (‘an atmosphere’, ‘an inspection’,‘an hour’, ‘an honour’). A is used before a consonant (‘a medal’, ‘a service’), before‘u’, ‘ew’ or ‘eu’ sounded as ‘yoo’ (‘a unique case’, ‘a ewer’, ‘a European’) and before‘one’ sounded as ‘wun’ (‘a one-sided contest’).b. The choice of a or an before abbreviations formed from upper case initialsusually depends on whether the first initial is sounded as a vowel or a consonant:an LCC schoolan HMIan MPa PSI minibusa COa DSOc. A difficulty arises with abbreviations such as RN and HQ. We could read themas abbreviations (an ‘ar’ ‘en’ dockyard, an ‘aitch’ ‘cue’) or we could read them in full(a Royal Navy dockyard, a headquarters). Since we are writing the abbreviation asinitials, we should normally assume that it will be read as such and write ‘an RNdockyard’ rather than ‘a RN dockyard’; however, note that some abbreviations areconventionally pronounced as words (‘a NATO strategy’, ‘a NAAFI sandwich’).7. Demonstrative Determiners. Problems often occur with demonstrativedeterminers (this, that, these, those), which can sometimes fail to ‘demonstrate’ (pointout) the writer’s intention, although he was clear about it in his mind. Be very careful withphrases like the following:a. ‘This project …‘ (which project?).b. ‘That agreement …‘ (what agreement?).c. ‘These aims …‘ (which ones?).3-2

8. Many – More – Fewer – Less.a. Use the words fewer and many to qualify any noun that refers to items that canbe counted (‘fewer incidents’, ‘fewer weapons’, ‘many periods’, ‘many people’).b. Use the words less and much to qualify a noun which refers to items that cannotbe counted (quantity rather than number); we cannot write ‘2 ammunitions’ or ‘5sand’, so write ‘less ammunition’ and ‘much sand’).c. The source of people’s problems here is probably the word more, as it is usedfor both number and quantity. You can have more or less bread (quantity) but wouldhave more or fewer loaves (number).ErrorCorrection1 The completion of the new runwayshould result in less complaints aboutlow flying.The completion of the new runwayshould result in fewer complaints aboutlow flying.2 The measures taken by the Flight SafetyCommittee will produce fewer airmisses, misunderstandings and danger.The measures taken by the Flight SafetyCommittee will produce fewer air missesand misunderstandings and less danger.9. Consistency with Possessive Determiners. Once a possessive determiner hasbeen used, take care to preserve consistency.ErrorCorrection1 Britain bases its policy on nucleardeterrence. Britain commits the majorityof her forces to NATO.2 Britain assigns most of her combatforces to NATO, but retains its tankersquadrons under national command.Britain bases its policy on nucleardeterrence. Britain commits the majorityof its forces to NATO.Britain assigns most of her combatforces to NATO, but retains her tankersquadrons under national command.or ‘its’ and ‘its’3-3

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CHAPTER 4 – THE VERB1. The verb is a word of action, or it can express a state of being.2. Finite Verbs. A verb is finite where someone or something is carrying out anaction or is existing (‘He flies’ ‘They are pilots’ ‘We serve’). A finite verb always has anidentifiable subject, with which it agrees in number. Every sentence must contain at leastone main finite verb. (Note that a subordinate clause has a subordinate finite verb, andcannot make complete sense on its own). A finite verb may consist of more than oneword (eg should have been selected) and the words that comprise the finite verb may beinterrupted, for instance, by an adverb (‘I shall very quickly become accustomed to realale’, ‘we have not been selected’).3. Effect of Subordinating Conjunction. A subordinating conjunction at the start ofa clause subordinates that clause; that clause cannot stand alone, eg ‘while the engineswere running, …‘ or ‘whereas authority was readily granted for a charitable event, …‘.4. Lack of Main Finite Verb in a Sentence and Subordinate Clauses StandingAlone.ErrorCorrection1 Further to our conversation of 3 Feb. We refer to our conversation of 3 Feb.2 Whilst the patrol boats mounted heavyattacks on the intruders and coastaldefences were kept busy.At the same time patrol boats mountedheavy attacks on the intruders andcoastal defences were kept busy.3 With reference to the telephoneconversation with Cdr Randle on 3 Feb,concerning the banking facilities at HQ19 Mech Bde.We refer to the telephone conversationwith Cdr Randle on 3 Feb, concerningthe banking facilities at HQ 19 MechBde.4 Facilities for servicing 123 Sqn’s aircraftwhilst in Barathea and the need for asqn servicing team to go with theaircraft.The meeting had to consider thefacilities for servicing 123 Sqn’s aircraftin Barathea and the need for a sqnservicing team to go with the aircraft.5 Recruits receive two 45-min lectures;each of which covers banking andfinancial responsibility.Recruits receive two 45-min lectures,each of which covers banking andfinancial responsibility.6 Since the withdrawal from service of theVulcan ac, Britain had had no LRINforces; hence the importance of cruisemissiles based in mainland UK tocounter the threat posed by the SS20.Since the withdrawal from service of theVulcan ac, Britain had had no LRINforces; this emphasized the importanceof cruise missiles based in mainland UKto counter the threat posed by the SS20.4-1

ErrorCorrection7 In the early stages of a conflict, whenNATO must ensure that they contain thefirst echelons of enemy forces in order todecrease the risk of any earlydependence on nuclear weapons.In the early stages of a conflict, NATOmust ensure that it contains the firstechelons of enemy forces in order todecrease the risk of any earlydependence on nuclear weapons.4-2

5. Infinite Verbs. An infinite verb is a verb that has no subject. The 3 main types arethe infinitive, the gerund and the participle.a. Infinitive. The infinitive is the basic part of a verb from which tenses and otherparts are constructed; in English, the simple infinitive is often preceded by to (to fly,to be, to serve). An infinitival phrase is a phrase commencing with an infinitive (‘Toquote a good example, …‘):(1) The Noun Infinitive. The noun infinitive can be used in any way in whichnouns are used:(a) Subject.(b) Object.‘To succeed is satisfying.’‘The novice wanted to learn.’(c) Complement.‘He appears to be fit.’(2) The Qualifying Infinitive. The qualifying infinitive may be used in anyway in which an adjective or adverb is used and sometimes parenthetically or topreface a question:(a) Adverb.‘He came to see the display.’(b) Adjective after Noun.‘They obtained a carpet to match the walls.’(c) Adjective after Adjective.‘The police dog is quick to react.’(d) Parenthesis.‘I am, to tell the truth, ready for a posting.’(e) Question Preface.‘To return to the agenda, what is the next Item?’(3) The Modifying Infinitive. When an infinitive is used to modify, it must belogically related to the word or idea it modifies; otherwise a dangling (unrelated)or misrelated infinitive results. For example, in the construction ‘To avoid resupplyproblems, the expedition fuel should not be used’, the ‘fuel’ appears to bethe agent doing the avoiding. The construction can be improved in 2 ways:(a) Convert the main sentence to the active form with the correct subject(‘To avoid re-supply problems, we should not use the expedition fuel.’).(b) Add the correct subject to the infinitive (‘For us to avoid re-supplyproblems, the expedition fuel should not be used.’).(4) The General Rule. The general rule is that the subject of a qualifyinginfinitive (except where the infinitive is used absolutely) should be expressed if itis different from the subject of the main clause, but omitted if it is the same:(a) Same Subject.pass examinations’).‘To pass examinations, we study hard.’ (‘We wish to4-3

(b) Different Subject. ‘For us to join the Conference, the Commandantwould need to sign the form.’ (First subject – us, second subject – theCommandant).(5) Unrelated or Wrongly Related Infinitival Phrases.ErrorCorrection1 To book the Ladies’ Room, 3weeks’ notice is required.To book the Ladies’ Room, usersmust give 3 weeks’ notice.2 In order to change a wheel, a jackand tyre levers are necessary.In order to change a wheel, onemust have a jack and tyre levers.3 The detachment commanderrequires an Exercise brief, toinclude casualty figures.The detachment commanderrequires an Exercise brief, whichmust include casualty figures.4 To prevent parking in front of theMess, yellow lines have beenpainted.To prevent parking in front of theMess, the contractor has paintedyellow lines.5 The seismic equipment should notbe jettisoned, to avoid irreparabledamage.To avoid irreparable damage,rescuers should not jettison theseismic equipment.6 In order to start flying by mid-Oct,line tradesmen had to arrive by19 Sep.So that flying could start by mid-Oct,line tradesmen had to arrive by 19Sep.7 To be adequately prepared for theExercise, a training programmewould be prepared.To be adequately prepared for theExercise, the participants wouldneed a training programme.8 To combat international crimeeffectively, requires police andmilitary force.To combat international crimeeffectively, a nation requires policeand military force.4-4

. Gerund. The gerund is a verbal noun (the name of an action) and ends in‘ing’:(1) If you can put ‘the act of’ in front of a word ending in ‘ing’, that word is agerund (‘Teaching is my job.’ ‘Being a teacher is rewarding.’ ‘Teaching can behard work.’).(2) A gerund has the characteristics of both a verb and a noun in that it canhave an object and yet can be qualified by an adjective (‘Eating is enjoyable.’‘Continuous working will be required.’ ‘Navigating a submarine requires greatconcentration.’).(3) When using a noun or pronoun before a gerund, use the possessive form,eg:(a) ‘The chance of their succeeding’ – not ‘them succeeding’.(b) ‘I can see no reason for your adopting that attitude’ – not ‘you adopting’.(c) ‘There is a danger of the team’s losing that match’ – not ‘team losing’.(4) There are exceptions to this rule:(a) Where the noun or pronoun is stressed, (‘Though I approve ofmarriage, I cannot approve of John marrying’).(b) Where the noun is plural, (‘I cannot approve of passengers smoking’).(c) Where the noun is qualified by an adjective, (‘I cannot agree to anuntrained tradesman serving’).(d) Where the noun is non-personal, (‘They left, without permission beingasked’).(e) Where 2 or more nouns are grouped, (‘She was British, due to herfather and mother being naturalized’).(f) Where a pronoun is non-personal, (‘I cannot conceive of anything beingstolen’).(g) Where pronouns are grouped, (‘He consented to some of themjoining’).(5) A gerund can become misrelated or unrelated in much the same way as aparticiple. For example, ‘after submitting the assessed exercises, DS mark andwrite critiques on them’ implies that the DS, and not the students, submit theexercises.4-5

(6) Use of Gerund Without Possessive.ErrorCorrection1 The latter was subject to usproviding a suitable building.The latter was subject to ourproviding a suitable building.2 A detachment prevented himfinishing the book.A detachment prevented hisfinishing the book.3 The UK, the USA and other NATOcountries have been attempting tolimit the proliferation of arms andarmed forces in the knowledge thatthe survival of humanity may welldepend upon achieving totaldisarmament.The UK, the USA and other NATOcountries have been attempting tolimit the proliferation of arms andarmed forces in the knowledge thatthe survival of humanity may welldepend upon their achieving totaldisarmament.4 This brief describes the operationaland support implications ofdeploying 5 Merlin ac from RAFEaston.This brief describes the operationaland support implications of ourdeploying 5 Merlin ac from RAFEaston.5 By ignoring the problems ofindustrial unrest, they are becomingworseBy our ignoring the problems ofindustrial unrest, they are becomingworse.6 By conniving at it, it will take toodeep root ever to be eradicated.By our conniving at it, it will take toodeep root ever to be eradicated.OrIf connived at (change theconstruction) …7 The brief made no mention of theMP attending the parade.The brief made no mention of theMP’s attending the parade.8 The American court waived itsobjection to Boeing taking part inthe international consortium.The American court waived itsobjection to Boeing’s taking part inthe international consortium.4-6

c. Participle. The participle describes a specific noun or pronoun in a sentence:(1) Present participles end in ‘ing’ (‘Chuckling over his good fortune, he left theMess.’ ‘The Colonel saw him chuckling over the weather forecast.’). If you canput ‘in the act of’ in front of a word ending in ‘ing’, that word is a presentparticiple.(2) Past participles mostly end in ‘ed’, though some have other endings (‘Tiredafter the afternoon’s exercise, the subaltern recovered in the sauna.’ ‘Spokenwith feeling, the words had great impact.’).(3) A participle, or participial phrase – present or past – often makes a goodintroduction to a sentence, eg:Saluting, …Emerging from the clouds, …Having completed a flight plan, …Such participles or phrases must be followed immediately at the beginning of themain clause by the noun or pronoun which carried out the action indicated by theparticiple or phrase, eg:Saluting, the cadet …Emerging from the clouds, the Jaguar …Having completed a flight plan, the navigator …(4) When no noun or pronoun is given, the participle is left dangling, orunrelated; this is very poor structure. For instance, in ‘Studying the messageclosely, it is possible to understand the meaning’ the participle studying isunrelated; we do not know who is doing the studying. Similarly, in ‘Havingrationed the food strictly, there is still not enough’, we cannot tell who the agentwas; the past participle having rationed is unrelated.(5) When a noun or pronoun is provided, but it is the wrong noun or pronoun,the sentence may give the wrong meaning, even the opposite meaning, to thatintended, eg:After failing the examination, a commission was out of the question.After biting 6 children, the policeman shot the dog.There are 2 methods of avoiding a wrongly related participle:(a) Convert the introductory group of words to an adverbial clause andleave the main group basically as it is (‘Because he had failed theexamination, a commission was out of the question.’).(b) Make no change in the introductory group of words, but answer thequestion ‘who?’ or ‘what?’ at the beginning of the main group (‘After biting 6children, the dog was shot by a policeman.’).4-7

(6) The exception to the foregoing rules occurs where the subject is indefinite,eg ‘one’ or ‘people’. Thus we can legitimately use phrases such as thefollowing:Barring accidents, …Roughly speaking …Taking everything into consideration, …Other key words and phrases of this type are as follow:excepting, given, granted, judging by, owing to, provided, providing, seeingand supposing.(7) Do not hesitate to start your sentences with participial phrases; they addinterest to your writing, provided they are not used too frequently. Justremember to relate the participle to an agent – the correct agent.(8) Misrelated Participles.ErrorCorrection1 Unless thoroughly cooked, a personshould not eat pork.Unless thoroughly cooked, porkshould not be eaten.2 Inflated with air, 6 people can becarried on this raft.Inflated with air, this raft can carry 6people.3 The tribesmen came to see theQueen riding on their camels.The tribesmen, riding on theircamels, came to see the Queen.4 Ignoring discrepancies of less than£25, the Messing Account wassolvent.Ignoring discrepancies of less than£25, the auditor found the MessingAccount was solvent.OrIf we ignore discrepancies of lessthan £25, the Messing Account wassolvent.5 The provision of a banking serviceat HMS Firefly will save man-hourswhich would otherwise be lost whiletravelling to the bank.The provision of a banking serviceat HMS Firefly will save man-hourswhich would otherwise be lost byratings travelling to the bank.6 It may be possible for us to strikesome targets using existingintelligence material.Existing intelligence material mayenable us to strike some targets.7 Comparing the POM 19 with thePeregrin, the POM 19 has …Comparing the POM 19 with thePeregrin, we find that the POM 19has …4-8

ErrorCorrection8 The waitress was grateful to theCPO for taking her home afterbreaking her leg.The waitress was grateful to theCPO for taking her home after shehad broken her leg.9 The detachment commander is tobrief all 422 Sqn pilots on the localflying regulations beforecommencing operational flying fromSAF El Garda.The detachment commander is tobrief all 422 Sqn pilots on the localflying regulations before theycommence operational flying fromSAF El Garda.10 As well as having a spare ac,navigation training and localexercises would be done with theBAF.As well as providing a spare ac, thisplan would facilitate navigationtraining and local exercises with theBAF.11 Being April, leave was stopped forFlag Officer’s inspection.Since it was April, leave wasstopped for the Flag Officer’sinspection.12 The Jaguars taxied to the hangarunder their own power, reducingturn-round time by 30 min.The Jaguars taxied to the hangarunder their own power, therebyreducing turn-round time by 30 min(the conjunctive adverb relates theparticiple to the whole action of thepreceding clause).13 Though periodically updated,obsolescence has made theAmerican system vulnerable.Though periodically updated, theAmerican system has becomevulnerable through obsolescence.14 I want a list of senior officers,broken down by age and sex.I want a list, broken down by ageand sex, of senior officers.15 Being quite simple, I had nodifficulty with this exercise.As it was quite simple, I had nodifficulty with this exercise.4-9

‘Although it may be possible to strike some targets using existing intelligence material’Misrelated participle4-10

(9) Distinguishing Between Participles and Gerunds.(a) The participle is a kind of adjective; the gerund is a kind of noun.Where the phrase ‘the act of’ can be inserted before a word ending in ‘ing’without destroying the sense, that word is a gerund; where the phrase ‘inthe act of’ can be inserted before a word ending in ‘ing’ without makingnonsense of the structure, that word is a participle.(b) The following examples may serve to illustrate the distinction:A fighting mob (a mob in the act of fighting). (participle)The fighting caused a riot (the act of fighting). (gerund)We saw him fighting a hard battle (in the act of fighting). (participle)We saw his fighting was of no avail (his act of fighting). (gerund)Concentration is required when manning a gun (when in the act ofmanning). (participle)Manning a gun needs concentration (the act of manning). (gerund)(c) Note the different meanings conveyed by the following constructions:I depend on the wall’s being built, ie I depend on the completion of thewall. (noun construction)I depend on the wall being built, ie I depend on that wall which is in theact of being built. (adjectival construction)(d) Confused Participles and Gerunds.ErrorCorrection1 Emergency equipment wouldhave to be deployed prior to theisland being used.Emergency equipment wouldhave to be deployed prior to theisland’s being used.2 We spotted the patrol’sinvestigating the ammunitioncompound.We spotted the patrolinvestigating the ammunitioncompound.3 The next stage depends upon theGeneral approving the plan inprinciple.The next stage depends upon theGeneral’s approving the plan inprinciple.4 The hurricane destroying vitalinstallations caused mobilefacilities to be summoned.The hurricane’s destroying vitalinstallations caused mobilefacilities to be summoned.4-11

ErrorCorrection5 The meeting being postponedwas very inconvenient for us.The meeting’s being postponedwas very inconvenient for us.‘… a powerful, ocean-going fleet which includes nuclear submarines, aircraft carriersand long-range aircraft …’4-12

6. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs.a. Transitive. A verb that can take a direct object is called transitive (‘to give apresent’, ‘to repair an engine’).b. Intransitive. A verb that cannot take a direct object is called intransitive (‘rainfalls’, ‘we talk’, ‘the sun rises’).Some verbs, however, can be both transitive and intransitive depending on theirmeaning, for example ‘I smell gas’ (transitive) and ‘Your cooking smells’ (intransitive).The following verbs can never be transitive: appear, belong, exist, occur and swoon.7. Voice.a. Verbs can take 2 voices:(1) The active voice when the subject carries out the action (‘The RSM rejectedthe application.’).(2) The passive voice when the action is carried out on the subject (‘Theapplication was rejected by the RSM.’).b. In any form of defence writing a sentence with an active verb is generallyshorter, stronger and more direct than one with a passive verb. The passive form ispreferable only where the doer of the action is not known or is unimportant (‘My carwas stolen last night.’ ‘The new flying clothing will be delivered tomorrow.’).c. Be especially careful to avoid using a passive verb when framing an order,because such an order often fails to nominate the person responsible for carrying itout. Consider the sentence ‘When an extension of bar opening hours is required inthe Cpls’ Club, application is to be made to OC Admin Wg’. If OC PMS, OC GD Flt,the SWO, the PSI, OC Cpls’ Club, the OIC a function, the SNCO IC the function andthe Club barman all fail to apply for an extension, who is really to blame? The ordershould therefore read ‘When an extension of bar opening hours is required in theCpls’ Club, the OIC function is to apply to OC Admin Wg’.d. This point is particularly important in writing operation orders and recordingdecisions in minutes. For example, the order ‘The Challenger is to be returned toBrowning Lines’ does not place the responsibility upon an individual, and should read‘OC B Troop is to return the Challenger to Browning Lines’.e. Also, in operation orders, beware of hidden orders, which might be overlooked.Instead of writing ‘The Det Cdr is to nominate crews for sorties as required by SqnLdr Ops’, you must compose 2 separate orders for the 2 actors, the Det Cdr and SqnLdr Ops.4-13

8. Misuse of Passive Voice.ErrorCorrection1 The simulator was to be closed by MajorJohnson.Major Johnson was to close thesimulator.2 The surveyed site is to be taken over. OC 123 Sqn is to take over the surveyedsite.3 ABC is to be used as the SIC. Task Organization is to use ABC as theSIC.4 Flight plans are to be filed by 17 Sep. Crews are to file flight plans by 17 Sep.5 Permission was to be sought from HQLand Command.OC A Division was to seek permissionfrom HQ Land Command.6 All serviceable tanks are to beevacuated.OC B Troop is to order the evacuation ofall serviceable tanks.4-14

9. Mood.a. Indicative Mood. The indicative mood involves the statement of truth or fact;most of the verbs employed in the English language are in the indicative mood.(‘The timetable shows the programme.’ ‘The River Tay is in Scotland.’).b. Imperative Mood. The imperative mood is the mood of command (‘Scramble!’‘Be careful!’ ‘Attention!’ ‘Read these orders!’). The subject (you) is usually leftunstated.c. Interrogative Mood. The interrogative mood is the mood used to ask aquestion (‘Will the train arrive on time?’). In the interrogative mood, the finite verb, orauxiliary verb, is normally placed before the subject.d. Optative Mood. The optative mood is the mood of wish or desire (‘I wish mypay were higher.’). It is similar in form to the subjunctive.e. Subjunctive Mood. The subjunctive mood is the mood of condition or doubt(‘Were he older and wiser, he would not have done that.’ ‘If I were you, I would takemore water with my whiskey.’). It is also used in subordinate clauses beginning‘that …’ where the indicative would have a different meaning (‘We insist that they belocked up’) and, especially in formal writing, for recommendations or requirements (‘Irecommend that action be taken’).10. Auxiliary Verbs. An auxiliary verb helps another verb to express an action or acondition or a state of being (‘He has inspected.’ ‘We shall improve.’ ‘They should havebeen stood down.’).4-15

11. Tenses.a. The tense of a verb shows the time when an action takes place; the tense formmay differ according to the mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive) and voice(active or passive) of the verb. The table below shows some examples of the morecommon tenses:Tense Active Voice Passive VoicePresent: simplecontinuousperfectperfect continuousI seeI am seeingI have seenI have been seeingI am seenI am being seenI have been seenI have been being seen(He has been seeing me)Past:simplecontinuousperfectperfect continuousI sawI was seeingI had seenI had been seeingI was seenI was being seenI had been seenI had been being seen(He had been seeing me)Future: simplecontinuousperfectperfect continuousI shall seeI shall be seeingI shall have seenI shall have been seeingI shall be seenI shall be being seenI shall have been seenI shall have been beingseen(He will have beenseeing me)The table shows how tenses are formed for the active and passive voices of theverb to see. It illustrates the 2 voices in the indicative mood. For the subjunctivemood, see Page 4-15; the conditional tense is covered on Page 4-17.4-16

. Use of Conditional Tenses. When dealing with suggestions, estimates andprojected ideas, your tense must reflect the possibility of the suggestion or idea beingeither accepted or rejected. For example, if you are comparing the cost of modifyingsome buildings or arguing a proposed course of action, it is incorrect to write ‘it willcost £1800 to modify the Workshop, whereas the cost of modifying the Armoury willbe only £1200’ or ‘the fuel dump will be a better target than the runway’. As theseevents may not take place, the correct versions are ‘it would cost £1800 to modify theWorkshop, whereas the cost of modifying the Armoury would be only £1200,’ and‘the fuel dump would be a better target than the Armoury’. However, you should usethe simple present or simple future tenses for statements of fact, where the situationwill not change, eg ‘The Armoury is 40 feet from the car park’.c. Use of is to, are to, was to and were to. In DW the constructions is to, areto, was to and were to are used in the framing of orders and decisions. In all othercontexts, we recommend you use other words or other tenses, eg ‘the Minister is togo to Sicily’ should be written ‘the Minister will go to Sicily’, and ‘the General is topresent the prizes’ should read ‘the General will present the prizes’, or, informally,‘the General is going to present the prizes’.d. Inappropriate Tenses.ErrorCorrection1 It is essential that the selectedstations will be carrying out flyingduring the week-end.It is essential that the selectedstations (should) be carrying out flyingduring the week-end.2 If we chose Ingersoll Range, there isrisk of damage to adjacent property,…If we chose Ingersoll Range, therewould be a risk of damage to adjacentproperty,…3 The Queen was to visit the station inJun.The Queen was going to (would) visitthe Station in Jun.4 The Myotoshi costs £6200. The Myotoshi would cost £6200 (ie,there would be a cost if we decided tobuy it).ORThe price of the Myotoshi is £6200.5 In a major conflict in the CentralRegion, demands for tacticalreconnaissance exceed the capabilityof resources.In a major conflict in the CentralRegion, demands for tacticalreconnaissance would exceed thecapability of resources.(The present tense implied that thereare already major conflicts in theCentral Region from time to time).4-17

ErrorCorrection6 The Minister is to close a number ofbases under ‘Options for Change’.The Minister will close a number ofbases under ‘Options for Change’. or‘is going to’.4-18

e. Sequence of Tenses.(1) In compound sentences use consistent tenses for the verbs. In complexsentences adjust the verbs in the subordinate clauses to the tenses of the mainverbs.(2) The following sentences illustrate the point:(a) The conceited fg off, whom everyone had disliked since his arrival onthe sqn, stated that he would become an air mshl.(b) The happy-go-lucky flt lt, whom everyone has liked since his arrival onthe sqn, freely admits that he will not become an air mshl(3) In each of the 2 preceding sentences, the tense of the verb in the mainclause determines what tenses must be used in the subordinate clauses. Thereare right and wrong sequences of tenses:(a) In the first sentence, the fg off stated something. The word stated is inthe simple past tense. As everyone already disliked him before thatstatement we have to write that they had disliked him (perfect tense to showthat their opinion preceded his statement). Similarly his claim ‘I will becomean air marshal’ when reported becomes ‘he would become …’.(b) In the second sentence, the flt lt admits (present tense) and this freesus from the need to go into the complexities of the perfect, etc, and thesimple perfect and future tenses are the correct ones.f. The following are examples of correct tense agreement:If we are careful…It is sunny…If you would …If you can …If you grant £60 …we will be all right.we might get away with it.we could win the match.so the match will proceed.so the tour is under way.we could …we will …we may have enough…If you would contribute … we might have enough…If you will contribute …you will earn gratitude…4-19

g. Shall and Will. Shall and will are used to denote 2 different degrees ofintention:(1) Simple statement of future action, eg I shall, you will, he will, we shall, youwill, they will (‘I shall probably return on 13 Aug.’).(2) Notice of strong intention, eg I will, you shall, she shall, we will, you shall,they shall (‘No matter how many object, I will hold the seminar on that day.’).h. Incorrect Sequence of Tenses.ErrorCorrection1 My sister said the date has not beenfixed.My sister said the date had not beenfixed.2 In September, HMS INVINCIBLE willbe going to the Mediterranean whereit was going to carry out firing practice.In September, HMS INVINCIBLE willbe going to the Mediterranean whereit will carry out firing practice.3 It is estimated that the Alliance canintroduce fresh forces to the FEBAevery 35 hours.It is estimated that the Alliance couldintroduce fresh forces to the FEBAevery 35 hours.If you would be willing to provide ashuttle service, the buses can enterthe Dockyard at the main gate.If you would be willing to provide ashuttle service, the buses could enterthe Dockyard at the main gate.4-20

12. Number.a. A verb must always agree with the number (singular or plural) of its subject:Bars were his favourite haunt.The issue of rations was suspended.b. Singular subjects joined by and require a plural verb, but singular subjects linkedby or or nor and pronouns such as each, neither, anybody and no one take singularverbs:Only the tail fin and one propeller blade were above the surface.Neither the first attempt nor the one which followed was successful.Either is correct.c. Collective Nouns. Some collective nouns cause confusion (crew, committee,government). For strict grammatical accuracy, you should use singular verbs withsuch nouns (‘The squad was singing.’ ‘The government has made an unpopulardecision.’). However, when the emphasis is on the individual members of a body, aplural verb may be used (‘The squad were arguing among themselves.’ ‘Thecommittee are evenly divided over the controversial proposal.’). A singular verbshould be used when the emphasis is on the body as a whole (‘The troop invariablymarches past in immaculate formation.’ ‘This audience prefers to clap discreetly.’).d. Pronouns and Possessive Determiners. You must be consistent withpronouns and possessive determiners throughout your work, unless you transferfrom the ‘corporate body’ concept to the ‘members of the body’ concept, or viceversa (‘The Times gives some interesting comments by its special correspondent’.‘The MOD aims at consistency in its policies.’ ‘The Union were unable to agree theirobjectives.’).e. Weights and Measures. Weights, measurements, periods of time and amountsof money generally take singular verbs (‘Fifty feet of bunting is enough for the flag’‘Ten pounds seems a fair price.’ ‘Twelve months covers 2 accounting periods.’).f. The Word Number. When the word number is itself the subject, it is a safe ruleto treat it as singular when it has a definite article (the) and as plural when it has anindefinite article (a). (‘The number of people present was large.’ ‘A number of detailshave to be settled before the exercise.’).g. Nouns of Multitude. Nouns of multitude can take singular or plural verbsaccording to the sense of the construction:(1) The majority was scant but sufficient.(2) The majority (of my friends) were absent.4-21

h. Errors of Number.ErrorCorrection1 Your Flying Club are invited to supplyone aircraft for joy-flights.Your Flying Club is invited to supplyone aircraft for joy-flights.2 Three days give sufficient time tocomplete the report.Three days gives sufficient time tocomplete the report.3 The Committee feels that their projectshould be scrapped.The Committee feels that its projectshould be scrapped.4 The number of personnel likely to beaffected are too few to interfere withoperations.The number of personnel likely to beaffected is too small to interfere withoperations.orThe personnel likely to be affected aretoo few to interfere with operations.5 The new regime has announced thatAlbion, which is their enemy, must bedefeated.The new regime has announced thatAlbion, which is its enemy, must bedefeated.6 The Alliance decided to modernizetheir nuclear forces.The Alliance decided to modernize itsnuclear forces.7 MOD has approved our proposals butnow require a formal study.MOD has approved our proposals butnow requires a formal study.8 The MOD agency has provided thepublicity material that they thinknecessary.The MOD agency has provided thepublicity material that it thinksnecessary.9 The Software Association design teamare still in the process of designing ahood for its printer.The Software Association design teamis till in the process of designing ahood for its printer.10 Airships use their engines formovement, and whatever heat itsengines produce can be screened tomake the airships a more difficulttarget for heat-seeking missiles.Airships use their engines formovement, and whatever heat theengines produce can be screened tomake the airships more difficulttargets for heat-seeking missiles.11 The British element, BRITFORBEL,has escaped lightly so far, but theyare lightly armed and have no accessto indirect fire support.The British element, BRITFORBEL,has escaped lightly so far, but it islightly armed and has no access toindirect fire support.4-22

ErrorCorrection12 The Oerlikon gun’s performance isenhanced by the use of theassociated Skyguard all-weather firecontrolradar and they defend anumber of airfields in the UK.The Oerlikon gun’s performance isenhanced by the use of theassociated Skyguard all-weather firecontrolradar and the system defendsa number of airfields in the UK.4-23

Strategic Invulnerability‘The Royal Navy has always had at least one Polaris-armed nuclearpoweredsubmarine on patrol …’4-24

13. Agreement Between Subject and Verb.a. A verb must agree in number with its subject:(1) My favourite food is grapes (food is).(2) Films were his favourite topic of conversation (films were).(3) Our supply of boots was inadequate (supply was).b. Note, however, the following areas where mistakes are frequently made:(1) Singular subjects joined by ‘and’ require a plural verb (‘His attitude anddetermination are commendable.’).(2) If 2 singular subjects are thought of as a single unit, use a singular verb(‘Search and Rescue has been alerted.’ ‘R & D accounts for a large proportionof the budget.’ ‘Bread and butter is being served.’ ‘Command and Controlrequires close consideration.’).(3) Phrases introduced by ‘with’, ‘along with’, ‘together with’ or ‘as well as’ haveno influence on the verb (‘The aeroplane, together with 150 passengers, weighstoo much’).(4) Singular subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ require singular verbs (‘The SDO orthe Orderly Officer is to sign this chit’).(5) If one of the subjects joined by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ is singular and the other plural,the verb should agree with the closer word (‘Neither the captain nor thepassengers were ready.’ ‘Neither the lifeboats nor the raft was launched.’).c. Subject/Verb Disagreement.ErrorCorrection1 The balance of forces, listed at AnnexA, do not show …The balance of forces, listed at AnnexA, does not show …2 The main objectives of the R & DController is to …The main objectives of the R & DController are to …3 The organization and function ofJARIC is included in …The organization and function ofJARIC are included in …4 The advantages of the Theatre Club,which includes that of meeting themost important criterion, makes theClub more suitable than the formerArmoury.The advantages of the Theatre Club,which include that of meeting the mostimportant criterion, make the Clubmore suitable than the formerArmoury.4-25

ErrorCorrection5 The 6 advantages outweigh thedifference in the cost of worksservices and makes the formerArmoury the better choice.The 6 advantages outweigh thedifference in the cost of worksservices and make the formerArmoury the better choice.6 A series of hash meetings have beenarranged.A series of hash meetings has beenarranged.7 The size of the forces have beenreduced.The size of the forces has beenreduced.8 The UK, together with the USA, areparticipating in the Eurogroupdiscussions on standardization.The UK, together with the USA, isparticipating in the Eurogroupdiscussions on standardization.9 The first round of talks wereconcluded in 1969.The first round of talks was concludedin 1969.10 The prime threat are the invadingforces.The prime threat is the invadingforces.11 Once again the USA’s largelyunilateral involvement in SALT, MBFRand CSCE have led to fears on thepart of her allies.Once again the USA’s largelyunilateral involvement in SALT, MBFRand CSCE has led to fears on the partof her allies.12 The list of specialist equipmentneeded by the detachment, includingdetails of Merlin fly-away packs, areshown at Annex A.The list of specialist equipmentneeded by the detachment, includingdetails of Merlin fly-away packs, isshown at Annex A.13 Ninety-six hours’ notice are requiredto activate either route.Ninety-six hours’ notice is required toactivate either route.14 Both the nickname and its meaning isUNCLASSIFIED.Both the nickname and its meaningare UNCLASSIFIED.15 The continuing need to supportdetachments and other Servicerequirements, and the reduction in thenumbers of personnel available,means an increase in the level ofturbulence.The continuing need to supportdetachments and other Servicerequirements, and the reduction in thenumbers of personnel available, meanan increase in the level of turbulence.4-26

14. Singular Expressions.a. The following pronouns are singular and therefore require singular verbs:each either neither anyone anybodyeach one either one neither one everyone everybodysomeone no one nobody somebody not oneBeware of phrases which separate the above pronouns from their verbs (‘Neither ofthe vehicles was serviceable).b. Singular expressions take singular pronouns and singular possessivedeterminers (‘Everybody should submit what he has prepared.’ ‘Everyone shouldwash his hands).c. In some cases we may be forced to use the plural they or them to preventabsurdity (‘We kept hoping that everyone would return, but they never did.’‘Everyone had warned me, but I did not believe them.’). In the first example it washoped that ‘each person’ (singular) would return; in the second example ‘everyperson’ (singular) had warned the writer. But note how the constructions clearlycreate the plural impression (each one of a number of people). It is logical, therefore,that in both cases the pronoun should be followed by they.d. None is normally singular but may be plural in form in certain circumstances.(‘Are any bicycles available? No, there are none.’ ‘Is there any coffee left? No,there is none.’).e. When there is a plural subject, with each in apposition, the verb is plural. (‘Theyhave a car each.’ ‘They each have a car.’) It is possible for each used in appositionto come after the verb. (‘They have each been promoted.’)f. Incorrect Verbs with Singular Expressions.ErrorCorrection1 … neither of which are in the lattercategory… neither of which is in the lattercategory.2 … neither of which are installed in theTheatre Club.… neither of which is installed in theTheatre Club.3 Neither the former barrack block northe mobile bank meet all the essentialcriteria.Neither the former barrack block northe mobile bank meets all theessential criteria.4 None of these 3 locations are,therefore, suitable for use.None of these 3 locations is,therefore, suitable for use.5 The Guardroom and the Armouryeach has a security door.The Guardroom and the Armouryhave a security door each.4-27

ErrorCorrection6 Each MNC is responsible for thedevelopment plans for their area.Each MNC is responsible for thedevelopments plans for his area.7 This brief describes, for each of thefunds, their normal use andapplication requirements.This brief describes, for each of thefunds, its normal use and applicationrequirements.or betterThis brief describes the normal use ofeach fund and the relevant applicationrequirement.8 Neither the passengers nor theaeroplane were ready.Neither the passengers nor theaeroplane was ready.4-28

15. Expressions of Quality.a. In sentences that contain expressions like ‘one of those waiters who …‘, writersare sometimes unsure whether to use a singular or a plural verb after who. If whostands for one, we should say who is; if who stands for waiters, we should say whoare. Note the following examples:Roy is one of those soldiers who are always in trouble.Roy is the only one of those soldiers who is penitent.b. The nouns kind, sort and type are singular and therefore require singular verbs(‘That type of calculating machine is in short supply.’ or ‘Calculating machines of thattype are in short supply.’).c. Incorrect Verbs with Expression of Quality.ErrorCorrection1 The Commodore is one of thosecommanders who tempersruthlessness with compassion.The Commodore is one of thosecommanders who temperruthlessness with compassion.2 The Chief Instructor is the only one ofthe Mess members who are alwaysthe life and soul of the party.The Chief Instructor is the only one ofthe Mess members who is always thelife and soul of the party.3 That sort of vehicle are alwaysbreaking down.That sort of vehicle is always breakingdown.4-29

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CHAPTER 5 – THE ADVERB1. Adverbs may be used in various ways:a. Simple Adverb. A simple adverb amplifies the meaning of a verb, adverb oradjective. It can be concerned with time, place, manner or degree (daily, here,slowly, very). Many adverbs end in ‘ly’. Examples of the use of simple adverbs areshown below:(1) The Controller identifies ac quickly; we talk well; the Government is now introuble; the jet ignited loudly. (All these adverbs amplify verbs.)(2) I saw an extremely untidy billet; the cloud base is very low. (These adverbsamplify adjectives.)(3) He runs very quickly; he talks quite well. (These adverbs amplify adverbs.)b. Conjunctive and Linking Adverbs. Some adverbs (eg when, where, why)can introduce subordinate clauses (eg ‘The instructions make clear why such actionis forbidden’), and are called conjunctive adverbs. Other adverbs can help to link theflow of ideas from one sentence to another, but cannot replace semicolons orcoordinating conjunctions joining main clauses. The following (linking) adverbs maynot be used alone to join clauses either with or without preceding commas; however,they may be used between clauses if a semicolon or suitable conjunction is usedwith them:then therefore hence howeverbesides instead moreoverfurthermore consequently thusotherwise nevertheless accordinglyfirst(ly) secondly thirdlySuch adverbs link ideas, but not sentences. (‘Our team was over-confident.Consequently we lost.’ ‘He is a good leader; furthermore he is a good platooncommander.’ ‘He could not swim, and consequently he drowned.’)c. Comparative and Superlative. Adverbs have degrees of comparison – thepositive, the comparative and the superlative. Most adverbs form the comparativeand superlative by prefixing with ‘more’ and ‘most’, but some adverbs form theircomparatives and superlatives differently (these are known as ‘irregular’).Examples of adverbs and their degrees of comparison are as follows:Positive Comparative Superlativelate later latestquickly more quickly most quicklywell better best (irregular)little less least (irregular)much more most (irregular)5-1

d. Misuse of Adverb as Coordinating Conjunction.ErrorCorrection1 Tyre pressures must be correct,otherwise the steering will suffer.Tyre pressures must be correct, or thesteering will suffer.orTyre pressures must be correct;otherwise the steering will suffer.2 The former Theatre Club has beendisbanded, moreover the Club is …The former Theatre Club has beendisbanded and the Club is …orThe former Theatre Club has beendisbanded. Moreover, the Club is …3 There would be too few ac andinstructors to staff a full OCU thereforea TCT should be established initially.There would be too few ac andinstructors to staff a full OCU and,therefore, a TCT should beestablished initially.4 The hurricane season normallycontinues until mid-October, Albionhas, however, establishedcontingency plans.The hurricane season normallycontinues until mid-October; Albionhas, however, establishedcontingency plans.orThe hurricane season normallycontinues until mid-October, butAlbion has established contingencyplans.5 The machinery will analyse andcollate from different sensors with anextensive database then display theinformation for the decision makersand the targeting element.The machinery will analyse andcollate from different sensors with anextensive database and then displaythe information for the decisionmakers and the targeting element.6 However, the Defence Committeemeetings are infrequent and largelyinformal therefore, day-to-daymanagement of defence matters isdelegated to the 3 Service Boards.However, the Defence Committeemeetings are infrequent and largelyinformal; therefore, day-to-daymanagement of defence matters isdelegated to the 3 Service Boards.5-2

ErrorCorrection7 The responsibility for making foreignpolicy is not the concern solely of theForeign Secretary, instead, importantdecisions can also be made by otherministers.The responsibility for making foreignpolicy is not the concern solely of theForeign Secretary; importantdecisions can also be made by otherministers.8 Newlyn Court does not have a modernimage, whilst Penrith House has amodern image, it does not have astreet-level reception or displaywindows.Newlyn Court does not have a modernimage; whilst Penrith House has amodern image, it does not have astreet-level reception or displaywindows.2. Positioning of Adverbs. Take care in your writing that your adverbs modify thecorrect verbs, adjectives or adverbs. Adverbs often misplaced are only, even, merely,just, almost, nearly, too and also:a. Bill only taught officers.b. Bill taught only officers.The first example means that Bill taught officers but shared no other activities with them,while the second example means that he taught officers but no other types of student.Ensure that the right meaning is given by putting the word only as close as possible,usually immediately before, the word or phrase it modifies.3. Incorrect Positioning of Adverbs.ErrorCorrection1 It is only possible at Cabinet level toresolve all the conflicting priorities ofdefence and other policies.It is possible only at Cabinet level toresolve all the conflicting priorities ofdefence and other policies.2 Costs of military equipment, which canonly be offset by standardization, …Costs of military equipment, which canbe offset only by standardization, …3 The Wizard is only guaranteed for6 months.The Wizard is guaranteed for only 6months.5-3

ErrorCorrection4 The Merlins, equipped with ferry tanks,would only use these airfields during ahurricane warning.The Merlins, equipped with ferry tanks,would use only these airfields during ahurricane warning.(ie a limitation on airfields used).orThe Merlins, equipped with ferry tanks,would use these airfields duringhurricane warnings only.(ie a limitation on operating periods).5 The bowser nearly arrived at the fuelinstallations 2 hours late.The bowser arrived at the fuelinstallations nearly 2 hours late.6 I almost got As in all subjects.I got As in almost all subjects.(ie no As at all)(ie As in most subjects)5-4

CHAPTER 6 – THE PREPOSITION1. A preposition shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and some otherwords in a sentence (‘to Washington’, ‘from you’, ‘to Aldershot’, ‘out of the water’,‘towards the horizon’, ‘at a glance’).2. Particular prepositions follow certain verbs and some examples of these follow; thealternatives shown in brackets are also used:a. Of. Accuse, approve, boast (about), complain (about), consist, convince(about), cure, despair, dream (about), expect (from), hear (from), think (about), warn(against).b. From. Defend (against), demand (of), differ, prevent, prohibit, protect(against).c. In. Encourage, help (with), include, persist.d. On. Consult (about), economize, experiment (with), lean (against), perform(in), vote (for), write (about).e. To. Accustom, appeal (for), apply (for), attend, confine, consent, prefer, react(against).f. At. Amused (by), arrive (in), astonished (by), point (to), shocked (by),surprised (by), wonder (about), work (on).g. For. Ask (of), act (on), blame, excuse, provide, vote (on), wait (on).h. With. Agree, compete, contrast, correspond, help (in), interfere (in), quarrel(about).3. Certain other verbs can be followed by several alternative prepositions, dependingon the meaning intended:be – away, back, out, in, over, on.call – at, out, on, up, off.do – out, up, away with, without, in, over, down.draw – in, back, up, off.give – away, up, back, in.knock – at, off, over, out.let – off, down, in, out.make – out, up, over, off, away.put – up, out, on, down, off, away.run – out of, after, over, in, into.set – out, off, up.take – off, after, up, to, in, down, over.4. Where 2 adjectives which take different prepositions are grouped together, bothprepositions must be included:6-1

a. The new Admiral is different from, yet reminds me of, my old mentor.b. They neither believed in, nor complied with, the order.5. The careful writer will sometimes repeat prepositions in order to remind his readersthat he is continuing with the same construction. Consider the following sentence:The award of the Ordinary National Certificate is dependent on the student’sattending at least 70% of the scheduled classes, (on his) averaging 60% overall inhis homework, and (on his) registering a minimum of 40% in each subject in the finalexamination.The sentence is grammatically correct without the words in brackets, but these wordsprovide useful signposts to the reader, and they make the sentence easier to follow.6. Misuse of Prepositions.ErrorCorrection1 The only toilet facility available is theSgts’ Mess.The only toilet facility available is in theSgts’ Mess.2 A delay of 2 weeks could be acceptedand would allow the pilots to start on thenew runway.A delay of 2 weeks could be acceptedand would allow the pilots to start fromthe new runway.3 Compared to the Theatre Club, theRation Store was more suitable.Compared with the Theatre Club, theRation Store was more suitable.4 Talks will be held to try and limit thenumber of strategic arms.Talks will be held to try to limit thenumber of strategic arms.5 Albionese dissidents were verysympathetic with the Revoltan claim.Albionese dissidents were verysympathetic to the Revoltan claim.6 The Tornado will be able to penetrateseveral hundred kilometres into enemyterritory by both day or night.The Tornado will be able to penetrateseveral hundred kilometres into enemyterritory, by both day and night.6-2

‘… a delay of 2 weeks could be accepted and wouldallow the pilots to start on the new runway.’6-3

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CHAPTER 7 – THE CONJUNCTION1. A conjunction joins words or groups of words. There are 2 types of conjunction:a. Coordinating Conjunction. A coordinating conjunction joins words or groupsof words of equal grammatical stature, ie 2 nouns, 2 adjectives, 2 phrases, 2 mainclauses, 2 subordinate clauses. Examples of words which may be used ascoordinating conjunctions are and, or, but, yet, nor and for; examples of their use areas follows:Joining nouns – ‘officers or men’.Joining adjectives – ‘aged but sprightly’.Joining phrases – ‘in record time yet already too late’.Joining main clauses – ‘he neither used the telephone nor vacated the kiosk’.Joining subordinate clauses – ‘which climbed fast but which accelerated slowly.’b. Subordinating Conjunction. A subordinating conjunction joins a subordinateclause to a main clause. The following are examples of those in common use.Time – when, since, until, while (‘Traffic halted while the band marched by.’).Reason – because, as, for (‘Flying stopped as visibility had deteriorated.’).Condition – although, if, whereas, unless (‘Unless a warning order arrives, theexercise will not take place.’).Purpose – in order that, so that, lest (‘The wreck was towed from the harbour sothat dredging could continue.’).Comparison – than (‘The engine made more noise on the ground than it did inthe air.’).7-1

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CHAPTER 8 – THE INTERJECTION1. An interjection expresses emotion. It is an exclamation of surprise, anger, delight,grief or consternation (‘Nonsense!’, ‘Welcome!’, ‘Help!’).2. An interjection is usually followed by an exclamation mark. This punctuation mark,however, is not normally used in formal Service correspondence.8-1

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CHAPTER 9 – SENTENCE CONSTRUCTION1. The Phrase. A phrase is a group of words which hang together but which do notcontain a finite verb. A phrase acts as a single part of speech (Adjective – in autumncolours. Adverb – at the back of the theatre. Noun – receiving a medal).2. Unrelated or Misrelated Introductory Phrases.ErrorCorrection1 Whilst not widely known, the Sultan ofOmibar would be visiting the Stn inNovember.The Sultan of Omibar would be visitingthe Stn in November, but that was notwidely known.2 Although not essential to therefurbishment, Rolls Royce can providea lighter, modernized version of theSpey engine.Although an improved engine is notessential to the refurbishment, RollsRoyce can provide a lighter, modernizedversion of the Spey engine.3 After being without electricity for 3 days,power was returned in South Wales thismorning.After being without electricity for 3 days,South Wales had electricity returned thismorning.4 Unlike most Welsh coalmines, theSwansea miners have settled their paydispute.Unlike most Welsh coalminers, theSwansea miners have settled their paydispute.5 Although surmountable, some EUmembers have yet to rescind domesticprohibitions to allow support for UN orCSCE operations.Although it is still not too late, some EUmembers have yet to rescind domesticprohibitions to allow support for UN orCSCE operations.3. The Clause. A clause is a group of words containing a finite verb (a verb whichhas a subject):a. Main Clause. If a clause makes one complete statement, it is a main clause(‘The policeman was awarded the MBE’).b. Subordinate Clauses. If a clause cannot stand alone, but depends for itsmeaning on some other word or words in the sentence, it is a subordinate clause.Subordinate clauses are classified according to their use:(1) Noun Clause. A noun clause is used as the subject or object in asentence, eg:That the weather will clear is our fondest hope. (Subject)He believes that the Open University course will further his career. (Object)9-1

(2) Adjectival Clause. Just as an adjective describes a noun or pronoun, sodoes an adjectival clause:They could not believe the order that declared the NAAFI out of bounds.(3) Adverbial Clause. Like an adverb, an adverbial clause normally tells uswhen, where or how something takes place, eg:They relaxed when the opportunity occurred. (Time)The photograph stood where everyone could see it. (Place)Because his cold was worse, he was grounded. (Reason)(4) Elliptical Clause. A clause is called elliptical when part of the clause isomitted because it can be inferred from the context, eg:I achieved more hours than you (did). (Verb)While (he was) landing, he kept contact with the tower. (Subject)The use of ellipsis is frequently better style than repetitive or pedantic inclusionof every word of a formal construction. However, take care that an ellipticalconstruction does not result in imprecise expression or incomplete comparison.For example, consider the 2 possible meanings of the statement ‘I understoodthe Sgt better than the civilian’:I understood the Sgt better than [I understood] the civilian.I understood the Sgt better than the civilian [understood the Sgt].4. The Sentence. A sentence is a group of words which contains a finite verb andmakes complete sense on its own:a. Simple Sentence. A simple sentence consists of only a main clause. Itcontains one finite verb (‘An enquiry was held.’ ‘The Defending Officer addressedthe court.’).b. Compound Sentence. A compound sentence contains 2 or more mainclauses, joined by a conjunction or a semicolon, eg:The landrover travelled fast but the bowser kept up with it.Lightning flashed, thunder roared and the wind howled.The siren wailed; the sqn scrambled.c. Complex Sentence. A complex sentence contains one or more main clausestogether with one or more subordinate clauses, eg:As soon as he had filed a flight plan (adverbial clause of time), the pilot donnedhis flying suit (main clause), which had been hanging in his locker (adjectival9-2

clause), and took off as quickly as possible (main clause), in order that he mightreach his home base the same night (adverbial clause of purpose).5. Types of Structural Fault. Errors can occur in writing where the structure of thesentence goes amiss:a. A structure of insertion (‘Str(i)’) fault occurs when superfluous and unacceptablewords are included. In ‘He could neither balance the books nor (could he) findanyone to help him’, the words ‘could he’ are unnecessary and wrong. Such slipscan easily occur when the writer constructs half a sentence, writes it down and thenhas an afterthought and adds another idea in a form that does not match the first partof the sentence.b. A structure of omission (‘Str(o)’) error occurs when a necessary word or wordsare omitted, eg ‘The uniforms were straight from store’ should be written ‘Theuniforms were delivered straight from store’. Be careful, especially when writingquickly, that you do not miss out little words like a and the where they are needed.c. A very common structural error is that of arrangement (‘Str(a)’) where anincorrect order of words may convey quite a different meaning to that intended:Tiger Woods’s fine 68 earns £150 000.Tiger Woods’s 68 earns £150 000 fine.6. Examples of Structural Faults.ErrorCorrection1 The present administration is negotiatingon arms reductions. (Str(i))The present administration is negotiatingarms reductions.2 The line tradesmen needed to be in postby 19 Sep in order to start flying by 1Oct. (Str(o))The line tradesmen needed to be in postby 19 Sep in order for the aircrew tostart flying by 1 Oct.3 He is to arrange the relevantcancellation of prohibited liveammunition areas. (Str(a))He is to arrange the cancellation of therelevant prohibited live ammunitionareas.9-3

9-4‘RAF Tamal will provide refuelling facilities for the Gallants and an air movements team.’

ErrorCorrection4 WO1(SSM) was to arrange for the useof a coach for the soldiers with the MTO.(str(a))WO1(SSM) was to arrange with theMTO for the use of a crew coach for thesoldiers.5 Ops 1 was to clear the overnight parkingof Hunter ac on the ASP with OC Ops.(str(a))Ops 1 was to clear with OC Ops theovernight parking of Hunter ac on theASP.6 The Tornado F3 can carry 4 SidewinderIR heat-seeking AAMs, 4 Sky Flashradar-homing AAMs and has an integral27-mm Mauser cannon. (str)The Tornado F3 can carry 4 SidewinderIR heat-seeking AAMs and 4 Sky Flashradar-homing AAMs, and has an integral27-mm Mauser cannon.(ie can carry A+B, and has C)7 German reservists need new equipment,the Army needs more anti-tank guidedweapons, while early completion of 3missile programmes would reduce theircost. (str)German reservists need new equipmentand the Army needs more anti-tankguided weapons, while early completionof 3 missile programmes could reducetheir cost.8 It is essential that the costs must notexceed £80 000. (str)It is essential that the costs do notexceed £80 000.(essential + must = tautology)9 No longer will US administrations acceptthat their troops will defend Westerninterests alone. (str(a))No longer will US administrations acceptthat their troops alone will defendWestern interests.10 There will be a requirement for refuellingaircraft at Coleham. (str(a))There will be a requirement for aircraftrefuelling at Coleham.(‘Refuelling aircraft could mean tankers’)11 A good sportsman must have sharpeyes, keen reflexes, and he must have adesire to practise constantly. (He musthave A, B, and he must have C. Shiftfrom noun to clause).A good sportsman must have sharpeyes, keen reflexes, and a desire topractise constantly. (He must have A, Band C.)12 The CPO was to detail one rating toreport to the bridge at 0900 11 Sep 95.(str(o))The CPO was to detail one rating toreport to the bridge at 0900 on11 Sep 95.13 The Colour Sergeant is prepared torelease 2 experienced dog-handlers forattachment to the Newbury Show from26-30 May inclusive. (str(o)).The Colour Sergeant is prepared torelease 2 experienced dog-handlers forattachment to the Newbury Show from26 to 30 May inclusive9-5

7. Complex Structural Faults. Sometimes words and phrases are chosen where nopossible rearrangement would make sense and complete reconstruction of the sentenceis needed. For example ‘RAF Skelsby has the advantage of a large ASP, with a longrunway, having abundant hangar space, and near a railhead’ should read ‘RAF Skelsbyhas the advantages of a large ASP, a long runway and abundant hangar space, and it isnear a rail head’. The correct format is ‘RAF Skelsby has A, B and C, and it is D’; again,this much more serious muddle can stem from thinking out the sentence bit by bit, for youwill notice that each of the different structures used would by itself almost fit on to theopening of the sentence. We re-emphasize the benefits of deciding clearly what youintend to say before you start to write. Jumbled structures of this kind often prove moreeasy to detect by ear than by eye, so read (or ask someone else to read) aloud what youhave written. Frequently, as in Serial 3 overleaf, the best solution will be the use ofshorter, less complex sentences.8. Examples of Complex Structural Faults (‘STR’).ErrorCorrection1 The Chinook’s ferry range is 1100 nm,with an external load of 20 000 lb and aradius of action of 30 nm, but 100 nmwith a 14 000 lb internal load whichcould be 44 troops or 24 stretcher casesand a maximum speed of 160 kts.(STR)The Chinook has a ferry range of1100 nm and a maximum speed of160 kts and it can carry 44 troops or24 stretcher cases; the ac’s radii ofaction are 100 nm with an internal loadof 14 000 lb, and 30 nm with an externalload of 20 000 lb.2 Recent TV coverage of overseasdefence aid has seen our intervention todeliver supplies to Mali, in policingBeirut, and naval support has been sentat the request of the Egyptiangovernment to the Gulf area. (STR).Recent TV coverage of overseasdefence aid has shown Britishintervention in delivering supplies toMali, in policing Beirut and in sendingnaval support, at the request of theEgyptian government, to the Gulf area.3 The total cost of the modificationprogramme should be as low aspossible, with the shortest duration oftime the most desirable option the workshould begin quickly and there shouldbe no slippage likely in the completiondate. (STR).The cost of the modification programmeshould be as low as possible and thework should be completed as quickly aspossible. Other important desirablefeatures are that the work should startsoon and that its completion date shouldbe reliable.4 By 1917, the Tsarist system had lost itswill to survive and Lenin seized power.However, it was asked of a smallrevolutionary band, rather than amassive proletarian uprising. Lenin’sremorseless will was the strongestpower in Russia which, inherited byStalin, resulted in 30 years of totalrepression. (STR)By 1917, the Tsarist system had lost itswill to survive and Lenin, head of a smallrevolutionary band rather than amassive proletarian uprising, seizedpower. The strongest power in Russiawas Lenin’s remorseless will, whichresulted in 30 years of total repressionand was inherited by Stalin.9-6

ErrorCorrection5 With NATO’s reputation being built onindividual nation decision making and,post war Europe’s ability to suppress itsfears about peace, comes fromAmerican involvement, they could takediplomatic coordination further, bymaking defence specifications, not bytrying to outdo NATO with acronyms.(STR)NATO’s reputation was built on thedecision-making of individual nations.Post-war Europe’s ability to suppress itsfears about continuing peace comesfrom the involvement of the Americans.The latter could take diplomaticcoordination further by making defencespecifications and not trying to outdoNATO with acronyms.9. Triple Construction. There are 2 possible constructions when 3 or more clausesare strung together:It possesses two 30-mm Aden guns, it carries bombs and it has a nuclear capability.It possesses two 30-mm guns, carries bombs and has a nuclear capability.Either the subject is used only once, or it is repeated in each clause; beware of mixingthese 2 constructions and using only 2 subjects. The comma in each of the aboveexamples might seem to be inadequate, but the sense is completed by the third clause.9-7

10. Comparisons.a. When making comparisons, you must compare like with like. (‘At £7500 theprice of the Golf is £500 higher than that of the Citroen.’). Beware of falsecomparisons, eg ‘Temperatures will be higher than yesterday’. We cannot compare‘temperatures’ with ‘yesterday’, but should make the comparison with othertemperatures. The correct version should read ‘Temperatures will be higher thanyesterday’s temperatures’, or ‘Temperatures will be higher than they were yesterday’.b. Remember too that you cannot compare something with nothing. The statementthat ‘Champagne is more expensive’ could mean ‘Champagne is more expensivethan it used to be’ or ‘Champagne is more expensive than draught ale’. Theexpression needs to be completed to make the meaning clear. Of course, where themeaning is completely clear, ellipsis may be allowed, eg ‘Cider is pleasing to the eyebut champagne is more expensive’. (There is no doubt here that champagne isbeing compared with cider.) If there can be any doubt about the meaning of whatyou have written, rewrite the passage in clearer terms.c. Incorrect and Incomplete Comparisons.ErrorCorrection1 At £4750, works services for theBarrack Block would cost £1000 lessthan the Guardroom.At £4750, works services for theBarrack Block would cost £1000 lessthan works services (those) for theGuardroom.2 Unlike HMS SOUTHWICK, the ceilingheight of the main storage area atHMS SHORLAND would exceed 18 ft.Unlike that of HMS SOUTHWICK, theceiling height of the main storage areaat HMS SHORLAND would exceed 18ft.3 Conventional weapons are moreaccurate and powerful and so providea suitable alternative.Conventional weapons are now moreaccurate and powerful than they were,and so provide a suitable alternativeto nuclear ones.4 The Tornado has morecomprehensive electronics.The Tornado has morecomprehensive electronics than anyprevious RAF ac.5 Jaguar and Buccaneer sqns will bereplaced by Tornados.Jaguar and Buccaneer sqns will bereplaced by Tornado sqns.6 The visit will be similar to last year. The visit will be similar to last year’s.7 The borders of the former Congo arenot policed to the same levels.The borders of this former Congo arenot policed to the same levels asbefore.9-8

ErrorCorrection8 Llanfigel-y-Coed is 18 miles from aService unit, compared with 32 milesfor Scarside Fell and 48 miles forFforest Fach.Llanfigel-y-Coed is 18 miles from aService unit, compared with ScarsideFell, which is 32 miles from a Serviceunit, and Fforest Fach, which is 48miles from one.9 Like last summer, the weather hasbeen fine.As [it was] last summer, the weatherhas been fine.11. Tenses in Comparative Argument Technique. The following examples may helpto demonstrate which tenses should be used in Comparative Argument Technique:A has a runway (fact).B is near a main line station (fact).C has sufficient hangar space available.(ie now)D could provide sufficient hangar space.(ie when we want it, if we ask for it)E has all the engineering facilities required.(ie has them, but could they be made available to us?F can provide all the engineering facilities required.(ie it can now, but will it be able to do so, when we need them?)G could provide all the engineering facilities required.(ie when we want them, if we ask for them)9-9

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CHAPTER 10 – PUNCTUATION1. The Full Stop. The full stop is used to mark the end of a sentence. Full stops arenot used in DW to indicate abbreviations.2. The Semicolon. The semicolon marks a longer pause than does a comma; itperforms in some ways as a low-grade full stop. It is used in the following circumstances:a. The semicolon separates 2 or more main clauses that are closely linked in thetheme of the sentence. Note that each part separated by the semicolon must containa finite verb. (‘We will leave Dartmouth at 1600 hrs; you can expect us by midnight.’‘I tried to explain; however, he was too angry to listen.’)b. The semicolon can often be replaced by a coordinating conjunction or a full stop,eg:His car was out of fuel; mine had 2 flat tyres. (Semicolon)His car was out of fuel and mine had 2 flat tyres. (Coordinating conjunction)His car was out of fuel. Mine had 2 flat tyres. (Full Stop)c. When parts of a sentence are separated by semicolons, each part must containa main clause with a finite verb. The following examples show that the semicolonacts in the same way as a full stop. (In each case, full stops could replace thesemicolons):The missile is fast, accurate and powerful; the costs are within the agreed limits.Flexibility facilitates rapid changes of target and changes of role; fire-poweroffers the advantage of applying high but controlled levels of destructive powerwith little warning; mobility enables reinforcements and supplies to be movedrapidly.Note that in these sentences the semicolon links 2 or more ideas that are closelyrelated but that are grammatically separate. Do not be tempted, however, to insertsemicolons where only commas are needed.d. A semicolon cannot be used in place of a colon.e. A semicolon cannot introduce a list.10-1

f. Semicolon Errors.ErrorCorrection1 The Ration Store has a built-in safe, atelephone, and a built-in counter;items which a permanent buildingwould need.The Ration Store has a built-in safe, atelephone and a built-in counter, itemswhich a permanent building wouldneed.2 However, detente should neitherdeceive us into believing thatconfrontation is ending; nor implyWestern acquiescence to diminishingneeds for defensive preparations.However, detente should neitherdeceive us into believing thatconfrontation is ending, nor implyWestern acquiescence to diminishingneeds for defensive preparations.3 British Airways will provide thedetachment with fuel, oil and servicingfacilities; also MT, fresh food andwater.British Airways will provide thedetachment with fuel, oil, servicingfacilities, MT, fresh food and water.4 An RM detachment should be used todefend Booma and Bland; and pillowtanks filled to build up reserves of fuel.An RM detachment should be used todefend Booma and Bland, and pillowtanks should be filled to build upreserves of fuel.5 The funds are used as loans or grantsfor welfare, sporting or recreationalactivities; also to assist messes topurchase equipment.The funds are used as loans or grantsfor welfare, sporting or recreationalactivities, and to assist messes topurchase equipment.6 This computer has 128 megabytes ofmain memory; whereas the other hasonly 64 megabytes.This computer has 128 megabytes ofmain memory, whereas the other hasonly 64 megabytes.7 The main purpose of Britain’s defencepolicy is twofold; to ensure thesecurity of the British Isles and tocontribute towards world peace.The main purpose of Britain’s defencepolicy is twofold: to ensure thesecurity of the British Isles and tocontribute towards world peace.8 Two solutions are open to us: to useour limited supply of fuel sparingly;alternatively we could seek othersources of energy.Two solutions are open to us: to useour limited supply of fuel sparingly, orto seek other sources of energy.9 8 FTS is responsible for the training of3 categories of aircrew; pilots,navigators and air engineers.8 FTS is responsible for the training of3 categories of aircrew: pilots,navigators and air engineers.10 This paper covers the air recce andassociated requirements of ACE;describing the benefits to be gainedfrom using Tornado in the recce role.This paper covers the air recce andassociated requirements of ACE,describing the benefits to be gainedfrom using the Tornado in the reccerole.10-2

ErrorCorrection11 The major tasks of NATO’s tactical airpower would be; offensive anddefensive counter-air operations toprotect NATO’s airfields, thedisruption of armoured thrusts byinterdiction and all forms of OASoperations, and the provision ofmobility for ground forces.NATO’s tactical air power would havethe following major tasks: …(or simply delete the semicolon)12 They had 3 options; do nothing;organize humanitarian relief; or offerdirect military air support.They had 3 options: do nothing,organize humanitarian relief or offerdirect military support.10-3

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3. Semicolons in Lists.a. Items in a simple list are normally separated by commas (except the final 2items):The hangar contained a Spitfire, a Lancaster, a Mosquito and a Tiger Moth.b. However, when the list is cumbersome and already contains other commas, itcould be difficult to follow if we use only commas to separate the items:The hangar contained a Spitfire, lent by the Shuttleworth collection, a Lancaster,detached from the Historic Aircraft Flight, a Mosquito, borrowed from a privatemuseum and a Tiger Moth, owned by the Eden Flying Club.c. If you feel that the version at Paragraph 3b is unclear, you may adopt thetechnique of using semicolons to separate the items:The hangar contained a Spitfire, lent by the Shuttleworth collection; a Lancaster,detached from the Historic Aircraft Flight; a Mosquito, borrowed from a privatemuseum; and a Tiger Moth, owned by the Eden Flying Club.In constructions like these, it is essential that the semicolon, followed by ‘and’, isrepeated between the last 2 items.d. When you use semicolons, however, you must make sure that both the subjectof the sentence and its verb are placed before the first semicolon.e. The safest technique, if you are not quite sure that you can use the semicolonscorrectly, is to use a simpler structure:The hangar contained a Spitfire belonging to the Shuttleworth Collection, aLancaster from the Historic Aircraft Flight, a Mosquito from a private museumand a Tiger Moth from the Eden Flying Club.f. Remember, too, the special techniques available to you through DW, where subparasmight conveniently be used:The hangar contained the following aircraft:a. A Spitfire, lent by the Shuttleworth Collection.b. A Lancaster, detached from the Historic Aircraft Flight.c. A Mosquito, borrowed from a private museum.d. A Tiger Moth, owned by the Eden Flying Club.10-5

g. Do not automatically use semicolons in every list containing commas; askyourself whether the list would be easier to read if semicolons were used.Semicolons are not justified in the case of one set of parenthetical commas around asingle word (eg however) or a short phrase.h. Misused Semicolons in Lists.ErrorCorrection1 His last 4 postings were to Hillsea;Bordon; Bassingbourne; andArborfield.His last 4 postings were to Hillsea,Bordon, Bassingbourne andArborfield.2 The car required repairs to theexhaust; a new set of tyres; and 2replacement bulbs.The car required repairs to theexhaust, a new set of tyres and 2replacement bulbs.3 The new commitment will require us torefuel the ac, rearm it with a variety ofweapons, including radar-guidedmissiles TV-guided missiles, 1000-lbbombs, and test the radar.The new commitment will require usto:a. Refuel the ac.b. Rearm it with a variety ofweapons including radar-guidedmissiles, TV-guided missiles and1000-lb bombs.c. Test the radar.4 The lack of unanimity among NATOmembers on how to respond to CWattack; the unclear national policiesand intentions regarding retaliation;and the reluctance of some membersto accept the likely use by NATO oftheatre nuclear weapons, represent aserious threat to the solidarity andsecurity of NATO.The lack of unanimity among NATOmembers on how to respond to CWattack, the unclear national policiesand intentions regarding retaliation,and the reluctance of some membersto accept the likely use by NATO oftheatre nuclear weapons represent aserious threat to the solidarity andsecurity of NATO.5 This brief describes the chain ofcommand in the Central Region;assesses the threat to the Region;describes the likely NATO response tothe threat; and explains the part likelyto be played by RAF Germany.This brief describes the chain ofcommand in the Central Region,assesses the threat to the Region,describes the likely NATO response tothe threat and explains the part likelyto be played by RAF Germany.10-6

ErrorCorrection6 Three Victor K2s, 3 Jaguars, 3Harriers and a VC 10 from 101 Gp; 6Phantoms from 111 Gp; and 3Nimrods and 3 Buccaneers from 118Gp will comprise the secondformation.The second formation will consist of 3Victor K2 ac, 3 Jaguar ac, 3 Harrier acand a VC 10 from 101 Gp; 6 Phantomac from 111 Gp; and 3 Nimrod ac and3 Buccaneers from 118 Gp.(We show you here how to restructurethe original using semicolons, butagain sub-paras would be clearer andtherefore preferable.)4. The Colon.a. The colon signals that a statement or explanation is about to follow. A colonshould always be preceded by a main clause although there is an exception underthe rules of DW when a colon introduces sub-paras. The colon is used in thefollowing circumstances:(1) To introduce a single item of explanation (‘Tom had one ambition: to travelabroad.’).(2) To introduce a series (‘There are 3 priority items: water, fuel andammunition.’); sub-paras constitute such a series in a DW context.(3) To introduce a long or formal quotation (‘JSP 101 provides the explanation:maps are identified by map series, sheet number, edition and scale.’).b. Think of the colon as meaning ‘which is (or are) as follows’. The statementleading into the colon must, therefore, contain a word to act as the antecedent of thepronoun ‘which’, eg: ‘The officer had 3 reasons for wishing to resign his commission:he was unable to control his heavy drinking, he was in severe financial difficulty andhis wife was seeking a divorce’.c. However, the rules of DW allow the use of a grammatically incomplete statementbefore the colon when it is used to introduce sub-paras, but only provided that thestatement is completed grammatically by each subsequent sub-paragraph in itsentirety. No such sub-paragraph may either have a heading or contain an additionalsentence. Sub-paras, whether consisting of single words, phrases or clauses, mustall be of similar construction.d. In literary English, a colon may very occasionally be allowed to separate 2 mainclauses, when strong antithesis or apposition exists; this use is not recommended inDW.10-7

e. Colon Faults.ErrorCorrection1 Ungrammatical Construction Preceding the Colon.Tim’s main ambition was: to win hisColours.Tim’s main ambition was to win hisColours.The 3 states were: black, amber andred.The 3 states were as follows: black,amber and red.2 Inappropriate Colon.We will have tea now: we will gohome afterwards.We will have tea now; we will gohome afterwards.(A full stop or conjunction couldreplace the semicolon.)3 Further Examples Not Specific to DW.Priority items are: water and fuel.Priority items are water and fuel.The threats are: missiles, ac andbombs.The threats are as follows: missiles,ac and bombs.AOC 101 Gp is to provide: 3 VictorK2s, 3 Jaguars and one VC 10.AOC 101 Gp is to provide thefollowing: 3 Victor K2 ac, 3 Jaguar acand one VC 10 ac.(sub-paras might be an improvement,especially in an operation order.)4 DW Errors.The Sub-paragraph Does Not Complete the Grammatical Sense.The 3 main advantages were:The 3 main advantages included:(You cannot write ‘were low cost’.)a. Low cost.a. Low cost.b. Ease of maintenance.b. Ease of maintenance.c. Ready availability.c. Ready availability.10-8

ErrorCorrectionDW Errors (continued).Sub-paragraph Completes Sense but is Interrupted by a Heading.The second method offered:The second method offered:a. Greater economy.a. Greater economy.b. Technical Aspect. A highergearbox ratio.b. A higher gearbox ratio.Sub-paragraph Completes Grammatical Sense but a Further Sentence isAdded.The Sqn would be detached to:The Sqn would be detached to:a. RAF Syerbutt.a. RAF Syerbutt.b. RAF Merton. This move hadyet to be agreed.b. RAF Merton, but this movehad yet to be agreed.The Merlin ac could be:The Merlin ac could be:a. Deployed north via Iceland,without any AAR requirement.a. Deployed north via Icelandwithout any AAR requirement.b. Flown south via the Azoresand Bermuda. In this case theMerlins would require the supportof 4 Malice tankers.b. Flown south via the Azoresand Bermuda, with the support of4 Malice tankers.(ie 2 similar, dependent sentences)Colon Instead of Comma.The contract will define the level ofservice to be provided: thus allowing aunit to monitor a contractor’sperformance.The contract will define the level ofservice to be provided, thus allowing aunit to monitor a contractor’sperformance.The 3 main roles of EW: ESM, ECMand ECCM, cover both the active andpassive use of the electromagneticspectrum.The 3 main roles of EW, which areESM, ECM and ECCM, cover both theactive and passive use of theelectromagnetic spectrum.10-9

ErrorCorrectionAdditional Clause Added to List After Colon.The summer commitments of theSqns are as follows: 627 Sqn willtake part in Exercise CHISEL CHOP,671 Sqn will be detached to GooseBay for currency training and 248 SqnRAF Regt will be involved in a missilefiring practice camp; the Stn will beaugmented by specialist personnel.The summer commitments of theSqns are as follows: 627 Sqn willtake part in Exercise CHISEL CHOP,671 Sqn will be detached to GooseBay for currency training and 248 SqnRAF Regt will be involved in a missilefiring practice camp. The Stn will beaugmented by specialist personnel.5. The Comma. The comma separates the elements of a sentence; it is the mostfrequently used, and least emphatic, of the internal punctuation marks. The comma hasthe following uses:a. It separates words, phrases or clauses in a series (‘You are to write a brief, aService paper, a loose minute and a letter.’):(1) It is usual to omit a comma before the ‘and’ connecting to the last 2 items ofa list (‘He was ready, willing and able’), except where the items are lengthy andthe division might be difficult to spot.(2) The ‘and’ or ‘or’ connecting the last 2 items of a list cannot be omittedexcept when 2 or more adjectives qualify a noun (see Page 10-12).(3) Do not place commas before or after the series, unless they are required foranother reason, such as parenthesis.10-10

(4) Errors with Commas in Lists.ErrorCorrection1 We are collecting books papers filesenvelopes forms wrappers forsalvage.We are collecting books, papers,files, envelopes, forms andwrappers for salvage.2 Do you believe that, brain, brawnand influence, are vital to asuccessful career?Do you believe that brain, brawnand influence are vital to asuccessful career?3 Additionally, the Cuban missilecrisis, the mining of NorthVietnamese harbours, the USsupport for Israel in the Middle EastWar, have indicated that the majorNATO partner could have started ageneral war.Additionally, the Cuban missilecrisis, the mining of NorthVietnamese harbours and the USsupport for Israel in the Middle Eastwar have indicated that the majorNATO partner could have started ageneral war.4 Recent enhancement to theeffectiveness of the Pact’s forces byimprovements in command andcontrol, armour fire-power, airdefence and mobility, only add tothat threat.Recent enhancement to theeffectiveness of the Pact’s forces byimprovements in command andcontrol, armour, fire-power, airdefence and mobility only add tothat threat.5 The force consists of Jaguars,Phantoms, Buccaneers, Harriers, aswell as ground-to-air-missile sqns.The force consists of Jaguar,Phantom, Buccaneer and Harrierac, as well as ground-to-air-missilesqns.6 This brief outlines Britain’s defencepolicy, examines NATO’s defencestrategy, then outlines the threatfacing the Alliance.This brief outlines Britain’s defencepolicy, examines NATO’s defencestrategy, and then outlines thethreat facing the Alliance.10-11

. It separates 2 adjectives, each of which modifies a noun separately (‘He was arugged, determined mountaineer’). (The comma could be replaced by ‘and’). Do notseparate adjectives with a comma in the following instances:(1) When the adjectives are not independent – ie their order cannot be reversed(‘He was a famous French scientist’).(2) When the last adjective is so commonly used with a noun that we regard theadjective and noun as a joint expression – old man, gold watch, wild animal –another adjective would modify the whole expression and a comma is not used(‘We all respected this dignified old man.’ ‘We must practise with the newguided weapon’).(3) Misuse of Commas Between Adjectives.ErrorCorrection1 He was a tall handsome navigator. He was a tall, handsome navigator.(The original implies that allnavigators are handsome.)2 He is a brilliant, military lecturer. He is a brilliant military lecturer.(The original suggests that helectures in a military fashion.)3 Entry into service of the first, British,fixed-wing aircraft carrier isexpected this year.The first British carrier for fixed-wingaircraft is expected in service thisyear.4 The faster RAF formation is to fly at240 knots IAS.The faster, RAF formation is to fly at240 knots IAS.(The original refers to the faster of 2RAF formations; the amendmentshows that the other formation isnon-RAF.)5 The ac is a stable, reconnaissanceplatform.The ac is a stable reconnaissanceplatform.c. It sets off a phrase or long adverbial clause coming before the main clause(‘Having been recognized, the officer passed the checkpoint.’ ‘When he had at lasttalked all the returning ac down through the thickening fog, the controller felt he hadearned his weekend’).10-12

d. It is used to set off a word, phrase or clause in parenthesis (‘The weather,however, thwarted our plans.’ ‘The only possible transport, the Rover staff car, washaving its gearbox replaced.’ ‘The PMC’s proposal, that the Summer Ball should becancelled, was heavily defeated.’). Two commas are used for parenthesis, unlessthe expression being used parenthetically falls at the beginning or end of thesentence.(1) A common mistake is to use a single comma to mark a parentheticalstatement. For example, ‘The building coloured red on the map, will bedemolished’ should have 2 commas or none (‘The building, coloured red on themap, will be demolished’) (‘The building coloured red on the map will bedemolished’).(2) Words in Apposition. A clause, phrase or word is said to be inapposition if it restates in different words a noun, phrase or clause already used.For example, in the sentence ‘Military law, the legal basis of the discipline of thearmed forces, was first sanctioned in 1689’, the words ‘the legal basis … forces’are a fuller explanation of what is meant by ‘military law’ and are in apposition;thus items in apposition are one and the same, though differently expressed. Aword, phrase or clause in apposition, together with any adjectives modifying it,should be separated from the rest of the sentence by 2 commas (‘The Admiral,Rear Admiral Smith, will visit Portsmouth’). The words ‘Rear Admiral Smith’ arein apposition to the phrase ‘The Admiral’).(3) Interrupting Words. There are some interrupting words and phrases thatwe commonly add to sentences to make the meaning clearer or more emphatic,or to show the connection with preceding sentences. The following arecommonly used in this way:however, nevertheless, of course, for example, after all, therefore, by theway, if possible, perhaps, on the other hand, on the contrary.When such words or phrases are used parenthetically, they are usuallyseparated from the rest of the sentence by commas. If used in mid-sentence,they are often set off by 2 commas; it is a common mistake to use only one.Consider the sentence ‘We could for example buy American missiles’. The lackof punctuation makes the sentence awkward, but it would be quite wrong to write‘We could for example, buy American missiles’; the phrase ‘for example’ must beseparated by 2 commas: ‘We could, for example, buy American missiles’. Onthe other hand, we can correctly write ‘I have therefore decided to send Brown’or ‘I have, therefore, decided to send Brown’. The different punctuation gives adifferent emphasis; which punctuation would be appropriate would depend onthe emphasis we wished to give.(4) However. The word ‘however’ has 2 meanings: ‘in whatever way’ and‘nevertheless’. When the first meaning is intended, do not use a comma(‘However we look at it, we have to agree.’ ‘However the decision is made, wemust make it quickly’). When the second meaning is intended, always use a10-13

comma (‘However, we must make a decision quickly.’ ‘We have, however, toagree that this is the best choice’).(5) Parenthetical Commas to Avoid Misreading. Sometimes parentheticalcommas are required round a word or phrase to prevent a misleadingassociation of ideas. The possible confusion can be removed from ‘Britain willassign to NATO ac for various roles’ by inserting commas thus: ‘Britain willassign, to NATO, ac for various roles’.(6) For Example, For Instance. There are 2 distinct uses of the phrases ‘forexample’ and ‘for instance’, one requiring 2 parenthetical commas, and the otheronly one comma:I could quote Winston Churchill, for instance, as an example of a greatleader.Many great war leaders come to mind, for example Winston Churchill.(7) Errors with Parenthetical Commas.ErrorCorrection1 Research and procurement as theyaffect the Army will also bediscussed.Research and procurement, as theyaffect the Army, will also bediscussed.2 Consequently, in the field ofadvanced weapons the PE is nowrecognized …Consequently, in the field ofadvanced weapons, the PE is nowrecognized …3 A test drill hole is bored and ifsuccessful, further wells …A test drill hole is bored and, ifsuccessful, further wells …4 However, you look at the problem,we need more men.However you look at the problem,we need more men.5 However he approached theproblem and produced a goodsolution.However, he approached theproblem and produced a goodsolution.6 However many NATO aircraft arefitted with ECM – jamming pods,radar warning receivers andChaff/Flare dispensers.However, many NATO aircraft arefitted with ECM – jamming pods,radar warning receivers andChaff/Flare dispensers.7 The adoption, by Germany ofresponsibility for its own airspacehas resulted in the disbandment of2 RAF Germany Phantomsquadrons.The adoption, by Germany, ofresponsibility for its own airspacehas resulted in the disbandment of2 RAF Germany Phantomsquadrons.10-14

ErrorCorrection8 The paper will outline factorsaffecting para ops, but to keep thediscourse within reasonable limits,will exclude maritime operations.The paper will outline factorsaffecting para ops, but, to keep thediscourse within reasonable limits,will exclude maritime operations.9 Major Cresswell, my SO2 will begetting in touch with you.Major Cresswell, my SO2, will begetting in touch with you.10 Sy 2, HQ 1(UK) Armed Div offeredto forward a copy of MOD SOPs forVIP protection.Sy 2, HQ 1(UK) Armed Div, offeredto forward a copy of MOD SOPs forVIP protection.10-15

e. It is used to prevent misreading (‘The soldier dropped, a bullet in his leg’):(1) The omission of a comma may sometimes cause a reader to misunderstandyour meaning. Note how the second comma alters the meaning of the sentencebelow:He went to bed, after a cup of coffee with the nurse.He went to bed, after a cup of coffee, with the nurse.(2) Omission of a comma may cause your reader to read together 2 ideaswhich you intended to keep separate, eg Several ratings complained about thedrinking habits of their bosun, and the Captain agreed to take immediate action.(Without the comma, the sentence might question the Captain’s sobriety, also).(3) A comma is less necessary after a short introductory phrase than after along one:For weeks the team had practised.After several months of hard and persistent practice, the dog team wasready for its first public display.(4) Even with short introductory phrases and clauses, a comma may be neededto avoid misreading:After dark, airmen and airwomen are to wear No 1 uniform.If you can, get some information about the parade.He had to wait, for the MO was engaged.(5) Use of Commas to Prevent Misreading.ErrorCorrection1 Programmes should be collectedafter the display by the host officers.Programmes should be collected,after the display, by the hostofficers.2 The Portakabins have one roomsuitable for an office and toilets forboth males and females.The Portakabins have one roomsuitable for an office, and toilets forboth males and females.3 Congratulations on your highstandard John.Congratulations on your highstandard, John.4 As you probably remember bothyour Club and the Ministry ofDefence benefited from …As you probably remember, bothyour Club and the Ministry ofDefence benefited from …10-16

ErrorCorrection5 Boycott scored his 100th centuryagainst the Australians in the thirdtest match.Boycott scored his 100th century,against the Australians in the thirdtest match.6 Tanks should be provided for waterand additional food should besuppliedTanks should be provided for water,and additional food should besupplied.7 As the title suggests the objects ofthe Benevolent Fund are varied.As the title suggests, the objects ofthe Benevolent Fund are varied.8 If the system does expand theprinting rate will have to beincreased.If the system does expand, theprinting rate will have to beincreased.9 As you will see the selected model,the Albion Microtech, is Britishmade.As you will see, the selected model,the Albion Microtech, is Britishmade.10 Instructors may tailor the trainingprogramme as they like to cater forvarying numbers of recruits.Instructors may tailor the trainingprogramme as they like, to cater forvarying numbers of recruits.11 To provide extra flight safety whileHUAS are flying USAF aircraft willstay 3nm clear.To provide extra flight safety whileHUAS are flying, USAF aircraft willstay 3nm clear.12 Aid budgets have enabled farmersin the American mid-West to sellsurplus crops and French firmshave provided credit facilities.Aid budgets have enabled farmersin the American mid-West to sellsurplus crops, and French firmshave provided credit facilities.13 I think it quite wrong to be honest. I think it quite wrong, to be honest.f. The comma should not be used between 2 main clauses (which could well standas separate sentences) if there is no coordinating conjunction; it may be used toseparate 2 independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, particularly ifthe clauses indicate a contrast (‘The money was available, but we failed to hire aband’). If, however, the 2 clauses are short (‘He held the door open and the ladypassed through’), you may omit the comma:(1) Main clauses should be separated by coordinating conjunctions (with orwithout commas according to the length and context) or by adequatepunctuation such as the semicolon (‘The fog was thickening but drill continued.’‘The mist came down and drill was suspended.’ ‘The fog got worse; the drillprogramme was abandoned.’).10-17

(2) If there are more than 2 main clauses in a sentence, and the last 2 arelinked by a coordinating conjunction, a comma is enough to link the others, as inany list (‘Tom is quick, Dick is strong and Harry is both’).(3) To correct a construction containing an inadequate comma, such as ‘Therunway lights came on, the aircraft took off’, we could use a full stop, asemicolon, a coordinating conjunction or a subordinating conjunction:The runway lights came on. The aircraft took off.The runway lights came on; the aircraft took off.The runway lights came on and the aircraft took off.The runway lights came on, so the aircraft took off.(4) Coordinating conjunctions are listed on Page 7-1. Do not use adverbs ascoordinating conjunctions (see Page 5-1).(5) Misuse of Commas to Separate Main Clauses.ErrorCorrection1 The Armoury is always accessibleregardless of alerts and exercises,the spare room has limitedaccessibility.The Armoury is always accessibleregardless of alerts and exercises,but the spare room has limitedaccessibility.2 The industrial base for the supply ofmilitary equipment is diminishing, insome cases there is only onesource of supply.The industrial base for the supply ofmilitary equipment is diminishing. Insome cases there is only onesource of supply.3 Financial stringency within NATOdemands value for money,standardization is an effective wayof achieving this.Financial stringency within NATOdemands value for money.Standardization is an effective wayof achieving this.4 Special-purpose ac, such asreconnaissance ac and tankers, arealso available, these are allocatedto ATAFs on a day-to-day basis.Special-purpose ac, such asreconnaissance ac and tankers, arealso available; these are allocatedto ATAFs on a day-to-day basis.5 The sentence on Bacon was nosooner passed than it wasmitigated, although he was sent tothe Tower as a formality, he was setfree 2 days later.The sentence on Bacon was nosooner passed than it wasmitigated. Although he was sent tothe Tower as a formality, he was setfree 2 days later.10-18

ErrorCorrection6 The Cabinet is directly responsiblefor the defence policy of the UK,although professional advice issought from the MOD, the ultimatedecision is a political one.The Cabinet is directly responsiblefor the defence policy of the UK;although professional advice issought from the MOD, the ultimatedecision is a political one.7 To counter the threat, new weaponswill need to be developed, thesemight be upgrades of existingSHORAD systems or even the firstgeneration of high-powered laserweapons.To counter the threat, new weaponswill need to be developed. Thesemight be upgrades of existingSHORAD systems or even the firstgeneration of high-powered laserweapons.8 Ac are held at readiness on theground until the rapid reportingsystem detects an imminent enemyattack, this ensures that the forcedispatched can be suited to therequirements of the particularsituation.Ac are held at readiness on theground until the rapid reportingsystem detects an imminent enemyattack. This ensures that the forcedispatched can be suited to therequirements of the particularsituation.9 All 3 airfields have a pallet-buildingarea with space for a weighbridge,although both RAF Geilers and RAFElmptheide could provide thisfacility within the covered hangarsizedspace for use as a cargoshed, RAF Niersbruch could providethis facility only in an area within itsperimeter.All 3 airfields have a pallet-buildingarea with space for a weighbridge.Although both RAF Geilers andRAF Elmptheide could provide thisfacility within the covered hangarsizedspace for use as a cargoshed, RAF Niersbruch could providethis facility only in an area within itsperimeter.10-19

10-20‘… since each service operates different helicopters and trains for different roles.’

g. Commas with Adjectival Phrases and Clauses.(1) An adjectival clause which describes something or somebody is separatedfrom the main clause by commas:String, which is too weak, should not be used, (ie all varieties of string aretoo weak).An adjectival clause which defines or limits should not be set off with commas:String which is too weak should not be used, (ie use only those varieties ofstring which are strong enough).(2) Describing and defining clauses are not easy to distinguish from oneanother because many of the words that can introduce them are the same. Adescribing clause will begin with who, whom, which or whose; who, whom orwhich can equally introduce a defining clause, as can that. The sense is whatmakes the difference:(a) In a defining clause, the word who, whom or which can be replaced bythat, eg ‘He was the PJI who sent me solo’ could be ‘He was the PJI thatsent me solo’.(b) No similar change could be made in a describing clause; in ‘I have afriend, who is a PJI’, the word who could not be replaced by that.(3) Participial phrases can also be describing and defining:(a) Bill, looking grim, studied the barometer gauges (describing).(b) All cars leaving Bracknell were stopped by the Police (defining).10-21

(4) Misuse of Commas with Adjectival Phrases and Clauses.ErrorCorrection1 Students, whose minds are dull, donot graduate.Students whose minds are dull donot graduate.2 Helicopters, which can carry morethan 12 troops, would be ideal forthis exercise.(This original suggests that allhelicopters can carry more than 12troops.)Helicopters which can carry morethan 12 troops would be ideal forthis exercise.3 There are 8 guardposts, numbered18 to 25 on the attached map whichwill be floodlit.There are 8 guardposts, numbered18 to 25 on the attached map,which will be floodlit. (Unless themap was intended to be floodlit.)4 It was concluded that the mostsuitable recovery craft would be asmall hovercraft which the Servicesdo not possess.It was concluded that the mostsuitable recovery craft would be asmall hovercraft, which the Servicesdo not possess.5 Allocation must be made by seniorofficers who are capable ofunderstanding the overall situation.(Implies some are not!)Allocation must be made by seniorofficers, who are capable ofunderstanding the overall situation.6 The northern route which requiresno AAR is via Iceland, Goose Bayand the USAF bases down theAtlantic seaboard.(Implies there are other northernroutes.)The northern route, which requiresno AAR, is via Iceland, Goose Bayand the USAF bases down theAtlantic seaboard.7 The detachment commander is toevacuate all serviceable ac withfitted ferry tanks to either Panga orDern.(Excludes serviceable ac withoutfitted ferry tanks.)The detachment commander is toevacuate all serviceable ac, withfitted ferry tanks, to either Panga orDern.8 Defence spending is anotherproblem for NATO countries whoseek to implement a 3% increaseeach year until 1986Defence spending is anotherproblem for NATO countries, whoseek to implement a 3% increaseeach year until 1986.10-22

h. Misuse of Comma Instead of Colon.(1) One construction, where a comma is used, creates doubt in the mind of thereader, whereas the use of the colon would not do so.(2) In the sentence ‘Smith’s flat had 2 rooms, a kitchen and a bedroom’, we donot know whether the 2 rooms comprise the kitchen and the bedroom or whetherthey exist in addition to the kitchen and the bedroom. Had we written ‘Smith’sflat had 2 rooms: a kitchen and a bedroom’, no doubt could have arisen.(3) Examples of Faults.ErrorCorrection1 The PMC is to provideaccommodation for 2 officers, adoctor and a chaplain.The PMC is to provideaccommodation for 2 officers: adoctor and a chaplain.2 The brief will cover 4 major aspectsof the project, operations,engineering, administration andsupply support.The brief will cover 4 major aspectsof the project: operations,engineering, administration andsupply support.10-23

‘… the vacant MQ has the important advantage of location over the Sergeants’ Mess …’str(a)10-24

i. Misuse of Commas to Separate Subject, Object or Complement from theVerb.(1) A comma should not separate a subject, object or complement from theverb:‘The patrol which has collected most postage stamps this month, is sure towin the scout cup’ should not have a comma.(2) The exceptions to this rule occur as follow:(a) When groups of words are used parenthetically. (See Page 10-13.)(b) When commas are used to separate words in a list. (See Page 10-10.)(c) When the comma is used to prevent misreading. (See Page 10-16.)(3) Examples of Faults.ErrorCorrection1 One important feature of the toplevel of command in the PE, is thedirect line of command …One important feature of the toplevel of command in the PE is thedirect line of command …2 As a result of a Governmentdecision the PE, was set up …As a result of a Governmentdecision the PE was set up …3 The question of ICBMs, was tosome Europeans not dealt witheffectively at the SALT talks.The question of ICBMs was, tosome Europeans, not dealt witheffectively at the SALT talks.4 The policy of flexible responserequires NATO to have, not only theultimate nuclear deterrent, but alsothe tactical nuclear weapons andconventional forces.The policy of flexible responserequires NATO to have not only theultimate nuclear deterrent, but alsothe tactical nuclear weapons andconventional forces.10-25

(INTENTIONALLY BLANK)10-26

j. Misuse of Commas to Set Off Adverbs or Adjectives from the Words TheyQualify.(1) It is incorrect to set off an adverb from the adjacent word it qualifies ormodifies. ‘The Harrier takes off, vertically’ should read ‘The Harrier takes offvertically’. Similarly do not separate an adjective from the noun it qualifies. ‘Thehigh-speed, launch’ should read ‘The high-speed launch’.(2) Examples of Faults.ErrorCorrection1 The rain fell, ceaselessly,preventing any play in the cricketmatch.The rain fell ceaselessly, preventingany play in the cricket match.2 Military threats can be overt,interference or attacks by surfaceair forces.Military threats can be overtinterference or attacks by surfaceair forces.3 The attendance of a 123 Sqn,Nimrod, navigator would berequired on the visit.The attendance of a 123 SqnNimrod navigator would be requiredon the visit.4 Ac of UKC will this year, cooperatewith units of the RN, RM and Army.Ac of UKC will this year cooperatewith units of the RN, RM and Army.10-27

(INTENTIONALLY BLANK)10-28

6. Apostrophe.a. Possession. To show possession, add apostrophe ‘s’ (’s) to singular nouns(ship’s company) and to plural nouns which do not end in ‘s’ (airmen’s rations). Addan apostrophe to plural nouns ending in ‘s’ (books’ contents meaning contents ofbooks). Where a surname ends in ‘s’ either ’s or a final apostrophe is acceptable(Jones’s or Jones’). Note that, with the exception of one’s, possessive pronouns anddeterminers – yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs – never have apostrophes.b. Contraction. To show contraction, an apostrophe replaces the missing letteror letters – it’s (it is), you’re (you are), they’re (they are), who’s (who is, who has).Avoid contractions in formal writing. Note the difference between its (possessive)and it’s (contraction). (‘Poor dog! It’s (it is) barking because it’s (it has) lost its(possessive) bone’).c. Abbreviations. Form the plurals of abbreviations by adding ‘s’; no apostropheis used to form the plural but one is needed for the possessive form. Remember thatsymbols, as distinct from abbreviations, are unchanged in the plural.Abbreviation Plural PossessiveCinC CinCs CinC’sPSO PSOs PSO’sd. Misuse of Apostrophes.ErrorCorrection1 The SPSOs message was quiteoptimistic.The SPSO’s message was quiteoptimistic.2 The bowser has just returned from it’sscheduled servicing.The bowser has just returned from itsscheduled servicing.3 Officers Mess. Officers’ Mess.4 The COs message was passed to allWO’s, sgt’s, cpl’s and AC’s.The CO’s message was passed to allWOs, sgts, cpls and ACs.5 The Mess is 10 minutes walk awayfrom my office.The Mess is 10 minutes’ walk awayfrom my office.6 AOC 101 Gp is to supply AUSUXBRIDGE with copies of bothformations routes and timings by1 May.AOC 101 Gp is to supply AUSUXBRIDGE with copies of bothformations’ routes and timings by1 May.7 There will be a 10-minute’ delay. There will be a 10-minute delay.(composite adjective)10-29

ErrorCorrection8 QRA ac are kept at 10 minutesreadiness.QRA ac are kept at 10 minutes’readiness. (a readiness of 10minutes)9 The Defence Committee works inparallel with the MOD to ensure thateach can test the others proposalsbefore they become irreversiblepolicy.The Defence Committee works inparallel with the MOD to ensure thateach can test the other’s proposalsbefore they become irreversiblepolicy.10 The countries defence policy is set outin a White Paper.The country’s defence policy is set outin a White Paper.10-30

7. Initial Capitals. Initial capitals are used in English to punctuate sentences and todistinguish proper nouns from other words:a. General Rule. A general rule for the use of initial capitals is that they shouldbe used for the special or particular, but not for the general:Most tennis clubs lose money but the Andover Tennis Club makes a profit.An indefinite article usually accompanies a general noun (‘a squadron’, ‘anoperation’) where no capital letter is needed. The definite article (the) sometimesdenotes a noun naming a specific person or thing, which requires an initial capital(‘the CO’s Benevolent Fund’, ‘the Colonel’, ie the specific one whose identity wehave already made clear), but is also often associated with everyday nouns whereinitial capitals would be inappropriate (‘the weather’, ‘the result’, ‘the fund’, ‘thecolonel’). Similarly, the demonstrative determiner (this) may point either to aparticular or to a general noun. The use of an initial capital may serve to distinguishbetween a special use of a word (eg ‘Service commitment’, meaning ‘commitment ofor to the Royal Air Force’, ‘the Tube’, meaning ‘the London Underground’) and amore general sense of the word (eg ‘a service commitment’, meaning ‘a commitmentto carry out a service’, ‘this tube of toothpaste’).b. When to Use Initial Capitals. On certain occasions the use of initial capitalsis mandatory; on others, to use them would clearly be wrong. Between the 2situations lies a wide area where no definite rule is possible; often, guidance may betaken from the context. Because there is only one of a thing (‘the universe’, ’theearth’, ‘the twentieth century’), some writers would choose to use initial capitals.Phrases or words like ‘dining room’ and ‘chapel’ may take initial capitals in somecircumstances but not in others. In general, one writer might consistently use initialcapitals where another would consistently not and one could not say that either waswrong, provided that he was consistent.c. Mandatory Initial Capitals. Initial capitals must be used in the followingcircumstances:(1) Sentences. For the first letter of a word that begins a sentence, or a setof words used as a sentence, or a syntactically complete quoted sentence,whether or not quotation marks (inverted commas) are used.(2) Geographical Titles. For the names of countries, cities, rivers, oceansand so on (France, Rome, Rhine, Pacific).(3) Geographical Regions. When referring to specific geographical regions(Lower Rhine, North Wales, South London). Use small letters to refer tocompass directions (heading east, going west) and if a compass direction isused to qualify a noun other than a geographical name (the southern region ofItaly).(4) National Titles. For the names of nationalities, languages, races andreligions, and for adjectives formed from these names (Norwegian, Dutch, Jew,Protestant).10-31

(5) Titles of Organizations and Buildings. In the names or titles oforganizations, companies, associations or buildings; if you repeat the title inshortened form, continue to use initial capitals (‘The Individual Studies Schoolforms part of the Joint Services Command and Staff College; the School islocated at the College, and has its own tutors’).(6) Days and Months. For days and months, but not for seasons (‘Our winterexercise will begin on the Thursday after New Year’s Day’).(7) Government Departments and Agencies. For particular governmentdepartments and agencies (‘Some ministries are housed in one building; theMinistry of Defence, however, has more than 20 buildings in the centre ofLondon’).(8) Ranks, Professions and Appointments. With ranks, professions andappointments, only when writing of one specific person (‘Colonel Smith was oneof 4 cols present.’ ‘Dr Brown was using one of the doctors’ surgeries.’ ‘The StnCdr of RAF Lyneham attended a conference of stn cdrs).(9) Titles and Names. For the first word and all important words in titles ofbooks, essays, films, and so on (The Holy Bible, The Pleasures of Reading,Gone with the Wind). Use initial capitals for the names of historical events,periods and documents (Second World War, The Stone Age, Magna Carta).(10) Paragraph Headings. For the first word and all important words inparagraph and sub-paragraph headings and in each item in a list of annexes,references etc.(11) Page and Paragraph Numbers. When referring to specific page andparagraph numbers (‘This book has many pages, but I want you to look at Page10-32, Paragraph 7c(10)’).(12) Sections of DW Documents. To refer to the mandatory sections of DWdocuments (eg Introduction, Aim, Conclusion), in which the heading identifiesthe section, both in the document itself and when referring to it (‘I thought theConclusion to your paper was excellent’).d. Hyphenated Words in DW Paragraph Headings. A composite word isformed from 2 words, eg shell-shocked, or a prefix and a word, eg pre-inspection.Once formed, the composite becomes a word in its own right. As with any otherword, only the initial letter can be capitalized in DW paragraph headings:Shell-shocked Victims of Pre-inspection Trauma.The exception occurs when the second word forming the composite already has aninitial capital, eg ‘mid-February’.10-32

e. Errors with Initial Capitals.ErrorCorrection1 Our service regulations require RifleClubs to indemnify the ministry ofdefence.Our Service regulations require rifleclubs to indemnify the Ministry ofDefence.2 The captain said that captains hadspecial responsibilities.The Captain said that captains hadspecial responsibilities.3 Please come for lunch in the mess. Please come for lunch in the Mess.4 The JSCSC has 4 Divisions; Bdivision is headed by an army officer.The JSCSC has 4 divisions; BDivision is headed by an army officer.5 Other stations will be sendingrepresentatives to the conference atthe station.Other stations will be sendingrepresentatives to the conference atthe Station. (ie RAF Aston Abbey)6 Most funds are inappropriate for ourpurpose, but this fund could be used.Most funds are inappropriate for ourpurpose, but this Fund could be used.(ie the CO’s Benevolent Fund)7 Information is exchanged with theNADGE system on the continent.Information is exchanged with theNADGE system on the Continent. (iethe Continent of Europe)8 The Cpl will inform the other Cpls. The Cpl will inform the other cpls. (ieCpl Bloggins will inform them)10-33

8. Hyphensa. A hyphen indicates that 2 or more words are to be read together as a singleword with its own meaning. The following, though undesirable, would be technicallycorrect: ‘Secure, digital-link transmission of almost-real-time intelligence throughadvanced, upper-and-lower-atmosphere communication systems.’b. The presence or absence of a hyphen can give a very different meaning to asentence:Mrs de Silva, having cast off clothing of every kind, invites inspection.Mrs de Silva, having cast-off clothing of every kind, invites inspection.c. If a word can be found in the COD (remember to use the most recent edition), itsform may not be disputed. Some useful examples are the following:(1) With Hyphens. Air-sea rescue, air-to-air (adj), back-up, fly-past (noun),man-hours, post-war, proof-read.(2) Without Hyphens. Airborne, breakthrough, countermeasures, day to day(unless used adjectivally), deadline, fly past (verb), free fall (noun but free-falladj), infrared, interwar, manpower, peacetime, reinforce, weekend.If not sure whether a hyphen is needed or not, always check.d. If you coin your own words, such as ‘over-centralize’, ‘laser-guided’, werecommend that you hyphenate them.e. Unless the COD gives the resultant combination as a single word, use a hyphenfollowing a prefix: pre-cast, anti-aircraft, trans-Pacific, post-dated (but microphone,anticlockwise, transatlantic, postcode).f. A hyphen may be needed to avoid ambiguity when 2 or more words form acompound adjective, but not when the same words follow the word modified. Theneed for hyphens may therefore be avoided by using the latter construction.The post-Cold-War situation The situation since the end of the Cold War[Note that post- used as a prefix (meaning since or after) must have a hyphen]g. When 2 words form a commonly used expression, there is normally no need tohyphenate them when they are used as a compound adjective:Flight safety implications, ground defence exercises.h. A hyphen is not normally needed when an adverb modifies an adjective (‘a fullyautomatic system’, ‘a more sophisticated tank’, ‘an electronically hostileenvironment’), but beware of the adverb well, which is frequently linked to a followingpast participle by a hyphen (well-informed, well-known, well-tried) when usedattributively, ie before a noun (though not otherwise: ‘he is well known’) – for furtherguidance, check the COD.10-34

Compound Adjectivewide-bodied Boeinga long-range weaponup-to-date equipmenta two-thirds majorityfirst-line servicingcarbon-fibre compositeslong-dead bodieslight-blue dress15-day period30-mm cannonPredicative FormBoeing with a wide bodya weapon with a long rangeequipment that is up to datetwo thirds of the electorsservicing at the first linecomposites of carbon fibrebodies long deaddress of light bluea period of 15 daysa bore of 30 mmi. We meet a difficulty when we want to use 2 compound adjectives to modify thesame noun. Does ‘oil and coal-fired furnaces’ refer to ‘coal-fired furnaces and oil’ orto ‘oil-fired furnaces and coal-fired furnaces’? To write ‘oil- and coal-fired furnaces’avoids the ambiguity, but to achieve the efficiency of communication required by DWyou would be well-advised to write such expressions in full or, to avoid excessiverepetition, express them in a different form (oil-fired and coal-fired furnaces).Error/Loose ExpressionCorrection/Exact Expression1 The hotel has special arrangementsfor shooting visitors.The hotel has special arrangementsfor shooting-visitors. (or … for visitorsgoing shooting.)2 He came face to face with a maneating tiger.He came face to face with a maneatingtiger.3 The long term prospects for NATO … The long-term prospects for NATO …4 The Sqn will need more ground andair-based missiles.The Sqn will need more ground-basedand air-based missiles.5 We must carry out low level attacks. We must carry out low-level attacks.6 Soviet intelligence gathering ac … Soviet intelligence-gathering ac …7 The main threat is nuclear depthbombs.The main threat is nuclear depthbombs.8 The Sqn is to carry out 2 day bombingsorties.The Sqn is to carry out 2 day-bombingsorties.10-35

Error/Loose ExpressionCorrection/Exact Expression9 Pre and post exercise briefings. Pre-exercise and post-exercisebriefings.10 Land and sea-based missiles. Land-based and sea-based missiles.11 They all have 3 or 4-star rank. They all have 3-star or 4-star rank.12 Fixed- and rotary-wing aircraft. Fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft.(though technically correct, thecontraction resulting in a trailinghyphen is best avoided in DW)13 The second and third-most-importantfeatures …The second-most-important and thirdmost-importantfeatures …14 Have they a nuclear capablesubmarine?Have they a nuclear-capablesubmarine?15 We shall achieve real or near real timecost-effectiveness.We shall achieve real-time or nearreal-timecost-effectiveness.16 They will discuss third world warrelated problems.They will discuss third-world, warrelatedproblems. (or third-world-warrelatedproblems)17 The UK could expect a 4 minutewarning of an ICBM attack.The UK could expect a 4-minutewarning of an ICBM attack.18 This is an account of events duringthe post Cold War era.This is an account of events duringthe post-Cold-War era.j. Prefixes. Prefixes are not complete words in their own right and cannot standalone (eg ‘pre’ in pre-establish or predetermine, or ‘anti’ in anti-Semitic or antiseptic).Some letter combinations can be used as either a prefix (eg post-mortem orpostscript) or words in their own right (eg ‘collect the post’, ‘a boundary post’).10-36

9. Other Punctuation Marks.a. Brackets. Brackets enclose supplementary or explanatory matter of smallerrelevance to the sentence than that set off by commas or dashes: ‘The most suitableac would be the C 130 (Hercules)’. Brackets should not be used to excuse theintroduction of material that would be better placed elsewhere, or not used at all.b. Inverted Commas. Inverted commas are always used in pairs. They say, ineffect, ‘quote … unquote’. We recommend the use of single inverted commas wherepossible; double commas should be reserved for quotes within quotes:The investigator asked the airman ‘Did you say “guilty” or “not guilty”?’c. The Dash. The dash has the force of a strong comma, but should not be usedas a loose substitute for the comma. The dash marks a sharper break in continuityand is used to achieve the effects of suspense and abruptness:The PMC believed – correctly it transpired – that the new carpet would not arrivein time.Cpl Treese received the award – a fine silver cup – as the leading blood donor.Someone – perhaps the PSA representative – had forgotten to provide a roof forthe pavilion.Dashes should normally be used in pairs. However, do not overuse the dash;commas are more commonly used in normal writing. Also, do not confuse the dashwith the hyphen, which is not, strictly speaking, a punctuation mark but is concernedwith the construction of certain words.d. The Question Mark. The question mark is used to end an interrogativesentence, that is one that contains a direct question. (‘Would you like a copy of TheTimes?’)e. The Exclamation Mark. The exclamation mark is used to end an exclamatorysentence, phrase or word (‘Stand to attention!’ ‘What a mess!’ ‘Halt!’). Anexclamation mark is very seldom used in DW.10-37

‘Entry into service of the first fixed-wing aircraft carrier is expected this year.’‘I like it! I like it!!’10-38

10. Punctuation Between Sentences.a. Every piece of writing must consist of separate, well-constructed sentences.Sentences must be separated by adequate punctuation such as full stops, questionmarks or exclamation marks:The doors opened. The crowds flocked in.When will it finish? The sergeant will let you know.b. Note that 2 main clauses can be joined by a semicolon or by a coordinatingconjunction.c. Lack of Punctuation Between Sentences.ErrorCorrection1 You last participated in 1993 the joyflightswere a great success.You last participated in 1993. The joyflightswere a great success.orYou last participated in 1993; the joyflightswere a great success.orYou last participated in 1993 and thejoy-flights were a great success.2 We would like you to provide anaircraft for joy-flights only one aircraftwill be required.We would like you to provide anaircraft for joy-flights; only one aircraftwill be required.3 There are a number of financial andinsurance conditions which wouldapply we have attached a copy ofthem.There are a number of financial andinsurance conditions which wouldapply. We have attached a copy ofthem.4 The advantage of this approach is thatit would combine the flexibility of theC-130J with the ability to carry outsizeloads the disadvantage is the cost ofhaving to support more than one typeof ac.The advantage of this approach is thatit would combine the flexibility of theC-130J with the ability to carry outsizeloads; the disadvantage is the cost ofhaving to support more than one typeof ac.10-39

d. Inadequate Punctuation Between Sentences.ErrorCorrectionThe barrack furniture was condemned –that was the only possible solution.The barrack furniture was condemned;that was the only possible solution.10-40

CHAPTER 11 – REPORTED SPEECH1. Minutes are written in reported speech. Certain changes occur, therefore, when theactual words spoken at a meeting (direct speech) are put into the recorded form.2. Verb Tenses. In reported speech, tenses move one step towards the past:a. The present (eg am) becomes simple past (eg was).b. The simple past (eg saw) becomes the pluperfect (eg had seen).c. The simple future (eg will make) becomes the conditional (eg would make).Also may becomes might, can becomes could and must becomes had to.Also may becomes might, can becomes could and must becomes had to.3. Personal Pronouns. In minute-writing the third person is normally used forpersonal pronouns:Direct SpeechReported SpeechI, me, we, us he or she, him or her, they, themyoumy, our, yourshe, she, him, her, they or themhis or her, their, theirs4. Demonstrative Pronouns and Determiners. The form of some demonstrativepronouns and determiners changes in reported speech:this becomes thatthese becomes those5. Adverbs. Certain adverbs change their form in reported speech:Direct SpeechherenowtodaytomorrowyesterdayReported Speechtherethenthat daythe following daythe previous day11-1

6. Adjectives. A few adjectives also change:Direct SpeechpresentnextlastReported Speechcurrentthe followingthe previousthis year the current year or 19977. Tone. In minutes writing a good secretary preserves the tone of the words spokenand reflects the mood of the meeting, especially when dealing with strongly worded,exclamatory statements, by choosing apt main verbs in the reported form; these effectsshould not be achieved, however, by repeating colloquial expressions in the minutes.Direct SpeechReported Speech‘For pity’s sake, let’s think The meeting was urgently requestedagain on this matter.’ to reconsider the matter.‘Please ensure that yourreports arrive on time.’Committee members were asked tosubmit their reports on time.8. Checking for Correct Reported Speech. To ensure that your reported speech iscorrectly framed, try inserting ‘he said that …‘ before each item and check thatgrammatical sense is preserved.9. Reported Speech Errors.ErrorCorrection1 The meeting agreed that the Open Daywill take place.The meeting agreed that the Open Daywould take place.2 The latter route may be flown in 3 days,provided 4 Victor tankers were available.The latter route might be flown in 3 days,provided 4 Victor tankers were available.3 The evacuation will require certainsupport elements.The evacuation would require certainsupport elements.4 C Company has enough cleaningmaterials to last till next year.C Company had enough cleaningmaterials to last till the following year.5 The Chairman explained that themeeting may have to consider morethan one location.The Chairman explained that themeeting might have to consider morethan one location.11-2

ErrorCorrection6 The money could be raised byincreasing the GPP in the bar from itspresent level of 8%.The money could be raised byincreasing the GPP in the bar from itscurrent level of 8%.7 The Secretary was to include this item inthe EGM agenda.The Secretary was to include that item inthe EGM agenda.8 The PMC explained that the Stn is likelyto experience a TACEVAL in the nearfuture.The PMC explained that the Stn waslikely to experience a TACEVAL in thenear future.9 If more vehicles were diverted to thecamp, these would have to be parked inthe open.If more vehicles were diverted to thecamp, those would have to be parked inthe open.11-3

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CHAPTER 12 – SPELLING1. No fault in written English is more obvious than the spelling error. It presupposescarelessness and a lack of practice and familiarity which will inevitably irritate your readerand give him a bad impression of your literary skills. If you feel your spelling is suspect,follow these guidelines:a. Check and proof-read thoroughly and meticulously everything you write.b. Be aware of your own weaknesses and use your dictionary whenever you areuncertain.c. Increase your familiarity with words by developing the habit of reading regularlyand by taking a personal pride in whatever you write yourself.2. The authority for spelling which the Services recognize is the latest edition of theConcise Oxford Dictionary (COD). In an area bedevilled by the influences of currenttrends in colloquial English, by the relaxed, informal style of writing in the popular pressand by foreign expressions, especially those derived from America, you will probably findthat you need to consult this reference book frequently. Where the dictionary recognizesparallel or alternative spellings, we recommend that you use the first spelling given in thedictionary, for example use a ‘z’ rather than an ‘s’ in words such as organize and realize.However, use of a parallel or alternative spelling is not incorrect, provided it is doneconsistently throughout a document or series of documents.3. If the stress is normally on the last syllable of a verb which ends in a consonant(prefer, forget), the final consonant is doubled when a suffix is added (preferred,forgetting); the final consonant is not usually doubled when the stress is on a precedingsyllable (targeting, offered, conquering). Words which end in ‘l’ preceded by soft or singlevowels usually double the final consonant, regardless of stress (levelled, rivalling,equalling, dialled); words ending in ‘l’ preceded by hard or double vowels usually retain asingle consonant when a suffix is added (oiled, peeling, detailed, appealed). Adjectiveswith single ‘l’ or double ‘ll’ endings invariably contain the double ‘ll’ in the formation ofadverbs (full, fully, especial, especially). Nevertheless, when in doubt, look up the word inthe COD.4. We can be excused for hesitating over the spelling of unusual and infrequently metwords, but we can have no excuse for misspelling those words which we use regularly inService situations. The list below contains many such words; check them throughcarefully:accommodate achieve acquire aggressionambassador asymmetric battalion benefitedcamouflage category commitment definitedetachment deterrent embarrassed existence12-1

feasibility fulfil guarantee hangarharassed independence install instalmentinstil interrogate kilometre liaisonlieutenant maintenance manageable manoeuvremaritime nuclear occasion occurrenceoffered ordnance personnel precedeprivilege preferred procedure proceedprogramme propaganda recommendation reconnaissancesergeant satellite separate serviceableservicing supersede surveillance targetedunforeseenvulnerable5. The following space is left for you to jot down words you have difficulty spelling:12-2

CHAPTER 13 – VOCABULARY1. Vocabulary. In defence writing you should aim for accuracy, brevity and clarity.Use the exact word for each situation and, whenever possible, use one word instead of agroup of words; use simple words instead of complex or lengthy ones. Be sure of themeaning of every word you use; consult the COD if you have any doubts. Use athesaurus whenever you have difficulty finding a suitable word.2. Common Vocabulary Errors.ErrorCorrection1 My flight in a glider was enervating. My flight in a glider was exhilarating.(to enervate = to weaken physically)2 At that altitude I literally froze. At that altitude the cold was intense.(literally = actually)3 I substituted my singlet with a sweater. I substituted a sweater for my singlet.4 NATO has made every attempt to kerbSoviet expansion.NATO has made every attempt to curbSoviet expansion.5 The replacement for Trident isundecided.The replacement for Trident has not yetbeen decided.6 The Audi is £500 cheaper in cost thanthe Mercedes.The Audi is £500 cheaper than theMercedes.(cheaper = lower in cost)7 The meal would consist of a top table … Lunch would be served at a top table …8 Recent flying had been low because ofpoor weather conditions.Flying hours had been low recentlybecause of poor weather conditions.9 The TV tower would be built at Stationlevel.The TV tower would be built from Stationresources.10 It was feasible that Strikemasters couldbe used for this operation but no such acwere available.It was conceivable that Strikemasterscould be used for this operation but nosuch ac were available.(feasible = possible, practicable)11 The Red Arrows’ display was veryunique.The Red Arrows’ display was unique.(unique = the only one)13-1

ErrorCorrection12 The Midshipman should try and clear hisdebts from existing savings.The Midshipman should try to clear hisdebts from existing savings.13 The specialist equipment needed iscontained in Annex A.The specialist equipment needed islisted at Annex A.(Note that the word ‘equipment’ is never used in the plural.)14 The ACSC is comprised of 4 groups. The ACSC comprises 4 groups.orThe ACSC is composed of 4 groups.15 It is unlikely that a nation will trust it’sdefence to artificial intelligence.It is unlikely that a nation will trust itsdefence to artificial intelligence.(its – one word – = of it)(it’s – contraction of 2 words – = it is or ithas)16 If you would like to discus anything, giveme a call on Ext 6829.If you would like to discuss anything,give me a call on Ext 6829.17 The Sec offered to write and obtainspecimen menusThe Sec offered to write to obtainspecimen menus.13-2

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‘… commencing with Luncheon on 22 May. This meal would consist of a top table …’vocab13-4

3. The following pairs of words are often confused and are not interchangeable:advice – (noun) ‘We offered advice’.advise – (verb) ‘We will advise him’.affect – (verb – to produce an effect on) ‘The decision affected all subsequentoperations’.effect – (verb – to cause something to happen; to bring something about) ‘Thechanges will effect an improvement in performance’. (noun – the result of beingaffected or belongings) ‘The effect of the anaesthetic took time to wear off’. ‘Youmay collect your personal effects’.alternate – (adjective, verb and noun) (every other) ‘You and I will do duty onalternate days’ ‘The performances will alternate between Mondays and Thursdays’.alternative – (adjective and noun) (instead of another) ‘We must adopt an alternativeplan’ ‘There are several alternatives’.[Note, however, that North American usage is found in some NATO terminology,especially where ‘alternate’ means ‘the other one of a set of 2’ (eg ‘an alternateheadquarters’)]among – (usually more than 2 objects) ‘Among the hundreds of spectators’.between – (usually 2 objects) ‘Between the sqn and the hangar’.beside – (next to) ‘hardstanding beside the runway’.besides – (in addition to) ‘6 officers besides the CO’.communication – (the act of imparting information) ‘His communication was so poorthat no one could understand what he was trying to say’.communications – (the personnel, hardware and techniques of communicating) ‘Weinstalled communications equipment at the site’.compare to – (liken, or suggest a similarity to, another) eg ‘compare an officer toTrenchard’, or (liken one facet of one option to the same facet of another option), eg‘compare the fuel consumption of the VC 10 to that of the Tristar’ (ie the fuelconsumptions are similar).compare with – (note similarities or differences between objects of the same kind, orestimate or measure their degree of similarity) eg ‘compare A with B as a possiblediversion airfield’ or ‘compare the VC 10’s fuel consumption with the Tristar’s.’comprise – (= consist of) (not followed by ‘of’) ‘The set comprises 6 books’.compose – (followed by ‘of’) ‘The syllabus is composed of (not ‘comprised of’) 3subjects’.13-5

continuously – (all the time) ‘Water flows under the bridge continuously’.continually – (at frequent intervals) ‘The clock strikes the hour continually’.decimate – (to reduce by one tenth, leaving 90 per cent intact) ‘The fall of one wicketdecimates a cricket team’.obliterate – (to destroy) ‘The bomb obliterated everything within a radius of 3 mile’.dependant – (noun – one who depends on another) ‘I will take my 3 dependants withme to Germany’.dependent – (adjective – depending on, contingent on, subordinate to) ‘The result isdependent on our ability to concentrate our forces’.either – should be confined to one of 2 options, eg ‘Either home or overseas bases’(‘either … or …’).or – can embrace any number of options, eg ‘We could choose white or grey orblack’ (‘… or … or … or …’).When or is used with more than 2 options, there are 2 possibilities:Use or in front of every alternative, eg ‘You must run or jump or swim orshoot’.Use or in front of only the last alternative, eg ‘You must run, jump, swim orshoot’,The second option is usually preferable from the style point of view, eg ‘by air,land and sea forces’.equipment – (a collective noun comprising any number of pieces of equipment).equipments – (the word does not exist. The correct expression is ‘items ofequipment’).except – (used in the middle of a sentence) ‘Each station, except RAF Barton, willhold an ATC camp’.except for – (used at the beginning of a sentence) ‘Except for Douglas, we all gainedmedals’.expect – (regard as likely) ‘We expect our training to be effective’.anticipate – (look forward to and take steps to forestall/alleviate/receive) ‘We shouldanticipate the coffee shortage by stocking the crewroom cupboard’.(To anticipate marriage is not the same as to expect it.)fewer – (qualifies any noun which refers to items which can be counted) ‘Fewerweapons’, ‘fewer people’, ‘fewer air misses’.less – (qualifies a noun which cannot be counted) ‘Less ammunition’, ‘lessequipment’, ‘less trouble’.13-6

forego – (to go before) ‘The foregoing list; a foregone conclusion’.forgo – (to do without) ‘We will forgo lunch and carry on with the meeting’.imply – (to make a suggestion. The first person implies an idea) ‘The CO impliedthat I would be promoted’.infer – (to make a deduction. The second person deduced what the first personmeant) ‘We inferred that the CO already had the Promotion Examination results’.issue – (a matter for debate) ‘The issue needs to be decided’.problem – (a matter that must be dealt with or overcome) ‘There are severalproblems that must be solved before we can proceed’.lay – (verb transitive) – Present – I lay the table, past – I laid the table, participle – Ihad laid the table.lie – (verb intransitive) – Present – you lie there, past – you lay there, participle – youhad lain there.lose – (verb transitive) to lose possession (verb intransitive) to fail to win. ‘Did thecontroller lose the Jaguar’s track?’, ‘Even with our best team we shall still lose’.loose – (verb transitive – to release) ‘I loosed him from his bonds’. (adjective – notsecure) ‘There are several loose screws’.licence – (noun) ‘An MT driver must have a licence’.license – (verb) ‘The NAAFI is licensed to sell spirit’.passed – (verb) ‘He passed his promotion examination’.past – (noun, adjective, preposition) ‘Live in the past’, ‘past experiences’, ‘first pastthe post’.practice – (noun) ‘The ac took off for bombing practice’.practise – (verb) ‘We decided to practise formation flying’.presently – (in a short while, not now) ‘Light the fire and the room will warm uppresently’.currently – (now, at the present time) ‘There is currently a rumour that the Station willclose next year’.principal – (noun – chief or head) ‘He was the principal of a college’.– (adjective – chief or main) ‘This is the principal objective’.principle – (noun – fundamental truth, personal code of conduct) ‘Arguing from firstprinciples’; ‘a man of high principle’.13-7

aise – (verb transitive) ‘Raise the ensign …’.rise – (verb intransitive) ‘… when the sun rises’.rout – routing (verb) to cut grooves in, to force out. ‘You must rout out the OrderlyOfficer’.route – routeing (verb transitive) ‘We are routeing the convoys via the motorway’.second – (adjective) ‘second passes are unlikely to be available to low-flying aircraft’.secondly – (adverb) ‘secondly, we should observe the results of the first pass’.stationery – (noun – paper and the like) ‘Sections are to demand stationery fromAPFS’.stationary – (adjective – standing still) ‘The wing-tip brushed a stationary landrover’.13-8

3. Record here any other difficult words you come across:13-9

4. Word Pair Constructions.a. Certain pairs of words are used together. Each word of a pair must be followedby a similar grammatical construction but, because such words can be widelyseparated in a sentence, errors are common. It is wrong to say ‘We must eithermodify the old Mess or we must build a new block’. The error occurs because after‘either’ we lead straight into the verb ‘modify’, while after ‘or’ we repeat the words ‘wemust’. Instead, write one of the following:We must either modify the old Mess or build a new block.Either we must modify the old Mess or we must build a new block.b. Here are further examples of word pairs:The CO was prepared to allow neither more time for preparation nor thecancellation of the display.The helicopter must land between the water tower and the dispersal.We must not only increase the range of our fighters but also improve theirweapon load.5. Word Pair Misconstructions.ErrorCorrection1 I received neither a railway warrant ortravelling allowances.I received neither a railway warrant nortravelling allowances.2 He discovered not only his leaveapplication refused but he was OrderlyOfficer on Christmas Day.He discovered not only that his leaveapplication had been refused, but alsothat he was Orderly Officer on ChristmasDay.3 Our forces support NATO from eitherbases in the UK, or Germany.Our forces support NATO either frombases in the UK or from Germany.4 First, the cost of air travel is too high;second, there is no suitable airfield touse; third, no ac is available.First, the cost of air travel is too high;secondly, there is no suitable airfield touse; thirdly, no ac is available.5 We must both tell No 1 and we musttelephone the guardroom.We must both tell No 1 and telephonethe guardroom.13-10

ErrorCorrection6 Although tactical aviation,reconnaissance and supply flourished, itwas not until 1944 that strategic airpower was able to prove its worth, whenmass bombing destroyed not only theinfrastructure of Germany and Japan butalso demoralized both populations.Although tactical aviation,reconnaissance and supply flourished, itwas not until 1944 that strategic airpower was able to prove its worth, whenmass bombing not only destroyed theinfrastructures of Germany and Japan,but also demoralized both theirpopulations.7 Neither Tim nor Alan have read thisbook.Neither Tim nor Alan has read this book.8 The problems can be overcome byeither total withdrawal or by militaryescalation.The problems can be overcome byeither total withdrawal or militaryescalation.orThe problems can be overcome eitherby total withdrawal or by militaryescalation.9 The UN cannot raise the men nor themoney for Burundi.The UN cannot raise the men or themoney for Burundi.First can be an adverb or an adjective (First {adverb} choose your weapon, and take thefirst {adjective} shot); second and third are adjectives, whose adverbial forms aresecondly and thirdly. But, ‘firstly … , secondly’ is more consistent in style than ‘first …,secondly’.13-11

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PART II – STYLE1. The general purposes of Service correspondence are to convey orders andinstructions, to present facts and arguments, and to analyse events and developments.The style you should adopt, therefore, should be factual rather than imaginative, decisiverather than leisurely and at all times relevant and direct. You should develop the habit ofreading critically what you have written and asking yourself these questions:a. Clarity. Could anyone misunderstand my meaning? Are any of mystatements ambiguous? Are my sentences over-long, rambling or confusing?b. Conciseness. Are all the words I use necessary? Is there any padding Icould exclude? Could I make any of my statements equally clear with fewer words?c. Fluency. Do my sentences follow each other smoothly or are they jerky withabrupt breaks? Do I link my sentences to show whether I am continuing from, orcontrasting with, earlier sentences? Are any sentences clumsily constructed?d. Maturity. Have I avoided journalese, colloquialisms, slang and jargon?e. Logic. Do I present the factual material in a sensible and logical sequencethat is related directly to the purpose of my writing?2. The following pages provide some guidelines for improving your style of writing andfor avoiding those faults which tend to spoil it. Your tutor will write ‘exp’ (often withexplanatory comment) to draw your attention to an example of poor style or expression inyour writing, will use [ ] or ‘padding’ to indicate superfluous or irrelevant words, willwrite ‘coll’ to show colloquial, slang or journalistic expression, and may also direct you topages in this section.3. Very occasionally a colloquial or informal expression may be acceptable, if useddeliberately and for good reasons. Perhaps no equally good, conventional word canadequately convey the required meaning. Consider the use of inverted commas, but,most essentially, satisfy yourself that your reader will understand your meaning.xv

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CHAPTER 14 – TONE1. When you write a letter to a close friend, you instinctively choose different words andexpressions from those you would use in a letter to your bank manager to ask for a loan.Again, if you were writing to your bank manager to complain that he had dishonoured acheque when you were comfortably in credit, you would choose yet another pattern ofwords and expressions. Such considerations dictate what we call the tone of the writing.From these examples you can see that tone depends on the writer, the addressee, andthe subject. Remember this when writing Service correspondence.2. If you are writing by proxy, when drafting a letter for your superior for example,remember to think at his level. In an ISSC ECC, students were required to take the partof a PSO writing a thank-you letter for the AOCinC to a prominent and successfulbusinessman who had given a lecture on management to the officers of a Command HQ.Examples of some opening sentences were as follows:I wish to take this opportunity of conveying my sincere thanks to you …I should very much like to thank you for sparing your valuable time to visit …Thank you for coming to lecture …3. The first is pompous, the second is obsequious, and the last is about right. Whatmany students had forgotten is that the AOCinC is also prominent and successful; he iswriting a direct, straightforward letter to an equal and the tone of the letter should havereflected this.4. Of course, if you stick all the time to simple, direct English you are unlikely to be veryfar out. A staff officer writing a routine letter to a large number of stations by conventionnormally uses the impersonal style, but ‘impersonal’ does not mean ‘inhuman’. Manyletters include such phrases as ‘It is requested that the following information bepromulgated to all personnel desirous of volunteering …‘. The writer could have said ‘It isrequested that those wishing to volunteer be told that …‘. However, we would prefer astaff officer to write ‘Please tell volunteers that …‘. Fifteen words of gobbledygookbecome 4 words of simple English. If you write that kind of English, most of yourproblems of tone will be much easier to solve.14-1

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CHAPTER 15 – VERBS1. Split Infinitives. An infinitive is a verb-form such as to train, to be vaccinated or tohave been selected; a split infinitive occurs when an adverb is inserted after the word ‘to’(‘to quickly train’, ‘to necessarily be vaccinated’, ‘to have been carefully selected’). Youshould avoid splitting an infinitive, though occasionally you may have to do so to avoidambiguity, misinterpretation or stilted construction. Remember that an adverb can oftenbe placed satisfactorily in several places in a sentence.ErrorCorrection1 To boldly go … Boldly to go …2 We must ask the Mess to rapidlyprepare some packed meals.We must ask the Mess to prepare somepacked meals rapidly.3 The runners were seen to nervouslyjump the gun.The runners were seen nervously tojump the gun.4 It is wrong to unnecessarily split aninfinitive.It is wrong to split an infinitiveunnecessarily.2. Subjunctive Mood.a. The subjunctive mood is used after impersonal expressions such as it is right, itis wrong, it is necessary or it is recommended, and after expressions of desire,suggestion or request (‘It is wrong that the CCF be disbanded.’ ‘I wish the Padrewere here.’ ‘It is recommended that the vending machine be housed in 2 Hangar.’).b. The subjunctive forms of the verb to be are be and were depending on the tense(‘I wish he were here’, ‘be that as it may’, ‘whatever the truth be’, ‘I suggest that hebe accepted’, ‘the powers that be’).c. Other subjunctive forms (except of the verb to be) are identical with the presentor past tenses of the verb in question (‘I suggest that you take a similar course’) withthe exception of the third person singular (‘The tutor advised that the student re-takethe examination’).d. The verb in the subjunctive may be reinforced by should, but we do notrecommend this in defence writing (‘The Colonel requires that an inquiry (should) beheld’).e. Remember that you can always avoid the subjunctive in defence writing byrecasting your sentences in the active form (‘We request the holder to incorporatethe modification’ instead of ‘We request that the holder incorporate the modification’).15-1

f. Note the very different meanings conveyed by the indicative and subjunctivemoods in the following:It is important to Argentina that Britain recognizes her sovereignty over theFalklands (ie Britain actually does).It is important to Argentina that Britain recognize her sovereignty over theFalklands (ie important that she should).ErrorCorrection1 We request that the modifications arecarried out.We request that the modifications becarried out.2 It is recommended that each crewmember carries out one practicediversion a month.It is recommended that each crewmember carry out one practicediversion a month.3 It is recommended that a grant of£1500 is sought from the ArmyCentral Fund.It is recommended that a grant of£1500 be sought from the ArmyCentral Fund.4 Is it essential that the staff car goesfor servicing every month?It is essential that the staff car go forservicing every month?5 It is desirable that a hangar isavailable.It is desirable that a hangar beavailable.6 It is recommended that the Brigadeencourages profit-making activities.It is recommended that the Brigadeencourage profit-making activities.7 It is desirable that the hangar has asmuch floor space as possible.It is desirable that the hangar have asmuch floor space as possible.8 It would also be a minor advantage ifthe unit was part of Task Force.It would also be a minor advantage ifthe unit were part of Task Force.15-2

CHAPTER 16 – SENTENCE STRUCTURE1. Sentence Length.a. Aim to write crisp, neat sentences of controlled length. If you use excessivelylong sentences, you run the risk of leaving unrelated participles and pronouns, ofconfusing your sentence structure, of mixing your verb tenses and moods, and aboveall of boring or perplexing your reader. By all means vary the length of yoursentences, but be concise rather than verbose, and make your sentences short andto the point rather than tortuous and difficult to comprehend.b. The following is a letter actually written by a member of a civilian organization,and has been adapted to avoid embarrassing recognition:The issue which prevails on the above is the procedural execution of authority toembody modification to BGF in the RAF, and the procurement and recovery ofcosts.We have established some time ago, the universal embodiment of modificationsto USAF BGF will not be encompassed by the Arrow aircraft modificationsprocedure at CAC. The issue of MOD 3632 GF was a prior event and was anerror of judgement. You are forgetting that the intention was to formalise aprocess of modifying the total inventory of USAF BGF as events arise. Thissituation has no applicability to the Arrow or Fusemaster aircraft alone and istherefore not relevant. The only CAC cover modifications applicable are thosedirectly associated to these individual aircraft and then usually carry a companypart number and a 14FQ section reference.The mode of operation in the USAF which relates to ‘Command Modifications’procedure is of no consequence; we elected to suggest to the RAF this one, itcan work. If you and the MODUK have an aligned view in what it comprehends,make arrangements to ‘take the sign down’ and ‘raise another’ call it what youlike, but what it still means is establish procedure with the RAF for them toauthorise general BGF modifications and the means to procure them.c. The letter goes on and on in this vein … and on, and on. We are not at allconfident of our translation, but we suggest something like the following:We wish to establish a procedure for the authorization of modifications to RAFBGF, including the procurement of equipment and the recovery of costs.The policy agreement covering all modifications to USAF aircraft does not apply,and MOD 3632 was issued in error. Modifications to RAF aircraft must beseparately negotiated, and usually have a company part number and a 14FQsection reference.d. We are sure you will not write anything like the foregoing letter but the followingis an actual extract from a student’s script:16-1

The first problem is the reduction in the defence budget where increasingpersonnel costs, the difficulty in reducing, in the short term, maintenance andrunning costs, and the limitations imposed by a given strategy on the degree towhich the size of the defence forces may be cut, leave equipment purchase asthe area in which the greater part of any savings can be made.2. Unity of Paras.a. Each paragraph you write should represent a stage in the development of yourargument. You should try to give each paragraph a link with the precedingparagraph, a body, and a pointer to the following paragraph.b. Length. There can be no general rule about the right length for a paragraph; aparagraph is a unit of thought, not of length. A series of very short paras, especiallythose consisting of only one sentence, will ruin your style and the flow of yourargument. Paragraphing is also a matter for the eye. Your master will read yourpaper more readily if he sees from the start that he will have natural breaks in thetext. A page of typescript consisting of one paragraph is very hard to digest.c. Subject Unity. Each paragraph should deal with one topic of your argumentand deal with it fully. Here, the DW rules relating to paragraph headings can helpyou. A good paragraph heading should define the content of the paragraph – ie itstopic. It follows that everything in the paragraph should relate to that topic and thatheading; nothing else should be included. Moreover, everything about that topic orheading should be in that paragraph. You can use the idea of a paragraph headingeven if you do not include headings in your writing, eg in a letter.3. Using And or But to Start Main Clauses.a. It used to be considered bad style to begin a sentence with a coordinatingconjunction. It is now accepted as effective occasionally to start a sentence, even aparagraph, with and or but, as a useful way of linking what you are about to say towhat you have just said. Use coordinating conjunctions sparingly to begin sentencesso that their use does not become a mannerism or spoil your style.b. You may also use a coordinating conjunction after a semicolon to give emphasis(‘The barrier was raised; but the driver hesitated.’). Again avoid using coordinatingconjunctions after semicolons so frequently that their use becomes a mannerism.16-2

CHAPTER 17 – PUNCTUATION1. Excessive Use of Commas.a. In the earlier sections of this book we pointed out where commas are essentialand indicated certain circumstances in which commas are optional. Considerationsof style and balance will often influence your decision to include or omit an optionalcomma.b. The comma should be used to help the reader to dissect your writing for rapidcomprehension. If you have difficulty in deciding whether to use commas or not,read your work aloud and insert commas where your voice pauses naturally; yourcommas will then indicate to your reader where the natural breaks are. Theexcessive use of commas will spoil the balance and make reading difficult.OC RAF St Justine is to provide 400 sq ft of hangar space for the RN partyVocab17-1

2. Use of Commas after an Introductory Clause or Phrase.a. A pleasing style often results from the use of introductory phrases or clauses:Hearing a loud crash, we rushed to the window.When the alert state changed we put on protective clothing.b. The use of commas after introductory phrases or clauses is optional. Thetendency in modern English is to insert a comma following an introductory phrasemore commonly than after an introductory clause. We, therefore, recommend thatyou insert a comma after an introductory phrase; after an introductory clause, omitthe comma, unless the length of the clause makes the inclusion of a commadesirable:Hearing a loud crash, we rushed to the window.When the briefing ended the sqn stood down.When the Minister had reviewed the parade and presented the medals, he madea short speech.c. Always read through your work to ensure that the omission of commas does notlead to misinterpretation.17-2

3. Optional Use of Commas in Compound Sentences.a. A comma can often be used in a compound sentence to emphasize thedistinctness of each part, and thus improve your style. (‘We had only five minutesleft, and every minute counted.’)b. When the subject of the second main clause of a compound sentence is thesame as that of the first main clause, the sentence can be simplified by omitting thesubject of the second clause; in such a case, a comma should not be used betweenthe 2 parts unless misreading could result:The engineer examined his notebook for a few seconds, and then he carefullyanswered the CO’s question (compound sentence, comma inserted).The engineer examined his notebook for a few seconds and then carefullyanswered the CO’s questions (simplified sentence, subject omitted from secondclause, no comma inserted).17-3

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CHAPTER 18 – PARTICIPLES1. We warned you on Page 4-7 of the dangers of failing to relate or of wrongly relating aparticipial phrase.2. One disadvantage with the participial phrase is that the subject of the sentence doesnot become apparent until the main clause is reached, and the reader has to cast hismind back. You should, therefore, limit the length of your participial phrases:Being an energetic sportsman, Tom kept fit.Having completed the course, Karen was eligible for a certificate.3. Use of Participial Phrase Instead of Subordinate Clause. If your proposedphrase is a long one (‘Having completed his study of the papers and documentsconnected with the charge, the Defending Officer began to seek new witnesses’) it isbetter to convert the phrase to a subordinate clause, eg ‘When the Defending Officer hadcompleted his study of the papers and documents connected with the charge, he beganto seek new witnesses.’ A clause both introduces the subject at an early stage andavoids the possibility of mis-relating or not relating the participle.18-1

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CHAPTER 19 – ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS1. Superfluous Adjectives and Adverbs.a. A particularly common form of verbosity is that of adding unnecessary adjectivesand adverbs. In the examples below, the words italicized can be omitted without anychange in the meaning of the sentence or phrase quoted:After due consideration …There is a very real danger …Smoking is positively harmful to a person’s health.The decision must necessarily be taken.Every single minute of the day …b. Vague adjectives of intensification like considerable, appreciable and substantialare too commonly used. ‘This is urgent’ has more impact than ‘this is a matter ofconsiderable urgency’. Strong words like urgent, critical, fatal, grave and essentiallose their force if used too often. Reserve them for strong occasions, and let themstand without adjectival or adverbial support. Similarly, particular and definite oftenintrude as unnecessary reinforcements. In actual fact is a phrase to be avoided, too;it adds nothing to the sentence and is often used to lend conviction to a statement ofonly dubious validity.c. You must also avoid unnecessary adverbs. If you apologize for being undulylong in replying, your reader may wonder how long you would normally be inreplying. If smoking is prohibited, no greater restriction is imposed if it is strictlyprohibited. The adverbs frequently misused are unduly, relatively, definitely andcomparatively, particularly with adjectives of quantity and measure such as short andlong, many and few, and heavy and light. If the report of an accident says that ‘about100 people were taken to hospital, but comparatively few were detained’, the adverbcomparatively is correctly used. But if a unit says its ‘diminishing stocks of paper willbe expended in a relatively short period’ without mentioning any other period forcomparison, the word relatively signifies nothing.d. The adjective respective and the adverb respectively are frequently misused. In‘Bill and John introduced their respective flight commanders’, the adjective makes itclear that each introduced his own man. In ‘We presented a tankard and a tie toGraham and Hugh respectively’, the adverb makes it clear that Graham received atankard and Hugh a tie. These examples illustrate the correct use of respective andrespectively. These 2 words are, however, over-used; avoid them if you can.19-1

2. Adjectival Use of Nouns and Abbreviations.a. Nouns and abbreviations can often be used adjectivally in preference to the useof the possessive:a station exhibitionan aircraft manuala personnel probleman RAF vehiclea NAAFI shopNATO strategyb. Where, however, a suitable adjective exists, that word should be used inpreference to a noun substitute:the Dutch frontier not Holland’s frontierBelgian forces not Belgium’s forcesc. Take care about the subtle differences of meaning between expressions such as‘our Europe correspondent’ (a correspondent on European affairs) and ‘ourEuropean correspondent’ (a correspondent born in a European country).d. Take care over the use of nouns, adjectives and abbreviations relating toAmerica. American interests could include those of Brazil and Canada, while NorthAmerican affairs exclude Central and South America but still include Canada. Toavoid a stilted, repetitive style, you may use certain of the foregoing expressions outof context, but only when you have defined the limits of your discussion and therecan be no subsequent confusion:The US has allocated huge resources to the space programme, but manyAmericans are doubtful whether such expenditure will eventually proveworthwhile.19-2

CHAPTER 20 – GENERAL1. Omission of the Definite Article, Especially with Abbreviations.a. A minor but irritating stylistic fault is the omission of the definite article, the,especially before proper nouns and abbreviations. You may drop the article ineveryday speech, just as you drop other words which can be left out because yourlistener understands what you mean, but when you are writing you should take careto include the word ‘the’ where it is needed. Thus, you should write ‘Made in the UK’rather than ‘Made in UK’ and refer to ‘decisions made at the headquarters’ ratherthan ‘decisions made at headquarters’.b. A special difficulty arises with DW abbreviations. Some abbreviations, such as‘NATO’, have acquired an existence separate from the full title for which they stand,and are pronounced as words; it would be pedantic and clumsy to write ‘The NATOhas 3 principal commands’. Other abbreviations have not achieved suchacceptance; it would be wrong to write ‘We will ask CO to …‘. There is no generalrule, but we suggest you apply the following principles:(1) If you use an abbreviation such as HQ, or OC by itself, it is better toprecede the abbreviation with the (‘the HQ is to move’; ‘the OC has decided’). Ifsuch an abbreviation is part of a title, it is better to omit the article (‘HQ STC willprovide’; ‘OC Ops Wg is to arrange’).(2) If an abbreviation is used as an adjective before a noun which itself requiresthe definite article, you must retain the article (‘the MOD representative’; ‘the HQstaff’; ‘the NAAFI cafeteria’).Be guided by the sound of what you write and avoid clumsy constructions.ErrorCorrection1 Made in UK. Made in the UK.2 Decisions are made in HQ. Decisions are made in the HQ.3 The OC Admin Wg was to direct SWOto provide a working party of RAFairmen.OC Admin Wg was to direct the SWOto provide a working party of RAFairmen.4 Tornado was an obvious choice for aEuropean deep-penetration recce ac.The Tornado was an obvious choicefor a European deep-penetrationrecce ac.20-1

2. Tautology.a. Tautology means saying the same thing twice, and is a common fault in writtenwork; it is often noticeable when a writer tries to be impressive but succeeds only inbeing wearisome, and his rhetoric becomes ineffective. You must ensure that youavoid such expressions as the following:The subject of the lecture will be about … (There is confusion between ‘thesubject will be …’ and ‘the lecture will be about …’).The cause of the delay is due to the shortage of materials. (There is confusionbetween ‘the cause of the delay is the shortage’ and ‘the delay is due to theshortage’).By far the greater majority … (There is confusion between ‘the great majority’and ‘by far the greater number’).The reason we are starting so early is because we want to miss the rush-hourtraffic. (There is confusion between ‘The reason is that’ and ‘because’).b. In the above examples, 2 expressions are used where only one is required;there are many other similar expressions which you may find yourself duplicating ifyou do not strive at all times to make your writing concise and clear.ErrorCorrection1 We must ask you to limit yourparticipation to one submarine only.We must ask you to limit yourparticipation to one submarine.2 Landing fees may be waived, providedat least 10 per cent of your grosstakings is given to RAF charities;otherwise landing fees must becharged.Landing fees may be waived providedat least 10 per cent of your grosstakings is given to RAF charities.3 A translation has been made; thepurpose is so that NATO can agree onstandardization.A translation has been made; thepurpose is for NATO to agree onstandardization.4 It is essential that cranes must beavailable.Cranes must be available …5 The scope of this paper considers thefollowing 3 points:This paper considers the following 3points:6 With few exceptions, most of the UK’sgeneral purpose forces are committedto NATO.Most of the UK’s general-purposeforces are committed to NATO.7 In both cases, 96 hours’ notice isrequired to activate either route.Ninety-six hours’ notice is required toactivate either route.20-2

ErrorCorrection8 Of the 6 word processors, 2 fail tomeet certain essential requirements.Of the 6 word processors, 2 fail tomeet certain requirements.9 The population of Herzogovina hasdwindled down to a fraction of what itformerly was.The population of Herzogovina hasdwindled to a fraction of what itformerly was.20-3

3. Journalese, Slang and Colloquialisms.a. The clipped, journalistic style one may find in newspapers, often liberallygarnished with slang expressions, is unsuitable for defence writing. Such statementsas ‘RNAS Ashton is the best choice – cheaper, nearest to FOB, works services only£2000, communal rooms, mess accommodation’ are quite wrong; they do not conveymuch meaning, they are ungrammatical, and the reader is forced to try to interpretwhy the points are advantageous. A typical example of journalese is the use of thenoun as an adjective, as in ‘PM refuses bank rate rise leak probe’, where 4 nounsare used as adjectives. There are 2 main misuses of the noun as an adjective:(1) The confusing use as an adjective of a word that can have severalmeanings, as in ‘it was agreed that the manual abbreviations should includespecialist terms’. It is not clear whether the subject is ‘abbreviations to amanual’ or ‘abbreviations to be completed by hand’.(2) The use of the noun as an adjective, when there is a good adjectiveavailable, eg ‘the inflation spiral’ or ‘the Argentine Government’, when we meanthe ‘inflationary spiral’ and ‘the Argentinian Government’.b. The use of slang or colloquialisms is also inappropriate in formal defence writing.If you are ever in doubt about the acceptability of a word, look it up in the COD,which identifies many colloquialisms and slang words, or describes words andexpressions as ‘informal’.ErrorCorrection1 The Admiral undertook an immediatesubmarine aircraft carrier collisionaccident enquiry.The Admiral undertook an immediateenquiry into the accident involving acollision between a submarine and anaircraft carrier.2 The Chairman stated that the problemwas crying out for a solution.The Chairman stated that a solution tothe problem was urgently needed.3 He did not know if he was punched,bored or countersunk.He was confused.4 The CinC UKC will make the go/no godecision on the fly-past.The CinC UKC will decide whether thefly-past is to take place.5 The intention was to kid them intobelieving the story.The intention was to deceive them intobelieving the story.20-4

4. Structural Balance.a. Good balance can be achieved where ideas of equal importance are expressedin the same grammatical forms. Using similar forms for related ideas not onlyimproves the sound of the sentence (ie its euphony), but also helps the reader tounderstand more quickly how the ideas are related. The following examples illustrateone poorly balanced and one badly structured sentence:Unbalanced SentenceHe is not only kind and generous butalso a most reliable person.Improved VersionHe is not only kind and generous, butalso most reliable.(shift from adjective to noun)Badly Structured SentenceA good sportsman must have sharpeyes, keen reflexes, and he must havea desire to practise constantly. (Hemust have A, B, and he must have C.)(shift from noun to clause)Corrected VersionA good sportsman must have sharpeyes, keen reflexes and a desire forconstant practice. (He must have A, Band C.)b. As a careful writer, you should make sure that the rhythm and sound of yoursentences are euphonious. You should avoid writing sentences which jingle, eg:I hope you will like the prize, and that it is the right size.When Sgt King recovered, he discovered he had lost his F1250.The Government cannot risk delay; it must choose the E3A.Final phase further flying instruction is given in the Dominie.c. Sub-paragraphs, in a particular paragraph, should all follow a similar structure,eg nouns, noun phrases, participial phrases, infinitival phrases or clauses.Inconsistent StructureThe objectives of the PfP are as follows:a. To facilitate transparency innational defence processes.b. Ensuring democratic control ofdefence forces.c. The maintenance of readinessto contribute to UN operations.CorrectionThe objectives of the PfP are as follows:a. To facilitate transparency innational defence processes.b. To ensure democratic controlof defence forces.c. To maintain readiness tocontribute to UN operations.20-5

5. Use of Metaphors.a. Metaphors can be both useful and attractive; they enable a writer to conveybriefly and vividly ideas that might otherwise need tedious explanation. However, theattractiveness of metaphors makes them dangerous to use. Avoid the exhaustedmetaphor or cliché, and do not use metaphors in a context that would be absurd ifthe words used metaphorically were being used literally.b. You should not refer to ‘the biggest bottleneck’ when you mean the mosttroublesome one, for that will obviously be the narrowest; you ought not to advisethat ‘bottlenecks should be ironed out’; and a ‘worldwide’ bottleneck may soundalarming but anything less constrictive can hardly be imagined. We will leave you toform your own judgement of this 19th century parody of an Irish politician’s speech:Mr Speaker, I smell a rat. I see it floating in the air; and if it is not nipped in thebud, it will burst forth into a terrible conflagration that will deluge the world.ErrorCorrection1 We must cut down the gulf betweenaircrew and officers of groundbranches.We must bridge the gulf between …orWe must cut down the barriersbetween …2 His intention was to sow a flame ofinterest in his audience.His intention was to kindle a flame (orsow a seed of …3 The final landing on the sea was plainsailing.The final landing on the sea wasrelatively easy.4 People wondered if the ChannelTunnel would ever get off the ground.People wondered if the ChannelTunnel would ever be started.5 He is putting his head above theparapet to gauge the temperature.He is putting out feelers to gaugeprobable reaction.6 She decided to chance her arm and itcame off.She decided to take a risk andsucceeded.7 U-turn likely on high-speed rail. High-speed-rail decision likely to bereversed.8 Global warming is now a chillingpossibility.Global warming is now a distinctthreat.20-6

Thank God. We’re out of the wood at last.Metaphors20-7

6. Padding.a. The mediocre writer, in a vain effort to create what he thinks is good style andtone, will often insert into his writing a mass of superfluous words and verbosephrases. Lack of clarity and impreciseness are bound to result.b. Many stock phrases can be pruned without loss of meaning, as the examplesbelow show.ErrorCorrection1 Unnecessary Introductory PhrasesIt is a fact that …The opportunity is taken to mention that …It should be pointed out that …It is appreciated that …Can be deleted without loss ofmeaning.2 Reduction of Introductory PhrasesIt is clear that …Owing to the fact that …Clearly …Because …3 Use of PrepositionsIn respect of …In the proximity of …About …Near …4 Use of AdverbsIn the first instance …Until such time as …At this moment in time …First/firstly …Until …Now …5 Reduction of Verbose ExpressionsIt is requested that you inform thisHeadquarters of the nature of yourintentions with regard to the presentproblem.Please tell us what you plan todo about this problem.20-8

7. Omissions that Mislead. It is a good style to leave out certain words that arerepetitive or superfluous. Also, it is quite acceptable to omit words, a procedure knownas ‘ellipsis’ when they can be understood from the context, eg ‘The Board of Inquiry satfor 2 days, but (the Board of Inquiry) did not reach any conclusion’. However, take carenot to do so when the omission of words or phrases could lead to ambiguity ormisunderstanding, in particular when the elliptical (omitted) subject in a subordinateclause differs from the subject in the main clause; a misrelated or unrelated constructioncould result:a. While (I was) on the underground, a thief stole my suitcase.b. The driver continued to watch the lights until (they turned) green.ErrorCorrection1 They travelled by Concorde as theycould not afford to walk.They travelled by Concorde as theycould not afford the time to walk.2 Strategic roles of AT forces includespecial flights, such as VIP or disasterrelief, and air logistic supportStrategic roles of AT forces includespecial flights, such as VIP transportor disaster relief, and air logisticsupport.3 Philately is inexpensive, as you cantake stamps off old envelopes or offfriends.Philately is inexpensive, as you cantake stamps off old envelopes orobtain them from friends.8. Inappropriate Article.a. Use of the indicates a previous reference, eg ‘At the meeting last year…‘.b. If the idea is being introduced for the first time, a should be used, eg ‘At ameeting last year…’.Inappropriate ArticleAt the conference in Maastrict …CorrectionsAt the conference in Maastrict …(if already introduced)orAt a conference in Maastrict …(if introducing for the first time)20-9

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INDEXAbbreviations ............................................................................................................... 10-29Active voice .................................................................................................................... 4-13Adjective........................................................................................................................... 3-1commas between................................................................................................... 10-12inappropriate .............................................................................................................. 3-1separating nouns from adjectives with commas.................................................... 10-27superfluous............................................................................................................... 19-1Adjectival clauses............................................................................................................. 9-2omission of commas .............................................................................................. 10-21Adverb.............................................................................................................................. 5-1conjunctive ................................................................................................................. 5-1positioning of.............................................................................................................. 5-3separating verb from adverb with commas............................................................ 10-27superfluous............................................................................................................... 19-1Adverbial clause............................................................................................................... 9-2Agreement, subject and verb ......................................................................................... 4-25Amounts of money, singular verb .................................................................................. 4-21and at beginning of sentence......................................................................................... 16-2Antecedent ....................................................................................................................... 2-2Apostrophe................................................................................................................... 10-29Apposition..................................................................................................................... 10-13are to .............................................................................................................................. 4-17Article ............................................................................................................................... 3-2inappropriate ........................................................................................................... 20-9omission of definite article....................................................................................... 20-1Auxiliary verb.................................................................................................................. 4-15Balance .......................................................................................................................... 20-5Brackets ....................................................................................................................... 10-37but at beginning of sentence.......................................................................................... 16-2Capitals, initial .............................................................................................................. 10-31Clause .............................................................................................................................. 9-1adjectival .................................................................................................................... 9-2adverbial..................................................................................................................... 9-2defining................................................................................................................... 10-21describing............................................................................................................... 10-21introductory .............................................................................................................. 17-2main ........................................................................................................................... 9-1noun ........................................................................................................................... 9-1participial phrase instead of ..................................................................................... 18-1punctuation............................................................................................................. 10-18subordinate ................................................................................................................ 9-1Collective nouns............................................................................................................... 1-1Colloquialisms ................................................................................................................ 20-4Colons ............................................................................................................................ 10-7DW rules for use of .................................................................................................. 10-7Commas....................................................................................................................... 10-10between 2 sentences ............................................................................................. 10-18between 2 adjectives ............................................................................................. 10-12excessive use of ...................................................................................................... 17-1in lists ..................................................................................................................... 10-10instead of colon...................................................................................................... 10-23omission leading to misunderstanding................................................................... 10-16optional use after introductory clause or phrase...................................................... 17-2optional use in compound sentences ...................................................................... 17-3parenthetical use.................................................................................................... 10-13replaced by semicolon in list.................................................................................... 10-5separating verb from subject, object or complement............................................. 10-25setting off adjectives, phrases or clauses .............................................................. 10-12setting off adjective or adverb from word qualified ................................................ 10-27Comparative adjective...................................................................................................... 3-1xvii

Comparative adverb .........................................................................................................5-1Comparative Argument Technique...................................................................................9-9Comparisons, incorrect and incomplete...........................................................................9-8Complement, form of noun or pronoun ............................................................................2-6separation from verb .............................................................................................10-25Complex sentence............................................................................................................9-2Compound sentence ........................................................................................................9-2optional use of commas in ......................................................................................17-3Conditional tense............................................................................................................4-17Conjunction.......................................................................................................................7-1coordinating................................................................................................................7-1subordinating..............................................................................................................7-1Conjunctive adverb...........................................................................................................5-1Consistency in number...................................................................................................4-21Coordinating conjunction..................................................................................................7-1misuse of adverb as ..................................................................................................5-1Dash .............................................................................................................................10-37Defining clause.............................................................................................................10-21Definite article...................................................................................................................3-2Demonstrative pronoun ....................................................................................................2-1Describing clause .........................................................................................................10-21Determiner........................................................................................................................3-1DW rules, apostrophes.................................................................................................10-29colons .......................................................................................................................10-7initials capitals ........................................................................................................10-31either … or … ..............................................................................................................13-10Ellipsis, elliptical clause ..................................................................................................9-2in comparisons ..........................................................................................................9-8of subject in subordinate clause..............................................................................20-9Elliptical clause ................................................................................................................9-2Exclamation mark ........................................................................................................10-37Excessive use of commas .............................................................................................17-1Faults of style ............................................................................................................. Part IIfewer ................................................................................................................................3-3Finite verb ........................................................................................................................4-1first, secondly, thirdly ...................................................................................................13-11for example, for instance ............................................................................................10-13Full stop ........................................................................................................................10-1Gerund .............................................................................................................................4-5with possessive ..........................................................................................................4-5distinguished from participle.....................................................................................4-11Grammatical sequence ....................................................................................................9-6however ........................................................................................................................10-13Hyphen .........................................................................................................................10-34Imperative mood.............................................................................................................4-15Indefinite article ................................................................................................................3-2Indicative mood ..............................................................................................................4-15Infinite ...............................................................................................................................4-3infinitival phrase..........................................................................................................4-3split infinitive .............................................................................................................15-1infinite verb .................................................................................................................4-3‘–ing words’, gerund .........................................................................................................4-5participle ...................................................................................................................4-7Initial capitals ..............................................................................................................10-31Interjection........................................................................................................................8-1Interrogative pronoun .......................................................................................................2-1Intransitive verb ..............................................................................................................4-13Introductory phrase, comma after ................................................................................10-12xviii

optional use of comma after.................................................................................... 17-2Inverted commas.......................................................................................................... 10-37is to................................................................................................................................. 4-17its, it’s ........................................................................................................................... 10-29Journalese...................................................................................................................... 20-4Lack of finite verb .............................................................................................................4-1less ................................................................................................................................... 3-3Lists, commas in .......................................................................................................... 10-10semicolons in .......................................................................................................... 10-5Main clause ...................................................................................................................... 9-1punctuation............................................................................................................. 10-18before colon ............................................................................................................. 10-7Measures, singular verb................................................................................................. 4-21Metaphor ........................................................................................................................ 20-6Minutes writing (reported speech).................................................................................. 11-1Mood .............................................................................................................................. 4-15imperative................................................................................................................. 4-15indicative .................................................................................................................. 4-15subjunctive ............................................................................................................... 4-15none ............................................................................................................................... 4-27nor .................................................................................................................................. 4-25Noun................................................................................................................................. 1-1adjectival use ........................................................................................................... 19-2common ..................................................................................................................... 1-1proper......................................................................................................................... 1-1clause......................................................................................................................... 9-1Numberconsistency in number ............................................................................................. 4-21singular expressions ................................................................................................ 4-27singular or plural expressions .................................................................................. 4-22subject and verb disagreements.............................................................................. 4-25Object............................................................................................................................... 1-1Omissions....................................................................................................................... 20-9only................................................................................................................................... 5-3or .................................................................................................................................... 4-25Orders (misuse of passive voice)................................................................................... 4-13Padding .......................................................................................................................... 20-8Pairs of words confused................................................................................................. 13-5Paragraph unity.............................................................................................................. 16-2Parenthesis .................................................................................................................. 10-13Participles......................................................................................................................... 4-7Participial phrase..............................................................................................................4-7Passive voice ................................................................................................................. 4-13in order writing.......................................................................................................... 4-13Phrase.............................................................................................................................. 9-1adjectival .................................................................................................................... 9-1infinitival .....................................................................................................................4-3introductory .............................................................................................................. 17-2misrelated or unrelated .............................................................................................. 9-1participial.................................................................................................................... 4-7participial instead of subordinate clause.................................................................. 18-1Plural or singular expressions........................................................................................ 4-25Possessive, use of apostrophe .................................................................................... 10-29with gerund ............................................................................................................... 4-5Position of adverbs........................................................................................................... 5-3Preposition ....................................................................................................................... 6-1Pronoun............................................................................................................................ 2-1and antecedent .......................................................................................................... 2-2xix

incorrect agreement ...................................................................................................2-2reflexive ......................................................................................................................2-1relative........................................................................................................................2-1singular.....................................................................................................................4-27Punctuation.....................................................................................................................10-1apostrophes............................................................................................................10-29between sentences ................................................................................................10-39colon not preceded by main clause..........................................................................10-8comma between adjectives....................................................................................10-12comma to separate verb from subject, object or complement ...............................10-25comma to set off adjective or adverb from word qualified......................................10-27comma with describing clause ...............................................................................10-21excessive use of commas ........................................................................................17-1exclamation mark ...................................................................................................10-37hyphen....................................................................................................................10-34initial capitals ..........................................................................................................10-31lack of commas in lists ...........................................................................................10-11omission of commas...............................................................................................10-16optional use of commas ...........................................................................................17-3question mark.........................................................................................................10-37semicolon used as colon..........................................................................................10-1semicolon used as comma in list .............................................................................10-5semicolon used in place of comma..........................................................................10-1sentences joined by commas.................................................................................10-18Question marks ............................................................................................................10-37Reflexive pronouns...........................................................................................................2-1Relative pronouns ............................................................................................................2-1Reported speech ............................................................................................................11-1person ......................................................................................................................11-1time and place ..........................................................................................................11-1tone ..........................................................................................................................11-2verb tenses...............................................................................................................11-1Semicolon.......................................................................................................................10-1followed by coordinating conjunction .......................................................................16-2instead of colon ........................................................................................................10-1used as comma........................................................................................................10-1used as comma in list...............................................................................................10-5Sentences.........................................................................................................................9-2and or but to start sentence .....................................................................................16-2colon not preceded by main clause..........................................................................10-8complex ......................................................................................................................9-2compound...................................................................................................................9-2incorrect grammatical sequence ................................................................................9-6lack of finite verb ........................................................................................................4-1lack of punctuation .................................................................................................10-39length........................................................................................................................16-1paragraph unity ........................................................................................................16-2simple .........................................................................................................................9-2Singular expressions ......................................................................................................4-27Slang ..............................................................................................................................20-4Spelling...........................................................................................................................12-1Split infinitives.................................................................................................................15-1Structural faults.................................................................................................................9-3Structural balance ..........................................................................................................20-5Style............................................................................................................................. Part IISubjects............................................................................................................................1-1Subject and verb disagreement......................................................................................4-25xx

Subjunctive mood........................................................................................................... 4-15uses of and forms ................................................................................................... 15-1Subordinate clauses......................................................................................................... 9-1participial phrases instead of .................................................................................. 18-1Subordinating conjunctions.............................................................................................. 7-1Superfluous adjectives and adverbs .............................................................................. 19-1Superfluous writing......................................................................................................... 20-8Superlativeadjective ..................................................................................................................... 3-1adverb ........................................................................................................................ 5-1Tautology........................................................................................................................ 20-2Tenses............................................................................................................................ 4-16inappropriate ............................................................................................................ 4-17incorrect sequence................................................................................................... 4-19this, that, these, those ...................................................................................................... 2-1to (with infinitive) ..............................................................................................................4-3Tone ............................................................................................................................... 14-1in minutes................................................................................................................ 11-2Transitive verbs.............................................................................................................. 4-13Unity of paras ................................................................................................................. 16-2Unrelated participles ........................................................................................................ 4-7Verbs................................................................................................................................ 4-1auxiliary.................................................................................................................... 4-15finite............................................................................................................................ 4-1gerund ........................................................................................................................ 4-5imperative mood ...................................................................................................... 4-15inappropriate tense .................................................................................................. 4-17inappropriate voice................................................................................................... 4-14incorrect agreement of tenses ................................................................................. 4-19indicative mood ........................................................................................................ 4-15infinite......................................................................................................................... 4-3intransitive................................................................................................................ 4-13split infinitive............................................................................................................. 15-1subjunctive mood ..................................................................................................... 4-15uses of and forms ............................................................................................. 15-1tenses....................................................................................................................... 4-16transitive................................................................................................................... 4-13verb and subject disagreement................................................................................ 4-25voice......................................................................................................................... 4-13Vocabulary ..................................................................................................................... 13-1pairs of words confused ........................................................................................... 13-5Voice .............................................................................................................................. 4-13passive ..................................................................................................................... 4-13was to, were to ............................................................................................................... 4-17will, shall......................................................................................................................... 4-20Words............................................................................................................................. 13-1in apposition........................................................................................................... 10-13interrupting ............................................................................................................. 10-13pair constructions................................................................................................... 13-10pairs often confused................................................................................................. 13-5Wrongly related participles............................................................................................... 4-8xxi

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